{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3616", "width": "2178", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0003.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "a* yj* *z~", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0004.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "W\\nA\\nvv\\nV\\nV\\no\\n*bK", "height": "3545", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0005.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0096\u00a0J", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0006.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3545", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0007.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0008.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC", "height": "3545", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0009.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0010.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3545", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0011.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "Japan the North Pacific", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0012.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC,\\nAND\\nA JAPANESE VIEW OF THE\\nEASTERN QUESTION.\\nMANJIRO INAGAKI, B.A.\\n(Cantab)\\nWITH MAPS\\nNEW YORK\\nSCRIBNER AND W EL FORD\\nMDCCCXC", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0013.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "X 35\\nD.TYL.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0014.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "TO\\nJOHN ROBERT SEELEY M.A. Hon. LL.D.\\nRegi its Professor of Modern History\\nFellow of Gonville and Cams College\\nCambridge\\nTHIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY\\nDEDICATED\\nIX GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF HIS KINDNESS\\nAND IN ADMIRATION OF HIS QUALITIES AS A\\nHISTORIAN\\nBY THE AUTHOR", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0015.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0016.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "PREFACE\\nI feel that some explanation is due when a\\nJapanese ventures to address himself to\\nEnglish readers my plea is that the matters\\non which I write are of vital importance to\\nEngland as well as to Japan. Though I feel\\nthat my knowledge of English is so imperfect\\nthat many errors of idiom and style and even\\nof grammar must appear in my pages, yet I\\nhope that the courtesy which I have ever\\nexperienced in this country will be extended\\nalso to my book.\\nMy aim has been twofold on the one\\nhand, to arouse my own countrymen to a\\nsense of the great part Japan has to play in\\nthe coming century on the other, to call the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0017.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "io PREFACE.\\nattention of Englishmen to the important\\nposition my country occupies with regard to\\nBritish interests in the far East.\\nThe first part deals with Japan and the\\nPacific Question but so closely is the latter\\nbound up with the so-called Eastern Question\\nthat in the second part I have traced the\\nhistory of the latter from its genesis to its\\npresent development. Commencing with a\\nhistorical retrospect of Russian and English\\npolicy in Eastern Europe, I have marked\\nthe appearance of a rivalry between these\\ntwo Powers which has extended from Eastern\\nEurope to Central Asia, and is extending\\nthence to Eastern Asia and the Pacific. This\\nI have done because any movement in Eastern\\nEurope or Central Asia will henceforth infal-\\nlibly spread northwards to the Baltic and\\neastwards to the Pacific. An acquaintance\\nwith the Eastern Question in all its phases\\nwill thus be necessary for the statesmen of\\nJapan in the immediate future. I have con-\\nfined my view to England and Russia\\nbecause their interests in Asia and the North\\nPacific are so direct and so important that", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0018.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "PREFACE. ii\\nthey must enter into close relations with my\\nown country in the next century.\\nI cannot claim an extensive knowledge of\\nthe problems I have sought to investigate,\\nbut it is my intention to continue that\\ninvestigation in the several countries under\\nconsideration. By personal inquiries and\\nobservations in Eastern Europe, the United\\nStates, Canada, Australia, China, and the\\nMalay Archipelago, I hope to correct some\\nand confirm others of my conclusions.\\nI have to thank many members of the\\nUniversity of Cambridge for their help\\nduring the writing and publication of my\\nbook. To Professor Seeley especially, whose\\nhints and suggestions with regard to the\\nhistory of the eighteenth century in particular\\nhave been so valuable to me, I desire to\\ntender my most hearty and grateful thanks.\\nTo Dr. Donald Macalister (Fellow and\\nLecturer of St. John s College) and Mr.\\nOscar Browning, M.A. (Fellow and Lecturer\\nof King s College) I owe much for kindly\\nencouragement and advice and assistance in\\nmany ways, while I am indebted to Mr. G.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0019.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "12 PREFACE.\\nE. Green, M.A. (St. John s College), for his\\nlabour in revising proofs and the ready help\\nhe has given me through the many years in\\nwhich he has acted as my private tutor.\\nThe chief works which I have used are\\nProfessor Seeley s Expansion of England,\\nHon. Evelyn Ashley s Life of Lord\\nPalmerston, and Professor Holland s\\nEuropean Concert in the Eastern Ques-\\ntion. The latter I have consulted specially\\nfor the history of treaties.\\nM. INAGAKI.\\nCaius College, Cambridge,\\nApril, 1890.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0020.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nCONTENTS.\\nPART I.\\nJAPAN AND THE PACIFIC 21\\nEngland and Asia The Persian war The Chinese war\\nRussian diplomacy in China Singapore and Hong Kong\\nLabuan and Port Hamilton Position of Japan its\\nresources Importance of Chinese alliance to England\\nStrength of English position in the Pacific at present\\nPossible danger from Russia through Mongolia and\\nManchooria Japan the key of the Pacific her area\\nand people her rapid development her favourable posi-\\ntion effect of Panama Canal on her commerce England s\\nroute to the East by the Canadian Pacific Railway\\nJapanese manufactures Rivalry of Germany and England\\nin the South Pacific Imperial Federation for England and\\nher colonies Importance of island of Formosa Compara-\\ntive progress of Russia and England The coming struggle.\\nPART II.\\nTHE EASTERN QUESTION\\n1.\\nForeign Policy of England during the Six-\\nteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth\\nCenturies 73\\nThe Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline Com-\\nmercial rivalry of England and Holland The ascendency", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0021.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "H CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nof France; threatened by the Grand Alliance\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\nSpanish succession and the Bourbon league\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England s\\nconnection with the war of the Austrian succession The\\nSeven Years War\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Revival of the Anglo-Bourbon struggle\\nin the American and Napoleonic wars.\\nForeign Policy of Russia during the Reigns\\nof Peter, Catherine, and Alexander 95\\nPeter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on\\nthe Baltic Consequent collision with the Northern States\\nand the Maritime Powers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Catherine II. and Poland-\\nFirst partition Russia reaches the Black Sea Russo-\\nAustrian alliance against Turkey opposed by Pitt Second\\nand third partitions of Poland Rise of Prussia Alexander\\nI. and the conquest of Turkey Treaty of Tilsit Peace of\\nBucharest Congress of Vienna French influence in the\\nEast destroyed.\\nIII.\\nThe New European System .116\\nThe concert of the Great Powers its aims It does not\\nprotect small states from its own members, e.g., Polish\\nRevolution How far can it solve the Turkish question\\nIV.\\nGreek Independence. .122\\nThe Holy Alliance The Greek insurrection Interference\\nof the Three Powers Battle of Navarino Treaty of\\nAdrianople The policy of Nicholas I. Treaty of Unkiar\\nIkelessi Turkey only saved by English and French aid\\nPalmerston succeeds to Canning s policy.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0022.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS. 15\\nPAGE\\nThe Crimean War 133\\nNicholas I. alienates France from England by the\\nEgyptian question Mehemet Ali and Palmerston s con-\\nvention against him Nicholas I. in England The Pro-\\ntectorate of the Holy Land breach between Russia and\\nFrance Proposed partition of Turkey War of Russia\\nand Turkey The Vienna Note Intervention of France\\nand England to save Turkey Treaty of Paris Russia\\nfoiled Correspondence between Palmerston and Aberdeen\\nas to the declaration of war National feeling of England\\nsecures the former s triumph French motives in joining in\\nthe war.\\nVI.\\nThe Black Sea Conference .166\\nFrench influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War\\nRussia annuls the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris\\nCondition of Europe prevents their enforcement by the\\nPowers London Conference Russia secures the Black\\nSea England s mistake Alsace and Lorraine destroy the\\nbalance of power.\\nVII.\\nThe Russo-Turkish War of 1878 .174\\nBulgarian atrocities The Andrassy Note England de-\\nstroys its effect The Berlin Memorandum England\\nopposes it Russia prepares for a Turkish war Conference\\nof Constantinople New Turkish Constitution Russo-\\nTurkish War Treaty of San Stefano Intervention of the\\nPowers \u00e2\u0080\u0094The Berlin Congress Final treaty of peace.\\nVIII.\\nRemarks on Treaty of Berlin .197\\nThe position of affairs The Salisbury-Schouvaloff Memo-\\nrandum and its disastrous effect on the negotiations at", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0023.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "16 CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nBerlin Russia s gain England and Austria the guardians\\nof Turkey Austria s vigorous and straightforward Balkan\\npolicy Thwarted in Servia but triumphant in Bulgaria\\nRelations of Greece to Austria Solution of the Crete\\nquestion Neutrality of Belgium threatened Importance\\nof Constantinople to Russia the Anglo-Turkish Conven-\\ntion England s feeble policy in Asia Minor The ques-\\ntion of Egypt A new route to India by railway from the\\nMediterranean to Persian Gulf England s relation to Con-\\nstantinople.\\nIX.\\nCentral Asia 229\\nRise of British power in India\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Rivalry of France Aims\\nof Napoleon Russian influence in Central Asia Its great\\nextension after the Crimean War And after the Berlin\\nCongress Possible points of attack on India Constanti-\\nnople the real aim of Russia s Asiatic policy Recent\\nRussian annexations and railways in Central Asia Re-\\naction of Asiatic movements on the Balkan question\\nDangerous condition of Austria Possible future Russian\\nadvances in Asia England s true policy the construction\\nof a speedy route to India by railway from the Mediter-\\nranean to the Persian Gulf\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Alliance of England, France,\\nTurkey, Austria, and Italy would effectively thwart\\nRussian schemes.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0024.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "LIST OF MAPS.