a~ GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. PART I. FOR BEGINNERS. GRAMMAR FRENCH LANGUAGE. * ' by tip Mf SCHELE DE YEEE, LL.D., OP THE FNTVEESITY OP VIRGINIA. NEW YORK : RICHARDSON & COMPANY, 14 BOND STREET. 1807. .51- Entered According to Act of Congress, in t lie yeai )&6'7, Bt RICHARDSON à COMPANY, la the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. 48 65 5 5 JUL I 4 1942 TABLE OF CONTENTS. ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. PAGH I. — Pronunciation 9 The Alphabet 9 Vowels 10 Sounds of the Vowels 10 Accents 10 Form of Accents 10 Purposes of Accents 11 Effect of Accents 11 Nasal Sounds 12 Diphthongs 14 Compound Sounds 14 Three Vowels 16 Four Vowels 17 Y 17 Consonants 18 Final Consonants 18 Sounds of the Consonants 18 Pronunciation in Reading and Speaking 29 Changes of Sounds 29 IL— Elision 32 III. — Syllabication 34 IV. — Quantity 35 Words with double meaning 36 V. — Punctuation 37 VI.— List of Abbreviations 38 4 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. NOUNS. PAOX I) I d ition o f No uns 39 Proper Names . . 39 Common Nouns 39 Collective Nouns 40 Gender of Nouns 40 Determined by Signification 40 Determined by Termination 42 List of Masculine Nouns in mute e 43 Number of Nouns 52 Rules on Formation of the Plural 52 Irregular Plurals 53 Exercise 54 CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. The Three Articles 54 1. Definite Article 54 Declension of Definite Article 55 2. Indefinite Article 56 Declension of Indefinite Article 56 Exercise 56 Declension of Proper Names 57 Possessive Case. 57 Exercise 57 3. Partitive Article 58 Exercise , 59 Changes of Partitive Article 59 Exercise 59 CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives agree with their Nouns (k Participles 60 Formation of the Feminine 60 Exercise 62 CONTENTS. 5 PAGE Adjectives in evr 62 Irregular Féminines 63 Double forms for Masculine 68 Exercise 64 Formation of the Plural 64 Exercise 64 Formation of the Comparative Degrees 65 Comparative of Superiority 65 " Inferiority 65 Equality . 65 Irregular Comparative forms, 66 Exercise 66 Kelative Superlative 66 Absolute " 67 Exercise 67 Place of Adjectives 67 Exercise 68 Numeral Adjectives 69 Cardinal Numbers , 69 Rules on use of Cardinal Numbers 70 Exercise 71 Ordinal Numbers 72 Rules on the use of Ordinal Numbers 73 Exercise 73 CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. Classes of Pronouns 74 Personal Pronouns. . . 74 Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 74 Relation to Verbs 75 Rules of ascertaining it.. ; 76 Elision of Pronouns 77 Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 78 Exercise 78 Absolute Personal Pronouns 79 Exercise ... 80 Possessive Pronouns 80 6 CONTENTS. PAGH Conjunctive Possessive Pronouns 80 Agreement with Noun 81 Declension 81 Exercise 82 Absolute Possessive Pronouns 82 Exercise 83 Demonstrative Pronouns 83 Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns 83 Agreement with Noun 84 Exercise 84 Absolute Demonstrative Pronouns 84 Exercise 85 Relative Pronouns 85 Qui 86 Lequel 87 Exercise 87 Interrogative Pronouns 88 Prepositions belonging to them 88 Exercise 89 Indefinite Pronouns 89 On 89 How translated 89 Exercise 90 CHAPTER V. VERBS. Purposes of the Verb 90 Auxiliary Verbs 91 Avoir, to have 91 Exercise 94 Avoir, negatively 94 Avoir, interrogatively 98 Avoir, interrogatively and negatively 100 Y avoir 102 Y avoir, negatively 103 Y avoir, interrogatively 105 Y avoir, interrogatively and negatively 106 Exercise 106 Exercise 107 CONTENTS. 7 PAGE Etre, to be 107 Etre, negatively 110 Etre, interrogatively 114 Etre, interrogatively and negatively 116 Exercise 118 Exercise 118 Exercise 119 Rules on use of Verbs 119 Fom Conjugations 120 Formation of Tenses and Persons, that are uniform 120 Modes of Verbs 121 Tenses of Verbs 122 Simple Tenses 122 Compound Tenses 123 Table of terminations of Verbs 124 First Conjugation, parler 128 Remarks on Verbs of First Conjugation 139 Second Conj xgation, finir 144 Third Conjugation, recevoir 156 Remarks on th« Verbs of Third Conjugation 167 Fourth Conjugation, vendre , 169 Different kinds of Verbs 180 Active Verbs 180 Neuter Verbs , 180 List of Neuier Verbs, conjugated with être 181 Passive Ver)s 182 Pronominal Verbs .' 183 Reflexi\e 183 Reciprocal 183 Pronomhal Proper 184 Impersonal "Verbs 184 Reflexive Ve4> se lever 184 S'en aller 196 Irregular Verb 203 Of First Conjugation 204 Of Second Conjugation 205 Of Third Conjugation 220 Of Fourth Conjugation 230 Exercies on Verbs, [13] 258 8 CONTENTS. PÀGB Participles 264 Use of Participles 264 Exercise 205 CHAPTER VI. ADVERBS. Formation of Adverbs £66 Simple Adverbs 266 Derivative Adverbs 266 Exercise 266 Compound Adverbs 267 Adverbs of Quantity 267 Exercise 267 Negative Adverbs 267 Exercise . 267 Comparative Degrees of Adverbs 268 Exercise 268 CHAPTER VII. PREPOSITIONS. Form of Prepositions 269 Simple Prepositions 269 Compound Prepositions 269 De, à, and par 269 Use of Prepositions 270 Exercise 270 > CHAPTER VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. Use of Conjunctions 271 Exercise „ 272 CHAPTER IX. I INTERJECTIONS. Use of Interjections / 272 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 01 LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. L— PRONUNCIATION. The pronunciation of a foreign language cannot be satisfac- torily learned by comparing it with that of our own. Such comparisons lead invariably to incorrectness. The teacher ought, therefore, in all cases to begin by pronouncing himself, clearly and distinctly, the sound of each letter and combination of letters, and then make his pupils repeat them one by one. The latter cannot be expected to be able to pronounce well, until their ear has, by practice, been accustomed to the sound ; only when they are perfectly familiar with it, will they succeed in repeating it correctly by themselves. When the sound is once acquired, then the teacher may suggest the resemblance to some similar sound in the pupils' native tongue, in order to assist their memory. The French Alphabet contains the following letters : A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z. The majority of these letters are taken from the Roman Alphabet. K is only found in foreign words. Q is always accompanied by u, and has the same sound as hard c and k. W is not used in French except "in writing foïeïgn words, like whig, and then pronounced like v. X is a compound letter, consisting of c and 8, or g and s. Y is called i grec, because it was taken from the Greek. 1* 10 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. VOWELS. Five of these letters are called Vowels, from a word which originally suggested that they were produced by a simple utter- ance of the voice, without the aid of other letters; whilst Con- sonants were so called, because they cannot be sounded without the assistance of another sound (con-sono). A has but one sound, which resembles that of a in father, Ex. la, the; ma, my; ta, thy; sa, her; annales, annals; carte, card. E has the sound of e in ell, but accents change it slightly, as will be explained under the head of Accents. Ex. mortelle, mortal ; href, brief : sept, seven. / has the sound of ee in eel. Ex. file, file; minime, smallest; ciel, heaven ; vie, life. has the two sounds which we give to o in the word post- office, the former close, the latter open. Ex. (close) apôtre, apostle; repos, repose ; sitôt, so soon, (open) choc, shock ; social ; soldat, soldier. U has no corresponding sound in English. It is pronounced by pointing the lips as if preparing for a whistle. It must be heard to be imitated, and then requires, like all the sounds, prac- tice to become perfectly correct. Ex. vu, seen ; flute, flute ; minute, minute ; uni, plain. These Vowels, however, suffer certain changes under the influence of three causes : the addition of Accents, their com- bination with m and n, and their combination with other vowels. Y. as a vowel, will be mentioned hereafter. 1. When they are accented : The French has three accents, viz. : the three signs ( ' ), ( * ) and ( " ), which are placed over the vowels for different pur- poses : PRONUNCIATION. 11 The Acute Accent, [accent aigu) is placed over the let- ter e only, and gives it an acute or sharp sound. Ex. café, coffee ; célébré, celebrated ; nécessité. The Grave Accent, \ (accent grave) is placed over the vowels a and e and the diphthong ou, and gives them not dif- ferent sounds but makes them long or broad. Ex. la, there ; père, father ; où, where. The Circumflex Accent, A , (accent circonflexe) is placed over ftll five vowels and gives them a very long or broad sound. It generally indicates the loss of a letter next to the accented towel. Ex. hâte, haste; hôte, host; même, self; sûr, sure. The purposes for which the accents are used, are : To mark certain inflections, as e. g., the participles past of v^rbs : Ex. élevé, elevated ; fermé, closed. To distinguish two similar words of different meanings : Ex. la, the, and là, there ; ou, or, and où, where ; des, of the, and des, since ; a, has, and à, to ; notre, our, and le nôtre, ours ; sur, upon, and sûr, sure ; du, of the, and dû, due. To indicate the loss of a letter : Ex. mere, from mater ; pâtre, from pastor ; hôte, from hostis ; sûr, from securus; épître, from epistola. The effect of the accents on the vowel e is shown in five dif- ferent ways. The Acute Accent gives it a sharp sound : Ex. célébré, celebrated ; sévérité, severity. The vowel e has the same sound as if it were thus accented, when, in final syllables, it is followed by a silent consonant : Ex. nez, nose ; placet, petition ; parler, to speak, except in tu es, thou art, and U est, he is, where it has a grave or broad sound. The Grave Accent gives it a broad sound : Ex. frère, brother ; procès, process ; dès, since. 13 OS LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. The Circumflex Accent gives it a very broad sound. Ex. tête, head ; même, same. The absence of any accent produces in monosyllables the so- called indefinite sound of e. . Ex. me, me ; te, thee ; se, one's self; que, that ; le, it ; ne, not. The absence of any accent on final e in other words, not monosyllables, leaves it perfectly silent. Ex. vie, life ; terre, earth ; lune, moon. It retains its silent character even, when in the pural an 8 is added. Ex. vie, vies, lives; lunes, moons ; aî'mes, arms. The letters es and ent, in the final syllables of verbs, are always silent. Ex. vous dites, you say ; U disent, they said. jÈ7is also mute in dessus, above ; dessous, below ; ressort, spring, and all words beginning with ress ; in degré, degree ; denier, farthing ; dangereux, dangerous ; aboiement, barking ; paiement, payment ; tutoiement, calling others thou, and reniement, abjuration. A mute e can never begin a word ; but it can be found in the first syllable, in the middle and at the end of a word. Ex. tenir, to hold; Samedi, Saturday; table, table. In the very rare cases, when two or three syllables, each having a mute e, follow each other, the first one, when there are two such ^'s, and the first two, when there are three, are given the so-called indefi- nite sound as in monosyllables. Ex. retenir, to detain; recevoir, to receive; redevenir, to become again. In all other words the rule prevails that no two mute e's can follow each other in succession at the end of a word ; and when this should happen as the effect of inflection, e. g., in conjugating verbs, certain orthographical remedies are prescribed, which will be mentioned in their appropriate place. Vowels suffer certain changes of pronunciation, 2. WTieyi they are followed by n or m, in which case they have a nasal sound, inherited by the French from the Latin. It is well-known that the Romans gave to the final syllables vm, am, em and others, a nasal sound, which led to their frequent sup- PRONUiN-CIATION. 13 pression, as was the case always in poetry, where these syllables remained altogether silent, when they were followed by a vowel. This nasal sound is the same before n and m. so that am is pronounced like an, and is produced in the following combina- tions : am : ambre, amber. em : empire, empire, an : roman, novel. en : encre, ink. im : impoli, impolite. om : ombre, shade, in : enfin, at last. on ; salon, parlor. uni : parfum, perfume. un : brun, brown. The nasal sound is not given to these syllables: a. When they are followed by a vowel or a second m or n. Ex. imiter, to imitate; inutile, useless; amener, to bring; omettre, to omit; uni, united; flamme, flame; dilemme, dilem- ma; ennemi, enemy ; immobile, immovable; inné, innate ; dom- mage, damage ; bonne, good. Except when emm and enn begin a word. Ex. emmener, to carry off (pronounced as if spelt an-mener) ; ennui, weariness ; ennoblir, to ennoble. b. When they are found in words taken from foreign languages. Ex. Ammon, Emmanuel, commotidi, Jérusalem, amen, Am- sterdam, Except in the words Adam, Joachim, Quidam, Chérubin and Séra- phin, which have the nasal sounl, being thoroughly naturalized. c. When in precedes the letter h, which, is always silent. Ex. inhumain, inhuman. The syllable en, on the contrary, remains nasal before h, because it only occurs before an aspirate h. Ex. enhardir, to embolden. d. When ent forms the last syllable of the third person plural of the verb, when it is altogether silent. Ex. ils parlent, they speak ; ils viennent, they come. 14 ON LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. The following words are irregular in their pronunciation : enivrer, to intoxicate, pronounced an-ivrer. enorgueillir, to make proud, pronounced an-orgueillir. ennemi, enemy, " en-nemi (not nasal). nenni, nay, " nan-ni. hennir, to neigh, " an-nir. solennel, solemn, " solanel. femme, woman, " fam (not nasal). faon, fawn, " fan (nasal). paon, peacock, " pan (nasal). Laon (city of), " Lan (nasal). Caen (city of), " Can (nasal). Saône (river of), " Sone. monsieur, sir, or Mr. " mosieur. Vowels suffer certain changes of pronunciation. 3. When they are joined to other voiuels. In French, when two vowels are combined, they may eithei produce together a simple sound, different from that which they produce separately, or they may form one syllable, in which, however, each vowel preserves its proper sound. The latter combination alone produces diphthongs. a. The following vowels, when joined, produce compound sounds : ai ei Ex. fai, I have ; affaire, affair ; paire, pair ; peine, pain ; Seine (river) ; veine, vein. . r have the sound of French e, sharp or broad, like ê or è. 11 j Ai and ei, followed by m or n, have the sound of in. Hence pain t bread, and pin, pine-tree, sound alike; so do faim, hunger, and fin, end ; dessein, design, and dessin, drawing. Ai is pronounced like a (i being silent) in Montaigne, a proper Au has the sound of o. Ex. mauve, mallow ; pauvre, poor ; audace, boldness. PKONUNCIATION. 15 Ou has the sound of oo. Ex. clou, nail; sou, cent; outil, tool; boule, bowl. Ea has a sound resembling that of u in spur, but it is always long. Ex. peu, little ; seul, alone ; meunier, miller. It has the sound of u (e being silent) in certain forms of the verb avoir. Ex. eu, had ; j'eus, I ha d ; que j'eusse, that I might have. The same is the case in à jeun, fasting. (Eu. has the same sound as eu. Ex. œuf, egg ; vœu, vow. 0/, has the sound of French oua. Ex. moi, me ; roi, king ; gloire, glory ; oie, goose. Oi before n is sounded as if it were spelt ouin. Ex. foin, hay ; loin, far ; soin, care. Oi is somewhat like o {i being silent) in oignon, onion ; encoignure, corner angle ; poignard, poniard ; poignée, handful, and a few others. If these combinations of vowels have a circumflex accent over the second vowel, the sound is lengthened considerably. Ex. maître, master ; voûte, vault ; croître, to grow. If it is desirable, for etymological purposes, to preserve the original sound of each vowel separately, a diaeresis {") is placed over the second vowel. Ex. Saul, Saul ; naif artless ; Moïse, Moses ; baïonnette, bayonet. The same effect is produced when the first vowel of ei and eu is accented. Ex. obéir, to obey ; réussir, to succeed. N. B. — Oi was formerly used in many nouns, and always in the im- perfect and conditional tenses of verbs, instead of the modern form ai, introduced by Voltaire. It had the same sound as ai, which requires attention, as many works still retain the former spelling. b. All other combinations of vowels produce diphthongs, forming cither one or two syllables. If e should be the first of two such vowels and unaccented, it is silent. Ex. Jean, John ; flageolet, flageolet ; geôlier, jailer. 16 OX LETTERS AND SYLLABLES. If u be the first, it is also silent, when it follows g and q merely for the purposes of pronunciation, and does not form part of the sub- stance of the word. Ex. bague, ring; guérir, to cure; guide, guide; qui, who; quand, when. The pronunciation of diphthongs and the division into syl- lables may be practised in the following words : aérien, a-é-ri-en, ethereal. miel, mi-el, honey. Ismael, Is-ma-ël, Ishmael. client, cli-ent, client. cliaos, cha-os, chaos. orient, o-ri-ent, orient. Pliaraon, Pha-ra-on, Pharaoh. union, u-ni-on, union. boreal, bo-re al, northern. violon, vi-o-lon, violin. béatitude, bé-a-ti-tu-de, beatitude, relier, re-li-er, bind. éolien, é-o-li-en, eolian. sciure, sci-ure, sawdust. météore, mé-té-ore, meteor. tuant, tu-ant, killing. fiancée, fi-an-cée, betrothed. • saluer, sa-lu-er, salute. poite, po-ète, poet. bruit, bru-it, noise. ruade, ru-ade, kick. sinuosité, si-nu-o-si-te, sinuosity. puis, pu-is, then. confiance, con-fi-an-ce, confidence. impétuosité, im-pé-tu-o-si-té, impet- sérieux, sé-ri-eux, serious, uosity. "When three vowels are combined, two of these will always form a compound vowel, such as ai, ei, ou, eu, and on ; the third vowel, which either precedes or follows this combination, is tln-n pronounced by itself. If all three form but one syllable, the combina ion is again called a diphthong. If e be the first of three vowels, or tlie last, and unaccented, it re- mains silent. Ex. beau, handsome ; geai, jackdaw ; raie, stripe ; soie, silk. The pronunciation of three vowels, thus combined, and the division in syllables may be practised in the following words: linéaire, li-né-aire, linear. noué, nou-é, knotted. biais, bi-ais, slope. babouin, ba-bou-in, baboon. PRONUNCIATION. 17 Dieu, Di-eu, God. Cornouaille, Cor-nou-aille, Corn- lueur, lu-eur, light. walhs. miauler, mi-au-ler, mew. fouetter, fou-et-ter, to whip. rouage, rou-age, carriage. The following words containing respectively two and three vowels, are pronounced anomalously : août, pronounced ou, August. lingual, " lin-gou-al, lingual. joaillier, " jou-a-lier, jeweller. œil, ( with liquid I ) pronounced euil, eye. œillet, " euil-let, pink. ecueil, " a é-ceuil, shoal. accueil, " ac-ceuil, reception. cercueil, " « cer-ceuil, coffin. cueillir, " <( ceuil-lir, gather. orgueil, " (MJCIO Wo drt; ^tiiiu. cuiii- \ Uilllvy lit i/tt/ IVVW si /* û qqs\ >**y 1 ivCvtsboOr y pounds) \oyoLol!L OJ IlivUÀSU/l o acide ctcid aromate aromatic acre dCVô ascaride ascarides a ovrici+ î pli p no "vn çfîp UjL/I Uol/VO a afVn o i fp LvojJllU/VO acte ^ ^ act U/oJJt>f adminicule slight proof astérisque asterisk n c\ vpt*Tip UU > Cl UO ft s7m> , Y>h d-bUdgclltî tloui (A y lib aigle eagle astrolabe astrolabe aise ease athénée athenŒUTfi ni Ko "f T£i mud ire alabaster augure auguvy nil pep 7iVy7i to iv* iiyitvor ciUlL/IIltlLO fin t/wn n //I'M alveole ( rl /* nil i 'vi n 1\ ni\t \ 11 CooO ill d liAJiloy- axe lljjlo, tCU/Oo-ù/Ctr \ comb babeurre buttermilk ambages pi. ambages bagne "bagnio anibe {two togethev) barbe a JBarbary horsô amble amhle barde Gil/*/? f\"P /*S\'Y\ oOLOo OJ UUâ/Oio O TYI nTÛ dlJl Ulfc} U/liblrol Util o UUUi t>y a CViXHclll I'O nyn ifiYi fTiit g Lbli ovLvi 00/0 tvo VkaQfiltp UaodlUU Tiff Qfllf. fiTTi nl pf+p ftiYinl pf bécarre ( wntii.vnl. \ 1 OLVU LOI UjU ft n nl pcf. angle Vipn ttp UC LU X O Util/Oui pounds) ; bièvre beaver animalcule animalcule bogue boga antidote antidote Bospliore Bosphorus antipode antipode bouge a small room aphélie aphelion branle jogging apocalypse apocalypse cable cable apogee apogeon cadavre corpse apographe apographum cadre frame apologue apologue caducée mercury's wand arbre tree calibre bore, size, sort 48 OJST THE PARTS OF SPEECH. caique counter drawing code code camée cameo codicille codicil camphre camphire coffre chest cancre crab-fish college college candélabre chandelier colloque colloquy cantique canticle collyre colly Hum capitole capitol colosse colossus capitule capitule colysée coliseum câpre privateer comble top capricorne Capricorn comestible eatables caroube > car ob bean commerce commerce coarse mort of carouge comminge carpe wrist compte bill, account carosse coach compulsoire warrant cartouche scroll conciliabule conventicle casque helmet conclave conclave catafalque catafalque concombre cucumber catalogue catalogue cône cone catarrhe catarrh congre congejr caustique caustic conte tale cénotaphe cenotaph contrôle control cerne ring {circle) conventicule conventicle châle shawl corspuscule corpuscule chambranle jambs cortège retinue chancre cancer coryphée coryphœus change change cothurne buskin chanvre hemp coude elbow chèvrefeuille honeysuckle LOUplt? ( pair, {malk and chiffre cypher {figure) I female) ciboire pix crabe crab cidre cider crâne skull cierge wax taper cravate croat cigare segar crêpe crape cimeterre scimitar crépuscule twilight cimetière cemetery crible sieve cinabre cinnabar cube cube cippe cippus culte worship cirque circus cygne swan cloaque sink cylindre cylinder coche stage, packet-boat déboire mortification NOUNS. 47 décalogue decalogue escompte discount décombres pl. rubbish espace space décompte discount euphorbe euphorbium dédale labyrinth exemple example délice sing. delight exergue exergue délire delirium exode exodus déluge deluge exorde exordium démérite demerit fascicule fascicle denticule denticles faîte top derrière lack feurre chaff désordre disorder fiacre hack dialecte dialect fifre fife diocèse diocese filigrane filigree disque disk finale (in music) finale dissyllabe dissyllable flasque (of a j ' JUU/ofit distique distich cannon) ! dithyrambe dithyrambus fleuve large river dividende dividend fluide fluid divorce divorce foie liver dogue bull-dog follicule (in an-j w T/1///Î /*/} 1 7/9 * J OOOl/CUvo domaine domain atomy) 1 double double fonticule fonticulus doute doubt foudre large tun échange exchange génie genius ellébore hellebore genièvre gin éloge encomium genre gender elysée elysium gingembre ginger émétique emetic girofle cloves empire empire gîte lodging empirée empyrean givre hoar-frost encombre encumbrance glaive sword ensemble whole globe globe épbémérides ephemerides globule globule épilogue epilogue goberge a sort of codfish épisode episode golfe gulf équilibre equilibrium gone a sort of worm équinoxe equinox gouffre abyss erysipèle erysipelas grabuge squabble esclandre uproar grade degree esclavage slavery greffe register's office 4:3 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. grimoire conjuror's book lexique lexicon groupe group libelle libel guide guide, director liège cork gueule gules in heraldry lièvre hare gymnase gymnasium limbe limb (edge) gynécée gynœcium linge linen, clotheè hale sunbuming liquide liquid havre haven litige litigation hécatombe hecatomb livre book héliotrope turnsol lobe lobe hémisphère hemisphere lobule lobule hémistiche hemistich logogryphe logography hiéroglyphe hieroglyphic lombes loins hombre omber Louvre palace horoscope horoscope lucre lucre hyménée wedlock luxe luxury hymne hymn, in general lycée lyceum hypocondre hypochondriac madrépore madrepora iambe iambus maigre lean immeuble real estate malaise uneasiness incendie conflagration manche handle indicule slight indication manège riding-school infusoires infusory worms mânes manes insecte insect manipule maniple insigne insignia manque want interligne interline marbre marble intermède interlude martyre martyrdom interrègne interreign martyrologe martyrology intervalle interval masque mask ivoire ivory massacre massacre jade jade mausolée mausolœum jaspe jasper méandre meander jeûne fast mécompte misreckoning kiosque kiosk mélange mixture labyrinthe labyrinth membre member } limb lange swaddling clothes mémoire bill laque China varnish ménisque meniscus largue offing mensonge lie (a story) leurre lure mercure mercury lévitique leviticus merle blackbird NOUNS. 49 O p Uou ILLO ouoU/00 VU flOpUooMOTb mesaise distress orbe orb métalloïde fil nil /\-\ fil ordre order météore TïlôtôOT organ organ 1JJ.UU.U1c jJotsl/O UJ J toi 1 too toi c UlgUt/, VV lie 11 1 ui yujio, U/io Wwrtt* mille foilli^ llictl \ / ÏY) PTl t J IlOt/lolj mode /yfi] fil /I fil IioOOOj ovale oval IllULlclo IloOLbvO ove wuou Jjj.uu.uit; vn sin 1 1 1 û IIOULo U/Ot} oxyde fiTiid. mt ont* JJotfl pact pact lllUilllU WUI OUi L7CL111 IJl \j l.Pflfll QMYiP TlVrtTifll OVLOJ y (JOIOt/ III UjIIAjiu xuuiiuourcie pdlldiUlltJ UOOIOCIO UJ J KjOjOIOVI o JllUllUlUg U.C lloU lOUOUy UAj yjoO lie ti Y 1 IXi HO jjU/ii>t/y y i oij 111U11U jJUltJ û ou loujjuoy TU1 lltn CTV'A "T>}l P JJCbli. tug 1 CliJJllC jjwi oouy 1 to/jib "m on nçvl 1 n 1~if* UlvUUS V 11 «X uc vn tvn n 1.A IIOUjC&OK/ parapluie umbrella III 111 1 1 1 Ui o IIOU// IIOlÂJl parjure perjury 111 UOvC 110 U-OKJ 00/ Iv parterre Spit {in a theatre) myrthe myrtle ( floioer garden ti "nil t f» naphtha participe participle XXt&l vlOOv daffodil parachute parachute ship patrimoine patrimony nécrologe j a register vf the pavie ( dead pécule nectarine peculium AJLCfci trade pédicule pedicle lit in uy glory, in painting pédoncule the principal stem XX V/1JL1 kyl O number, quantity peigne comb M VvllOVJ LID obelisk pénates pénates fPSOTvh i\ 0*ft œsophagus pendule pendulum 03uvre musical work pêne bolt of a lock ni VTTTTW* U1J 111 olympus pentacorde pentechord OiTihrft a game of cards pentateuque pentateuch omoplate omoplate péricarde pericardium ongle nail péricarpe pericarpium opercule operculum péricrâne pericranium opprobre disgrace périgée perigee 3 50 OK THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. périhélie perihelium prélude prelude période the highest pitch prestige prestige péritoine peHtonœum prétexte pretext perpendicule perpendiculum principe principle personne nobody privilège privilege pétale petal prodigue prodigy pétiole petiole prologue prologue pétrole petroleum prône short sermon peuple people propylée propylœum phalène phalena protocole protocol phare lighthouse proverbe proverb phénomène phenomenon prytanée prytaneum phoque phoca pygmée pigmy phosphore phosphorus pylore pylorus piège snare quadrige quadriga pique spade at cards quadrille game at cards pivoine gnat-snapper quaterne quaterne planisphère planisphere quinconce quincunx plébiscite plebiscitum râble saddle of venison pleige pledge râle rallus poêle \ ' > stove, canopy rechange change poile refuge refuge poge starboard régale regal poivre pepper règne reign pôle pole régule regulus polype polypus relâche relaxation polypode polypodium remède remedy polysyllabe polysyllable remise livery-coach ponche punch renne reindeer porche porch repère mark pore pore reproche reproach porphyre porphyry retable altar-piece portefeuille pocket-book réticule recticula portique portico rêve dream pouce thumb réverbère lantern pourpre purple rhombe rhomb préambule preamble ridicule ridicule précepte precept rièble goose-grass prêche l protestant meet- I ing risque rite risk rite NOUNS. 51 rôle roll stockfiche dried codfish rosace hollyhock store small blinds rosage rose-bay stygmate stigma rouable rake for an oven stylobate stylobatum rouble Russian coin subterfuge subterfuge sable sable subside subsidy sabre sabre sucre sugar sacerdoce sacerdoce symbole symbol sacre consecration synode synod sacrilege sacrilege tarse tarsus sarigue oposum temple temple scandale public offence tentacule tentacle scarabée scarabœus terne terne scolie scolium texte text scrupule scruple thyrse thyrsus seigle rye timbre stamp sépulcre sepulchre tintamarre great noist sexe sex tonnerre thunder sexte sextus topique topic signe sign torse trunk of a statue silence silence toxique poison sille sillus trapèze trapezium simple medicinal herb trèfle trefoil simulacre simulacre triomphe triumph singe ape trisyllabe trisyllable site site trocliisque pill socque overshoe, sandal trochée trochee solde balance of a bill troène privet soliloque soliloquy troglodite wren songe dream trombone trombone souffle breath trône throne soufre sulphur trope trope sourire smile trophée trophy spadllle spadille tropique tropic spécifique specific trouble trouble spondée spondee tube tube squelette skeleton tubercule tubercle squirre scirrhus tumulte tumult stade stadium type (and comp.) type stalle stall ulcère ulcer 52 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. vague n\n /fi i o Oily toe VcbLlgc track vase VCL86, VCSSCl viatique viaticum vaudeville l 7i/y 77/7/7 si o7i/v>»/ \ UuvùClU/f LO o/Cl/f ( comedy vide vignoble LtlLtl CI HO vineyard véhicule vehicle vinaigre vinegar ventricule ventricle violoncelle violoncello ri it oh* r>iy/>Yii Yin LOtlo/L, WCILt/Iiy ar*d t*o OftOVoOOfOLtS verbe VI UTPQ V»l V 1 \ I Co I?*-* V V\y V (A/U/VO vermicelle vermicelli vote vote verre glass zèle zeal vertige dizziness zodiaque zodiac vestibule entry NUMBER OF NOUNS. French nouns have two numbers, singular and plural, accord- ing as they designate one object only or a number of them. This applies only to common nouns, as proper names are the exclusive property of one person or one object, and cannot hence be applied to many, as long as they are used as genuine proper names. The singular is given by the form of the noun itself. The plural is invariably made by the addition of s, for even when plurals are found to end in z or x, it must be borne in mind, that z is but a combination of d and s, and x of c and s. The manner of forming the plural of nouns is subject to the following rules : 1. All nouns not ending in s, z or x, add a final s. Ex. s. table, p. tables ; s. roi, p. rois, king ; s. fusil, p. fusils, gun ; s. nid, p. nids, nest. 2. Nouns ending in s, z or x remain unchanged, as they end already in 5. Ex. s. fils, p. fils, s. son ; s. nez, p. nez, nose ; s. croix, p. croix, cross ; s. remords, p. remords, remorse. 3. Nouns ending in au (eau), eu (œu), and some in ou, add a final x. Ex. s. étau, p. étaux, vice ; s. bateau, p. bateaux, boat ; 53 s. feit, ip.feux, fire; s. vœu, p. vœux, vow; s. genou, p. genoux, knee. 4. Nouns ending in al, and some in '-(] ix-sep t 72 soixante-douze 98 quatre-vin gt-d ix-h uit 73 soixante-treize 99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 74 soixante-quatorze 100 cent 75 soixante-quinze 101 cent-un, une 76 soixante-seize 102 cent-deux 77 soixante-dix-sept 200 d<^£ c23 H ?h O S 05 .m 03 _og ^ £ 5* se? o » O S3 O o o I p3 O ni d o P, CO 3 3 Ph ^ QQ T3 70 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. In order to ascertain readily the nature of the relation of the pro- noun to the verb, it is well to remember the maimer in which the subject and object in a sentence are determined. 1. In order to ascertain the subject, we ask by the aid of the verb : Who or what does ? The answer gives the subject, which is always in the nominative. Ex. Pierre est venu. Who has come ? Ans. Peter. Peter is the subject. Elle fut ici. Who was here? Ans. She. She is the subject. La guerre a commence. What has begun ? Ans. War. War is the subject. 2. In order to ascertain the direct object, we ask in the same man- ner : Whom or what does the subject ? The answer gives the direct object, which is always the accusative. Ex. J'aime le frère. Whom do I love? Ans. The brother. Brother is the direct object. Elle m'aime. Whom does she love? Ans. Me. Me is the direct object. Vous le voyez. What do you see? Ans. It. It is the direct object. Ils se trompent. Whom do they deceive? Ans. Themselves. Themselves is the direct object. 3. In order to ascertain the indirect object, we ask in the same man- ner : To whom or to what does the subject? The answer gives the indirect object, which is always in the dative. Ex. Je parle à Vami. To whom do I speak ? Ans. To the friend. Friend is the indirect object. Cela lui appartient. To whom does it belong ? Ans. To her. To Tier is the indirect object. Il leur donne. To whom does he give ? Ans. To them. To them is the indirect object. On y ajoute. To what do they add ? Ans. To it. To it is the in- direct object. All three may occur in the same sentence. Ex. Le mari donne le cadeau à sa femme. Who gives? Ans. The husband. Le mari is the subject in the nominative. What does he give? Ans. The present. Le cadeau is the direct object in the ac- cusative. To whom does he give? To the wife. A sa femme is the indirect object in the dative. Elle les lui présente. Who presents ? Ans. She. Elle is the sub- ject in the nominative. What does she present ? Ans. Them. Les PKONOTJNS. 77 is the direct object in the accusative. To whom does she present them? Ans. To them. Leur is the indirect object in the dative. This rule is all the more important as the difference between the direct and the indirect object, between the accusative and the dative, is not always perceptible in English. In the sentence : He gives the book, the book is the direct object, in the accusative. In the sentence : He gives the book its due, the book, without any change of form, is the indirect object in the dative. Thus, when we say, I gam it my atten- tion, we ask : Who gave? Ans. I. / is t lie subject, nominative. What gave I ? Ans. My attention. Attention is the direct object, accusative. To what gave I ? Ans. To it. It, therefore, is the indirect object, dative. Consequently, if we have to translate : I gave it to the friend — it is the accusative ; and we will say : Je le donnai à l'ami. But in : I gave it my attention — it is the dative, and must be trans- lated : Je lui donnai mon attention, or Jy donnai mon attention. If we have to translate : You gave him back to his friends — him is the direct object, in the accusative, and we say : Vous le rendîtes d ses amis; but in : You gave him your friendship — him is the indirect object in the dative, and we say : Vous lui donnâtes votive amitié. It will be seen from this, that the omission of the preposition to, before nouns and pronouns in English, must be carefully observed in translating into French. Je, I, is not written with a capital initial as in English, except when it commences a sentence. Je, I; me, me or to me; te, thee or to thee; le, him or it; la, her or it ; se, one's self or to one's self, etc., elide their e or a when they are placed before a verb beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. (Je aime) faime, I love ; (il me embrasse) il rn 9 embrasse t he kisses me ; elle € adore, she adores thee ; il Vamene, he brings him; il Vexcusent, they excuse her; on s'habitue, they accus- tom themselves. These pronouns do not suffer elision when placed after their 78 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. verb even though they precede a word beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. Voyez-le ici, see it here ; prenez-la avec vous, take it with you. PLACE OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The Conjunctive Personal Pronouns have their place rigor- ously assigned to them in their connection with the verb. As .subject, they stand, as in English, before the verb, except in questions, when they are placed after it and connected with it by a hyphen. Ex. Je veux, I will ; tu parles, thou.speakest ; il aime, he loves; voulez-vous ? will you? vient-il? does he come ? allons-nous? shall we go ? As objects, they stand immediately before the verb, and in compound tenses, before the auxiliary verb (not before the participle). Ex. Il me voit, he sees me; tu lui dis, thou sayest to him ; il lui parle, he speaks to her ; nous les aimons, we love them ; vous la connaissez, you know her ; ils nous virent, they saw us ; il m\t vu, he has seen me; elle lui a plu, she has pleased him. Except in the affirmative imperative, when they are placed after the verb, and connected with it by a hyphen. Ex. Voyez-le, see him ; parlez-lui, speak to her ; dites-moi, tell me ; allez-]/, go to it ; prenez-en, take of it. When the imperative is negative, the pronoun is placed again before the verb. Ex. Ne me parle pas, don't speak to me ; n'en prenez pas, don't take of it; ne lai dis rien, tell him nothing. Exkrcise. (Learn the Verbs of the Second Conj ugation.) Finish it and give it to your friend ; lie will speak of it to youi father. I gave my books to her, and she gave her gloves to me. She loves, you, and she will show you her sincerity, if you love her as pronouns. 79 well. He has spoken to her, but she has not treated him with the same courtesy. Take two of them ; I gave one of them to your friend. Why did you place her in that school ? Because I love her dearly. They paid them two hundred dollars, and they have spent half of them. They deceive themselves if they think of it seriously. My son is in the country ; I sent him to the farm, because he was sick. I sent him his books. We met them in the road ; they saluted us and passed us. Do not thank me, I do not deserve it. You will oblige me, if you lend me a thousand dollars. I will give you so much, but I cannot give them as much. Speak to them and give them my compliments. Have you met them recently, or have you not carried them with you to the country ? I have given him my watch, and he has given it to his sister. (It must be remembered that the French has no neuter gender, and that, therefore, the English it, has to be translated by le or la, accord- lag to the gender of the noun which it represents). ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Absolute Personal Pronouns stand only by themselves, entirely unconnected with any verb, or they are joined to prep- ositions. They have, therefore, to be translated according to the use made of them in French. 1st person singular — Moi, I, or me. Ex. Moi, je le veux, I, will it. Il m'aime, moi, He loves me, me. Venez avec moi, Come with me. 2d person singular — Toi, thou, or thee. Ex. Toi, tu te trompes, Thou, art deceived. Il Vaime, toi, He loves thee. C'est à toi, It belongs to thee. 3d person singular — Lui, he, or him. Ex. Lui ? Il est ici, He ? He is here. Qui est là? EUe, Who is there ? She. Vous irez sans elle, You will go without her. 1st person plural — Nous, we, or us. Ex. Nous l'avons, nous, We have it, we. Pour nous il a souffert, For us he has suffered. 80 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 2d person plural — Vous, you. Ex. Vous y êtes vous ? You are there, you. Il est contre tous, He is against you. n , i , ( Eux. they or them (m.) ; 3d person plural ■$ „ \, , ; ' ( elles, they or them it.) Ex. Qui voyez-vous? Eux? Whom do you see ? Them ? H est parmi eux, He is among them. Une entre elles, One among them. Keflexive Pronoun — Soi, one's self. Ex. On pense trop à soi, One thinks too much of one's sel£ Exercise. (Learn the Verbs of the Third Conjugation.) Who was in the house ? He and she. Were they not also in the house ? Who are they ? I speak of the friends of the family. For me, I do not receive any guests, but you, who are young and healthy, you can do it for her. I will buy these books for them, if they can pay me. When I knocked, a voice said : " Who is there V I answered : " It is I." They did not hear me, and at last he came. He ? Do you speak of the owner ? Yes, it was he and not she, who opened the door for me. With whom was she ? She was with him and with her. Without them I cannot live. Speak to them, they are friends, but he, he is a fierce enemy. These ladies had among them a great beauty, who spoke to all our friends, but as to us, she did not notice us. Come with me and I will go with thee to the end of the world. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Possessive Pronouns, which qualify nouns by means of refer- ence to the possessor, are, like all pronouns, divided into Con- junctive and Absolute. Conjunctive Possessive Pronouns are those which are inva- riably used in immediate connection with a noun, which they precede. They correspond to those in English, which are also used only before a noun, like my, thy, our, and your. They have the following forms : PRONOUNS. 81 SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. (For botli Genders.) 1. mon, my. 2. toil, thy. 3. son, his, lier, its. ta. ma. sa. mes. tes. ses. 1. notre, our. 2. votre, your. 3. leur, their. notre, votre, leur. leurs. nos. These Pronouns, which in English agree with the noun which they represent, agree in French in gender and number with the noun which they qualify. Thus we say in English : The man and his daughter — his agreeing with man, in English. L'homme et sa. fille — sa agreeing with fille, in French. The mother and her son — her agreeing with mother, in English. La mere et son fils — son agreeing with fils, in French. The three feminine forms ma, ta and sa, when they come to stand before a noun beginning with a vowel or mute h, are ex- changed for the masculine forms mon, ton and son, to avoid the hiatus. Ex. (ma amitié), mon amitié^ my friendship. (ta histoire), ton histoire, thy history. (sa haleine), son haleine, his breath. These Possessive Pronouns are declined, like all other words in French, by means of the prepositions de (of), for the genitive, and à (to) for the dative. This gives the following forms : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. mon livre, my book. Gen. de mon livre, of my book. Dat. à mon livre, to my book. Acc. mon livre, my book. Nom. ma femme, my wife. Gen. de ma femme, of my wife. Dat. à ma femme, to my wife. Acc. ma femme, my wife. mes livres, my books. de mes livres, of my books. à mes liv?*es, to my books. mes livres, my books. ses enfants, his children. de ses enfants, of his children. à ses enfants, to his children. ses enfants, his children. 82 ON THE PABTS OF SPEECH. Notre and votre before nouns beginning with a consonant are pro nounced as if they were written not and vot only. Ex. notre maison, our house; votre père, your father. The Possessive Pronouns and their prepositions must be repeated before every noun which they qualify. Ex. To my father and mother, à mon père et d ma mère; of youi brothers and sisters, de vos frères et de vos sœurs. Exercise. (Learn the Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation.) His friend and my friend were cousins . Your brother will speak to my uncle, when he sees him in the city. Tell your sister the secret, but do not tell it to your brother, for men are not as discreet as women. My wife will give it to her brothers and sisters, and perhaps they will be satisfied with (of) it. He had forgotten his hat, cane and cards ; he is very absent-minded. Give me my letters and I will give you your papers. Are these your children ? Where is his His- tory of the Republic ? This is my history. Your cousin is a beautiful lady, but she is less charming than her sister. My aunt and her two sons are with us ; your aunt is still absent in Europe. They will be here in the summer with their children and their tutor. His hatred was the cause of his terrible vengeance ; he will expiate his crimes on the scaffold. Our actions do not always have their effects in this world. Absolute Possessive Pronouns are those which are used with- out a noun, as substitutes for a noun, like our English mine and thine, by the side of my and thy. They are always accompanied by the article, and present the following forms : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fem. 1. le mien, mine. la mienne. les miens, les miennes. 2. le tien, thine. let tienne. les tiens, les tiennes. r his. 3. le sien < hers. la sienne. les siens, les siennes ( its. 1. le notre, ours. la notre. les nôtres, les nôtres. 2. le votre, yours. la vôtre. les vôtres. les vôtres. 3. le leur t theirs. la leur. les leurs, les leurs. PRO^OUXS. S3 It must be noticed that the conjunctive forms notre and votre have no accent, and are pronounced with a short o, whilst the absolute forms le nôtre and levôtrehave a circumflex accent, and are pronounced with a long o. These pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun which they represent, thus : Mon père et le vôtre, my father and yours. Votre mère et la mienne, your mother and mine. Tes enfants et les siens, thy children and his. Ses filles et les leurs, her daughters and theirs. Exercise. I see my horses, where are yours? His sons and his daughters are older than mine, but they are younger than yours. I like his pictures and yours, but I prefer ours. My children and theirs play every day in the same garden. Where is your hat ? this is mine. He gave me a ring, and said : " Is it yours or mine ?" Show him these young horses, they are mine. My farm is small but productive ; after my death it will be his, and he will make it still more fertile. Have you found your friends ? No, but I have seen yours. My country and his have had a long war : his is exhausted, mine is s s great as it was before. Bring me his exercises and hers, I will correct them together. Our friends are Protestants, hers are Catholics. I confided this secret to my friends and to theirs. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Demonstrative Pronouns, which qualify nouns by designating their relation to time or place, are Conjunctive and Absolute. Conjunctive Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are in- variably used in immediate connection with a noun or the verb être, to be. They have the following forms : Ce, this or that, before masculine nouns beginning with a consonant or aspirated h, and such forms of the verb être as begin with consonants. Ex. ce livre, this book ; ce héros, that hero ; ce fut lui, this was he ; œ sera demain, that will be to-morrow. Si ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Cet, before nouns beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. cet ami, this friend ; cet homme, that man. C\ before such forms of the verb être as begin with a vowel. Ex. c'est moi, this is I ; c'était hier, that was yesterday. Cette, before all feminine nouns. Ex. cette femme, this woman ; cette affaire, that affair ; cette habitude, that habit. Ces, these or those, before all plural nouns. Ex. ces rois, these kings ; ces dames, these ladies ; ces amis, these friends ; ces âmes, these souls ; ces habits, these coats ; ces harengs, those herrings. These Demonstrative forms agree in gender and number with the noun which they qualify, and must be repeated before every noun to which they are applied. Ex. This man and woman, cet homme et cette femme ; these books and papers, ces livres et ces papiers. Exercise. This young man is my cousin, and that young lady is my friend. I have seen that great man and those excellent paintings of his hand. They are better than those works of art in the Museum. These grapes come from this garden and from our farm. Grant that favor to this man. These pens are better than those pencils. This woman is a poor widow, and with those children she suffers poverty. This intrepid sailor ventured on that adventure with these two men. That affair was painful to those men in that country. Give these flowers to that young lady, and tell her that if that man asks her, I will come to her aid. I would live in that house with your friends, if I had that garden. Absolute Demonstrative Pronouns are those which are never used with a noun or a verb, but always stand by themselves as substitutes for a noun. They are formed by a combination of the Conjunctive Pro- PKONOUNS. 85 noun ce, with the Absolute Personal Pronoun, and produce the following forms : Masc. ce and lui make celui, this or that one. Fern, ce " elle " celle, f * " Masc. ce " eux " ceux, these or those. Fein, ce " elles " celles, " " Besides which, there are the two compounds : Ce and ici make ceci, this (for things.) Ce " Id f cela, that " The first four, celui, celle, ceux and celles, are always made to agree in gender and number with the noun which they represent. Ex. This general and that of the enemy, ce yénêral et celui de V ennemi ; my wife and that of my friend, ma femme et celle de mon ami ; these children and those of my uncle, ces enfants et ceux de mon oncle * our ladies and those of the neighbor, nos dames et celles du voisin. Exercise. My children and those of my sister are the prettiest in the city. These soldiers with their chief were as proud as those of the younger general. These rivers are deep, those are shallow, but these have a short course and those are the longest in the world. Give me these drawings and send those to the bookseller ; I will keep this and give that to your friend. Examine these flowers ; which will you have, this or that ? I prefer these volumes, which are complete ; those, which are disfigured, are for him. Of those ladies, I like those who are modest ; these, which you see here, are too talkative. This house is handsome ; that, at the corner, is larger but less comfortable. I gpoke to him of these amusements ; he said that he loved those which were more quiet. Where is that noise ? Is it this cock which makes it, or those hens in the yard ? When I was here before, I saw these, but those were not in the gallery. RELATIVE} PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns are those which relate to a preceding noun, which is called Antecedent. There are two Relative Pronouns in French, which have 86 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. precisely the same meaning, and differ only in the use which is made of them. They correspond both to our English who, what, that, which, etc. The first of these is qui, which has the following forms • Nom. Qui, who, that or which. Ex. V homme qui est ici, the man who is here ; le livre qui a paru, the book which has appeared ; la maison qui est au coin, the house that is at the corner. Gen. Dont (for persons or things), ) , _ . . n \ \ Y whose, of whom, of v, men. De qui (tor persons only), j ' 1 Ex. Le soldat dont je parle, the soldier of whom I speak ; ce dont il causait, that of which he was speaking; Vami de qui je le tiens, the friend from whom I have it; celui de qui il fit men- tion, he of whom he made mention. Dat. A qui, to whom. Ex. Le voisin à qui j'écris, the neighbor to whom I write; celle à qui il est, she to whom it belongs. Acc. Que, whom, which or what. Ex. Le mendiant que je vis, the beggar whom I saw; la chose que j'oubliai, the thing whicn I forgot; les lettres qu'il écrivait, the letters that he wrote. QuL whom, which (for persons), ) . , . JX . , i ■ -, ,n i • \ i Wltû prepositions. Quoi, what, which (for things), ) Ex. Ceux pour qui je le fais, those for whom I have done it; ma femme à qui je le présentai, my wife to whom I presented him; ce à quoi il sert, that for which it is good ; avec quoi il s'en alla, with which (wherewith) he went away. The pronoun qui, with its various forms, serves for both gen- ders and for both numbers alike : Ex. Vhomme, la femme, le garçon, les filles, qui est Id, \ tlie man> i who is here. / the woman, J n ' i que vous voyez, i ^ c i whom you see, , ) ( the girls, J PRONOUNS. 87 The second Demonstrative Pronoun is lequel, which is de- clined in both of its parts, in le and quel, and thus produces the following forms : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fem. Mas. Fern. Nom. lequel, laquelle. lesquels, lesquelle. Gen. duquel, de laquelle. desquels, desquelles. Dat. auquel, à laquelle. auxquels, auxquelles. Acc. lequel, laquelle. lesquels, It has the same meanings as the first, but as it shows so much more clearly gender and number by its various forms, it is frequently substituted for qui to avoid ambiguity, and it must always be used when the relative pronoun is dependent on a preposition. It must agree in gender and number with the noun to which it relates. Ex. My friend, without lohom I cannot live, mon ami, sans lequel je ne saurais vivre; the books for which you paid, les livres pour lequel* vous payâtes ; the difficulties through which we have passed, les difficultés par lesquelles nous avons passé. Exercise. The person who spoke was not the lady whom you admired. This woman is the same of whom I received a letter, when I was in that city, in which you also have been recently. The pictures for which I paid this high price, are worse than those among which you found your Madonna. I like the man to whom she gave the flowers ; he was one of those for whom I feel sympathy. The friend whose advice was so good is my friend also ; he is a man of whom much has been said. The daughter of the soldier, with whom you came is very pretty, but her cousin, for whom I feel an admiration, is prettier. The thing to which you refer is a trifle, but the sums which you owe to that man are a serious affair. That of which I spoke and that of which I wrote are two different things ; the principal subject is that mar- riage, in which you are so much interested. 88 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Interrogative Pronouns are those which enable us to ask questions without a constant repetition of the noun. They are the same in French as the relative, with the exception of dont, which can never be used interrogatively. The first, qui, presents the following forms: who ? of whom ? of what ? to whom ? to what ? whom ? what? what ? (when standing alone.) It must be noticed that the prepositions connected with the interrogative as well as with the relative pronoun are, in English, frequently separated from the pronoun and placed at the end of the sentence. In French the preposition must always retain its place before the pronoun. Ex. Whom do you speak of? De qui parlez-vous ? Whom) Qui) Trr, , r do you see? [voyez-vous? What ) J Que) J What did he treat of? Be quoi traitait-il? Whom did she come with ? Avec qui venait-elle ? The second, lequel, has the same forms as the relative, but can only be used interrogatively when it has the meaning o*' which of several ? Ex. Lequel de ces deux hommes connaissez-vous? Which of these two men do you know? Laquelle des sœurs est ici ? Which of the sisters is here ? A third Interrogative Pronoun is quel, which has the mean- ing of what kind of? and is declined like lequel, but can only be used in connection with a noun. Ex. Quel homme est-il? What kind of man is he? Quelles PRONOUNS. 89 sortes de marchandises ? What kind of goods? Quelle est cette femme? What kind of woman is she? Exercise. Who has written this book ? The same author for whom you pro- fessed a great admiration. See the four pens : which one do you prefer ? What did he speak of, when he made that great speech, with which he ended his career ? Whom do you take me for ? What do you want of me ? I will tell you who he is and for whom he ap- pears here. Which of the four seasons do you like best ? I do not know for which I shall decide, I like them all. With whom did she go to Europe, and with what will she occupy her time at Rome ? What did he devote himself to during that year, and what has he written ? I know whom you speak of. What did he write about in his last letter ? Which of these ladies is your sister, and to which must I speak ? Who is this soldier, and what does he say ? What kind of watch have you bought ? I have heard what kind of statues he makes, but I have forgotten it. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Indefinite Pronouns are those which refer, not to any one person or object definitely, but to some one vaguely or gener- ally. They are generally the same as in English, e. g % , some, quelque; none, personne ; all, tout ; but there is one of them of very great importance, which alone will be mentioned here. This is on, a Personal Indefinite Pronoun, inasmuch as it is a - Pronoun, standing instead of a noun ; Personal, because it can only represent persons, and Indefinite, because it never desig- nates persons individually, but only generally. It has no equiv- alent in English, and is, therefore, translated in various ways. It can only be used as subject of a sentence, in the nominative case, with the third person singular of the verb, and referring to men, i. e., neither to agencies above nor below him. We add the principal ways by which it is rendered into English. On pense trop à soi-même. People think too much of them- selves. Où peut-on être mieux qu'au sein Where can one be happier than in de sa famille ? the bosom of one's family ? 90 OS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. On dit que la guerre est finie. It is said the war is over. On n'est pas toujours bons amis. Men are not always good friends. On travaille jour et nuit They work night and day. On se trompe, madame. You are mistaken, madame. On Va répété partout. It has been repeated everywhere. On acquiert V expérience avec le We acquire experience with time. temps. Exercise. They say that he has left his family a large fortune. What did people do when the news was brought ? People said that it was very sad, but they added, that the punishment was well deserved. Can one lodge in this hotel ? One is not always young and pretty. One is not always happy, when one is very rich, for (the) happiness is in the heart. It is repeated to-day that the emperor has declared war, and it is believed in all circles. Was it said which of these persons was the husband of the lady who perished in the shipwreck ? It was not known, when I left the ship, but it will be known when the jour- nals of the day are brought. CHAPTER V. VERBS. Verbs are that part of speech which serves to express action, and therefore is used to say something of a person or an object. They have a great variety of forms in order to express the Person, who is the agent of the Verb : the first, second or third, Number of persons, one or more : singular or plural, Time of the action : present, past or future, Mood or manner of the action : Indicative (positive), Sub- junctive (contingent), Imperative and Conditional, Nature of the Verb itself: Active, Passive, Neuter, Pronomi- nal and Impersonal, all of which varieties will be explained in their proper place. VEKBS. 91 aUXijlIARY VERBS. Auxiliary Verbs called those which, besides being used by themselves, are also employed to form the so-called Com- pound Tenses of other verbs. There are two in French : Avoir, to have, which serves to form the compound tenses of Active and some Neuter Verbs, and Etre, to be, which serves to form the compound tenses of Neuter and Pronominal Verbs, and the passive of Active Verbs, A VOIE. — TO HAVE. INFINITIVE. Avoir, to have. avoir eu, to have had. PARTICIPLE. ayant, having. ayant eu, having had. eu, had. Simple Tenses. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. J'ai I have, I do have, I am having tu as thou hast il or elle a he ov she has nous avons we have vous avez you have Us or elles ont they have IMPERFECT. J'avais I had, I did have, I was having tu avais thou hadst U or elle avait he ox she had nous avions we had vous aviez you had Us or elles avaient they had PRETERIT DEFINITE. J eus I had, I did have, I was having tu eus thou hadst U or elle eut he ot she had nous eûmes we had vous eûtes you had Us or elles eurent they had ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. J'aurai tu auras il or elle aura nous aurons vous aurez ils or elles auront J'aurais tu auarasi il or elle aurait nous aurions vous auriez Us or elles auraient Que j'aie que tu aies qu'il or qu'elle ait que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'ils or qu'elles aient Que j'eusse que tu eusses qu'il or qu'elle eût que nous eussions que vous eussiez qu'ils or qu'elles eussent FUTURE. I shall or will have thou shalt have he or she shall have we shall have you shall have they shall have CONDITIONAL. I should or would have thou shouldst have he or she should have we should have you should have they should have SUBJUNCTIVE* PRESENT. That I may have that thou mayest have that he or she may have that we may have that you may have that they may have PRETERIT DEFINITE. That I might have that thou mightest have that he or she might have that we might have that you might have that they might have J ai eu tu as eu il or elle a eu nous avons eu vous avez eu ils or elles ont eu Compound Tenses, INDICATIVE. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have had thou hast had he or she has had we have had you have had they have had VERBS. J'avais eu tu avais eu il or elle avait eu nous avions eu vous aviez eu ils or elles avaient eu PLUPERFECT. I had had thou hadst had he or she had had we had had you had had they had had J'eus eu tu eus en il or elle eut eu nous eûmes eu - vous eûtes eu PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had had thou hadst had he or she had had we had had you had had Us or elles eurent eu J aurai eu tu auras eu il or elle aura eu nous aurons eu vous aurez eu ils or elles auront eu they had had FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have had thou shalt have had he or she shall have had we shall have had you shall have had they shall have had J aurais eu tu aurais eu il or elle aurait eu nous aurions eu vous auriez eu ils or elles auraient eu CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. I should or would have had thou shouldst have had he or she should have had we should have had you should have had they should have had SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Que j'aie eu que tu aies eu qu'il or qu'elle ait eu que nous ayons eu que vous ayez eu qu'ils or qu'elles aient eu that I may have had that thou mayest have had that he or she may have had that we may have had that you may have had that they may have had 94: ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Que j'eusse eu that I might have had que tu eusses eu that thou mightest have had qu'il or qu'elle eût eu that he or she might have had que nous eussions eu that we might have had que vous eussiez eu that you might have had qu'ils or qu'elles eussent eu that they might have had IMPERATIVE. Aie qu'il or qu'elle ait ayons ayez qu'ils or qu'elles aient have [thou] let him or her have let us have have [you] let them have Exercise. I have the same book that you have had. We desired that he might have a speedy end, for he has had a terrible disease. Let him have all the money that he desires ; we have had our share. You should have had patience. I hope that he may have letters from his friends to- day ; you had yours yesterday. You would have a large estate, and you will have a large fortune still. Thou hadst a better memory than I, but thou wilt have to learn more. He will have had two warnings. Let us have patience with them, and let them have a desire to do their duty. He hopes that she may have friends, and we hope that she may have a husband, but she has had enemies. They had had a meeting, and they will have had six in one month. She would have had a great surprise if he had been present. Avoir To Have [Negatively,) INFINITIVE, PRESENT. Ne pas avoir not to have PAST. (or compound of the present) N'avoir pas eu not to have had VERBS. PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N'ayant pas not having COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N'ayant pas eu Je n'ai pas tu n'as pas il n'a pas nous n'avons pas vous n'avez pas Us n'ont pas Je n'avais pas tu n'avais pas il n'avait pas nous n'avions pas vous n'aviez pas ils n'avaient pas Je n'eus pas tu n'eus pas il n'eut pas nous n'eûmes pas vous n'eûtes pas Us n'eurent pas J& n'aurai pas tu n'auras pas il n'aura pas nous n'aurons pas vous n'aurez pas Us n'auront pas Je n'aurais pas tu n'aurais pas not having had Simple Tenses. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. I have not thou hast not he has not we have not yon have not they have not IMPERFECT. I had not thou hadst not he had not we had not you had not they had not PRETERIT DEFINITE. I had not thou hadst not he had not we had not you had not they had not FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will not have thou shalt not have he shall not have we shall not have you shall not have they shall not have CONDITIONAL. I should or would not have thou shouldst not have OX THE PARTS OF SPEECH. il n'aurait pas nous n'aurions pas vous n'auriez pas ils n'auraient pas he should not have we should not have you should not have thev should not have Compound Tenses. Je n'ai pas eu tu n'as pas eu il n'a pas eu nous n'avons pas eu vous n'avez pas eu ils n'ont pas eu. Je n'avais pas eu tu n'avais pas eu il n'avait pas eu nous n'a vions pas eu vous n'aviez pas eu Us n'avaient pas eu PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have not had thou hast not had he has not had we have not had you have not had they have not had PLUPERFECT. I had not had thou hadst not had he had not had we had not had you had not had they had not had PEETERIT ANTERIOR. Je n'eus pas eu I had not had tu n'eus pas eu thou hadst not had il n'eut pas eu he had not had nous n'eûmes pas eu we had not had vous n'eûtes pas eu you had not had Us n'eurent pas eu they had not had FUTURE ANTERIOR. Je n'aurai pas eu I shall or will not have had tu n'auras pas eu thou shalt not have had il n'aura pas eu he shall not have had nous n'aurons pas eu we shall not have had vous n'aurez pas eu you shall not have had Us n'auront pas eu they shall not have had CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. Je n'aurais pas eu tu n'aurais pas eu I should or would not have had thou shouldst not have had VERBS. 97 il n'aurait pas eu nous n'aurions pas eu vous n'auriez pas eu ils n' auraient pas eu Que je n'aie pas que tu n'aies pas qu'il n'ait pas que nous n'ayons pas que vous n'ayez pas qu'ils n'aient pas he should not have had we should not have had you should not have had they should not have had SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. that I may not have that thou mayest not have that he may not have that we may not have that you may not have that they may not have PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Que je n'aie pas eu que tu n'aies pas eu qu'il n'ait pas eu que nous n'ayons pas eu que vous n'ayez pas eu qu'ils n'aient pas eu Que je n'eusse pas que tu n'eusses pas qu'il n'eût pas que vous n'eussions pas que vous n'eussiez pas qu'ils n'eussent pas that I may not have had that thou mayest not have had that he may not have had that we may not have had that you may not have had that they may not have had IMPERFECT. that I might not have that thou mightest not have that he might not have that we might not have that you might not have that they might not have Que je n'eusse pas eu que tu n'eusses pas eu qu'il n'eût pas eu que nous n'eussions pas eu que vous n'eussiez pas eu qu'ils n'eussent pas eu PLUPERFECT. that I might not have had that thou mightest not have had that he might not have had that we might not have had that you might not have had that they might not have had N'aie pas qu'il n'ait pas IMPERATIVE. have not [thou] let him not have 5 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. n'ayons pas n'ayez pas qu'Us n'aient pas let us not have have not [you] let tlieni not have Avoir Ai-je as-tu a-t-il avons-nous avez-vous ont-Us avais-tu avait-il avions-nous aviez-vous avaient-ils Eus-je eus-tu eut-il eûmes-nous eûtes-wus eurent-ils Aurai-je auras-tu aura-t-U aurons-nous aurez-vous awont-ils To Have {Interrogatively.) Simple Tenses. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. have I hast thou has he have we have you have they IMPERFECT. had I hadst thou had he had we had you had they PRETERIT DEFINITE, had I hadst thou had he had we had you had they FUTURE. shall or will I have shalt thou have shall he have shall we have shall you have shall they have VERBS. Aurais-je aurais-tu aurait-il aurions-nous auriez-wus auraient-ils Ai-je eu as-tu eu a-t-il eu awns-nous eu avez-vous eu ont-ils eu Avais-je eu avais4u eu avait-il eu avions-nous eu aviez-vous eu avaient-ils eu Eus-je eu eus-tu eu eut-il eu eûmes-nous eu eûtes-vous eu eurent-ils eu Aurai-je eu auras-tu eu aura-t-il eu aurons-nous eu aurez-vous eu auront-Us eu CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. should or would I have shouldst thou have should he have should we have should you have should they have Compound Tenses. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. have I had hast thou had has he had have we had have you had have they had PLUPERFECT. had I had hadst thou had had he had had we had had you had had they had PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I had hadst thou had had he had had we had had you had had they had FUTURE ANTERIOR. shall or will I have had shalt thou have had shall he have had shall we have had shall you have had shall they have had 100 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. ... ( should or would, could, or might I Aurais-je eu < _ _ _ ( have had aurais-tu eu shouldst thou have had aurait-il eu should he have had aurions-nous eu should we have had auriez-vous eu should you have had auraient-ils eu should they have had Avoir JSTai-je pas n'as-tu pas rCa-t-il pas n 'avons-nous pas n'avez-vous pas 1Ï ont-ils pas N'av'ais-je pas n'avais-tu pas n'avait-il pas ri avions-nous pas n' aviez-vous pas n' avaient-ils pas N'eus-je pas n'eus tu pas n'eut-il pas n'eûmes-nous pas n'eûtes-vous pas n' eurent-ils pas N'aurai-je pas n'auras-tu pas To Have {Negatively and Interrogatively?) INDICATIVE. PRESENT. • i have I not hast thou not has he not have we not have you not have they not IMPERFECT. had I not hadst thou not had he not had we not had you not had they not PRETERIT DEFINITE. had I not hadst thou not had he not had we not had you not had they not FUTURE. shall or will I not have shalt thou not have VERBS. n'aura-t-il pas n' aurons-nous pas n'aurez-vous pas n' auront-Us pas N'aurais-je pas n'aurais-tu pas n'aurait-il pas n' aurions-nous pas n'auriez-vous pas rv auraient-Us pas N'ai-je pas eu n' as-tu pas eu n'à-t-il pas eu 7Ï awns-nous pas eu n'avez-vous pas eu n'ont-ils pas eu shall he not have shall we not have shall you not have shall they not hav CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. should or would I not have shouldst thou not ha\ e should he not have should we not have should you not have should they not have PRETERIT INDEFINITE. have I not had hast thou not had has he not had have we not had have you not had have they not had N'avais-je pas eu avais-tu pas eu n'avait-il pas eu n 'avions-nous pas eu n'aviez-vous pas eu n'avaient-ils pas eu PLUPERFECT. had I not had hadst thou not had had he not had had we not had had you not had had they not had JSTeus-je pas eu n' eus-tu pas eu n'eut-il pas eu n'eûmes-nous pas eu neutes-wus pas eu n'eurent-ils pas eu WauraUjepas eu n'auras-tu pas eu PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I not had hadst thou not had had he not had had we not had had you not had had they not had FUTURE ANTERIOR. phall or will I not have had shalt thou not have had 102 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. n' aura-til pas eu n'aurons-nous pas eu n'aurez-vous pas eu n'auront-ils pas eu shall he not have had shall we not have had shall you not have had shall they not have had CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. N'aurais-je pas eu iï aurais-tu pas eu n'aurait-il pas eu n'aurions-nous pas eu n'auriez-vous pas eu n'auraient- il pas eu should or would I not have had shouldst thou not have had should he not have had should we not have had should you not have had should they not have had Y AVOIR Y avoir Y avoir eu Y ayant There To Be INFINITIVE. PRESENT. there to be PAST. there to have been PARTICIPLE PRESENT. there beins: (Affirmatively.) COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Y ayant eu there having been INDICATIVE. PRESENT. Il y a there is or there are IMPERFECT. Il y avait there was or there were PRETERIT DEFINITE. If, y eut there was or there were FUTURE. B y aura there will be VERBS. 103 II y aurait Il y a eu Il y avait eu Il y eut eu H y aura eu H y aurait eu Qu'il y ait Qu'il y eût Qu'il y ait eu Qu'il y eût eu CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. there would be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. there has been or there have been PLUPERFECT. there had been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. there had been FUTURE ANTERIOR. there will have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. there would have been SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. that there may be IMPERFECT. that there might be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. that there may have been PLUPERFECT. that there might have been. Y Avoir There To Be {Negatively) INFINITIVE. PRESENT. Ne pas y avoir not there to be PAST. 1 y avoir eu not there to have been 104 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N'y ayant pas there not being COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ny ayant pas eu there not having been INDICATIVE. PRESENT. M n'y a pas there is not or there are not IMPERFECT. Il n'y avait pas there wasmot or there were not PRETERAIT DEBTNITE. Il n'y eut pas there was not or there were not FUTURE ABSOLUTE. B riy aura pas there will not be CONDITIONAL. It n'y aurait pas there would not be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. H n'y a pas eu there has not been PLUPERFECT. £1 n'y avait pas eu there had not been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Il n'y eut pas eu there had not been FUTURE ANTERIOR. Il n'y aura pas eu there will not have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. H n'y aurait pas eu there would not have been SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Qu'il n'y ait pas that there may not be IMPERFECT. Qu'U n'y eût pas that there might not be VEEBS. 105 PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Qu'il n'y ait pas eu that there may not have been PLUPERFECT. Qu'il n'y eût pas eu that there might not have been Y Avoir Ya-t-il Y avait-il Y eut-il Y aura-t-il Y aurait-il Y a-t-il eu Y avait-il eu Y eut-il eu Y aura-t-il eu Y aurait-il eu There To Be {Interrogatively '.) INDICATIVE. PRESENT. is there or are there IMPERFECT. was there or were there PRETERIT DEFINITE. was there or were there FUTURE ABSOLUTE. will there be CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. would there be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. has there been or have there been PLUPERFECT. had there been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had there been FUTURE ANTERIOR. will there have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. would there have been 5* 106 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Y Avoir There To Be (Negatively and Interrogatively.) INDICATIVE. PRESENT. N'y a-t-il pas is there not or are there not IMPERFECT. Ny avait-il pas was there not or were there not PRETERIT DEFINITE. Ny eut-U pas was there not or were there not FUTURE ABSOLUTE. will there not be CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. would there not be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Ny a-t-il pas eu has there not been PLUPERFECT. N'y avait-il pas eu had there not been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Ny eut-il pas eu had there not been FUTURE ANTERIOR. N'y aura-t-il pas eu will there not have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. Ny aurait-il pas eu would there not have been Exercise. She has had beauty, and now she has wit and talents. He wished, when he left us, that he might have a sword and a pistol ; he said that he had courage for ten. Having had the fever twice, I shall not have it this summer. What have you had for dinner ? Should I not have had as much as he ? I wish that you may have health and a long life. Had you two cousins or only one ? When has she had her party ? I hoped, that she might have had it, when I was there, but Ny aura-t-il pas Ny aurait-il pas VERBS. 107 she had had one a week before my arrival. To have had an accident like that ! Who could have had an idea of this affair ? Would not they have had more friends, if they had had more discretion ? Let them have their desire, and they might not have had it. Will he have money, when he shall have had a great success ? Would we not have the same master, if we had had the same training ? Should we have good wines, and should we have water for our meals ? I thought that we had had the greatest misfortunes, but she has had even greater. Has she not much wit ? She has had it, but she has it not now that she is old. When we shall have had all, we shall have had little after all. Has he many friends, and has she many relations in that city ? Thou hast had thy will, now let them have theirs. You had riches and you have power now. Which would you have, if you had the choice ? Etre Etre Avoir été To Be INFINITIVE. PRESENT. {Affirmatively,) PAST. to be to have been PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Etant being COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant été Eté Je suis tu es il est nous sommes vous êtes Us sont having been PARTICIPLE PAST. been INDICATIVE. PRESENT. I am thou art he is we are you are they are 108 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Jetais tu étais il était nous étions vous étiez ils étaient Je fus tu fus il fut nous fumes wus fûtes ils f urent Je serai tu seras it sera nous serons wus serez ils seront IMPERFECT. I was thou wast he was we were you were they were PRETERIT DEFINITE. I was thou wast he was we were you were they were FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will be thou shalt be he shall be we shall be you shall be they shall be CONDITIONAL. Je serais tu serais il serait nous serions wus seriez ils seraient J'ai été tu as été il a été noxis avons été wus avez été Us ont été PRESENT. I should or would be thou shouldst be he should be we should be you should be they should be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have been thou hast been he has been we have been you have been they have been T EBBS. 109 J'avais été tu avais été il avait été nous avions été vous aviez été ils avaient été J'eus été tu eus été il eut été nous eûmes été vous eûtes été ils eurent été J'aurai été tu auras été il aura été nous aurons été vous aurez été ils auront été J aurais été tu aurais été il aurait été nous aurions été vous auriez été ils auraient été Sois qu'il soit soyons soyez qu'ils soient Que je sois que tu sois PLUPERFECT. I had been thou haclst been he had been we had been you had been they had been pkbtee.it anterior. I had been thou hadst been he had been we had been you had been they had been future anterior. I shall or will have been thou shalt have been he shall have been we shall have been you shall have been they shall have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. I should or would have been thou shouldst have been he should have been we should have been you should have been they should have been IMPERATIVE. be [thou] let him be let us be be [you] let them be SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. that I may be that thou mayest be 110 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. qu'il soit que nous soyons que vous soyez quits soient Que je f usse que tu fusses qu'il fut que nous fussions que vous fussiez qu'ils fussent that he may be that we may be that you may be that they may be PLUPERFECT. that I might be that thou mightest be that he might be that we might be that you might be that they might be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Que j'aie êtê that I may have been que tu aies êtê that thou may est have been qu'il ait êtê that he may have been que nous ayons êtê that we may have been que wus ayez êtê that you may have been qu'ils aient êtê that they may have been Que j'eusse êtê que tu eusses êtê qu'il eût êtê que nous eussions êtê que vous eussiez été qu'ils eussent été PLUPERFECT. that I might have been that thou mightest have been that he might have been that we might have been that you might have been that they might have been Etre To Be (Negatively.) INFINITIVE. Ne pas être Ne pas avoir été not to be PERFECT. not to have been PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N étant pas not being VERBS. COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. N'ayant pas été not having been INDICATIVE. Je ne suis pas tu n'es pas il n'est pas nous ne sommes pas vous n'êtes pas ils ne sont pas Je n'étais pas tu n'étais pas il n'était pas nous n'étions pas wus n'étiez pas ils n'étaient pas Je ne fus pas tune fus pas il ne fut pas nous ne fûmes pas wus ne fates pas Us ne furent pas I am not thon art not he is not we are not you are not they are not IMPERFECT. I was not thou wast not he was not we were not you were not they were not PRETERIT DEFINITE. I was not thou wast not he was not we were not you were not they were not FUTURE. Je ne serai pas tu ne seras pas U ne sera pas nous ne serons pas wus ne serez pas ils ne seront pas Je ne serais pas tu ne serais pas I shall or will not be thou shalt not be he shall not be we shall not be you shall not be they shall not be CONDITIONAL. PRESENT I should or would not be thou shouldst not be 112 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. il ne serait pas nous ne serions pas vous ne seriez pas ils ne seraient pas he should not be we should not be you should not be they should not be Je n'ai pas été tu n'as pas été il ri a pas été nous riavons pas été vous n'avez pas été ils n'ont pas été % PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have not been thou hast not been he has not been we have not been you have not been they have not been Je n'avais pas été tu n'avais pas été il ri avait pas été nous n'avions pas été vous n'aviez pas été ils n'avaient pas été PLUPERFECT. I had not been thou hadst not been lie had not been we had not been you had not been they had not been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je n'eus pas été I had not been tu n'eus pas été thou hadst not been il n'eut pas été he had not been nous n'eûmes pas été we had not been vous n'eûtes pas été you had not been ils n'eurent pas été they had not been Je n'aurai pas été tu n'auras pas été il n'aura pas été nous n'aurons pas été vous n'aurez pas été ils n'auront pas été FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will not have been thou shalt not have been he shall not have been we shall not have been you shall not have been they shall not have been CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. Je n'aurais pas été tu n'aurais pas été il ri aurait pas été I should or would not have been thou shouldst not have been lie should not have been VERBS. nous n'aurions pas été vous n'auriez pas êtê il n'auraient pas été we should not have been you should not have been they should not have been Ne sois pas qu'il ne soit pas ne soyons pas ne soyez pas qu'ils ne soient pas IMPERATIVE. be not [thou] let him not be let us not be be not [you] let them not be Que je ne sois pas que tu ne sois pas quil ne soit pas que nous ne soyons pas que vous ne soyez pas qu'ils ne soient pas Que je ne fusse pas que tu ne fusses pas quil ne fut pas que nous ne fussions pas que vous ne fussiez pas qu'ils ne fussent pas SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. that I may not be that thou mayest not be that he may not be that we may not be that you may not be that they may not be IMPERFECT. that I might not be that thou mightest not be that he might not be that we might not be that you might not be that they might not be PRETERIT Or PAST. Que je n'aie pas êtê que tu n'aies pas été qu'il n'ait pas été que nous n'ayons pas ete que vous n'ayez pas êtê qu'ils n'aient pas êtê Que je n'eusse pas êtê que tu n' eusses pas êtê qu'il n'eût pas êtê that I may not have been that thou mayest not have been that he may not have been that we may not have been that you may not have been that they may not have been PLUPERFECT. that I might not have been that thou mightest not have be( that he might not have been Ill ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous n'eussions pas été que vous n'eussiez pas été qu'ils n'eussent pas été that we might not have been that you might not have been that they might not have been Etre To Be {Interrogatively.") INDICATIVE. PRESENT. Suis-je am I es-tu art thou est-il is he sommes-nous are we ëtes-wus are you sont-ils axe they IMPERFECT. Etais-je was I étais-tu wafct thou ctait-il was he étions-nous were we étiez-wus were you étaient-ils were they PRETERIT DEFINITE. Fus-je was I fus-tu wast thou fut-il was he fumes-nous were we ftites-vous were you furent-ils were they FUTURE. Seraije shall or will I be seras-tu shalt thou be sera-t-il shall he be serons-nous shall we be serez-vous shall you be seront-ils shall they be VEEBS. 115 Serais-je serais-tu serait-il serions-nous seriez-vous seraient Us Ai-je été as-tu été a-t-il été avons-nous été avez-vous été ont-ils été Avais-je été avais-tu été avait-il été avions-nous été aviez-vous été avaient-ils été Eus-je été eus-tu été eut-il été eûmes-nous été eûtes-vous été eurent-ils été Aurai-je été auras-tu été aura-t-il été aurons-nous été aurez-vous été auront-ils été CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. should or would I be sliouldst thou he should he he should we be should you be should they be PRETERIT INDEFINTE. have I been hast thou been has he been have we been have you been have they been PLUPERFECT. had I been hadst thou been had he been had we been had you been had they been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I been hadst thou been had he been had we been had you been had they been FUTURE ANTERIOR. shall or will I have been shalt thou have been shall he have been shall we have been shall you have been shall they have been 116 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR. Afirais-ej êtê should or would I have been aurais-tu été shouldst tliou have been aurait-'d été should he have been aurions-nous été should we have been auricz-vous été should you have been auraient-Us été should they have been Etre To Be {Negatively and Interrogatively?) INDICATIVE. Ne suis-je pas n'es-tu pas n'est-il pas ne sommes-nous pas n'étes-vous pas ne sont-ils pas N'étais-jepas n'étais-tu pas n'était-il pas n'étions nous pas n'étiez-wus pas n'étaient-ils pas Nefus-je pas ne fus-tu pas ne fut-il pas ne fdmes-nous pas ne futes-vous pas ne furent-ils pas Ne serai-je pas ne scr as-tu pas ne sera-t-il pas PRESENT. am I not art thou not is he not are we not are you not are they not IMPERFECT. was I not wast thou not was he not were we not were you not were they not PRETERIT DEFINITE. was I not wast thou not was he not were we not were you not were they not FUTURE. shall or will I not be shalt thou not bo shall he not be VERBS. 117 ne serons-nous pas ne serez-vous pas ne seront-ils pas shall wo not be shall you not be shall they not be CONDITIONAL. Ne serais-je pas ne serais-tu pas ne serait-il pas ne serions-nous pas ne seriez-vous pas ne seraient-ils pas PRESENT. should or would I not be should st thou not be should he not be should we not be should you not be should they not be PRETERIT INDEFINITE. N'ai-je pas été have I not been n'as-tu pas été hast thou not been ria-t-ilpas été has he not been n' avons-nous pas ete have we not been n'avez-vous pas été have you not been ri ont-ils pas été have they not been Navais-je pas été . n* avais-tu pas été n'avait-il pas été n'avions-nous pas été n'aviez-vous pas été n'avaient-ils pas été PLUPERFECT. had I not been hadst thou not been had he not been had we not been had you not been had they not been PRETERIT ANTERIOR. N'eus-je pas été had I not been n*eus-tu pas été hadst thou not been n'eut-il pas été had he not been n'eûmes-nous pas été had we not been n'eûtes-vous pas été had you not been n' eurent-ils pas été had they not been FUTURE ANTERIOR. N'aurai je pas été n'auras-tu pas été shall or will I not have been shalt thou not have been 118 ON THE PABTS OF SPEECH. riaura-t-U pas été n'aurons-nous pas été n'aurez-voits pas été n'auront-ils pas été shall lie not have been shall we not have been shall you not have been shall they not have been CONDITIONAL FAST. n 9 aurions-nous pas été rC au riez-vous pas été n'auraient-ils pas été N'aurais-je pas été n'aurais-tu pas été n'aurait-il pas été c should I not have been, or would ( I, might I not have been shouldst thou not have been should he not have been should we not have been should you not have been should they not have been Exercise. He is my friend and he was yours ; why is he now your enemy ? She has been in the house with me, whilst you have been in the garden. Where have they been ? Were you content with your lot, or would you be happier elsewhere ? I know that I would be most happy with you. He hoped that she might have been wiser, but she has been hasty, and that was her misfortune. Where were you, when I was in the church ? We were all in the open square, where there was a great ceremony. Had they been in the country, when they were with you? We had not yet been sufficiently attentive. You would have been more fortunate if you had been less bold in your specu- lations. Has she been here ? She would have been here before this, but she had been sick, and she is still very weak. What a great man he would have been, if he had been as wise as he was brave! Shall I not have been too severe with my young friends ? They would have been less surprised if they had had more experience. Was not she very beautiful in her youth ? Shall we not have been too eager, and will he not have had amusement from oui impatience? This man had not been long in this country, when he had the yellow fever. Who has had it yesterday? Will she not have been absent six months, when I shall have been absent one month ? Let them not be angry ; it was I, who did it, and I am sorry for it. Let her be beautiful and rich ; if she is not amiable, she is *iot the person whom I love. VERBS 119 Note. — When the subject of a question is a noun, it is placed at the head of the sentence, and the verb in the interrogative form after it. Ex. This man, has he courage ? Get homme a-t-il du courage f Exercise. Was this woman with you here, or were you alone ? Would not the judge be very severe if he were president of the court? Were those girls idle or were they tired ? They have been the one and the other. Will this week have been a happy (one) for you? It would have been better, if it had been shorter. Had these soldiers been absent from the army ? They had been on furlough. Were the apples ripe ? You have been very polite, but I wished that you might have been more circumspect. I hope that you may be happy. Was not your birthday yesterday? Where had these three men been during the night ? The verb to do, when used as an auxiliary verb in English, is not translated into French, but rendered by the simple form of the verb itself. Ex. I do speak: I speak, je parle. Do I speak? parlê-je? He did come: he came, il venait. Did he come? venait-il? You did say: you said, vous dîtes. Did you say, dites-vous ? In like manner the verb to be, when used as an auxiliary in English with the Participle Present, is not translated into French, but rendered by the simple verb. Ex. I was reading : I read, je lisais. She was walking : she walked, elle se promenait. You were snoring : you snored, vous ronfliez. In the Interrogative form of all verbs the third person singu- lar requires, when it ends in a vowel, the insertion of the letter t, preceded and followed by a hyphen, to prevent the hiatus with the initial vowels of il, elle and on. Ex. a-t-il, has he ? a-t-elle, has she ? a-t-on, have they ? parle-t-il, does he speak ? songe-l-elle, does she dream ? In the Negative form of the verb, the negative invariably 120 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. consists of two parts, the Negative Adverb pas, pointy etc., and the particle nr. The verb is placed between the two, so that ne stands before it ; in compound tenses the auxiliary is the verb, not the participle. Ex. je parle, I speak; je ne parle 2^s, I speak not ; elle eat là, elle n'est pas là, she is not there ; nous avons été, nom n'avons pas été, we have not been; elle eut eu, elle n'eut pas eu, she had not had. The Conjunctive Pronouns are, however, placed between the verb and ne, standing nearest to the verb. Ex. je vois, je ne .vois pas, je ne le vois pas, I see it not ; vous avez eu, vous n'avez pas eu, vous ne l'avez pas eu, you have not had it; j'ai été, je n'ai pas été, je rûy ai f pas été, I have not been there. In the Infinitive both ne and pas may be placed before the verb. Ex. ne pas aller, not to go. The verbs are conjugated according to four conjugations, which are distinguished by the termination of the Infini- tive. The First Conjugation ends in er, like parler, to speak. The Second Conjugation ends in ir, like servir, to serve. The Third Conjugation ends in oir, like recevoir, to re- ceive. The Fourth Conjugation ends in re, like vendre, to sell. After cutting off the Infinitive termination, there remains what is called the root of the verb, e.g. pari — , serv — , recev — and rend — . To this are added certain terminations, which constitute the conjugation of the verb. Some of these are uniform. The Participle Present ends always in ant, added to the root of the verb, or in the second conjugation, to the first person present. Ex. parlant, speaking , finissant, finishing ; recevant, receiving; vendant, selling. VEKBS. 121 The Imperfect ends always in mis, added to the root of the verb, or in the second conjugation, to the first person present. Ex. je parlais, I spoke ; je finissais, I finished ; je recevais, I received ; je vendais, I sold. The Future ends always in rai, and is made from the Infinitive. Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak ; je servirai, I shall serve ; je recevrai* I shall receive ; je vendrai, I shall sell. The Conditional ends always in rais, and is made by adding 5 to the Future. Ex. je parlerais, I should speak ; je servirais, I shall serve ; je recevrais, I should receive ; je vendrais, I should sell. The First Person Plural ends always in ons, except in the Preterit Definite, when it always ends in silent mes. Ex. nous parlons, we speak ; nous parlions, we spoke ; nous parlerons, we shall speak; nous parlerions, we should speak; but nous parlâmes, we did speak. The Second Person Plural ends always in ez, except in the Preterit Definite, where it always ends in silent tes. Ex. vous servez, you serve ; vous serviez, you served ; vous ser- virez, you will serve ; vous serviriez, you would serve ; but vous servîtes, you did serve. The Third Person Plural ends always in silent ent, except in the Future, where it always ends in ont* Ex. ils reçoivent they receive ; ils recevaient, they received ; ils reçurent, they received ; ils recevraient, they would receive ; but Us recevront, they will receive. The Moods of the French Verb are the following : 1. The Infinitive is simply the name of the verb, and has neither person nor number. Ex. chanter, to sing ; perdre, to lose. 2. The Indicative states the action of the verb positively, and may do so in the past, present, or future. Ex. je chante, I sing; je perdais, I lost; je reçus, I received; firaij I shall go. 6 122 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The Subjunctive states the action of the verb contingently, i. c. subject to some other verb. Hence it is always preceded by the conjunction que, which connects it. with the verb on which it depends. This conjunction (that) may be omitted in English, but must always be added in French. Ex. Je désire qu'il vienne, I wish that he come ; il voulait que je le fisse, he wished (that) I should do it ; pliit à Dieu qu'elle fut ici, would to God that she were here. 4. The Conditional states the action of the verb as likely to happen under a condition, so that si, if, is always understood, if not expressed. Ex. J'irais si je pouvais, I would go if I could ; scriez-vous content ? would you be satisfied ? (if. . .) vous auriez des amis, you would have friends. 5. The Imperative states the action of the verb in the tone of command, entreaty, wish or permission. Ex. qu'il vienne ! let him come ! allons ! let us go ! Qu'ils le fassent s'ils veulent, let them do it if they wish. It will be seen that the English Imperative requires, in most cases, the auxiliary verb Let, which is not translated in French, the Im- perative mood already expressing the command or permission. The Tenses of the Verb are either Simple, when they arc made of the verb itself, or Compound, when they are formed by the aid of the auxiliary verbs Avoir and Etre. The Simple Tenses are the following : INDICATIVE MOOD. 1. The Present, which always ends in e, s, or x. 2. The Imperfect, which always ends in ais, expresses a past action, continued or frequently repeated. The English employs for the same purpose the auxiliary I used to, etc., which is not translated into French, as the Imperfect tense already gives this meaning. Ex. I used to sleep : I slept, je dormais. He used to smoke : lie smoked, il fumait. VERBS. 123 3. The Preterit Definite, which ends in the first conjugation in ai, in the second in is, in the third in us, and in the fourth in is, expresses a past action which took place but once, and at a definite period. It is, therefore, the historical tense of the French. Ex. je parlai, I spoke ; il servit alors, he served then ; je reçus hier, I received yesterday ; nom vendîmes lundi, we sold out on Monday le roi mourut sur Vèchafaud, the king died on the scaffold 4. The Future, which always ends in rai. Ex. je parlerai, I shall speak ; j'irai, I shall go. 5. The Conditional, which always ends in rais. Ex. je verrais, I would see ; je rirais, I would laugh. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 1, The Present, which always ends in a silent e, and is made from the Present Indicative. Ex. j'ai : que j'aie, that I have ; je reçois : que je reçoive, that I receive. 2. The Past, which always ends in sse, and is made from the Preterit Definite, by changing ai of the first conjugation into asse, and by adding in the other three conjugations se to the Indicative. Ex. je parlai : que je parlasse, that I might speak. je servis : que je servisse, that I might serve. je reçus : que je reçusse, that I might receive. je vendis : que je vendisse, that I might sell. The Compound Tenses are the following : INDICATIVE MOOD. 1. The Preterit Indefinite, made from the Present of the auxiliary verbs Avoir or Etre, with the Participle Past. Ex. fai parlé, I have spoken ; je suis allé, I have gone. 2. The Pluperfect, made from the Imperfect of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. j'avais parlé, I had spoken ; j'étais allé, I had gone. 124 ON TIIE PARTS OF SPEECH. 3. The Preterit Anterior, made from the Preterit Definite 5f the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past, Ex. feus parlé, I had spoken ; je fus allé, I had gone. 4. The Future Anterior, made from the Future of the aux- iliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. j'aurai parlé, I shall have spoken ; je serai allé, I shall have gone. 5. The Conditional Anterior, made from the Conditional of the auxiliary verbs, with the Participle Past. Ex. j'aurais parlé, I would have spoken ; je serais allé, I would have gone. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 1. The Preterit Indefinite, made from the Subjunctive of the Present of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. que j'aie parlé, that I may have spoken ; que je sois allé, that I may have gone. 2. The Preterit Anterior, made from the Subjunctive of the Preterit Definite of the auxiliary verbs with the Participle Past. Ex. que j'eusse par ié, that I might have spoken; que je fusse allé, that I might have gone. In the following tables of Verbs the termination is separated from the root, in order to show more clearly the manner of conjugating verbs ; such a separation does not take place, of course, in ordinary writing, when verb and root are written in one word. TABLE OF THE TERMINATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. Simple Tenses. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. 1st Conj'n. 2d Conj. 3d Conj. 4th Conj. pari er fin ir rec evoir vend re PARTICIPLE PRESENT. pari ant . fin issant rec evant vend ant PARTICIPLE PAST. pari é fin i reç u vend u VEKBS. 125 INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Jp m/yW ex UUj 1 c fill is reç ois Vt/lt\Jb © tu es is ois S il or elk e it oit vend nous ons issons evons ons vous ez issez evez ez ils or elles ent issent oivent ent IMPERFECT. Je pari ais fin issais rec evais vend ais ■toi vu ais issais evais ais il or elle ait issait evait ait nous ions issions evions ions vous iez issiez eviez iez ils or elle$ aient issaient evaient aient PRETERIT DEFINITE. Ta je pari ai fin is reç IIS vend is tu as is IIS is H or elle a it ut it ÏIOUS âmes îmes Unies îmes VOUS âtes îtes tites îtes 1 7 V fW* Cil 9 èrent irent irent FUTURE ABSOLUTE. Je pari erai fin irai rec evrai vend rai tu eras iras evras ras il or elle era ira evra ra nous erons irons evrons rons vous erez irez evrez rez ils or elles eront iront evront ront CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. Je pari erais fin irais rec evrais vend rais tu erais irais evrai s rais il or elle erait irait evrait rait nous erions irions evrions rions vous eriez iriez evriez riez ils or elles eraient iraient evraient raient 126 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. IMPERATIVE MOOD. e fin is t'C/ld S qu'il or qu'elle e isse oive e ons issons evons ons ez issez evez er qu'ils or qu'elles ent issent oive nt ent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Que je pari e fin isse reç oive vend e que tu es isses oivcs es qu'il or qu'elle e isse oive e que nous ions issions étions ions que cu us iez issiez eviez iez qu'ils or qu'elles ent issent oivent ent IMPERFECT. Que je pari asse fin isse reç usse vend isse que tu asses isses iisses isses qu'il or qu'elle at it ût it que nous assions issions ussions issions que wus assiez issiez lissiez issiez qu'ils or qu'elles assent issent ussent issent Compound Tenses. INFINITIVE MOOD. 1st Conj. 2d Conj. 3d Conj. 4th Conj. Avoir pari ê fin i reç u vend u COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE. Ayant pari é fin i reç n vend u INDICATIVE MOOD. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. J'ai pari é fin i reç u vend u tu as é i u u U or elle a é i u u VEEBS. 127 nous avons vous avez ils or elles ont J'avais tu avais il or elle avait nous avions vous aviez ils or elles avaient J'eus tu eus il or elle eut nous eûmes vous eûtes ils or elles eurent Jaurai tu auras il or elle aura nous aurons vous aurez ils or elles auront Jaurais tu aurais il or elle aurait nous aurions vous auriez ils or elles auraient \ue j'aie ue tu aies fil or qu'elle ait pari ê é é Ji n i i i PLUPERFECT. pari é fin i e é é é é reç u u u u ii u u u u PRETERIT ANTERIOR. pari é fin é é é é é FUTURE ANTERIOR. p#r£ é fin é é é é é CONDITIONAL ANTERIOR, é é é é é U U u u u u u u u u u reç n u u u u u SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRETERIT. pari é i reç u u u u u 11 U u u n u u u u u u U 11 Tl U U U U U u u Tl vend u u u 128 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'ils or qu'elles aient Que f eusse que tu eusses qu'il or qu'elle eût que nous eussions que vous eussiez qu'ils or qu'elles eussent pari é é ê fin i i i PRETERIT ANTERIOR. pari é fin reç u u u reç u u u u u u vend u u u vend n u u u u u VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION. Parler To Speak (Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Pari er to speak PAST. Avoir pari é to have spoken PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Pari ant speaking COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPE PRESENT. Ayant pari é having spoken PARTICIPLE PAST. Pari é spoken INDICATIVE MOOD. Je pari e tu pari es il pari e nous pari oris vous pari ez ils pari ent PRESENT. I speak, do speak, or am speaking thon speakest he speaks we speak yon speak they speak VERBS. 129 Je pari ais tu pari ais il pari ait nous pari ions vous pari iez Us pari aient Je pari ai tu pari as il pari a nous pari âmes -wows ^ar£ âtes il pari èrent Jtf erai £w pari eras # _parZ era nous pari erons vous pari erez t7s eront erais tu pari erais 27 pari erait wows ^>ar£ erions vous pari eriez Us pari eraient J ai pari é ^ as pari ê il a pari é nous avons pari é vous avez pari é ifa -tupas PRESENT. do I not finish or am I not finishing dost thou not finish does he not finish do we not finish do you not finish do they not finish IMPERFECT. j did I not finish or was I not I finishing didst thou not finish did he not finish did we not finish did you not finish did they not finish PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I not finish didst thou not finish did he not finish did we not finish did you not finish did they not finish FUTURE. shall or will I not finish shalt thou not finish shall he not finish shall we not finish shall you not finish shall they not finish CONDITIONAL. j should, would, or might I not ( finish shouldst thou not finish VEEBS. 155 ne fin irait-# pas ne fin vcions-nous pas ne fin iriez-vous pas ne fin iraient-^s pas N'ai-je pas fin i n'as-tu pas fin i n'a-t-il pas fin i n'avons-nous pas fin i n'avez-vous pas fin i n'ont-ils pas fin i JSP avais-pas fin i n'avais-tu pas fin i n'avait-il pas fin i n'avions-nous pas fin i n'aviez-vous pas fin i n'avaient-ils pas fin i should lie no finish should we not finish should you not finish should they not finisii PRETERIT INDEFINITE. /have I not finished, did I not •< finish, or have I not been finish- ( ing. hast thou not finished has he not finished have we not finished have you not finished have they not finished PLUPERFECT. j had I not finished or had I not ( been finishing hadst thou not finished had he not finished had we not finished had you not finished had they not finished PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Weus-je pas fin i n'eus-tu pas fin i n' eut-il pas fin i n'eûmes^nous pas fin i n'eûtes-vous pas fin i M,' eurent-ils pas fin i had I not finished hadst thou not finished had he not finished had we not finished had you not finished had they not finished FUTURE ANTERIOR. 2Paurai-je pas fin i n'auras-tu pas fin i n f aura-t-il pas fin i n' aurons-nous pas fin i n'aurez-vous pas fin i n' auront-ils pas fin i shall or will I not have finished shalt thou not have finished shall he not have finished shall we not have finished shall you not have finished shall they not have finished 156 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. N'aurais-jepas fin i n'aurais-tu pas fin i n 'aurait-il pas fin i n' aurions-nous pas fin i n*auriez-vous pas fin \ n 1 auraient-ils pas fin i PAST. ( should, would, could, or might I I not have finished shouldst thou not have finished should he not have finished should we not have finished should you not have finished should they not have finished. REMARKS ON VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. The majority of these verbs are regular and follow the ter- minations of finir. The Irregular Verbs of this conjugation, which are very numerous, are given elsewhere. III. VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. Kecevoir To Receive {Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. JRec evoir to receive PAST. Avoir reç u to have received PARTICIPLE PRESENT. receiving JRec evant COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant reç u having received PARTICIPLE PAST. Reç u received INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Je reç ois I receive, do receive, or am receiving tu reç ois thou receivest il reç oit he receives VERES. 157 nous rec evons vous rec evez ils reç oivent we receive you receive they receive Je rec evais tu rec evais il rec evait nous rec evions vous rec eviez ils rec evaient IMPERFECT. j I received, did receive, or was re ( ceiving thou receivedst he received we received you received they received PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je reç us tu reç us U reç ut nous reç urnes vous reç ûtes ils reç urent I received or did receive thou receivedst he received we received you received they received FUTURE. Je rec evrai tu rec evras il rec evra nous rec evrons vous rec evrez Us rec evront I shall or will receive thou shalt receive he shall receive we shall receive you shall receive they shall receive CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. Je rec evrais tu rec evrais il rec evrait nous rec evrions vous rec evriez ils rec evraient ( I should, would, could, or might ( receive thou shouldst receive he should receive we should receive you should receive they should receive 158 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. J ai reç u tu as reç u il a reç u nous avons reç u vous avez reç u Us ont reç u J'avais reç u tu avais reç u il avait reç u nous avions reç u vous aviez reç u Us avaient reç u J'eus reç u tu eus reç u il eut reç u wows eûmes reç u 00 ed&s reç u #s eurent reç u J aurai reç u ^7 awra reç u wows aurons reç u auras rap u ils auront reç u J'aurais reç u £w aurais reç u il aurait reç u nous aurions reç u vous auriez reç u ils auraient reç u PRETERIT INDEFINITE. jl have received, did receive, or ( have been receiving thou hast received he has received we have received you have received they have received PLUPERFECT. I had received or had been receiving thou hadst received he had received we had received you had received they had received PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had received thou hadst received he had received we had received you had received they had received FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have received thou shalt have received he shall have received we shall have received you shall have received they shall have received CONDITIONAL PAST. j I should, would, could, or might ( have received thou shouldst have received he should have received we should have received you should have received they should have received VERBS. 159 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Quejereç oive que tu reç oives qu'il reç oive que nous rec evions que vous rec eviez qu'ils reç oivent Que je reç usse que tu reç usses qu'il reç ût que nous reç tissions que mus reç ussiez qu'ils reç lissent Que j'aie reç u que tu aies reç u qu'il ait reç u que nous ayons reç u que vous ayez reç u qu'ils aient reç u PRESENT tliat I may receive that tliou mayest receive that he may receive that we may receive that you may receive that they may receive IMPERFECT. that I might receive that thou mightest receive that he might receive that we might receive that you might receive that they might receiv PAST. that I may have received that thou mayest have received that hé may have received that we may have received that you may have received that they may have received PLUPERFECT. Que j'eusse reç u que tu eusses reç u qu'il eût reç u que nous eussions reç u que vous eussiez reç u qu'ils eussent reç u that I might have received that thou mightest have received that he might have received that we might have received that you might have received that they might have received Reç ois qu'il reç oive rec evons rec evez qu'ils reç oivent IMPERATIVE MOOD.. receive [thou] let him receive let us receive receive [you] let them receive 160 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Recevoir Ne pas rec evoir N'avoir pas reç u Ne rec evant pas N'ayant pas reç u Je ne reç ois pas tu ne reç ois pas il ne reç oit pas nous ne rec evons pas vous ne rec evez pas Us ne reç oivent pas Je ne rec evais pas tu ne rec evais pas il ne rec evait pas nous ne rec evions pas vous ne rec eviez pas ils ne rec evaient pas Je ne reç us pas tu ne reç us pas ■U ne reç ut pas nous ne reç urnes pas vous ne reç ûtes pas ils ne reç urent pas Je ne rec evrai pas tu ne rec evras pas To Receive (Negatively.) INFINITIVE. not to receive PAST. not to have received PARTICIPLE PRESENT. not receiving COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE. not having received INDICATIVE. PRESENT. '. receive not, do not receive, or am r not receiving thou receivest not he receives not we receive not you receive not they receive not IMPERFECT. received not, did not receive, or was not receiving thou receivedst not he received not we received not you received not they received not PRETERIT DEFINITE. I received not or did not reçoive thou receivedst not he received not we received not you received not they received not FUTURE. I shall or will not receive thou shalt not receive VEEBS. ICI U ne rec evra pas nous ne rec evrons pas vous ne rec evrez pas ils ne rec evront pas he shall not receive we shall not receive you shall not receive they shall not receive CONDITIONAL MOOD. Je ne rec evrais pas tu ne rec evrais pas il ne rec evrait pas nous ne rec evrions pas vous ne rec evriez pas ils ne rec evraient pas Je n'ai pas rec u tu n'as pas reç u il n'a pas reç u nous n'avons pas reç u vous n'avez pas reç u ils n'ont pas reç u Je n'avais pas reç u tu n'avais pas reç u il n'avait pas reç u nous n'avions pas reç u vous n'aviez pas reç u ils n'avaient pas reç u PRESENT. (I should, would, could, or might ( not receive thou shouldst not receive he should not receive we should not receive you should not receive they should not receive PRETERIT INDEFINITE. ( I have not received, did not receive, ( or have not been receiving thou hast not received he has not received we have not received you have not received they have not received PLUPERFECT. j I had not received, or had not been I receiving thou hadst not received he had not received we had not received you had not received they had not received PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je n'eus pas reç u I had not received tu n'eus pas reç u thou hadst not received U n'eut pas reç u he had not received nous n'eûmes pas reç u we had not received vous n'eûtes pas reç u you had not received ils n'eurent pas reç u they had not received 1G2 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECII. Je n'aurai pas reç u tu n'auras pas reç u il n'aura pas reç u nous n'aurons pas reç u vous n'aurez pas reç u ils n'auront pas reç u FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will not have received thou shalt not have received he shall not have received we shall not have received you shall not have received they shall not have received Je n'aurais pas reç u tu n'aurais pas reç u il n'aurait pas reç u nous n'aurions pas reç u vous n'aunez pas reç u ils n'auraient pas reç u CONDITIONAL PAST. (I should, would, could, or might ( not have received thou shouldst not have received lie should not have received we should not have received you should not have received they should not have received Que je ne reç oive pas que tu ne reç oioes pas qu'il ne reç oive pas que nous ne rec evions pas que vous ne rec eviez pas qu'ils ne reç oivent pas SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may not receive that thou mayest not receive that he may not receive that we may not receive that you may not receive that they may not receive Que je ne reç usse pas que tu ne reç usses pas qu'il ne reç ût pas que nous ne reç ussions pas que vous ne reç ussiez pas qu'ils ne reç ussent pas Que je n'aie pas reç u que tu n'aies pas reç u qu'il n'ait pas reç u que nous n'ayons pas reç u que vous n'ayez pas reç u qu'ils n'aient pas reç u IMPERFECT. that I might not receive that thou mightest not receive that he might not receive that we might not receive that you might not rv'ceive that they might not receive PAST. that I may not have received that thou mayest not have received that he may not have received that we may not have received that you may not have réceived that they may not have received VEEBS. 163 Que je n'eusse pas reç u que tu ri eusses pas reç u PLUPERFECT. that I might not have received j that thou mightest not have re ( ceived qu'il n'eût pas reç u que nous n'eussions pas reç u que vous n'eussiez pas reç u qu'ils n'eussent pas reç u that he might not have received that we might not have received that you might not have received that they might not have received Ne reç ois pas qu'il ne reç oive pas ne rec evons pas ne rec evez pas qu'ils ne reç oivent pa IMPERATIVE MOOD. receive not or do not receive [thou] let him not receive let us not receive receive not or do not receive [you] i let them not receive Eecevoir Beç o\s-je reç ois-tu reç oit-il rec eyons-nous rec evez-vous reç oivent-ils Rec evais-j# rec eveâs-tu rec evait^7 rec evions-nous rec eviez-vous rec evaienWfo Reç us-je reç v&-tu reç ut il To Receive (Interrogatively,) INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. do I receive or am I receiving dost thou receive does he receive do we receive do you receive do they receive IMPERFECT. did I receive didst thou receive did he receive did we receive did you receive did they receive PRETERIT DEFINFTE. did I receive didst thou receive did he receive ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. reç umes-nous reç ûtes-vous reç merit-ils Bec evrai-jcts reç u hast thou not received n'a-t-M pas reç u has he not received n' awns-nous pas reç u have we not received n'avez-vous pas reç u have you not received it 'ont-ils pas reç u have they not received VERBS. 167 N'avais-je pas reç u n'avais-tu pas reç u n'avait-il pas reç u n' avions-nous pas reç u n'amez-wus pas reç u ri avaient-Us pas reç u N'eus-je pas reç u n'eus-tu pas reç u n'eut-il pas reç u n' eûmes-nous pas reç u n'eûtes-vous pas reç u n' eurent-ils pas reç u N'aurai ye pas reç u n'auras-tu pas reç u rîaura-t-il pas reç u aurons-nous pas reç u rtaurez-wus pas reç u n' auront-ils pas reç u N'aurais-je pas reç u rCaurais-tu pas reç u n'aurait-il pas reç u n' aurions-nous pas reç u n'auriez-vous pas reç u n' auraient-ils pas reç u PLUPERFECT. j had I not received or had I not ( been receiving hadst tliou not received liad lie not received had we not received had you not received had they not received PRETERIT ANTERIOR. had I not received hadst thou not received had he not received had we not received had you not received had they not received FUTURE ANTERIOR. shall or will I not have received shalt thou not have received shall he not have received shall we not have received shall you not have received shall they not have received CONDITIONAL PAST. j should, would, could, or mi^ht I ( not have received shouldst thou not have receive 1 should he not have received should we not have received should you not have received should they not have received REMARKS ON VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. The following Verbs, all ending in evoir, are conjugated like recevoir : Apercevoir, to perceive. concevoir. to conceive. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. décevoir, to deceive. percevoir, to collect. devoir, to owe. redevoir, to owe again. Whenever the verbs ending in cevoir, in the course of conju- gation have to place a, o or u after the c of the root, a cedilla must be added to c in order to preserve the pronunciation of the Infinitive. Ex. apercevoir. Present. J'aperçois tu aperçois il aperçoit nous apercevons (no cedilla needed.) vous apercevez ( " " ) ils aperçoivent Subj. Pres. Que f aperçoive que tu aperçoives qu'il aperçoive que nous apercevions (no cedilla needed.) que vous aperceviez ( " " ) qu'ils aperçoivent Part. Past. Aperçu Ex. recevoir. Present. Je reçois Subj. Pres. Que je reçoive Part. Past. Reçu The Participle Past of devoir, which is dû, requires the Cir- cumflex Accent, in order to distinguish it from the Genitive of the Masculine Article du. No accent is given to the Feminine due, as there is no ambiguity here. All the other Verbs of this Conjugation are irregular and will be given hereafter ; VERBS. 189 IV. — VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. Vendre To Sell (Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to sell Vend re Avoir vend u Vend ant PAST. to have sold PAKTICIPLE PRESENT. selling COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ayant vend u having sold Vend u Je vend s tu vend s il vend nous vend ons vous vend ez Us vend ent Je vend ais tu vend ais il vend ait nous vend ions vous vend iez ils vend aient Je vend is tu vend is U vend it PARTICIPLE PAST. sold INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. I sell, do sell, or am selling thon sellest he sells we sell you sell they sell IMPERFECT. I sold, did sell, or was selling thou soldest he sold we sold you sold they sold PRETERIT DEFINITE. I sold or did sel thou soldest he sold 8 170 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. nous vend îmes we sold vous vend ites you sold ils vend irent they sold FUTURE. Je vend rai I shall or will sell tu vend ras thou shalt sell il vend ra he shall sell nous vend rons we shall sell vous vend rez you shall sell Us vend ront they shall sell CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. Je vend rais I should, would, could, or might sell tic vend rais thou shouldst sell il vend rait he should sell nous vend rions w r e should sell vous vend riez you should sell Us vend raient they should sell PRETERIT INDEFINITE. _ . , (I have sold, did sell, or have been J ai vendu < ,,. I selling tu as vend u thou hast sold il a vend u he has sold nous avons vend u we have sold vous avez vend u you have sold ils ont vend u they have sold J avais vend u tu avais vend u il avait vend u nous avions vend u vous aviez vend u ils avaient vend u if eus vend u tu eus vend u PLUPERFECT I had sold or had been selling thouhadst sold he had sold we had sold you had sold they had sold PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had sold thou hadst sold VERBS. 171 il eut vend u nous eûmes vend u vous eûtes vend u ils eurent vend u lie had sold we had sold you had sold they had sold FUTURE ANTERIOR. X aurai vend u I shall or will have sold tu auras vend u thou shalt have sold il aura vend u he shall have sold nous aurons vend u we shall have sold vous aurez vend u you shall have sold Us auront vend u they shall have sold T aurais vend u tu aurais vend u il aurait vend u nous aurions vend u vous auriez vend u ils auraient vend u CONDITIONAL PAST. (I should, would, could, or might ( have sold thou shouldst have sold he should have sold we should have sold you should have sold they should have sold SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Que je vend e que tu vend es qu'il vend e que nous vend ions que vous vend iez qu'ils vend ent Que je vend isse que tu vend isses qu'il vend it que nous vend issions que vous vend issiez qu'ils vend issent Que j'aie vend u que tu aies vend u PRESENT. that I may sell that thou mayest sell that he may sell that we may sell that you may sell that they may sell IMPERFECT. that I might sell that thou mightest have sold that he might sell that we might sell that you might sell that they might sell PAST. that I may have sold that thou mayest have sold 172 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. qu'il ait vend u que nous ayons vend u que vous ayez vend u qu'ils aient vend u Que f eusse vend u que tu eusses vend u qu'il eût vend u que nous eussions vend u que vous eussiez vend u qu'ils eussent vend u that he may have sold that we may have sold that you may have sold that they may have sold PLUPERFECT. that I might have sold that thou mightest have sold that he might have sold that we might have sold that you might have sold that they might have sold qu Vend s 2 vend e vend ons vend ez qu'ils vend ent IMPERATIVE MOOD. sell [thou] let him sell let us sell sell [you] let them sell Vendre To Sell (Negatively?) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Ne pas vend re not to sell PAST. N avoir pas vend u not to have sold PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ne vend ant pas not selling COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT, N ayant pas vend u not having sold INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. _ (I sell not, do not sell, or am not Je ne vend spas \ ... ( selling tu ne vend s pas thou sellest not VERBS. 173 il ne vend pas he sells not nous ne vend ons pas we sell not vous ne vend ez pas you sell not ils ne vend ent pas they sell not Je ne vend ais pas tu ne vend ais pas il ne vend ait pas nous ne vend ions pas vous ne vend iez pas ils ne vend aient pas IMPERFECT. j I sold not, did not sell, or was not ( selling thou sold est not he sold not we sold not you sold not they sold not PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je ne vend is pas tu ne vend is pas il ne vend it pas nous ne vend îmes pas vous ne vend îtes pas ils ne vend irent pas I sold not or did not sell thou soldest not he sold not we sold not you sold not they sold not Je ne vend rai pas tu ne vend ras pas il ne vend ra pas nous ne vend rons pas vous ne vend rez pas Us ne vend ront pas FUTURE. I shall or will not sell thou shalt not sell he shall not sell we shall not sell you shall not sell they shall not sell CONDITIONAL MOOD. Je ne vend rais pas tu ne vend rais pas il ne vend rait pas nous ne vend rions pas vous ne vend riez pas ils ne vend raient pas PRESENT. il should, would, could, or might ( not sell thou shouldst not sell he should not sell we should not sell you should not sell they should not sell 174 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je n'ai pas vend u tu n'as pas vend u il n'a pas vend u nous n'avons pas vend u vous n'avez pas vend u ils n'ont pas vend u PRETERIT INDEFINITE. j I have not sold, di d not sell, or \ have not been selling thou hast not sold he has not sold we have not sold you have not sold they have not sold Je n'avais pas vend u tu n'avais pas vend u il n'avait pas vend u nous n'avions pas vend u vous n'aviez pas vend u ils n'avaient pas vend u PLUPERFECT. I had not sold or had not been selling thou hadst not sold he had not sold we had not sold you had not sold thev had not sold Je n'eus pas vend u tu n'eus pas vend u il n'eut pas vend u nous n'eûmes pas vend u vous n'eûtes pas vend u ils n'eurent pas vend u PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had not sold thou hadst not sold he had not sold we had not sold you had not sold they had not sold Je n'aurai pas vend u tu n'auras pas vend u il n'aura pas vend u nous n'aurons pas vend u vous n'aurez pas vend u ils n'auront pas vend u FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will not have sold thou shalt not have sold he shall not have sold we shall not have sold you shall not have sold they shall not have sold Je n'aurais pas vend u tu n'aurais pas vend u il n'aurait p is vend u nous n'aurions pas vend u vous n'auriez pas vend u ils n'auraient pas vend u CONDITIONAL PAST. jl should, would, could, or might ( not have sold thou shouldst not have sold he should not have sold we should not have sold you should not have sold they should not have sold VEKBS. 175 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Que je ne vend e pas that I may not sell que tu ne vend es pas that thou mayest not sell qu'il ne vend e pas that he may not sell que nous ne vend ions pas that we may not sell que vous ne vend iez pas that you may not sell qu'ils ne vend ent pas that they may not sell IMPERFECT. Que je ne vend isse pas that I might not sell que tu ne vend isses pas that thou mightest not sell qu'il ne vend it pas that he might not sell que nous ne vend issions pas that we might not sell que vous ne vend issiez pas that you might not sell qu'ils ne vend issent pas that they might not sell Que je n'aie pas vend u that I may not have sold que tu n'aies pas vend u that thou mayest not have sold qu'il n'ait pas vend u that he may not have sold que nous n'ayons pas vend u that we may not have sold que vous n'ayez pas vend u that you may not have sold qu'ils n'aient pas vend u that they may not have sold PLUPERFECT. Que je n'eusse pas vend u that I might not have sold que tu n'eusses pas vend u that thou mightest not have sold qu'il n'eût pas vend u that he might not have sold que nous n 'eussions pas vend u that we might not have sold que vous n'eussiez pas vend u that you might not have sold qu'ils n'eussent pas vend u that they might not have sold IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne vend s pas sell not or do not sell [thou] qu'il ne vend e pas let him not sell ne vend ons pas let us not sell ne vend ez pas sell not or do not sell [you] qu'ils ne vend ent pas let them not sell 176 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Vendre To Sell INDICATIVE MOOD. (Interroga tivt lyl) Est-ce que je vend s vend s-tu vend-il vend ons-nous vend ez-vous vend ewt-ils Vend ois-je vend ais-^ vend ait-# vend ions-nous vend \ez-vous vend aient-^5 Vend \s-je vend is-tu vend it-U vend imes-nous vend ites-vous vend irent-^3 Vend r&i-je vend i&s-tu vend isi-t-il vend vons-nous vend rez-vous vend ront-ils Vend Tsas-je vend rais-fa^ vend i&it-il PRESENT. do I sell or am I selling dost thou sell does he sell do we sell do you sell do they sell IMPERFECT. did I sell or was I selling didst thou sell did he sell did we sell did you sell did they sell PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I sell didst thou sell did he sell did we sell did you sell did they sell FUTURE. shall or will I sell shalt thou sell shall he sell shall we sell shall you sell shall they sell CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. should, would, could, or might I sell shouldst thou sell should he sell "VERBS. 177 vend Tions-noiis vend riez-vous vend raient-^ Ai-je vend u as-tu vend u a-t-il vend u avons-nous vend u avez-vous vend u ont-ils vend u Avais-je vend u avais-tu vend u avait-il vend u avions-nous vend u aviez-vous vend u avaient-ils vend u Eus-je vend u eut4l vend u eûmes-nous vend u eûtes-vous vend u eurent-ils vend u Aurai-je vend u auras-tu vend u aura-t-il vend u aurons-nous vend u aurez-vous vend u auront-ils vend u Aurais-je vend u aurais-tu vend u aurait -il vend u should we sell should you sell should they sell PRETERIT INDEFINITE. have I sold f* born 1 O Willi LU L-UHlt/ UaLlv JJUil III to set out sonner* (8) IU Illlg to attain sortir* (3) passer* (6) to pass away survenir to befall périr* (7) to perisli tomber* to fall provenir to come from venir to come rajeunir* to grow young vieillir to grow old redescendre * (3) to go down again 3. Passive Verbs, which express an action, which the subject (nominative) of the verb suffers from an agent, which may be expressed by means of a Preposition. Ex. je suis persecute I am persecuted {by somebody.) Us furent battus par l'en- ) & ^ beaten b th& e iiejnz j Passive Yerbs consist of the auxiliary verb être with the participle past, which must agree in gender and number with the subject. Ex. ils étaient blesses they were wounded elle sera surprise she will be surprised (5) Expirer, signifying to die, takes avoir, and être when it means to cease, (6) Passer is conjugated with avoir, when it is followed by par, and means, simply to cross. (7) Etre is used with périr, when there is no time alluded to ; avoir, when périr relates to a certain period. (8) Sonner takes être when it is intended to establish a certain relation between the ringing and the present tense, or any other mentioned in the sentence. VEKBS. 183 4. Pronominal Verbs are so called in French, because they are always accompanied in the infinitive by the pronoun se, and throughout their conjugation by two personal pronouns. Ex. se promener, to walk. Present. Je me promène tu te promènes il se promène nous nous promenons vous vous promenez ils se promènent They are divided into three classes, according to their meaning : a. Reflexive Verbs, which express an action that is reflected upon the subject of the verb. The pronoun se in the infinitive is here translated by one's self, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation by myself, thyself, himself, etc. Ex. se tromper, to deceive one's self. PRESENT. Je me trompe I deceive myself tu te trompes thou deceivest thyself il se trompe he deceives himself nous nous trompons we deceive ourselves vous vous trompez you deceive yourselves ils se trompent they deceive themselves b. Reciprocal Verbs, which express an action that is mutually affecting two or more persons. The pronoun se in the infin- itive is here translated by each other or one another, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation by the same words. Ex. s'entr'aimer, to love each other. PRESENT. Nous nous entr'aimons we love each other vous vous entr'aimez you love each other Us s'entr'aiment they love each other 184 ON the parts of speech. c. Pronominal Verbs Proper are such as are peculiar to the French language and are not so used in English. The pronoun se in the infinitive, and the second pronoun in the course of conjugation, are here not translated at all, because their use is peculiar to French and not required in English. Ex. se lever, to rise. PRESENT. Je me lève I rise tu te lèves thou risest il se lève he rises nous nous levons we rise vous vous levez you rise ils se lèvent they rise All pronominal Verbs are conjugated by means of the aux- iliary verb être. 5. Impersonal Verbs, which express an action performed, not by a person, but by some other agency. They are used only in the third person singular. Ex. il pleut, it rains ; il gèle, it freezes; il arrive, it happens; il y a, there is ; il convient, it is proper. These various kinds of verbs are conjugated like the regular verbs of the four conjugations, except the numerous class of Pronominal verbs, which require the addition of personal pro- nouns, and of which therefore, one is here given in full. Se Lever To Rise (Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Se lev er to rise PAST. S'être lev é to have risen PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Se lev ant rising VERBS. 185 COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. S'êtant lev é having risen PARTICIPLE PAST Lev é risen INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Je me lèv e tu te lèv es U se lèv e nous nous lev ons vous vous lev ez ils se lèv ent I rise, do rise, or am rising thou risest lie rises we rise you rise they rise IMPERFECT. Je me lev ais I rose, did rise, or was rising tu te lev ais thou rosest il se lev ait he rose nous nous lev ions we rose vous vous lev iez you rose ils se lev aient they rose Je me lev ai tu te lev as il se lev a nous nous lev âmes vous vous lev âtes ils se lev èrent Je me lèv erai tu te lèv eras il se lèv era nous -nous lèv erons vous vous lèv erez Us se lèv eront RIT DEFINITE. I rose or did rise thou rosest he rose we rose you rose they rose FUTURE. I shall or will rise thou shalt rise he shall rise we shall rise you shall rise they shall rise 186 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Je me lèv erais tu te lèv erais il se lèv erait nous nous lèv erions vous vous lèv eriez Us se lèv eraient PRESENT. { I should, would, could, or might 1 rise thou shouldst rise lie should rise we should rise you should rise they should rise Je me suis lev é PRETERIT INDEFINITE. ( I have risen, did rise, or have been rising 1 tu fes lev é il s'est lev é nous nous sommes lev es vous vous êtes lev es ils se sont lev es Je m'étais lev é tu fêtais lev é il s'était lev é nous nous étions lev es vous vous étiez lev es Us s'étaient lev es thou hast risen he has risen we have risen you have risen they have risen PLUPERFECT. I had risen or had been rising thou hadst risen he had risen we had risen you had risen they had risen Je me fus lev é tu te fus lev ê il se fut lev é nous nous fumes lev es vous vous fûtes lev es ils se furent lev es PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had risen thou hadst risen he had risen we had risen you had risen they had risen Je me serai lev é tu te seras lev é il se sera lev é nous nous serons l FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have risen thou shalt have risen he shall have risen i es we shall have risen VERBS. 187 vous vous serez lev és ils se seront lev és Je me serais lev é tu te serais lev é il se serait lev é nous nous serions lev és vous vous seriez lev és ils se seraient lev és you shall have risen they shall have risen CONDITIONAL PAST. j I should, would, could or might, ( have risen thou shouldst have risen he should have risen we should have risen you should have risen they should have risen Que je me lèv e que tu te lèv es qu'il se lèv e que nous nous lev ions que vous vous lev iez qu'ils se lèv ent Que je me lev asse que tu te lev asses qu'il se lev ât que nous nous lev assions que vous vous lev assiez qu'ils se lev assent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may rise that thou mayest rise that he may rise that we may rise that you may rise that they may rise IMPERFECT. that I might rise that thou mightest rise that he might rise that we might rise that you might rise that they might rise PAST. Que je me sois lev é que tu te sois lev é qu'il se soit lev é que nous nous soyons lev és que vous vous soyez lev és qu'ils se soient lev és Que je me fasse lev é que tu te fusses lev é qu'il se fut lev é that I may have risen that thou mayest have risen that he may have risen that we may have risen that you may have risen that they may have risen PLUPERFECT. that I might have risen that thou mightest have risen that he might have risen 188 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. que nous nous f ussions lev es that we might have risen que vous vous f ussiez lev es that you might have risen qu'ils se fussent lev es that they might have risen IMPERATIVE MOOD. Lev e-toi rise [thou] qu'il se lèv e let him rise lev ons-nous let us rise lev ez-vous rise [you] qu'ils se lèv eut let them rise Se Lever Ne pas se lev er Ne pas s'être lev é To Bise [Negatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. not to rise PAST. not to have risen PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ne se lev ant pas not rising COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ne s' étant pas lev é not having risen INDICATIVE MOOD. Je ne me lèv e pas tu ne te lèv es pas il ne se lèv e pas nous ne nous lev ons pas vous ne vous lev ez pas ils ne se lèv eut pas Je ne me lev ais pas tu ne te lev ais pas PRESENT. j I rise not, do not rise, or am not ( rising thou risest not he rises not we rise not you rise not they rise not IMPERFECT. j I rose not, did not rise, or was not ( rising thou rosest not VEKBS. 189 il ne se lev ait pas nous ne nous lev ions pas vous ne vous lev iez pas ils ne se lev aient pas he rose not we rose not you rose not they rose not PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je ne me lev ai pas tu ne te lev as pas il ne se lev a pas nous ne nous lev âmes pas vous ne vous lev âtes pas ils ne se lev èrent pas Je ne me lèv erai pas tu ne te lèv eras pas il ne se lèv era pas nous ne nous lèv erons pas vous ne vous lèv erez pas ils ne se lèv eront pas I rose not or did not rise thou rosest not he rose not we rose not you rose not they rose not FUTURE. I shall or will not rise thou shalt not rise he shall not rise we shall not rise you shall not rise they shall not rise Je ne me lèv erais pas tu ne te lèv erais pas il ne se lèv erait pas nous ne nous lèv erions pas vous ne vous lèv eriez pas ils ne se lèv eraient pas CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. (I should, would, could, or might ( not rise thou shouldst not rise he should not rise we should not rise you should not rise they should not rise PRETERIT INDEFINITE. Je ne me suis pas lev é tu ne t'es pas lev é il ne s'est pas lev é nous ne nous sommes pas lev és vous ne vous êtes pas lev és Us ne se sont pas lev és ( I have not risen, did not rise, or I have not been rising thou hast not risen he has not risen we have not risen you have not risen they have not risen . 