\\n1. JAPAN AND THE NORTH PACIFIC FrontlSpteCB\\n2. THE PACIFIC AND ITS SEA-ROUTES 46\\n3. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN EUROPE 97\\n4. EASTERN EUROPE AND WESTERN ASIA I T 5\\n5. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN ASIA 2$$", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0025.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0026.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "PART I.\\nJAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0027.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0028.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "PART I.\\nJAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEngland and Asia The Persian war The Chinese war\\nRussian diplomacy in China Singapore and Hong\\nKong Labuan and Port Hamilton Position of\\nJapan its resources Importance of Chinese alliance\\nto England Strength of English position in the\\nPacific at pi esent Possible danger from Russia through\\nMongolia and Manchooria\u00e2\u0080\u0094Japati the key of the Pa-\\ncific j her area and people her rapid development\\nher favourable position; effect of Panama Canal 011\\nher co miner ce England s route to the East by the\\nCanadian Pacific Railway\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Japanese manufactures\\nRivalry of Gerjnany and England in the South Pacific\\nImperial Federation for England and her colonies\\nImportance of island of Formosa\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Comparative pro-\\ngress of Russia and England The coming struggle.\\nWithout doubt the Pacific will in the coming\\ncentury be the platform of commercial and\\npolitical enterprise. This truth, however,\\nescapes the eyes of ninety-nine out of a\\nhundred, just as did the importance of Eastern", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0029.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEurope in 1790, and of Central Asia in\\n1857. In the former case England did not\\nappreciate the danger of a Russian. aggression\\nof Turkey, and so Pitt s intervention in the\\nTurkish Question failed. It was otherwise\\nin the second half of the nineteenth century,\\nwhen the Crimean War and the Berlin\\nCongress proved great events in English\\nhistory. In 1857 the national feeling in\\nEngland was not aroused as to the import-\\nance of defending Persia from foreign attack.\\nLord Palmerston had written to Lord\\nClarendon, Feb. 17, 1857, It is quite true,\\nas you say, that people in general are\\ndisposed to think lightly of our Persian War,\\nthat is to say, not enough to see the import-\\nance of the question at issue. How strongly\\ndoes the Afghan question attract the public\\nattention of England at the present day\\nIt is very evident that in 1857 very few in\\nEngland were awake to the vital importance\\nof withstanding Russian inroads into the far\\nEast, viz., the Pacific.\\nAfter defeating Russia miserably in the\\nCrimean War and driving her back at the", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0030.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 23\\nBalkans by the Treaty of Paris, Lord\\nPalmerston s mind was now revolving and\\ndiscussing the following serious thought\\nWhere would Russia stretch out her hands\\nnext\\nI think I am not wrong in stating the\\nfollowing as Lord Palmerston s solution of\\nthe problem\\n(a) That Russia was about to strike the\\nEnglish interests at Afghanistan by an alli-\\nance with Persia,\\n(6) That she would attack the Afghan\\nfrontier single-handed.\\n(c) That an alliance would be formed with\\nthe Chinese, and a combined hostility against\\nBritain would be shown by both.\\n(d) She would extend her Siberian terri-\\ntory to the Pacific on the north, thereby\\nobtaining a seaport on that ocean s coast, and\\nmake it an outpost for undermining English\\ninfluence in Southern China.\\nTherefore in 1856 Lord Palmerston de-\\nclared war against Persia remarking that\\nM we are beginning to reveal the first", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0031.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "24 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nopenings of trenches against India by\\nRussia. 1\\nThis policy proved a winning one. The\\nIndian Mutiny of 1857, however, scarcely\\ngave Palmerston time to mature his Afghan\\nFrontier scheme, consequently his views with\\nregard to that country were to a great extent\\nfrustrated by Russia.\\nIn the autumn of 1856, the Arrow dispute\\ngave Palmerston his long- wished for oppor-\\ntunity of gaining a stronghold in the South\\nChina Sea. He declared war on China. The\\ncauses of this dispute on the English side\\nwere morally unjust and legally untenable.\\nCobden brought forward a resolution to this\\neffect that The paper laid on the table\\nfailed to establish satisfactory grounds for\\nthe violent measure resorted to. Disraeli,\\nRussell, and Graham all supported Cobden s\\nmotion. Mr. Gladstone, who was also in\\nfavour of the motion, said, at the conclusion\\nof his speech, with every one of us it rests\\nto show that this House, which is the first,\\n1 Lord Palmerston s letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb.\\ni7 i\u00c2\u00a757-", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0032.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 25\\nthe most ancient, and the noblest temple of\\nfreedom in the world, is also the temple of\\nthat everlasting justice without which freedom\\nitself would only be a name, or only a curse,\\nto mankind. And I cherish the trust that\\nwhen you, sir, rise in your place to-night to\\ndeclare the numbers of the division from the\\nchair which you adorn, the words which you\\nspeak will go forth from the halls of the\\nHouse of Commons as a message of British\\njustice and wisdom to the farthest corner of\\nthe world.\\nMr. Gladstone, it certainly seems to me,\\nonly viewed the matter from a moral point of\\nview. If we look at it in this light, then the\\nBritish occupation of Port Hamilton was a\\nstill more striking example of English loose\\nlaw and loose notion of morality in regard to\\nEastern nations/\\nPalmerston was defeated in the House by\\nsixteen votes, but was returned at the general\\nelection by a large majority backed by the\\naggressive feelings of the English nation.\\nHe contended that if the Chinese were\\nright about the Arrow, they were wrong", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0033.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nabout something else if legality did not\\nexactly justify violence, it was at any rate\\nrequired by policy! l He described this\\npolicy in the following way\u00e2\u0080\u0094 To maintain\\nthe rights, to defend the lives and properties\\nof British subjects, to improve our relations\\nwith China, and in the selection and arrange-\\nment of those objects to perform the duty\\nwhich we owed to the country,\\nThis is easy to understand, and showed at\\nany rate a disposition, in fact a wish, for the\\nAnglo-Chinese alliance.\\nThe Treaty of Pekin was finally concluded\\nin i860, the terms of which were Toleration\\nof Christianity, a revised tariff, payment of\\nan indemnity, and resident ambassadors at\\nPekin.\\nWhatever might have been the policy of\\nPalmerston in the Chinese War, Russia took\\nit as indirectly pointed at herself.\\nGeneral Ignatieff 3 was sent to China\\n1 John Morley s The Life of Richard Cobden, vol,\\nii. p. 189.\\n2 In the year 1855 or 1856 his father s influence\\nsucceeded in procuring him a position in the suite of\\nGeneral Muravieff, who as Governor-general of Eastern", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0034.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 27\\nimmediately as Russian Plenipotentiary. It\\nis said that he furnished maps to the allies,\\nin fact did his very best to bring the negotia-\\ntions to a successful and peaceful close, and\\nimmediately after the signing of the agree-\\nment, he commenced overtures for his own\\ncountry, and succeeded in obtaining from\\nChina the cession of Eastern Siberia with\\nVladivostock and other seaports on the\\nPacific (1858).\\nLord Elgin asked Ignatieff why Russia\\nwas so anxious to obtain naval ports on\\nthe Pacific. He replied We do not\\nwant them for our own sake, but chiefly\\nin order that we may be in a position to\\ncompel the English to recognize that it is\\nSiberia, had undertaken a more accurate investigation of\\nthe Amoor territory, and was preparing for its coloniza-\\ntion. During this work, the French and English war\\nwith China broke out the allies occupied Pekin, and\\nseemed to threaten the existence of the Celestial Empire.\\nThis moment was taken advantage of by Russia, who had\\nalready been negotiating for some time with China,\\nrespecting the cession of a large territory south of the\\nAmoor. Ignatieff was sent to China as ambassador\\nextraordinary (F. E. Bunnett s Russian Society,\\np. 170),", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0035.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nworth their while to be friends with us rather\\nthan foes/\\nHere began the struggle between England\\nand Russia in the Pacific.\\nIn 1859 Russia obtained the Saghalien I\\nIsland, in the North Pacific, from Japan, in\\nexchange for the Kurile Island, while Eng-\\nland was bombarding 2 Kagoshima, a port\\nin South Japan (1862), but the English were\\nvirtually repelled from there.\\nPrevious to this period the English policy\\nin Asia was to establish a firm hold of Indian\\ncommerce with the South China Sea, for she\\ncould not find so large and profitable a field\\n1 The preciousness of Saghalien in the eye of the\\nRussians, however, does not lie so much in its coal\\nbeds, its promise of future harvests, its use as a penal\\ncolony, or its six hundred miles of length, but in its\\nsituation commanding the northern entrance to the sea\\nof Japan, and guarding, like a huge breakwater, the\\nmouth of the great river Amoor (John Geddie,\\nF.R.G.S., The Russian Empire, p. 484).\\n2 If war is made to enforce a commercial treaty, we\\nrun the risk of engaging in protracted hostilities, and of\\nearning a reputation for quarrelling with every nation in\\nthe East. The Japanese may well be jealous of\\nEuropeans, who insult their usages and carry away their\\ngold (Lord J. Russell to Mr. Alcock, Feb. 28, i860).", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0036.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 29\\nof commerce elsewhere. Therefore the Eng-\\nlish attention for the time being was entirely\\ndirected in that quarter.\\nIn 1 8 19 the island of Singapore, as well\\nas all the seas, straits, and islands lying\\nwithin ten miles of its coast, were ceded to\\nthe British by the Sultan of Johor. It then\\ncontained only a few hundred piratical fisher-\\nmen, but now it is on the great road of\\ncommerce between the eastern and western\\nportions of Maritime Asia, and is a most\\nimportant military and naval station.\\nHong-Kong, an island off the southern\\ncoast of China, was occupied by the English,\\nand in 1842 was formally handed over by\\nthe Treaty of Nankin. It has now become\\na great centre of trade, besides being a naval\\nand military station.\\nIn 1846 Labuan, the northern part of\\nBorneo, was ceded to Great Britain by the\\nSultan of Borneo, and owing to the influence\\nof Sir James Brooke a settlement was at\\nonce formed. Now it also, like Singapore,\\nforms an important commercial station, and\\ntransmits to both China and Europe the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0037.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "30 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nproduce of Borneo and the Malay Archi-\\npelago.