190 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je ne m* Unis pas lev é tu ne fêtais pas lev é il ne s'était pas lev é nous ne nous étions pas lev es vous ne vous étiez pas lev es ils ne s'étaient pas lev es PLUPERFECT. (I bad not risen or had not "been ( rising thou liadst not risen he had not risen we had not risen you had not risen they had not risen PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je ne me fus pas lev é tu ne te fus pas lev é il ne se fut pas lev é nous ne nous fames pas lev es vous ne vous fûtes pas lev es ils ne se furent pas lev és FUTURE Je ne me serai pas lev é tu ne te seras pas lev é il ne se sera pas lev é nous ne nom serons pas lev es vous ne vous serez pas lev es ils ne se seront pas lev es I had not risen thou hadst not risen he had not risen we had not risen you had not risen they had not risen ANTERIOR, I shall or will not have risen, thou shalt not have risen he shall not have risen we shall not have risen you shall not have risen they shall not have risen CONDITIONAL PAST. Je ne me serais pas lev é tu ne te serais pas lev é il ne se serait pas lev é nous ne nous serions pas lev es vous ne vous seriez pas lev es ils ne se seraient pas lev es (I should, would, could, or might \ not have risen thou shoulclst not have risen he should not have risen we should not have risen you should not have risen they should not have risen SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Que je ne me lev e pas que tu ne te lèv es pas quil ne se lèv e pas que nous ne nous lev ions pas that I may not rise that thou may est not rise that he may not rise that we may not rise VERBS. 191 que vous ne vous lev iez pas that you may not rise qu'ils ne se lèv ent pas that they may not rise IMPERFECT. Que je ne me lev assess that I might not rise que tu ne te lev asses pas that thon mightest not rise quit ne se lev sit pas that he might not rise que nous ne nous lev assions pas that we might not rise que vous ne vous lev assiez pas that yon might not rise qu'ils ne se lev assent pas that they might not rise PAST. Que je ne me sois pas lev é that I may not have risen que tu ne te sois pas lev é that thon mayest not have risen qu'il ne se soit pas lev é that he may not have risen que nous ne nous soyons pas lev es that we may not have risen que vous ne vous soyez pas lev es that you may not have risen qu'ils ne se soient pas lev es that they may not have risen PLUPERFECT Que je ne me fusse pas lev ê that I might not have risen que tu ne te fusses pas lev é that thou mightest not have risen qu'il ne se fut pas lev é that he might not have risen que nous ne nous fussions pas lev es that we might not have risen que vous ne vous fussiez pas lev es that you might not have risen qu'ils ne se fussent pas lev es that they might not have risen IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne te lèv e pas rise not or do not rise [thou] qu'il ne se lèv e pas let him not rise ne nous lev ons pas let us not rise ne vous lev ez pas rise not or do not rise [you] qu'ils ne se lèv ent pas let them not rise Se Lever To Rise {Interrogatively, ) INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Me lev é-je do I rise or am I rising te lèv es-tu dost thou rise ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. se lev e-t-il nous lev ons-nous vous lev ez-vous se lev ent-ils Me lev sds-je te lev ais-tu se lev ait-il nous lev ions-nous vous lev iez-vous se lev &ient-ils Me lev ai-je te lev as-tu se lev a-t il nous lev âmes-nous vous lev âtes-vous se lev èrent-#s Me lev erai-Jé te lev eras-^ te lev erart-il nous lev erons-nous vous lev erez-vow *e lev eront-ifa Me lev erais-Je te lev erais-ta se lev erait-# nous lev erions-nous vous lev eviez-vous se lev eraient-ife Me suis-je lev é V es-tu lev é does he rise do we rise do you rise do they rise IMPERFECT. did I rise or was I rising didst thou rise did he rise did we rise did you rise did they rise PRETERIT DEFINITE. did I rise didst thou rise did he rise did we rise did you rise did they rise FUTURE. shall or will I rise shalt thou rise . shall he rise shall we rise shall you rise shall they rise CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. should, would, could, or might I rise shouldst thou rise should he rise should we rise should you rise should they rise PRETERIT INDEFINITE. have I risen or did I rise hast thou risen VEKBS. s y est-il lev ê has he risen nous sommes-nous lev es have we risen vous étes-vous lev es had you risen se sont-ils lev es had they risen PLUPERFECT .^M'étais-je lev é had I risen or had I been rising iPitais-tu lev é hadst thou risen s'était-il lev é had he risen nous étions-nous lev es had we risen vous étiez-vous lev es had you risen s'étaient-ils lev es had they risen Me fus-je lev é te fus-tu lev é se fut-il lev é nous fûmes-nous lev es vous fûtes-vous lev es se furent-ils lev es PRETERIT ANTERIOR had I risen hadst thou risen had he risen had we risen had you risen had they risen Me s&rai-je lev é te seras-tu lev é se sera-t il lev é nous serons-nous lev es vous serez-vous lev és se seront-ils lev és LE ANTERIOR. shall or will I have risen shalt thou have risen shall he have risen shall we have risen shall you have risen shall theyhave risen CONDITIONAL PAST. Me serais-je éev é te serais-tu lev é se serait-il lev é nous serions-nous lev és vous seriez-vous lev és se seraient-ils lev és j should, would, could, or might I ( have risen shouldst thou have risen should he have risen should we have risen should you have risen should they have risen 9 194 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Se Lever To Rise (Negatively and Interrogatively.} INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Ne me lev é-je pas ne te lèv es-tu pas ne se lèv e-t-il pets ne nous lev ons-nous pas ne vous lev ez-vous pas ne se lèv ent-ils pas Me me lev ais-je pas ne te lev 'dis-tu pas ne se lev ait-il pas ne nous lev ions-nous pas ne vous lev iez-vous pas ne se lev aient-Us pas do I not rise or am I not rising dost thou not rise does he not rise do we not rise do you not rise do they not rise IMPERFECT. did I not rise or was I not rising didst thou not rise did he not rise did we not rise did you not rise did they not rise PRETERIT DEFINITE. Ne me lev ai-je pas did I not rise ne te lev as-tu pas ne se lev a-t-il pas ne nous lev ùmes-nous pas ne vous lev ates-vous pas ne se lev èrent-ils pas didst thou not rise did he not rise did we not rise did you not rise did they not rise Ne me lèv erai-je pas ne te lèv eras-tu pas ne se lèv eia-t-il pas ne nous lèv erons-nous pas ne vous lèv erez-vous pas ne se lèv evont-ils pas FUTURE. shall or will I not rise shalt thou not rise shall he not rise shall we not rise shall you not rise shall they not rise CONDITIONAL MOOD. Ne me lèv emis-je pas ne te lèv erais-tf^ pas PRESENT. j should, would, could, or might I ( not rise shouldst thou not rise VERBS. 195 ne se lèv eiait-il pas should he not rise ne nous lèv erions-nous pas should we not rise ne vous lèv eviez-vous pas should you not rise ne se lèv eraienU'fo pas should they not rise PRETERIT INDEFINITE. He me suis-je pas lev é ne f es-tu pas lev é ne s' est-il pas lev é ne nous sommes-nous pas lev es ne vous êtes-vous pas lev es ne se sont-Us pas lev es ( have I not risen, did I not rise, or ( have I not been rising hast thou not risen has he not risen have we not risen have you not risen have they not risen PLUPERFECT. Ne m'êtais-je pas lev ê ne fêtais-tu pas lev é ne s'était-il pas lev é ne nous étions-nous pas lev es ne vous êtiez-vous pas lev es ne s'êtaient-ils pas lev es ( had I not risen or had I not been rising hadst thou not risen had he not risen had we not risen had you not risen had they not risen PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Ne me fus-je pas lev é had I not risen ne te fus-tu pas lev é hadst thou not risen ne se fut-il pas lev é had he not risen ne nous fâmes-nous pas lev es had we not risen ne vous fâtes-vous pas lev es had you not risen ne se furent-ils pas lev és had they not risen FUTURE ANTERIOR. Ne me serai-je pas lev é ne te seras-tu pas lev ê ne se sera-t-il pas lev é ne nous serons-nous pas lev és ne vous serez-vous pas lev és ne se seront-Us pas lev és shall or will I not have risen shalt thou not have risen shall he not have risen shall we not have risen shall you not have risen shall they not have risen 196 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Ne me serais-je pas lev é CONDITIONAL PAST. j should, would, could, or might I not have risen 1 ne te serais-tu pas lev ê ne se serait-il pas lev e ne nous senons-nous pas lev es ne vous seriez-vous pas lev és ne se seraient-Us pas lev és shouldst thou not have risen should he not have risen should we not have risen should you not have risen should they not have risen For the purpose of practising Pronominal Verbs, s'en aller^ which contains the pronoun en, is here added. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB s'en ALLER. S'en Aller To Go Away (Affirmatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. S'en aller to go away PAST. S'en être allé to have gone away participle present. S'en allant going away COMPOUND OF THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. S'en étant allé En allé Je m*en vais tu t'en vas il s'en va nous nous en allons vous vous en allez Us s' en vont having gone away PARTICIPLE PAST. gone away LNICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. j I go away, do go away, 01 am going ( away thou goest away he goes away we go away you go away they go away VEKBS. 197 Je m'en allais tu t'en allais il s'en allait nous nous en allions vous mus en alliez ils s'en allaient Je m 1 en allai tu t'en allas il s'en alla nous nous en allâmes vous vous en allâtes ils s'en allèrent Je m'en irai tu t'en iras il s'en ira nous nous en irons vous vous en irez ils s'en iront Je m'en irais tu t'en irais il s'en irait nous nous en irions vous vous en iriez ils s'en iraient Je m'en suis aile tu t'en es aile il s'en est allé IMPERFECT. j I went away, did go away, or was ( going away thou wentest away he went away we went away you went away they went away PRETERIT DEFINITE. I went away or did go away thou wentest away he went away we went away you went away they went away ■rtjture. I shall or will go away thou shalt go away he shall go away we shall go away you shall go away they shall go away CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, could, or might go away thou shouldst go away he should go away we should go away you should go away they should go away PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I went away, did go away, or have gone away thou hast gone away he has gone away IDS ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. nous nous en sommes allés vous vous en êtes allés Us s'en sont allés Je m'en étais allé tu t'en étais allé il s'en était allé nous nous en étions allés vous vous en étiez allés ils s'en étaient allés we have gone away you have gone away they have gone away PLUPERFECT. I had gone away thou hadst gone away he had gone away we had gone away you had gone away they had gone away PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je m'en fas allé tu t'en fus allé il s'en fut allé nous nous en fûmes allés vous vous en fâtes allés ils s'en furent allés Je m 'en serai allé tu t'en seras allé il s'en sera allé nous nous en serons allés vous vous en serez allés ils s'en seront allés Je men serais allé tu t'en serais allé il s'en serait allé nous nous en serions allés vous vous en seriez allés ils s'en seraient allés I had gone away thou hadst gone away he had gone away we had gone away you had gone away they had gone away FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have gone away thou shalt have gone away he shall have gone away we shall have gone away you shall have gone away they shall have gone away CONDITIONAL PAST. ( I should, would, could, or might \ have gone away thou shouldst have gone away he should have gone away we should have gone away you should have gone away they should have gone away SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Que je m'en aille that I may go away que tn t'en ailles that thou mayest go away VERBS. 109 qu'il s'en aille que nous nous en allions que vous vous en alliez qu'ils s'en aillent that he may go away that we may go away that you may go away that they may go away IMPERFECT. Que je m'en allasse que tu t'en allasses qu'il s'en allât que nous nous en allassions que vous vous en allassiez qu'ils s'en allassent that I might go away that thou mightest go away that he might go away that we might go away that you might go away that they might go away PAST. Que je m'en sois allé que tu t'en sois allé qu'il s'en soit allé que nous nous en soyons allés que vous vous en soyez allés qu'ils s'en soient allés that I may have gone away that thou mayest have gone away that he may have gone away that we may have gone away that you may have gone away that they may have gone away PLUPERFECT. Que je m' en fusse allé que tu t'en f usses allé qu'il s'en fut allé que nous nous en fussions allés que vous vous en fussiez allés qu'ils s'en f ussent allés that I might have gone away that thou mightest have gone away that he might have gone away that we might have gone away that you might have gone away that they might have gone away IMPERATIVE MOOD. Va-t'en qu'il s'en aille allons-nous-en allez-vous-en qu'ils s'en aillent go away [thou] let him go away let us go away go away [you] let them go away 200 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. S'en Aller Ne pas s'en aller Ne z>as s'en être aile Ne s'en allant pas To Go Away (Negatively.) INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. not to go away PAST. not to have gone away PARTICIPLE PRESENT. not going away COMPOUND OP THE PARTICIPLE PRESENT. Ne s'en étant pas allé not having gone away INDICATIVE MOOD. Je ne m'en vais pas tu ne t'en vas pas il ne s'en va pas nous ne nous en allons pas vous ne vous en allez pas ils ne s'en vont pas Je ne m* en allais pas tu ne t'en allais pas il ne s'en allait pas nous ne nous en allions pas vous ne vous en alliez pas Us ne s'en allaient pas PRESENT. j I do not go away or am not going ( away thou dost not go away he does not go away we do not go away you do not go away they do not go away IMPERFECT. j I did not go away or was not going ( away thou didst not go away he did not go away we did not go away you did not go away they did not go away PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je ne m'en allai pas tu ne t'en allas pas il ne s'en alla pas nous ne nous en allâmes pas vous ne vous en allâtes pas ils ne s'en allèrent pas I did not go away thou didst not go away he did not go away we did not go away you did not go away they did not go away YE KB S. 201 Je ne m'en irai pas tune t'en iras pas il ne s'en ira pas nous ne nous en irons pas vous ne vous en irez pas ils ne s'en iront pas FUTURE. I shall or will not go away thou shalt not go away he shall not go away we shall not go away you shall not go away they shall not go away Je ne m'en irais pas tu ne fen irais pas il ne s'en irait pas nous ne nous en irions pas vous ne vous en iriez pas ils ne s'en iraient pas CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. jl should, would, could, or might ( not go away thou shouldst not go away he should not go away we should not go away you should not go away they should not go away Je ne m'en suis pas allé PRETERIT INDEFINITE. { I did not go away or have not gone ( away tu ne fen es pas allé thou hast not gone away il ne s'en est pas allé he has not gone away nous ne nous en sommes pas allés we have not gone away vous ne vous en êtes pas allés you have not gone away ils ne s'en sont pas allés they have not gone away Je ne m'en étais pas allé tu ne t'en étais pas allé il ne s'en était pas allé nom ne nous en étions pas allés vous ne vous en étiez pas allés ils ne s'en étaient pas ailes PLUPERFECT. I had not gone away thou hadst not gone away he had not gone away we had not gone away you had not gone away they had not gone away PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Je ne m' en fus pas allé tu ne t'en fus pas allé - il ne s'en fut pas allé nous ne nous en fumes pas allés I had not gone away thou hadst not gone away he had not gone away we had not gone away 9* 202 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. vous ne vous en fides pas allés Us ne s'enfilent pas allés you had not gone away they had not gone away FUTURE ANTERIOR. Je ne m'en serai pas allé tu ne t'en seras pas allé il ne s'en sera pas allé nous ne nous en serons pas allés vous ne vous en serez pas allés ils ne s'en seront pas allés I shall or will not have gone away thou shalt not have gone away he shall not have gone away we shall not have gone away you shall not have gone away they shall not have gone away Je ne m'en serais pas allé tu ne t'en serais pas allé il ne s'en serait pas allé nous ne nous en serions pas allés vous ne vous en seriez pas allés Us ne s'en seraient pas allés CONDITIONAL PAST. I should, would, could, or might not have gone away thou shouldst not have gone away he should not have gone away we should not have gone away you should not have gone away they should not have gone away Que je ne m'en aille pas que tu ne t'en ailles pas qu'il ne s'en aille pas que nous ne nous en allions pas que vous ne vous en alliez pas qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may not go away that thou mayest not go away that he may not go away that we may not go away that you may not go away that they may not go away IMPERFECT. Que je ne m'en allasse pas that I might not go away que tu ne t'en allasses pas that thou mightest not go away qu'il ne s'en allât pas that he might not go away que nous ne nous en allassions pas that we might not go away que vous ne vous en allassiez pas that you might not go away qu'ils ne s'en allassent pas that they might not go away PAST. Que je ne m'en sois pas allé que tu ne t'en sois pas allé qu'il ne s'en soit pas allé that I may not have gone away that thou mayest not have gone away that he may not have gone away VERBS. 203 que nous ne nous en soyons pas ailes that we may not have gone away que vous ne vous en soyez pas ailes that you may not have gone away qu'ils ne s'en soient pas allés that they may not have gone away PLUPERFECT. Que je ne nï en fusse pas allé that I might not have gone away ( that thou mightest not have gone que tu ne t en fusses pas aile j away qu'il ne s'en fut pas allé that he might not have gone away que nous ne nous en fussions pas ) , . . I * nat we might not have gone away que vous ne vous en fussiez pas allés that you might not have gone away qu'ils ne s'en fussent pas allés that they might not have gone away IMPERATIVE MOOD. Ne t'en va pas do not go away [thou] qu'il ne s'en aille pas let him not go away • ne nous en allons pas let us not go away ne vous en allez pas do not go away [you] qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas let them not go away IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular Verbs are those which differ in their conjugation from the models which have been given heretofore, and which regulate those that are called Regular Verbs. The difference can, of course, only apply to the simple tenses, as the compound tenses of all verbs are made alike. Various methods have been attempted to arrange the very considerable number of Irregular Verbs in certain classes, but experience has proven that after all the student benefits more by learning them singly, as he will soon obtain a sufficient knowledge of the nature of the irregularities to feel where to expect them, and to know what they are likely to be. The principal Irregular Verbs are given here, omitting those that are of rare use, and with the understanding that derivatives follow the irregularities of those verbs, from which they are derived. 204 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. -FIRST CONJUGATION. Aller Inf. Aller Je vais nous allons J'allais nous allions J'allai nous allâmes J'irai nous irons J'irais nous irions allons Que j'aille que nous allions Que j'allasse que nous allassions Part. pres. allant PRESENT. tu vas vous allez IMPERFECT. tu allais vous alliez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu allas vous allâtes FUTURE. tu iras vous irez CONDITIONAL. tu irais vous iriez To Go PART. PAST, allé il va ils vont il allait ils, allaient il alla ils allèrent IMPERATIVE. va allez il ira ils iront il irait ils iraient qu'il aille qu'ils aillent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ailles que vous alliez qu'il aille qu'ils aillent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu allasses que vous allassiez qu'il allât qu'ils allassent Envoyer Inf. Envoyer Part. Pres. Envoyant J'envoie nous envoyons PRESENT. tu envoies vous envoyez To Send Part. Past, Envoyé il envoie ils envoient VERBS. 205 J'envoyais nous envoyions J 'envoyai nous envoyâmes J'enverrai nous enverrons J'enverrais nous enverrions IMPERFECT. tu envoyais vous envoyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu envoyas vous envoyâtes FUTURE, tu enverras vous enverrez CONDITIONAL, tu enverrais vous enverriez il envoyait ils envoyaient il envoya ils envoyèrent il enverra ils enverront il enverrait ils enverraient IMPERATIVE, envoie qu'il envoie envoyez qu'ils envoient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu envoies qu'il envoie que vous envoyiez qu'ils envoient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j'envoyasse que tu envoyasses qu'il envoyât que nous envoyassions que vous envoyassiez qu'ils envoyassent Conjugate after the same manner, renvoyer, to send back. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. envoyons Que j 'envoie que nous envoyions II. SECOND CONJUGATION. Acquérir To Acquire. Inf. Acquérir Part. Pres. Acquérant Part. Past, Acquis J 'acquiers nous acquérons J'acquérais nous acquérions PRESENT. tu acquiers vous acquérez IMPERFECT. tu acquérais vous acquériez il acquiert ils acquièrent il acquérait ils acquéraient 206 ON THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. PRETERIT DEFINITE. J'acquis nous acquîmes J'acquerrai uous acquerrons J'acquerrais nous acquerrions acquérons Que j'acquière que nous acquérions tu acquis vous acquîtes FUTURE. tu acquerras vous acquerrez CONDITIONAL. tu acquerrais vous acquerriez IMPERATIVE. acquiers acquérez il acquit ils acquirent il acquerra ils acquerront il acquerrait ils acquerraient qu'il acquière qu'ils acquièrent SUBJUNCTTVE PRESENT. que tu acquières que vous acquériez qu'il acquière qu'ils acquièrent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j'acquisse que tu acquisses qu'il acquît que nous acquissions que vous acquissiez qu'ils acquissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner : Requérir, to require S'enquérir, to inquire Conquérir, to conquer Quérir, to fetch Reconquérir, to conquer again. Conquérir, to conquer, (defective) only used in the present of the infinitive, in the preterit definite,' in the imperfect of the subjunctive, and in the compound tenses. S'enquérir, to inquire, (defective) very little used, except in the present of the infinitive, and in the compound tenses. Assaillir Inf. Assaillir Part. Pres. Assaillant J'assaille nous assaillons PRESENT. tu assailles vous assaillez To Assault Part. Past, Assailli il assaille ils assaillent VERBS. 207 J'assaillais nous assaillions J'assaillis nous assaillîmes J'assaillirai nous assaillirons J'assaillirais nous assaillirions assaillons Que j 'assaille que nous assaillions IMPERFECT. tu assaillais vous assailliez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu assaillis vous assaillîtes il assaillait ils assaillaient il assaillit ils assaillirent FUTURE. tu assailliras vous assaillirez CONDITIONAL. tu assaillirais vous assailliriez IMPERATIVE. assaille assaillez il assaillira ils assailliront il assaillirait ils assailliraient qu'il assaille qu'ils assaillent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu assailles qu'il assaille que vous assailliez qu'ils assaillent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j'assaillisse que tu assaillisses qu'il assaillît que nous assaillissions que vous assaillissiez qu'ils assaillissent Conjugate after the same manner, tressaillir, to start. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Bouillir Tnf. Bouillir J e bous nous bouillons Je bouillais nous bouillions Part. Pres. Bouillant PRESENT. tu bous vous bouillez IMPERFECT. tu bouillais vous bouilliez To Boil Part. Past, Bouilli il bout ils bouillent il bouillait ils bouillaient 208 ON" THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je bouillis nous bouillîmes Je bouillirai nous bouillirons Je bouillirais nous bouillirions bouillons Que je bouille que nous bouillions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu bouillis vous bouillîtes FUTURE. tu bouilliras vous bouillirez CONDITIONAL. tu bouillirais vous bouilliriez IMPERATIVE. bous bouillez il bouillit ils bouillirent il bouillira ils bouilliront il bouillirait ils bouilliraient qu'il bouille qu'ils bouillent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu bouilles que vous bouilliez qu'il bouille qu'ils bouillent qu'il bouillît qu'ils bouillissent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je bouillisse que tu bouillisses que nous bouillissions que vous bouillissiez Conjugate after the same manner, ebouillir, to boil away ; r ebouillir, to boil again. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Courir To Run Inf. Courir Part. Pres. Courant Part. Past, Couru present. tu cours il court Je cours nous courons Je courais nous courions Je courus nous courûmes vous courez ils courent imperfect. tu courais il courait vous couriez ils couraient PRETERIT INDEFINITE. tu courus veus courûtes il courut ils coururent VEEBS. 209 Je courrai nous courrons Je courrais nous courrions FUTURE. tu courras vous courrez CONDITIONAL. tu courrais vous courriez IMPERATIVE. cours courez il courra ils courront il courrait ils courraient qu'il coure qu'ils courent Que je coure que nous courions SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu coures qu'il coure que vous couriez qu'ils courent Que je courusse que nous courussions SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu courusses que vous courussiez Conjugate after the same manner : Accourir y to run to. Encourir ; Concourir, to concur. Parcourir, Discourir, to discourse. 'Recourir, Secourir, to succor, to help. The compound tenses of the above verbs are conjugated with Avoir, to have ; those of accourir, to run to, are also sometimes con- jugated with Etre, to be. qu'il courût qu'ils courussent to incur, to run over, to have recourse. Cueillir Inf. Cueillir Part. Pres. Cueillant Je cueille nous cueillons Je cueillais nous cueillions Je cueillis nous cueillîmes PRESENT. tu cueilles vous cueillez IMPERFECT. tu cueillais vous cueilliez To Gather Part. Past, Cueilli il cueille ils cueillent il cueillait ils cueillaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu cueillis il cueillit vous cueillîtes ils cueillirent 210 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je cueillerai nous cueillerons Je cueillerais nous cueillerions cueillons Que je cueille que nous cueillions FUTURE. tu cueilleras vous cueillerez CONDITIONAL. tu cueillerais vous cueilleriez IMPERATIVE. cueille cueillez il cueillera ils cueilleront il cueillerait ils cueilleraient qu'il cueille qu'ils cueillent qu'il cueillît qu'ils cueillissent Avoir, to have. to gather, to reap. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu cueilles qu'il cueille que vous cueilliez qu'ils cueillent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je cueillisse que tu cueillisses que nous cueillissions que vous cueillissiez The compound tenses are conjugated with Conj ugate after the same manner : Accueillir, to welcome. Recueillir, Dormir Inf. Dormir Part. Pres. Dormant PRESENT. Je dors nous dormons Je dormais nous dormions Je dormis nous dormîmes J e dormirai nous dormirons tu dors vous dormez IMPERFECT. tu dormais vous dormiez To Sleep. Part. Past, Dormi il dort ils dorment il dormait ils dormaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu dormis il dormit vous dormîtes FUTURE. tu dormiras vous dormirez ils dormirent il dormira ils dormiront VERBS. 211 CONDITIONAL. Je dormirais nous dormirions dormons que je dorme que nous dormions tu dormirais vous dormiriez IMPERATIVE. dors dormez * il dormirait ils dormiraient qu'il dorme qu'ils dorment SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu dormes que vous dormiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il dorme qu'ils dorment Que je dormisse que nous dormissions que tu dormisses qu'il dormît que vous dormissiez qu'ils dormissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Endormir, to lull asleep. Redormir, to sleep again. S'endormir, to fall asleep. Se rendormir, to fall asleep again. The compound tenses of s'endormir, and se rendormir, are conju- gated with Etre, to be, as all pronominal verbs are. Faillir Inf. Faillir Part. Pres. Faillant To Fail Part. Past, Failli PRESENT. Je faillis tu faillis il faillit nous faillîmes vous faillîtes ils faillirent This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in all the compound tenses, whicli are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Fleurir To blossom, to flourish. This verb is regular and conjugated like finir, when speaking of plants and flowers ; but when speaking of the prosperity of a king- dom, or of a town, the participle present is florissant, and the im- perfect of the indicative, je florissais, tu florissais, etc. Befleurir, to blossom, or to flourish again, follows the same rule. 212 ON THE PAETS OF SPEECH. Fuir To Fly. Inf. Fuir Je fuis nous fuyons Je fuyais nous fuyions Je fuis nous fuîmes Je fuirai nous fuirons Je fuirais nous fuirions fuyons Que je fuie que nous fuyions Part. Pkes. Fuyant PRESENT. tu fuis vous fuyez IMPERFECT. tu fuyais vous fuyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu fuis vous fuîtes FUTURE. tu fuiras vous fuirez CONDITIONAL. tu fuirais vous fuiriez Que je fuisse que nous fuissions Part. Past, Fui il fuit ils fuient il fuyait ils fuyaient il fuit ils fuirent il fuira ils fuiront IMPERATIVE. fuis fuyez il fuirait ils fuiraient qu'il fuie qu'ils fuient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu fuies que vous fuyiez qu'il fuie qu'ils fuient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu fuisses qu'il fuît que vous fuissiez qu'ils fuissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner, s'enfuir, to run away. Gésir To Lie This verb (defective), which formerly signified to be lying down, is no longer in use ; we, however, say sometimes, U gît ; ci-gît, here lies, is the common form by which an epitaph begins. VERBS. 213 Haïr . * To Hate This verb is regular, and conjugated like finir, except in the first three persons singular of the present of the indicative, je hais, I hate ; tu hais, thou hatest ; il hait, he hates ; and in the second person singular of the imperative, hais, hate. A diaeresis ( * * ) is required over the ï in all tenses and persons except in those above-mentioned ; this dseresis is to cause the a and i to be pronounced as two syllables. Inf. Mourir Je meurs nous mourons Je mourais nous mourions Je mourus nous mourûmes J e mourrai nous mourrons Je mourrais nous mourrions mourons Que je meure que nous mourions Mourir To Die. Part. Pres. Mourant Part. Past, Mort PRESENT. tu meurs vous mourez IMPERFECT. tu mourais vous mouriez il meurt ils meurent il mourait ils mouraient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu mourus vous mourûtes FUTURE. tu mourras vous mourrez CONDITIONAL. tu mourrais vous mourriez il mourut ils moururent il mourra ils mourront il mourrait ils mourraient IMPERATIVE. meurs mourez qu'il meure qu'il meurent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu meures qu'il meure que vous mouriez qu'ils meurent 214 ON THE FARTS OF SPEECH. SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je mourusse que tu mourusses qu'il mourût que nous mourussions que vous mourussiez qu'ils mourussent The compound tenses arc conjugated with Etre, to be. Conjugate after the same manner, se mourir, to be dying. Ouïr To Hear, This verb (defective) can only be used in the present of the infin- itive, ouir, to hear ; in the preterit definite, fouis, I heard ; il ouit, he heard ; in the imperfect of the subjunctive, que fouisse, that I might hear ; qu'il ouït, that he might hear ; and in its compound tenses, which are formed with the simple tenses of Avoir, to have, and its past participle ouï, &sfai ouï, tu as ouï, etc. Inf. Ouv rir J'ouv re nous ouv rons J'ouv rais nous ouv rions J'ouv ris nous ouv rîmes J'ouv rirai nous ouv rirons J'ouv rirais nous ouv ririons Ouvrir To Open. Part. Pres. Ouv rant Part. Past °uv ert PRESENT. tu ouv res vous ouv rez IMPERFECT. tu ouv rais vous ouv riez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu ouv ris vous ouv rîtes FUTURE. tu ouv riras vous ouv rirez CONDITIONAL. tu ouv rirais vous ouv ririez IMPERATIVE. ouv re ouv rez il ouv re ils ouv rent il ouv rait ils ouv raient il ouv rit ils ouv rirent il ouv rira ils ouv riront il ouv rirait ils ouv riraient qu'il ouv re qu'ils ouv rent YEKBS. 215 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que j'ouv re que nous ouv rions Que j'ouv risse que tu ouv res que vous ouv riez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il ouv re qu'ils ouv rent que tu ouv risses qu'il ouv rît que nous ouv rissions que vous ouv rissiez qu'ils ouv rissent Compound tenses are conjugated with. Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Rouvrir, to open again. Découvrir, to discover. Entr' ouvrir, to half open. Offrir, to offer. Couvrir, to cover. Mesoffrir, to underbid. Recouvrir, to cover again. Souffrir, to suffer. Inf. Sen tir Je. sen s nous sen tons Je sen tais nous sen tions Je sen Us nous sen Je sen tirai nous sen tirons Je sen W nous sen tirions sent torn Sentir To Feel Part. Pres. Sen tant Part. Past, Sen ft* PRESENT. tu sen s vous sen tez IMPERFECT. tu sen tais vous sen tiez il sen t ils sen terof il sen tait ils sen taient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu sen tis ii sen tit vous sen tîtes ils sen £ir67i£ FUTURE. tu sen tiras vous sen tirez CONDITIONAL. tu sen tirais vous sen tiriez IMPERATIVE. sen s sen tez il sen tira ils sen tànmtf il sen tirait ils sen tiraient qu'il sen te qu'ils sen tent 216 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je sen te que nous sen lions que tu sen tes que vous sen tiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il sen te qu'ils sen tent Que je sen tisse que nous sen tissions que tu sen tisses qu'ils sen tit que vous sen tissiez qu'ils sen tissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Consentir, Pressentir, Ressentir, Mentir, Démentir, to consent, to agree, to foresee. to resent, to feel still, to lie. I to give the lie, to be- ! lie, to contradict. Repartir, Se ressentir, Se repentir, Partir, Repartir, Sortir, to reply. to feel still. to repent. to set out. to set out again. to go out. Ressortir, to go out again. The compound tenses of the first six of the above verbs, are con- jugated with Avoir, to have. Those of se ressentir and se repentir, as all pronominal verbs, 1 are conjugated with Etre, to be ; and those of partir, repartir, sortir, and ressortir, sometimes with Avoir, sometimes with Etre. Inf. Ser mr Je ser s nous ser vons Je ser vais nous ser vions Servir To Serve. Part. Pres. Ser vant Part. Past, Ser vi present. tu ser s vous ser vez imperfect. tu ser vais vous ser viez il sert ils ser vent il ser voit ils servaient Je ser vis nous ser vîmes FRETERIT DEFINITE. tu ser vis il ser vit vous ser vîtes ils ser virent VERES. 217 Je ser virai nous ser virons Je ser virais nous ser virions ser vons Que je ser ve que nous ser vions Que je ser visse que nous ser vissions FUTURE. tu ser viras vous ser virez CONDITIONAL. tu ser virais vous ser viriez IMPERATIVE. ser s ser vez il ser vira ils ser viront il ser virait ils ser viraient qu'il ser ve qu'ils ser vent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ser ves qu'il ser ve que vous serviez qu'ils ser vent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu ser visses qu'il servît que vous ser vissiez qu'ils ser vissent Conjugate after the same manner : Desservir, to clear the table, to do an ill office to somebody. Se servir, to make use, to use. The compound tenses of servir and desservir, are conjugated with Avoir ; those of se servir, with Etre. Asservir, to subject, is regular, and conjugated ^ke finir. Inf. T enir Je tiens nous t enons Je t enais nous t enions Je t ins nous t înmes Tenir To Hold. Part. Pres. T enant Part. Past, T enu PRESENT. tu t iens vous t enez IMPERFECT. tu t enais vous t eniez il t ient ils t iennent il t enait ils t enaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu tins il tint vous t întes ils tinrent 218 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je tiendrai nous t iendrons Je t iendrais nous t tendrions FUTURE. tu t tendras vous t tendrez CONDITIONAL. tu t iendrais vous t tendriez il t iendra ils tiendront il t iendrait ils t iendraient IMPERATIVE. t enons Que je tienne que nous t entons Que je tinsse que nous t tussions tiens t enez qu'il t ^?i7i0 qu'ils tiennent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu t iennes que vous t entez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu tinsses que vous t inssiez qu'il t ienne qu'ils t iennent qu'il t m£ qu'ils tinssent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner: * 'Appartenir ', to belong. Advenir, to happen. * Circonvenir, to circumvent. * Contenir, to contain. * Contrevenir, to contravene. Convenir, to agree. * Dé prévenir, to unprepossess. * Détenir, to detain. Devenir, to become. Redevenir, to become again. '-Retenir, to retain. Revenir, to come again, to come back. S'abstenir, to abstain. Disconvenir, to disagree. ^Entretenir, to entertain. Intervenir, to intervene ^Maintenir, to maintain. Mesavenir, to succeed ill. * Obtenir y to obtain. Provenir, to proceed from. ^Prévenir, to prevent, to inform. Parvenir, to attain. * Soutenir, to sustain, to support. $e ressouvenir, to recollect. >8e souvenir, to remember. * Subvenir, to relieve. Survenir, to come unexpectedly. Fémr, to come. Those of the above verbs, which are marked with un asterisk (*X are conjugated in their compound tenses with Avoir, to have, and the others, with 2££re, to be. VEKBS. 219 Advenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the present of the indicative, as s'il advient, if it happens. Provenir, to proceed from, is only employed in its third persons sin- gular and plural. Inf. Vêt ir Je vêt 8 nous vêt ons Je vêt ai8 nous vêt ions Je vêt is nous vêt îmes Je vêt irai nous vêt irons Je vêt irais nous vêt irions Vêtir To Clothe. Part. Pres. Vêt ant Part. Past, Vêt u vêt ons Que je vêt e que nous vêt ions Que je vêt isse que nous vêt issions PRESENT. tu vêt s vous vêt ez IMPERFECT. tu vêt ais vous vêt iez PRETERIT DEFINIT! tu vêt is vous vêt îtes FUTURE. tu vêt iras vous vêt irez CONDITIONAL. tu vêt irais vous vêt iriez IMPERATIVE . vêt s vêt ez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. il vêt ils vêt ent il vêt ait ils vêt aient il vêt it ils vêt irent il vêt ira ils vêt iront il vêt irait ils vêt iraient qu'il vêt e qu'ils vêt ent que tu vêt es que vous vêt iez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu vêt isses que vous vêt issiez qu'il vêt e qu'ils vêt ent qu'il vêt U qu'ils vêt issent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have 220 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Conjugate after tlie same manner : Revêtir y to clothe. Se vêtir, to dress, or clothe one's self. Dévêtir, to strip, to undress. Se dévêtir, to divest one's self. The compound tenses of se dévêtir, are conjugated with Etre } to be, as all pronominal verbs are. III. THIRD CONJUGATION. S'asseoir To Sit down. Inf. S'asseoir Part. Pres. S 'asseyant Part. Past. Assis Je m'assieds nous nous asseyons Je m'asseyais nous nous asseyions Je m'assis nous nous assîmes Je m'asseyerai or je m'asseierai or je m'assiérai nous nous asseyerons PRESENT. tu t'assieds vous vous asseyez IMPERFECT. tu t'asseyais vous vous asseyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu t'assis vous vous assîtes FUTURE. tu t'asseyeras tu t'asseieras tu t'assiéras vous vous asseyerez il s'assied ils s'asseyent or ils s'asseient il s'asseyait ils s'asseyaient il s'assit ils s'assirent or nous nous asseierons vous vous asseierez or nous nous assiérons vous vous assiérez il s'asseyera il s'asseiera il s'assiéra ils s'asseyeront ils s'asseieront ils s'assiéront Je m'asseyerais or jem'asseierais or je m'assiérais nous nous asseyerions CONDITIONAL. tu t'asseyerais tu tasseierais tu t'assiérais vous vous asseyeriez or nous nous asseierions vous vous asseieriez or nous nous assiérions vous vous assiériez il s'asseyerait il s'asseierait il s'assiérait ils s'asseyeraient ils s'asseieraient ils s'assiéraient VERBS. 221 IMPERATIVE. assieds-toi qu'il s'asseye or qu'il s'asseie asseyons-nous asseyez-vous qu'ils s'asseyent or qu'ils s'asseient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je m'asseye que tu t'asseyes qu'il s'asseye or que je m'asseie or que tu t'asseies or qu'il s'asseie que nous nous asseyions que vous vous asseyiez qu'ils s'asseyent or qu'ils s'asseient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je m'assisse que tu t'assisses qu'il s'assît que nous nous assissions que vous vous assissiez qu'ils s'assissent Conjugate after the same manner, se rasseoir, to sit down again. The compound tenses of these two verbs are conjugated with Etre, to be, as all pronominal verbs are. Conjugate after the same manner, without the second pronoun me, te, se, etc., asseoir, to sit down. The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Choir To Fall This verb is not used except in the present of the infinitive. Déchoir To Decay. This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive and in its compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with Etre, sometimes with Avoir. Echoir To fall, to expire, to be due, to fall due. This verb is only used in the third person of the indicative, il échoit, sometimes pronounced il échet ; in il échut, in il écherra, in il écherrait, in qu'il échût, etc., in échoir, in échéant, in échu, and in the compound tenses, which are conjugated sometimes with Avoir, some- times with Etre. 222 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Falloir Il faut Il fallait Il fallut Il faudra Il faudrait To be necessary. PRESENT. it is necessary IMPERFECT. it was necessary PRETERIT DEFINITE. it was necessary FUTURE. it shall or will be necessary CONDITIONAL. j it should, would, or might be ( necessary SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Qu'il faille that it may be necessary SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Qu'il fallût that it might be necessary The compound tenses of this verb, (unipersonal and defective) are formed by the addition of its participle past, fallu, to the third person singular of the verb Avoir ; as, il a fallu, it has been necessary, etc. The expressions 1 must, he must, we must, you must, they must, etc., are rendered by it must that I— it must that he, etc. ; the verb which follows is put in the subjunctive mood, and in the person indicated by the personal pronoun, which is before must in English, as I must write, il faut que f écrive ; you must drink, il faut que 'cous "buviez ; we say also, il me faut écrire, il vous faut boire. Mouvoir To Move. Inf. Mouvoir Part. Pres. Mouvant Part. Past, Mu Je meus nous mouvons Je mouvais nous mouvions PRESENT. tu meus vous mouvez IMPERFECT. tu mouvais vous mouviez il meut ils meuvent. il mouvait ils mouvaient VERBS. Je mus nous mûmes Je mouvrai nous mouvrons Je mouvrais nous mouvrions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu mus vous mûtes FUTURE. tu mouvras vous mouvrez CONDITIONAL. tu mouvrais vous mouvriez il mut ils murent il mouvra ils mouvront il mouvrait ils mouvraient IMPERATIVE. meus mouvez qu'il meuve qu'ils meuvent Que je meuve que nous mouvions SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu meuves qu'il meuve que vous mouviez qu'ils meuvent Que je musse que nous mussions SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu musses qu'il mût que vous mussiez qu'ils mussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Emouvoir, to move. Promouvoir, to promote. S'émouvoir, to be concerned. The compound tenses of s'émouvoir are conjugated with Etre. Promouvoir, is only used in the present of the infinitive and in the compound tenses. Pleuvoir To Rain. infinitive. Pleuvoii to rain participle present. Pleuvant raining PARTICIPLE PAST Plu rained 221 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Il pleut Il pleuvait Il plut B pleuvra Il pleuvrait Qu'il pleuve Qu'il plut PRESENT. it rains, does rain, or is raining IMPERFECT. it rained, did rain, or was raining PRETERIT DEFINITE. it rained, or did rain. FUTURE. it will rain CONDITIONAL. it would rain SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. that it may rain SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. that it might rain The compound tenses of the above unipersonal verb are formed by the addition of its participle passive, plu, to the third person singular of the simple tenses of Avoir ; as, il a plu, it has rained, etc. Pourvoir To Provide. Inf. Pourvoir Je pourvois nous pourvoyons Je pourvoyais nous pourvoyions Je pourvus nous pourvûmes Je pourvoirai nous pourvoirons Part. Pres. Pourvoyant Part. Past, Pourvu PRESENT. tu pourvois vous pourvoyez IMPERFECT. tu pourvoyais vous pourvoyiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu pourvus vous pourvûtes FUTURE. tu pourvoiras vous pourvoirez il pourvoit ils pourvoient il pourvoyait ils pourvoyaient il pourvut ils pourvurent il pourvoira il pourvoiront VERBS. 225 Je pourvoirais nous pourvoirions pourvoyons CONDITIONAL. tu pourvoirais vous pourvoiriez IMPERATIVE. il pourvoirait ils pourvoiraient pourvois pourvoyez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. qu'il pourvoie qu'ils pourvoient Que je pourvoie que tu pourvoies que nous pourvoyions que vous pourvoyiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je pourvusse que tu pourvusses que nous pourvussions que vous pourvussiez qu'il pourvoie qu'ils pourvoient qu'il pourvût qu'ils pourvussent The compound tenses are conjugated with. Avoir, to have. Inf. Pouvoir Je puis or je peux nous pouvons Je pouvais nous pouvions Je pus nous pûmes Je pourrai nous pourrons Je pourrais nous pourrions Pouvoir To be able. Part. Pres. Pouvant Part. Past, Pu present. tu peux vous pouvez IMPERFECT. tu pouvais vous pouviez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu pus vous pûtes FUTURE. tu pourras vous pourrez CONDITIONAL. tu pourrais vous pourriez il peut ils peuvent il pouvait ils pouvaient il put ils purent il pourra ils pourront il pourrait ils pourraient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Que je puisse que nous puissions que tu puisse qu'il puisse que vous puissiez qu'ils puissent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je pusse que tu pusses qu'il pût que nous pussions que vous pussiez qu'ils pussent The compound tense3 are conjugated with Avoir, to have. 10* 226 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Inf. Savoir Je sais nous savons Je savais nous savions Savoir To Knoiv. Part. Pres. Sachant Part. Past, Su PRESENT. tu sais il sait vous savez IMPERFECT. tu savais vous saviez ils savent il savait ils savaient Je sus nous sûmes PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu sus il sut vous sûtes ils surent Je saurai nous saurons FUTURE. tu sauras vous saurez il saura ils sauront Je saurais nous saurions sachons Que je sache que nous sachions CONDITIONAL. tu saurais vous sauriez IMPERATIVE. sache sachez il saurait ils sauraient qu'il sache qu'ils sachent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu saches que vous sachiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il sache qu'ils sachent Que je susse que tu susses qu'il sût que nous sussions que vous sussiez qu'ils sussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Savoir, to know, must not be confounded with connaître, to know. Connaître is mostly used in the cense of to be acquainted with ; and savoir, to know by heart. VEKBS. 227 Seoir To fit, to become, to fit well. Inf. Seoir Part. Pres. Seyant Part. Past, Sis PRESENT. H sied it fits ils siéent they fit IMPERFECT. Il seyait it fitted ils seyaient they fitted FUTURE. Il siéra it will fit ils siéront they will fit. CONDITIONAL. Il siérait it would fit Us siéraient they would fit SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. Qu'U siée that it may fit qu'ils siéent that they may fit This verb, which is only employed in the third person of the singu- lar, and of the plural of some tenses, has no compound tenses. Surseoir To reprieve, to put off. This verb is seldom used, except in the present of the infinitive. Je vaux nous valons Je valais nous valions Je valus nous valûmes Valoir To be worth. Inf. Valoir Part. Pres. Valant Part. Past, Valu PRESENT tu vaux vous valez IMPERFECT. tu valais vous valiez il vaut ils valent il valait ils valaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu valus il valut vous valûtes ils valurent 228 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je vaudrai nous vaudrons Je vaudrais nous vaudrions FUTURE. tu vaudras vous vaudrez CONDITIONAL. tu vaudrais vous vaudriez IMPERATIVE. valons Que je vaille que nous valions vaux valez il vaudra ils vaudront il vaudrait ils vaudraient qu'il vaille qu'ils vaillent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu vailles qu'il vaille que vous valiez qu'ils vaillent Que je valusse que nous valussions SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu valusses qu'il valût que vous valussiez qu'ils valussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Revaloir, to return like for like. Equivaloir, to be equivalent. Prévaloir, to prevail. This last makes, in the subjunctive, que je prévale, que tu prévales, qu'il prévale, que nous prévalions, que vous prévaliez, qu'ils prévalent Inf Voir Je vois nous voyons Je voyais nous voyions Je vis nous vîmes Voir To See. Part. Pres. Voyant Part. Past, Vu PRESENT. tu vois vous voyez il voit ils voient IMPERFECT. tu voyais il voyait vous voyiez ils voyaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu vis il vit vous vîtes ils virent VERBS. 229 Je verrai nous verrons Je verrais nous verrions voyons FUTURE. tu verras vous verrez CONDITIONAL, tu verrais vous verriez IMPERATIVE. vois voyez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. il verra ils verront il verrait ils verraient qu'il voie qu'ils voient Que je voie que tu voies qu'il voie que nous voyions que vous voyiez qu'ils voient SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je visse que tu visses qu'il vît que nous vissions que vous vissiez qu'ils vissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Revoir, to see again. Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. Prévoir To Foresee. This verb is conjugated like Voir, to see, except in the future and in the present of the conditional. FUTURE. tu prévoiras vous prévoirez CONDITIONAL. tu prévoirais vous prévoiriez Je prévoirai nous prévoirons Je prévoirais nous prévoirions il prévoira ils prévoiront il prévoirait ils prévoiraient Vouloir To be willing. Inf. Vouloir Je veux nous voulons Je voulais nous voulions Part. Pres. Voulant PRESENT. tu veux vous voulez IMPERFECT. tu voulais vous vouliez Part. Pas*, Voulu il veut ils veulent il voulait ils voulaient 230 OK THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je voulus nous voulûmes Je voudrai nous voudrons J e voudrais nous voudrions Que je veuille que nous voulions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu voulus vous voulûtes FUTURE. tu voudras vous voudrez CONDITIONAL. tu voudrais vous voudriez il voulut ils voulurent il voudra ils voudront il voudrait ils voudraient IMPERATIVE. veuillez (is the only person used) SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu veuilles qu'il veuille que vous vouliez qu'ils veuillent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je voulusse que tu voulusses qu'il voulût que nous voulussions que vous voulussiez qu'ils voulussent Compound tenses with Avoir Inf. Battre Je bats nous battons Je battais nous battions Je battis nous battîmes Je battrai nous battrons IV. FOURTH CONJUGATION. Battre To Beat. Part. Pres. Battant Part. Past, Battu PRESENT. tu bats vous battez IMPERFECT. tu battais vous battiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu battis vous battîtes FUTURE. tu battras vous battrez il bat ils battent il battait ils battaient il battit ils battirent il battra ils battront VEEBS. 231 Je battrais nous battrions battons Que je batte que nous battions CONDITIONAL. tu battrais vous battriez IMPERATIVE. bats battez il battrait ils battraient qu'il batte qu'ils battent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu battes que vous battiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il batte qu'ils battent Que je battisse que nous battissions que tu battisses qu'il battît que vous battissiez qu'ils battissent The compound tenses are conjugated with. Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Abattre, to pull down. Rébattre, to beat again. Combattre, to fight. S'ébattre, to make or be merry. Débattre, to debate. Se débattre, to struggle. Rabattre, to pull down again, to abate. The compound tenses of s'ébattre and se débattre, are conjugated with Etre, to be. Boire To DrirJc. Inf. Boire Je bois nous buvons Je buvais nous buvions Je bus nous bûmes Je boirai nous boirons Part. Pres. Buvant PRESENT. tu bois vous buvez IMPERFECT. tu buvais vous buviez Part. Past, Bu il boit ils boivent il buvait ils buvaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu bus il but vous bûtes ils burent FUTURE. tu boiras vous boirez m boira ils boiront 232 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je boirais nous boirions CONDITIONAL. tu boirais vous boiriez IMPERATIVE. buvons Que je boive que nous buvions bois buvez il boirait ils boiraient qu'il boive qu'ils boivent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu boives qu'il boive que vous buviez qu'ils boivent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je busse que tu busses qu'il but que nous bussions que vous bussiez qu'ils bussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner, réboire, to drink again. Clore Inf. Clore Je clos Je clorai nous clorons Je clorais nous clorions PRESENT. tu clos FUTURE. tu cloras vous clorez CONDITIONAL. tu clorais vous cloriez To Close. Part. Past, Clos il clot il clora ils cloront il clorait ils cloraient This verb, (defective) is only used in the above few tenses and persons, and in all the compound tenses, which are formed with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner, enclore, to inclose. Conclure To Conclude. Inf. Conclure Part. Pres. Concluant Part. Past, Conclu Je conclus nous concluons PRESENT. tu conclus vous concluez il conclut ils concluent VERBS. 233 Je concluais nous concluions Je conclus nous conclûmes Je conclurai nous conclurons Je conclurais nous conclurions concluons Que je conclue que nous concluions IMPERFECT. tu concluais vous concluiez il concluait ils concluaient PEETEEIT DEFINITE. tu conclus il conclut vous con cl ut es ils concl urent FUTURE. tu concluras vous conclurez CONDITIONAL. tu conclurais vous concluriez IMPERATIVE. conclus concluez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu conclues que vous concluiez il conclura ils concluront il conclurait ils concluraient qu'il conclue qu'ils concluent qu'il conclue qu'ils concluent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je conclusse que xu conclusses qu'il conclût que nous conclussions que vous conclussiez qu'ils conclussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner, exclure, to exclude. Confire To Pickle. Inf. Conf ire Part. Pres. Conf isant Part. Past, Conf it Je conf is nous conf isons Je conf isais nous conf isions PRESENT. tu conf is vous conf isez IMPERFECT. tu conf isais vous conf isicz il conf it ils conf ient il conf isait ils conf isaieni 234 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je conf is nous conf îmes Je conf irai nous conf irons Je conf irais nous conf irions conf isons Que je conf ise PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu conf is vous conf ites FUTURE. tu conf iras vous conf irez CONDITIONAL. tu conf irais vous conf iriez IMPERATIVE. conf is conf isez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESEÎ que tu conf ises il conf it ils conf irent il conf ira ils conf iront il conf irait ils conf iraient qu'il conf ise qu'ils conf isent que nous conf mons J'écr irais nous écr mVms ecr ivons Que j'écr ive que nous écr nions Ecrire To Write. Part. Pres. Ecr ivant Part. Past, Ecr it PRESENT. tu écr is vous écr iuez IMPERFECT. tu écr ivais vous écr iviez il écr it ils écr ivent il écr ivait ils écr ivaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu écr ivis vous écr ivîtes FUTURE. tu écr iras vous écr irez CONDITIONAL. tu écr irais \ous écr iriez IMPERATIVE. écr is écr ivez il écr ivit ils écr mirent il écr ira ils écr ^ro/i^ il écr irait ils écr iraient qu'il écr we qu'ils écr ivent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu écr ives qu'il écr ive que vous écr iviez qu'ils écr ivent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que j'écr ivisse que tu écr ivisses qu'il écr ivît que nous écr ivissions que vous écr ivissiez qu'ils écr ivissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Circonscrire, to circumscribe. Proscrire, to proscribe. Décrire, to describe. Récrire, to write again. Inscrire, to inscribe. Souscrire, to subscribe. Prescrire, to prescribe. Transcrire, to transcribe. MO ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Inf. Faire J e fais nous faisons Faire To make, to do, to cause. Part. Pres. Faisant Part. Past, Fait PRESENT. tu fais vous faites il fait ils font Je faisais nous faisions IMPERFECT. tu faisais vous faisiez il faisait ils faisaient Je fis nous fîmes Je ferai nous ferons PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu fis il fit vous fîtes ils firent FUTURE. tu feras vous ferez il fera ils feront Je ferais nous ferions CONDITIONAL. tu ferais vous feriez il ferait ils feraient IMPERATIVE. faisons Que je fasse que nous fassions fais faites qu'il fasse qu'ils fassent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu fasses que vous fassiez qu'il fasse qu'ils fassent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je fisse que tu fisses qu'il fît que nous fissions que vous lissiez qu'ils fissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Contrefaire, to counterfeit, to mimic. Défaire, to undo. Redéfaire to undo again. Refaire, to do again. Satisfaire, to satisfy. Surfaire, to ask too much VEBBS. 241 Frire To Fry. Inf. Frire Je fris Je frirai nous frirons Je frirais nous fririons PRESENT. tu fris FUTURE. tu friras vous frirez CONDITIONAL. tu frirais vous fririez IMPERATIVE. fris Part. Past, Frit il frit il frira ils friront il frirait ils friraient This verb, (defective) is only used in the above few persons and ten- ses, and in all the compound tenses, which are formed with Avoir. To supply the persons and tenses which are wanting, the different tenses of faire, to make, with the infinitive present oî frire, are used; as, nous faisons frire, vous faites frire, ils font frire, etc. Joindre To Join. Inf. Joi ndre Part. Pres. Joi gnant Part. Past, Joi iiù Je joi ns nous joignons Je joi gnais nous joi gnions Je joi gnis nous joi gnîmes Je joi ndrai nous joi ndrons PRESENT. tu joi ns vous joi gnez IMPERFECT. tu joi gnais vous joi gniez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu joi gnis vous joignîtes il joi nt ils joi gnent il joi gnait ils joi gnaient il joi gnit ils joi gnirent FUTURE. tu joi ndras vous joi ndrez 11 il joi ndra ils joi ndront 242 OS THE PARTS OF SPEECH. CONDITIONAL. Je joi ndrais nousjoi ndrions joi gnons Que je joi gne que nous joi g nions tu joi ndrais vous joi ndriez il joi ndrait ils joi ndr aient IMPERATIVE. JOI 718 joi gnez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESEN que tu joi gnes que vous joi gniez qu'il joi gne qu'ils joi gnent qu'il joi gne qu'ils joi gnent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je joi gnisse que tu joi gnisses qu'il joi gnxt que nous joi gnissions que vous joi guissiez qu'ils joi gnissent Compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate, after the same manner, all verbs whose present of the infinitive ends aindre as Craindre, to fear. eindre as Peindre, to paint. oindre as Poindre, to dawn. Also : Astreindre, to subject, to compel. Eteindre, to put out, to extinguish. Atteindre, to reach, to overtake. Feindre, to feign, to pretend. Ceindre, to gird. Plaindre, to pity. Contraindre, to constrain, to force. Restreindre, to restrain. Enfreindre, to infringe. Teindre, to dye. Inf. Lire Je lis nous lisons Je lisais nous lisions Lire To Read. Part. Pres. Lisant Part. Past, Lu. PRESENT, tu lis il lit vous lisez IMPERFECT. tu lisais vous lisiez ils lisent il lisait ils lisaient VEKBS. 243 Je lus nous lûmes Je lirai nous lirons Je lirais nous lirions lisons Que je lise que nous lisions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu lus il lut vous lûtes ils lurent FUTURE. tu liras vous lirez CONDITIONAL. tu lirais vous liriez EMPERATIVE. lis lisez il lira ils liront il lirait ils liraient qu'il lise qu'ils lisent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu lises que vous lisiez qu'il lise qu'ils lisent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je lusse que tu lusses qu'il lût que nous lussions que vous lussiez qu'ils " ^sent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner : Belire, to read again. Elire, to elect. Inf. Mettre J e mets nous mettons Je mettais nous mettions Je mis nous mîmes Mettre To Put. Part. Pres. Mettant Part. Past, Mis PRESENT. tu mets vous mettez il met ils mettent IMPERFECT. tu mettais il mettait vous mettiez ils mettaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu mis il mit vous mîtes ils mirent 244 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je mettrai nous mettrons Je mettrais nous mettrions mettons Que je mette que nous mettions Que je misse que nous missions FUTURE. tu mettras vous mettrez CONDITIONAL. tu mettrais vous mettriez IMPERATIVE. mets mettez il mettra ils mettront il mettrait ils mettraient qu'il mette qu'ils mettent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu mettes que vous mettiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu misses que vous missiez qu'il mette qu'ils mettent qu'il mît qu'ils missent Compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Admettre, to admit. Promettre, to promise. Commettre, to commit. Remettre, to put again, to set again, Compromettre, to compromise. to replace. Démettre, to disjoint, to put out. Soumettre, to submit. Omettre, to omit. Transmettre, to transmit. Permettre, to permit. Se démettre, to resign. S'entremettre, to interpose. The two last have their compound tenses conjugated with Etre, Moudre To Grind. Inf. Moudre Part. Pres. Moulant Part. Past, Moulu Je mouds nous moulons Je moulais nous moulions PRESENT. tu mouds vous moulez IMPERFECT. tu moulais vous mouliez il moud ils moulent il moulait ils moulaient VERBS. 245 Je moulus nous moulûmes Je moudrai nous moudrons Je moudrais nous moudrions moulons Que je moule que nous moulions PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu moulus vous moulûtes il moulut ils moulurent FUTURE. tu moudras vous moudrez CONDITIONAL. tu moudrais vous moudriez IMPERATIVE. mouds moulez il moudra ils moudront il moudrait ils moudraient qu'il moule qu'ils moulent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu moules que vous mouliez qu'il moule qu'ils moulent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je moulusse, que tu moulusses qu'il moulût que nous moulussions que vous moulussiez qu'ils moulussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Hemoudre, to grind again. Emoudre, to grind, to whet. Inf. Naître Je nais nous naissons Je naissais nous naissions Je naquis nous naquîmes Naître To be born. Part. Pres. Naissant Part. Past, Né PRESENT. tu nais vous naissez IMPERFECT. tu naissais vous naissiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu naquis vous naquîtes il naît ils naissent il naissait ils naissaient il naquit ils naquirent 246 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je naîtrai nous naîtrons Je naîtrais nous naîtrions FUTURE. tu naîtras vous naîtrez CONDITIONAL. tu naîtrais vous naîtriez IMPERATIVE. nais naissez il naîtra ils naîtront il naîtrait ils naîtraient qu'il naisse qu'ils naissent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu naisses que vous naissiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu naquisses que nous naquissions que vous naquissiez The compound tenses are conjugated with Etre to be, Conjugate after the same manner: Benaître, to revive. Que je naisse que nous naissions Que je naquisse qu'il naisse qu'ils naissent qu'il naquît qu'ils naquissent Inf. Paître Je pais nous paissons Je paissais nous paissions Je paîtrai nous paîtrons Je paîtrais nous paîtrions Paître To Part. Pres. Paissant PRESENT. tu pais vous paissez IMPERFECT. tu paissais vous paissiez FUTURE. tu paîtras vous paîtrez CONDITIONAL. tu paîtrais vous paîtriez Graze. Part. Past, Pu il paît ils paissent il paissait ils paissaient il paîtra ils paîtront il paîtrait ils paîtraient VERBS. 247 IMPERATIVE. paissons pais paissez qu'il paisse qu'ils paissent Que je paisse, que nous paissions SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu paisses qu'il paisse que vous paissiez qu'ils paissent Conj ugate after the same manner : Repaître, to feed. Se repaître, to feed one's self. These last two verbs have a preterit definite, and an imperfect of the subjunctive. tu repus vous reputes que tu repusses que vous repussiez The compound tenses of repaître, are conjugated with Avoir, and those of se repaître, with Etre. Je repus nous repûmes Que je repusse que nous repussions il reput ils repurent qu'il repût qu'ils repussent Paraître To Appear \ Inf. Par àître Part. Pres. Par aissant Part. Past, Par u Je par aïs nous par aissons Je par aissais nous par aissions Je par us nous par urnes Je par aîtrai nous par aîtrons Je par aîtrais nous par aîtrions PRESENT. tu par ais vous par aissez IMPERFECT. tu par aissais vous par aissiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu par us vous par ûtes FUTURE. tu par aîtras vous par aîtrez CONDITIONAL. tu par aîtrais vous par aîtriez il par ait ils par aissent il par aissait ils par aissaient il par ut ils par urent il par aîtra ils par aîtront il par aîtrait ils par aîtraient 248 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. par aissons Que je par aisse que nous par dissions IMPERATIVE. par ais par aissez qu'il par aisse qu'ils par dissent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu par disses qu'il par disse que vous par dissiez qu'ils par dissent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je par usse que nous par tissions que tu par usses qu'il par ût que vous par tissiez qu'ils par ussent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Apparaître, to appear. Reconnaître, to recognize, to know Comparaître, to appear. again. Connaître, to knoAv. Reparaître, to appear again. Disparaître, to disappear. Se méconnaître, to forget one's self. Méconnaître, to mistake, to forget, to neglect. The compound tenses are conjugated with Etre. Plaire To Please. Inf. PI aire Je pl ais nous pl oisons Je pl aisais nous pl aisions Je pl us nous pl ûmes Je pl airai nous pl airons Part. Pres. Pl aisant PRESENT. Part. Past, Pl u tu pl ais vous pl aisez IMPERFECT. tu pl disais vous pl aisiez il pl ait ils pl aisent il pl aisiit ils pl aisaient PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu pl US vous pl ûtes FUTURE. tu pl air as vous pl airez il pl ut ils pl wrtf/ii il pl air a ils pl air ont VERBS. 249 CONDITIONAL. Je pi dirais nous pi dirions pi aisons Que je pi aise que nous pi aisions tu pi airais vous pi airiez IMPERATIVE. pi ais pi aisez il pi airait ils pi airaient qu'il pi aise qu'ils pi aisent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu pi aises que vous pi aisiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il pi aise qu'ils pi aisent Que je pi usse que nous pi ussions que tu pi tisses qu'il pi ût que vous pi ussiez qu'ils pi ussent The compound tenses are conjugated with. Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner: Complaire, to humor, to please. Se taire, to forbear talking, to be Déplaire, to displease. silent, to hold one's tongue. Taire, to conceal, to keep secret. The compound tenses of se taire are conjugated with Etre, to be Poindre Poindre To shoot forth, to dawn. il poin t il poindra. Prendre To Take. Inf. Prendre Part. Pres. Prenant Part. Past, Pris Je prends nous prenons J e prenais nous prenions Je pris nous prîmes PRESENT. tu prends vous prenez IMPERFECT. tu prenais vous preniez PRETERIT DEFINITE. il prend ils prennent il prenait ils prenaient tu pris vous prîtes 11* il prit ils prirent 250 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Je prendrai nous prendrons Je prendrais nous prendrions prenons Que je prenne que nous prenions FUTURE. tu prendras vous prendrez CONDITIONAL. tu prendrais vous prendriez IMPERATIVE. prends prenez il prendra ils prendront il prendrait ils prendraient qu'il prenne qu'ils prennent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu prennes qu'il prenne que vous preniez qu'ils prennent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu prisses qu'il prît que vous prissiez qu'ils prissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Que je prisse que nous prissions Apprendre, to learn. Comprendre, to comprehend, to understand. Deprendre, to loosen, to disen- Rapprendre, to learn again. Reprendre, to take again, to re- sume. Surprendre, to surprise, to de- ceive. Se méprendre, to mistake. S'éprendre, to be smitten. The compound tenses of se méprendre and s'éprendre, are conju- gated with Etre, to be ; s'éprendre is used only in the participle past, and in all the compound tenses. Désapprendre, to unlearn. Entreprendre, to undertake. Réduire To Reduce. Inf. Rédui re Part. Pres. Rédui sant Part. Past, Rédui t Je rédui s nous rédui sons Je rédui sais nous rédui sions PRESENT. tu rédui s vous rédui sez IMPERFECT. tu rédui sais vous rédui siez il rédui t ils rédui sent il rédui sait ils rédui soient VERBS. 251 PRETERIT DEFINIE. Je rédui sis nous rédui sîmes tu rédui sis vous rédui sUes il rédui sit ils rédui sirent Je rédui rai nous rédui rons Je rédui rais nous rédui rions FUTURE. tu rédui ras vous rédui rez CONDITIONAL. tu rédui rais vous rédui riez il rédui ra ils rédui ront il rédui rait ils rédui raient IMPERATIVE. rédui sons Que je rédui se que nous rédui sions rédui s rédui ses qu'il rédui se qu'ils rédui SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu rédui ses que vous rédui siez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il rédui se qu'ils rédui sent Que je rédui sisse que tu rédui sisses qu'il rédui sît que nous rédui sissions que vous rédui sissiez qu'ils rédui sissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. ' Conjugate in the same manner: Conduire, to conduct, to lead. Luire, to shine, to glow. Construire, to construct. Nuire, to hurt. Cuire, to bake. Produire, to produce. Déduire, to deduct, to take from. Reconduire, to reconduct, to lead Détruire, to destroy. back. Econduire, to discard in polite Reconstruire, to construct again, manner. Enduire, to plaster. Entreluire, to shine a little, glow a little. Induire, to induce. Instruire, to instruct. Introduire, to introduce. Recuire, to bake again. Reluire, to shine, to glow, to Renduire, to plaster again. Reproduire, to reproduce. Séduire, to seduce. Traduire, to translate. 252 ON THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. Résoudre To Dissolve, to Resolve, Inf. Résoudre Part. Pres. Résolvant Part. Past, Résolu or résous Je ré sous nous ré solvons Je ré sol vais nous ré solvions Je ré solus nous ré solûmes Je ré soudrai nous ré soudrons Je ré soudrais nous ré soudrions ré solvons Que je ré solve que nous ré solvions PRESENT. tu ré sous vous ré solvez IMPERFECT. tu ré solvais vous ré solviez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu ré solus vous ré solutes FUTURE. tu ré soudras vous ré soudrez CONDITIONAL. tu ré soudrais vous ré soudriez il ré sout ils ré solvent il ré solvait ils ré solvaient il ré solut ils ré solurent IMPERATIVE. re sous ré solvez il ré soudra ils ré soudront il ré soudrait ils ré soudraient qu'il ré solve qu'ils ré solvent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ré solves que vous ré solviez qu'il re solve qu'ils résolvent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je ré solusse que tu ré solusses qu'il ré solût que nous ré solussions que vous ré solussiez qu'ils ré solussent The compound tenses are conj ugated with. Avoir, to have. The above verb has two participles past. Résolu, is used when résoudre is employed to express to resolve ; and résous, when employed to express to dissolve. Absoudre, to absolve. Dissoudre, to dissolve. These two last verbs have no preterit definite, nor imperfect of the subjunctive. YEEBS. 253 Inf. Rire Je ris nous rions Je riais nous riions Je ris nous rîmes Je rirai nous rirons Je rirais nous ririons Que je rie que nous riions Eire To Laugh. Part. Pres. Riant Part. Past, Ri PRESENT. tu ris vous riez IMPERFECT. tu riais vous riiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. il rit ils rient il riait ils riaient tu ris vous rîtes FUTURE. tu riras vous rirez CONDITIONAL. tu rirais vous ririez IMPERATIVE. ris riez il rit ils rirent il rira ils riront il rirait ils riraient qu'il rie qu'ils rient SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu ries que vous riiez SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. qu'il rie qu'ils rient Que je risse que tu risses qu'il rît que nous rissions que vous rissiez qu'ils rissent Compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conj ugate after the same manner : Sourire, to smile. Se rire de, to laugh at. The compound tenses of se rire de, are conjugated with Etre. 254 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Inf. Rompre Te romps nous rompons Je rompais nous rompions Je rompis nous rompîmes Je romprai nous romprons Je romprais nous romprions rompons Que je rompe que nous rompions Rompre To Break. Part. Pres. Rompant Part. Past, Rompu PRESENT. tu romps vous rompez il rompt ils rompent IMPERFECT. tu rompais vous rompiez PRETERIT DEFINIT! tu rompis vous rompîtes FUTURE. tu rompras vous romprez CONDITIONAL. tu romprais vous rompriez il rompait ils rompaient il rompit ils rompirent il rompra ils rompront il romprait ils rompraient IMPERATIVE. romps rompez qu'il rompe qu'ils rompent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu rompes que vous rompiez qu'il rompe qu'ils rompent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je rompisse que tu rompisses qu'il rompît que nous rompissions que vous rompissiez qu'ils rompissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Corrompre, to corrupt. Interrompre, to interrupt. VERBS. 255 Inf. Suivre Je suis nous suivons Je suivais nous suivions Je suivis nous suivîmes Je suivrai nous suivrons Je suivrais nous suivrions suivons Que je suive que nous suivions Que je suivisse que nous suivissions Suivre To Follow. Part. Pres. Suivant Part. Past, Suivi PRESENT. tu SUIS vous suivez IMPERFECT. tu suivais vous suiviez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu suivis vous suivîtes FUTURE. tu suivras vous suivrez CONDITIONAL tu suivrais vous suivriez IMPERATIVE. il suit ils suivent il suivait ils suivaient il suivit ils suivirent il suivra ils suivront il suivrait il suivraient suis suivez qu'il suive qu'ils suivent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu suives que vous suiviez qu'il suive qu'ils suivent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. que tu suivisses qu'il suivit que vous suivissiez qu'ils suivissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Poursuivre, to pursue, to prosecute. S'en suivre, to follow, to result. The last verb is only used in the third person singular of every tense. 250 ON THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. Inf. Traire Je trais nous trayons Je trayais nous trayions Je trairai nous trairons Je trairais nous trairions trayons Traire To Milk Part. Pres. Trayant Part. Past, Trait PRESENT. tu trais vous trayez IMPERFECT. tu trayais vous trayiez FUTURE. tu trairas vous trairez CONDITIONAL tu trairais vous trairez IMPERATIVE. trais trayez il trait ils traient il trayait ils trayaient il traira ils trairont il trairait ils trairaient qu'il traie qu'ils traient Que je traie que nous trayions SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu traies qu'il traie que vous trayiez qu'ils traient The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Abstraire, to abstract. Rentraire, to fine draw. Attraire, to attract, to entice. Retraire, to redeem an estate. Distraire, to distract, to divert. Soustraire, to substract, to hide, to Extraire, to extract. conceal, to take away. Se soustraire à, to avoid, to escape, to withdraw one's self from. Se soustraire à, is conjugated with Etre, to be. Vaincre To vanquish, to conquer. Inf. Vaincre Part. Pres. Vainquant Part. Past, Vaincu PRESENT. Je vaincs tu vaincs il vainc nous vainquons vous vainquez ils vainquent VERBS. Je vainquais nous vainquions Je vainquis nous vainquîmes Je vaincrai nous vaincrons Je vaincrais nous vaincrions IMPERFECT. tu vainquais vous vainquiez PRETERIT DEFINITE. tu vainquis vous vainquîtes FUTURE. tu vaincras vous vaincrez CONDITIONAL. tu vaincrais vous vaincriez il vainquait ils vainquaient il vainquit ils vainquirent il vaincra ils vaincront il vaincrait ils vaincraient vainquons Que je vainque que nous vainquions IMPERATIVE. vaincs qu'il vainque vainquez qu'ils vainquent SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. que tu vainques qu'il vainque que vous vainquiez qu'ils vainquent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je vainquisse que tu vainquisses qu'il vainquît que nous vainquissions que vous vainquissiez qu'ils vainquissent The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Convaincre, to convince. Vivre To Li Inf Vivre Part. Pres. Vivant PRESENT. Je vis tu vis nous vivons vous vivez IMPERFECT. Je vivais tu vivais nous vivions vous viviez Part. Past, Vécu il vit ils vivent il vivait ils vivaient 258 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PRETERIT DEFINITE. Je vécus nous vécûmes Je vivrai nous vivrons Je vivrais nous vivrions tu vécus vous vécûtes FUTURE. tu vivras vous viviez CONDITIONAL. tu vivrais vous vivriez IMPERATIVE. Que je vive que nous vivions VIS vivez SUBJUNCTIVE PRESE que tu vives que vous viviez il vécut ils vécurent il vivra Us vivront il vivrait Us vivraient qu'il vive qu'ils vivent qu'il vive qu'ils vivent qu'il vécût qu'ils vécussent SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. Que je vécusse que tu vécusses que vous vécussions que vous vécussiez The compound tenses are conjugated with Avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Revivre, to revive. Survivre, to survive. EXERCISES ON THE VERBS. I. — FIRST CONJUGATION. I would give it to you with pleasure, if you would hide it. He prefers pleasure to duty, but I wished that he might rather prefer duty to pleasure. Do not irritate this man ; he is drunk, and you would he sorry afterwards. Let him propose a better plan, I have proposed mine. We neglect too often our friends ; let us think more of them and less of ourselves. You admired her, but I loved her. We would console her in her grief, but she refused our sympathy. Have you employed all your resources, or did you not rather neglect the most important means ? Let them yield this and they will soon discover that I changed for a purpose. Does he support any candi- date, or by whom is he supported ? He was fishing in the stream VERBS. 259 when he caught that big fish. He awoke late and found that all his friends had gone in the morning. Would you not have flown to her assistance, if she had cried ? He ate too much, and now he has dined a second time. I wish that you may remain here for a week ; I will stay with you. That he should oblige my brother and offend his own, was a great surprise to all. He warned me that I should not copy his example. We expected that they would have burnt the ship. II. — SECOND CONJUGATION. Choose your seat and do not leave for an hour. Warn your friends that they convert themselves or it will be too late. They served him well, but they slept too much. Did not the enemies invade an im- mense country, and did they not invest several fortresses ? He softened his father by his submission, and I foresaw that he might succeed if he came back in time. I wished that you would not sully your glory by these mean deeds. He obtains all his money from his wife ; she retains nothing, and thus she suffers frequently ; but he blemishes his reputation. Let us finish this work ; he will pumsli us if we are not ready. They predicted that we would disobey the laws and that we would weaken the strength of our party. Hold this sword and do not let it fall. He left this morning, and we shall leave to-morrow ; when will you leave ? Let him maintain himself by his labor and all will honor him. III. — THIRD CONJUGATION. He receives a large salary, but he owes large sums of money. When he owed me a hundred dollars, I feared that he would not pay me, but he has fulfilled his promise. Let them conceive these ideas and they will perceive soon their errors. We perceived the house from the top of the mountain, but they did not perceive us. We shall conceive hopes of her recovery if she suffers less to-night than yester- day ; the doctor said that he perceived good symptoms. He told us that we should not receive this officer with too much politeness, because he was not a friend of our nation, but that w r e should be polite to those who come to our house. IV. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. We knew him well when he sold goods in this city, but he did not know us, for we lived in another part of the city. Let them be silent or they will render themselves hateful to the enemy. We lost all our money, and you would lose yours if you sold your paintings 260 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. now. Did this dog bite you or liad you been bitten before? He did not please by liis manners but by liis conduct. Pity us, my friends, for we have pitied you when you were unfortunate. You fear an idle threat, why did you not fear the real danger? He con- soled me, that I might not melt in tears. I would recognize him everywhere, but he will not recognize his own brother. I said it that you might hear the opinion of an honest man, but you heard only the half of my speech. They appeared surprised, but it surprised them not, for they had heard it yesterday. Let us take patience and let us seem contented with our lot, if we cannot be so. He expected us at the gate and we heard his voice, but he seemed (to be) angry. That he may depend on me and on my friends, is my sincere wish. V. — PRONOMINAL VERBS. They walked for several hours in the garden, and when they had walked enough, they proposed to each other to withdraw into the house. Why did she not prepare herself for this event, she knew that it might come soon. We have ruined ourselves in this enter- prise, and you would ruin yourself if you engaged in the same. They applauded themselves, but they were mistaken ; they had not escaped yet. Do not forget yourselves when you are in his house. Should she betray herself by her tears, or should she not rather control herself and hide her sorrow ? They fought each other all that day, and when evening came they withdrew to their camp. Let us not reproach ourselves with (de) faults of others; we have enough to do with our own faults. You would degrade yourself if you were not deceived ; they have loved each other all their life. Will not that man submit to so just a law? She will dishonor her- self, if she forgets herself so far. He grew rich by the misfortunes of others, and now chance has reduced him to poverty. Do not expose yourself to the air ; we exposed ourselves last night and we made our- selves sick. VI. — PASSIVE VERBS. He was esteemed by all his friends, but now he is hated' and de- spised. They would be feared and dreaded if they were stronger. I wish that the doors were opened ; they have been closed since yester- day. I suspect that the artifice will have been discovered, and the author, no doubt, has been exposed. My father was respected and my mother was revered. These young ladies retired, although they VEEBS. 261 were recognized. He performed witli so much ability that he was applauded universally. Would he have been praised, as he was, if he had been less modest ? He is known by nobody, but, still, he is very happy. How many countries, unknown to the ancients, have been discovered in our days ? VII. — IMPERSONAL VERBS. Does it rain this morning or does it freeze ? It did not snow during the winter, but it snows this morning. When did it hail in your city ? Do you think (that) it will freeze again to-morrow ? It hap- pened that I was present at that remarkable adventure, and it appears now that I was the only witness. Would it be proper that I should speak to her, or would it appear presumptuous? It thundered twice when I was absent ; has it thundered again ? It will lighten after several seconds. VIII. — ON THE VERB " Il y Cl" There was a great difference of age between these two persons. Was there a great crowd at the theatre ? I wish there could be a law to prevent this ; there has been too much of it. What has there been better than this in the history of our country ? There being so many difficulties, the affair has been abandoned. There was one woman in the company, but there were a hundred men, and there would have been many children also, if it had been permitted. There has been a festival every day, and there will be a solemn feast to-mor- row. 1 vdoii that there might be a larger crowd. IX. — ON THE VERB " B faut" [All expressions implying necessity, duty, obligation, or want, are in French expressed by falloir, followed by que with the verb in the Sub- junctive. I must remain; it is necessary that I remain: il faut que je reste, lie had to work ; it was necessary that he worked : il fallait qu'il travaillât.] You must speak to him about this affair, and he must answer you politely or there will be a difficulty. We were obliged to set out yes- terday, for we had to be in the city before Thursday. What must I do in order to please you ? You must do your duty faithfully and you will please everybody. What does he want ? He wants something to eat and something to drink. I had to abandon all hope of seeing him again. You must not forget that you promised me a letter ; you must, on the contrary, remember your promise and write very often 262 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. I do not think that it is necessary to be a magician, to guess your secrets. You ought to ask pardon for your faults, and they will be readily forgiven. X. — ON THE IRREGULAR YERBS OP THE FIRST CONJUGATION. He will go this evening into the country — will you go with him ? I will go when you go ; for I would have gone yesterday, if I had not preferred to go with you. Well, let us go at once, for if we go later it will be too hot. Let him go with us, he is a pleasant companion, and if we go together we shall have a pleasant walk. When will you send those flowers to your sister, or have you sent them already ? No, I would have sent them this morning, but the gardener had given them to a friend ; 1 shall send my bouquet this evening. I would not send them so late, she will not be at home then. Did you send the letters to the post-office ? Yes, I sent all by the servant. 1 wish that you would send me a little money, I have none. XI. — IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. Blessed be the man who has converted so many heathens ! The arts and sciences flourished at Athens in the time of Pericles. They fled from the battle-field, and I fled with them ; you saw us, perhaps, in our flight ; we acted not with prudence and care, for we were frightened ; the enemy assailed us with an enormous force, and when we began to flee, we ran as fast as we could. Would he not hate that man, if he knew all ? He hated him before, but now he will de- spise him. Does she really hate the vain pomp and parade of worldly greatness ? They discoursed on the certainty of another life, and that we should not run after shadows. He is very sick, and his strength fails him every day more ; he came near dying yesterday. How did he acquire his riches ? I have inquired after it and requested his friends to tell me, but I have not learnt it. Would you dress your children better if you could collect your money more easily ? Let us receive him with kindness, and he will receive us well when we come to his country. XII. — IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. How did he fall into poverty, and why has he fallen so suddenly in the esteem of the public ? He has put in the lottery, and he hopes a capital prize will fall to him. I did not believe that it was necessary for me to pay so soon ; the bill has not yet fallen due. It was neces- sary that you should provide for its payment now, or you would have VERBS. 263 had to pay much, more hereafter. Shall we see you to-night? I would see you again, if I could, and I hope that I shall be able to come. We moved him by our prayers to tears, and he promised that he would promote our interests. It will not rain to-day, for it rained yesterday, and it is rare that it rains two days one after the other. Let us sit down here ; you, madam, seat yourself in a chair, and I will sit on the .turf. We sat where we could, and when the usher said Sit down, gentlemen, we were much embarrassed. To conclude this business it would be necessary that they should see each other at once ; I foresaw this, and provided for the interview. One ounce of gold is equivalent to fifteen ounces of silver — what would ten ounces be equivalent to? Doubt not that truth and justice will prevail in the end. If she is willing, we are willing, too. He says that he can do what he will do, because men will do nothing more than what they can do, if they are wise. XIII. — IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. These substances resolve themselves into ashes when they are burnt ; but this matter does not resolve itself at all. Who would absolve him if he should commit a great crime ? Have they resolved on war or peace ? My sister sewed all the day, and yet, when the evening came, the dress was not sewed, and some pieces which were finished have to be sewed over again. Let him take his share ; I took mine yesterday, and you have taken yours before us. What news have you learnt ? I learnt that the city was taken, and that the enemy would live at the expense of the inhabitants for a month. Would you undertake this business if I placed it in your hands ? You reproved him too sharply ; bad company has corrupted him, perhaps, but he is not wicked by nature. They followed us for two days, but then they pursued us no longer, and we escaped. They fought with fury, and after they had beaten the enemy and vanquished their fa- mous generals, they made a triumphal procession. He did his best, you did not so well, and they would have done better if they had wished it. Could it be possible that we should make such a mistake? He must make a better use of his talents. They satisfied themselves that they would do mischief if they went. He was born in this city, where his parents were born also. They wrote their letters this morning ; I shall write mine now ; will you not write yours also ? Did you think me capable of a crime, when you made that remark ? I would not believe it of you, even if somebody said so. 264 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. PARTICIPLES. Participles derive their name from the fact that they partake of the nature of the verbs from which they derive their origin and meaning, and of the adjective, which they resemble in form and use. The verb has two participles : A participle present, which invariably ends in ant, has its feminine in ante, and its two plural forms in ants and antes, Ex. charmant ; une femme charmante, a charming woman ; des enfants charmants, charming children; deux histoires char- mantes, two charming stories. A participle past, which ends in the first conjugation in ê (ée, és, ées), in the second in i (ie, is, ies), in the third and fourth in u (ne, us, ues). Ex. un homme cache, a concealed man ; une beauté célébrée, a celebrated beauty ; des gens desespérés, desperate people. Both participles are declined like adjectives, and have to agree with the noun they qualify, whenever they are not used as mere parts of the verb, but have the meaning of adjectives. The following rule will easily determine in what capacity they are used. 1. They are parts of the verb when they express an action, and consequently have an object. In this case they remain unchanged. Ex. Je Vai vue charmant tout le monde, I have seen her charming (who charmed) everybody ; mon ami, étonnant les assistants, tomba sur eux, my friend, astonishing the bystanders, fell upon them. 2. They are adjectives when they express, not an action, but a quality. Then they agree with the noun which they qualify. Ex. Cest une femme charmante, she is a charming woman ; quelle nouvelle étonnante! what surprising news ! ADVERBS. 265 It must be remembered, that as adjectives, they are invariably placed after the noun, contrary to the usage in English. 3. The Participle Past agrees, besides, with the subject of the verb, whenever it is used with the auxiliary être. Ex. Elle est étonnée, she is astonished; ils se sont bathes, they have fought ; elles s'étaient promenées, they had walked. 4. The Participle Past, when used with the auxiliary avoir, agrees with the direct object, when this object precedes it. Ex. Quelle femme avez-vous vue? which woman have you seen ? combien des hommes a-t-il tués? how many of the men has he killed ? je Vai rencontrée, I have met her ; les choses que f ai oubliées, the things I have forgotten. Exercise. These ladies are charming ; they have entertained us for an hour ; but now they will not stay, for you have frightened them. I left them in an embarrassing situation, and even his consoling words had no effect. This was one of the ladies whom we had obliged, and yet she has ill-treated and deceived us. Your servant has washed your plates, but he has not wiped them ; they are spoilt. She had spoken to us, but she has not saluted us with her usual kindness. This amusing story is not true ; it has been invented by a celebrated novelist. He told us several instances of amazing bravery ; they have astonished us beyond measure. How many of them has he seen himself ? He has seen all those which he related to us. CHAPTER VI. ADVERBS. Adverbs are words so called because they principally serve to qualify verbs ; they may, however, qualify adjectives and other adverbs also. But, whatever may be their uses, they always remain unchanged. Ex. Vous avez fait bien, you have done well; elle est bien belle, she is very handsome; vous écrivez bien négligemment, you write very negligently. 266 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. There are four different kinds of adverbs, according to their manner of formation : 1. Simple Adverbs, or such as are nothing but adverbs, and are not derived from other parts of speech. Such are très, fort, and bien, very ; peu, little ; mal, ill ; ici, here ; là, there ; tôt, soon ; tard, late. 2. Derivative Adverbs, or such as are derived from adjectives. This is done by the addition of ment (the Latin ablative of mens, mente.) a. To the adjective simply, when it ends in a vowel. Ex. riche: richement, richly; poli : poliment, politely ; in- génu : ingénument, ingenuously. b. To the feminine of the Adjective, if the masculine ends in a consonant. Ex. grand : grandement, grandly ; franc : franchement, frank- ly ; naïf: naïvement, artlessly; frais: fraîchement, freshly; nouveau : nouvellement, newly. c. By a change of the final syllables ant and ent into ammant and emment, which are both pronounced like the first. Ex. constant : constamment, constantly; éloquent: éloquem- ment, eloquently. Except lent, which makes lentement, slowly ; and present, which makes présentement, presently. d. The following Adverbs accent the final e of the Adjective, when adding ment : aveuglément, blindly. énormément, enormously. commodément, commodiously. opiniâtrement, obstinately. conformément, conformably. Exercise. This orator spoke very eloquently, but he did not touch the heart ; his sentiments were not delivered ingenuously. He entered blindly into the conspiracy and suffered severely. I will tell you frankly that you have deserved abundantly all your punishments, for you have ADVEKBS. 267 acted wickedly, and the judge has treated you after all very leniently* She endured her sufferings patiently, and gave us a good example. He was one of the best writers of the last century ; he thought deeply and wrote nobly. The battle was fought conformably to his orders, and all went well, but instantly after his death every thing was in confusion. 3. Compound Adverbs, or such as consist of a noun or a preposition, as d'abord, at first or at once ; en effet, indeed ; par force, forcibly ; à présent, now ; après demain, after to-mor- row. Adverbs of Quantity, when followed by nouns, must be con- nected with them by the preposition de, of ; which is not used in English. Ex. beaucoup de peine, much trouble ; peu d? argent, little money ; trop de zèle, too much zeal ; moins de bruit, less noise. Except only bien, very much, a great deal, which is not followed by de, but by thé partitive article. Ex. bien de la peine, very much trouble ; bien des amis, very many friends. Exercise. Much money and little wisdom are less desirable than much wis- dom and little money. He has as many friends as I, but he has more enemies. I had not enough patience with this child ; perhaps she had too many faults. How many dollars have you in your purse ? I have not enough to pay him. Few men learn by experience. Give me a little attention and I will tell you more secrets than your wife. He did it with less hesitation than his brother, who has more pru- dence. Too much zeal is almost as bad as too little, but no zeal at all is fatal to any enterprise. Negative Adverbs, used with the verb, require, a*s has already been stated, the addition of ne before the verb, whether they precede or follow the verb. Ex. Je n'ai vu rien, I have seen nothing; rien ne peut être mieux, nothing can be better ; il n'y est jamais, he is never there; jam' tin de ma vie rJ ai-je vu le pareil, never in my life have 1 seen the Lke. 268 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Exercise. I have not seen him this week ; he has never been absent so long, and nothing is more probable than his death. She said nothing to me, and I said nothing to her ; have you ever heard of two more silent persons ? Nobody came to her party, and she had invited all. I know nobody in this city, for I have never been here before. We have no more time to give you, and we have only one room in which we live. Nothing will persuade me that he is not dishonest ; I have never seen a more wicked face. COMPARATIVE DEGREES. Adverbs form their Comparatives and Superlatives in pre- cisely the same manner as Adjectives. Ex. plus richement, more richly ; moins abondamment, less abundantly; le plus gaiment, most gaily ; le moins promjrte- ment, least promptly. The irregular comparatives of Adjectives have their corres- ponding irregular comparatives of Adverbs, and both are here placed side by side for the better comparison. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. Adj. bon, good ; meilleur, better ; le meilleur, best. Adv. bien. well ; mieux, better ; le mieux, best. Adj. mauvais f bad ; pire, worse ; le pire, worst. Adv. maty ill; pis, worse ; le pis, worst. Adj. petit. small ; moindre, smaller; le moindre, smallest. Adv. peu, little ; moins, less ; le moins, least. It will be seen that in English adjectives and adverbs fre- quently look ajike, as is the case with better and worse, and best and worst; whilst in French the two parts of speech differ essentially. This requires, therefore, careful attention. Exercise. He did it more promptly than we expected. He behaved most handsomely, although he was the least informed of all. I like him better every day ; but his brother is the better man of the two. Have PREPOSITIONS. 269 you seen a worse child than Mary ? No ; but Anna is the worst of all the children. Is she worse to-day or better ? She was worse yester- day, and the doctor said that to-morrow will be the worst day of her illness. I have drunk a better wine, but I have never seen a worse cook. He does it well, but she does it badly. CHAPTER VII. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions placed before nouns, pronouns, and verbs, show their relation to each other in the same sentence. According to their uses they are either Simple prepositions, which are placed immediately before the nouns — Ex. le fruit de V arbre, the fruit of the tree ; la mort de César, the death of Ca3sar ; tué par lui, killed by him ; — or, Compound prepositions, which require an additional prepo- sition, de or a, to connect them with the noun. Ex. quant à vous, concerning you ; vis-à-vis de la maison, opposite the house ; jusqu'à midi, until noon ; près de Genève, near Geneva. The three Prepositions which occur most frequently are : de, à and^ar. De coi responds to all the meanings of the English of or from, and in passive constructions to by. Ex. un homme de génie, a man of genius ; je viens de Borne, I come from Rome ; elle est aimée de ses parents, she is beloved by her parents. A corresponds to the English to ; with names of cities, to at or in, and generally expresses purpose or intention. Ex. J'ai beaucoup à faire, I bave much to do ; donnez-la à Jean, give it to John ; il est à Londres, he is in London ; cela 270 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. arriva à Paris, that happened at Paris ; est-il bon à manger, is it good to eat (for the purpose of eating) } Par corresponds to the English through, and in passive con- structions to by, when a physical agency is referred to, while de is used when the agency is moral or mental. Ex. Passez par ma chambre, go through my chamber; il fut tué par un soldat, he was killed by a soldier; elle Va fait par pitié, she did it from (through) pity. Dans and en both mean in, but with this distinction, that dans always means within and into, and is accompanied by the article, whilst en has no such meaning and is used only when the Noun has no Article. Ex. Il entra dans la ville, he entered into the city ; elle n'est pas dans la maison, she is not inside the house. Il est en France, he is in France ; il faut le faire en hâte, it must be done in haste. When Prepositions are placed before Verbs they require to be followed by the Infinitive (instead of the Participle Present used in English). Ex. Without saying a word, sans dire mot ; he was scolded for having done it, il fut blâmé de Favoir fait ; it is good for eating, il est bon à manger. Except en when it means by or while, which is followed by the Part. Present. Ex. Il tomba en descendant, he fell while coming down ; on V apprend en V étudiant, it is acquired by studying it. Exercise. I shall not leave you without explaining to you my motives. Has he not found his book while looking for the other things ? She will have paid you well by giving you that sum of money; are you not content with a hundred dollars? This house is good for the winter, but it is not cool enough for the summer. He was not found in the suburbs, but they discovered him within Paris. I went there before them, and thus I obtained a seat before you. While going to the concert we dis- cussel the matter, but we did not decide on any thing. Did you see CONJUNCTIONS. 271 them wlien you passed through that country, or did you return with- out having met them ? He was punished because he said the laws were good to punish but not to prevent crime. As for me, I know nothing of it ; but as for you, you know every thing. He lives oppo- site us, and we see him often fall asleep while reading. CHAPTER VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions serve to connect words in the same sentence, or sentences and parts of sentences with each other. Ex. Pierre et Paul, Peter and Paul ; je le vis et je le saluai, I saw him and spoke to him ; il Va fait et elle ne Va pas fait, he has done it and she has not done it. Et besides meaning and, is also repeated, and then corres- ponds to the English as well — >as, or both. Ex. Je Vai et vu et admiré, I have both seen and admired him ; on a pris et le père et le fils, they have caught the father as well as the son. Ou, meaning or, may also be repeated, and then corresponds to the English either — or. Ex. Ou le roi ou le ministre va parler, either the king or the minister will speak ; ou il s'est trompé ou il nous a déçus, he has either been mistaken or he has deceived us. The negative alternative is expressed by ni — ni, which requires, like all negative expressions, the additional use ot ne before the verb. Ex. Ni le roi ni le ministre ne parlera, neither the king nor the minister will speak ; je ne Vai ni vu ni salué, I have neither seen him nor greeted him ; ni Vun ni Vautre, neither the one nor the other. Que corresponds to the English that and loses its e before words beginning with a vowel or mute h ; it cannot be omitted in 272 ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. French as in English, but must be used (and supplied) when- ever two verbs are connected with each other. Ex. I know he is here, je sais qu'il est ici ; I hope you will come, f espère que vous viendrez ; he said he would go, il dit qu'il irait. Si, when it corresponds to the English conditional if, can in French be followed only by two tenses of the Verb ; by the Present Indicative, for the English Present and Future ; and by the Imperfect Indicative, for any other Tenses or Moods that may be used in English : Ex. If he comes, s'il vient ; if he will say yes, sHl dit qu'oui ; if he should come to-morrow, s'il venait demain ; if she were to promise again, si elle promettait de nouveau» Exercise. I have given him both my love and my esteem, and I shall with- draw neither the one nor the other for all your arguments. I saw he was angry, and since I did not wish to make matters worse or to engage myself in the quarrel, I went away. Either you or he must do it, for it has to be done to-day, or you as well as he will suffer severely. I had seen neither your friend nor his wife when I met you ; and if you were never to pardon me for it, I cannot say other- wise. If he comes this morning, tell him I will be there certainly, and if he will wait, my library is open ; if he should refuse to wait, you must lock the house. She would not sing last night because she was not well ; perhaps she will sing to-day, since she says she is quite well again. CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections are short, indeclinable words which serve to express the sudden emotions of man. They are, of course, as numerous and varied as the latter. The following are the INTEEJECTIONS. 273 most familiar, whilst others are either of rare occurrence, as e. g., only in poets, or of objectionable nature : Ah, ai, oitf—oî pain ; hélas, alas ; fi, fi donc, fie ; gare, hem, holà, ho — of warning; bravo, vivat — of applause; ouais? of surprise; holà, hem, ho, eh — of calling; chut, hush! — allons, alerte, vite — of encouragement ; tiens — look, look here ! 12* GRAMMAR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. PART II. FOR ADVANCED SCHOLAES. In the First Part of this Grammar the different parts of speech have heen considered simply with a view to their form and ordi- nary meaning. In the Second Part they will be treated as forming part of a sentence, and with a view to their relations to each other. The same order will be observed as in the First Part, and the student is expected continually to refer to the elementary explanations there given, which will not be repeated. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB Preface 2 CHAPTER I. NOUNS. Gender of Nouns 9 By Signification 10 By Termination 12 Exercise . . . 17 Number of Nouns 18 Exercise 20 Plural of Proper Names , 21 Exercise 22 Plural of Compound Nouns 22 Exercise 25 Plural of Abstract Nouns 26 CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. Formation 26 Place of the Article 28 Repetition of the Article 28 Use of the Article 29 Use of the Definite Article 30 Use of the Indefinite Article 30 Exercise 31 Use of the Partitive Article 32 Exercise 32 Exercise 33 4 CONTENTS. PAGE The Article with Proper Names 34 Exercise 35 The Article with Names of Countries, etc 36- Exercise 37 The Article with Names of Months, etc 38 Exercise , 38 The Article with Nouns in Apposition 39 Exercise 39 Exercise 40 The Article with Names of Measure 41 Exercise 41 Exercise 42 Omission of the Article 42 Exercise 43 Exercise 45 English Compound Nouns in French 45 Exercise 47 Monsieur , Madame, etc 48 Exercise 52 CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. Agreement of Adjectives 52 Nu, demi, feu, etc 53 Adjectives as Adverbs 55 Exercise 56 Compound Adjectives 56 Adjectives qualifying several Nouns 57 Adjectives used as Nouns 58 Exercise 58 The Place of Adjectives 59 List of Adjectives with double meaning 59 Exercise 63 Comparative Degrees 63 Exercise , 65 The Relative Superlative 66 Exercise v 67 The Absolute Superlative »... 68 Exercise 69 Regimen of Adjectives 69 CONTENTS. 5 PAGK List of Adjectives and their Prepositions » . . 70 Exercise 72 Adjectives of Measure 72 Exercise 74 Adjectives of Number 74 Cardinal Numbers 74 Definitions of Time 75 Exercise 78 Ordinal Numbers and other Numerals.. 79 Exercise 81 CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns 82 Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 84 Subjects (as nominatives) 84 Direct Object (accusative) 87 Exercise 90 Indirect Object (Dative) 90 Exercise 93 Indirect Object (Genitive) 93 Meaning and use of en 93 Exercise 96 Place of Conjunctive Personal Pronouns 97 As Subject 97 Exercise 99 As Object 99 Exercise 100 Repetition of Personal Pronouns 101 Exercise 102 Personal Pronouns for Possessive Pronouns 102 Exercise 104 How to translate it 104 Exercise 106 Personal Pronouns with Neuter Verbs 106 Reflexive Personal Pronouns 107 Absolute Personal Pronouns 108 Exercise 109 Exercise Ill 6 CONTENTS. PAOB The Pronoun soi Ill Exercise 112 Possessive Pronouns 113 Exercise 114 With Articles, etc 114 Exercise 116 Demonstrative Pronouns 116 Exercise 118 Absolute forms 119 Exercise 120 With ci and là. 120 Exercise 122 Relative Pronouns 123 Exercise 125 Quoi and où 126 Exercise 127 Absolute and Interrogative Pronouns 127 Exercise 129 Lequel and quel 130 Exercise 131 Indefinite Pronouns 131 Used alone 131 Exercise 134 Used with Nouns 140 Exercise 141 Used with or without Nouns 142 Exercise 145 The same continued 146 Exercise 150 Followed by que 151 Exercise 152 CHAPTER V. VERBS. Classes of Verbs 154 The Verb and its Subject 157 Exercise 159 CONTENTS. 7 PAGTC The Verb and Collective Nouns 100 Exercise 161 The Place of the Subject 162 Exercise 164 The Place of the Object 164 Exercise .... 167 The Tenses and Moods of the Verb 167 The Infinitive 167 Exercise, 171 The Present.. 172 Exercise 173 The Past Tenses 173 Exercise 176 The Compound Past Tenses 177 Exercise * 179 The Future 179 Exercise 181 The Conditional 181 Exercise 182 The Imperative 182 The Subjunctive Mood 183 The Sequence of Tenses 184 The Use of the Subj uncti ve 185 Four Exercises 192 The Participle Present 194 Exercise - 195 The Participle Past 196 Exercise 199 Special Rules on the same subject 200 Exercise 202 The English Auxiliary Verbs in French 202 Pouvoir , 202 Exercise 204 Vouloir 205 Exercise 206 Devoir 207 Exercise 208 Laisser 209 Exercise 210 8 CONTENTS. PAGX Falloir 210 Exercise 2\2 Idiomatic Use of Verbs 212 A voir and y avoir 212 Exercise 212 Eire 217 Faire 220 Exercise 222 Aller and Venir 223 Exercise 224 CHAPTER VI. ADVERBS. Place of Adverbs 227 Si, aussi, tant, and autant 228 Exercise 229 Beaucoup amibien 229 Interrogative Adverbs 231 Exercise 232 Negative Adverbs 233 Exercise 236 CHAPTER VII. PREPOSITIONS. Special Rules on some Prepositions 239 Exercise 242 Same subject continued 242 Lists of Verbs with their Prepositions 248 Exercise 249 CHAPTER VIII. CONJUNCTIONS 250 CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS 255 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PART II. CHAPTER I. NOUNS. The two most important relations, which influence the form of French Nouns in a sentence, and through them affect all words connected with them, are their Gender and their Number, the manner in which they convey the idea of sex, and that of a singular or plural number. I. — GENDER OF NOUNS. The idea of sex is expressed by tlie Gender of Nouns, which in French is double : Masculine and Feminine. The Neuter Gender of the Latin language, from which most French Nouns are derived, has been lost at a time when all Latin termina- tions were lost ; and hence, to the eye and to the ear, the dis- tinction between Masculine and Neuter ceased to be clear. Hence, Nouns which were Neuter in Latin, are either Masculine or Feminine in French, though the majority belong to the former class. Hence, also, Nouns which are Neuter in English, are either Masculine or Feminine in French. 10 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The Gender, in French, is determined — a. By the Meaning of the nouns. This gives the following rules : Masculine are : 1. The names of male beings. . Ex. Alexandre ; César; cheval, horse ; éléphant, elephant. Except the following words, which, for etymological reasons, are feminine, although they designate men : sentinelle, sentinel ; estafette, express; vedette, mounted sentinel, and vigie, lookout Sentinelle is occasionlly used as a masculine. 2. The names of beings generally considered as male. Ex. ange, angel; génie, genius; centaure, centaur. This includes all diminutive names of animals, even when the original name was feminine. Ex. le lionceau, a young lion ; un souriceau, a young mouse ; un bécasseau, a young woodcock. 3. The names of days, months, and seasons. Ex. dimanche, Sunday; Janvier, January; été, summer. Except saints' days, where la fête is understood ; as, La Ste. Jean, St. John's day ; La Toussaint, All Saints' Day. 4. The words of decimal nomenclature. Ex. centime, cent ; gramme. 5. The names of metals and so-called elementary bodies. Ex. or, gold ; fer, iron ; oxigene, oxygen ; sulfate, sulphate. Except platine, which the Academy treats as a feminine. 6. The names of trees and shrubs. Ex. pene, beech ; chêne, oak. Except yeuse, holly ; aubépine, hawthorn ; bourdaine, alder ; épine, thorn ; ronce, brier, and vigne, vine. 7. The names of winds. Ex. Est, East; Sud, South ; Ouest, West; Nord, North. Except bise and tramontane ; biaise and moussons, monsoon. GENDER OF NOUNS. 11 8. The names of mountains. Ex. Çhimboraso ; Cénis ; Liban, Lebanon ; Etna. Except those used only in the plural : Alpes, Pyrenees, Cordil- lères and Vosges. 9. The names of cities, towns and villages. Ex. Londres, Paris, Berlin, Vienne. Except those derived from a Latin feminine, as Roma: Borne ; Mantua : Mantoue ; and those which are used with a fem- inine article, as La Pochette, La Nouvelle Orléans. When towns are personified, they are always addressed as féminines. Ex. Oh malheureuse Tyr ! dans-quelles mains es- tu tombée ! Oh, unhappy Tyre, in whose hands art thou fallen ! 10. The names of countries which do not end in mute e. Ex. Lanemarck,Denmark; Piémont, Piedmont. 11. All other parts of speech, like numerals, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc., when used as nouns. Ex. le manger, eating ; le pourquoi, the wherefore ; un si, an if; le tiers, the third ; le noir, the black. Except la moitié, half ; and technical terms like une parallèle, a parallel {ligne being understood). Feminine are : 1. The names of female beings. Ex. Vénus ; déesse, goddess ; nymphe ; femme, woman. 2. The names of virtues and qualities. Ex. la bonté, kindness ; Vopiniâtreté, obstinacy. Except courage and mérite. b. By the Termination of the noun. This gives the follow- ing rule : Nouns ending in mute e are generally feminine, and all others generally masculine. This rule is, however, subject to numerous exceptions, 12 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. most of which have been given in the First Part of this Gram mar. They arise mainly from these two considerations, which will guide the educated foreigner better in ascertaining the gender of French nouns than a multitude of rules : 1st. The meaning of a noun prevails over the mere form. 2d. The derivation of a noun from a Latin word aids in so much, as the original gender is generally preserved, the neuter, of course, being excepted. It must be borne in mind, also, that these and other rules in French are subject to the influence of fashion and caprice. Thus affaire and rencontre were formerly both masculine, the latter as late as the date of J. B. Rousseau ; they are now feminine. Insulte, âge and art have changed their gender in more recent times. Carrosse, formerly a feminine noun, became mascuiine, because Louis XIV., as a boy, forgot its gender, and called for Le carrosse ! This uncertainty of genders has led to the fact, that many nouns are even now of both genders. An important class of nouns are those which have to be applied to both sexes. We observe here the following rules : 1. When they end in mute e, they remain unchanged : Ex. aigle, eagle ; cygne, swan ; esclave, slave ; sauvage, sav- age ; créole, créole. Except doge, Fern, dogaresse. druide, Fern, druidesse. drôle y drôlesse. ivrogne, ivrognesse, ogre, ogresse. pauvre, pauvresse, tigre, tigresse. 2. Some have a different termination for the feminine : Ex. loup, Fern, louve. daim, Fern, daine, canard, cane. chevreuil, chevrette. compagnon, farceur, jouvenceau, compagne, farceuse, jouvencelle. bachelier, bachelette. serviteur, servante. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13 3. The following nouns retain their gender as well as their form, whet 1er app lied to man or woman : Agresseur, masc. aggressor. guide, masc. guide. amateur, masc. amateur. monstre, masc. monster. ange, masc. angel. orateur, masc. orator. appui, masc. support. partisan, masc. partisan. artisan, masc. tradesman. philosophe, masc. philosopher. artiste. masc. artist. personne, fem. person. assassin, auteur, masc. ( masc. - murderer. author. authoress. poète, pratique, masc. fem. j poet. ( poetess, customer. bête, fem. fool. précepteur, masc. preceptor. botaniste, masc. botanist. prédécesseur masc. predecessor. bourreau, masc. tormentor. professeur, masc. professor. caution, fem. security. prosateur, masc. proser. censeur, charlatan, masc. masc. censor, quack. rédacteur, masc. j writer in ( newspapers* chef, masc. chief. secrétaire, masc. secretary. commis, masc. clerk. souscripteur, masc. subscriber. connaissance ,fem. acquaintance, successeur, masc. successor. diable, masc. • a passionate person, or one who succeeds in dif cult undertakings. défenseur, masc. defender. témoin, masc. witness. détracteur, masc. slanderer. traducteur, masc. translator. disciple, masc. disciple. tyran, masc. tyrant. dupe, fem. dupe. vainqueur, masc. vanquisher. écrivain, masc. writer. versificateur, masc. versifier. gage, masc. pledge. victime, fem. victim. Enfant, child, also is invariable, but takes the feminine article when applied to a girl, as la pauvre enfant, the poor little girl. 4. The following nouns occur both as masculine and as femi- nine, without any change of meaning : Amour, which is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, unless it designates little amours. Ex. Un vif amour, warm love; il n'est point d'éternelles amours, there is no everlasting love. 14 OK THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Automne is masculine when the adjective stands before it, and feminine when it follows it. Ex. Et toi, riant automne ! and thou, smiling autumn ! une automne nouvelle, a new autumn. Couleur, color, is feminine, except when it designates any particular color. It then becomes masculine. Ex. Une belle couleur, sl fine color; un beau couleur rose, a pretty pink-color. Couple, couple, is masculine when it designates the union of a man and a woman in marriage and friendship, and feminine when it merely serves to express the number two. Ex. Quel beau couple ! what a handsome couple ! Donnez- moi une couple d'œufs. give me a couple (two) of eggs. When two of the same kind go together by necessity, paire is substituted for couple, as in English. Ex. Une paire de (/ants, a pair of gloves ; une paire de bottes, a pair of boots. Délice retains, from its Latin original, the peculiarity of being masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural. Ex. Cest un vrai délice, this is perfect delight ; craignez ses trompeuses délices, fear her treacherous charms. Gens, people, is essentially masculine, only it gives the femi- nine form to those adjectives which immediately precede it. Ex. Toutes ces bonnes gens, all these good people ; instruits par V expérience, les vieilles gens sont soupçonneux, taught by ex- perience, old people are suspicious. Hymne, hymn, is feminine when used to designate Christian hymns, and masculine in all other cases. Ex. Chantons ces belles hymnes de Luther, let us sing those beautiful hymns by Luther; un hymne adressé à Vénus, a hymn to Venus. GENDER OF NOUNS. 15 Orge, barley, is feminine as long as it means barley stand- ing, and becomes masculine when barley is prepared for use. Ex. Voilà de belles orges, that is fine barley ; Vorge mondé, pealed barley. Orgue, organ, is, like délice, masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural. Ex. Cet orgue est excellent, this organ is excellent ; y a-t-il de bonnes orgues ? are there fine organs there ? Œuvre, work, is feminine when it means any one great work of art, etc., and masculine when it has the sense of deed or creation. In the plural, where it means the works of an author, it is always feminine. Ex. Cest une œuvre brillante, cet opéra, this opera is a bril- liant work. Les œuvres complètes de Voltaire, Voltaire's com- plete works. 5. The following nouns occur, also, as masculines and as fémi- nines, but they change their meaning with their gender : MASCULINE. Aide aid, adjutant j eagle, a reading Aigle ( desk (at church) barbe a Barbary horse berce redbreast câpre privateer carpe wrist (in anatomy) cartouche scroll cloaque sink c stage-coach, or coche < packet-boat on ( a river. cravate Croat crêpe crape espace space follicule follicle forêt drill FEMININE. aide assistance aigle j the Roman stand* ( ard barbe beard berce cow-parsnip câpre caper carpe carp cartouche cartridge cloaque ancient aqueduct coche j notch 1 fat sow cravate cravat crêpe pancake espace - space (in printing) follicule pod foret forest 16 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. foudre ( large tun, thun- -< derbolt (in ele- ( vated style) foudre J thunderbolt (lite- 1 rally) givre hoar-frost givre ( snake (in her- \ aldry) greffe register's office greffe graft guide guide guide rein gueule gules, in heraldry gueule mouth of animals heliotrope turnsoll (flower) heliotrope j heliotrope, (pre- ( clous stone) interligne interline interligne lead (in printing) iris rainbow iris sprig-crystal laque China varnish laque gum -lac lit lily Lis or Lys Lys (a river) livre book liv?*e pound loutre \ hat or muff of ( otter hair loutre otter manche handle manche i sleeve, the British ( Lnannel mémoire bill mémoire memory 7nerci Tn on ira ny) /3.7V î* IILoI Lù JIlCI L,J mode mood mode fashion mole mole, pier mole (a surgical word) moufle a tackle of pulleys moujle mitten moule mould moule \ mu scle (a shell- ) fish} office office, business office pantry, larder omore j a game at cards, / 51 fish ombre shade compari son parallèle parallel nPTiflnlnm pendule clock Perche j Perche (a prov- ( ince) perche pole, perch (a fish) période the highest pitch période period pique spade at cards pique pique, grudge pivoine gnat-snapper pivoine peony (a flower) plane plane-tree •plane plane (a tool) poêle stove, canopy poêle frying-pan ponte punto (at cards) ponte laying of eggs GENDER OF ISTOUKS. 17 MASCULINE. FEMININE. poste post poste \ JUi/Lt/I \Ji. ilUloCJ UU 'A/1 JJ 1 o ■mivulp n fabric*. prétexte pretext prétexte Roman virile robe réclame ( f»n 1 1 i n o* \\'A rlr fl ( hawk reclame C f»*itY*li wnrrï /in ( printing) ft*ol r< 0T1 p / l-OUL/OG tpI fi Yti fîmi ffpl iipll P cilcllcl ^lUIdfcilip^ 1 V 1 1 (/(/OU livery coach i Utll'vO^/ coach-h ouse Qp-prvprit'l v\ lid Qpwnpti fpii vp D / l a. IV o ■ 1 Lf U o DCA. LUS sexte solde ( balance of an ac- ( count solde pay S0771 ÏYie nap, slumber somme sum, load Qfîii.vi.si (SU I III VO smile souris mouse tour turn, trick tour tower triomphe triumph triomphe trumps (in cards) trompette trumpeter il omptLLo trumpet vague vague, airy plains vague wave, surge vass vase vase mud, slime vigogne t cloth of Vigone ( hair vigogne Llama voile veil voile sail Exercise. This great singer was a beautiful lady ; she was a stranger here, but your cousin and her husband had seen her before. There was hoar- frost this morning, and later it rained ; this will spoil the wheat and the barley. Mme. de Genlis was the governess of one of the kings oi France and the author of several books. Her collected works have been published. Has your neighbor, the grocer, many customers now ? He has lost many who have gone to my other neighbor, the corporal's widow. When I was in that country I admired the excellent organs for which Holland is famous. He has paid for that book one pound sterling, and he thinks it cheap. She has played us a bad trick and deserves to be punished. That tower is very old ; it was probably built by the Romans. Our guide was a peasant woman, and when I lost the reins of my horse she helped me better than a man would have done. The trumpeter sounded his trumpet and summoned them 18 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. to surrender. We were all in the boat, when the wind tore the sail and my sister's veil was carried off. II.— NUMBER OF NOUNS. Common Nouns can represent one person or object, or several persons or objects, and, having a form for each, are said to be in the singular or plural. Proper Names, designating but one person or object, can therefore have no plural as long as they are used as genuine proper names. It will be seen, hereafter, that they are fre- quently used as Common Nouns, and that they then occur in the plural also. The rules on the formation of the plural have been fully given in the First Part of this Grammar. The following nouns have no plural in French : 1. The names of metals and so-called elements, when used in their general meaning. Ex. Vor, gold ; la cuivre, copper ; le vif-argent, mercury. 2. The names of virtues and vices, and certain conditions of man, being used as abstract nouns. Ex. t ardeur, zeal ; la foi, faith ; V adolescence, youth ; le bon- heur, happiness; le courage, courage ; Vhymen, marriage. 3. Adjectives used as nouns. Ex. le beau, the beautiful ; le vrai, truth. 4. Infinitives of verbs used as nouns. Ex. le lever et le coucher, rising and retiring ; le dormir, sleeping. Except when they are qualified by an adjective. Ex. les bons dîners, good dinners ; les rires ironiques, ironical laughs. 5. Foreign words take a plural form when they have become fully naturalized ; as long as they are considered as genuine foreign words, they are used only in the singular. The follow. jSTUMBER OF NOUNS. 19 ing words of such origin appear to have been naturalized, and occur in the plural form in standard authors: panorama panorama, lady lady, opera opera, deficit deficit, impromptu impromptu, examen examination. debet balance imbroglio difficulty, duo duo, incognito incognito, echo echo, macaroni macaroni, alinéa paragraph, whig whig, aparté aside, numéro number, bravo bravo, piano piano, zero zero, pensum task, quolibet . quodlibet, récépissé receipt. placet petition, 6. Other parts of speech, used for the occasion as nouns. Ex. Trois un de suite, three ones in succession ;• les oui et les lions, the ayes and noes. The following nouns are singular in French and plural in English : avome compensation cresson fraisil lie linge morale oats, amends, cresses, cinders, dregs, clothes, ethics, morals, métaphysique metaphysics, optique politique pneumatique pourpre rougeole optics, politics, pneumatics, purples (a fever), measles. The following nouns are plural in French and singular in English : PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. accordailles marriage (articles), confins boundary, alentours neighborhood, connaissances knowledge, armoiries coat of arms, décombres rubbish, assistants audience, dépens expense, atours dress, épinards spinach, broussailles thicket, errements tracks, broutilles brushwood, fiançailles betrothal, 20 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. PLURAL. fonts (de baptême frais immeubles immondices instances limites munes SINGULAR. font (baptismal), expense, real estate, filth, entreaty, boundary, ghost, PLURAL. meubles nippes obsèques ténèbres ver g et tes SINGULAR. furniture, (small wearing- ( apparel, funeral, darkness, brush. The following nouns have both numbers in French and are used in only one in English : PLURAL. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR. SING. AND PLUR. Alms aumône, aumônes, Property bien, biens, pains peine, peines, kindness bonté, bontés, ashes cendre, cendres, hair clieveu, cheveux, riches richesse, richesses, advice conseil, conseils, news nouvelle, nouvelles, people (?) peuple, peuples, progress progrès, progrès, poetry poésie, poésies. Exercise. Who bore the great expense of this enterprise? Burke's most famous book has the title : " The Beautiful and the Sublime/' The boundary has been crossed and the war has begun. When did his betrothal take place, and will the wedding follow soon ? It is the saddest sight that one can witness, to see a wedding followed imme- diately by a funeral. To give alms is the precious privilege of those who possess riches ; to give advice belongs to the wise. The real estate was left to the children, the plate and the furniture in the house wore given to the widow. My knowledge is not very extensive. Is he a relative, or only an acquaintance? Did you stand the examina- tions in law? He uses a coat of arms as if he were noble, but I have known his father, who used to gather brushwood in the forests and sold it for fuel. We stayed with her until dark ; when they brought lights, we left her. Which do you like better, optics or acoustics ? I have not studied those subjects. NUMBEK OF NOUNS. 21 PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. Proper Names, as has been mentioned before, do not form a plural as long as they serve to designate but one person or object Thus they remain unchanged even when they repre- sent two or more members of the same family, without forming a class of them. Ex. Les deux Corneille se sont distingués, both Corneilles have been distinguished ; V Espagne a produit les deux Séuèque, Spain has given birth to the two Senecas. They retain the singular form even before a plural article in elevated style, when their merit is referred to, by using a forci- ble ellipsis. Ex. Le mérite des Homère, des Virgile et des Milton, the merit of (poets like) Homer, Virgil and Milton. Proper names, however, are frequently used as common nouns, and then they will appear in the plural form. This is done — 1. When they are applied to whole classes of men, so that the individuality is completely sunk in the number. Ex. L'histoire des douze Césars, the history of the twelve Cassars; les Stuarts n'y rentrèrent plus, the Stuarts did not return there any more; parlons des Pharaons, let us speak of the Pharaos. 2. When they are used to designate character or qualities taken from the bearer of the proper name. Ex. Même aux Nérons on doit Vobéissance, we must obey even (men like) the Neros. Louis Jit des Boileaux — Auguste des Virgiles, Louis made (poets like) Boileaus— Augustus, Vir- gils. ' 3. When they are used to designate the works of the bearers of these proper names. Ex. Ce Musée possède deux Raphaels, that museum possesses two (paintings by) Raphael. Les vrais Elzévirs sont rares, genuine (editions by the) Elzevirs are scarce. 22 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise, My brother lias bought two Horaces, one in Latin and one in Eng- lish ; I bought for myself a fine history of the twelve Caesars, in four volumes, which are bound like my Virgils and my Juvenals. Great generals are forgotten, but the people will never forget the Washingtons and the Lafayettes. The last of the Bourbons, who has yet a throne in Europe, is the Queen of Spain ; the Stuarts have long ceased to be a reigning family. The Christians taught the pagans to respect their rulers, and that we owe obedience even to men like Nero. It is a curious fact in the history of French literature that there were two Boileaus and two Racines. The Catos never travelled otherwise, neither alone nor with their armies. PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. Compound Nouus are in French only those which consist of two or three words connected with each other by a hyphen. Ex. Arc-en~ciel, rainbow ; coq-a-Vane, fanny story ; eau-de-vie^ brandy. It will be seen at once that they do not often correspond in French and in English, the latter language having a tendency either to express them by a single word, as dandy and castor for petit-maître and porte-huilier, or to write the two component elements in one word, as fireman, pompier, and bookseller, libraire, French compound nouns, which are not united by hyphens, but written in one word, are of course subject to the elemen- tary rules on the formation of the plural, and simply add an s to the last letter. Ex. pompier, pompiers ; libraire, libraires. Except gentil homme, nobleman, which adds s to both parts and makes gentils hom mes, and Momeigneur, Monsieur, Madame and Mademoiselle, which make Messeigneurs, Messieurs, Mesdames, and Mesdemoiselles. The general principles which alone can guide foreigners safely in learning how to form the plural of compound nouns are these : NUMBEK OF NOUNS. 23 [ Only such parts of a compound noun as are declinable wnen standing alone, can take the sign of the plural. Ex. des fauces clefs, false keys : adjective and noun. des chefs-lieux, principal towns : noun and noun. des vice-présidents, vice-presidents : noun only. des passe-partout, master keys : neither part. 2. Those parts only take the sign of the plural, which are used with a plural meaning. Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; ciel is not plural. des tête-à-tête, private interview ; tête is taken in the singu- lar meaning. Hence are obtained the following rules : In compound nouns consisting of a noun and an adjective or a noun and a noun, without preposition, both parts take the sign of the plural. Ex. les francs-maçons, the free-masons. les basses-cours, the poultry-yards. des choux-fleurs, cauliflowers. les chefs-lieux, the principal towns. Except the following : des blanc-seings, blanks. des terre-pleins, platforms. des chevau-légers, lighthorse men. des hôtels-dieu, hospitals (God's houses), and a few others of rare occurrence. Except, also, that the Adjective demi remains unchanged in compound nouns. Ex. des demi-heures, half-hours ; les demi-dieux, the demigods. Compound nouns, consisting of nouns connected by a pre- position, give the sign of the plural to the first only. Ex. des arcs-en-ciel, rainbows ; deux chefs d'oeuvre, two master- pieces; les eaux- de-vie, the brandies; des vers-à-soie, silkworms. Except des coq-à-Vane, idle tales ; des pied-à-terre, temporary residences ; des Ute-d-tête, private interviews. 24 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Compound nouns consisting partly or wholly of indeclina- ble parts of speech like adverbs, verbs or prepositions, take the sign of the plural only where it is admissible or not at all. Ex. les porte-huiliers (verb and noun), the castors. les avant-gardes (preposition and noun), the vanguards. des essuie-mmns (verb and noun), the towels. des cure-dents (verb and noun), the toothpicks. des passe-partout (verb and preposition), master-keys. des pour-boire (preposition and verb), servants' fees. Except that when the meaning is not plural, even the declina- ble parts of such compound nouns will not take the sign of the plural. Ex. les serre-tête, the night-caps (for one head only). des réveille-matin, alarm-clocks (the morning only). des contre-poison, counter-poison (not against many poisons.) The word garde, of frequent occurrence in compound nouns, forms a plural when it is the noun garde, a keeper, but it remains unchanged when it is the verb garde, referring to a thing. Ex. les gardes-chasse, the game-keepers. les garde-vue, the screen (preserve-sight). Compound nouns consisting of foreign elements, remain un- changed in the plural. Ex. des pique-nique, pic-nics (German). des auto-da-fe, public executions (Portuguese). des post-scriptum, postscripts (Latin). A list of certain compound nouns, with their plural appended, is added here, because they contain component parts of rare occurrence alone or of peculiar meaning : SINGULAR. PLURAL. aigue-marine aqua-marine aigues-marines arc-boutant buttress arcs-boutants Uanc-seing blank (signed) blancs-seings boute-feu lintstock boute-feu chevau4éger lighthorse chevau-légers NUMBER OF NOUNS. 25 SINGULAR. contre-danse epine-rinette ex-president (and others ) compounded with ex) ) fesse-mathieu fier-à-bras franc-alleu franc-réal gomme-gutte guet-apens grand' mère (and all others ) in which grand is fol- > lowed by an apostrophe) ) havre-sac loup-cervier loup-garou maître-ès-arts ) mi-carème \ nerf-fêrure orang-outang passe-port porc-épic pie-grièche semi-ton (and all combined ) with semi) J tragi-comedie vice-roi (and all combined I with vice) ) and others com- bined with ès or mi PLURAL. cotillion contre-danses raspberry epines-vinettcs ex-president ex -presidents miser fesse-mathieu bully Jler-d-bras freehold francs-alleux a sort of pear francs-rêals gamboge gommes-guttes ambush guets-apens grandmother grand'meres knapsack havre-sacs lynx loups-cerners were-wolf loups-garous master of arts maitres-es-arts mid-lent mi-carèmes overreach nerfs-ferures orang-outang orangs-outangs passport passe-ports jJUx U UJJJ.ii.t5 JJU 1 L>o-V JJ tvo speckled magpie pies-grièches semi-tone semi-tons tragi-comedy tragi-comédies viceroy vice-rois Exercise. Have you ever seen silkworms? they eat more voraciously than any other animals. These young ladies were his granddaughters, and there were two grandmothers in the house. We have lost the key to our room ; perhaps you have a master-key, with which we can open the door. Send the game-keepers and let them come up to-morrow early ; I want to go out shooting ; tell them especially to see if there are any hedgehogs in the garden ; I have never seen those animals. After the polonaise they danced several cotillions, and at last they 26 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. finished with a reel. Dandies are not contemptible, because they may be very good men ; but they are often very ridiculous. Have you heard that the thieves broke last night into the poultry -yards of our neighbors and stole all their fowls ? The vanguards of the two armies met when the rearguards were at the distance of twenty miles the one from the other. The masons of this country have done a great deal of good to both parties during the last war. PLURAL OF ABSTRACT NOUNS. Abstract Nouns which designate a quality, virtue or vice, a condition or a general idea, independent of any connection with actual life, can have no plural as long as they are strictly used in that sense. Ex. La bonté nous rend aimables, kindness makes us agreeable ; la beauté passe, V esprit reste, beauty fades, wit remains ; la re- cherche du bonheur, the search after happiness ; la charité est la première des vertus, charity is the first virtue. These same nouns are, however, frequently employed as common nouns, to designate special acts, the effects of such qualities or the actual results of general ideas, and then they appear in the plural form. Ex. Elle m'a comblé de bontés, she has overwhelmed me with kind acts ; il y a des beautés de tous le temps, there are beauties for all seasons ; que de petits bonheurs ne lui devons-nous pas ! how many moments of happiness we owe him ! faites vos char? tés en secret, perform your chanties in secret. CHAPTER II. ARTICLES. The three Articles which the French language employs for the purpose of defining accurately the extent of the significa- tion of nouns are derived from other parts of speech, as the Latin, the original form of the French, possessed no such part ARTICLES. 