\\nOwing to the opening of seaports in\\nNorthern China for foreign trade in 1842, the\\ngrowing Russian influence in the Northern\\nPacific and many other circumstances caused\\nEngland to perceive the necessity of having\\na naval depot and commercial harbour on\\nthe Tonof Hai and on the Yellow Sea.\\nEngland was doubtless casting her eyes\\nupon the Chusan Island or some other\\nisland in the Chusan Archipelago, but did\\nnot dare to occupy any one of them lest\\nshe should thereby offend the chief trading\\nnation of that quarter, viz., China.\\nHowever, in 1885 England annexed Port\\nHamilton, on the southern coast of the Corea,\\nduring the threatened breach with Russia on\\nthe Murghab question.\\nPort Hamilton, said the author of The\\nPresent Condition of European Politics, l\\nu was wisely occupied as a base from which,\\nwith or without a Chinese alliance, Russia\\n1 The Present Condition of European Politics,\\np. 175.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0038.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 31\\ncould be attacked on the Pacific. It is vital\\nto us that we should have a coaling station\\nand a base of operations within reach of\\nVladivostock and the Amoor at the begin-\\nning of a war, as a guard-house for the\\nprotection of our China trade and for the\\nprevention of a sudden descent upon our\\ncolonies ultimately as the head station for\\nour Canadian Pacific railroad trade and at\\nall times, and especially in the later stages\\nof the war, as an offensive station for our\\nmain attack on Russia.\\nPort Hamilton forms the gate of Tong\\nHai and the Yellow Sea it cannot, how-\\never, become a base of operations for an\\nattack on the Russian force at Vladivostock\\nand the Amoor unless an English alliance\\nis formed with Japan. The above writer\\nshows an ignorance of the importance of\\nthe situation of Japan in the Pacific ques-\\ntion. Japan holds the key of the North\\nChina Sea and Japan Sea in Tsushima. 1\\n1 Earl Russell, Nov. 22, 1861, echoed these condi-\\ntions (four conditions) and equivalent, and added a some-\\nwhat cunning addition The opening of the ports of\\nTsushima (in place of Osaka, the centre and trading", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0039.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nShe has fortified that island, and placed it\\nin direct communication with the naval\\nstation of Sasebo, also with the military-\\nforces of Kumamoto. She also can send\\ntroops and fleets from the Kure naval station\\nand the garrison of Hiroshima. She would\\nalso, if required, have other naval stations\\non the coast of the Japan Sea ready for any\\nemergency. In this manner she would be\\nable to keep out the British fleet from attack-\\ning Vladivostock and the Amoor through the\\nJapan Sea. Even if she might not be able\\nto do this single-handed she certainly could\\nby an alliance with Russia.\\nIf also Japan occupied Fusan, on the\\nsouth-eastern shore of the Corea, the Japan\\nSea would be rendered almost impregnable\\nfrom any southern attack.\\ncity of the Empire) and the neighbouring coast of Corea\\nas far as Japanese authority extends, to the trade of\\nthe treaty powers. It could only be the expectation\\nof some secret advantages that do not at first sight meet\\nthe eye that could have induced any one to propose the\\nport of Tsushima for that of Osaka Diplomacy in\\nJapan, p. 61). The Japanese wisely declined the\\nBritish offer.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0040.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 33\\nAgain, Port Hamilton would be useless\\nas a head station for the Canadian Pacific\\nRailway trade without an Anglo-Japanese alli-\\nance. If you look at the map, you can easily\\nappreciate the situation. Japan, with many\\nhundreds of small islands, lies between 24\\nand 5 2 in N. lat., its eastern shores facing\\nthe Pacific and cutting off a direct line from\\nVancouver s Island to Port Hamilton. It\\nmust therefore depend mainly upon Japan\\nas a financial and political success.\\nJapan is now divided into six military\\ndistricts, while the seas around\u00c2\u00abit are divided\\ninto five parts, each having its own chief\\nstation in contemplation. The Government\\nare now contemplating establishing a strong\\nnaval station at Mororan in Hokkukaido, for\\nthe defence of the district and also the shore\\nof the northern part of the mainland,\\nespecially of the Tsugaru Strait. The strait\\nof Shimonoseki also has been fortified and\\ngarrisoned on both sides, and has close\\ncommunication from the Kure naval station,\\nand with Hiroshima, and Osaka. Railway\\ncommunication has also made great strides", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0041.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "34 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nduring the last few years, and rapid transit\\nhas consequently greatly improved through-\\nout the empire.\\nIf the Kiushiu, the Loo Choo, and the\\nMiyako Islands are well looked after by the\\nJapanese fleet from the Sasebo naval station,\\nthen Japan would be able to sever the\\ncommunication between Vancouver s Islands\\nand Port Hamilton, and also between the\\nformer place and Hong Kong to a certain\\nextent. The San- Francisco- Hong- Kong\\nroute would be injured, and Shanghai- Port-\\nHamilton line would be threatened. With-\\nout doubt Japan is the Key of the Pacific.\\nReviewing the discussion, we find that\\nPort Hamilton is rather useless with regard\\nto the Japan Sea and the Canadian Pacific\\nrailway road without a Japanese alliance, but\\nit would be of immense importance in with-\\nstanding a Russian attack on the British\\ninterests from the Yellow Sea through\\nMongolia or Manchooria. It is also an\\nexcellent position for any offensive attack\\nupon China in case of war breaking out.\\nThe British occupation of Port Hamilton", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0042.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 35\\nwas very galling to the Chinese nation, in\\nfact, quite as disagreeable as the occupation of\\nMalta and Corsica was to Italy, and the\\nannexing of the Channel Islands and Heligo-\\nland to France and Germany. It has there-\\nfore somewhat shaken the Anglo-Chinese\\nalliance.\\nA Chinese alliance, however, is of far\\ngreater importance for English interests than\\nthe occupation of Port Hamilton. If relations\\nbecame strained a severe blow would be dealt\\nto English trade and commerce in that part.\\nThe main portion of the commercial trade of\\nChina is with the United Kingdom and her\\ncolonies for instance, in 1887, the imports of\\nChina from Great Britain, Hong Kong, and\\nIndia amounted to about 89,000,000 tael,\\nwhile the exports to the same countries were\\n48,000,000 tael. It is hardly possible to find\\ntwo countries more closely connected by trade\\nthan England and China. 1 The Hamilton\\n1 In 1887. Imports in Exports\\nvalue from in value to\\nGreat Britain 25,666,477 tael 16,482,809 tael.\\nHong Kong 57 7 6l \u00c2\u00b039 3 J ,393 l8 9", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0043.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "36 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nscheme was wisely abandoned in 1887, and\\nthe English Government obtained a written\\nguarantee from China against a Russian\\noccupation in future years.\\nViscount Cranbrook said in his reply to\\na question asked by Viscount Sidmouth\\nThat the papers to which he referred did\\ncontain a written statement, and a very long\\nwritten statement on the part of the Chinese\\nGovernment giving the guarantee in question.\\nIt was not a mere verbal statement by the\\nChinese Covernment, but a very deliberate\\nnote. It was found that the Chinese had\\nreceived from the Russian Government a\\nguarantee that Russia would not interfere\\nwith Corean territory in future if the British\\ndid not, and the Chinese Government were\\nnaturally in a position, on the faith of that\\nguarantee by the Russian Government, to\\nIn 1887. Imports in Enports\\nvalue from in value to\\nIndia 5.537,375 tael 797,579 tael.\\nContinent of Europe) n _ Q TT A\\n(without Russia) 2 5 8 7,54S ii i5 45,4o6\\nThe average value of the Haikwan tael during 1887\\nwas 4s. iojd. The Statesman s Year-book, 1889.)", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0044.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 37\\ngive a guarantee to the British Government.\\nThe Marquess of Salisbury, on the part of\\nher Majesty s Government, had accepted it\\nas a guarantee in writing from the Chinese\\nGovernment.\\nThis policy was undoubtedly an exceed-\\ningly wise and good one. By this England\\nnot only regained a firm and complete\\ncommercial alliance, but also maintained and\\nstrengthened a political alliance against\\nRussian attacks from the Corea and indirectly\\nfrom Manchooria and Mongolia.\\nEngland also saved money by the abandon-\\nment of the Port Hamilton scheme, and\\nsaved her fleet from being, to a certain\\ndegree, scattered in such a far-off quarter of\\nthe globe.\\nEngland now holds complete sway both\\ncommercially and navally in the Pacific.\\nLord Salisbury s policy is worthy of all\\npraise, together with Mr. Gladstone s original\\nscheme. If the scheme had never been\\noriginated there would not have been so\\nfirm an Anglo-Chinese alliance as there\\nnow is.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0045.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "3 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEngland s power at the present time is\\nthree times as great as that of Russia in the\\nPacific in fact Russia has always been over-\\nweighted in that respect. Therefore it is self-\\nevident she could never be able to withstand\\nthe combined Anglo-Chinese fleets.\\nIt seems to me that the only feasible plan\\nfor a Russian attack on Anglo-Chinese\\nalliance would be from Mongolia and\\nManchooria by means of an alliance with\\nthe Mongolian Tartars. This would be\\npreferable to coping with England face to\\nface in the Pacific.\\nChinese history plainly tells us that the\\nChinese could not withstand an attack of\\nthe brave Mongol Tartars from the north,\\nand that they have proved a constant source\\nof dread to them.\\nThe Great Wall which stretches across the\\nwhole northern limit of the Chinese Empire\\nfrom the sea to the farthest western corner\\nof the Province of Kansal, was built only\\nfor the defence of China against the northern\\ndaring Tartars.\\nGhenghis Khan (1194), the rival of Attila,", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0046.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 39\\nin the extent of his kingdom, who overran\\nthe greater part of China and subdued nearly\\nthe whole of N. Asia, who carried his arms\\ninto Persia and Delhi, drove the Indians on\\nto the Ganges, and also destroyed Astrakhan\\nand the power of the Ottoman, was a Mon-\\ngolian Tartar.\\nIn the thirteenth century Kokpitsuretsu\\ninvaded China from Mongolia and formed\\nthe Gen dynasty which ruled over the whole\\neastern part of Asia except Japan (1280 to\\n1368). The founder of the present Chinese\\ndynasty was a Manchoorian. Both, how-\\never, were of Mongolian extraction, and well\\nkept up the fame of the Tartars for boldness\\nand general daring. Since their times the\\nTartars have fully maintained their title of\\nbeing the most warlike tribe in Asia.\\nTherefore if Russia were allied with the\\nMongol Tartars she would be able at least\\nto reach the Yellow Sea, even if she were\\nnot able to do China serious harm.\\nHer best policy would be to extend the\\nOmsk-Tomsk Railway 1 to Kiakhta via Kansk\\n1 The Czar approved of the plan for completing the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0047.