27 of speech. There, on the contrary, the duty of the modern article was performed by the great variety of terminations, which formed the so-called declensions of Latin nouns. The complicated system of these varied and numerous forms was accessible neither to the dull ear of the barbarians, who con- quered the Roman Empire, nor to their uncultivated intellect. Hence the total loss of all inflections and the reduction of French nouns to one single form. The latter was now no longer capable of expressing case or number, and yet, as the newly formed language, arising from a mixture of Latin words with German forms, regained slowly its former power, a necessity arose for expressing the more delicate shades of meaning, and the relations which nouns had to other words in the same sen- tence. To supply the lost inflections, all the idioms that were descended from the Latin, the so-called Romance lanomacres, began to place certain words before the nouns, which gradually fulfilled the same purpose. These were pronouns or numerals and prepositions. They took uniformly — ■ 1. The Demonstrative Pronoun, ille, ilia, illnd, and placed it before the noun to give it a more definite meaning. By con- stant use it lost part of its substance when thus employed, and soon nothing was left but the forms uow in use, le, la y V and les. Before these pronouns they placed the two prepositions ale, of, and ad, to, which from the same frequency of joined use, combined and produced the forms du, de la, de V and des, au, à la, a V and aux. So that de Vhomme literally means de ille homo, of that man, and a la femme, a$ ilia femina, to that woman. 2. The Numeral Adjective unus, una, unum, to give to the noun before which it was placed an indefinite meaning. This 28 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. also lost, with all other words, its termination, retaining only for the feminine a mute e, and thus producing the forms un, une, and with the same prepositions d'un, d'une, a un, à une, so that dun homme is literally de unus homo, of one man, and dune femme, de una femina, of one woman. This is the origin of the forms of the Definite and Indefinite Article. The Partitive Article consists, as has been shown in the First Part of this Grammar, simply of the preposition de or of its combinations with the Definite Article : du, de la, de V, des. PLACE OF THE ARTICLE. The place of the Article is invariably before the noun which it serves to qualify ; it allows, however, adjectives and the ad- verbs that qualify them, to interpose between it and the noun, because it qualifies these words together with the noun. Ex. La raison veut Vutile, reason calls for that which is use- ful. Les petites misères, little miseries ; le plus affreux objet, the most frightful object. Tout, all, and the compound nouns Monseigneur, Monsieur , Madame and Mademoiselle alone place the article after them- selves. Ex. Tout le monde, the whole world ; toute Vannée, the whole year ; Monsieur le Président, Mr. President ; Madame la Com- tesse, the (lady) Countess. REPETITION OF THE ARTICLB. The Article used to determine the signification of several nouns must be repeated before each noun. ARTICLES. 29 Ex. Les lettres, les paquets et V argent doivent être affranchis, letters, parcels and money must be prepaid ; Tai vu le père et la mère de cet enfant, I have seen the father and mother of this child. The article before adjectives is not repeated when both ad- jectives qualify the same person or object. Ex. Le sage et pieux Fênélon, the wise and pious Fénélon ; la grande et magnifique fête du roi, the large and magnificent entertainment of the king. The article before adjectives must be repeated, if the two adjectives* refer to distinct persons or objects. Ex. Le premier et le second surintendant, the first and the second superintendent (two different persons) ; Vancien et le nouveau continent, the Old and the New World ; le second et le troisième étage, the second and third story. The article may be omitted — Before two plural nouns taken in a general sense : Ex. Le dévouement des pères et mères, the devotion of fathers and mothers. Before two nouns connected by ou, or, which explain each other : Ex. Les députés ou représentatifs du peuple, the deputies or representatives of the people ; les Césars ou empereurs de Borne, the Caesars or emperors of Rome. USE OF THE ARTICLES. The great principle which forms the basis of all the rules on the use of articles in French is this : Every noun must be accompanied by an article or its equiv- alent, unless it is so united with another noun, a verb or a preposition as to form but one idea with them. The following classes of words are equivalent to the article, and therefore fulfil the purposes of this fundamental rule as well as the article : » The Possessive Adjectives : ?non, ton, son, etc. 30 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The Demonstrative Adjectives : ce, cette, ces, etc. The Interrogative Adjectives : quel, lequel, etc. The Cardinal Numbers : un, dix, cent, etc. The Pronominal Adjectives: aucun, no; chaque, every; cer- tain, certain ; maint, many a; nul, no ; plusieurs, several ; quelque, some, tel, many a, in proverbial expressions, tout in the sense of every. Being equivalent to the article, these words, of course, can- not be accompanied by the article. USE OF DEFINITE ARTICLE. The Definite Article is placed before common nouns, wh^n it is desired to take their meaning in a general sense — to repre- sent the whole class or species, or some definite part of the whole. The purpose is to give a definite meaning to the noun. Ex. L'or est un métal, gold is a metal. J'étudie le Français, I study French. Les hommes sont rn.orte.ls, man is mortal. Elle aime la musique, she is fond of music. Je préfère les chevaux noirs, I prefer black horses. La force n'est pas la raison, force is not reason. La suite des grandes passions, the effect of great passions. This rule applies in like manner to other parts of speech used for the occasion as nouns. Ex. Lavare est misérable, misers are unhappy (Adjective). Le manger et le boire, drinking and eating (Verb). Il demande le pourquoi, he asks why (Adverb). USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. The Indefinite Article is used in French as in English, when- ever a vague, indefinite meaning- is to be given to the noun. Ex. Nous avons vu un soldat, we saw a soldier. Y a-Uil une église ? is there a church there ? AETICLES. 81 It supplies the place of the partitive article, when a quality, virtue or vice is taken in a partitive sense and qualified by an adjective or other word following it. Ex. Cet homme a du talent, that man has talent (Partitive Article). Cet homme* a un talent remarquable, that man has re- markable talent. Il montre un grand courage, he shows great courage. It is used, also, with the meaning of the English a certain kind of, when the noun is accompanied by an adjective. Ex. Nous y avons bu un vin délicieux, we drank there a de- licious (kind of) wine. Il fit un temps atroce, it was horrible weather. Exercise. Poverty is often the fruit of vice, but wealth is rarely the result of wisdom. Men are credulous, they believe every story that is told them with an air of authority. Bad books are often more dangerous than bad men ; they have subtle poison in tiieir most charming pages. These laws give encouragement to industry, and agriculture is not neglected. Children are often unhappier than they appear, for griefs and sorrows are not measured by years. Youth is a happy age, but it passes away swifter than all other seasons of our life. Patience is one of those virtues which it is most difficult to acquire. Do you like strawberries ? I like raspberries better, but I cannot procure any at this season of the year ; spring is the only season when we have an abundance of them. The husband teaches mathematics and the wife music, but who teaches Latin and Greek ? Wine is very dear, and therefore beer is recommended by many physicians, but I like wine best. If we wish to distinguish truth from falsehood we must be very prudent, for fiction is often stranger than truth. Weak men are governed by their passions, and good men endeavor to follow princi- ples; lut men generally act more by impulse than from conviction. Young children are exposed to many dangers, yet, how many escape ! Life is a joy in youth, a duty in later years, and a burden in old age. 32 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. USE OF THE PARTITIVE ARTICLE. The Partitive Article serves to designate some part of a species, some individuals of a class, or some portions of a whole. As there is no such article in English, the end is here obtained by the use of some and aray, or by the suppression of the article, leaving some or any to be understood. Ex. J'ai du pain et du fromage, I have (some) bread and cheese. Voulez-vous de la crème? will you take (some) cream ? Nous ri } eûmes pas de chevaux, we had no (not any) horses. • II a montré de la sagesse, he has shown (some) wisdom. Avez-vous du thé et du café ? have you any tea and coffee ? The difference between this article and the definite article is especially striking, when verbs like manger, to eat, boire, to drink, prendre, to take, are followed by their object. Ex. Prenez-vous du thé ? do you take tea ? Prenez-vous le thé ? do you eat supper ? The partitive article is de simply, before adjectives and in negative sentences. Ex. Il y a de beaux chevaux, there are fine horses there. Nous n'avons ])as de pain, we have no bread. N^eut-il pas de créanciers? had he no creditors? Exercise. Have patience and you will overcome all these difficulties. Give me bread and butter and I want no cake. Do you take tea or coffee ? I take tea at breakfast and coffee at supper, but I like tea better than coffee. Has she any friends with her? I know that she has no enemies, for everybody loves her; but there are always envious men in the world who hate us. He wanted money, and I had no money in the house. I gave him some provisions, but he said he had meat and bread. Do you like sweet wines ? Come and I will give you glasses in order to try my wine. He has shown some courage in this affair, ARTICLES. 33 but I expected that he would also nave prudence. Are there any slaves in that country ? There are no slaves there now, they have given them their liberty. I have seen men who had never known fear, but I have always doubted their courage. I wish I had pens, ink and paper, I would write letters to all my friends ; I have leisure now, and to-morrow I shall have work to do during the whole day. They have shown profound wisdom in the management of their affairs ; if we had had experience we would have succeeded. The rule that the partitive article consists of de only before adjectives, does not apply to compound nouns, consisting of an adjective and a noun, because here the former is a part of the noun itself. Ex. Ce sont des petits-maîtres, they are dandies. Nous connaissons des franc-maçons, we know some free- masons. Nor to adjectives, used as nouns. Ex. Y a-t-il du nouveau? is there any news ? Mêlez du rouge et du bleu, mix some red and blue. The partitive article is, in a few instances, expressed in English by some of the, all of which is rendered by da, etc., only. Ex. Donnez-moi du doux, give me some of the sweet (wine). Aurez-vous des dorés ? will you have some of the gilt ? Exercise. Will you not buy good lemons ? they are fresh and better than lemons are generally. The children are going to have new aprons, and their mother will buy linen for them. He told us long stories about the war, and wonderful adventures through which he had passed. We received them with hesitation, for although he loves Truth generally, he sometimes tells things which are not btrictly true. Do you like novels, or do you think they do harm to young people ? This author shows that he has imagination, but he lacks judgment. That man has bad children and he does not punish them, although 34 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. lie knows that bad examples are pernicious. Do you not think that even soldiers are tired of long wars ? The Prussian troops have bet- ter guns than the Austrians, but these have more experienced gen- erals. When he sat down at table he found himself surrounded by children and grandchildren, sons-in-law and daughters-in-law. The partitive article resumes its full form, du, de la, de V, and des after negative verbs, when they are used interroga- tively at the same time. This is also the case when the nega- tive is not absolute, but only added with regard to the object of the verb. Ex. Ne jouez pas des airs trop longs, do not play too long tunes. Je ne vous donnerai pas des vers, I will give you no verses. Na-t-il pas des amis qui puissent venir à son aide? has he no friends that could come to his aid ? N'eurent-elles ]jas des chapeaux ? did they not wear bonnets ? The partitive article is altogether suppressed, for the sake of euphony, when it is preceded by the preposition de. Ex. La déposition de (des) témoins subornés, the evidence of bribed witnesses. On lui donna du vinaigre au lieu d'eau, they gave hira vinegar instead of water. Je déclare en faveur de bière, I declare in favor of beer. THE ARTICLE WITH CERTAIN CLASSES OF NOUNS. I. WITH PROPER NAMES. Proper Names, as has already been seen in the chapter on nouns, take no article as long as they are used as genuine proper names. Ex. César fut tué trop tôt; Cœsar was killed too soon, II ressemble un peu à Racine, he resembles Racine some- what. ARTICLES. 35 But when they are used as common nouns, they are sub- ject to the same rules as the latter. Ex. Les Racines et les Molières sont rares, (men like) Racine and Molière are rare. Charles XII. était P Alexandre du Nord, Charles XII. was the Alexander of the North. Cest un vrai Caton, he is a real Cato. Donnez-moi le Virgile annoté, give me the (copy of) Virgil with notes. Où est V Horace de mon fr ere ? where is my brother's Horace ? J 1 ai vendu le Guide que vous avez vu, I have sold the (painting by) Guido which you saw. Italian artists and writers are, after the manner of their country, spoken of with the article. Female singers also are thus quoted. Ex. Le Tasse est V Homère de P Italie, Tasso is the Homer of Italy. Le Michel Ange n'aurait pas mieux fait, Michael Angelo could not have done better. La Grisi va reparaître, Madame Grisi is going to perform again. Proper names, preceded by titles, require the article before the latter, contrary to English usage. Ex. Le Général Washington et les députés, General Wash- ington and the Representatives. Où est le docteur N. ? where is Dr. N. ? The article is also required before adjectives which qualify proper names, except Saint, which is considered as forming part of the name itself. Ex. Allez chercher le jeune Pierre, go and look for young Peter. Où est donc la petite Marie? where is little Mary ? Cest la fête de St. Jean, this is St. John's day. Exercise. Marshal Lannes was the friend of the Emperor Napoleon and received many favors from his patron. Doctor Johnson was one of the first writers of England, and one of her most remarkable men. Have you read the history of Cardinal Woolsey, of his brilliant career, and his OK THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Budden downfall ? I went to see poor James and his sick brother to-day ; they were both very sad. King Richard went to the Holy Land, and when he returned he was made prisoner by his enemy, the Duke of Austria. Where is young Lewis now ? I have not seen him for many years ; he and pretty Mary came every day to my house, and brought me a bouquet of flowers. II. WITH THE NAMES OF COUNTRIES AND CITIES. The names of Countries are used in French with the definite article. a. When the countries are taken as a whole, or in any way individualized, as by ascribing to them certain qualities or func- tions. Ex. La France est un empire florissant, France is a flourishing empire. V Italie a déclaré la guerre à P Autriche, Italy has de- clared war against Austria. On ne saurait trop admirer la con- duite de V Angleterre, England's conduct cannot be too much admired. \ When the countries are situated out of Europe and little known. Ex. L } empereur de la Chine n'est qu'une poupée, the emperor of China is but a puppet. JTai vécu deux ans au Mexique, I have lived two years in Mexico. Hence all the States of the Union, les Etats- Unis, are accom- panied by the article. Ex. Du Maine au Texas, from Maine to Texas ; la Virginie et la Caroline du Sud, Virginia and South Carolina ; il vient de la Louisiane, he comes from Louisiana. The names of countries are used without the article — a. When only a part, and not the whole, is referred to. Ex. Il demeure en Espagne, he lives in Spain (somewhere) ; il vient d' Angleterre et il va en Suisse, he comes from England and is going to Switzerland. The prepositions to and in are both translated in French by en. ARTICLES. 37 b. When they are used to qualify another noun in the man- ner of an adjective. Ex. Les rois de France en faisaient de même, the kings of France (French kings) did the same. Il préfère le tabac d'Es- pagne, he prefers Spanish tobacco. Achetez-vous du coton d'Amérique ? do you buy American cotton ? The names of Cities take no article, when they are genuine proper names. Ex. Londres est plus grand que Paris, London is larger than Paris. Il y a., le plus beau musée a Dresde, there is a most beautiful museum at Dresden. Il demeure à Vienne, he lives in Vienna. The prepositions in and at with the names of cities are both rendered in French by d, unless they have the meaning of within, when it is dans. Ex. Qui est wtre banquier à Paris f who is your banker in Paris ? Il mourut à Naples, he died at Naples. La Eêvolution était dans Paris, the revolution was in (inside of) Paris. But when they are made like common nouns, they are ac- companied by the article. Ex. Le Havre de Grace (harbor of refuge) est un grand port, Havre is a large port. Nous irons à la Nouvelle Orléans, we shall go to New Orleans. La Haye est une grande ville en Hol- lande, The Hague is a large city in Holland. Exercise. Italy is truly the garden of Europe, and Norway the most sterile of all countries. Prussia and Austria are old and bitter enemies, but France induced them to make war against each other for her own benefit. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain and the Alps from Italy. I had lived ten years in Germany, when I emigrated to the United States and settled in North Carolina. Michigan is a pen insula, surrounded by great lakes and traversed by railroads. We landed at Havre, when we first came to France, and from thence w r e went to La Rochelle, where we remained two years ; after that we lived in Lyons and Marseilles. Have you ever been in New Orleans ? It is not the capital of Louisiana. The Bourbons were at one time kings of France, of Spain, and of Naples ; now the Queen of Spain is 38 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the only member of that family on a throne. He likes Burgundy wines better than any other wines ; for my part, I prefer Italian wines, and after them, the light French wines. The goldsmiths melt down Spanish dollars and French crowns. III. WITH THE NAMES OF MONTHS AND DAYS. The names of Months in definitions of time are never used with the article, but accompanied by the preposition era, even when there is no preposition used in English. Ex. Il arrivera ici en Août prochain, he will reach here next August ; la bataille fut livrée en Juin, the battle was fought in June ; nous y resterons jusqu'en Avril, we shall stay there till April. The names of Days, used as definitions of time, have no article nor preposition before them. Ex. Elle fut ici dimanche, she was here on Sunday ; nous nous reverrons mercredi prochain, we shall meet again on next Wednesday. The addition of the Definite Article gives the meaning either — a. Of a definite day of that name. Ex. Il fut pris le Lundi et il échappa le Mardi, he was taken on Monday and escaped on Tuesday ; je Vai vu le Vendredi Saint, I saw him on Good Friday. b. Or of every to the name of the day. Ex. Le courrier arrive le Jeudi, the mail comes on every Thursday. Nous avons nos leçons le Samedi et le Mercredi, we have our lessons on Saturdays and Wednesdays. The Indefinite Article may be added as in English. Ex. C'était un Dimanche à V église, it w T as on a Sunday at church. Exercise. He will arrive in France in January or February and stay there until March, when he will leave for Denmark. We go to the country ARTICLES. 39 in July and do not return to town until October. May is the month I like best of all the months of the year. In that remote neighborhood they have no mail but on Tuesdays and Thursdays ; my cousin receives her letters on Saturday. I saw her last Christmas-day ; she was then in bad health ; on Tuesday she was taken sick, and on Friday she died. Sailors have a general superstition that Friday is an unlucky day, and all the efforts made by intelligent captains and others to overcome the prejudice, have proved in vain. The laws of this coun- try do not permit any work to be done on Sundays, but the Jews are exempted, because they do not work on Saturdays. IV.- — WITH NOUNS IN APPOSITION. Two nouns are said to be used in apposition to each other when one is added to explain the other, so that both designate the same person or object. The noun in apposition takes, in French, the article when it serves to distinguish the first from others of its kind, or when it is followed by a relative pronoun or other word, which shows its definite* character. Ex. Votre frère, le capitaine, est la, your brother, the captain, is here. Il n'eut qu'une épée, son arrne favorite, he only had a sword, his favorite weapon. Musard, l'homme qui dirigeait, Musard, the man who led. But when the noun in apposition is used as a mere adjec- tive, it lias no article. Ex. Le pâon, emblème de V "orgueil, the peacock, emblem of pride ; 3'Tarie. divine beauté, Marie, divine beauty ; Tartufe, comédie de Molière, Tartufe, a comedy by Molière. Exercise. I have read in the newspapers that your brother, the sailor, has returned from abroad ; is your other brother, the soldier, also at home now ? The poet says : the butterfly, the perfect model of inconstancy, caresses all the flowers. Malherbes, a man of extraordinary know- ledge, was simple and artless, whilst his adversary, an ignorant man, 40 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. claimed the highest honors. We were reading Ivanhoe, a novel by Wal ter Scott, when she entered the room, and Louisa, the eldest sister, ex - claimed : There comes Mary, the true copy of Rebecca ! Those gen- tlemen, strangers to our country, were hospitably received, and Kos- suth, a man of rare genius, went almost in triumph through the Northern States. Nouns may be used in apposition to the verb to be, and other verbs of like nature, as, to become, to be made, chosen, appointed, etc., in which case they will not be preceded by any article, although the English uses the indefinite article in such constructions. Ex. Il est musicien, he is a musician ; on Va nommé président, he has been appointed president ; qui a été élu maire ? who has been chosen Mayor ? il s'est fait moine 1 he has become a monk. But if the noun in apposition mark a distinction from the first or express the character, either by a name or a designation^ it will be accompanied, as in English, by the indefinite or the partitive article. Ex. Cet homme est un Hercule, that man is a Hercules. Ces demoiselles ne sont pas des beautés, those young ladies are no beauties. Une telle réponse est une insulte, such an answer is an insult. With the third person singular of être the subject is, in such cases, expressed by ce and not by it. Ex. C'est un ivrogne, he is a drunkard. C'était une femme comme il y en a peu, she was a woman such as there are few ; ce sont vos vrais amis, they are your true friends. Exercise. I shall prefer speaking Italian to him, as he is an Italian ; if he were a Portuguese, I could not do the same, as I dislike Portuguese, a miserable language. You have never read Camoens, the author of ARTICLES. 41 the Lusiades, or you would not say that. Do you see those two ladies ? They were nuns, but they have escaped from Cosenza, a famous convent ; now they are ladies of the great world, without that awkwardness,, the effect of long seclusion. He was a man of genius and of great merit, and when he was chosen Governor of the State, the citizens were rejoiced at it. I thought you were a Spaniard, but I have learned since that you are a German. That man deserves no respect ; he is a gambler and leads a disreputable life. She is an excellent woman, and I hope that she will earn a livelihood ; she has been appointed governess to the Queen's children. He would have been a captain if he had not been a drunkard. V. WITH NOUNS OF MEASURE. The definite article is used in French with nouns, express- ing measurement in weight, time or money, where the English uses the indefinite article or a preposition. Ex. Coffee costs twenty cents a pound, le café coûte vingt sous la livre. We pay him ten dollars a week, nous lui payons dix dollars la semaine. Four times a year, quatre fois Van, Give them three francs for each person, donnez-leur trois . francs la personne. Exercise. These men agreed to work for a dollar a day, but they ask now ten dollars a week, which is nearly two dollars a day. How do you sell your coffee ? I can sell you some for thirty cents a pound or for ninety dollars a bag. The mail used to arrive here twice a week ; now we get it five times a week. I see him twice a day, in the morning at breakfast and at night before going to bed. I will give you twenty- one pounds per barrel, if you can sell me a hundred and twenty each year. These engravings were very cheap ; they only cost twelve cents a piece or ten dollars a hundred. There was one pineapple for each person, but several guests did not eat that dangerous fruit. 42 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Per cent, is translated in French lay pour cent. Ex. I will pay you ten per cent., Je vous payerai dix pour cent. The English usage of employing names of relationship, like father, mother, etc., without any article, is inadmissible in French. There the possessive pronoun is used before such words. Ex. Father says it is so, mon père dit que c'en eat ainsi. Where is uncle gone to \ votre oncle, où est-il allé ? Call sister at once, appelez votre sœur de suite. The English usage of employing the preposition to in terms expressive of blood or business relations and the like, is also not found in French. The preposition de is used in all such cases. Ex. He is physician to the Queen, c'est le médecin de la Reine. He was appointed architect to the Institute, on Ca nom- mé architecte de C Institut. Exercise. Brother said he would never consent to the captain's marriage with sister, because she was too young yet. It is considered a great honor in England to be appointed physician to the Queen. She is the only heir to that immense property, for the prince, a man of genius, but very miserly, had acquired vast estates in Spain and in Portugal. What does mother say to this extraordinary event ? THE OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE. The Article is omitted before Nouns, contrary to the general principle that every noun in French must be preceded by an article or its equivalent, in the following cases : 1. In addressing persons or things, by apostrophe. Ex. Homme qui que tu sois, man, whoever thou art ; fleurs charmantes, qui ornez la campagne! charming flowers, adorning the fields ! ARTICLES. 43 2. To give greater energy to animated style, as e. g. in enumerating several persons or objects, in proverbial expres- sions, etc. Ex. Je ne trouve partout que lâche flatterie, Qu'injustice, intérêt, trahison, fourberie. Everywhere I meet with nothing but mean flattery, Injustice, selfishness, treachery, dishonesty. Plus fait douceur que violence, we can do more by gentle means than by violence. Contentement passe richesse, contentedness is better than riches. 3. In giving titles to books and addresses of persons. Ex. Préface. Reflexions générales. Il demeure rue Piccadilly f Quartier St. James, à Londres. He lives in Piccadilly, St. James', London. 4. After the following conjunctions and adverbs: ni, soit, jamais and tout, when the nouns following them are used in a partitive sense. Ex. Le sage ria ni amour ni haine, wise men know neither love nor hatred ; soit inspiration de Dieu, soit erreur de V homme, either divine inspiration or human error; jamais, peut-être, his- torien ria été plus attrayant, never perhaps was a historian more attractive ; tout est vanité, all is vanity. The indefinite article used in English after what is omitted in French. Ex. Quel homme ! what a man ! Quelle aventure ! what an adventure ! Exercise. Man, whoever thou art, remember, when pride tempts thee, that thy existence was a play of Nature, that Hfe is but a play of Fate, and that thou wilt soon be the play of Death ! When Fk-chier spoke of him in his sermon he said : Citizens, foreigners, enemies, nations, kings, emperors, weep for him and revere him ! Nations, praise the Lord ! Why do you not speak, brother John, are you sick ? He gave me a list of the books, which he had lent you : Voltaire's novels, La 44 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Fontaine's Fables, Boileau's Poems and Flechier's Funeral Sermons. 1 saw written on this sheet of paper, French Exercises, but I think it was a letter. What a beautiful landscape! It is the loveliest I have ever seen in all my journeyings. He did it unconsciously ; and his motive was neither ignorance nor malice. Never has general earned a purer renown and never were battles fought more carefully. Every thing was confusion and terror, and never was nation more seriously frightened. The Article is omitted also, when a noun forms with another part of speech such a close union as to represent but one idea. This is done by joining a Noun — 1. To another Noun, which it qualifies after the manner of an adjective, thus forming a compound noun. The union is established by means of the preposition de or à or en, after which, then, no article is used. Ex. une cloche cf alarme, an alarm-bell. une brosse a dents, a tooth-brush. une grille en fer, an iron railing. 3. To a Verb, with which it forms a new verb. Ex. avoir peur, to be afraid. avoir soif, to be thirsty. prendre congé, to take leave. porter témoignage^ to give evidence. 3. To a Preposition, by which union adverbs are made. Ex. en effet, indeed. pa r force, fo rci b 1 y . de suite, immediately. If the purpose is not to form an adverb, but if e. g. the noun is separated from the preposition by an adjective, the general rule applies again and the article must be supplied. Ex. Avec courage, bravely ; acec un grand courage, with great' courage ; par force, forcibly ; 'par une force supérieure, by superior force. The article is, also, omitted for euphony's sake before the two ARTICLES. 45 adjectives divers and différent, to avoid the immediate repetition of two ds. Ex. Nous avons employe différents moyens, we have used differ- ent means; diverses personnes me Vont recommandé, various people have recommended him to me. Exercise. Soldiers, this day of glory has been crowned with complete success ; continue to serve your country zealously and courageously and you will restore peace to your fellow citizens. Let us receive them with politeness, for Machiavelli, an Italian writer, says we must treat our enemies as if they might become our friends, and our friends as if they might become our enemies. We were hungry and thirsty, but she was even more thirsty than the others. Different persons use different words, for some think with rapidity, others with grave con- sideration. "Windmills are unknown in this country, but steam-mills are not rare. Have you any coffee-cups or teacups in your sideboard ? I would like a cup of tea before supper, for I am quite exhausted. ENGLISH COMPOUND NOUNS IN FRENCH. English Compound Nouns are generally made by uniting simply two nouns in one and writing them in one word, as penman, nightcap, windmill, &c. In French a preposition is required to unite the two nouns, and this preposition varies according to the precise relation in which, according to the meaning, one noun stands to the other. That noun which qualifies the other is placed after it, and is, as has been stated above, not preceded by an article, because it forms with the first but one idea, that of the new compound. The prepositions which serve for this purpose are principally en, à and de, which are used in the following manner: The preposition en expresses the material of which the first noun is made, and this only in such cases where special atten- tion is called to the substance — in ordinary cases de suffices. 46 ON" THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Cette coupe est en or, et point en argent doré, this cup is of gold, and not of silver gilt. Une grille en bronze coûterait phis qu'une grille en fer, a bronze railing would cost more than an iron railing. Une église en pierre taillée, a church built of cut rock. The preposition à expresses — 1. The purpose for which the first noun is intended. Ex. Une tasse à thé et un verre à vin, a teacup and a wine-glass. C'est un moulin à farine, this is a flour-mill. Des bateaux à vapeur, à voiles, a rames, steamers, sailing- vessels, rowboats. 2. The main characteristic by which the first noun is distin- guished from others of the same class. Ex. J'ai été mordu par un serpent à sonnettes, I have been bitten by a rattlesnake. C'est un homme à lettres, he is a literary man. Ils n'eurent que des instruments a cordes, they had only stringed instruments. The preposition de expresses all other relations between the two parts of a compound noun, not conveyed by en and à. Ex. They took our watches and gold rings, ils prirent nos montres et nos bagues d'or. I prefer river-fish to sea-fish, je préfère les poissons de rivière aux poissons de mer. Will you take a cup of tea or of coffee? Voulez-vous une tasse de thé ou de café ? If the second noun should express something that enters into the composition of the first, it retains, in its meaning, its inde- pendence, and will, therefore, have to be preceded by the arti- cle, since it does not produce a new idea, nor form a genuine compound noun. Ex. Vous aurez une soupe aux huîtres et une omelette aux con- fitures, you shall have oyster soup and an omelet with preserves. ARTICLES. 47 Donnez-moi un pot de pommade au jasmin, give me a box of pomatum of jasmine. Des tableaux à l 1 huile et au pastel, oil paintings and pas- tel paintings. English compound nouns have occasionally a present par- ticiple for their first part. According to the rules on the use of prepositions, they can only be followed by the Infinitive, and this is, therefore, the form that must be given to these par- ticiples. Ex. He wants a frying-pan, il lui faut un poêle à f rire. They are in the dining-room, ils sont dans la salle à manger. In English, the words man, woman, boy and girl are often used in compound nouns to designate the vendor of the article expressed by the first noun. In French, marchand or marchande are used for this purpose. Ex. Here comes the milkman with his bells, voilà le marchand de lait avec sa sonnette. The little apple-girl did not come to-day, la petite mar- chande de pommes n'est pas venue aujourdhui. In English compound nouns the first part is left in the singular number, although it may have a plural meaning. No such anomaly exists in French, where the noun takes its proper form. Ex. A five-dollar bill, un billet de cinq dollars. Where is the ox-stall? où est Vètable a bœufs? Exercise. : V ■ ■. . .. / It is strange for so rich a man to wear a silver watch, and especially when it is fastened to a costly gold chain. The fashion for this sum- mer is to wear silk dresses, straw bonnets and thread gloves ; in win- ter I prefer buckskin gloves. They stole all our silver spoons, and wo were compelled for some days to use iron spoons, which wé found with our servants. Have you ever drunk goat's milk ? It is very rich, but 4S OS THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the odor is unpleasant. When the enemy entered the town, one man ran out with a table-knife, another with a kitchen-knife in his hand ; but everybody had a weapon. He has in his store excellent printing- paper, but he has no fine letter-paper. I would like to give you some wine, but I have not a wine-glass nor any glass in the house ; the dwelling-house was burnt, and this is nothing but a tool-house, which serves me for a week. She hid the note in the dining-room on the tea table under a flower-pot, and we were all looking for it in the sleeping-rooms up stairs. Steamers and screws of every kind cross the Atlantic during the whole year, and some are iron vessels ; sailing- ships and wooden vessels diminish constantly in number. I saw in Venice two beautiful alabaster columns before the high altar of an old church ; they are far more beautiful than marble pillars. Are these really gold chandeliers, or is it only an imitation in silver ? I can give you a ten-dollar bill, if you can repay me to-morrow; I cannot pay my bill at the shoe-store, and I owe some money to the sign-painter. Have you ever heard a charcoal-man in London? his cry is very peculiar. MONSIEUR, MADAME, ETC. When it became the custom to address persons by some title expressive of reverence, the nations that had spoken Latin employed generally the word senior, elder, for that purpose. Its full form is in French preserved in the softened word seigneur, which still holds the preeminence as "the Lord" by excellence. Ex. Notre Seigneur, Jésus- Christ. This was united to the possessive pronoun and formed the title Monseigneur, formerly given to the princes of the royal blood and still bestowed on very high personages, such as Cardinals. Seigneur, however, proved too long and cumber- some for daily use and soon dwindled down into Sieur, which was formerly largely used, but now occurs only in legal docu- ments. Ex. Le Sieur N. JSF. est cité de paraître, éc, Mr, N. N. is summoned to appear, &c. This sieur again was still further shortened into sire, which ARTICLES. 49 also, once very generally used, is now strictly confined to sover- eign rulers. Ex. Sire, les sujets de Voire Majesté la félicitent, Sire, the subjects of your Majesty congratulate you. Through the Norman French, finally, this sire became familiar to the English people, by whom it was reduced to its present form of sir, now the universal title given to man. In like manner was the word domina, lady or mistress, chosen to address women, and with it a spurious diminutive form, "do- micella, little lady. Softened and slightly changed, these words have become dame and demoiselle, and are in this form used together with sieur. All four words are habitually combined with the possessive pro- nouns mon, ma, and mes, and thus produce the words Monseigneur and Messeigneurs, Monsieur and Messieurs, Madame and Mes- dames, Mademoiselle and Mesdemoiselles, As the use of these words is somewhat different from English words of the kind, the following rules will be given : Monsieur and Messieurs are used — 1. Before proper names, like the English Mr, and Messrs. Ex. Connaissez-vous Mr. Lefèbvre ? do you know Mr. Le- febvre ? Cette lettre est adressée a M. M, Blond & Cie., this letter is directed to Messrs. Blond & Co. 2. Without a name, like the English Sir and Gentlemen, in addressing others. Ex. Monsieur, je ne vous comprends pas, Sir, I do not under- stand you. Mais, Messieurs, vous demandez trop, but, Gentlemen, you ask for too much. 3. With the article or pronoun, like the English gentleman and gentlemen, to designate persons as such. Ex. Est-ce un monsieur, qui désire me voir ? is it a gentie» man who wants to see me ? 50 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Il y eut plus de dames que de messieurs, there were more ladies there than gentlemen. Ce monsieur-là -pourrait vous le dire, that gentleman there might be able to tell you. Monsieur does not exprass the English gentleman, when this has any other meaning, but that of man in contrast with child or woman. When gentleman is used to express a man of good manners, well- dressed, etc., the French say un homme comme il faut, a man as he ought to be. When it is used to convey the idea of a man of high principles and sterling character, they say un homme d'honneur, a man of honor. Madame and Mesdames are used — ■ 1. Before proper names, like the English Mrs. and the plural. Ex. Mme. Vieuxtemps où demeure- t-elle ? where does Mrs. Yieuxtemps live ? Cette école est tenue par Mesdames Viardot, that school is kept by the ladies Viardot. 2. Without a name, like the English Madam and Ladies in addressing others. Ex. Madame, vous me comblez de bontés, Madam, you over- whelm me with kindness. Veuillez me suivre, Mesdames, please follow me, ladies. The words lady and ladies, used in speaking not to but of third persons, are rendered by dame and dames without the possessive pronoun. Ex. Voyez donc ces dames, que vont-elles faire ? just look at those ladies, what are they about ? Cette dame paraît me connaître, that lady seems to know me. Mademoiselle and Mesdemoiselles are used precisely in the same way as Madame and Mesdames, but apply only to unmar- ried ladies, without regard to their age. Ex. tPai Vhonneur de parler à Mlle. Blot ? I have the honor of speaking to Miss Biot ? ABTICLES. 51 Je ne saurai rien vous refuser, Mademoiselle, I can refuse you nothing, young lady. The simple word demoiselle and its plural, are used to desig- nate unmarried ladies. Ex. Sa sœur est encore demoiselle, his sister is still unmarried. Les dames attendront ici ; les mariées de ce coté, les demoiselles de Vautre, the ladies will wait here — the married ladies on this side, the unmarried on that. All three forms, Monsieur, Madame and Mademoiselle, and their plurals, are in French prefixed to titles of dignity and of relationship, the latter, however, only when referring to rela- tives of the person to whom we speak. Ex. Monsieur le comte est 'parti ce matin, the count left this morning. Madame la, baronne est-elle chez elle ? is the baroness at home ? Messieurs les Sénateurs se sont rassemblés, the Senators have reassembled. Comment se porte Mme. votre mère? how is your mother? J'ai vu Mesdemoiselles vos sœurs qui viennent de rentrer. I have seen your sisters who have just come back. The same words are used occasionally instead of the pro- nouns, as expressions of extreme politeness, from motives of great courtesy or of bitter irony. Ex. Monsieur voudrait-il me rendre ce service ? could you render me this service ? Madame rC est-elle pas Française? are you not French, Madam ? On ne saurait rendre trop de grâces a Monsieur, we cannot be too grateful to you, Sir. Que Madame ne se fâche, on s'en va de ce pas, do not get angry, Madam, I am going at once. 52 OK THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. I know these ladies, but they do not know me ; two of them were the same young ladies we met last night after the opera. He intro- duced me to two gentlemen from Mexico, who are here on a political mission, with a letter from the Cardinal. Here are seats for the ladies, but where are you g'nng to place the gentlemen ? A man who can act thus is not a gentleman, whatever may be his wealth and his social position. Who was it that rang the bell ; was it a beggar or a gentleman ? It was your father, Sir. accompanied by your grandmother. Did you meet your sisters, Madam ? they were taking a walk by the sea-shore. When he had done this, he said in a low tone : Captain, T am sorry for it, and I beg your pardon. Doctor, I wish you would have the kindness to come and see my daughter ; she is now with your wife, and awaits your return with impatience. Those gentlemen have met your mother in Paris ; the young >dies were well and enjoyed the pleasures of that great, and brilliant ci.y. CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. The great principle which determines the form under which the adjective appears in a sentence is this : that the Adjective, expressing nothing but a quality belonging to the noun, and being, therefore, dependent on the latter, must agree with it in gender and number. It makes no difference, whether adjective or noun stand side by side or are separated from each other; if in meaning they belong together, they must also correspond in form. Ex. Il y a des hommes qu'il ne faut jamais voir petits, there are men who ought never to be seen, when they are little. In compound nouns care must be had to make the adjective agree with that part which it qualifies. Ex. On vend cher les peaux (F.) de renards (M.) noirs (M.), black fox-skins are sold high. ADJECTIVES. 53 Ils portaient des bas (M.) de soie (F.) blancs (M.), they used to wear white silk stockings. Donnez-moi une brosse (S.) à dents (P.) molle (S.), give me a soft tooth-brush. A few adjectives appear to be exceptions to this fundamental rule, but the exceptions are only apparent, and the non-agree- ment of these adjectives with their nouns is easily explained. They are the following : 1. Nu, demi and feu, under certain circumstances, remain unchanged before feminine or plural nouns. Au, bare, is placed before nouns, connected with them by a hyphen, and forms, then, so far a part of the noun that it re- mains unchanged. If it is placed after a noun, it becomes again a common adjective, subject to the rule. Ex. On Pa vu gui marchait nu-tête et nu-pieds, he has been seen walking bare-headed and bare-footed. Il avait la tête nue et point de gants, his head was bare and he had no gloves. 2. Demi, half, is in like manner prefixed to nouns, and then forms part of them. When separated, it is declined like all adjectives. Ex. Restez ici une demi-heure jusqu'à mon retour, stay here half an hour until I return. Un homme issu d'un sang fécond en demi-dieux, a man born of a race fertile in demigods. Le discours a duré une heure et demie, the speech lasted' an hour and a half. Demi may also sometimes be used before adjectives, as demi- mort, half dead, bat generally its place is supplied by à moitié or à demi, because in these cases it becomes a genuine adverb. When half is repeated, it is rendered by moitié. Ex. Le drapeau est moitié rouge moitié blanc, the flag is half white half red. 54 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Half before a noun is expressed, when not forming, as demi, part of the noun, by d moitié. Ex. Après le drame on est admis d moitié prix, after the drama, ad- mittance at half price. Feu, late, is used either before the article or after it ; in the former case it remains unchanged, in the latter, which occurs when we wish to distinguish a deceased person from a living one of the same rank or name, it is declined. Ex. J'ai ouï dire a feu ma sœur, 1 have heard my late sister say. La feue reine n'en usait pas comme la Reine actuelle, the late Queen did not act like the present Queen. 2. Grand, great, in its feminine form, grande, is occasionally used as part of a compound noun. It is then written grand' and remains unchanged. Ex. Il y aura deux grand? fetes ce mois, there will be two great holidays this month. Il porte trois grand 1 voiles aux grand' vergues, she carries three mainsails at the mainyards. The following are the most frequent expressions of this kind : Grand' mère, grandmother. Grand' peine, hard labor. Grand' chambre, high court. Grand' peur, great fear. Grand' chère, high cheer. Grand' pitié, great piety. Grand'chose, much. Grand'rue, main street. Grand' faim, extreme hunger. Grand' salle, great hall. Grand garde, main guard. Grand' soif, extreme thirst. 3. Franc de port, postpaid, is used adverbially, and then re- mains unchanged; as an adjective it is subject to the general rule. Ex. Je vous ai envoyé, franc de port, toutes vos lettres, I have sent you, prepaid, all your lettres. Votre courrier ne vous apporta que deux lettres franches de port, your mail brought you only two prepaid letters. 4. Excepté, except, supposé, supposed, ci-joint, enclosed, y com- pris, inclusive, and inclus, enclosed, although participles, and ADJECTIVES. 55 as such subject to the same rules as adjectives, remain un- changed when they are used as adverbs, before their nouns. Ex. Excepté ces cas, il n'y a pas de différence, except in these cases, there is no difference. Ces cas sont exceptés, these cases are excepted. Vous trouverez ci-joint deux lettres cachetées, you will find enclosed two sealed letters. Beaucoup and peu, being adverbs, cannot be used for many and few as adjectives, but their place is supplied by rare and nombreux. Ex. True friends are few, les vrais amis sont rares. The book is good but its faults are many, le livre est bon mais les fautes sont nombreuses. A large number of adjectives are used adverbially in French, i. e., without any change of form. They are mainly such as express an impression made upon the senses, like haut, loud, bas, low, bon, good, and mauvais, bad (of odor), vite, quick, lent, slow, and those representing languages, Français, French, Anglais, English, etc. Being true adverbs in these cases, where they qualify, not a noun but a verb, they remain unchanged. Ex. Elle chante trop bas pour une salle de concert, she sings too low for a concert-room. Parlez donc plus haut, on ne vous entend pas, speak louder, they do not hear you. Allez vite chercher le médecin, go quickly for the doctor. Il parle Italien, Espagnol, et deux autres langues, he speaks Italian, Spanish and two other languages. Adjectives of color, finally, are sometimes nothing else but nouns used adverbially. In that case they remain unchanged. the expression being evidently elliptical and the words couleur de, color of, supplied in mind. Ex. Elle avait une robe rouge et des rubans marron, she had on a red dress and chestnut colored ribbons. 56 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. Il porte toujours des gants paille, he always wears straw- colored gloves. Exercise. I went to my tailor and told liim to make me a dress-coat of his best black cloth. St. Louis carried a crown of thorns, barefooted and bareheaded, from the wood of Vincennes to Notre-Dame. I waited there half an hour, and I would have waited an hour and a half, but he came soon after my arrival. Two pounds and a half of meat make a very good soup, especially if you have an abundance of vegetables. She was as well as the late princess of Conti among those who flattered themselves with, this hope. He has studied three years and a half in some of the German universities. The Spanish flag is half red and half yellow, the French flag is the tricolor. He is much to be pitied, for, although the causes of his ruin are many, such cases of perfect honesty as his are few. It is an order of the Gods, that is never broken, that they sell us very dear the gifts which they make us. If you walk fast, you can easily overtake him, but when you approach him, speak loud or he will not hear you. These flowers smell bad ; I wish you would bring me some that smell good. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. Compound Adjectives consist of two adjectives connected, like compound nouns, by a hyphen. The manner in which they agree with the noun they qualify depends not on their form but on their meaning. If both adjectives qualify the noun, both will agree with it. Ex. Nous avons dans ce pays des perdrix grises blanches, we have in this country white and gray partridges. If one adjective qualifies the other, the latter alone is declined. Ex. Il y a dans ce champs de F avoine clairsemée, this field has thinly sown oats in it. Des enfants nouveau-nés la plupart meurt, of new-born children the majority die. ADJECTIVES. 57 If the two adjectives qualify each other, which is the case' in adjectives of color, both remain unchanged. Ex. J'aime beaucoup la soie bleu-clair, I am very fond of lightrblue silk. ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS. The manner in which adjectives that qualify two or more nouns agree with the latter, is determined by the following rules : An adjective which qualifies two or more nouns of the same gender is put in the plural and agrees in gender with them. Ex. Le riche et V indigent sont sujets à la même loi, rich and poor are subject to the same law. J'admire sa douceur et son égalité d'esprit merveilleuses, I admire her marvellous gentleness and equanimity. If the nouns are of different gender, the adjective is put in the plural masculine, but care is taken to place the masculine noun nearest to the adjective. Ex. Il avait sa vie et son bonheur attachés au succès, his life and his happiness depended on success. J'ai trouvé ma plume et mon papier gâtés, I found paper and pen spoilt. An adjective placed after several nouns which are syno- nyms, agrees with the last only. Ex. Toute sa vie n'a été qu'un travail, qu'une occupation con- tinue, all his life has been but one continued work and labor. Le fer, le bandeau, la flamme est toute prête, the sword, the bandage, the pile is quite ready. An adjective qualifying two nouns, connected by a conjunc- tion so as to exclude one another, appears in the plural mascu- line. Ex. Il y a un homme ou une femme âgés, there is an old man or an old woman. 58 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS. Many French adjectives can be used as nouns by the simple addition of the article. Their form will be that of the noun which is understood. Ex. Le sage (V homme soge) se sert des fous pour aller à ses fins, the wise man uses the fool to attain his end. U tie coupable (femme coupable) aimée est bientôt innocente, a beloved criminal is easily (thought) innocent. Les menteurs les plus grands disent le vrai quelquefois t the greatest liars tell the truth sometimes. Attention must be had, however, to the fact that in French, as in English, not all adjectives can be used as nouns alike ; some designate men only, as le riche, the rich, le panure, the poor, le noir the negro, le blanc, the white man, le sage, the wise man, V avare, the miser, while others designate abstract qualities only, as le beau, the beautiful, le vrai, all that is true, le faux, all that is false, etc. These latter, expressing abstract ideas, cannot take the plural form. Exercise. Your brothers and sisters are present, but your mother has not yet come in ; how long will she or your father be absent ? The poor and the rich, the imprudent and the prudent, subject to the same law, undergo the same fate. Clemency and majesty depicted on the face of this august infant foretell us the happiness of his people. lie was there, listening to the sermon, mouth and eyes open and all attention, Augustus governed Rome with a sustained gentleness and sweetness. That secrecy, that mystery, that improper confidence will make you love your old friends, without gaining any new friends. When the firemen rushed from the house, they had their faces and hands burnt and their clothes and boots torn to pieces. Avaricious men are foes to the whole world, spendthrifts are only their own enemies. The rich owe help to the poor, but the rich are often too lazy to grant it and the poor too proud to accept it. We 1 ought always to search for the True and abhor the False. ADJECTIVES. 59 THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. The general rules on the place of Adjectives have been given in the First Part of this Grammar, and it remains here only to repeat, that no absolute law exists on the subject, the place depending more on the peculiar genius of the language and the established usage than on any general principle. The adjec- tive placed before the noun is considered as more intimately connected with it, and as making, by falling first upon the ear of the listener, a stronger impression. Hence accented adjectives are placed before the noun. In the next place, the laws of euphony forbid long adjectives being placed before monosyllabic nouns; and generally, shorter adjectives precede longer nouns. Les champêtres airs, country air; des terrestres soins, earthly cares, and the like, are intolerable in French. On the other hand, plural adjectives have to precede nouns beginning with a vowel, as de brillants atours, brilliant surroundings, de cou- rageux amis, bold friends. The construction of the sentence has its influence on the piace of the adjective in so far as an adjective followed by its regimen must necessarily be placed after the noun, else it would be separated from its regimen. Ex. C'est un malheur commun à tous, that is a misfortune common to all. Quels sont les fiefs dépendants de ce duché? which are the fiefs that belong to this duchy? The place of the adjective depends, finally, so completely on the genius of the language, that large numbers of these' words actually change their signification with their place, having one meaning before and another after the noun. The following are the most important adjectives of this class, accompanied generally by those nouns in connection with which alone they have the double meaning : Un bon homme un homme bon a simple artless man a good, affectionate man. GO ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. un brave homme un homme brave an honest man a brave man. une certaine nouvelle une nouvelle certaine some sort of news sure news. mon cher ami un habillement cher my dear friend an expensive dress. une COMMUNE wix un voix commune a unanimous voice an indifferent voice. quel cruel homme ! quel hom me cruel ! what a tiresome fellow ! what a cruel man ! la dernière année Vannée dernière the last year of any period last year. une fausse corde une corde fausse a string out of tune a false string. un faux jour un jour faux a bad light an ill-painted light. un fier poltron un poltron fier a great coward a proud coward. un furieux menteur un lion furieux an excessive liar a furious lion. un galant homme un homme galant a clever man a man who is complaisant to the ladies. un grand homme un homme grand a great man a tall man. le grand air Voir GRAND the air of high society a noble countenance le haut ton le ton haut a haughty tone a loud tone un honnête homme un homme honnête an honest man a polite man. le jeune Scipion Scipion le jeune young Scipio Scipio the younger. ce malheureux homme un homme malheureux that contemptible wretch a destitute. un malhonnête homme un homme malhonnête a dishonest man an impolite man. mauvais air Voir mauvais bad appearance wicked appearance. un méchant homme un homme méchant ADJECTIVES. a bad man une méchante êpigramme a miserable epigram un misérable enfant an ill-natured child MORT-bois wood of little value, such as brooms, brambles, etc. morte eau the lowest tides une mortelle heure an excessively long hour un nouveau livre a new book ; another book un pauvre auteur an author without merit pauvre petit ! poor child ! un plaisant homme a whimsical, ridiculous man un petit homme a small man les propres termes the same words propres mains own hands SAmT-Esprit Holy Ghost femme sage a prudent woman un seul enfant an only child un simple domestique a single servant un triste homme a worthless man unique tableau single painting un- vilain homme an unpleasant man an ill-thinking man une êpigramme méchante. a wicked epigram. un enfant misérable a destitute child. bois MORT dead wood. eau MORTE standing water. cette me mortelle this mortal life. un livre nouveau a book lately published. un auteur pauvre an author without fortune. un petit pauvre a little beggar. un homme plaisant an agreeable, merry man. un homme petit a mean man. les termes propres the proper words. mains propres clean hands. Esprit SALNT Spirit of God. sage femme a midwife. un enfant seul a child alone. un domestique simple a foolish servant. un homme triste a sad man. tableau unique unparalleled painting. un homme vilain a wicked man. 62 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. un VRAI ctfftîe un conte vitAi a mere story, a true story, When two adjectives qualify one noun, they are generally placed after it for the same reason which places long adjectives after short nouns. Ex. Cest un voyage long et fatigant, that is a long and fatiguing journey. Ces tableaux nobles et imposants, these fine and imposing paintings. But if one or both of these adjectives belong to classes to which special rules assign a given place, these rules must be strictly observed. Ex. J'aime une grande table ronde au salon y I like a large round table in the parlor. Ce petit enfant gâté a tout dit, this spoilt little child has told every thing. L'histoire d'un jeune homme pauvre, the story of a poor young man. It has already been stated, in speaking of the use of the article, that if the two adjectives refer to two different nouns, although but one may be mentioned, the article must be repeated before each. Ex. Le premier et le second volume, the first and the second volume. La langue Italienne et V Espagnole sont deux sœurs, the Italian and Spanish languages are sisters. Heureux, happy, is perhaps the only adjective which, in inter- jections, may be placed before article and noun. Otherwise it is only allowed to poetical license to place sometimes an ad- jective before the verb être. Ex, Heureux Vhomme qui sait endurer ! happy the man who knows how to endure ! Sacrés ils sont, car personne n'y touche, sacred they are, for nobody touches them. ADJECTIVES. 63 Exercise. If the living frighten us, what have we to fear of the dead? The incomparable author of this great work was hardly known during his lifetime. Socrates, at the last hour of his life and surrounded by his friends and followers, showed that he was a true philosopher. These burglars used false keys in order to open all the doors of houses which had been left empty by their occupants. You shall not touch that beautiful, new book, if you have not clean hands ; it is too easily spoilt. A cruel man is an inhuman, miserable person, who loves to make others suffer or see them suffer. . That good old soldier has been in all the wars of his country, and he still looks a strong, healthy man. I have not been much at home last year, but I promise you that that shall have been the last year in which I travel so far. Will you wear to-night your fine blue dress, or do you prefer the new green dress, which you bought recently ? That rich old miser will leave his immense wealth to a spendthrift nephew, who will spend it all in a few short years. She has bought a large, commodious house, where she will entertain all her young, gallant friends. His former glory had passed away, when he, the first man of the Republic, made himself ruler of his native State. COMPARATIVE DEGREES. Three Comparative Degrees are generally spoken of : The Positive, which is nothing more than the simple meaning of the adjective, without any comparison, and therefore not in reality a degree of comparison ; the Comparative in its three- fold nature as a comparative of superiority, of inferiority and of equality, and the Superlative, relative or absolute. The simple rules on the formation of the comparatives and superlatives have already been given in the First Part of this Grammar. It remains here only to add the rules on the use of the so-called irregular comparatives. Meilleur (from the Latin melior), better, is the only com- parative of bon, as plus bon is never used ; mieux, is the com- parative of bien, instead of plus bien, which also cannot be used. Ex. C'est un meilleur résultat qu'on n'avait expectê, that is a better result than had been expected. 64 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Meilleur enters also into the idiomatic expressions de bonne heure, èarly, and à bon marche, cheap. Ex. Nous nous levons de meilleure heure que nos voisins, we rise earlier than onr neighbors. Il Va acheté meilleur marché que nous, he has bought it cheaper than we. Pire (from the Latin pejor), worse, is the comparative of mauvais, by the side of plus mauvais, which is also used, but with this distinction, that pire is used to express something worse than a bad thing, whilst plies mauvais suggests no such comparison. Ex. Sa condition est mauvaise, mais elle a été pire, his con- dition is bad, but it has been worse. Il rllest pas plus méchant que les autres, he is no worse than the others. Moindre (from the Latin minor), less, is the comparative of petit, small, and is used, like pire, to compare two objects small in themselves, while pluspetii is simply smaller than any object, however large or small in itself. Ex. ^Est-ce qu'elle est moindre que cette petite fille ? is she smaller than this little girl \ Elle ri v était pas plus petite que moi, she was not smaller than L Moindre is also used as a comparative of inferiority of bon, in the sense of less good. Ex. Ce vin-là est moindre que Vautre, that wine there is in- ferior to the other. The English better, worse, and less are adverbs as well as ad- jectives. In French two separate forms answer the two purposes. The adverbs corresponding to the adjectives meilleur, pire and moindre are mieux (Latin minus), pis (Latin pejus), and moins (Latin minus). Ex. Est-ce qu'il va mieux ce matin ? is he any better this morning ? ADJECTIVES. 65 J'ai peur qu'il ne se porte pis même qu'hier, I fear he is even worse than yesterday. Il m'aime moins que tous ses amis, he loves me less than all his friends. Exercise. His reasoning is not better than yours, but his style is much clearer and more pleasing. In many cases the remedy is worse than the disease. Do you rise earlier in summer than in winter? No, we think it better to rise during the whole year at the same hour. I could have bought these books cheaper, but I did not wish to take advantage of his distress. Have you seen the Spanish dwarf? They say he is even smaller than Tom Thumb. This criminal was surely very wicked, but I doubt whether he was worse than his brother, who was pardoned last year. That block of marble weighs a thousand pounds, and yet it is smaller than many others in the same building. Bad friends are worse than wise enemies ; we fear our enemies, but we are deceived by our friends. Shipwreck and death are less fatal to man than the sins he commits. I like him better, not because he is better than his brother, but because we have known each other so many years. Plus end moins, more and less, are frequently used, not to form comparative degrees, but as Adverbs of Quantity. Then they must 1 e followed, like the whole class of those words, by de and n t by que. Ex. Ce tableau coûte plus de cent dollars, that painting costs more than a hundred dollars. Cependant f aurais pu racheter pour moins de cinquante, yet I might have bought it for less than fifty. In comparisons of inequality, i. e., superiority and inferiority, the verb of the second term takes the negative particle ne before it, without however becoming negative itself. Ex. Elle est moins belle qu'elle n'était il y a deux ans, she is less handsome than she was two years ago. Il s'est montré meilleur général qu'on n'avait espéré, he has shown himself a better general than was hoped for. 66 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. With regatd to the construction of the Relative Superlative, the following rules have to be observed : 1. If the second term of the comparison consists of a noun, the connection with the first term is made in French by de, in- stead of any other preposition, unless the' latter be emphasized. Ex. C'est V homme le plus savant du pays, he is the most learned man in the country. Elle est toujours la premiere de l'école, she is always the first in her school. C'est ce qu'il y a de mieux dans Paris ; il y en a d'autres dehors, this is the best to be had inside of Paris ; there are others outside. 2. If the second term contains a verb, this must be used in the form of the subjunctive. Ex. C'est le plus grand navire qu'on ait jamais construit, this is the largest vessel that has ever been built. Quel est le meilleur vin que vous puissiez me donner? Which is the best wine you can give me ? Attention must be paid to the form of the article before the superlative, especially with regard to the following two points : 1. The definite article being the only mark of distinction between the comparative and the superlative, it can neither be omitted nor supplied by the indefinite article, as in English. Ex. Elle est sans doute la femme la plus aimable, she is be- yond doubt the most lovely woman. Vous aurez toujours mes vœux les plus sincères, you will always have my best wishes. Elle me regarda de Voir le plus affectueux, she looked at me with a most affectionate look. 2. The article agrees, of course, with the adjective and its noun, but frequently le plus and le moins are used adverbially before such adjectives, and then they remain unchanged. Ex. C'est la femme la plus gaie que je connaisse, she is the gayest lady I know. ADJECTIVES. 67 Elle a Voir triste, même quand elle est le plus gaie, she looks sad even when she is most gay. Les arbres les plus hauts sont le plus exposés a la foudre the highest trees are most exposed to lightning. Elle est le mieux mùe quand elle est le moins parée, she is best dressed when she is least adorned. Exercise. They say she is the best singer in the world now, but I like her the least of all I have heard, although her voice is the most cultivated I know. That enigma has been given to the most learned men in the city, and they have not guessed it : it is the best I have ever read. I have noticed that, even when she is least attentive to what happens around her, nothing escapes her attention. The first cotton-press that w-. mngtaine, < demi-douzaine, half a dozen. ( ty. huitaine. a week. . (a score and a half trentaine ~{ * neuvaine nine days of prayer. ' ( about thirty. dizaine. half a score. . (t sore, .bout quarantaine, „ douzaine, dozen. ( forty. so ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. (two score and a ( one thousand, about cinquantaine, \ . ' . .> AM . un milker, \ * (half, aoout fiitv. ( one thousand. soixantaine, -j j three score, about myriade, one myriad, sixty. million, one million. (one hundred, pre- milliard, or) one thousand mil- uncent ] . 7 . 7 ,. c v ( cisely. billion, ) lions. ( one hundred, about trillion, trillion. centaine, - , ., ( one hunored. Except in commercial transactions, these words do not represent the precise number they express, but only a number nearly approaching to it. Thus une vingtaine may be a few more or less than twenty. As they are nouns, they require the preposition de to connect them with other nouns. Ex. // rrCa vendu une douzaine d'oeufs, he has sold me a dozen eggs. Cela, vous coûtera, une dizaine de mille dollars, that will cost you about $10,000. Le cent de paille que vous me fournîtes, the liund red- weight of straw you furnished me. These words are occasionally used to designate the age of persons, without any other word. Ex. Ce vieillard a passé la soixantaine, this old man is over sixty years old. The Distributive Numbers are la moitié, le tiers, le quart, un cinquième, and the ordinal numbers as in English. Ex. Les deux tiers sont plus grands que la moitié, two- thirds are more than one-half. On lui a. donné les quatre cinquièmes du profit, they have given him four-fifths of the profit. Le trois centième, the three-hundredth (3 Jô). Les trois centième*, three-hundredths (j%q). It must be borne in mind that moitié, half, is a noun and subject to the rules on nouns. ADJECTIVES. 81 Ex. Il a pris la plus grosse moitié, he has taken the largest half. La moitié ne suffirait pas, half of it would not be enough. While demi is an adjective, which is always used with a noun, whether that noun be expressed or understood. Ex. Je lui donne une demi-gourde le jour, I give him half a dollar a day. Trois heures et demie {heure) s'étaient écoulées, three and a half hours had passed. Exercise. Did you not find that sentence in Bacon's Works, Book fifth, Chap- ter second, page one hundred and first? It was the thirty-second year after that glorious peace when war broke out again, and inun- dated all Europe with blood. Sixtus the Fifth lived at the same time as Henry the Fourth ; both were very famous men, but in very dif- ferent ways. I have seen both brothers ; the likeness is indeed so great that one can well take the one for the other. There were only three-hundred, but in spite of their inferiority, they resisted the enemy for several hours ; they only gave way when they had two hundred killed and about fifty wounded. Has he passed sixty years, or, does he look older than he really is ? Nine-tenths of those who have heard it will not know the purport of his speech. It lasted three-quarters of an hour, and half was filled with statistics which interested nobody. I was there half an hour before him, when there were only about twenty persons in the hall ; later in the evening, there were perhaps a hundred. I have bought two hundred-weight of straw for my cows ; they cost me already more than ninety -three dollars, and this morning the servant told me that they had both run away. He obtained her father's consent on the tenth of July, and he became her husband before a fortnight had passed away. The wed- ding took place at night in the church, and after that they spent about twenty days at a friend's house in the country. 82 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. CHAPTER IV. PRONOUNS. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns, the forms of which have been given in the First Part of this Grammar, have their name from their original purpose, that of supplying the place of names of per- sons, in order to avoid their frequent, repetition. Although this is still their principal duty, their use is by no means con- fined to persons, and they represent not only lifeless objects, as Ex. Quant à la maison je la trouve détestable, as to the house, I think it detestable, but even whole sentences : Ex. // ne me salue jamais, et moi je ne Vaperçois jamais, he never speaks to me, and I never notice it (that he does not speak) ; in which cases the sentence is not unfrequently represented in a different construction. Ex. Voulez-vous que j'aille vous voir ? Oui, je le veux [que vous veniez me voir), do you wish me to go and see you ? Yes, I wish it (that you come and see me). Personal Pronouns differ : 1. As far as they represent three persons, the first, or the person who is speaking, je, I, nous, we ; the second, or the person spoken to, tu, thou, vous, you ; and the third, or the person spoken of, il, elle, he, she and it ; ils, elles, they ; on, some one. etc. As the first and second persons are always in sight of each other, there is no need of expressing their gender; it is dif- ferent with the third person, which is absent, and hence the pronoun representing it bas various forms for the genders. 2. As far as they are conjunctive, i. e., only to be used in immediate connection with a verb, like je } me y tu, te, le, lui, or PRONOUNS. 83 absolute, i. e., only to be used by themselves, without a verb, or united to a preposition, like moi, toi, eux, etc. Some pronouns are conjunctive and absolute without change of form — like elle, she ; nous, we ; vous, you ; elles, they. Ex. Elle (conj.) a assez, la maison est d elle (abs.), she lias enough, the house belongs to her. Sawz-vous (conj.) qu'il Va fait pour vous (abs.), do you know that he did it for you ? Quant à elles (abs.) elles (conj.), n'en savent rien, as for them, they know nothing of it. 3. As far as they represent the subject (nominative) of a verb, like je, tu, il and elle, or the direct object (accusative), like me, te, le and la, or the indirect object (genitive and dative), like en, y, lui, leur, etc. • Some pronouns serve for all three purposes : Nous and vous mean we and you, nom. " " us and you, acc. u " to us and to you, dat. Ex. Nous (nom.) nous (acc.) airaons et vous (nom.) vous (acc.) flattez, we love ourselves and you flatter yourselves. Nous vous (dat.) donnerons ce que vous nous (dat.) donnerez, we will give you what you will give us. Me, te, and se mean me, thee, one's self (acc.) " " to me, to thee, to one's self (dat.) Ex. U me dit à moi ce qu'il te dit à toi, he told me what lie told thee. Il me hait car il te préfère, toi, he hates me for he prefers thee. On se (acc.) trompe toujours quand on se (dat.) plaît trop, one always deceives one's self, when one is too well pleased with one's self. 84 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. ^CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. PERSONAL PRONOUNS A3 SUBJECTS. (Nominative.) Je, not written, as in English, with a capital initial, when it does not begin a sentence, sutlers elision when immediately preceding a verb, beginning with a vowel or mute h, and has the gender of the person it represents. Ex. Je suis satisfaite, dit la reine, de vos services, I am satisfied, said the queen, with your services. When placed in interrogative sentences, after a verb which ends in mute e, it compels the verb to place an acute accent on this e to avoid two mute e's following each other. Ex. Veillê-je ! puis-je croire un pareil dessein ? Am I awake ! Can I believe such a plan ? Dussé-je en mourir, je ressaierai, even if I were to die of it, I will try it. When the verb in the present is monosyllabic, it is not used interrogatively with je, but the question is asked by means of est-ce que? Ex. Est-ce que je dors ou est-ce que je veille? Am I asleep or am I awake ? Tu, also, is of both genders according to the person it rep- resents. Ex. Tu es bénie, Madone, parmi les femmes, thou art blessed, Madonna, among women. The use of tu — w 7 hich is expressed by the verb tutoyer quelqu'un, to thou a person — is not as rare as in English, but still limited. Tu is employed— In addressing God : Ex. Grand Dieu! tes jugements sont remplis d'équité, Great God ! thy judgments are full of justice* PRONOUNS. 85 In elevated and poetical style : Ex. Grand roi, cense de vaincre ou je cesse d'écrire, great king, cease conquering, or I must cease writing. In addressing very intimate friends, and, generally, members of the same family : Ex. Mon ami, je te supplie, ne fais pas cela, my friend, I pray thee, don't do that. Tiens, mon enfant, que fais4u là ? Why, child, what are you doing there? To address inferior persons, servants, etc., by tu, is no longer usage. Except in remote provinces, it has been aban- doned since the Revolution of 1848. In expressing contempt or intentional insult : Ex. Connais- tu T héritier du plus saint des monarques, reine? Dost thou know the heir of the holiest of monarchs, queen ? II and elle, derived, like the definite article, from the Latin demonstrative pronoun ille, ilia, represent the three pronouns he, she and it, as the French has no neuter. 77 also represents the it which is the vague subject of impersonal verbs. Ex. Il chante, il danse, il s'amuse tous les jours, he sings, he dances, he amuses himself every day. Ce tableau me plaît, il est original, I like this painting; it is original. Cette table est trop petite, elle ne me convient pas, this table is too small, it does not suit me. U neige, ou il va, neiger tout-à-V heure, it snows, or is going to snow directly. Nous, we, from the Latin nos, is used for both genders and for both numbers, according as it represents a masculine or feminine noun, and as it is used in the plural, or by a figure of speechj for the singular, as is done by sovereigns, editors, etc. 86 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Nous nommes toutes présep*es } dirent-elles, we are all here, they said. Nous, Georye Premier, par la grâce de Dieu, etc., we, George the First, by the grace of God, etc. Vous, you, from the Latin vos-, is in like manner used for both genders and numbers, as it is now-a-days the only pronoun employed in addressing persons. Ex. Vous êtes savant. Monsieur, vous savez tout, you are learned, Sir, you know every thing. Vous vous trompez, Messieurs, on ne passe pas ! You are mistaken, Gentlemen, you cannot pass here ! Persuadé comme vous Vêtes, vous devez le faire, as you are convinced, you ought to do it. Both of these pronouns, nous and vous, are rarely placed directly before a noun expressive of character, station, or nationality. In such cases the word autres is inserted be- tween the pronoun and the noun. Ex. Nous autres soldats nous ne nous en soucions pas, we soldiers do not mind it. Vous autres philosophes, vous le savez mieux, you philo- sophers know that better. Nous autres Américains, nous n'y sommes pas encore, we Americans have not yet arrived there. Ils and elles, from the Latin illi and illce, represent the Eng- lish they in all genders. Ex. Les médecins se sont-ils retirés déjà ? Have the doctors already left ? Parlez aux domes, elles y sont seules, speak to the ladies, they are alone there. J'aime ces maisons, elles sont commodes, I like those houses, they are convenient. 0/?,from the Latin homo, which is also only used as a subject, will be mentioned under the head of indefinite pronouns, to which it belongs, being the indefinite personal pronoun of the French. PKOKOTINS. 87 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECT. (Accusative.) Me is the accusative of je, and elides like the latter before a verb beginning with a vowel or mute h. Ex. II me plaint car il m'aime, he pities me, for he loves me. Bajazet aujourdhui m'honore et me caresse, Bajazet now honors and caresses me. After the imperative, me is always exchanged for moi, unless it should be followed by en or y, when it resumes its original form. Ex. Il me loue ; louez-moi (not me) donc aussi vous, he praises me ; do you praise me also. Suivez-m'y (not moi), s'il vous plaît, follow me there, if you please. Te is the accusative of tu, and used like me. Ex. Tu te trompes, mon ami, il est tard, thou art mistaken, friend, it is late. Te, also, has to be exchanged for toi after the imperative, and like me, resumes its original form before en. It is not used before y. Ex. Ta is- toi ! (not te) tu fais un fracas énorme, hush ! thou makest a terrible noise. Va-t-en (not toi), coquin, que je ne t'assomme pas! Be off, rascal, or I shall kill thee ! Le is the accusative^ of il } and represents the English him or it. Ex. C'est Dieu qui me Va, donné, mon mari chéri, it is God who has given him to me, my beloved husband. Ce livre ? Je le tiens de mon ancien précepteur, this book? I received it from my former teacher. Le is the pronoun which is added to all active verbs in order to comply with the rule, that every active verb in French 88 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. must have its object expressed, which is not the case in English. Ex. Is this your house ? Yes, it is. Est-ce la votre demeure ? Oui, ce Pest. Will you do me this favor ? No, I cannot. Voulez-vous me faire cette faveur? Je ne le peux pas. Did they do it yesterday ? Yes, they did. Est-ce qu'ils Pont fait hier? Oui, ils Vont fait. Le answers also for the English so, when it can be exchanged for it and does not mean thus, in this manner. Ex. I thought so, but I did not like to say so, je le pensais, mais je ne voulais pas le dire. It appears so, and perhaps it is so, il paraît et peut-être il en est ainsi. La is the accusative of elle and represents the English her or it. Ex. Voilà la dame ; je la vois qui s'approche, there is the lady; I see her coming. L> Empereur aime la France il la rend heureux, the Em- peror loves France, he makes it (her) happy. Je la vois, la maison de mes pères, I see it, the house of my fathers. It is not always easy, at first sight, to decide when the object of an active verb, understood in English and to be supplied in French, is to be translated by le simply, or by le or la or les. The rule is, that when the object is an adjective, le alone is supplied ; when it is a noun, that form of the pronoun is sup- plied which corresponds with the noun in gender and number. Ex. Est-il malade ? Oui, il Pest {malade). Is he sick ? Yes, he is. Puisqii'il dit que nous sommes exigeants, soyons-le (exigeant), since he says we are exacting, let us be so. PKONOUNS- 89 Votre sœur sera-t-elle votre héritière ? Oui, elle la sera (V héritière). Will your sister bo your heir? Yes, she will. Sont-ce là vos robes? Non, ce ne les sont pas {les robes). Are those your dresses ? No, they are not. Hence the difference between Etes-vous mariée ? Oui, je le s uis (adjective). Are you married \ Yes, I am. Etes-vous la mariée? Oui, je la suis (noun). Are you the bride ? Yes, I am. Even the (English) auxiliary verbs are active verbs in French and require the addition of their direct object, like other verbs of this class. Ex. Je sais que je le dois, I know I ought. Je le pourrais, s'il le faut, I could if I must. Il dit qu'il le veut : He says he will. Je vous le dirai, I will tell you. Nous, unchanged, is used as accusative of the nominative nous. Ex. Nous (nom.) nous apercevons qiCon nous (acc.) trompe, we are aware that we are deceived. Vous, unchanged, is accusative also of vous. Ex. Vous (nom.) êtes riche, je vous (acc.) en félicite, you are rich, I congratulate you. Les is the common accusative of Us or elles, and represents the English them in all three genders. Ex. Voyez-vous ces hommes ? Je les crains. Do you see those men ? I am afraid of them. Les malheurs disparaissent quand on les brave, misfor- tunes vanish if we face them. 90 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. It hails and snows very hard and it is not possible to go out. Come in and stand by the stove, it is warm and comfortable. I offer you my hand, and I hope you will not refuse it. Help me and I will help you, but after all it is with God to help us both. You ought to take exercise every day, your health demands it. I know I ought, and the doctor says so too, but I cannot force myself to do it. Will you come to-night and take tea with us ? Yes, I will, with pleasure, if I may bring my sister also Certainly you may, and we shall be very happy to see her. Be silent and go away, you are in a passion and know not what you say. He is not asleep. Yes, he is, and he will be for an hour, if nobody awakes him. Well, young ladies, are you ready at last ? Yes, we are, and altogether at your service. Since you say so, let us go and take our walk. She was not very amusing to-day, per- haps she will be more so to-morrow, when there will be more company at our house. Is your master at home ? No, sir, he is not ; he has left for Europe two days ago. I thought so, and would have come sooner, but 1 had not time, and now I am sorry for it. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECT. (Dative.) Me is dative as well as accusative, like the English me, and stands as indirect object for à moi. Ex. Il me (acc.) voit et il me (dat.) parle tous les matins, hé sees me and he speaks to me every morning. On ne saurait me reprocher (à moi) d'aimer la table, they cannot reproach me with a fondness for the table. Hence it cannot be omitted before a second verb, if it should represent different objects with the two verbs. Ex. // m-a plu {a moi) et enchanté (me), cannot be said, but me must in such cases be repeated with the auxiliary verb : Il m'a plu et ni ) a. enchanté, he has pleased me and charmed me. This me, like the accusative, is changed into moi, after the imperative, unless it precede en or y» PRONOUNS. 91 Ex. Donnez-moi (à moi) deux, give me two. Donnez-m'en deux, give me two of them. Suivez-m'y, follow me there. Te, in like manner, is dative as well as accusative of tu, and means to thee and thee. Ex. Tais-toi, pendard, hush (thyself), scoundrel. Prends-t'en tant que tu voudras, take as much of it as thou wantest. (Such a sentence as this would not be used in French, on account of its unpleasant sound— it is added simply as an illustration and a warning with regard to the laws of euphony.) Lui is the dative of il and elle, and corresponds to the Eng- lish to him, to her, and to it, standing, as it does, for à lai and à elle. Ex. Je lui parlais f ranchement, I spoke frankly to hira. h On lui a rendu son mari, they have restored her husband to her. Quand le vaisseau fut lancé on lui mit les mâts, when the vessel was launched, they put the masts in (to) it. If, however, two pronouns representing persons should be connected with the same verb, lui cannot be used for to him or to her, but its place must be supplied by à lui and à elle. Ex. He compares me to him, il me compare a lui. Shall I introduce you to her? Dois-je vous présenter a elle ? He gave himself entirely up to her, il s'adonna entière- ment a elle. Y (from the Latin ibi) is also a conjunctive personal pro- noun, representing as such mainly the indirect object of il or elle, when applied to things. It can be applied to persons only in connection with the two verbs, penser, to think, and se fier, to trust. 92 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Bz. J^eusez-vous à votre bien-aimêef Oui, f y pense jour et nuit Do you think of your lady-love i Yes, 1 think of her day and night Ne vous y fiez pas, elle a des caprices, do not rely on lier, she is tickle. A lui and à elle can, however, be used equally well with those verbs. Applied to things, y means to it or to them, Ex. Ajoutez-y un peu de sucre, &HI vous plait, add a little sugar to it. it' you please. Il faut y donner toute votre attention, you ought to give your whole attention to it. Ces fautes sont graves, faites-y attention, these are grave faults, pay attention to them. Nous and vous are used as datives as well as accusatives, and their precise meaning can be ascertained only from the position in the sentence. Ex. On nous (ace.) loue et on nous (dat.) fait des compliments, they praise and compliment us. Vous (nom.) cherchez toujours à vous [dut.) faire des amis, you always try to win (make) friends (for yourselves). Leur is the dative of the nominative Us and elles, and repre- sents, therefore, to them in all genders. Ex. Voyez mes enfants, on leur donne des cadeaux, look at my children, they are receiving presents. Mes filles nie dirent qu'on leur en avait parlé, my daugh- ters told me that they had spoken to them about it. Y occurs as a substitute for à eux and à elles, under the same condition, under which it can be used for à lui and à elle, as has been explained above. Ex. Ces hommes sont dangereux, ne vous y fiez pas ! Those men are dangerous, do not trust them ! PRONOUNS. 93 Exercise. Give him all that you have and I will give you all I have "Who was it that spoke to her this morning? I saw nobody who spoke to her, but I sent a friend to her, who told her that the carriage was waiting for her. Tell her all of it, or, if you cannot do that, tell me all of it and I will tell her. Go away, thou art too bad ; and be silent about it or thou wilt be punished severely. He confided in them and they deceived him. Add to it a measure of sugar and it will be very good to eat. If you had given to it more attention, you would have suc- ceeded better. What has he told you ? He told me that they would go away to-morrow, in order to spend a year in Paris, and that he would go there himself next year. I have heard that news, but I have given no credit to it, because he has told me so twice and he has not yet gone there. That was the residence of Voltaire : think of it, when you are on the banks of the lake of Geneva. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECT. (Genitive.) There is but one conjunctive personal pronoun, which repre- sents the genitive case, and that is en (from the Latin inde), which is used as a genitive of all the pronouns of the third person, singular and plural, and hence represents : of him, of her, of it, of them, from him, etc., about him, etc. Ex. Voilà mon frère, je lui en dirai quelque chose, here is my brother, I will tell him something about it. Si vous avez du thé y donnez rrfen une tasse, if you have any tea, give me a cup of it. Il avait dix enfants, mais il en a perdu six, he had ten children, but he has lost six of them. Like the pronoun y, en also requires the imperative of verbs, which ends in mute e, to add an s in order to avoid the hiatus. Ex. Parles-en à ton père quand il rentre, speak of it to thy father when he comes in. Sois saye, mon enfant, et donnes-en un a ta, sœur, be good, my child, and give one of them to thy sister. 94 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. It will be remembered that en, like y, has also the effect of changing moi and toi after the imperative into me and te. Ex. Dites-m'en tout ce que tous en savez, tell me all you know about it. Tais-fen avec tout le monde, be silent about with everybody. En is generally used with reference to persons only when they have been mentioned either in the same sentence, or at least in the one immediately preceding it. * Ex. Vous avez vu mon ami, qu'en pensez-vous? You have seen my friend, what do you think of him ? Que dit-elle de moi? Elle rien dit que du bien» What did she say of me ? She said nothing but what was good of you. Besides these immediate purposes for which en is used as a personal pronoun, it serves to express various other words, which have a kindred meaning in English. Of these the fol- lowing are the most important : En is used for some or any, when these words are employed as pronouns, and consequently not accompanied by any noun ; the manner of expression being that the French say, e. g., Give me of them ! instead of the English, Give me some ! Ex. Donnez-m'en, si voies en avez abondance, give me some, if you have plenty. Quel dommage! Je n'en ai pas. What a pity! I have not any. Des amis ! Ten ai, mais en très petit nombre. Friends ! I have some, but very few. If en in such constructions be qualified by an adjective, it requires, like all pronouns, the addition of the preposition de. Ex. I have some very good, but they are quite dear, fen ai de très bons, mais ils coûtent cher. These are good, but I have seen some that are better, celles-ci sont bonnes, mais fen ai vu de meilleures. PRONOUNS. 95 En is also used to express the English words one and ones, when they are added to adjectives instead of a noun. Ex. This apple is bad, give me a good one, cette pomme est mauvaise, donnez-m'en une bonne. Have you no better ones ? I do not like these. N'en avez-vous pas de meilleures ? Je n'aime pas celles-ci. This can, of course, only apply to adjectives which are objects of the verb, as it has already been stated that en can never refer to the subject, the nominative. If one and ones are used with the subject, they remain untranslated in French. Ex. A good one would cost twice as mueh, un bon coûterait deux fois plus. Good ones are very rare at this season, les bons sont fort rares à cette saison. En is used instead of the English it, whenever it becomes the object of a verb which in French is followed by the preposition de. Ex. I will use it, if you will lend it to me,jc m'en servirai, si vous voulez me le prêter. En is supplied in French to express the whole, of which a quantity, a number, or any measure forms the direct object of a verb in English, without mentioning the whole. Ex. How many books have you ? I have two thousand (books). Combien de livres avez-vous? J'en ai deux mille, I gave him half (of my money) and I kept the other half, je lui en donnai la moitié et je gardai Vautre. I thought you had given him more, je croyais que vous lui en aviez donné plus. Unless this quantity, measure, etc., is preceded . by the definite article or possessive pronoun, in which case it is clearly enough defined and does not require the addition of en. Ex. I gave him half and kept the best part, je lai en donnai la moitié et je gardai la meilleure partie. 96 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Take six and leave me my share, prenez-en six et laissez- moi ma pari. En is omitted in French, even when of it or of them are used in English, whenever the latter words refer to the indirect object of the verb, accompanied by a preposition. Ex. I met several ladies and I spoke to two of them, fai rencontré plusieurs dames et fai parlé a deux. He was employed for all and only plead for one, il était engagé pour tous et il n'a phiidoyé que 'pour un. Finally, it must be borne in mind that en cannot be used for the English of it, of them, etc., or for some or any, if these words are not accompanied by verbs, as en is a conjunctive personal pronoun, and consequently can be used only in immediate con- nection with a verb. In such cases, the French either repeat the verb, or substitute d'entre (from amongst) for en. Ex. How many did you see ? Two of them. Combien en avez-vous vus? J'en ai vu deux, or deux d'entre eux. You have taken six spoons. No, Sir, only four. Vous- avez pris six cuillers. Non, Monsieur, je n'en ai pris que quatre. Exercise. I foresee that this young man will become your friend, for you are always speaking of him. I like these men, and I say of them what your friend told you. Give me a small number of them, if you please, and lend her as many as you can give her, she will make a better use of them than I. Can you lend me some money ? I am sorry, 1 have not any, but I will tell you who has some. I do not like that tea ; I have tried a small quantity and it is not good ; show me some better. The sample I gave you was of the best tea in the city ; now I have not any, but I shall have some that is more costly, by the next vessel. How many brothers had she ? She had five, but she has lost one lately and another last year ; thus she has only three now. Will you take two or three pieces of silk ? Only two of them, if you please ; but if I find I have enough money, I shall take the third also. Out of PRONOUN'S. 97 a hundred men that buy lottery tickets, one wins a prize and ninety- nine lose their money. I want a knife, and I want a large one, for I have lost all the small ones I have ever bought. You have not treated me fairly, you sold me an old one for a new one. PLACE OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. a. As Subject. The elementary rules on the place of personal pronouns have already been given, and it has been seen that, as nominatives of the verb, they precede it, except in the interrogative form, when they are placed, as in English, after the verb. Ex. Je Vai salué, pourquoi ne me salue-t-il pas ? I have bowed to him, why does he not bow to me ? It has also been stated that if in questions the subject be a noun, it must be placed at the head of the sentence, and then repeated after the verb in the form of the corresponding pro- noun. Ex. U Empereur est-il parti pour Fontainebleau ? Has the Emperor left for Fontainebleau ? Les hommes ne seront-ils jamais plus sages qu'à présent. Will men never be any wiser than they are now ? To these general rules must now be added the following, which refer to more particular constructions : In English a condition may be expressed by simply giving to the verb the interrogative form, and instead of saying : If he had been here, this would not have happened, we may say : Had he only been here, this would not have happened. In general, such constructions are not admissible in French and must be rendered by employing si, if. Ex. Should you go there now, it would be too late, si vous y alliez maintenant, il serait trop tard. But in cases in which great emphasis is laid upon the con- dition, as when we say or can say even if, the French employ 98 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. the interrogative form of the whole of the subjunctive of the verbs avoir, être and devoir, and the third person singular of the same tense and mood of all verbs, like the English, for the same purpose. Ex. Dussé-je en mourir, je le ferais néanmoins, even if I were to die of it, I would do it nevertheless. Fût-il plus riche que Crésus, il ne serait p> as heureux, even if he were richer than Crœsus, he would not be happy. Eussent-ils eu six cents canons, ils ne V auraient f p as emporté, even if they had had six hundred guns, they would not have gained the battle. Donnât-il tout son bien aux pauvres, il ne gagnerait pas le ciel, even if he were to give all he has to the poor, he would not enter into heaven. Personal pronouns are, also, generally placed after the verb, when for the sake of emphasis one of the following adverbs is placed at the beginning of the sentence : à peine, scarcely ; en vain, in vain; au moins, at least; encore, yet; toujours, still; peut-être, perhaps, aud several others, expressing a conclusion. Ex. A peine fut-il entré, qu'il éclata en injures, hardly had he come in, when he broke forth in insults. Toujours sera-t-il suspect a tous ceux qui Vont connu, still he will be suspected by all who have known him. Peut-être auriez-vous mieux fait de vous taire, perhaps you had done better to keep silence. It must not be overlooked that the pronoun is thus placed after the verb only when the above-mentioned adverbs are placed, for some particular purpose and always with a more or less idio- matic meaning, at the head of the sentence, instead of their legitimate place after the verb. In incidental sentences personal pronouns are invariably placed after the verb. Ex. Eh bien, dit-il, finissons-en, well, he said, let us make an end of it. PRONOUNS. 99 Exercise. I liave seen it often enough, and I do not care to see it again. Was this man ever one of your friends, or did he merely claim your friend- ship to protect himself in his crimes ? Were he here now, he could not he admitted, because the general is too much engaged to see any one; but should you see him in an hour or sooner, you may send him to me and I will tell him when he can succeed. Even if he were the President of the United States, he would have no right to prohibit this. Should I lose my all, I will venture upon this enterprise and carry it Hhro ugh, even if it were the last thing I shall do upon earth. Nothing in this world, he repeated twice, will induce me to act thus, I value my honor more than all the riches of the earth. y o. As Object. Personal Pronouns which are direct or indirect objects of a verb are placed immediately before it, except in the affirmative imperative, when they are placed after it and connected with it by a hyphen. This rule has already been stated and ex- plained in the First Part of this Grammar. There remains, however, to be considered the case in which two such pronouns are connected with the same verb. Their place is, in that case, entirely prescribed by rules : If the two pronouns represent different persons, the first per- son precedes the second, and the second the third. Ex. He told it to me before he told it to you, il me le dit avant qu'il vous le dit, I gave them to you yesterday at the Exchange, je vous les ai donnés hie?* à la B ourse. You owe them to me and you shall pay them to me, Vous me les devez et vous me les payerez. If the two pronouns represent the same person, which can, of course, occur only with the third person, the direct object precedes the indirect. Ex. He sent them to her and she sent them back to him, il les lui envoya et elle les lui renvoya. 100 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. He took the purse and gave it to them, with these words, il prit la bourse et la leur donna avec ces mots. If the two pronouns are placed after the imperative, that of the third person is invariably placed first, for the sake of euphony, and both are joined by hyphens to the verb. If they should both be of the third person, here also the direct object precedes the indirect. Ex. Give it to me at once or I must take it, donnez-le-moi de suite ou je devrai le prendre. Send him to us and we will take care of him, envoyez-le- nous et nous nous en chargerons. Show it to him and then give it back to them, montrez- le-lui et après rendez-le-leur. En and y will be found, in accordance with these rules, always nearest to the verb, when before it, and farthest from it, after the imperative. Ex. 72 aurait dû vous en donner autant, he ought to have given you as many. Donnez-lui-en autant qu'il voudra, give him as much as he wants. Est-ce que vous l'y voyez tous les jours ? Do you see him there every day? Conduis ez-nous-y et nous vous rendrons grâce, carry us there and we will be obliged to you. It has already been mentioned that for the sake of euphony y is placed before moi and toi, as, Invitez-y-moi, invite me to it ; but such phrases are of very rare occurrence and ought to be avoided by foreigners. Exercise. When he saw that I was a foreigner, he said to me : I cannot trust you, send me a native. When he had read the book, he gave it to me, with the promise that I would return it to him to-morrow or the next day. PROKOUNS. 101 Did you see that beautiful rose ? I gathered it this morning in my garden : I presented it to her politely at breakfast ; she took the leaves of it and placed them into a vase, where she collects a large quantity of rose-leaves, in order to make a perfume of them. Send her to him, he will know what she can do to it. If you have your books here, take this pretty one, add it to them, and they will appear twice as handsome as before. What did he tell you aboutit? He told me no more of it than he had told you, but he promised that he would carry me there and show it to me himself. Take the dol- lar and give it to them, and then take this letter and send it to her ; she will read it at once. When you have looked at ail the engravings, return them to her, and tell her that I wish to see them also, if she can lend them to me for some time. Sell me a hundred of them and I will give you a good price. REPETITION OF CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns must be repeated before every verb, to which they serve as an object. This rule has no exception with regard to the pronouns of the first and second person. Ex. I saw and recognized her before you did, je la vis et je la reconnus avant vous. I will study and learn it by heart to-night, je vais V étudier et Vapprendre par cœur ce soir. The pronouns of the third person, however, may be used but once, instead of being repeated, when the two verbs which they qualify are of the same nature. Ex. Il vint et dit, he came and said. Je la vis et saluai, I saw and saluted her. But if the two verbs have different objects, or one is affirma- tive and the other negative, or if they are separated by incidental sentences, the pronouns of the third person also must be separated. Ex. Elle voulut et elle ne voulut pas, she would and she would not. 102 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Je Vax rencontré et je lai ai parlé, I have met bina and spoken to him* II la cassa quand fêtais absent, et il ne Va pas fut raccom- moder, he broke it when I was away, and has not had it mended. If the two verbs thus used with the same pronouns are in the imperative mood, the usage is to repeat the pronoun, but to place it before, instead of after, the second verb. Ex. Tenez ce livre ; Usez-le et le relisez, take this book ; read and re-read it. Nettoyez-les et les polissez tant que vous pourrez, clean and polish them as well as you can. Exercise. I like this young lady as well as you, but I think you flatter and praise her too much. He spoke to me for half an hour, and did not say a single word which I had not heard before. She went and came back ten times; at last she made an effort and really went away. Speak to him or write to him on the subject ; he will give you the best advice, and accompany it with a sum of money. I will give you your mother's letter ; read it and re-read it, it is full of good advice, and you ought to study and follow it during your whole life. She saw it but she did not recognize it, and yet it was her own child. I think of it and remember it every day when I come to your house — how I loved and cherished it ! PERSONAL PRONOUNS SUBSTITUTED FOR POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Possessive Pronouns referring* to parts of the body of the person speaking or spoken of and to, are not rendered in French by the corresponding words, but their place is supplied by the article before the noun, and the indirect object of the proper personal pronoun before the verb. Instead of saving: His head aches, sa tête fait mal ; the French say : The head aches to him, la tête lui fait mal. PRONOUNS. 103 Ex. I washed my face, je me lavai le visage. I will break his head ît /e lui casserai la tête. She bas cut her finger, elle s'est blessé au doigt. The verb, to beg pardon, is in Frencb used after the same man- ner, substituting the personal for the possessive pronoun. Ex. I beg your pardon, je vous demande pardon. With passive verbs, the nominative of which is a person, the pronoun is superfluous, as there can arise no ambiguity in such a case. Ex. I was wounded in my shoulder,^ fus blessé à Vépaiile. The general rule of thus substituting one class of pronouns for another is, however, set aside whenever there could either an ambiguity arise as to the person whose parts are spoken of, or when special emphasis is resting on the possessive pronoun. In these cases the latter is translated literally. Ex. Push your feet (not anybody else's), poussez vos pieds. Show me your teeth, montrez-moi vos dents. Having wept so much, their eyes were red, ayant tant pleuré, leurs yeux étaient rouges. On the other hand, the article alone suffices to represent the possessive pronoun, without the addition of a personal pronoun, when we speak of an action natural to the part of the body referred to, and when there can be no ambiguity. Ex. I opened my mouth, f ouvris la bouche Shut your eyes, fermez les yeux. If the noun expressing a part of the body, be accompanied by an adjective, the possessive pronoun must be used. Ex. Give me your beautiful hand, donnez-moi votre belle main. What has become of her bright eyes ? ses yeux brillants que sont-ils devenus ? It must be borne in mind here, that in Frencii the singular of 104 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. nouns expressing a part of the body is used, instead of the Eng- lish plurals, when each person has but one such part. Ex. They all lost their lives, ils perdirent tous la viè. The savages cut off their noses and ears, les sauvages leur coupèrent le nez et les oreilles. Exercise. You pull my hair too severely in combing it ; take care, or my head "will ache for several hours. He was wounded lightly in the arm, but he lost his leg. Go into the chamber and wash your hands and face. When the robbers had entered his room, they tied his arms and bandaged his eyes, so that he could neither see nor hear. She said she felt a slight pain in her foot, perhaps she has sprained it. Please stop my ears, I cannot endure that dreadful noise. Show me your teeth, the dentist said, and I will tell you if it is necessary to draw them. I opened my mouth, but he insisted that he could not see my teeth yet. He will certainly not punish you this time, if you go at once to him and beg his pardon. Do not put your feet on the cushion; your boots are not clean, and you will soil the cover. He raised his arms to heaven and expressed his unbounded astonishment. In his first duel he was wounded in the shoulder and his adversary lost his left leg ; both combatants lost their lives during the war. He cannot speak of it, for as soon as he mentions it, the tears come into his eyes. HOW TO TRANSLATE it INTO FRENCH. The personal pronoun it represents either a noun or a whole sentence or a part of a sentence. In the first case it is transla- ted by il or elle, according to the gender of the noun which it represents ; in the latter case, before être, by ce. An additional test to know when ce is to he substituted for il, is to see if the English it can be supplied by that, in which case it is invariably rendered by ce. Ex. Try this beer, it is excellent, goûtez cette bière, elle est excellente. PRONOUNS. 105 Try it again ; it is better already, essayez de nouveau ; c'est mieux déjà. Tell me seriously, is it (that) really so ? Dites-moi sérieu- sement, est-ce vraiment ainsi ? It has beeti the same each time he has come, c'a été la même chose chaque fois qu'il est venu. Ce is not used before an adjective followed by de. Ex. It is useless to go there now, il (not c'est) est inutile d'y aller maintenant. Nor in the familiar exclamation : est-il possible ? But in all definitions of time with être, ce will be required, as in such expressions that can always be substituted for it. Ex. It was in June when I saw him last, c'était en Juin que je Vai vu la dernière fois. Was it yesterday that he came to your house ? Est-ce que ce fut hier quil est venu chez vous? Ce may be separated from the verb être in these cases, when the two verbs pouvoir and devoir are connected with it. Ex. It cannot be he, for I have seen him myself, ce ne peut pas être lui, car je Vai vu moi-même. It must be a queer thing, ce doit être une drôle de chose. Another peculiarity in this use of ce for it, is that it is fol- lowed by the plural of the verb, when connected with nouns or personal pronouns of the third person, whilst with all other persons it remains singular. Ex. It is they who ought to be blamed for it, ce sont eux qu'on doit blâmer. It was you who told me so, c'était vous qui me l 1 avez dit. Is it your children or mine whom he wants to see ? Sont- ce vos enfants ou les miens qu'il veut voir ? It must not be forgotten, in this connection, that it may not 106 OjST THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. only be the subject (nominative) but also the direct object (accusative) of the verb, in which case it has to be translated by le. Ex. Ride out, your health requires it, sortez à cheval, votre santé le demande. Don't do so, you know the master prohibits it, ne le faites pas, vous savez que le maître le défend. Do you think this is it ? Croytz-vous que ce Vest ? Exercise. When I heard it first, I thought it was not true, but the papers say that it is surely so, and I fear that it cannot be doubted any longer. It is difficult to understand their reasons for these measures, but it was so last year, and I presume it is so in all great crises. He offered me his credit in that city, and I knew that it was not small, but I made no use of it, because I had money enough. It is we whom they blame, and yet you know very w r ell that it is they who are the cause of all these misfortunes. Is it really you, my dear friend, whom I have not seen for so many years ? It w T as not difficult to guess what would be the consequences of his manner of living, for it was clear that he spent twice as much as he took in. You are mistaken, Sir, it cannot be she whom you saw, for she was at my house at that hour, and she is there now. It was half-past ten when I saw her, and I am sure it was she. It has been so in all revolutions : success is the only test by which rights are decided. It was a very cunning trick, and it will not be easy, even hereafter, to discover exactly how it was done. Is it possible, he cried out, that you have committed such a blunder, and you speak of it as if it were a mere trifle ? Do you not know that it will be a cause of great loss and much regret to you and your family ? PERSONAL PRONOUNS WITH NEUTER VERBS. There are some neuter verbs in French followed by the preposition à, the meaning of which is such as not to coalesce easily with their object ; hence the conjunctive form of the personal pronouns cannot be used with them, but they require PRONOUNS. 107 the preposition a to be expressed, and the proper form of the (absolute) personal pronoun to be used after them. These verbs are principally aller a; to go to ; boire à, to drink to ; être à, to belong to ; penser à, to think of (and other verbs express- ing thoughts, like méditer à, etc.) ; recourir à, to have recourse to, and viser à, to aim at. Ex. I went to him and told him what I wanted, J'allai a lui et je lui dis ce qu'il me fallait. Think of me when you are in Venice, pensez a moi quand vous serez à Venise, This belongs to him, for he has bought it, c'est à lui, car il Va acheté. REFLEXIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The conjunctive reflexive pronoun of the French is se, which represents all English forms of the third person, himself, herself, itself, themselves and one's self, without translating the word self, which is only used when there is an emphasis resting on it. Ex. She deceives herself if she thinks so, elle se trompe, si elle le pense. They love themselves too well and others too little, ils s* 1 aiment trop et les autres trop peu. He has killed himself in a moment of rage, il s'est tué dans un moment de rage. Se is the only pronoun which can be used to represent the nominative on, in the oblique cases. Ex. On se trouve en danger quand on y pense le moins, we find ourselves in danger, when we least think of it. It has already been stated in the First Part of this Grammar that this conjunctive pronoun se is used with all pronominal verbs in French alike, but that it is differently translated into English according to the special nature of these verbs, viz. in reflexive verbs by one's self, in reciprocal verbs by each other, and in pro- nominal verbs proper not at ail* 103 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. On pent être savant et se tromper néanmoins, one may be learned and yet be mistaken. Ils allaient se tuer tout de bon, tliey were about to kill each other in good earnest. Il faudra se lever de bonne heure demain, we will have to rise early to-morrow. IL— ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal pronouns are called absolute, when they have no connection with the verb, but stand either entirely alone or are dependent on a preposition. Ex. Who is there ? It is I, who come to see yon, qui est là ? Cest moi, qui viens vous voir. He, who had been my friend, abandoned me, lai, qui avait été mon ami, m? abandonna. Go with them, they will show you the way, allez avec eux, ils vont vous montrer la route. In these examples, I and he are used without connection with any verb, and them depends on the preposition with. The forms of the absolute personal pronouns are : 1st person, singular : moi, I or me. 2d " 44 toi, thou or thee. ( lui. he or him. 3d " i ( elle, she or her. 1st person, plural : nous, we or us. 2d 44 44 vous, you. { eux, they (masc.) or them. { elles, they (fern.) or them. Although these absolute forms cannot be used in connection with a verb, they may be added to the conjunctive form — 1st. In order to express emphasis : Ex. I, I saw it, and I assure you it is so, moi, je Vai vu et je vous assure qu'il en est ainsi. PROXOUNS. 109 I do not see him, whom I wished most to see, je ne le vois pas lui, que je désirais voir le plus. 2. Tti order to express distinction between several persons. Ex. He was here, but she was absent, lui, il fut ici mais elle, elle fut absente. I have seen him and her, but they have forgotten me, je les ai vus, lui et elle, mais ils m'ont oublié. 3. In order to couple a pronoun with a noun, both being subject or object of the same verb. Ex. I know them and their neighbor, je les connais, eux et leur voisin. She and her brother live together, elle et son frère ils demeurent ensemble. You and I who were there know it well, vous et moi qui étions là, nous le savons bien. It will be seen from these examples, that whenever pronouns are the subject or object of a verb, the conjunctive form must be used in the first place — and can never be omitted — and the absolute form is only superadded afterwards for such specific purposes as have been mentioned. Ex. Il nous invita vous et moi, he invited (us), you and me. , Je vous parlai à vous et à elle, I spoke (to you), to you and to her. Nous les recevrons lui et sa femme, we will receive (them), him and his wife. Exercise. I, whose reputation he tries to ruin, I have never done him any thing but good services. You and I are content with our fate, but I believe that is a rare exception. Speak for me, if you can find an opportunity, and I will speak for you whenever I can. He went away with them and he came back with them, but he did not think of them after they had parted. These ladies and I were together at the theatre last night ; they like the opera, but I, I was tired and nearly fell asleep. 110 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. You and your brother will see that I was right when I told you that you vent ured too much. I know him and her, for I have known their whole family since I have been in this country ; he is a nice fellow, but she is a shrew. We had invited her and her sisters, but only she and one of her brothers came, the others were sick. You may tell him this secret to-morrow, but you cannot tell her any thing of it until the affair is over. Did she not receive you and her very well, when she discovered who you were ? Yes, she was very kind to me, and so were her parents, and I thanked both her and them. The absolute forms of the personal pronouns are, moreover, used whenever they are followed by a relative pronoun, because the latter separates the personal pronoun from its verb, and permits it thus no longer to be conjunctive. Ex. Moi, qui suis son fils, je le déclare coupable, I, who am his son, I declare him guilty. Qu'est-ce que c'est que lui qui nous traite si indignement ? Who is he, who treats us so badly ? Eux qui ont mal calculé, devraient payer, they who have calculated wrong ought to pay. The absolute forms are, also, used whenever the pronoun is separated from the verb by a noun or an adjective, because then also it ceases to be truly conjunctive. Ex. Moi seul je le vis quand il mourut, I alone saw him as he died. Lui, le héros, pouvait-il s'oublier si tristement ? He, the hero, could forget himself so sadly \ The absolute forms are, finally, placed by ellipsis before the infinitive of verbs in order to give great emphasis to the expression. Ex. Moi, trahir le meilleur de mes amis ? I (should) betray the best of my friends ? Lui, faire une telle lâcheté et se conduire si mal ? Ile (could) act bo meanly and conduct himself so badly ? PRONOUNS. Ill Exercise. She who takes such good care of her health when she is well, is very imprudent when she is the least indisposed. I know him and her, both have been my friends for many years ; he is almost a brother to me, and she will be my wife next week. They should have forgot- ten so far all that we have done for them, and repay us with such ingratitude? I cannot and will not believe it, for they have ever been my best friends. He who is your brother would not lend you this small sum, and I whom you have hardly known am willing to give you all you may want. It is she who is always complaining of her health and not he, for he is never sick ; and both he and she will live yet many years. Yes, I shall punish him and no one else, for he alone is guilty ; and the others who were caught with him, were not his accomplices but his victims. He was on horseback and I was on foot, nevertheless I was first at the rendezvous, and when the seconds came we saw that it was they who had given him false directions. THE PRONOUN Soi. Soi is the absolute form of the reflexive pronoun, which, from the nature of its meaning, can never occur by itself, but is only- used in connection with prepositions or the conjunction que, where it has, of course, all the various meanings that have been mentioned in the explanation of the conjunctive form se. Ex. On pense toujours 'plus a soi qua autrui, we always think more of ourselves than of others. II est facile d'être riche quand on n'a que soi, it is easy to be rich when one has only one's self. Heureux qui vit chez soi ! Happy he who has a home ! Generally the use of soi is avoided, except after on, and lui or elle are used instead ; still, in cases in which an ambiguity might arise, soi must be employed to mark the person of the subject in contradistinction to that of a third person spoken of. Ex. Il ne parle que de soi, or better, que de lui-même, he only speaks of himself. L'avare qui a un fils prodigue n'amasse ni pour soi ni 112 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. pour lui. The miser who has a prodigal son, hoards neither for himself nor for him. When soi is joined to même, it loses its pronominal character and may be used like a noun. Ex. Un tel ami est un autre soi-même. Such a friend is another self {alter ego.) Ou mon amour me trompe ou Zaire aujourd'hui pour V élever a soi, descendrait jusqu'à lui. If my passion does not deceive me, Zaire would now, in order to raise him up to herself, lower herself to him. Soi is also very generally used in reference to lifeless objects. Ex. La vertu est aimable en soi, virtue is attractive in itself. La franchise est bonne de soi, mais elle a ses excès, frank- ness is good in itself, but it may go too far. Exercise. When one speaks against his neighbor, he speaks against himself. People think too much of themselves and rely too much on them- selves, hence they are so often mistaken. He has covered himself with disgrace, and he must be ashamed when he thinks of himself. He who loves work has enough in himself, he can do without the °ompany of others. In order to have true peace, we must be in peace with God, with our neighbors and with ourselves. These things are indifferent in themselves, but they may become of great importance. Crime always drags after it a certain meanness, which it is not very easy to conceal from an observant eye. This young man, while doing the will of his father, works for himself. It will be recollected that the absolute forms moi and toi take the place of the conjunctive forms me and te after the imperative of verbs, unless they should be followed by en. Ex. Dites-moi donc la vérité, now tell me the truth. Tais-toi, pendard, tu as trop dit déjà, be still, rascal, you have said too much already. Donnez-m'en tout ce que vous pourrez, give me as much as you can. PRONOUNS. 113 Moi, however, is placed after y, contrary to general rules, for the sake of euphony. Ex. Tu vas à - l'opéra, mènes-y-moi, you are goiDg to the opera, take me with you. In familiar language moi is sometimes added to the imperative, as a mere expletive, to give, as it were, greater force to the expression Ex. Faites-moi taire ces yens-là ! Make those people keep silence there ! Frappez-le moi un peu sur le dos, strike him a little on the back. II.— POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Possessive Pronouns have their name from the fact that they generally qualify nouns by means of their relation to the owner or possessor. It will be seen, however, that in French this original purpose is by no means accomplished by the use of possessive pronouns, except in a few limited cases. These pronouns are, like all others, divided into conjunctive, or such as are invaiiably used in close connection with a noun, and absolute, or such as stand instead of a noun and are conse- quently always accompanied by an article. The elementary rules on the use of both classes have already been given in the First Part of this Grammar. It will be borne in mind that the conjunctive agree with the noun which they qualify, while the absolute agree with the noun which they represent. Ex. Cette homme parla à sa mère et à la mienne, this man spoke to his mother and to mine. C'était sa fille et point la vôtre, this was his daughter and not yours. S'il prend ma bague, je prendrai la sienne, if he takes my ring, I'll take his. Possession is in French expressed, not by means of the pos- sessive pronouus as in English, but by means of the verb être, 114 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. in the signification of. to belong, followed by à and the absolute form of the personal pronoun. Ex. This house is mine, but it will be yours, cette maison est à moi, mais elle sera à vous. Whose watch was it ? It was hers. Cette montre à qui fut-elle? Elle était a elle. The only exception to this rule applies to the cases in which possessive pronouns are used, not to express possession itself, but rather distinction between two objects by means of pos- session. Ex. iVe pienet pas ce chapeau, c'est le mien, do not take that hat, that 5s mine. Laquelle u-t-il perdue, la vôtre ou la leur? Which has he lost, yours or theirs ? Exercise. This is my brother's sentiment and mine ; I hope yours is not dif- ferent from ours. I have returned you your books, what have you done with hers? The book which I lost yesterday was not mine but my wife's ; she regrets the loss bitterly. Here are all the jewels you have ever given me ; now say, which are to be yours and which mine? Your servants and ours are frequently quarrelling ; we shall have to change them all, or there will be no peace for you or me. This is my sister's horse ; if you wish to see mine you must go to the stable. I am too tired to go with you, but I should like to see yours, they are famous in the whole town. Whose cottage is this ? My dear friend, to-day it is mine, but to-morrow it may be yours, for I mean to leave it to you after my death. Why, my friend, do not speak so, for your life may be longer than mine. She shall not have these bracelets ; I will give her mine, but I will never give her these. In English, possessive pronouns may be placed, by means of the preposition of, after the noun which they qualify, and the latter can, in such cases, be accompanied by an indefinite article or a demonstrative pronoun* as in — A friend of mine, or These PRONOUNS. 115 books of his. Both modes of expression are not known to the French, and when they have to be translated, a choice must be made between the demonstrative and the possessive pronouns, as only one can be used. The less important will be omitted, and we will say either : These books, or His books. For A friend of mine, we say, One of my friends. Ex. Un de mes amis, a friend of mine. Ces livres or vos livres, those books of yours. Take these pictures of mine and sell them at auction, prenez ces tableaux et vendez-les à V encan. Was that a friend of yours ? Est-ce que c'était un de vos amis? The possessive pronouns its and theirs, when referring to life- less objects, are not translated by le sien, etc., but by en, unless the objects are personified by having some quality or action applied to them. Ex. Voijez cet arbre ; les fruits en sont excellents, look at this tr^e ; its fruit is excellent. Est-ce que mon cheval a déjà mangé son avoine ? Has my horse eaten its oats already ? The possessive pronouns are not used before nouns followed by a relative pronoun, but are exchanged, in that case, for the definite article. Ex. J'ai reçu la (not voire) lettre que vous m'avez écrite, I have received your letter which you have written me. Tenez les (not vos) promesses que vous m'avez faites, keep your promises which you have made me. Le mien, le tien, and occasionally le sien, are used to express my, thy, his or her property, and treated a> nouns. Ex. Le mien et le tien, sont la source de toutes les querelles, what is mine and what is thine, this is the source of all troubles. Il a mangé tout le sien, he has spent all his property. 116 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Les miens, les vôtres and all the plurals are used to express my parents, friends, adherents, etc., and treated as nouns. Ex. Les miens ne m\mt pas secouru dans ce danger, my friends have not stood by me in this danger. Il faut amener Aime, votre épouse et tous les vôtres, you must bring your wife and all your family. Exercise. A clerk of his has defrauded him largely and brought about his failure by his dishonesty. Was this man ever a friend of yours, or did he only pretend to be acquainted with you? I am surprised at your question ; a man like him never could be a friend of mine. These horses of yours are very handsome and very fast, but they are not sound, they will not live long, especially if you do not change that groom of yours, who treats them badly. A neighbor of yours heard the noise the burglars made in breaking the kitchen window, and came at once to our assistance ; without this aid of his, the whole house would have been stripped of every thing valuable and we would have lost all our property. When this news reaches our country, what will our people say about it ? You and yours will ahvays be welcome at my house, and I shall ever be delighted to see you there. III.— DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. It has already been explained in the First Part of this Gram- mar that the demonstrative pronouns also are divided into two classes : conjunctive, or such as are invariably connected with a noun or the verb être, and ab-olute, or such as stand alone and represent themselves nouns. The former were represented by ce and its various forms, the latter by compounds of ce with the absolute forms of personal pronouns, as celui, celle, etc. It was also stated that the distinction between the two English demonstrative pronouns This and That, had to be expressed in French by the addition of ci (from ici) and là, either to the pronouns themselves, as ceci) cela, celui-ci, ceux-là, or to the PEON O UNS. 117 nouns preceded by these pronouns, as cet homme-ci, this man, and cet homme-là, that man. The conjunctive forms agree, of course, with the noun which they qualify, the absolute with that which they represent. Ex. Cet homme et cette femme ne sont pas mariés, this man and this woman are not married. Cette maison et celle que vous m'avez vendue, this house and that which you have sold me. Mes filles et celles de notre voisin, my daughters and those of our neighbors. Ce is conjunctive to the verb être only, although in familiar conversation a few other verbs occur with it, as ce me semble, it seems to me. It has the peculiarity of leaving the verb in the s'ngular, even when referring to a plural, unless the latter slould be a pronoun of the third person plural, or a word pre- ceded by a preposition. In these two cases the verb is used in tie plural. Ex. Ce sera, nous tous qui lui en seront redevables, we all of us will be obliged to him for it. C'est vous qui êtes chéris, it is you who are beloved. Ce sont eux qui ont ordonné tout, it is they who have arranged all. Quoi ! c'est à ces dieux que vous sacrifiez ? What ! is it these gods you worship ? Whenever ce and être are followed by a noun or pronoun preceded by a preposition, they must be connected by que with the following verb. Ex. Cest à vous que je parle, it is to you I speak. Ce n'est pas de cela qu'il s'agit aujourdhui, that is not the question to-day. When ce is followed by a relative pronoun, ce must be repeated before the next verb, of which it forms the subject. 118 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Ce que je crains c'est d'être surpris, what I fear is to be taken in. Ce que j'aime le mieux c'est de vous voir ici, what I like best, is to see you here. Ce must be supplied in French before être, when the subject of the latter verb is the preceding part of the sentence. Ex. Le mieux dans ces cas c'est de se taire, the best in such cases is to be quiet. Vivre tout seul c'est trop triste, to live quite alone is too sad. Although many classic authors omit the ce when être is fol- lowed by the nominative, as Ex. L'enfer des femmes est la vieillesse, old age is the hell of women. Exercise. It seems to me that this wine is not so good as that in the cast:. That is not possible, for this is much older and more costly, and tie other is a wine of very little value. It is the number of people anl the abundance of food which make the true strength and the trie wealth of a country. It is indifferent works that one ought b abridge; it would be an act of injustice to shorten a work of greit merit. It is they who have done all this, and now they have tie impudence to say that it is we who are responsible for the result, [t is neither the arts nor the handicrafts that can degrade man : it s vices only that can do that. The true praise of a poet is to retain lis verses and to hear them recited in the streets. The only way to com- pel men to speak well of us is to act well. You have done great tilings ; but confess the truth, it is hardly by you that they have been accomplished. What I have told you is the simple truth ; you may believe it or not, as you choose. What we endure with least patience, are calumnies and treacheries. The absolute forms, celui, etc., have not only the general meaning of the English demonstrative pronouns, but are used, PRONOUNS. 119 besides, to render various other expressions, of whieh the follow- ing are the most important : They represent the one, when followed by a reia'.ive pronoun. Ex. The one for whom I work, is a better master, celui pour qui je travaille, moi, est un meilleur maître. This is not the one whom I love best, ce n'est pas celle que f aime le mieux. They represent, also, the English personal pronoun, when it is employed in a general sense and followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. He who weeps will be consoled, celui qui pleure sera consolé. He who will not labor must suffer, ceux qui ne veulent pas travailler doivent souffrir. But when the personal pronoun refers to an individual, it is literally translated. Ex. He, who was rich, has lost every thing, lui, qui était riche a perdu tout. They represent, also, the English one, followed by a relative pronoun. Ex. I do not like one who tells stories,^ riaime pas ceux qui font des contes. One who knows so well ought not to say that, celui qui le sait si bien ne devrait pas le dire. They represent, finally, the English which, when it has the signification of whichever. Ex. Take which of these papers you prefer, prenez celui de ces journaux que vous préférez. Celui, etc., must be supplied in French when in Engli-h the nominative of a possessive case is omitted idiomatically. Ex. These horses and my father's (horses) are alike, ces che- vaux et ceux de mon père sont 'pareils. I will send you yours and your wife's,^ vous enverrai les vôtres et ceux de votre femme. 120 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. He wlio wishes to be happy in this world is not always so, because we rarely know what makes our true happiness. You can read which of these books you choose, only put them back again in their places in the library. He who says so is either mistaken or he says delib- erately what is not true ; you may take your choice. There is an old proverb in various languages which says : He to whom fortune pipes, dances well. Will you please show me your picture, I mean the one which you bought a year ago, when you were in Italy. I cannot show you that, because it is in the hands of an artist, but I can show you the one I brought from Italy when I was there before. He who wants to reap where he has not sowed, is a dishonest man. They who talk will be punished, and the one who is first discovered will be punished very severely. Do you think you ever could love one who has done such an act ? Do you recollect the young lady I wanted to introduce you to, the one with the auburn hair and the majestic figure? Well, 1 am sorry for it, but she has married and left our city. Celui-ci, celui-là and the other absolute forms connected with ci and là, lose by that combination their general character and are used to point out more individually and directly, those with ci representing the English this one, those with là the English that one, and kindred expressions. Ex. Donnez-moi celui-ci et prenez celui-là, give nie this one and take that one. Ceux-ci ront assez bons, ceux-là ne valent rien, these here are pretty good, those are worth nothing. Celui-ci and its various forms represent the English the latter, as being nearer to the moment of speaking, and celui-là, etc., the former, as being more remote. Ex. De ces mots celui-là est vieux, celui-ci est inconnu, of these words the former is old, the latter unknown. Ceci and cela, not having a personal pronoun in their compo- sition, can be used with reference to lifeless objects only. The latter is in familiar conversation çonti acted into ça. PRONOUNS. 