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "4 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand Irkutsk, and from there to Ust Strelka\\nand Blagovestchensk through Nertchinsk a\\nbranch also might be thrown off from Kiakhta\\nto Oorga, in the direction of Pekin, the\\nmetropolis of China two branches might\\nalso be constructed from Nertchinsk (a) to\\nIsitsikar, through the western boundary of\\nManchooria, with the ultimate object of\\nreaching- some convenient harbour on the\\nGulf of Leaotong, or the Yellow Sea, via\\nKirin 1 and Moukden (^)to L. Kulon through\\nthe northern boundary of Mongolia in the\\ndirection of Pekin and to construct a branch\\nline from Blagovestchensk to Isitsikar via\\nMerghen.\\nBy these means Russia would not only\\nopen sources of untold wealth in Siberia, but\\nalso secure a larger field of commerce in\\nManchooria and Mongolia than she has done\\nby the opening of the Trans-Caspian Railway.\\nSiberian Railway, and for its connection with the Trans-\\nCaucasian line, Jan., 1890 the works are to be com-\\nmenced by the 1st of May at the latest.\\n1 The Chinese Government gave its assent to the con-\\nstruction of a railway from Pekin to Kirin via Moukden\\nJan., 1890.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0048.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 41\\nIt is clear that there would be more political\\nand strategical advantages in this quarter\\nthan in Central Asia. Should Russia ever\\nbe able to get possession of a seaport in the\\nGulf of Leaotong or in the Yellow Sea, she\\nwould deal a heavy blow against the Anglo-\\nChinese alliance, and ultimately frustrate, to\\na great extent, British aspirations in the East.\\nRussia, however, has worked in quite a dif-\\nferent way, and is strengthening the defences\\nat Vladivostock both in military and naval\\nforces, and is acting towards the Corea in a\\ngradually-increasing aggressive spirit, which\\nhad succeeded in Europe and Central Asia\\npreviously for more than one hundred and\\nfifty years.\\nLord Derby well described the Russian\\ntactics in the following speech It has\\nnever been preceded by storm, but by sap\\nand mine. The first process has been in-\\nvariably that of fomenting discontent and\\ndissatisfaction amongst the subjects of sub-\\nordinate states, then proffering mediation,\\nthen offering assistance to the weaker party,\\nthen declaring the independence of that", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0049.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "42 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nparty, then placing that independence under\\nthe protection of Russia, and finally, from\\nprotection proceeding to the incorporation,\\none by one, of those states into the gigantic\\nbody of the Russian Empire.\\nBut Russia should remember that a Russian\\nannexation of Corea the Turkey in Asia\\nwould necessitate an alliance of England,\\nChina, and Japan, who all possess common\\ninterests in the Pacific and Yellow Sea also\\nthat it might cause a second Crimean war in\\nthe Pacific instead of on the Black Sea.\\nJapan was comparatively unknown until\\nCommodore Perry, of the United States,\\nintroduced her to European society in 1854.\\nSince that date a wonderful metamorphosis\\nhas taken place in every branch of civiliza-\\ntion.\\nThe total area of Japan is about 148,742\\nsquare miles, or nearly a quarter greater than\\nthat of the United Kingdom, while the popu-\\nlation is about 38,000,000. The climate is\\nvery healthy, while the natural resources are\\nmany.\\nJapanese patriotism is very keen, and their", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0050.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 43\\nlove of country stands before everything\\nthey are brave, honest, and open-minded.\\nThe following facts bear out the above state-\\nment In 1 28 1 the Armada of Mongol\\nTartars reached the Japanese shores, only to\\nbe easily repulsed in Kiushiu by the Japanese\\nfleet. Hideyoshi in the sixteenth century con-\\nquered the Corea, and General Saigo defeated\\nand subjugated eighteen of the resident\\nchiefs with all their followers in Formosa\\n(1873).\\nOne of the great traits in the Japanese\\ncharacter is that they never hesitate to adopt\\nnew systems and laws if they consider them\\nbeneficial for their country. Feudalism was\\nabolished in 187 1 without bloodshed. In\\n1879 city and prefectural assemblies were\\ncreated, based on the principle of the election.\\nThe new Constitution was promulgated in\\n1889, and new Houses of Peers and Commons\\nwill be opened this year (1890).\\nRailways are rapidly growing, over 1,000\\nmiles already having been laid, and soon the\\nwhole country will be opened out by the\\niron horse. All the principal towns are", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0051.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nconnected by telegraph l with one another\\nand with Europe. The postal system 2 is\\ncarried out on English lines, while the police\\nforce is strong and very efficient. The\\nstanding army consists of about forty-three\\nthousand men, which, however, could be\\nquickly increased to two hundred thousand\\nin case of war, all trained and equipped under\\nthe European system. The navy consists\\nof thirty-two ships, including several protected\\ncruisers, and in this or next year it will be\\nreinforced by three more ironclads and five.\\nor six gunboats. The Japanese navy is\\norganized chiefly upon the pattern of the\\nEnglish navy.\\nThe geographical situation and condition\\nof Japan are very favourable to her future\\nprosperity, both commercially and from a\\nmanufacturing point of view. Look at a\\n1 There are now more than sixteen million miles of\\nwire, and in 1887 the number of telegrams carried were\\nabout five millions The Statesman s Year-book, 1889).\\n2 The post office carried, in 1887, 54,313,385 letters,\\n55j33 2 )S73 P ost cards, 20,713,422 newspapers and books,\\n1 63,630 packets, 7,014,859 letters and newspapers free\\nof postage The Statesman s Year-book, 1889).", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0052.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0053.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "r: ji I\\nK..\\n-1 _\\nf 1 *tt\\nsfH r iff", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0054.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 47\\nmap of the world the country lies between\\ntwo of the largest commercial nations, viz.,\\nthe United States and China, the former I\\nbeing England s great commercial rival of\\nthe present day, while the latter offers a\\nlarge field for trade and commerce.\\nIf M. de Lesseps scheme of the Panama\\nCanal should happen to be completed on his\\nSuez Canal line, undoubtedly the Pacific\\nOcean would be revolutionized in every way.\\nUp to now the water-way from Europe to\\nthe Pacific has been from the West, viz., via\\nthe Suez Canal, or the Cape of Good Hope.\\nBut in case of the gate of the\\nPacific being open, then European goods\\ncould be transported in another direction,\\nand the nations in the Pacific would have\\ntwo sea routes. Japan would be placed\\npractically in the centre of three large\\nmarkets Europe, Asia, and America and\\nits commercial prosperity would be ensured.\\n1 The English world-empire has two gigantic neigh-\\nbours in the west and in the east. In the West she has\\nthe United States, and in the East Russia for a neighbour\\n(Prof. Seeley s Expansion of England, p. 288).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0055.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "4 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nIf, however, the Panama scheme failed from\\none cause or another there would be another\\nsea route.\\n1 Extracts from a pamphlet written in 1847 by His\\nImperial Majesty, Napoleon III.\\nThere are certain countries which, from their\\ngeographical 1 situation, are destined to a highly pros-\\nperous future. Wealth, power, every national advantage,\\nflows into them, provided that where Nature has done her\\nutmost, man does not neglect to avail himself of her\\nbeneficent assistance.\\nThose countries are in the most favourable conditions\\nwhich are situated on the high road of commerce, and\\nwhich offer to commerce the safest ports and harbours, as\\nwell as the most profitable interchange of commodities.\\nSuch countries, finding in the intercourse of foreign trade\\nillimitable resources, are enabled to take advantage of the\\nfertility of their soil and in this way a home trade\\nsprings up commensurate with the increase of mercantile\\ntraffic. It is by such means that Tyre and Carthage,\\nConstantinople, Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, Liverpool,\\nand London attained to such great prosperity, rising from\\nthe condition of poor hamlets to extensive and affluent\\ncommercial cities, and exhibiting to surrounding nations\\nthe astonishing spectacle of powerful states springing\\nsuddenly from unwholesome swamps and marshes.\\nVenice in particular was indebted for her overwhelming-\\ngrandeur to the geographical position which constituted\\nher for centuries the entrepot between Europe and the\\nEast and it was only when the discovery of the Cape of\\nGood Hope opened a ship passage to the latter that her\\nprosperity gradually declined. Notwithstanding, so great", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0056.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 49\\nIn 1887 the American Senate sanctioned\\nthe creation of a company for the construc-\\ntion of a maritime canal across Nicaragua, 1\\nwas her accumulation of wealth, and consequent com-\\nmercial influence, that she withstood for three centuries\\nthe formidable competition thus created.\\nThere exists another city famous in history, although\\nnow fallen from its pristine grandeur, so admirably\\nsituated as to excite the jealousy of all the great\\nEuropean Powers, who combine to maintain in it a\\ngovernment so far barbarous as to be incapable of\\ntaking advantage of the great resources bestowed upon\\nit by nature. The geographical position of Constantinople\\nis such as rendered her the queen of the ancient world.\\nOccupying, as she does, the central point between Europe,\\nAsia, and Africa, she could become the entrepot of the\\ncommerce of all these countries, and obtain over them\\nan immense preponderance for in politics, as in strategy,\\na central position always commands the circumference.\\nSituated between two seas, of which, like two great lakes,\\nshe commands the entrance, she could shut up in them,\\nsheltered from the assaults of all other nations, the most\\nformidable fleets, by which she could exercise dominion\\n1 The total length of the canal from sea to sea would\\nbe little short of 200 miles, viz., 15^ miles from the Pacific\\nto the lake, 56^ across the lake, and 119 to the Atlantic\\ntotal, 191 miles and the Lake of Nicaragua is navigable\\nfor ships of the largest class down to the mouth of the\\nriver San Juan (C. B. Pin s The Gate of the Pacific,\\n4", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0057.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "So JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand the actual work was begun in October,\\n1B89.\\nThe President of the country, which has a\\nin the Mediterranean as well as in the Black Sea, thereby\\ncommanding the entrance of the Danube, which opens\\nthe way to Germany, as well as the sources of the\\nEuphrates, which open the road to the Indies, dictating\\nher own terms to the commerce of Greece, France, Italy,\\nSpain, and Egypt. This is what the proud city of\\nConstantine could be, and this is what she is not,\\nbecause as Montesquieu says, God permitted that\\nTurks should exist on earth, a people the most fit to\\npossess uselessly a great empire.