121 Ex. Ceci me plaît, et je vous dis cela tout franchement, I like that, and I tell you that quite openly. Bonjour, Monsieur, comment ça va-t-il ? Good-morning, Sir : how are you ? Hence also the first words of the revolutionary song, Ca ira, etc. In very familiar conversation cela occasionally answers to repre- sent persons only, but this rare use of cela is not to be imitated. Thus, upon seeing children at play, one may say : Cela est heureux, cela ne fait que jouer, are they happy, they have nothing to do but to play ! Cela is used for the English it, when that pronoun repre- sents not a noun, but a whole sentence, and is not the nomina- tive of the verb to be (in which case it would be translated by ce simply.) Ex. N'y allez pas, puisque cela lui déplairait fort, do not go there, since it would displease him much. Cela me plaît qu'il Va fait lui-même, it pleases me that he has done it himself. The English demonstrative pronouns this and that, when followed by the verb to be, are frequently expressed in French by the two words voici and voilà, which thus serve, in a manner, as demonstrative pronouns. They consist of the imperative of the verb voir, vois, see or behold, and the words ici and là. Hence they can only be used for objects virtually in sight, and are not admissible in interrogative sentences. Their verbal origin produces, moreover, the peculiar effect, that whilst nouns, which are the object, are placed after them, pronouns under the same circumstances are placed before them. Ex. Voici mes enfants, où sont les vôtres? Here or these are my children, where are yours ? Voilà mon ami qui arrive enfin, there is my friend coming at last. Sont-ce là vos enfants ou les miens ? Are those your children or mine ? Les voici, je V avais bien dit qu'ils ne nous manqueraient 122 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. j)as ! There they are ; had I not said that they would not disappoint us ! Voici and voilà may be followed by an adjective or an adverb. Ex. Nous voilà sauvés pour cette fois, now we are safe for this time. Les voilà à V endroit même où nous les attendions, there they are, at the very spot where we expected them. But they cannot, as in English, be followed by a participle present, which must be rendered in French by qui and the proper tense of the verb. Ex. La voilà qui vient à notre rencontre, there she is, coming to meet us. When the two words are followed by an expression of quan- tity, they require en to be used before them. Ex. En voilà un, si je ne me trompe pas, there is one of them, if I am not mistaken. There is virtually no difference of meaning between voici and voilà, except that voilà refers to what has been mentioned before, and voici to what is coming after. Ex. Voilà ce quHl a proposé et voici ce que je désire, moi, that is what he proposed, and this is what I want. In familiar style voilà is occasionally used interrogatively. Ex. En voilà-t-il tout ? Is that all \ Exercise. A faithful magistrate and a brave officer are equally worthy of esteem ; the former makes war upon enemies at home, the latter upon onemies abroad. This machine is moved by springs and is very imperfect, that one is moved by steam and is quite new. When he came into the room he exclaimed : " What do I see ! is this my son, or do my eyes deceive me V I took the boy by the hand, and leading him to his father, I said : " This is your son, whom you thought lost ; and this is your daughter, whom you have never seen. These apples are not better than my neighbor's ; where are those you had this morning ? He is twice great, w T ho having great merits, never speaks PRONOUNS. 123 of them, but leaves that to others. I do not say that, but I assure you, that I will not permit you to repeat it. That is easy enough, but you ought to try to work better than any of your rivals, and then you would succeed beyond doubt. How do you do, Madam ? Thank you, Sir, I am well, but my poor daughter has been quite sick, and that troubles me sorely. There she is, and I said she would never come ! IV. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative Pronouns have their name from the fact that tbey relate or refer to some preceding noun or pronoun, which is called their antecedent. Ex. Il y a bien des personnes qui le savent, there are a great many persons who know it. Ce sont eux que nous blâmons seuls, it is they alone whom we blame. The fundamental rule applying to the construction of all relative sentences is this : There must be in French expressed the three parts of such a sentence : the antecedent, the relative pronoun, and its verb. These three parts must follow in the order mentioned. In the sentence, Voila l'homme dont je parle, there is the man I am speaking of, Vhomme is the antecedent, dont the relative pronoun, and je parle its verb. Thus the three parts are present, and they follow each other in the prescribed order. In English, on the contrary, the three parts are not necessa- rily required, one or the other being frequently omitted ; nor is the order in which they have to stand in French, by any means always observed. Hence arise the following different construc- tions. 1. In English the antecedent may be omitted. Then it has to be supplied in French by the proper form of the demonstra- tive pronoun ce, etc., fur things, celui, etc, for persons. Ex. What pleases me most is her modesty, ce (supplied) qui me plaît le mieux, c'est sa modestie. 124 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I know what you want to say, je sais ce (supplied) que vous voulez dire. Here are all who will be present, voila tous ceux (sup- plied) qui seront présents. 2. In English the relative pronoun may be omitted. It has to be supplied in French. Ex. Where is the book she had in her hand? Où est le livre qu J (supplied) elle tenait à la main ? These are the men you wanted to see, voila les hommes que (supplied) vous vouliez voir. 3. In English the preposition governing the relative pronoun may be placed at the end of the sentence. In French it must be placed before the pronoun. Ex. Can you guess what I am thinking of? Pouvez-vous devinez ce à quoi je pense ? Who w 7 as the man you were speaking to in the street ? Qui était V homme à qui vous parliez dans la rue ? 4. In English the relative pronoun may be separated from the antecedent by intervening words. In French the order of words must be so changed as to bring them into immediate succession. Ex. A vessel has arrived which brought me a letter. Not un vaisseau est arrivé, qui, but il est arrivé un vaisseau qui m'a apporté une lettre. À friend told me so, who had seen it himself, je Vai appris (Tun ami qu i V avait vu de ses propres yeux. 5. In English the verb may be separated from the relative pronoun by intervening words. In French it must be placed in its proper place, immediately after the relative pronoun. Ex. This is what the priest at Brussels has told me, voilà ce que m\i dit le prêtre à Bruxelles. The book which your charming sister gave me, le livre que m'a donné votre sœur charmante. PRONOUNS. 125 The only exception to this general rule is furnished by dont, which is followed by its nominative, instead of by its verb, although, when the following noun is in any other case, the rule again applies. Ex. You whose kindness has been so great, vous dont les bontés ont été si grandes. But, You whose kindness I feel so deeply, vous dont je sens tant les bontés. I paid for the book whose cover I spoilt, f ai payé le livre dont f ai gâté la, couverture. It must not be forgotten that qui, etc., cannot be used whenever the relative pronoun is subject to a preposition, but that in all such cases lequel, etc., must be substituted. Ex. The monarch in whose States w 7 e were, le monarque dam les états duquel nous étions. The crime for which he is condemned, le crime pour lequel il a été condamne. Exercise. If you cannot do it, the persons who are my true friends will obtain for me all the money I want, for my credit is what I rely on in this crisis. I know what would be the best medicine for you : fresh air and an abundance of exercise ; they are all I would prescribe for you. I cannot remember against whom he spoke, but it was the best speech I ever heard in my life. These men whose abominable crime has been so severely punished, will not be allowed to re-enter society — which is not severity but simple justice. When he returned to this country he went to see the mayor of the fortress from which he had escaped, and spoke to all who had known him during his captivity. This has brought us at last a peace, the sweetness of which surpasses all other pleasures, and for which we cannot be too grateful. You whose brilliant talents we all acknowledge, ought not, on that account, cease to make the greatest efforts. Were you in the ship the main- mast of which was struck by lightning and in which so many pas- sengers were killed ? 126 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. What is occasionally used in English before nouns, with the double power of an adjective and a pronoun, as in the phrase : What money he had. In French it lias tu find any thing remarkable in the works of that author ? He left us without saying any thing, and con- sequently nothing can be done to help him. 2. — Indefinite Pronouns, which are always joined to a Noun. Quelque, from the Latin qualisque, and its plural quelques, correspond to the English Some, in the sense of a small quan- tity, in the singular, and a small number, in the plural. Quelque elides its final e only before un and autre, making quelqu'un and quelqu' autre, somebody else. Ex. 77 doit avoir quelque passion secrète, he must have some secret passion. Quelques crimes toujours précèdent les grande crimes, some crimes always precede great crimes. Quelque must be well distinguished from the partitive article, which always expresses a part of a whole, whilst quelque means only one out of a number, or Some in contradistinction to None. ' Ex. Vous aurez sans doute quelque argent, you will certainly have some money. Il y aura peut-être quelque personne obligeante, there will perhaps be some obliging person. Quelque, meaning, like quelqu'un, always distinctly Some, in contradistinction to None, cannot be used negatively, except in questions. Aucun is used for Some in negative sentences. Ex. N^y aurait il pas quelque brave homme? Might there not be some good fellow ? Quelque unites with the noun chose, thing, to express Some- thing, and is then treated as a masculine. Ex. J'ai quelque chose de beau à vous montrer, 1 have something pretty to show you. PRONOUNS. 141 Chaque holds the same relation to chacun that quelque holds to quelqu'un, only it has of course no plural, as it means Each or Every. Ex. Chaque passion parle un différent langage, every passion speaks a different language. A chaque jour suffit sa peine, each day has its own troubles. Quelconque, from the Latin qualiscunque, corresponds to the English Whatever (it may be), and occurs only after a noun. Ex. 77 n'y a chose quelconque qui puisse Vy obliger, there is nothing whatever that could induce him. Un homme quelconque aurait mieux fait, any man what- soever would have done better. In English, Any is often substituted for Whatever, and must then be translated by the same word. Ex. Vous pouvez me donner un livre quelconque, you may give me any book. In mathematics, quelconque is used in the plural. Ex. Deux points quelconques étant donnés, any two points being given. Certain becomes a pronoun only in the sense of Some, and may in that case be preceded by the indefinite article. Ex. Certaines personnes nous en ont averti, some persons have warned us against it. Un certain homme est venu nous le dire, a certain (some) man came and told us so. Exercise. Some ancient authors have maintained that doctrine, but in our day it has long since been abandoned. Every age has its pleasure, every condition its charms ; good follows evil, and smiles follow tears. We went to see a certain person, who had assured us that he could cure 142 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. us of this disease, but we found him to be an impostor. There is always sonic mystery about his movements, and his enemies intimate that he prefers it, because it gives him apparently a little more im- portance. If we could find some house that would suit us in your neighborhood we would take it immediately, but so far we have not been able to find any. If I were you, I would take any house rather than to board with my wife and children; it is the saddest way of living I know, to have no home. He told me, with tears in his eyes, that after having paid all his creditors, there would not be left him any thing whatever, but somebody else assured me that he was not quite so destitute. 3. — Indefinite Pronouns used with or without a Noun. Autre, from the Latin alter, corresponds to the English Other, and precedes the nouns it qualifies, but follows other indefinite pronouns. Ex. Il ne croyait pas qu'il y eût un autre inonde, he did not believe there was another world. Il faudra lui donner quelqiC autre médecine, you will have to give him some other medicine. Rien autre ne me conviendrait, nothing else would suit me. It is, properly speaking, a genuine pronoun only when it is not accompanied by a noun, but acts as a substitute. Ex. Un autre ne vous parlerait pas si franchement, anybody else would not speak so openly to you. Another one, is simply translated by Another. Ex. You can give me now another one, vous pouvez m'en donner maintenant un autre. It has already been mentioned that the plural form autres is often added to the pronouns nous and vous, when a distinction is to be established by nationality, profession or the like. Ex. Vous autres Anglais vous n'en savez rien, you Englishmen know nothing of that. Nous y sommes accoutumés, nous autres médecins, we are used to that, we who are physicians. PRONOUNS. 143 Autre chose, like quelque chose, is treated as a masculine. Ex. Consolez-vous, autre chose vous sera accordé, console your- self, something else will be granted you. V an Vautre represents the English One another or Each other, and may be used in both numbers and genders either jointly or separately. Ex. Il se haïssent les uns les autres, they hate each other. 77 donne à Van ce qu'il retire à Vautre, he grants to one what he takes from the other. It must be borne in mind, that in English the preposition is placed before Each other or One another, whilst in French it must be placed between Pun and Vautre. Ex. They always speak badly of each other, ils médisent toujours Vun de Vautre, What a pity to see them unchained against each other ! Quelle pitié que de les voir déchaînés les uns contre les autres ! Another, when it means One more, must be translated by encore un. Ex. I will lend you another hundred, if you want it, je vous prêterai encore une centaine, s'il le faut. Vun et Vautre, represents the English Both, when united, and requires the verb to be used in the plural. Ex. Van et Vautre rapportent les mêmes circonstances, they both report the same facts. When they are subject to a preposition, the latter must be repeated before each part. Ex. J'ai satisfait à Vune et à Vautre objection, I have met both objections. On ne se sert guère également de V une et de Vautre main, we rarely use both hands alike. When they are joined to a noun, the latter remains singular, although it has a plural meaning. 144 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Ij un et Vautre climat lui conviennent peu, both climates do not suit him well. Autrui, from the Latin alteri, is indeclinable, and applicable to men and women only, when they are taken in a general sense. The word is not used except as an indirect object, preceded by prepositions. Ex. Attendez d'autrui ce que vous faites a autrui, expect from others what you do unto others. Nous sommes prompts à reprendre les fautes d'autrui, we are quick in blaming the faults of others. Nul y aucun and pas un represent the English No or None, and have, generally, the same meaning; still, there are certain ditfer- rences to be noticed in the use which is made of these three pronouns. Nul and its feminine nulle is most frequently placed before nouns, although nul is the only one of these pronouns which can be used as the subject of a verb, without accompanying a noun. Ex. Nul homme n'est exempt du péché originel, no man is free from hereditary sin. V homme ne trouve nulle part son bonheur sur la terre, man finds his happiness nowhere on earth. Nul n'est content de sa fortune, no one is satisfied with his lot. Nul is used in the plural only in order to express null, of no value. Ex. Toutes ces procédures sont milles, all these proceedings amount to nothing. Aucun, from the Latin aliquis unus, has a negative meaning only when accompanied by ne, and then takes the place of quelque. Ex. Aucun homme a-Uil jamais fait mieux ? lias any man ever done better ? PRONOUNS. 145 Je doute qu'il y ait aucun auteur sans défaut, I doubt if there be any author without defect. Je ne joue d? aucun instrument, I play on no instrument. Aucun may also be used in the plural when it accompanies nouns which occur in the plural only. Ex. II Tb a fait aucuns préparatifs pour son voyage, he has made no preparation for his journey. Pas un and pas une is the strongest of these negative pro- nouns, meaning distinctly not one. It is used without a noun only in familiar style. Ex. Il n r y a pas une seule personne qui le sache, there is not a single person who knows it. U est aussi savant que pas un (familiar), he is as learned as any one. Exercise. When he had finished the account of Ms adventures in the Pyrenees, the boys who had listened very attentively, said : Tell us something else now. There is not one of these books which I have not read, but no book could ever keep me awake, when night fell. Is there any one of all the painters who has better understood what artists call the clair-obscur f Do not trouble yourself with the affairs of others, you have enough to do to save your own little fortune. Here are my father and my mother ; I have seen them both only once during the last year, and they themselves have not seen each other for the same time. People ought not to slander each other : that is one of the meanest wrongs which they can commit, because it benefits no one and always does much harm. These two nations have fought against each other for many generations, but now they are good friends, and have learnt, both, to value the power of such a union. He has spared no expense in making my sister comfortable, and when she was sick he did all for her that the most devoted husband could have done. Même, from the Latin metipsissimus (Italian medesimo y Spanish mismo, French même), is an adjective, with the mean- 146 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. ing of Same, an adverb with the meaning of Even, and a pronoun only when it stands instead of a noun or is placed after it in the signification of Even. Ex. Pierre et Cephas c'est le même, Peter and Cephas are the same. Vos droits et les miens sont les mêmes, your rights and raine are the same. Le roi même n'oserait pas le faire, even the king would not dare do it. The conjunctions As and That, used after The same, are in French expressed alike by que. Ex. Is this the same man that I saw yesterday ? Est-ce le même homme que f ai vu hier? Rich men have the same end as poor men, les riches ont la même Jin que les pauvres. The same as, when it means Like, is t ranslated by comme before nouns ; and The same, when it stands alone, by de même. Ex. He treats me the same as his brother, il me traite comme son frère. He speaks and acts the same, il parle et agit de même. Tel, from the Latin talis, represents the English Such, but is not used like the latter with the indefinite article after it, but takes it before it. In the plural it requires the partitive article de. Ex. Is it possible that such a man can succeed ? JEst-il pos- sible qiCun tel homme puisse réussir ? Such persons never know what they ought to do, de telles jK'rsonnes ne savent jamais ce qu'il faut faire. Such a, in interjections, cannot be expressed by tel, but by the adverb si before the adjective. Ex. She is such a beautiful woman î C'est une si belle femme ! He has told us such consoling words ! // nous a dit des paroles si consolantes ! PRONOUNS. 147 Such, before adjectives and followed by As, and consequently expressing a comparison, is translated not by tel, but like oiher comparisons. Ex. If I were in such a good condition as he, 67* moi, fêtais dans une si bonne position comme lui. Such, before nouns and followed by As, is translated by teU placed after the noun. Ex. Such animals as this are dangerous, les animaux tels que celui-ci sont dangereux. Such as, is occasionally used in English with the meaning of Those who, and must in that case be translated like the latter phrase. Ex. Avoid such as may tempt you, évitez ceux qui peuvent vous tenter. Tel is employed in proverbial expressions, without noun or article, to represent the English Many a one, in similar expres- sions. Ex. Tel sème qui ne recueille pas, many a one sows who does not reap. Tel rit qui pleurera, many a one laughs who is going to weep. Plusieurs, which has no singular and means Several or Many, can be used without a noun only as subject to a verb ; in all other relations it must be accompanied by a noun. Ex. Plusieurs se sont trompés en voulant tromper les autres, many have deceived themselves, when they wished to deceive others. On le dit ainsi dans plusieurs journaux, it is said so in several papers. Tout, from the Latin totus, which makes its plural in tous, has a variety of special significations, of which the following are the most important : Tout, by itself, represents every thing or all things. 148 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Tout tombe, tout périt autour de nous, all things fall and perish around us. Tout était adoré dans un siècle païen, every thing was worshipped in a pagan age. In this signification it may, like rien, be placed before the infinitive and the participle past of the verb of which it is the direct object. Ex. Quand il Pa vu il lui a tout avoué, when he saw him he confessed to him every thing. Maintenant, cependant, il ne veut pas tout dire, now, how- ever, he will not tell all (every thing). It must not be forgotten that when tout is followed by the relative pronoun, the antecedent in the form of ce must be supplied. Ex. All I know of it is this, tout ce que fen sais est ceci. Is that all that embarrasses you ? Est-ce là tout ce qui vous embarrasse? Tous, by itself, represents everybody or all, and may be used instead of the personal pronouns as weli as in addition to them. Ex. Tous s'en allaient quand la cérémonie fut finie, they all went away when the ceremony w r as over. Ils versaient tous des larmes, quand, le bateau fit eo/l", they all shed tears when the vessel sailed. Tous, also, when followed by the relative pronoun, requires the addition of an antecedent. Ex. 1 have seen all who were there when it happened, fai vu tous ceux qui étaient là quand cela arriva. When the English All refers not indefinitely to nil, but to all of a special class, as all at home, ail of a society, etc., it is translated by tout le monde, Ex. How is everybody at home ? Comment se porte tout le monde chez vous ? PRONOUNS. 149 Have they all come? Est-ce que tout ie monde est arrivé ? Tout, before nouns, has a collective meaning, with the sig- nification of The whole or All the, when it takes the article be- tween itself and the noun. Ex. Tout V homme ne meurt pas, the whole of man does not die. On ne peut jamais voir tous les corps célestes, we can never see all the celestial bodies. Il a mangé toute une fortune, he has spent a whole fortune. Tout, before nouns, has a distributive meaning, ^th the signification of Each or Every, when it takes no article but pre- cedes the noun immediately. Ex. Tout citoyen doit servir son pays, every citizen must serve his country. Tout homme qui aime la vérité en est blessé, every man who loves truth is offended by it. When tout thus qualifies the name of a city, it remains mas- culine, though the latter may be feminine. Ex. Tout Venise y était, all Venice was there. When tout qualifies a personal pronoun, subject or object of a verb, it is placed after the latter. Ex. They ail speak at once, Us parlent toits à la fois. It appears that they have broken them all, il paraît qu'il les ont brisées toutes. All, is in English often followed by the preposition of, before nouns or pronouns. Tins is not used in French, and tous is placed after the pronoun. Ex. Are all of these mon to follow us ? Tous ces hommes nous suivront-ils? All of you must do your duty, vous devrez faire tous votre devoir. 150 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Tous and toutes in definitions of time have the meaning of Each or Every, with even greater force than chaque. Ex. Je le vois tous les matins qui se promené, I see him every morning taking a walk. Il va nous V envoyer toutes les quatre semaines, he is going to send it to us every four weeks. Tous and toutes, followed by the adverb tant, has the special meaning of As many as. Ex est maître absolu de tous tant que nous sommes, he is absolute master of us all (as many as we are). On les a chassés tous tant qu'ils furent, they have been driven off, every one of them. Exercise. Do you know such a person ? I have never heard even such a name, and know nothing of it. Such people always imagine that they are right and everybody else is w r rong; I dislike them even more than really disagreeable people. Several ladies had come to our house and were waiting for my sister when the accident befell her, which, on the same day, deprived me and you of a beloved relative. He is such a learned man that I would have thought him the best person to fill that chair, but they have chosen another one. If I had been in such a dangerous position, I would not have known how to help my- self, and it is even likely that I would have perished miserably. Every good citizen must serve his country, the soldier with his blood, the priest with his zeal. All novelties in point of religion are dan- gerous, but they ought not to be condemned too hastily ; on the con- trary, we oug|it to try them all, and perhaps something good may result from the examination. Any other place but a throne seems unworthy of her, such is the loftiness of her mind and the majesty of her appearance. That liberty has its limits, as well as every other liberty. The whole evening was spent in singing and dancing, and thev tell me they do this every evening for a week ! PRONOUNS. 15i 4. — Indefinite Pronouns followed by Que. À number of these indefinite pronouns are only used in con- nection with a verb with which they are united by means of the conjunction que. They express, with one exception, the English word Ever, and as this is naturally suggestive, not of positive facts, but of contingencies, they are followed by the subjunctive mood. The following are the most important of this class. Qui que ce soit, whoever, or anybody, any one. Ex. Faites entrer qui que ce soit qui me demande, admit any one who may ask for me. Qui que ce soit à qui Von donne, on s'en plaindra, to whomever it may be given, people will complain. Quoi que ce soit, whatever, or any thing. Quoi que ce soit qu'on dise de moi, taisez-vous, whatever they may say of me, keep silence. Quel que soil, with its feminine and plural forms, whoever or whatever. Ex. Quel que soit le résultat, nous y consentons, whatever the result may be, we agree to it. Je le dirai à ces dames quelles qu'elles soient, I will tell it these ladies, whoever they may be. Quelque — que, with its plural quelques — que. is used with a noun between the two parts, and then means Whatever. Ex. Quelques talents qu'il ait, il n'a pas de génie, whatever talents he may have, he has no genius. Quelque — que, with an adjective between the two parts, has the meaning of However. Ex. Quelque grands que soient ces talents, il en ahu*e, how- ever great his talents may be, he makes a bad use of them. 153 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Tout — que, with an adjective between the two parts, means also However, but it is the only one of these indefinite pronouns which is followed by the verb in the indicative mood, as it always expresses a fact, and not a contingency. Ex. Tout éloquent qu'il est, il ne convainc pas, eloquent as he is, he does not convince. Je Cai vu trébucher, tout savant qu'il est, I have seen him stumble, however learned he is. It must be noted that qui que ce soit and similar terms may, of course, be followed by the past tense also. Ex. Qui que ce fût qui le demandât, il refusa toujours, who- ever might ask for him, he always concealed himself. Quoi que vous ayez fait, avouez-le franchement, whatever you may have done, confess it frankly. Whatever, at the end of a sentence, must in French have its proper verb supplied. Ex. I will grant you any favor whatever, je vous accorderai quelque faveur que ce soit. The same expression in French answers for the English Some — or other. Ex. You can give me some book or other, vous pouvez me donner quelque livre que ce soit. The same expression, finally, answers for the English Ever so, followed by an adjective. Ex. I will accept any place, be it ever so humble, f accepterai une place, quelque humble qu'elle soit. Exercise. A woman, whatever property she may bring to her husband's house, soon ruins it, if she introduces there extravagance for which no wealth can suffice. However powerful they may be, I do not fear them, for I have the right on my side, aud, in the end, that must always conquer. Whatever it maybe they ask of you, promise them to do it ; but tell them, at the same time, that you cannot do any VEftBS. thing whatever without the consent of your father. Whoever he may be, he ought not to have acted thus ; for, no man can do wrong, who has a conscience, without repenting it. Frivolous as she is, I can hardly think she would have treated her lover so badly, for there is dishonesty in breaking her solemn word. Do not fear the empty power of men : however powerful they may be, they are what we are. Whatever mortals may be, we must live among them, and a fastidious man is unhappy through himself. This is a universal law, and applies to all men : I except from it nobody, whatever he be or can be. We ought never to speak evil of anybody whatever in his absence. Whatever merit we may have, we cannot, unless we possess luck and protection at court, succeed in any thing whatsoever. We shall do our duty, whatever you may say to the contrary ; and if we receive no other reward, we shall be content with the consciousness of having done what we ought to have done. CHAPTER V. VERBS. The Verb has its name in French as in English from its im- portance in a sentence : it is verbnm, the Word, by eminence. For nouns simply name a person or an object, but do not con- vey a thought ; it is only when we say something of this person or object, when we use a verb, that an idea is communicated from one person to another. A sentence, therefore, may consist of a noun and a verb only, and will already fulfil the purposes of language. The principal purpose of the verb is to affirm sonething, and to qualify this affirmation by designating person, number, time and mood. These four qualities of the verb are thar advances ; his troops throw themselves upon the enemy. Le malheureux! Il veut s'enfuir, il est trop tard ! The unhappy man ! He wants to flee ; it is too late ! Conjunctions which express a future — like when, while, as soon as, etc, — and others, which express a past — like after, before, etc., — are frequently used in English with the present tense. The French is more precise in these cases and requires respectively the past or the future after them. Ex. When he comes back, he will dine at once, quand il ren- trera, il va dîner de suite. VERBS. 173 I will tell him as soon as T see hïm, je le lid dirai aussi- tôt queje le verrai. He ahvavs sleeps after he dines, il dort toujours après avoir dîné. Exercise. He loves peace, he blames all extremes, and enjoys the happy changes which take place under his benevolent rale. My friends are all ready ; the boat is at the landing ; let us bid farewell, and we will start as soon as you have done w r eeping. I shall certainly punish him if he does it again, for it is a bad habit, which must be overcome at once or it becomes his master. Will you be very glad when she be comes your brother's wife? I do not know yet, for I have never seen her ; but I will tell you frankly how I like her after I have made her acquaintance. Do not l^ave this place till he tells you to do so ; it is very important that somebody should be here to receive visitors in his absence. You can take a walk along the shore while I am re- maining by the boat to see that nobody steals the oars and our clothes. If you will allow me to go away for a few minutes, I shall be very much obliged to you. It is not necessary for you to come back till I am ready to accompany you. III. THE PAST TENSES. The French verb has three past tenses, which represent the meaning of the English two past tenses; hence, there arises some difficulty in knowing exactly which of the three to employ. Fortunately, the rules in French are very positive and at the same" time very clear, so that very little attention suffices to acquire the tact necessary for their use. Of the se three tenses, two are simple— the imperfect and the preterit definite — and one is compound, the preterit indefinite. The Imperfect has its name from the fact that it refers to a past action, the time of which is purposely left undecided in itself, imperfect, but measured only by another action, begin- ning or ending at the same time. Ex. J pensais à vous quand vous êtes entré, I was thinking of you when you came in. 174 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Elle dormait profondément, quand je cessai de lire, she slept profoundly when I stopped reading. It is generally, though not necessarily, expressed in English by the verb To be, with the participle present. Its principal purposes are to express an action, which is continued for a long time, and this is generally expressed iu English by I was, with the participle present. Ex. I was living ten years in that house, je vivais dix ans dans cette maison. I loved her so much, when she was with us î Je V aimais tant quand elle était a>'ec nous ! Or an action frequently repeated, and this is generally expressed by I used to, etc. Ex. Formerly I used to read very little, autrefois je ne lisais que fort peu. They used to come to see us every Sunday, ils venaient nous voir tous les Dimanches. The imperfect expresses, thirdly, any past action, which is not designated definitely by any expression of time. Ex. Nous étions vainqueurs, we were victorious (so far). César était un des plus grands hommes, Caesar was one of the greatest men. Je ne savais pas cela, I did not know that (before). The imperfect is, as has already been stated, the only tense which can be used after si, if, for any English tense except the present. Ex. If he were to come to-morrow, it would be too late, sHl venait demain, cela serait trop tard. I would do it, if he should insist upon it, je le ferais, s'il insistait. The Preterit Definite has its name from the fact that it refers to a past action, the time of which is well determined by some definition of time, and hence fully elapsed. VERBS. 175 Ex. Nous y allâmes hier, we went there yesterday. C'est le même jour où naquit Molière, that is the same day on which Molière was born. The principal purposes of this tense are to express actions which have ended completely, and hence it is the historical tense of the French. Ex. Cette bataille fut livrée en 1812, this battle was fought in 1812. Cet infortuné roi expia ses crimes sur Véchafaud, that most unfortunate king expiated his crimes on the scaffold. It cannot, therefore, be used for actions accompanied by words, like This year, this week, etc., because these periods of time have not yet completely elapsed ; nor can it state what has been done to-day. The preterit definite is, secondly, used to express all past actions accompanied by a definition of time, as the date, etc. Ex. Je rty arrivai que le quinze Juin, I only arrived there the fifteenth of June. Il me le dit un jour que nous fumes ensemble, he told me so one day when we were together. The Preterit Indefinite has its name from the fact that it refers to a past action, the time of which is not yet com- pletely elapsed, although the action itself has come to an end, Hence, this is the tense which expresses all actions accom- panied by words like This year, this month, to-day, etc. Ex. Eavez-vous rencontrée ce matin ? Did you meet her this morning ? Jai eu la fièvre deux fois cette année, I had the fever twice this year. It is used, secondly, to express past actions, the effects o\ which have not yet entirely passed away, or are at least repro sen ted as still continuing. 176 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Avez-vous conclu votre marché avec cet homme ? Did you close your bargain with this man ? Les Grecs nous ont donné les Beaux Arts, the Greeks have given us the Fine Arts. Hence, past tenses accompanied by adverbs, like Always, often, never, etc., will be expressed by the preterit indefinite, because these adverbs extend the action indefinitely. Ex. J'ai toujours craint qu'il n'en soit ainsi, I always feared it might be so. Il n'a jamais voulu nous avouer son crime, he never would acknowledge his crime. Exercise. Whilst we were at dinner, a band of musicians came into the room ; they played for several hours, until the time for the evening concert, when they left the hotel. Louis XI. was a wise, but a wicked king ; he did many great acts and not a good one ; he suffered all his life from jealousy and fear of being murdered. We used to sit on that bench and look upon the lake every evening last summer ; we always liked that place better than any other in this neighborhood. The battle was fought on the eighteenth of June ; it lasted for ten hours ; about noon the fate of the conflict changed, and finally our troops gained a brilliant victory. Did you see him this morning going to the spring and filling a tumbler with its fresh and pure water for his daughter? No, I did not see him to-day, but I saw him yesterday morning. When we visited the beautiful castle at Pau, they showed us a large room, and the servant said, with an air of great solemnity : In this room Henry IV. was born ! We always hoped he would come and bring his family with him, but whilst we were expecting him here, he had gone to the West. He came to this country late last fall, and went on the first of December to the little farm of his son-in- law, where he has been living ever since. We were playing a game of billiards, when she came into the room and called her husband ; he stopped playing at once, and since that time we have not played another game. His father gave him all he wanted as long as he saw that he reasonable in his wishes ; but when he found that there VKEBS. 177 was no Limit to his extravagance, lie ceased supplying him with money. If I were in his place, I would not think of it any more ; the money is lost, and it is of no avail to regret such losses. If it should be found again, even that would not make much difference, for the money was not his. When we reached the gate of the city, which used to be open during the whole night, we found it shut, to our surprise ; and as the watchman was sleeping, we did not rouse him for half an hour, during which we stood in the rain, wet and shivering. COMPOUND PAST TENSES. The Pluperfect, formed of the imperfect of auxiliary verbs with the participle past, is used in precisely the same manner as the imperfect itself, only with regard to a past action, which precedes another past action. Ex. X avais déjeûné, quand vous vîntes me demander, I had breakfasted when you came for me. The action of breakfasting, here, is represented not only as past in itself, but as past previously to the other past action of your coming. This second action, however, need not be specially expressed ; it may be represented by a definition of time. Ex. Il avait fini son ouvrage à minuit, he had finished his work at midnight. The pluperfect is employed, also, like the imperfect, for actions accompanied in English by t\e words thed to. Ex. I used to read as soon as I had dined, je lisais aussitôt que f avais dîné. It is, likewise, employed after si, if, because that conjunction cannot be used with any other past tense but the imperfect, and the pluperfect contains the imperfect of the auxiliary verbs. Ex. S y il il avait pas fait cela, il aurait été perda, if he had not done that he would have been lost. 178 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Modern writers are disposed occasionally to substitute the subjunctive of the preterit anterior for tlie pluperfect, but it- remains to be seen whether this elegant though bold form of ex- pression will be adopted by standard authors. Ex. S'il eût été le chef, il y aurait peut-être remédié, if he had been the commander, he might have mended it. The Preterit Anterior, formed of the preterit definite of auxiliary verbs with the participle past, partakes again of the nature of the simple preterit and expresses a past action, which is immediately followed by another past action, so that it is fully classed and marked as such by the second action, to which it is anterior. Ex. Quand feus reconnu mon erreur, fen fus honteux, when I had seen my error, I was ashamed of it. It will, likewise, be used whenever the time of the past action is determined by a definition of time, or words like bien- tôt, soon ; de suite, at once, etc. Ex. JTeus bientôt lu le billet de ma sœur, I had soon read my sister's note. Après V avoir saisi, il Veut renversé en un instant, having once seized him, he had overthrown him in an instant. Hence, al>o, it must be used after such conjunctions as ex- press immediate, definite action, as quand, when ; aussitôt que, as soon as ; après que, after ; dès que, from the time that, etc. Ex. Aussitôt que je V eus fini, je ni en allai, as soon as I had finished it. I went away. Dès que je Feus vu, je le soupçonnais, as soon as I had seen him, I suspected him. The so-called preterit anterior indefinite, mentioned by some grammarians, and formed from the preterit indefinite of the auxiliary verbs with the participle past, is of such rare occurrence that it has not been specially mentioned. Foreigners do better to avoid using it altogether, and a noun or the infinitive is prefer- able in all cases. VERBS. 179 Ex. Je Vai vu après que j'ai etc dé jeûne ce matin, I saw liim after I had breakfasted tins morning. Or, Je Vai vu après mon déjeuner ce matin. Exercise. As soon as I had heard of your misfortune, I took all the necessary measures to come to your aid ; and when I had told my wife of my intentions, I went to the depot and took the cars. He was not satis- fied with the picture, but, after he had changed the sketch several times, he gave it up in despair. We only stopped when we had walked halt-way, because we saw that we would not have arrived there before sunset, even if we had started before noon. When he had taken a hearty meal, at dinner or at supper, he used to sleep; and that habit injured his health so much, that he died before he had reached the age of sixty. It was a great disappointment to the crowd of curious people, who had gone to see the review : when they reached the place they found that they had come too late, and that the troops had all returned to the barracks. When I was the first time in Rome, nothing had made a greater impression upon me than the Pope and the ceremonies of the Roman Church : when I was there last year, the charm had lost its power, for I had become another man. As soon as the matter had been reported to the police, they had gone to work to find out the thieves ; and hence, while you had as yet heard nothing of the robbery, the criminals were already in prison. % V. — FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL. The Future simply expresses an action which is still to take place, as in English, and represents, therefore, the English expression : I am going to — occasionally. Ex. Nos corps resusciteront au jour dernier, our bodies will arise on the last day. Il ne vous reconnaîtra pas sous ce déguisement, he will not recognize yon in that disguise. It is employed alsw many books have you given him ? Quelle dame a-t-il saluée en passant? Which lady did he speak to in passing ? A relative pronoun, relating to its antecedent. Ex. Les livres que vous m'avez vendus sont venus, the books you sold me have come. Voici V étoffe que fai achetée pour vous, this is the material I have bought for you. A personal pronoun, preceding the auxiliary verb. Ex. Où sont ces dames et qui les a accompagnées ? Where are those ladies, and who accompanied them ? J J a,i vu cette tragédie et je Vai admirée, I have seen that tragedy and I have admired it. Vous avez bien fait, Messieurs, et on vous a loués, you have done well, Gentlemen, and you have been praised. The participle past of être remains always unchanged. Ex. Les hommes qui ont été ici, n'y sont plus, the men who were here, are no longer here. Exercise. The United States are the greatest republic in the w r orld, and Russia is the largest empire. He cherishes ill-founded prejudices, and hence his life is a continuous series of disappointments and of- fended feelings. Considering his youth and his inexperience, he has overcome the difficulties of this unexpected adventure with great tact. I send you these lines to inform you of her arrival, and enclosed you will find the money required to come here. The best speeches have ever been those which the heart has dictated. My friends were very happy to hear the new T s which the messenger brought ; they had believed their brother dead, and now they heard that the wounds which he had received were not fatal. How many young men have lost the best years of their life, because they had no friends who could have given them good advice Î We have seen you often, when you did not think that we w r ere near ; and we have heard you, w T hen you 200 ON THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. imagined you were quite alone. These young ladies ventured too far, and they have been severely punished for their temerity, for the men in the house which they had passed rushed out and ran after them, until their friends, who had seen them at a distance, came to their rescue. It was said of this remarkable man, that he had created the language, which he alone had spoken. She has saved herself from this danger, but she has injured herself in the estimation of many people. The participle past, with a direct object before it, is some- times followed by an infinitive, and then the question may arise, whether the object is that of ihe first verb or of the infinitive? In this case the nature of the first verb must be ascertained : if it is an active verb, the object will be its own, and then the participle past will, according to rule, agree with it in number and gender; if it is a neuter verb, then the direct object must necessarily belong to the following infinitive, and therefore the participle past will remain unchanged. Ex. La dame que fai entendue chanter, the lady I have heard sing. Voilà les livres que vous avez paru désirer, these are the books which you seemed to wish for. It may, however, happen that both verbs, that in the parti- ciple past and the following infinitive, are active verbs. In that case, we must carefully inquire to which of the two the direct object properly belongs, and accordingly modify or not modify the participle past. Ex. La dame que fai entendue chanter, the lady I have heard sing (I heard the lady singing). Les airs que fai entendu chanter, the melodies I heard sing (I heard sung). Je les ai fait venir, I made them come. The same sentence, therefore, may be used in two ways, simply determined by the agreement or non-agreement of the participle past. VERBS. 201 Ex. Je les ai vu peindre, I bave seen them paint (being painted). Je les ai vus peindre, I have seen them paint (painting). On les a laissés piller, they have let them rob. On les a laissé piller, they have let them be robbed. The verb faire is the only one which forms an apparent excep- tion to this rule, as it never varies ; but this arises not from any anomaly, but from the fact that it is considered as part of the fol- lowing infinitive, with which it forms but one word. Ex. On les a tous fait venir ici, they have made them all come here. Les tables que f avais fait faire dans cette ville, the tables I had ordered in that city. A participle past which has two or more direct objects pre- ceding it, will agree with both, in the plural, if its meaning applies clearly to both, or it will remain unchanged if it refers but to one. Ex. Cest votre intérêt plutôt que votre ambition qu'il a consulté, it is your interest rather than your ambition which he has consulted. C'était sa, femme et sa sœur qvïil a accompagnées, it was his wife and his sister whom he accompanied. The same distinction must be made, whenever the direct object preceding a participle past is an adverb or other expres- sion of quantity followed by de with a plurai noun. Ex. Que de msiux ce pauvre homme a soufferts ! How many ills this poor man has endured ! Ce fut le plus grand nombre des révoltés qu'on a fusilé, it was the greater number of the rebels they have shot. The conj unction que is not unfrequently used instead of a rela- tive pronoun preceded by a preposition : in such cases it is not a genuine direct object, however much it may have the appearance, and hence the participle past will remain unchanged. Ex. Les jours qu'il a vécu, the days (during) which he has lived. 202 (XNT THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. EXKRCISE. These books, which I have often seen you read with such interest, are the same which I heard read aloud last winter in my brother's family. I saw her paint that portrait myself, and now she denies that it is her work. These melodies were those which the Swiss soldiers had heard sung in their mountains : they made them so homesick, that an order was given prohibiting their being played by the band. What civil war has this great man kindled, and when was it terminated by his death ? That is a part of ancient history which I have not read for a long time, and I have forgotten the events which you have mentioned. We travelled very far that day, but towards noon the horses refused to work well, and I did not know to what cause I could ascribe this until I found out that the driver had not let them eat enough in the morning. The services which he had rendered the minister were so great, that the latter did not know how to reward them : thus the poor man has received neither money nor office. How many duties have you neglected, and how many times have I told you so, but you would never listen to the warnings which you have received from so many friends ! ENGLISH AUXILIARIES OF MOOD IN FRENCH. There is a class of English verbs which are frequently called auxiliaries of mood, because, unlike the two auxiliary verbs, To have and To be, they do not help to form tenses, but to express the various moods in which the action of the verb may be represented. Such are the verbs, I may, I will, I shall, I must, I let, etc. These verbs are sometimes rendered in French by a mood, and at other times they are translated literally, as has already been explained in the case of the imperative mood, which is formed, in French, from the verb directly, while in English it requires the auxiliary To let. We propose to state here the principal rules which determine the use of these verbs. Pouvoir. The verb pouvoir, as an independent verb, corresponds to the English verb, To be able, but refers only to physical ability, VEKBS. 203 while savoir has to be employed whenever moral or mental ability is to be expressed. Ex. L? homme le plus fort ne peut lever ce fardeau, the strongest man cannot take up this load. L'homme le plus savant ne sait déchiffrer ces signes, the most learned man cannot decipher these signs. Pourez-vous marcher ? Can you (are you strong enough to) walk. Savez-vous danser ? Can you (do you know how to) dance ? As an auxiliary verb, pouvoir corresponds to the English verbs I can and I may, and their past tenses, could and might. Ex. Je veux et je peux faire tout autant, I will and I can do quite as much. Puis-je aller le voir demain soir? May I go and see him to-morrow night? When used negatively, pouvoir means only I can ; if it is to mean I may, the negation must be added to the following infinitive. Ex. Je ne peux pas marcher si vite, I cannot walk so fast. Je peux ne pas le faire, si je le préfère, I may not do it, if I prefer. I could, is in English used for two purposes : it is either the past tense of I can, and then must be translated by the corres- ponding tense of pouvoir ; or it is the conditional, and then it will be translated by the French conditional. Ex. I could do it formerly, but I am too weak now, je pouvais le faire autrefois, mais je suis trop faible maintenant. I never could tell him the whole truth, je rfai jamais pu lui dire toute la vérité. I could do- it if I chose, je pourrais le faire si je le pré- férais. I might, is never a past tense in English, but only used as the 204 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE, conditional form, and hence it is always translated by the conditional of JMNtvotr, Ex. I might go to-morrow it' you wore ready,/* poumris jxirtir demain, si vous étiez prêt. 1 can have been, is translated simply by the preterit indefinite of pouvoir ; and 1 could, and I might have been, by the conditional of the past. Ex. How can you have been so careless ! Comment avez-vqus pu être si né'/tipent ! I could have been here before you, if I had made bas e, /aurais pu être ici avant vous, si je m'étais dépêché. They might have been kinder to us, ils auraient pu être plus ajrables envers nous. French authors say indifferently je peux ot je puis, but in inter rogative sentences puis- alone, is usa!. Ex. Pu is je ne pa$ lire? May I not read (he excused from reading) ? Exercise. They may say what they choose. I cannot believe it, for they have told me an untruth once, and after that I can give them credit no longer. May we put on our shawls and hats, and take a walk in the garden ? You can do it, if you do not think it is too damp, and that you might take a cold by exposing yourself. May you know one day what tender love she bore you : the knowledge of it will be a great consolation to you, if ever trouble should come to sadden you I could have embraced him. so grear was my joy when I saw him again. Can you tell me who the twelve Oesars were 1 I used to be able to recite them all. but it is so long since I have read their history that I cannot now promise you to tell them in order. I believe he could have doue that and more also, if the time had been given to him ; but it may be asked, if anybody could have succeeded in so little time. They could easily tell you all about this man. and his intérêts, if they were disposed to do so ; bu: they are very discreet persons, and they may think that they have no right to betray his secrets. VERBS. 205 Vouloir. The verb vouloir, as an independent verb, corresponds to the English verb To be willing. Ex. Elle n'a pas voulu même réécouter, she was not even willing to listen to me. In its imperative form, second person plural, it has the mean- ing of the English word Please, or similar expressions. Ex. Veuillez me passe r le sel, please pass the salt* Veuillez bien me dire où demeure le curé, be so kind as to tell me where the priest lives. It has occasionally the same meaning when used interroga- tively and accompanied by bien. Ex. Voulez-vous bien lui 'prêter vos secours? Please lend him your assistance. It must not be forgotten that vouloir is, as has already been stated, an active verb in French, and consequently does not require the additional verb To have, as in English, where it is intransitive. Ex. Will you have some coffee or some tea ? Voulez-vous du café ou du thé ? As an auxiliary verb, the English I will is used to form the future ; hence attention must be had to distinguish between 1 will, as an independent verb expressing volition or readiness, and I will, as an auxiliary verb forming the future. Ex. He will meddle with things which do not concern him, il veut se mêler à des choses qui ne le regardent p is. Ile will give you all you a^k of him, il vous donnera tout ce que vous lui demanderez. The past tense, I would, is used in the same manner both as the past of I will, and as the conditional mood, and must be translated accordingly. Ex. I would come and see you, but I could not, je voulais aller vous voir, mais je ne le pouvais pas. 206 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I would go and see you, if I could, j'irais vous voir, si je le pouvais. She never would speak to me about her lovers, elle n'a jamais voulu me parler de ses amants. I wish, is frequently substituted for I would, in English, and is in such cases translated by the past conditional of vouloir. Ex. I wish he had never come to this place, j'aurais voulu qu'il ne fût jamais venu en ces lieux. I will have and I would have, followed by personal pronouns in English, are translated by vouloir simply. Ex. I will have you know, Sir, that I am master here, je veux que vôus sachiez, Monsieur, que moi je suis maître ici. I would not have you do that for all the world, je ne voudrais pas que vous fissiez cela pour tout au monde. Vouloir, in the conditional mood and after si, if, has often the meaning of the English verb Like. Ex. Je voudrais vous voir quand vous dansez, I should like to see you, when you dance. Nous irons ensemble, si vous voulez, we will go together, if you like. Vouloir in the conditional represents, finally, the English I wish, followed by would or could. Ex. I wish you would not speak so loud,^ voudrais que vous ne parlassiez pas si haut. He wishes he were at home, il voudrait être chez lui. Exercise. Will you go with ns, or do you prefer going there alone ? w r e will wait for you until one o'clock, and if you do not come then, we will conclude that you would rather not have our company. They would do it with pleasure, I am sure of it, if you were to tell them that it was for a sick lacly. Make haste and bring the carriage up, VERBS. 207 for I should like to reach there before it is quite dark, and the days are short at this season of the year. He said, with an air of injured innocence : I would have you know, Gentlemen, that I am an honest man, and that I will not do a thing which such a man is ashamed of doing. He wishes me to accompany him to Europe next year, and I am willing to go, but I fear I shall not have money enough to pay the expenses. What will she have for her supper to-day ? Let us know soon ; and tell us also, how many dishes you will have for dinner to- morrow. I should like very much to buy this picture, but it is very costly and it will require an expensive frame. Devoir. Devoir represents a number of English expressions conveying the idea of duty or obligation ; but it is limited to moral obligations, physical necessity, and such duty as admit! of no choice being expressed by falloir. It answers, therefore, for the English. To be, followed by To and a verb. Ex. He was to be here, but he has not come, il devait être ici, mais il n'est pas venu. She is to sing to-night her favorite song, elle doit chanter ce soir sa chanson favorite. Ought to, followed by a verb, when it is commonly employed in the conditional mood. Ex. You ought to see him when he is a little excited, vous devriez le voir quand il est un peu excité. They ought to have been here long before us, ils auraient dû être ici beaucoup avant nous. Should, followed by a verb, when it expresses a duty ; in this case, also, it is used in the conditional mood. Ex. These men should be made to do their duty, on devrait forcer ces gens a faire leur devoir. He should not have been allowed to leave so soon, on n'aurait pas dû lui permettre de partir sitôt. 208 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. I shall, etc., is never expressed by devoir except in interrog- ative sentences; otherwise the future alone is used. Ex. I shall have lost half my fortune before this is over, f aurai perdu la moitié de ma fortune, avant que cela sera fin i. Shall I tell you what I think of it ? Dois-je vous dire ce que fen pense? What shall I do, if that should happen ? Que dois-je faire si cela arrivait ? The past tenses of the verb devoir have a double meaning. They represent either simply the verb, I was to, etc., or they express the conviction that the action of the verb following has really taken place. Ex. Elle devait le lui dire, mais elle Va oublié, she was to tell him so, but she has forgotten it. Elle devait être à demi endormi quand je le lui dis, she must have been half asleep, when I told her so. Devoir, like pouvoir, may, in the third person singular, be pre- ceded by the demonstrative pronoun ce. Ex. Ce doit avoir eu lieu Mer ou avant Mer, that must have happened yesterday or the day before. Devoir, as has been stated already, in the subjunctive of the past tense, is elegantly used interrogatively to mark a conditional sentence. Ex. Dût-il en être offense, je le lui dirai, even if he should be hurt by it, I will tell him so. Dussiez-vous tout perdre, U faut le faire, you must do it, should you lose every thing. Exercise. You ought to have been ashamed of your violence, for a man of your age ought to have more control over his passions. She should be more careful of her health, for it is already delicate, and if she neglects ordinary precautions, she will have to suffer much for her VERBS. 209 carelessness. They must be men of note, for everybody salutes them and the greatest honors are shown them wherever they appear. I ought to know them, for I am sure I have seen their faces, but I can- not recollect who they may be. Even if they were to be our masters, we could never be made to love them, although we might learn to obey them. These books must have suffered very much on their voyage across the ocean, for they are all more or less mouldy, and some are entirely spoiled ; they ought to have been cleaned and dried as soon as the vessel came into port. Shall I tell him to bring you the wine, or will you tell him yourself? Laisser, The verb laisser answers the purpose of translating the Eng- lish verb To let, when it has the meaning of, To give permission, to allow. Ex. Will you let us go out this evening ? Nous laisserez- vous sortir ce soir ? Let me out, or I shall be stifled in this room, laissez-moi sortir, ou f étouffe dans cette salle. But it must be remembered that the English verb To let, is made use of, also, to form the imperative mood. In that case it is not translated at all into French, the imperative itself answering the purpose there. Ex. Let us go at once, or we shall be too late, allons de suite, ou nous serons en retard. Let him do it if he chooses ; I do not care, qu'il le fasse s'il le veut ; moi, je ne in 1 en soucie pas. Let them go (wish), qu'il s'en aillent ; let them go (leave), laissez-les partir. Laisser, being an active verb in French, does not require the addition of the auxiliary verb To have, which is necessary in English, where To let is intransitive, Ex. I will let you have what you want for the same price, je vous laisserai ce qiCil vous faut, pour le même prix. Laisser is not the proper verb to translate To let, when it is 210 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. followed by a double object, a verb and a pronoun. In such cases it is better to change the construction. Ex. I cannot let him ill-treat you so, je ne peux lui permettre de vous maltraiter ainsi. Do not let him read so much at night, ne lui permettez pas de lire tant le soir. Exercise. Let me tell you what I have seen first, and then you can tell me your adventures, if you have anything to tell. Let us go now, before the moon is too low ; the night is calm and cool, and a walk around the lake will be delightful. Let her go out, if she cannot stay in any longer ; I do not like to force her to do what is so unpleasant to her, but she ought to let me tell her, that her conduct is not that of a nice girl, and that I am much distressed on that account. Leave me, and do not say any thing more about this sad affair ; it has given me pain enough, and has not let me sleep for several nights. Let him come out, if he dares, and say all ; I can only gain by the truth being made known. Friends, let us honor his memory, and let us never forget what we owe to his honest and strenuous efforts to advance the good cause and to overcome all the difficulties which were in our way. Falloir. The verb falloir expresses, in French, all the English words which convey the idea of absolute necessity, physical force, and unavoidable obligation, as far as these expressions are not translated by devoir. In this signification it has a double con- struction : it may either be followed by que with the subjunc- tive mood — Ex. 77 faut que vous lisiez plus haut, you must read louder, Il fallait que vous vinssiez ce matin, you ought to have come this morning, Il faudra qu\l s'en aille avec elle } he will have to go away with her, VERBS. 211 II faudrait que cette mesure fût prise de suite, it would be proper to take that measure at once — or it may be used with a personal pronoun as its indirect object, and be followed by the infinitive of the verb. Ex. Il nous faut travailler jour et nuit, we have to work day and night. Il lui faudra s'en passer pour quelque temps, he will have to do without it for some time. // leur faudrait en être bien contents, they ought to be well pleased with it. Falloir has also the meaning of the English verb To want, when it is thus used with the personal pronoun ; and in that case, the object of the want, a noun, may be used after it instead of a verb. Ex. I want a new hat and a pair of gloves, il me faut un chapeau neuf et une paire de gants. He wanted more money than he had, to succeed, il lui fallut plus d'argent qu'il n'avait pour réussir. Falloir may be used with the infinitive after it and no pronoun, if the necessity applies to the person spoken to or is general. Ex. Il faut mourir tôt ou tard, we must all die sooner or later. Mon ami, il faut le faire, coûte que coûte, my friend, you must do it, cost what it may. Falloir is, finally, used quite alone ; but then, being an active verb, it requires the addition of le, as every active verb in French must have its object expressed. Ex. J'en suis bien fâché, mais il le faut, I am sorry for it, but it must be. Est-ce quil le faut absolument ? Is it absolutely neces- sary ? 212 OX THE PAETS OF A SENTENCE. Exercise. We must learn to obey others before we can hope to be able to command. You ought not to have done that, for you knew that it must distress your parents ; and the commandment tells us that we must honor father and mother. Caesar had to conquer a number of powerful tribes before he could reach the Rhine, and then he had to encounter even larger armies than those of the Swiss. What must they do if they should find that they have not money enough to make all the purchases which you have ordered ? They will have to come back and postpone their plans until some future day, when money is more abundant. The poor child wants a thick warm cloak for these wintry days ; she also wants a pair of thick shoes. We must work, if we want to eat, and he who does not sow must not expect to reap. Let us do it, since it is necessary, and let us do it cheerfully. You must have been very careless in walking through the streets, or you would not have soiled your dresses so much ; you must learn to be more careful hereafter. IDIOMATIC USE OF VERBS. Every nation has its own peculiar expressions, as every individual is well known to have certain turns of phrases and certain expressions, which he uses by preference, and which distinguish his conversation from that of others. Such expres- sions, which are peculiar to one language, and therefore cannot be translated literally into another language, are called Idioms. Thus, when an Englishman is at home, the Frenchman is chez lui, and the German zu Hause (in the house). Such idiomatic phrases occur, of course, with all parts of speech, but principally with verbs, and hence the expediency of here giving the most important idioms connected with this class of words. Avoir, The verb avoir, to have, is in French used with a large num- ber of nouns, so as to form a compound verb, expressing but VEEBS. 