\\nThere exists in the New World a state as admirably\\nsituated as Constantinople, and we must say, up to the\\npresent time, as uselessly occupied we allude to the\\nstate of Nicaragua. As Constantinople is the centre of the\\nancient world, so is the town of Leon, or rather Massaya,\\nthe centre of the new and if the tongue of land which\\nseparates its two lakes from the Pacific Ocean were cut\\nthrough, she would command by her central position the\\nentire coast of North and South America. Like Con-\\nstantinople, Massaya is situated between two extensive\\nnatural harbours, capable of giving shelter to the largest\\nfleets, safe from attack. The state of Nicaragua can\\nbecome, better than Constantinople, the necessary route\\nfor the great commerce of the world, for it is for the\\nUnited States the shortest road to China and the East\\nIndies, and for England and the rest of Europe to New\\nHolland, Polynesia, and the whole of the western coast\\nof America. The state of Nicaragua is, then, destined to\\nattain to an extraordinary degree of prosperity and", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0058.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 51\\nsurplus of 57,000,000 dollars, alluding to the\\ncommencement of the Nicaragua Canal said\\nin his message to the Senate\\nThis Government is ready to promote\\ngrandeur for that which renders its political position\\nmore advantageous than that of Constantinople is, that\\nthe great maritime powers of Europe would witness with\\npleasure, and not with jealousy, its attainment of a station\\nno less favourable to its individual interests than to the\\ncommerce of the world.\\nFrance, England, Holland, Russia, and the United\\nStates, have a great commercial interest in the establish-\\nment of a communication between the two oceans j but\\nEngland has more than the other powers a political\\ninterest in the execution of this project. England\\nwill see with pleasure Central America become a\\nflourishing and powerful state, which will establish a\\nbalance of power by creating in Spanish America a new\\ncentre of active enterprise, powerful enough to give rise\\nto a great feeling of nationality and to prevent, by backing\\nMexico, any further encroachment from the north.\\nEngland will witness with satisfaction the opening of a\\nroute which will enable her to communicate more\\nspeedily with Oregon, China, and her possessions in New\\nHolland. She will rmd, in a word, that the advancement\\nof Central America will renovate the declining commerce\\nof Jamaica and the other English island in the Antilles,\\nthe progressive decay of which will be thereby stopped.\\nIt is a happy coincidence that the political and commercial\\nprosperity of the state of Nicaragua is closely connected\\nwith the policy of that nation which has the greatest pre-\\nponderance on the sea.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0059.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "5 2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nevery proper requirement for the adjustment\\nof all questions presenting obstacles to its\\ncompletion. It is therefore pretty sure,\\nsooner or later, to be completed, and would\\ntake the place of the Panama Canal and give\\nthe same advantages with regard to the\\nPacific and Japan.\\nIn the school of Carl Ritter, said\\nProfessor Seeley, much has been said of\\nthree stages of civilization determined by\\ngeographical conditions the potamic, which\\nclings to rivers the thalassic, which grows\\nup around inland seas and lastly, the\\noceanic. He also traced the movements\\nof the centre of commerce and intelligence\\nin Europe, and at last found out why\\nEngland had attained her present great-\\nness.\\nWithout doubt, since the discovery of a\\nnew world the whole world has become\\nthe oceanic.\\nBut the discoveries of Watt and Stephen-\\nson, seem to me to have added another stage\\nto general civilization, viz., the railway and\\n1 Prof. Seeley s Expansion of England, p. 87.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0060.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 53\\nit seems also to me that we mi^ht call the\\npresent era the railway-oceanic.\\nThe Canadian Pacific Railway scheme was\\ncompleted in 1887. It has a total length of\\nat least 3,000 miles, starting from Quebec and\\nfinishing at Vancouver s Island on the Pacific.\\nIts marvellous success will also considerably\\nchange the general tenor of the Pacific even\\nmore than the Panama or Nicaragua scheme\\nwill do. An express train can cross in five\\ndays, while the voyage from Vancouver to\\nYokohama in Japan, would only occupy\\ntwelve days steaming at the rate of fourteen\\nor fifteen knots an hour. From England\\nthe whole journey to Shanghai and Hong\\nKong by this route would take only thirty-\\nfour or thirty-five days, and Australia now\\nhas direct communication with the mother\\ncountry through a sister colony.\\nLast of all, Japan would have much better\\ncommunication with the European markets\\ngenerally than is possible at the present time,\\nif the English proposed l mail steamers\\n1 The negotiations with the Imperial Government for\\nthe establishment of a permanent line of first-class steam-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0061.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "5 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nshould run, and it is said that the Canadian\\nPacific route would bring Japan within\\ntwenty-six or twenty-seven days reach of\\nEngland.\\nOn the other hand, if the Russian Siberian\\nRailway scheme should be carried out to the\\nPacific at Vladivostock, it would open a very\\nlaree field of trade and commerce with inland\\nSiberia to Japan. It would be still more so\\nif the Chinese railways were extended so as\\nto open the entire empire. 1\\nJapan has not only a splendid future before\\nher with regard to commercial greatness, but\\nhas every chance of rising to the head of\\nmanufacturing nations. In the latter respect\\nshe has advantages over Vancouver s Island\\nand New South Wales, her rivals on the\\nPacific. She is known to possess valuable\\nships, suitable for service as armed cruisers in case of need,\\nresulted in an official notification that Her Majesty s\\nGovernment had decided to grant a subsidy of ^60,000\\nper annum for a monthly service between Vancouver\\nand Hong Kong, via Yokohama Canada, Statistical\\nAbstract and Record for the Year 1887, p. 306).\\n1 China is a storehouse of men and means its outer\\ndoor has scarcely yet been opened (R. E. Webster s\\nThe Trade of the World, p. 317).", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0062.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 55\\n-mineral resources, having good coal mines\\nat Kiushiu and Hokkukaido. The climate\\nof Japan varies in different localities, but on\\nthe whole is exceedingly healthy. Consist-\\ning as the country does of numerous islands\\nshe has many good harbours and trading\\nports. Wages are low though they might\\nrise if a corresponding increase of labour is\\nrequired. The credit system is fairly well\\ncarried out and is growing day by day.\\nThere are about four hundred banks, inclu-\\nding the Bank of Japan and the medium\\nof exchange has a regular standard. The\\nprincipal exports are silk, tea, coal, and rice.\\nJapan is not the producer of raw goods for\\nmanufacturing purposes, but simply works\\nthem up. Her area is not in comparison\\n1 Sir H. Parkes, late Minister of England in Japan, said\\nThe statement of the national liabilities this year (1878),\\nshows that Japan has kept faith with her foreign creditors,\\nthe interest on her foreign debt and the sum requisite for\\nthe payment of the amount of capital redeemed during\\nthe year having been duly provided. There is no reason\\nto doubt that care will be taken to ensure punctual pay-\\nment in future on this account until the entire extinction\\nof this debt in 1895. Japan has never failed to pay her\\nforeign debts.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0063.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "5 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nwith the commercial greatness which she\\nwill attain in the future. She may import\\nraw goods from America, Australia, and\\nthe Asiatic countries, in the same way that\\nEngland does. Her position enables her\\nalso to obtain wool from Australia and\\nCalifornia, also cotton from China, Man-\\nchooria, India, and Queensland. All these\\nimports are worked up into different\\nmanufacturing goods. She has an ad-\\nvantage here over England, for she has\\nnot so far to send her manufactured goods,\\nand does not need, like England, to send,\\nthem all round the world.\\nThus we see Japan has ample scope from\\na commercial point of view, and has plenty of\\nfriendly countries close at home for the pro-\\nduction of her raw material, and has great\\nadvantages in sea routes to America and\\nAustralia.\\nThe Japanese are born sailors, being\\nislanders.\\nThere are several large steamship\\ncompanies l whose ships are continually\\n1 There is also a Maritime Insurance Company.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0064.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 57\\nplying along her own shores I and also to\\nthe mainland of China, and one company\\ncontemplates shortly opening communication\\nwith North and South America. It has\\noften puzzled me why Japan does not hold\\ncloser relations with Australia, especially\\nas Australia is becoming one of her most\\nimportant neighbours in commerce. I can\\ncertainly predict that if this suggestion comes\\nto pass, that together they will in the future\\nhold the key of the Pacific trade.\\nAustralia and her near colonies have\\nalready begun to play an important part in\\nthe affairs of the Pacific and why should\\nshe not, considering their natural wealth and\\ngeneral progress European Powers have\\nbegun to take great interest, both commer-\\ncially and diplomatically, in these colonies.\\nEngland, France, Spain, and Holland long\\nago saw the advantage of having secured\\ncoaling stations in the Pacific, and England\\nand France have always taken great care in\\nselecting posts in the immediate vicinity of\\n1 Light-houses fifty-seven in number and some of\\nthem are very powerful.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0065.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthe sea route between America and Australia;\\nand since the working of the Canadian Pacific\\nRailway and the Panama Canal, they have\\nbegun to annex those islands which lie near\\nthe route from Panama to the Australian\\ncolonies, and from the latter to Vancouver.\\nThe French occupation of Tahiti and the\\nRapa (both containing good harbours) in\\n1880 was with the distinct object of con-\\ntrolling the sea route from Panama to\\nSydney, Brisbane, and Auckland. England\\nalso began to fortify Jamaica in 1887, and\\nshe is now casting her eyes on Raratonga.\\nThe dispute regarding the New Hebrides\\nand the Samoan Conference l were simply for\\nthe protection of the Vancou van- Australian\\nSan Franciscan sea-ways. England has\\nlately annexed the Ellice Islands and un-\\ndoubtedly will shortly occupy the Gilbert and\\nCharlotte Islands.\\n1 The Samoan Convention declared the Samoan\\nIslands to be neutral territory. The citizens and sub-\\njects of the signatory powers will enjoy equal rights and\\nthe independence of the islands is recognized with\\nMalietou as king: Jan., 1890.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0066.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 59\\nGermany also has been considering the\\nAsiatic-Australian routes, foreseeing that the\\nwhole Pacific question rests on that basis. In\\n1884 she annexed New Guinea, and the Bis-\\nmarckian policy proved a severe blow to the\\nBritish power in the North and West Pacific.\\nThere are three oreat sea r0 utes from New\\nSouth Wales to Hong Kong and other parts\\nof the North Pacific one travels eastward\\nof the Solomon Islands and New Caledonia\\n(6,000 miles) and the other two westward of\\nthe above-mentioned islands (5,500 and 5,000\\nmiles).\\nThe German occupation of New Guinea\\nactually resulted in her having the entire\\ncontrol of these three important sea routes.\\nThe English possession of the Treasury\\nIslands, the depot made there, and of the\\nLouisiade Archipelago is certainly not strong\\nenough to protect these routes, though they\\nare very important for the defence of the\\nAustralian colonies. Even the trade route\\nfrom Vancouver s Island to Brisbane has to\\na certain extent been endangered. It would\\nbe policy on England s part to annex the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0067.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "60 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nSolomon Islands if she means to regain the\\nprestige which she has lost owing to the\\nGermanic policy of annexation in the\\nPacific.\\nIn order to firmly establish her power in\\nthis quarter, Germany, in 1885, raised a\\nquarrel with Spain concerning the sovereignty\\nof the Caroline and Pelew Islands, but this\\nquarrel was composed by the mediation of\\nthe Pope.\\nFrederick the Great preferred regiments,\\nas a ship cost as much as a regiment.\\nBismarck preferred the Greater Germany,\\nand his policy was the German trade with\\nthe German flag (i.e., the German flag shall\\ngo where German trade has already estab-\\nlished a footing). This policy proved very\\nsuccessful, not only in the West Pacific, but\\nalso in the North Pacific and the eastern\\ncoast of Africa. Germany now is the chief\\ncolonizing rival of England.\\nIn 1883 Mr. Chester annexed all the parts\\nof New Guinea with the adjacent islands\\nlying between 141 deg. and 155 deg. of E.\\nlong. Lord Derby, however, annulled this", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0068.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 61\\nannexation, regarding it as an unfriendly act,\\nand he also assured the Colonial Government\\nthat Her Majesty s Government are con-\\nfident that no foreign power contemplates\\ninterference in New Guinea. This occurred\\nin May, 1884. But this prognostication did\\nnot prove true, for in November of the same\\nyear Germany occupied New Guinea.\\nThis caused much public indignation in\\nthe English colonies against the Home\\nGovernment, and the public of England\\nrecognized that the reasons and complaints\\nof the Australian Colonies were right and just.\\nThe movement of Imperial Federation\\nsprang up in England, the chief object of\\nwhich was a closer association between the\\nColonies and Great Britain and Ireland for\\ncommon national purposes such as colonial\\nand foreign policy, defence and trade. The\\nresult of this was the Colonial Conference in\\n1887 and Lord Salisbury, offering a hearty\\nwelcome to the Colonial delegates, said I\\ndo not recommend you to indulge in schemes\\nof Constitution making; but also said It\\nwill be the parent of a long progeniture,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0069.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand distant councils of the empire may, in\\nsome far-off time, look back to the meeting\\nin this room as the root from which their\\ngreatness and beneficence sprang.\\nThe following subjects were submitted for\\ndiscussion: (i) The local defence of ports\\nother -than Imperial coaling stations (2) the\\nnaval defence of the Australian Colonies.;\\n(3) measures of precaution in relation to\\nthe defences of colonial ports (4) various\\nquestions in connection with the military\\naspects of telegraph cables, their necessity\\nfor purpose of war, and their protection (5)\\nquestions relating to the employment and\\ntraining of local or native troops to serve as\\ngarrisons of works of defence and, lastly\\n(6), the promotion of commercial and social\\nrelations by the development of our postal\\nand telegraphic communication.\\nThus, by means of this Conference, the\\nmilitary federation of the British Empire\\nwas established. By its efforts the English\\nsquadron in the China Sea and in the Aus-\\ntralian seas are more closely connected\\ntogether than they have been before, and, if", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0070.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC, 63\\nneeded, the English forces in the North\\nPacific would be reinforced by Australian\\ntroops. We saw an instance of this in the\\nlate Egyptian campaign.\\nOne more question remains to be ven-\\ntilated, viz., whether England is able to\\nsecure absolute power in the North Pacific\\nwith the naval and military forces she has at\\nher command there, using Hong Kong as\\nthe centre of war preparations.\\nI answer in the negative. It could be\\nmaintained only by an occupier of the Island\\nof Formosa, the Malta of the North\\nPacific, which lies between the North China\\nSea and the South China Sea. Its area is\\nestimated at 14,978 square miles. It has a\\nhealthy climate, tempered by the influence of\\nthe sea and its mountains. Coal is to be\\nfound in considerable quantities, although not\\nof the best quality. Its natural products are\\nplentiful, such as sugar, tea, and rice. It\\npossesses several good harbours, one of\\nwhich, Tam-sui, or Howei, is surrounded by\\nhills upwards of 2,000 feet high, and has a\\ndepth of 3 j- fathoms with a bar of 7J feet.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0071.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nFrom this island, with a good navy, any\\npower almost might be exerted over the\\nNorth and South China Seas, and over the\\nPacific highways from Hong Kong to\\nAustralia, Panama, Nicaragua, San Francisco,\\nVancouver, Japan, Shanghai. All these are\\nin fairly close proximity to Formosa, and the\\nShanghai route to Hong Kong actually runs\\nbetween the island and the China mainland.\\nThere remain still two or three more facts\\nwhich must not be neglected in order to\\nobtain a fair view of this important question.\\n(a) It is a fine post for any offensive\\nattack upon China, and also a stronghold for\\nan attack upon the British power in the\\nPacific. If fortified and defended by a navy\\nfrom any other power, Formosa would prove\\na great rival to Hong Kong, which would\\nlose at least half of its importance, commer-\\ncially and strategically, and which has already\\nbeen somewhat weakened by the French\\noccupation of Cochin China, in 1882. l\\n1 The whole history of the French in the East is\\nindissolubly bound up with the history of their efforts to\\ndestroy our Eastern supremacy. Mauritius was occupied", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0072.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 65\\n(6) In case of Asiatic complications, Eng-\\nland would naturally expect reinforcements\\nfrom Australia, and from the mother country\\nby the Canadian Pacific Railway, but after\\nthey arrive at Vancouver, and are on\\ntransport, they will be at the mercy either of\\nJapan or the occupier, whoever it may be, of\\nFormosa. Even the Bismarckian policy re\\nNew Guinea would be broken down, i.e., all\\ncommercial and strategical communication\\nbetween Hong Kong and Australia would be\\nseriously incommoded by the occupation of\\nFormosa.\\n(c) If China herself occupied Formosa\\nthoroughly, 1 and allied with Japan who\\nto enable French cruisers to prey on our East Indiamen.\\nLouis XIV. volunteered armed aid to Annam in order\\nto cut off Calcutta from Canton. A French occupation\\nof Tonkin is a serious matter. French cruisers supplied\\nwith coal from the mines of Tonkin would lie in the fair-\\nway of our China trade, Burmah and Calcutta would\\nbe effectually blockaded, and our outlying Oriental\\npossessions grievously threatened (C. B. Norman s\\nTonkin and France in the Far East\\n1 The inhabitants of the eastern region refuse to\\nrecognize the Chinese authority. China cannot control\\nthe people of Formosa at all. There is a proverb,\\nEvery three years an outbreak, every five a rebellion.\\n5", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0073.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "66 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\noccupies the Loo-Choo Islands, they would\\nbe impregnable in the sea above 20 of\\nN.lat.\\nAgain, if the occupier of the Loo Choo\\nIslands T also occupied Formosa on a military\\nbasis, she again would have nearly absolute\\ncontrol of the North Pacific. England would\\nbe supreme if she held both Hong Kong and\\nFormosa; Germany if the holder would not\\nonly complete the Bismarckian policy in New\\nGuinea, but would start a new Germanic\\npolicy in the North Pacific.\\nThus we see that Japan, China, England,\\nand Germany, might become important actors\\nin the China Sea, while Russia and China\\nwould be actors behind the scenes in Man-\\nchooria and Mongolia.\\nThe whole result of a historical study of\\nthe foreign policy of England and Russia tells\\nus that Russia has increased her influence by\\n1 In 1873 a Japanese vessel was wrecked on the\\neastern coast of Formosa and the crew massacred by the\\nsavages. The Japanese Government sent an expedition\\nwhich was perfectly successful. Eighteen of the tribes in\\nFormosa were defeated and subjugated.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0074.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "TAP AN AND THE PACIFIC. 67\\nannexing and conquering in every direction\\nof the compass with Moscow as the centre\\nof the Empire. Peter the Great started in\\nthe direction of the Baltic, i.e., north-west\\nCatherine II. towards the Crimea and Poland\\nin a south and westerly direction Alexander\\nI. confined his attention to the Balkans and\\nCaucasus, while Nicholas improved on the\\nsame directions, and marched into Central\\nAsia, and since 1858 the Russian attention\\nhas been turned on the East, i.e., the Pacific.\\nEngland, on the other hand, has added to\\nher fame by establishing the following naval\\nand coaling stations along the great highways\\nof trade:\\nHeligoland in the North Sea, the Channel\\nIslands, Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, Perim,\\nAden, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong and\\nLabuan the Accession Islands, St. Helena,\\n1 The Russian frontier has been advanced toward\\nBerlin, Dresden, Munich, Vienna, and Paris\\nabout 700 miles\\nTowards Constantinople 500\\nStockholm 630\\nTeheran 1000\\nPeshawar 1300", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0075.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "68 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand the Cape of Good Hope, in Africa;\\nthe Bermuda Islands, Halifax, the West\\nIndies, especially Jamaica, and the Falkland\\nIslands in America, besides many important\\nislands in the South and West Pacific.\\nBy means of these, in the present days of\\nsteam, she has been able to maintain her\\nplace as the Queen of the Maritime World a\\nposition superior to Russia, although the\\nlatter country is lord of one-seventh of the\\nglobe.\\nWith such great rivals, we can surely\\npredict that at some future time Russia will\\nwork her way into Manchooria and Mongolia\\nto the Yellow Sea and attack the North\\nPacific. Everything is obtained by pains,\\nsaid Peter the Great, in 1722; even India\\nwas not easily found after the long journey\\nround the Cape of Good Hope. z To\\nthis Soimonf, who afterwards devoted\\nhimself for seventeen years to the explora-\\ntion of Siberia, and was its governor, said\\nthat Russia had a much nearer road to\\nIndia, and explained the water system of\\n1 E. Schuyler s Peter the Great, vol. ii. p. 592.