213 one idea. The majority of these expressions are in English expressed by the verb To be, with an adjective — e. g. : a faim, \ lo be hungry. ii des affaires. « busy. ii chaud, a warm. ii froid, a cold. a honte, a ashamed. a peur, a afraid. a raison, u right. u tort, il wrong. soif, a thirsty. a sommeil, u sleepy. But with this additional peculiarity, that these verbs can be used only with reference to living beings, while être is used, in French as in English, when they are applied to inanimate objects. Ex. Il a toujours trop chaud ou trop froid, he is always either too warm or too cold. Cette cave est toujours froide, même en été, this cave is always cold, even in summer. If the place where heat or cold are felt is mentioned, the noun is preceded by the preposition à. Ex. J'ai froid aux pieds et je ne puis pas les rechauffer, my feet are cold, and I cannot get them warm again. When the English adjective is qualified by the adverb Very, its place is supplied in French by bien or by grand. Ex. Il avait Men faim quand il arriva ici, he was very hungry when he reached here. Elle avait grand'* peur que je ne V oubliasse, she was very much afraid I would forget her. 214 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Avoir is also used with nouns to express Age and Measure, where in English the verb To be, with an adjective, is employed. Ex. Quand est-ce qiCelle aura dix ans ? When will she be ten years old ? Cet homme a au moins six' pieds de hauteur ; that man is at least six feet high. Avoir mal, followed by the preposition à before its noun, expresses all the English words for Pain, ache, sore, etc. Ex. J\ii eu mal a la tête depuis le matin, my head has ached since this morning. Je ne peux pas marcher, fai mal au pied, I cannot walk, my foot is sore. Avoir mal au cœur has the peculiar signification of being sick at the stomach. To suffer pain in the heart is avoir des douleurs au cœur. English compound nouns, containing the word ache, are in French made with the same word mal, followed by the preposition de. Ex. Mon mal de dent est aussi fort que jamais, my toothache is as bad as ever. When this word mal is qualified by an adjective, it requires the indefinite article before it. Ex. Ce vin m'a donne un mal de tète atroce, this wine has given me a severe headache. Avoir Vair has the various meanings of — To look, when it is followed by an adjective or adverb, and To look like, or Look as if, when followed by the preposition de. In the first case, the adjective remains masculine, when it refers to moral qualities, but agrees with the person it refers to, when it expresses physi- cal qualities. Ex. Cet homme a Vair bénin, this man looks benign. Cette femme a Vair petite quand elle est assise, this woman looks small when she is seated. Cette maison a plutôt Vair dhm palais, this house looks rather like a palace. VERBS. 215 Le temps a l'air de vouloir s'éclaircir, the weather looks as if it would clear up. Avoir without any object but parts of dress, means To have on. Ex. Est ce quelle avait sa robe neuve quand vous la vîtes? Did she have her new dress on when you saw her? Avoir, followed by parts of the body which are qna'ified by an adjective, requires the definite article before them instead of the possessive pronoun, which is used in English. Ex. Elle a toujours les mains froides, her hands are always cold. Il se trouva qu'il n'eut que les doigts brûlés, it turned out that only his fingers were burnt. When the adjective, by special rule, precedes the noun, the indefinite article is used in French as in English. Ex. Elle avait une fort petite main et de belles dents, she had a very small hand and fine teeth. Avoir beau, followed by an infinitive, expresses the English phrase, To do a thing in vain. It can, however, never be used negatiyely. Ex. Il eut beau me prier, je n'ai pas cédé, he tried in vain to beg, I did not yield. Vous avez beau crier, il n'y a personne qui vous entende, you cry in vain, there is nobody here who can hear you. Avoir, preceded by the pronoun y, is used for a great variety of expressions, which are translated in the most varied way in English. The most ordinary use made of il y a, etc., is to translate the English There is and There are, as has already been explained. Il y a is sometimes, though rarely, followed by a noun with- out an article, with which it forms a compound verb. Ex. Il y eut apparence comme s'il allait neiger, it looked as if it were going to snow. Est-ce qu'il n'y a pas moyen de le sauver? Is there no way of saving him ? 216 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. The two principal purposes, however, for which il y a, etc., are used is to express Time and Distance. When applied to expressions of time, il y a answers for all the various English phrases used for the purpose ; as, It is, since, ago, etc. Ex. It is now five years that I have not seen him, il y a maintenant cinq ans que je ne V ai pas vu. I heard this news two days ago, fat appris cette nouvelle il y a deux jours. That must have happened six weeks since, cela doit être arrivé il y a six semaines. The proper tense to be used after il y a depends entirely upon the general rules which determine the choice between tenses. It will be the present, when the action still continues ; the imperfect, when the action is represented as going on, con- tinuing at the past time; the preterit definite, when it took place but once ; and the preterit indefinite, when the action or its effects extend to the present time. Ex. Combien y a-t-il que vous demeurez ici ? How long have you been living here ? II y a deux ans que j'étais votre élève, it is two years ago I was your pupil. 77 11 y a que six mois que f arrivai ici, it is only six months since I came here. // y a un an que foi quitté ma patrie, it is a year since I left my country. Il y a réquires the negative ne before the following verb, whenever the action of that verb has ceased to take place, after habitual occurrence. Ex. Il y aura quinze jours demain que je ne Pai vu, it will be a fortnight to-morrow since I saw him. Since, after U y a, is not translated otherwise than by the con- junction que. VERBS. Ex. Il y aura huit jours que vous n'avez été ici, it will be a week since you were here. "When applied to the measurement of distances, il y a is fol- lowed simply by the measure itself. Ex. Il y a cent lieues d'ici a la capitale, it is a hundred miles from here to the capital. Combien y a-t-il du village à V église ? How far is it from the village to the church ? Exercise. It was, I believe, two years ago when I first had the pleasure of meeting with you at the Springs. How old are you now ? I am only sixteen, but I look older than I am, because I have been very sick several weeks ago, and I have not quite recovered my strength. How long is it since you spoke for the first time in public ? It must have been thirty years ago, for it was then I commenced my public career, and I remember well, I was very much afraid I would not succeed. It is the lot of the poor to be always hungry and thirsty ; but they have no cause to be ashamed of it, if their poverty is not the effect of their vices. I had a new coat on, and therefore I did not wish to ex- pose myself to the rain, and I told you before we started that it looked as if it were going to rain. He was only four feet high, when he was twelve years old, but he has grown very rapidly since he 'was placed under your care six years ago. There is no reason why he should always be right and you always wrong, but there are many people in the world who imagine that they cannot be wrong. She has a high forehead and a prominent nose, but her eyes are not handsome, and her mouth is too large. Can you tell me, my friend, how far it is from here to the next inn ? I can tell you the exact distance ; it is six miles and a half. Etre. The verb être also, like avoir, is used with a large number of nouns in such intimate connection as to form with them com- pound verbs, which express but one idea. 218 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. Je suis en peine de vous voir souffrir, I am distressed to see you suffer. Est-ce que vous serez à même de faire cela tout seul? AVill you be able to do that quite aloue ? Elle était debout quand je lui parlai, she was standing when I spoke to her. Y être has the idiomatic meaning of being there, in a figura- tive sense — viz., to understand a matter of which we speak; though y être may also literally mean to be there — viz., at home. Ex. Maintenant que vous parlez net, fy suis, now that you speak clearly, I understand it. Madame votre mère y est-elle ? Non, Monsieur, elle n'y est pas, is your mother at home ? No, Sir, she is not. En être means to be of the company, to be one of a set ; and in a narrative, to have left off. Ex. Nous allons à la chasse, en êtes-vous? We are going to hunt, will you go with us? Ces livres ont la même reliure, mais ils n'en sont pas, these books have the same binding, but they do not belong to the set. Eh bien, mes enfants ; où en étions-nous hier soir? Well, children, where did we break off last night ? It will be remembered that être à means to belong to, and stands instead of To be, with the possessive pronoun in English. Ex. This is my book, and that is my brother's, c'est mon livre, et celui-là est à mon frère. The preterit indefinite of être is frequently used instead of the same tense of the verb aller, whenever it means to have gone and to have returned again. Ex. He has gone to church and will not be back till dinner, il est allé à V église et il ne sera de retour que pour le dîner. VERBS. 210 He has gone to church and returned an hour ago, il a été à F église et il est rentré il y a une heure. The English auxiliary verbs To have and To be, as well as the so-called auxiliaries of mood, I will, I can, I may, etc., all of which are active verbs in French and there require the addition of a direct object, are very frequently used alone, to express assent, dissent, surprise or mere emphasis, in order to keep up the conversation. Thus in English it is said: You are a little afraid, are you not? Give me that book, will you ? These expressions are inadmissible in French, and some other means must be sought for to produce the same effect. The following are the most frequently employed : When the auxiliaries are used merely to express assent or dissent, the adverbs oui and non, certainement or point du tout, supply their place. Ex. Are you the man I sent for? I am. Est-ce que vous êtes V homme que fat envoyé chercher? Oui, Monsieur Will you do it ? No, I will not, voulez-vous le faire ? Non, Monsieur. When the auxiliaries are used interrogatively, merely to repeat the question, as it were, rt est-ce pas ? is used in French. Ex. Vous êtes le maître d'hôtel, ii'est-ce pas ? You are the head steward, are you not? Ils sont tous partis ce matin, n'est-ce pas ? They all left this morning, did they not ? When the auxiliaries are thus used after another verb to ascertain the action of other persons, the simple personal pro- noun, wish et before it, is used in French. Ex. Nous avons dîné, et vous? We have dined, have you ? JE lie a promis de venir, et lui ? She has promised to come, will he? When the auxiliary verb To do is employed in repetition of other verbs, the latter must in French be repeated themselves. 2'20 OX THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. I see it pretty clearly, do you? Moi, je le vois assez clairement, le voyez- vous ? I believe it, do not you ? Moi je le crois, ne le croyez-vous p>as ? Does she go to church now? I believe she does, est-ce qiCelle va a V église maintenant ? Je crois qu'elle y va. When the auxiliary verb To be is used elliptic-ally, without the adverb which ought to be used with it, the latter must be supplied in French. Ex. Is your sister here ? Yes she is, est-ce que votre sœur est ici ? Oui, elle est ici. Have you been there recently ? No, I have not, est-ce que vous y avez été récemment ? Non, je n'y ai pas été. Faire. The verb faire, To do or To make, also forms a very large number of compound verbs, by being joined immediately to a noun, most of which are represented in English by simple verbs. Such are, for instance, Faire mal a, " grâce, " part, " la barbe, " la cour, " honneur, " déshonneur ; " tort, " face, " voir, " tenir, " cas (de), To hurt. " pardon. " inform. " shave. " court. " be creditable. " disgrace. " wrong. " face. " show. " hand. " esteem. Ex. Il s'est fait mal à la poitrine par sa chute, he has hurt his chest by his fall. VERBS. 221 Prenez-donc garde, voies me faites mal au bras, but take care, you hurt my arm. JEsl-ce qiCon ne va 'pas lui faire grâce? Is he not to be pardoned ? Je vous ferai voir ce que peut faire un honnête homme, I will show you what an honest man can do. Faire may also be followed by ano her verb in the infinitive and form with it a compound verb; in which case it is likewise generally represented by a simple verb in English. Such are, for instance, Faire faire, To order (to " sortir, " turn out. u venir, " send for. " payer, " charge. a entrer, " admit. " bouillir, " boil. " frire, 4 * périr, " kill. Ex. Où avez-vous fait faire cette belle robe? Where did you have that beautiful dress made? Il aurait fallu faire venir le médecin à F instant même, the doctor ought to have been sent for at once. Aussitôt que le courrier arrive, faites entrer, as soon as the courier comes, send him in. Ne faire que — literally, to do nothing but — serves in French to translate the English adverb Only, when it qualifies a verb. Ex. Je n'ai fait que V entrevoir dans la rue, I only caught a glimpse of her in the street. Il ne fit qu'y toucher et Vobus éclata, he only touched it and the shell exploded. Faire, placed before an infinitive, which does not serve to form a compound verb, gives to the second verb a passive signification. 222 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. II a fait copier re beau tableau, he has had this beautiful picture copied. On fera blanchir les murailles et peindre les boiseries, they will have the walls whitewashed and the wood-work painted. Faire, followed by an adjective, expresses an effort to repre- sent the quality conveyed by the latter. Ex. Faîtes-donc Vu rare, on n'y croit ]ms, don't pretend to be miserly, we don't believe it. Il fait le savant, mais il est on ne peut plus ignorant, he pretends to be learned, but he is ever so ignorant. Faire, used impersonally, is the universal verb for all expres- sions referring to the state of the weather and its effects. Ex. A midi il fit chaud, maintenant il fait froid, at noon it was warm, now it is cold. Vous ne pourrez pas sortir, il fait trop crotté, you will not be able to go out, it is too muddy. Il fait beau temps, clair et sec, it is fine weather, clear and dry. Exercise. Do you pretend to be offended or are you really se ? I should be sorry to have hurt your feelings when I was only jesting. You will order a round table to be made, around which twelve persons can be seated ; you will have it polished and sent home before I return. It was bad walking this morning, but it has been cold and windy since, so that I think the roads must be dry now. He courted several ladies at the same time, and the consequence was that he did not win the good-will of any one : as soon as they discovered his faithlessness, they would not pardon him any more ; they felt too deeply how much he had wronged them. It is the custom in France, when an impor- tant event occurs in a family, to inform all the friends of it by notes or by an advertisement in the newspapers. Send for the carpenter, and show him what you want to be done ; if he is an intelligent man he will be able to tell you how much it will cost you, and if he is an VEEBS. 223 honest man, lie will not charge yon more than a fair price. I have only met him, I cannot say, therefore, that I am acquainted with him, jut I should like very much to be presented to him. The cook askeci me if she should boil or fry the meat for dinner, and I could not tell her what she ought to do. Aller and Venir, The French use the two verbs aller, to go, and venir, to come, to express an immediate future and an immediate past, the former corresponding in a general way to the English phrase, I am going to; the latter to the English phrase, I had just. Thus, the future itself becomes limited to any indefinite, future time ; whilst the use of aller implies that the future action is to take place immediately. In like manner, the past tense represents the past but vaguely, but the use of venir implies that it has elapsed but this very moment. Ex. Je vais lui écrire un petit mot tout à V heure, I shall write him a few words instantly. Il nous a dit qu'il va sortir, he has told us that he is going out. Nous venons de rentrer et nous y serons de suite, we have but just come in, and we shall be there directly. Ils venaient de s'endormir quand on les appela, they had just fallen asleep, when they were called. Aller is also used in French to express the English To be, in reference to health or to business. Hence the familiar phrases : Comment ça va-t-ïU Merci, ça va bien. How are you? Thank you, I am pretty well. Et comment vont les affaires? Comme ci, comme ça. And how is business ? So, so. Il va mieux ce matin depuis qu'on la saigné, he is better this morning since be has been bled. 221 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Aller, when used in connection with parts of dress, means To become. Ex. Trouvez-vous que cette robe me va bien ? Do vou think this dress is becoming to me ? Exercise. We had j ust dined when the ladies arrived, and fortunately there was enough left to provide for them ; but we sent at once for the cook, and told him he must fry some chicken and "boil some potatoes, because all the ladies liked that dish. When will you let me see that note ? I will show it to you this instant, if you will promise me, solemnly, never to tell anybody that you have read it. Are you going to write to your sister to-day, or must I do it for you ? I shall do it directly, in order not to give you so much trouble, for you have already been very kind in rendering me many services, and you have but just now r placed me under new obligations by lending me so large a sum of money. Does her new hat become her as well as the one I liked so much, when I saw her for the first time ? I cannot tell, for I think that no hat is really becoming to her ; she is by far handsomest when she has nothing on her head. What dress had she on when you saw her first ? I do not remember that, but it must have been a very simple one, for she had been very sick, and she was not very well then. How is your patient this morning ? I am sorry to say he is not quite as well as he was yesterday ; still, I hope very certainly that he will escape with his life. CHAPTER VI. ADVERBS. Adverbs, which originally had their names from the fact that they principally served to qualify verbs, as adjectives quality nouns, may nevertheless qualify adjectives or another adverb as well. They express a manner or a circumstance, and vary, therefore, in kind as much as the latter vary. ADVERBS. 225 Ex. Ce roi était vraiment digne d'être assis sur un trône, this king was truly worthy of being seated on a throne. Il était continuellement occupé des soins du gouvernement, he was unceasingly engaged in the cares of govern- ment. Son nom vivra éternellement, his name will live forever. This power to qualify various words is, however, not the same with all adverbs. Thus, très, si, aussi, and tout can modify only adjectives, participles and adverbs, and not verbs, while du moins, au moins, au plus, and davantage modify ouiy verbs, and tout à fait only participles, Ex. Je Vax connu plus longtemps que vous, I have known him longer than you. // n'aurait pu désirer davantage, he could not have wished for more. Est-ce que vraiment il est tout a fait gâté? Is it really altogether spoiled ? Adverbs have generally a meaning complete in themselves ; still, there are a few which, to complete their signification, require the addition of a regimen preceded by a preposition. Ex. Il sait toujours parler convenablement au sujet, he knows always how to speak appropriately. Il faut aimer Dieu préféra blement à tout, we ought to love God before all things. Il ne peut pas vivre conformément à son état, he cannot live in accordance with his rank. Adverbs of quantity, being considered like nouns, require the preposition de ; except bien, which is followed by the partitive article. Ex. Elle avait infiniment d'esprit, she was extremely witty. Est-ce qu'il y aura, bien du monde à cette fête? Will there be a great many people at that party ? Adverbs ending in ment — the rules on their formation have 226 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. been given in the First Part of this Grammar — have this pe- culiarity : that they always express the mood or manner, and consequently may form comparatives and superlatives, precisely as the adjectives from which they are derived. Ex. 77 a parlé plus vivement que jamais auparavant, he spoke in a more lively manner than ever before. La, robe fat faite le [dus élégamment du monde, the dress was made in the most elegant manner. Bien, well, mal, badly, and peu, little, are the only adverbs which form the comparative degrees anomalously, making mieux, better, and le mieux, best. pis, worse, and le pis, worst. moins, less, and le moins, least, Ex. Elle est le mieux mise quand elle est le moins parée, she is best dressed when she is least adorned. Ce qui me plaît le mieux en eux, c'est leur modestie, what I like best in them is their modesty. Tot makes a double comparative,^^ tôt for sooner, and plutôt for rather. Ex. Vous auriez dû venir plus tôt que le reste, you ought to have come sooner than the others. Je mourrais plutôt que d'abandonner mes plans, I would rather die than give up my plans. Tôt alone, is hardly ever used now, though tôt ou tard answers for the English sooner or later. Bien is frequently used as a mere expletive, to give strength and emphasis to the verb, as in the use made of veuillez bien, as has been explained. Ex. Je vois bien que vous ne le voulez pas, I see (indeed) that you do not wish it. ADVERBS. 227 PLACE OF ADVERBS. The adverb is placed immediately after the verb it qualifies, if the latter is used in a simple tense ; but, in compound tenses, it may be placed between the auxiliary and the participle past. Ex. Il dit franchement tout ce qu'il pense, he tells all he thinks openly. Savez-vous s'il a parfaitement réussi ? Do you know if he has succeeded entirely ? Hier, yesterday, may be placed before the verb or after it, but can never stand between the auxiliary and the participle. Ex. Hier nous y allâmes — or, Nous y allâmes Mer, we went there yesterday. Compound adveibs, however, consisting of adverbs with a regimen or nouns preceded by prepositions, cannot be placed before the auxiliary and participle. Ex. Celui qui juge à la hâte juge au hasard, those who judge rashly judge at haphazard. The adverbs bien, mal, mieux, pis, and a few others of like character, are always placed between the auxiliary and the participle, and may aho stand before as well as after the infinitive which they qualify. Ex. Vous avez mal fait en le lui disant, you have done wrong by telling him. Partout f ai été mieux reçu que je n'avais espéré, every- where I have been better received than I expected. Le plus grand bonheur est de bien faire son devoir, the greatest happiness is to do one's duty well. Adverbs generally are not repeated before every word they quali y, with the exception of si, aussi, plus and autant, which require to be thus repeated. Ex. Il a été si bon, si sage, qiCil rHa pas son pareil, he was so wise and good, that the like of him did not exist. 228 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. L'âne est aussi humble, aussi patient, que lr chenil est fier et impétueux, the ass is as bumble and patient as tbc horse is proud and impetuous. A few adverbs can, in negative constructions, be plated before pas or point and done, therefore, must be so placed. Ex. Vous ne m'avez donc pas obéi? Then you have not obeyed me ? Si, aussi, tant and autant. Si and aussi mean both so or as, and tant and autant mean both so or as much and as many ; but the forms aussi and autant can only be used in comparisons, while si and tant serve mainiy in exclamations and negative sentences. Ex. Ces plaisirs sont aussi purs que tranquilles , these pleas- ures are as pure as they are quiet. J'aime Horace autant que je l'admire, I love Horace as much as I admire him. Les gens riches sont-ils si heureux ? Are the rich so very happy ? Quand elle fut partie il s'écria : Je Pat tant aimée ! When she was gone, he exclaimed : I loved her so dearly ! Autant may be substituted for aussi, by being placed after the adjective it qualifies. Ex. Cette qualité est estimable autant que rare, this quality is as valuable as it is rare. So, before participles past, cannot be translated by si, but its place is supplied by tellement. Ex. H est toujours tellement occupé, qu'il ne voit personne, he is always so busy that he sees nobody. Si excludes all expressions of the superlative after it, with the exception of bien, which may be used between si and a participle past. Ex. She is so very kind that everybody loves her, elle est si aimable que tout le monde l'aime. ADVERBS. This work is so well done that it praises its master, cet ouvrage est si bien fait qu'il loue le maître. In négative comparisons aussi cannot very well be used, when it has the meaning- of Not any more, arid its place is then supplied by non plus. Ex. Il na pas montré non plus un grand courage, he also has not shown much courage. Vous n'avez 'p as réussi, ni moi non plus, you have not succeeded, nor I either. Exercise. He had lent me about a thousand dollars, and I have not returned more than half of it ; but it has not been in my power, or I would have repaid more. She is as lovely as she is beautiful ; and that is a very rare combination, for the body is not always as much gifted as the mind. He is so simple a man that he never suspects anybody, and he gives to the bad as much credit for what they say as to the good. He was so very busy yesterday that I would have done wrong to inter- rupt him then, but I hope I shall be able to see him to-day. When he had well dined he felt in such good-humor, that he would grant favors to as many as came to ask. You spoil your children, for I have observed that the worse they are the more you indulge them, merely for the purpose of avoiding the trouble it would give you to correct them. Even when she is most happy she has a sad look in her eyes, and she appears troubled when she is least thoughtful. Friendship is so precious a thing that it ought not to be lavished ; it ought to be cherished as much as the most precious good w r e possess. He was so very benevolent, that he gave away the little money he owned, and even distributed his clothes among the poor. Beaucoup and bien. Beaucoup, from the Latin bella copia, and bien, from the Latin bene, differ but little in meaning, bien being only a strengthened beaucoup. They both represent the English plural as well as 230 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. singular, meaning Much and many, a great deal and a great many. They differ, however, essentially in their regimen, beaucoup being always followed by de, bien by the partitive article. Ex. Beaucoup de gens Vont vu et entendu, many people have seen and heard it. Je Vai entendu dire a bien des gens, I have heard a great many people say so. The English phrase Many a, is translated without the indefinite article. Ex. Beaucoup de femmes s'y sont trompées, many a woman has been deceived by that. Beaucoup, when used with a comparative, may be placed either before it, or, connected by the preposition de, after it, when it corresponds to the English By far. Ex. Vous êtes beaucoup plus savant que lui — or, Vous êtes plus savant que lui de beaucoup, you are far more learned than he is. It may also be placed between the auxiliary and the past participle, when it is used emphatically. Ex. Je Vaurais beaucoup aimé, I would have liked it very much. Very well, is translated simply by beaucoup. Ex. I like him very well, je Vaime beaucoup. Il s'en faut beaucoup, or de beaucoup, expresses the English Far from it. Ex. Vous croyez m' avoir payé ; il s'en faut de beaucoup, you think you bave paid me ; far from it. Il s'en faut beaucoup qu'il soit heureux, he is very far from being happy. Its comparative plus is used, like moins and mieux, by repe- tition to express a compark>on, corresponding to the English ADVERBS. 231 The* more — the more, etc. ; in which case it must be followed by the verb directly, and not, as in English, by the adjective. Ex. Plus on en voit plus on V admire, the more one sees of it the more one admires it. Plus il grandit plus il devient laid, the more he grows the uglier he becomes. INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS. The English adverb How is translated into French by a great variety of forms, according to the meaning it may happen to have or the words with which it is connected. How, inquiring the manner, etc., is translated by comment. Ex. Comment vous ètes-vous porté depuis? How have you been since ? Voulez-vous savoir comment on doit faire? Do you wish to know how to do it ? Comme, on the contrary, does not refer to the manner so much, but simply serves to connect two verbs. Ex. Voyez comme il travaille ! See how (much) he works ! How, in exclamations, is translated by que, which, followed by de, means also How much ! and How many ! Ex. Que cette parole me doit être douce! How sweet that word ought to be to me ! Qu*elle est jolie en dépit de son âge ! How pretty she is, in spite of her age ! Que de batailles gagnées et que de villes prises! Hovv many battles won, and how many cities taken ! It will be seen, from these examples, that in French the interrogative adverb comment or que cannot, as in English, be followed immediately by an adjective or adverb, but requires that the verb should come immediately after it. 232 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Ex. I cannot tell you how old she is, je ne saurais vlus dire quel est son age, How few men are really happy ! Qu'il y a peu d'hommes qui sont vraiment heureux ! How so ? is translated by comment cela? Quand, which can be used relatively as a conjunction, as well as interrogatively as an adverb, means not only When ? but, with the conditional, also Even if; in which case it is often accompanied by même. Ex. Quand viendrez-vous me voir a la campagne ? When will you come and see me in the country ? Quand vous me haïriez, je ne me plaindrais pas, even if you should hate me, I would not complain. Je le ferai quand même il me coûterait la vie, I will do it even though it should cost me my life. Pourquoi represents the English Why, wherefore, and what, with for at the end of the sentence. Ex. Pourquoi ne me Pavez-vous pas dit hier ? Why did you not tell me so yesterday ? Pourriez-vous me dire pourquoi il Va fait ? Could you tell me what he did it for ? In negative questions, Why is frequently rendered by que ne. Ex. Que ne me le dites-vous pas ? Why did you not tell me? Exercise. I have seen many soldiers who had much more genius, but I have never seen one who had more true courage than your friend. That is why I esteemed him so much ; and I may add that I like him also much, although I have seen him but little. She is very far from having given up all hope of seeing him again ; she intends going to Europe next year,, although it will cost her a great deal of money, and she thinks she may see him there before he dies. When was this battle fought, in which your younger brother fell ? It was my ADVERBS. 233 elder brother who died there ; and I do not see why you ask me such a question at all. How long will be your stay in this city, or have you not yet decided how many days you will spend here ? How full of wisdom these verses are ! They surprise me every time I read them ; and even if they were not the work of so famous an author, they would not fail to be admired wherever they are read. Why did you not tell her so ? She would have understood it perfectly, and you would not feel the remorse that now troubles your conscience. The more I see of them the less I like them : they are not like those people who gain your esteem the better you learn to know them. NEGATIVE ADVERBS. The simple negation in French is non, which corresponds to the English No, and can never be used with a verb. It may, however, be piaced before seulement, only, when followed by que, and it may follow certain verbs, like oui, when connected with them by que. % Ex. Non, Madame, je rfy consentirai jamais, no, Madam, I will never consent to it. Elle est non seulement vieille, mais laide, she is not only old, but ugly. JEd-ee que vraiment il a dit que non? Did he really say no ? All other negative adverbs require the addition of ne in its proper place before the verb, because they are all taken from Latin nouns, which in themselves have no negative signification. Thus, pas comes from the Latin passus, and point from punctum ; rien from rem, and jamais from jam magis. It has already been mentioned that the particle ne is re- quired whether the negative adverb precede or follow the verb. Ex, Jamais la fortune n'a fait autant pour un homme, never has fortune done as much for a man. Mien ne me plairait mieux que de .vous y voir, nothing would please me better than to see you there. 234 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Aucune de ces dames ne vous a reconnu, not one of these ladies has recognized you. Pas and point both represent the English Not, but the latter is the stronger, approaching the meaning of the English Not at all, or when there is a distinction made between the quantity and the whole material, in which case point applies to the former and pas to the latter. Ex. Vous vous trompez, il rïa point réussi, you are mistaken, he has not at all succeeded. Je ne prendrai point de thé, je rien prends pas, I will take no tea, I do not drink tea. Pas may be used without ne for the English Not, before adjectives or adverbs ; and point is used without ne, but fol- lowed by de, like an adverb of quality, for the English No, be- fore nouns. Ex. How is the coffee ? Not very good. Comment est le café? Pas trop bon. No taxes and no veto ! Point de taxes et point de veto ! On the other hand, j)as and point are omitted and ne alone is used to express the negative, when the extent given to the negative is already sufficiently clearly expressed by another word. Ex. Il ne sortira de huit jours, he will not go out for a week. Pendant tout ce temps il rla dit mot, during all this time he has not said a word. Je vous assure, je n'y vois c/outte, I assure you, T cannot see any thing in it (I do not understand it at all). They are also omitted after the verbs oser, to dare, cesser, to cease, pouvoir and savoir, when there is no emphasis on the negation. Ex. Il n'osera de sa vie vous le reprocher, he will never in his life dare to reproach you with it. ADVERBS. 235 Elle n'a cessé de me tourmenter, she bas plagued me in- cessantly. Je ne saurais vous dire combien je vous plains, I cannot tell you how much I pity you. They are, finally, omitted after qui in exclamations. Ex. Qui ne serait touché par un tel spectacle ! Who would not be moved by such a sight ! Point, with the infinitive, may be placed before or after it. Ex. Pour ne point souffrir — or, Pour ne souffrir point, in order not to suffer at all. Que, with the negative ne, has the meaning of the English Only, when it qualifies a verb, and que must precede the word to be limited. Ex. Vous n'avez qu'a dire et vous l'aurez, you have only to say so, and you shall have it. Je ne veux sortir que pour une demi-heure, I only want to go out for half an hour. Il n'aime que moi, he loves me only. When Only expresses a sufficiency, it is rendered by seulement. Ex. Si fêtais seulement major, je serais content, îf I were only a major, I would be content. Guère, with the negative ne, represents the English Scarcely or Hardly, in connection with a verb. Ex. Je ne V aurais guère reconnu, s'il ne m'avait parlé, I would have scarcely recognized him, if he had not spoken to me. 77 n'y a guère d'autres gens dans ce pays, there are hardly any other people in this country. The numerous cases in which ne alone is used, without giving a negative meaning to the verb, have already been men- tioned in connection with the different classes of words which require it, as comparatives, verbs of doubt and fear, etc. 236 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Plas, with the negative ne, has the meaning of No more and No longer, when the latter does not literally mean Not a longer time, in which case it would have to be translated plus Ion (/temps. , Ex. Dites-moi adieu, vous ne me reverrez plus, tell me good- bye, you will never see me again. Je ne peux plus, mes forces sont épuisées, I can do it no longer, my strength is exhausted. Vous n'auriez pas dû marcher ])lus longtemps, you ought not to have walked any longer. Not again, can never "be represented in French by pas encore, as foreigners are apt to do ; the simple plus expressing the words. Pas encore means Not yet. Ex. Je ne Vai pas encore vue et elle ne reparaîtra plus, I bave not seen it, and it will not appear again. Encore, alone, may be used as an adverb of quantity, and means Some more. Ex. Vous voulez encore de l'argent? You want some more money ? Exercise. I can never believe those who have once told me a falsehood, and nothing will persuade me that a man who has done so once, may not do it again, when it suits him. My patient is not so well to-day ; he was worse this morning than he has yet been, and I doubt that he can recover. I could hardly believe that he would commit so base an action ; nobody has ever suspected him of being a mean man, and it would surprise me very much if it should be discovered, after all, that, he has deceived everybody so long. I believe you will find at the trial, wdiich has only commenced yet, that the facts are not only proved, but supported by the strongest evidence. Several witnesses have been examined already, and they have proved every thing, while his own attorney has said nothing to establish his innocence. I know that at first you would not even listen to the suspicions, nor I either, and I have seen only the reports in the newspapers. Since he has returned from Europe he is more conceited than he ever was, and it will require much time to make him come back to his good sense. PEEPOSITIONS. 237 No Pope ! was the cry of the early reformers ; but afterwards that was not enough, and numerous other demands of a similar kind were made, until it began to be feared that nothing of the Holy Church would survive. Do not send for any wine ; I do not drink any, and your water is so pure and fresh, that I shall be perfectly content. CHAPTER VII. PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions have their name from the fact that they are invariably placed before the noun, pronoun, or verb to which they belong. Their general purpose is to represent the relations existing between two words in the same sentence. Hence they can neither be used by themselves nor placed at the end of the sentence, as is done in English. Ex. I cannot tell you, I was not near, je ne saurais vous le dire, je n'étais pas près de là, "What was it he spoke of? Qu'est-ce que c'était de quoi il parla ? A number of so-called prepositions, however, are, in French as in English, adverbs also, and in that capacity they may be used -without a regimen. Ex. D'abord on a pris le thé, et après, on a dansé, first they they took tea, and then they danced. It must be borne in mind that simple prepositions are placed immediately before the noun, while compound prepositions require another preposition— De, when they consist already of a preposition and a noun; à) when they express a tendency or an aim. Ex On ne le voit jamais sans manteau, he is never seen with- out a cloak. 238 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. On Va fait Président au lieu de son père, he has been made President instead of his father. Il s'est hasardé jusqu'aux injures, he has ventured even upon insults. Other prepositions can have a second preposition for their regimen ; thus de may be used before après, entre, avec, chez 2>rès and auprès. Ex. Ces personnes sont tracées d'après nature, these characters are drawn from nature. Il y en a peu d'entre eux qui V aiment, there are few among them who love him. Les hommes près de mourir se montrent tels qu'ils sont, men about to die show themselves as they are. Hors, outside, may be used familiarly without the additional preposition de, which it generally requires. Ex. Ils demeuraient longtemps hors de la ville, they lived a long time outside of the town. Cet homme est logé hors la barrière, this man has lodg- ings outside the city-walls. The prepositions de, à and en must be repeated before every noun, pronoun or verb which is their regimen. Ex. Ce général fut comblé d'honneur et de gloire, this general was overwhelmed with honor and glory. Il doit la vie a Dieu et aux médecins, he owes his life to God and the doctors. Il trafique en gros et en détail, he deals wholesale and retail. All other prepositions are repeated only when the two regi- mens which they govern have an opposite or widely different meaning. Ex. Sous les yeux et sous les mains de la, Providence, under the eye and in the hands of Providence. PREPOSITIONS. 239 JVos devoirs envers Dieu et envers la 'patrie, our duty to God and our country. II passe sa vie dans la mollesse et l'oisiveté, he spends Lis life in effeminacy and idleness. SPECIAL REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. Avant and devant mean both Before, but the former relates only to time and rank, the latter only to place. Ex. Nous irons avant vous, si vous le voulez, we will go first, if you wish it. Prenez place devant moi, s'il vous plaît, take a seat before me, if you please. Before a verb in the infinitive, avant ought to be followed by que de, although modern authors frequently employ avant que only. Ex. Avant que d? écrire il faut apprendre à penser, before writing we must learn to think. Chez, from the Latin casa, retains from its origin the idiom- atic meaning of the English, At the house of, or At, followed by a person's name in the possessive case. Ex. Je ne vous ai jamais vu chez moi, I have never seen you at my house. Mais je vous ai rencontré bien des fois chez le docteur, but I have met you very often at the doctor's. Hence chez, with personal pronouns especially, expresses the English word Home, for which there is no other equivalent in French. Ex. Est-ce que vous serez chez vous ce soir? Will you be at home to-night ? Madame la Comtesse est-elle chez elle? Is the Countess at home ? Après avoir écrit les lettres vous prouvez aller chez vous f after having written the letters you can go home. 240 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Dans and en have both the same signification, in : but en expresses it in a vague and general sense, and hence is not accompanied by the article, except in a few technical terms, whilst dans has always the meaning of Into or Within, and is invariably accompanied by the article. Ex. En tous temps, en tous lieux, la vertu est sublime, at all times, in all places, virtue is sublime. // a vécu dix ans en Italie sans apprendre l'Italien, he has lived ten years in Italy without learning Italian. Ma sœur était dans sa chambre, my sister was in her room. U ennemi a marché ses troupes dans Paris, the enemy has marched his troops into Paris. Cela est arrivé ou en Juin ou en Juillet, that happened either in June or in July. Demain, nous entrerons dans le mois de Juin, to-morrow we shall enter into the month of June. From this peculiarity of en arises the fact that it serves, in connection with a number of nouns, to form adverbial expres- sions, signifying a manner of doing or being. Ex. Je ne crois pas qu'elle soit en bonne santé, I do not think she is in good health. Qui est-ce qui a mis cette chanson en musique ? Who has set this song to music ? Préférez vous le vin en bouteilles? Do you prefer bottled wine ? The few cases in which en is followed by the article are the following : En Van or en Vannée, in the year ; En V absence or en la présence de, in the absence and in the presence of ; En Vair, in the air ; En ces termes, in these terms ; En ces mots, in these words ; PREPOSITIONS. 24:1 and in the titles Maître ès (instead of en les) Arts, Master of Arts, and Docteur ès Sciences, Doctor of Sciences. When dans and en are employed in definitions of time, they have an entirely different signification : dans expresses the time between now and the beginning of an action, en means the time between the beginning and the end of the action. Ex. // arrivera ici dans trois jours, he will reach here three days hence. Il arrivera là en trois jours, it will take him three days to get there. En has also the peculiar meaning of like, in the manner of, in the character of. Ex. Il me traite en frère plutôt qu'en maître, he treats me rather like a brother than like a master. Dans toute cette affaire il a agi en honnête homme, in this whole affair he has acted like an honest man. Elle était déguisée en dame du Moyen- Age, she was dressed in the character of a lady of the Middle Ages. The English, in, before the word Manner, and whenever with can be substituted for it, is not translated by en, but by de. Ex. In this manner we shall never come to an end of it, de cette manière nous n'en viendrons jamais à bout. She said to him in a tender voice, elle lui dit d'une voix tendre. Never in my life, and Nothing in the world, are in like manner translated by jamais de ma vie, and rien au monde. Dessus, dessous (pronounced as if the first e was mute), above and below, dedans and dehors, within and without, belong to that class of prepositions which may also be used as adverbs. * n he difference can be easily ascertained, as they will have a regimen when they are used as prepositions, and stand alone as adverbs. Ex. Je Vai cherche dessus et dessous la table, I have looked for it on the table and under it. 242 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. 77 est moitié dedans, moitié dehors, he is half inside and half outside. Elle est allée dehors voir s'il y a quelqu'un, she has gone out to see if there is anybody there. They may be preceded by one of the following prepositions — de, à and par ; in which case they are followed by de. Ex. Il veut toujours s'élever au-dessus de ses égaux, he always wants to rise above his equals. Il est riche, il est jeune, et par dessus de cela il est beau, he is youug, he is rich, and besides that he is hand- some. Exercise. Who was that woman who was seated before you at the theatre last night ? She had come there half an hour before you, and seemed to be impatient to see you come. I will let you know before writing to her, so that you can tell me what you wish me to communicate to her, in case you should not write to her yourself before that time. She is still, I think, at her uncle's, but after a month or two she told me she would go back to her aunt's, where she is perfectly at home. They are not at home at this hour, the servant says, but they will return a few minutes before dinner. Had she gone into the house when you saw her this morning, or was she still walking in the garden, and gathering flowers for a bouquet ? They were born either in Germany or in Holland, but they spent nearly their whole life in the United States. In vain did he try to gain his ear ; he would not listen to him for a moment, and after a little while he went back, and locked himself in his study. If you cannot get these dresses into the basket, put some of them upon it, and the others will find room inside. Jusque, till, is almost invariably used with another preposi- tion after it, which, with a few exceptions, is à. We may say, Ex. Il la poursuivra jusque dans V enfer, he will pursue her as far as hell. PKEPOSITIONS. 2±3 L'eau lui monta jusque 'par dessus la tête, the watei rose as high as above her head. J'aime ses talents, ses vertus et jusqu'à ses défauts, I love his talents, his virtues and even his faults. Poets take the liberty of adding an s to jusque whenever it suits tbeir metre to make two syllables of the word. Ex. Vous la louez, Madame, jusques au ciel, you praise lier, Martam, to the skies. It has already been stated that jusque, used as a conjunction before verbs, requires the additional ce que. Ex. Attendez jusqw à ce que j'aurai fini ma, lettre, wait until I have finished my letter. Sans, without, has two peculiarities — it is used without an article, unless there is special emphasis on the article, and it may be followed either by ni or by et, in spite of its negative signification ; but with et, it must be repeated before each noun. Ex. Sans crainte ni pudeur, sans forte ni vertu, without fear or shame, without power or virtue. Elle y est allée sans père et sans mari, she went there without father and husband. Sans la crainte de V offenser, je l'aurais fait, without the fear of offending him, I would have done it. When followed by a verb, sans requires an additional que, unless it be in the infinitive, which being a noun requires no conjunction. Ex. Sans que la France méritât de reproches, without France's deserving any reproach. Il boit du vin sans y mettre de Veau, he drinks wine without putting any water into it. Avec, also, omits the article, but only when it stands before nouns expressive of moral qualities, with which it forms an adverb. Ex. Il ne pourra s'en tirer avec honneur, he will not be able to get out of it honorably. 244 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. On peut tout faire avec de V argent, one can do every thing with money. Par, also, can be used without an article in adverbial expres- sions, and when it is followed by a noun taken in a partitive sense. Ex. On fait plus par la douceur que par la force, one can do more by gentleness than by violence. Il voulut me le prendre par force, he wanted to take it forcibly from me. Ces pauvres gens mouraient de faim par milliers, these poor people starved to death by the thousand. De, à and pour are the three principal prepositions in use with the infinitive of verbs, and present some difficulty in their use, as they do not always correspond to like expressions in English. It has already been explained, that the English word to is by no means always a preposition, but most frequently nothing more than a mere sign of the verbal character of the verb- word, when it remains, of course, untranslated. Never- theless, it has also the meanings of In order to, For the purpose of, etc., and in such cases it has to be translated by the proper preposition in French. Pour represents to in the sense of In order to, and is also used after all expressions, nouns, adjectives or adverbs, which convey the idea of sufficiency. Ex. Elle ne Va fait que pour vous faire plaisir, she has done it only to give you pleasure. Est-ce que cela suffit pour le payer? Is that enough to pay him ? Il est assez simple pour avoir fait cette bévue, he is simple enough to have made that blunder. A expresses always more or less distinctly the end or purpose, and frequently, as has been stated elsewhere, gives a passive signification to the verb it precedes. Ex. Est-ce que c'est bon à manger ou a quoi sert-il ? Is this good to eat, or what is it good for ? PREPOSITIONS. 245 C'est une chose qui est beaucoup à craindre, that is a thing much to be feared. It is also used after words with a superlative meaning. Ex. Je crois que fêtais le premier à vous le dire, I believe I was the first to tell you. De is used in all other cases not thus provided for, except after verbs which are used without any preposition, like verbs of motion, etc. Ex. Elle est impatiente de revoir sa patrie, she is impatient to see her country again. Il est notre devoir de venir a son secours, it is our duty to come to his aid. When an infinitive is the object of another verb, de is placed before it as direct object, and à, when it is the indirect object. Ex. Une m'a pas été permis de la revoir, 1 have not been per- mitted to see her again. Je l'ai invite a venir nous voir, I have invited him to come and see us. As a matter of reference, lists of those verbs are given here, which require either no pmiyvsitfon at ail before an infinitive or such as differ from those used in English. VERBS USED WITHOUT PREPOSITION. Affirmer to affirm daigner to deign aimer mieux to prefer declarer to declare aller to go déposer to bear witness apercevoir to perceive désirer to wish assurer to assure devoir to owe avouer to confess écouter to listen to compter to intend entendre to hear confesser to confess envoyer to send considérer to behold épier to spy courir to run espérer to hope croire to believe faire to make 2iQ ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. falloir to be necessary rapporter to report s'imaginer to imagine reconnaître to acknowledge laisser to allow, to suffer regarder to look at mener to lead retourner to return nier to deny revenir to ccme back observer to observe savoir to know oser to dare sembler to seem ouir to bear sentir to feel paraître to appear souhaiter to wish penser to imagine soutenir to maintain pouvoir to be able témoigner to testify prétendre to pretend se trouver to happen to be préférer to prefer valoir mieux to be better protester to protest venir to come publier to publish voir to see se rappeler to remember vouloir to be willing VERBS WHICH REQUIRE de BEFORE AN INFINITIVE. Accuser de s'affliger de s'attrister de avertir de s'aviser de avoir honte de blâmer de censurer de cesser de se chagriner de charger de conjurer de convaincre de convenir de décourager de se défendre de défier de se dépécher de se désaccoutu- mer de to accuse of to grieve at se déshabituer de | to leave off to be grieved at se désespérer de to despair to warn se désoler de to rave at to take into one's détourner de to dissuade . head discontinuer de to discontinue to be ashamed at disconvenir de to deny to blame se dispenser de to forbear to censure for dissuader de to dissuade to cease douter de to doubt to fret for s'efforcer de to endeavor to charge with s'empresser de to hasten to entreat enrager de to be vexed at to convince s'effrayer de ) to be frightened to agree s'épouvanter de f at to discourage to decline s'étonner de j to be astonished \ at to challenge s'excuser de to excuse to make haste féliciter de to congratulate to leave off se flatter de j to flatter one's \ self PREPOSITIONS. 247 frémir de to shudder at gémir de to lament gêner de to constrain gronder de to scold for hair de to hate for se hasarder de to venture se hâter de to hasten , . , . , ( to be exasperat- 6* indigner de < ( ed at jouir de to enjoy louer de to praise for manquer de to fail menacer de to threaten se passer de to do without se piquer de to pride in plaindre de to pity for prendre garde de to take care not prescrire de presser de se presser de présumer de prier de protester de to prescribe to urge to hasten to conjecture to desire to protest punir de se rébuter de se réjouir de remercier de ) rendre grâce de ) se repentir de reprendre de ) réprimander de S se ressouvenir de rire de rougir de se scandaliser de sommer de se soucier de souffrir de soupçonner de se souvenir de suffire de (im- ) personal) j supplier de trembler de to punish ( to be discouraged ( at to rejoice at to thank for to repent to chide for to remember to laugh at to blush at to be offended at to summon to care for to suffer to suspect to remember to suffice to entreat to tremble And all other verbs corresponding to English verbs which are followed by the prepositions of, from, with or about. VERBS Aboutir à aider à aimer d apprendre à avoir à avoir peine à balancer à chercher d concourir à condescendre à WHICH REQUIRE to end in to help in to like to learn to have to be hardly able to hesitate to try to co-operate in to condescend to a BEFORE AN INFINITIVE. consister à conspirer à contribuer à coûter à demander à demeurer à disposer à donner à engager à to consist of to agree together to contribute to to cost to ask j to put too much ( time in to prepare to give to prevail upon 243 OJST THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. enhardir d to encourage porter d to lead . m ns ig ter a. j to teach (a pres- réussir d to succeed in ( ent participle) servir d to serve et re a j to be (as explain- songer d to think of l ed page 114.) tarder d to long for exceller à to excel in tendre d to tend exciter d to excite pousser d to urge exhorter d to exhort prendre garde d to take care hésiter d to hesitate prier d to invite se mettre d to begin to renoncer d to renounce montrer d to show répugner d to be repugnant parvenir d to succeed in tenir d to insist pense?' d to think of travailler d to work at persévérer d to persevere in viser d to aim at persister d to persist in se plaire à pie aolre plai- | to take pleasure in sir d VERBS WHICH REQUIRE PREPOSITIONS DIFFERENT FROM THOSE USED IN ENGLISH : abuser de to abuse s'affliger de to grieve for approcher de to come near to s'attrister de to grieve at avoir honte de to be ashamed at ne chagriner de to fret at convenir de to agree on se défier de to mistrust se démettre de to lav down se désister de to give up douter de to doubt enrager de to be vexed at fuir iter de to congratulate on frémir de to shudder at gémir de to lament s'indigner de to be exasperated at s'informer de to inquire after jouir de to enjoy louer de médire de se méfier de se passer de persuader de se piquer de profiter de se rebuter de remercier de se rétracter de se ressouvenir de rire de rougir de se saisir de se scandaliser de servir de se servir de to praise for to slander to mistrust to go without to persuade to pride in to profit by i to be discouraged I at to thank for to recant to remember to laugh at to blush at to seize upon to be offended at to serve as to use PREPOSITIONS. 249 se soucier de to care for traiter de f to call, to give the kf)ll tF)'/)' fJ p tu ©uii^r uy ( title of QP 0/) if !•/> >yO y* fin (J LOI V/l 1 (jbo to remember user de to use MlT)v> \tp r ri" O U.l/0 VOW 1 KAj <./ LU 11 Y u upuii Aboutir cl to pnd în pu till CO 01 to to provide for pom tin fii* n LU IIipdLlllZt/ Willi préluder d to prelude contvpvpwiv d K/is I VV 1 OvO/l/Of \Aj •f r\ ï n frî n fro LU ILILI lUilKS prendre garde à to take care of convenir à to suit procéder a to set about déplaire d to dîsnlpasp WPSiYÏ Pfl-Î Pf* /Y / e uvtVoWI Ou to remedy déroger d to dprooffitp from 1 COOOOO/ (Jb to resist dêsobêiv d to di^ohpv ItohOlHUbbl Cl/ to look like échapper d to PSPîinp from Qrtoi no?)' // oUloyt/i cx> to think of exceller à to excel in oUULt'ivOl C-U to relieve manquer cl to fail in LU buLLeeu. nuire d to nvpinrlipp 01/ fftn^p /t oUijjol o Cm to be sufficient for obéi'' ci to ol>pv o Loi Lot / & a to survive ob i r a to obviate fp H }' f fi not to give up pardonner a to pardon tirer d to shoot, to fire at parvenir d to attain travailler d to work about penser d to think of viser d to aim at piaille d to please The following verbs may be used with or without the pre- position a before nouns and pronouns. applaudir to applaud persuader to persuade insulter to insult satisfaire to satisfy A few others are used with de or with à, according; to the meaning which is given to them. Exercise. We would have prevented them from doing that, but we came too late, and when we tried to persuade them to desist, they replied, that it was no longer in their power to undo their work. Why do you not teach your children to speak French ? it is useful to know at least one other language besides our own, and it helps much in learning to 250 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. understand the, latter. She lias been trying to imitate the voice of that celebrated singer, ever since she heard her sing in London ; but in vain, for her voice is not strong enough to do what the other did without making an effort. Would it not be better for you and your children to lay up some money, so that, when you begin to grow old, you may feel secure, against want? I would advise you earnestly to follow his counsel, and to do what you want to do at once, for delay is seldom useful in bringing better knowledge. His wife was a charming woman ; she was beloved and esteemed by all who knew her, whilst he was detested, and finally killed, by one whom he had insulted grievously, in a duel. You say you are in want of money enough to go on with your enterprise ; I will think of it whilst going to town, and when I return I will let you know what I have determined to do for you. If you can do without your new dresses, it would be better for you, as you will want all the money you hâve to pay the doctor's bill, and to provide for the winter. She has survived all her relations and even her grandchildren : it is sad to see one so entirely alone, but she bears it very well, and does not complain of her lot. If it suits you, I wish you would come and dine with us to-morrow ; we have some guests whose company you will enjoy, I am sure, and you will thank us for having invited you to meet them. CHAPTER VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions have their name from the fact that they serve to join together sentences and parts of sentences. Although they do not designate the objects of our thoughts, nor the thoughts themselves, they are not less important on that account. Their principal purpose is to show the manner in which our thoughts are connected with each other, and thus, in language, to build up the whole of a sentence from its different parts. Conjunctions, according to their form, are simple, when they consist but of a single word, which serves no other purpose, aa CONJUNCTIONS. 251 et, ou, ni, mais, si, car, etc. Some of these are riore precisely used in French than in English. Thus in English for serves as a preposition as well as a conjunction, while in French each has a separate form. Ex. He has done it for your satisfaction and mine, il Va fait r pour votre satisfaction et la mienne. He has done it, for you wished it, il Va fait car vous le désiriez. The English then sometimes refers to time, meaning at that time, and sometimes to a conclusion, meaning therefore ; the French has again one form for the adverb and another for the conjunction. Ex. It was then that he lost his right arm, Jetait alors qiCil perdit le bras droit. It was then your sister whom you took for me ? C'était donc votre sœur que vous prîtes pour moi ? Compound conjunctions consist of several words taken from other parts of speech, and have only this in common — that, with very few exceptions, \'\ks par conséquent, etc., they are invariably connected with que. Such are puisque, parceque, à moins que, pourvu que, etc. Conjunctions, according to their signification, differ as much as the manner of thinking may differ in the human mind, limited only by the permanent and fixed laws of Logic. It wili be borne in mind, here, that in French a conjunction — at least que — is absolutely necessary, whenever two verbs are placed in connection with each other. This is not the case in English, where the two verbs, and consequently two distinct ideas, may be simply placed side by side, without a conjunction, and it is left to the mind to supply the nature of the connec- tion. Ex. I know you tell me the truth and nothing more,^ sais que vous me dites la vérité et rien de plus. 252 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. He said he would come to take leave, il dit qiCil vien- drait prey id re congé. When she heard he had gone she burst into tears, quand elle apprit qu'il fut parti elle éclata, en larmes. It has also been stated that certain conjunctions require the following verb to be in the subjunctive mood, from the peculiar meaning which attaches to them. Ex. A moins que vous ne soyez bien riche, unless you should be extremely rich, e/'y consens pourvu qu'il le fasse lui-même, I agree to it provided he does it himself. The conjunctions et, ou, ni and soit, are frequently repeated before two parts of a sentence which are represented as closely united or as alternate to each other. Ex. Et le père et le fils ont été récompensés, both father and son have been rewarded. Soit mépris, soit haine, il Va ignoré, be it from contempt or from hatred, he ignored him. Other conjunctions, also, must be repeated, but only in the form of que, which thus represents even si. Ex. Lorsque je vous ai vu et que je vous ai parlé, when I saw you and spoke to you. Comme il le soutenait et que je ne le croyais pas, as hc maintained it and I did not believe it. SHI vient et qu'il me demande — je rfy suis pas, if he comes and asks for me — I am not in. Cest à vous que je parle et point à elle, it is to you I speak, and not to her. À number of prepositions may also be used as conju notions by means of que, which is added. Such are pour, sans, avant, après, j usque, etc. Ex. Je Vavertirai pour qu'il ne tombe dans ce piège, I will warn him, so that he may not fall into that snare. CONJUNCTIONS. 253 Il est parti sans que personne fait vu, he is gone without being seen by any one. // était embarrassé avant qu'il n'eût commencé, he was embarrassed before he had commenced. They may also be used with the infinitive, except jusque. Ex. On Va puni pour avoir parlé trop franchement, he has been punished for having spoken too freely. Pensez avant de parler et vous parlerez mieux, think before you speak, and you will speak better. The different tenses which are required after certain conjunc- tions, as the present and imperfect after si, if, have been mentioned in their appropriate places and need not be repeated here. Que frequently stands for parceque, because, after c'est and the other tenses of être with ce. Ex. C'est que vous m'avez trop taquiné, it is because you have teased me too much. Pourquoi s'en va-t-il ? C'est qu'il va se coucher, why does he go away ? Because he is going to bed. Puisque is in rare cases, and lorsque more frequently, sepa- rated so that que follows même or another adverb, which may be placed between. Ex. Lors même que cela en serait ainsi, even if that should be so. Que, as a conjunction, produces numerous idiomatic expres- sions, of which the following are the most important. Que is placed before a noun, which is compared to another word at the beginning of the sentence, preceded by c'est, for the sake of greater emphasis. Ex. C'est un fléau terrible que la guerre, war is a terrible scourge. Ce sont des drôles de personnes que vos amis, your friends are very queer people. 254 ON THE PAKTS OF A SENTENCE. The same construction is constantly used in questions. Ex. Qu'est-ce que ce billet ? What note is this ? Qu'est-ce que c'est que les idées innées ? What are innate ideas ? • Qu'est-ce que cela veut dire ? What does that mean ? In this case, c'est is frequently repeated. Ex. Qu'est-ce que c'est que cette étoile ? What is that star ? Qu'est-ce que c'est que cela ? What is that? Que is used for the relative after definitions of time. Ex. Le jour qu'il naquit, sa mère mourut, on the day on which he was born, his mother died. - Il y a deux ans que je ne l'ai vue, it is two years since I saw her (during which I have not seen her). Que, after the imperative, stands instead of pour que or jusque. Ex. Approchez, mon ami, que je vous parle, come nearer, friend, so that I can speak to you. Attendez qu'il vienne. Wait until he comes.. Que, after interrogations, stands instead oî puisque. Ex. Qu'avez-vous donc que vous ne mangez point ? What is the matter with you that you do not eat ? Que, in exclamations, is used as a substitute for the verb être, followed by que. Ex. Quelle beauté supreme que cette femme ! What a splendid beauty that lady is 1 Quelle bête que cet homme ! What a fool that man is ! Que is used instead of à moins que, avant que, and sans que, in phrases like the following : Cela ne finira pas qu'il ne vienne, this will not end unless he comes. Elle sera partie que lui il ne soit venu, she will be gone before he has come. Il ne peut sortir qu'il ne s'enrhume, he cannot go out with- out catching cold. INTERJECTIONS. 255 CHAPTER IX. INTERJECTIONS. Interjections have their name from the fact that they are thrown in, as it were, between other words for the purpose of giving expression, not to our thoughts, like other words, but to our feelings. They are naturally mere particles of words or appeals to higher beings, — indeclinable because they have no relation whatever to other words, and most liable, of all parts of speech, to be mutilated and corrupted by the effect of strong- feelings, under which alone they are used. Grief is expressed by ah ! aie ! ouf ! ahi! hé! hélas! Ex. Ah ! que cela me fait mal ! Oh, how that hurts ! Ouf je n'y puis plus ! J'étouffe! Oh! I cannot stand it any longer. I am stifled ! Hélas ! Il est mort, et nous sommes orphelins ! Alas ! he is dead, and we are orphans. Joy is expressed by ah ! bon ! Ex. Ah ! que je suis heureux de vous revoir ! Ah ! how happy I am to see you again ! Fear is expressed by ah ! hi ! Ex. Hi ! Qu>ai-je fait ? Je Vai cassé ! Alas ! what have I done ! I have broken it ! Disgust is expressed hjfi!Ji done ! Ex. Fi donc ! Vous ne devriez pas faire cela ! Fie ! You ought not to do that. Encouragement is expressed by ho ! ça ça ! allons ! 'Ex. Ho ! A V attaque ! Vous allez vaincre ! Up! Attack them ! You will be victorious ! 256 ON THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE. Warning is expressed by holà ! hein ! oh ! Ex. Holà ! Prenez garde ! Vous allez tomber ! Look out ! Take care ! You will fall ! Silencing is expressed by chut ! st ! Ex. Chut ! Ne parlez pas si haut ! Hush ! Don't speak so loud ! Among the compound interjections are those appeals to God, etc., which have been mentioned, like Grand Dieu! Dieu de dieu ! Sainte Vierge ! and those words which, in certain combinations, are used as interjections, as tout beau/ gently — allons ferme ! be firm — doucement, not so fast, etc. THE EKB.