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0076.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC. 69\\nSiberia, how easily and with how little land\\ncarriage goods could be sent from Russia\\nto the Pacific and then by ships to India.\\nPeter replied, It is a long distance and of\\nno use yet awhile. But in the present days\\nof telegraphy and railroads it is not a great\\ndistance at all.\\nEngland will without doubt occupy Formosa\\nin order to uphold her power in the same\\nquarter. The result it would be almost\\nimpossible to foretell. But this fact remains\\na certainty that will one day come to pass,\\nthat England and Russia will at some future\\nperiod fight for supremacy in the North\\nPacific. Japan lies between the future\\ncombatants", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0077.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0078.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "PART II.\\nTHE EASTERN QUESTION.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0079.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0080.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "I.\\nFOREIGN POLICY OF ENGLAND DURING THE\\nSIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH\\nCENTURIES.\\nThe Spanish Empire, its power, and its decline Com-\\nmercial rivalry of England and Holland The ascen-\\ndency of France threatened by the Grand Alliance\\nThe Spanish succession and the Bourbon league\\nEngland s connection with the war of the Austrian\\nsuccession The Seven Years War Revival of the\\nAnglo-Bourbon struggle in the American and Napo-\\nleonic wars.\\nCharles V. of Spain in the height of his\\npower reigned over almost the whole of\\nWestern Europe. Besides being King of\\nSpain he was Archduke of Austria, Duke\\nof Burgundy, and Lord of Spanish-America.\\nThe Emperor, said Sir William Cecil, is\\naiming at the sovereignty of Europe which\\ncannot be obtained without the suppression", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0081.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "74 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nof the reformed religion, and unless he crushes\\nthe English nation he cannot crush the\\nReformation. Perceiving this important\\nfact, Charles directed his attention to Eng-\\nland, and offered the hand of his son Philip\\nto Mary of England who was anxious to\\nbring back the Catholic Faith into England.\\nTheir marriage took place in 1554, and\\nproved a great help towards re-establishing\\nthe Papal supremacy in England, besides\\nmaking Spain and England strong political\\nallies.\\nCharles V. abdicated in 1555 and spent the\\nrest of his life in seclusion at San Yusti, and\\nthe great part of his dominions, viz., the\\nColonies, Italy, and the Netherlands descended\\nto his son, Philip II., who was by his marriage\\nwith Mary nominal King of England.\\nOn the childless death of Mary the English\\ncrown descended to Elizabeth in 1558. Philip\\nthereupon offered marriage to her, but the\\nvirgin queen wisely declined. England was\\nby this refusal emancipated from Papal\\ninterference and the tyrannies of Philip,\\nand Elizabeth resolved to carry out her", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0082.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 75\\nreligious and political views independently.\\nHer doctrinal 1 reform and foreign policy\\nnaturally made Spain her bitter enemy.\\nIn the Netherlands Philip s general conduct\\nraised the inhabitants to revolt, and under the\\nleadership of the Prince of Orange they soon\\nobtained a strong position, and eventually, in\\n1648, after a long and protracted struggle,\\ntheir independence was recognized.\\nThus the two great sea powers of Philip s\\nage were both common enemies against the\\narrogance of Spain and were consequently\\nunited.\\nIn France a similar religious struggle, fierce\\nand bitter, was raging. Civil war was rampant\\nand atrocities numerous, the massacre on St.\\nBartholomew s Day being a notable example.\\nIn 1585 the Catholic party formed the\\nLeague, whose main objects were the\\nannihilation of the reformed party, and the\\n1 The separation of the Church of England from\\nthat of Rome, formally accomplished under Henry VIII.,.\\nwas a political and legal rather than a religious reforma-\\ntion. The doctrinal changes followed under Edward VI.\\nand Elizabeth (Taswell-Langmead s English Consti-\\ntutional History, p. 399).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0083.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "76 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nelevation of the Guises to the French throne\\nthrough an alliance with Philip II. of Spain.\\nIts manifesto stated that French subjects\\nwere not bound to recognize a prince who\\nwas not a Catholic. The death of Henri III.\\nmade the situation worse, for two candidates\\nfor the French throne appeared, Henry of\\nNavarre, who was supported by the Huguenots\\nand the Cardinal of Bourbon, whom the\\nLeaguers followed, while Philip II. laid claim\\nto the throne on behalf of his daughter by\\nhis third marriage with Elizabeth of Valois,\\nsister of Henri III. Hence, after the acces-\\nsion of the House of Bourbon, a coalition of\\nEngland, Holland, and France was formed\\nagainst Philip II. of Spain, and from 1600\\nto 1660 the European coalition was England,\\nHolland, and France, versus the Spanish\\nEmpire.\\nIn the meantime Spain had acquired\\nPortugal in 1580, by which both countries\\nbecame one state, and Philip II. sovereign of\\nthe whole oceanic world. Portugal for sixty\\nyears remained a dependency of Spain, and\\nthen the Spanish Empire had attained to vast", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0084.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. yj\\nand unwieldy dimensions. She could no\\nlonger defend her colonies from foreign inva-\\nsion and plunder. The Dutch established\\nthemselves wherever they pleased, and\\nplundered and occupied most of the\\nPortuguese possessions. It has been truly\\nsaid that the Colonial Empire of Holland\\nwas founded at the expense first of Portugal,\\nand ultimately of Spain. 1\\nEngland at this time was rapidly rising\\ninto the front rank of European nations. In\\n1588 the Invincible Armada appeared in\\nthe English Channel and was annihilated\\nand disgraced. This was the introduction\\nto that English colonial greatness on which\\nthe sun never sets.\\n1 In the sixteenth century all Europe was aghast at\\nthe designs of Philip II. of Spain. He had the great mines\\nof the New World, or at least levied a heavy tax on their\\nproduce. He seemed to be possessed of inexhaustible\\nriches. He was baffled, beaten, made bankrupt by the\\nDutch, in whose country there was not an ounce of\\nnatural gold or silver, who got all their money by trade,\\nwere rapidly becoming the richest nation of Europe when\\nPhilip had ruined Spain and brought down the Genoese\\ntraders, on his declaring himself bankrupt (J. E.\\nThorold Rogers s, The Economic Interpretation of\\nHistory, p. 95).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0085.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "7 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nThen came the beginning of the fall of the\\nSpanish Empire. In 1640 Cardinal Richelieu,\\nthe ablest French statesman, provoked Portugal\\nto rebel, his object being the aggrandizement\\nof his own country abroad. The revolt proved\\nsuccessful under John of Braganza, and again\\nPortugal posed as a nation. This proved a\\ndeadly blow to Spanish power, and Cromwell\\nfinally crushed her power by his invincible\\nforeign policy. He seized Jamaica while\\nCharles II. acquired Bombay.\\nThis gradual decay of Spain had a\\ncorresponding inspiriting effect on England\\nand Holland. Both became commercial and\\ncolonial rivals one with another. Ashley\\nCooper said, Holland is our great rival in\\nthe ocean and in the New World. Let us\\ndestroy her though she be a Protestant\\nPower let us destroy her with the help of\\na Catholic Power. I\\n1 Till this time our merchants were struggling to gain\\na footing and open up trade between England and\\ndifferent quarters of the globe, and endeavouring to prove\\nthat the encouragement of trade was for the royal honour\\nand benefit and their interests coincided with the\\nnational ambition of out- doing the Dutch, who would", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0086.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 79\\nThe great naval victories of England and\\nthe Navigation Acts, 165 1, 1663, and 1672, r\\ncrushed the Dutch carrying trade and navy,\\nand England now began to assume the\\nsupremacy of the whole oceanic world which\\nhas from that time never departed from her.\\nHowever, France gradually filled the breach\\nleft by Holland and Spain, and became a great\\nnaval rival of England. The strength of all\\nthe nations round her had been considerably\\nweakened by the Thirty Years War, while\\nher commercial and manufacturing progress\\nsoon made her one of the strongest European\\nPowers.\\nFrom 1660 to 1672 may be regarded as the\\nnot acknowledge our sovereignty on the sea, and of thus\\nattaining a mercantile supremacy throughout the world\\n(Dr. Cunningham s Growth of English Industry and\\nCommerce, p. 325).\\n1 (1) 165 1. That the importation of goods into\\nEngland, except in English ships, or in the ships of the\\nnation producing the goods, was forbidden.\\n(2) 1663. That the colonies should receive no\\ngoods whatsoever by foreign vessels.\\n(3) 1672. That all the principal articles of com-\\nmerce should be prohibited from being imported into\\nEngland unless by English ships manned by a crew of\\nwhom at least three-quarters were English subjects.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0087.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "8o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nperiod of the great national rise of France.\\nLouis XIV. laid claim to Belgium and\\nBurgundy in 1665 on the death of Philip IV.\\nof Spain, and in order to enforce his claim his\\narmy entered Flanders and Burgundy, but\\nowing to the pressure of the Triple Alliance l\\nthe unfavourable Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle\\nwas concluded.\\nHowever, later on Louis broke the Triple\\nAlliance and secured the valuable assistance\\nof England and Spain, and with the assistance\\nof the former nation he made a concerted\\nattack upon Holland. France had now\\nreached the topmost rung of the ladder\\nbetween 1678 and 1688.\\nAbout this period the struggle against\\nabsolute monarchy was nearly concluded in\\nEngland, and was further strengthened in\\n1689 by the Declaration of Rights. The\\nEnglish crown was offered to William of\\nOrange and Mary and accepted by them.\\nAlready this personal union had caused an\\nalliance to be formed between England and\\nHolland, at that time the two great Protestant\\n1 England, Holland, and Sweden.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0088.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 81\\nPowers of Europe, against France the great\\nRoman Catholic upholder.\\nIf France had remained quiet during the\\nabove-mentioned internal discord, England\\nwould have been unable to form the Grand\\nAlliance. Thus Louis committed a great\\nerror in assuming an offensive attitude\\nagainst the two Protestant Powers. This\\ncaused a coalition to be formed against him\\nof England, Holland, Spain, and Austria.\\nThis new system in Europe existed from\\n1688 to 1 700. Then new complications arose,\\nfor Charles II., King of Spain, died childless,\\nand the extinction of the Spanish House of\\nHapsburg seemed to be near at hand. The\\nquestion of a Spanish successor now occupied\\nthe minds of the European cabinets after the\\nPeace of Ryswick.\\nThere were three claimants Louis XIV.,\\nLeopold L, and the Electoral Prince of\\nBavaria. The dominions of the Spanish\\nsovereign were still extensive, viz., Spain\\nitself, the Milan territory, Italy, the Nether-\\nlands, and Spanish-America. To unite the\\nSpanish monarchy with that of France or\\n6", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0089.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nAustria, would destroy the European balance\\nof power. Consequently a general council\\nwith regard to the succession took place, and\\nthe First Partition Treaty was drawn up.\\nCharles II. of Spain, however, made a will,\\nappointing Louis grandson, Philip of Anjou,\\nas his successor, so Louis XIV. determined\\nto uphold the will rather than the treaty.\\nIn 1 701 the Duke of Anjou was peacefully\\nproclaimed king as Philip V. Louis XIV.\\non hearing this boasted that II n y a plus\\nde Pyrenees. This Bourbon succession in\\nSpain changed the European system, and\\nhenceforth we have England, Holland, and\\nAustria, as opposed to France and Spain.\\nThe Duke of Marlborough, who combined\\nthe qualities of a general, diplomatist, and\\nminister skilfullv together, was the leader of\\nthe Second Grand Alliance against the\\nHouses of Bourbon.\\nThe inability of France to defend the\\nSpanish Empire, followed by the War of the\\nSpanish Succession, paved the way for the\\nPeace of Utrecht (1 713). By this treaty the\\nBourbons lost Italy and the Low Countries, but", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0090.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. S3\\nretained the throne of Spain, thus still leaving\\nthat country open to the influence of France.\\nHence the permanent alliance of France\\nand Spain was formed in the eighteenth\\ncentury.\\nMeanwhile Holland had fallen into decay\\nthrough internal exhaustion caused by her\\nstruggle against foreign enemies thus\\nEngland had taken her place as the great\\nmaritime and colonial power. Thus we see\\nthe struggle between England and France\\n(supported by Spain) for the oceanic world\\nin the eighteenth century.\\nBy the Utrecht Treaty, France ceded\\nto England Newfoundland, Arcadia, and\\nHudson s Bay territory, while Spain also\\nceded Gibraltar, the Minorca Island, and\\nthe Asiento, the occupation of the two former\\nmaking another bitter enemy to England.\\nSpain had already a hatred of English\\ntrade with her colonies in America, so that\\nonly a single English ship was conceded by\\nthe Treaty of Utrecht, giving thereby only a\\nlimited right of trade in South America to\\nEngland. But this was evaded by a vast", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0091.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nsystem of smuggling which arose and proved\\na constant source of dispute between England\\nand Spanish revenue officers and rendered\\npeace almost impossible.\\nIn 1 733 the first secret parte de famille\\nhad been concluded between France and\\nSpain for the ruin of English maritime trade.\\nThe American coast was keenly watched, and\\nthe result was The Jenkins Ear War, 1739.\\nCharles VI., having no son, established an\\norder of succession by the Pragmatic Sanc-\\ntion, signed by nearly all the European\\nPowers, by which his daughter, Maria Theresa,\\nwas to succeed to all the hereditary dominions\\nof Hapsburg. But on his death two\\nclaimants appeared on the scene the Elector\\nof Bavaria and Philip V. of Spain.\\nWalpole did his best to form a Grand\\nAlliance between Hanover and Prussia, also\\nbetween England, Holland, and Austria\\nHowever, Frederick s claim to. Silesia being\\nrefused by Austria, the French and Prussian\\narmies crossed the Rhine, 1741. Thus\\nFrance began the War of the Austrian Suc-\\ncession. In 1743 the Battle of Dettingen", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0092.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 85\\nwas fought between England and France, the\\nformer fighting on behalf of Maria Theresa,\\nand as yet feeling her way carefully before\\nshe was brought into direct conflict with the\\nlatter Power.\\nAfter the Treaty of Worms the question\\nat issue was changed to that of naval\\nsupremacy, and the War of the Austrian\\nSuccession fell into the background.\\nIn 1744, after an attempted invasion of\\nEngland on behalf of the Pretender, France\\ndeclared war against both England and\\nAustria. This was bad policy, for if she\\nhad fought against one enemy at a\\ntime she would have stood a far better\\nchance of crushing England s power. Pro-\\nfessor Seeley says, Tf we compare together\\nthose seven wars between 1688 and 181 5, we\\nshall be struck with the fact that most of\\nthem were double wars, and that there is one\\naspect between France and England, another\\nbetween France and Germany. It is\\nFrance, says he, that suffers by it. l\\nEngland and Holland firmly allied with\\n1 Prof. Seeley s Expansion of England, p. 95.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0093.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "86 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\none another, and German troops were\\nsubsidized by England.\\nAgainst this alliance the second secret\\nparte defamille was founded.\\nBattles were fought on all sides, by land\\nand sea, both in Europe and America. In\\nspite of French successes at Fontenoy and\\nLaufeldt, she was severely defeated both on\\nthe sea and in America. Louisburg fell, Cape\\nBreton Island was captured, and many other\\nlosses sustained. At length the Treaty of\\nAix-la-Chapelle brought a nominal peace into\\nthe oceanic world, in 1748.\\nIn 1756 this nominal peace came to an\\nend, and the Seven Years War 1 was fought\\nout, both in the Old and New Worlds; Pitt\\n1 There was between England and France during the\\nSeven Years War the most disastrous struggle in which\\nFrance was ever engaged. For all the wars in Europe,\\nfrom the Peace of Utrecht to the outbreak of the great\\nContinental War, were waged on behalf of monopolies of\\ncommerce, or, to be more accurate, monopolies of market,\\nfor success meant the exclusion of the beaten nation\\nfrom the markets now secured by the victorious rival.\\nAt the end of the Seven Years War France was stripped\\nof nearly every colony she possessed. At the beginning\\nof it she was the rival of England in North America and", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0094.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 87\\nthe elder then appeared as a great actor on\\nEngland s side, and used his great talents to\\ncrush down the French Colonial Empire, and\\nto obtain for his country the sole mastery of\\nthe oceanic world.\\nHe was essentially a war Minister The\\nwar was vigorously carried on throughout\\n1758 in every part of the globe where\\nFrench could be found, and in 1759 Pitt s\\nenergy and his tact in choosing men every-\\nwhere were rewarded by the extraordinary\\nsuccess by land and sea. l\\nThe glorious death of Wolfe on the\\nHeights of Abraham was followed by the\\nsurrender of Montreal and the brilliant\\nvictory of Plassey in India by Clive over\\nthe French. Pitt assured his countrymen\\nthat they should not be losers (in giving\\npecuniary assistance to Frederick the Great)\\nand that he would conquer America for them\\nin Germany.\\nin India. At the end of it she had scarce a foothold in\\neither (J. E. Thorold Rogers, The Economic Inter-\\npretation of History, p. no),\\n1 Macaulay s famous Essay on the Earl of Chatham.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0095.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nThis proved true. In 1762 the fall of\\nthe French Colonial Empire occurred, and\\nEngland obtained Canada and India.\\nThis wonderful statesman 1 undoubtedly\\nmade England the first country in the world.\\nThree Wars of Revenge.\\nA height of prosperity and glory unknown\\nto any former age, 2 was reached in England\\nduring the administration of Chatham. Now\\nthe tide of fortune began to run against\\nEngland.\\nThe passing of the famous Stamp Act, and\\nmany other repeated injuries and usurpa-\\ntions/ 3 made the relations between England\\n1 His (the elder Pitt) greatness is throughout\\nidentified with the Expansion of England he is a states-\\nman of Greater Britain. It is in the buccaneering war\\nwith Spain that he sows his political wild oats his glory\\nis won in the great colonial duel with France his old\\nage is spent in striving to avert schism in Greater\\nBritain (Prof. Seeley s Expansion of England,\\np. 144).\\n2 The epitaph on Chatham s monument in West-\\nminster Abbey.\\n3 The declaration of American Independence.", "height": "3565", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0096.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 89\\nand the American Colonies virtually hostile.\\nAt last the Colonies revolted, and it gave\\nSpain and France the long-wished -for op-\\nportunity of taking revenge upon England.\\nFrance and Spain formed the third pacte\\nde fami lie, and assisted the insurgent\\nColonies, and the independence of the United\\nStates was acknowledged in 1783.\\nIn 1789 the French Revolution broke out,\\nand the first effect felt in England was the\\nbreaking-up of the Whig party.\\nIn 1792 Austria and Prussia invaded\\nFrance in order to put down the Republicans\\nin that country. In retaliation France\\ndetermined to declare war against all\\ncountries governed by kings, which principle\\nshe established by the Decree of November\\n19th, and in 1793 she declared war against\\nEngland and Holland.\\nThe younger Pitt had now come to the\\nfront. He was an economist and advocated\\na peace policy. In the spring of 1792 he\\nreduced the navy and confidently looked\\nforward to at least fifteen years of peace.\\nThere is no doubt that if France had", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0097.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "9 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nremained quiet his hopes would have proved\\ncorrect, and that the west bank of the\\nRhine would now be under French rule.\\nBut France was eager to revenge past\\ninjuries put upon her by England and, as if\\nin answer to her desires, the second Alex-\\nander the Great appeared in Napoleon, and\\nbegan alarming the Old World with his\\ndazzling schemes of aggrandizement.\\nAgainst England his whole energies were\\ndirected. Let us be masters, said he, of\\nthe Channel for six hours and we are\\nmasters of the world. In 1798, he\\ncaptured Malta, occupied Egypt, and under-\\ntook a campaign in Syria, as a furtherance to\\nhis desires of obtaining India, at the same\\ntime retaining his ideas with regard to\\n1 As in the American War, France avenges on\\nEngland her expulsion from the New World, so under\\nNapoleon she makes Titanic efforts to recover her lost\\nplace there. This, indeed, is Napoleon s fixed view with\\nregard to England. He sees in England never the\\nisland, the European state, but always the world Empire,\\nthe network of dependencies and colonies and islands\\ncovering every sea, among which he was himself\\ndestined to find his prison and his grave (Seeley s\\nExpansion of England, p. 33).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0098.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 91\\nEngland. Malta to Egypt, Egypt to India,\\nIndia to England.\\nIn 1802 a momentary universal peace\\noccurred. But Napoleon could not rest, his\\nambition spurred him on. His .anger was\\nagain kindled by the English retention of\\nMalta, after his defeat in Egypt, and he saw\\nif Malta was wrested from him his lofty\\nschemes would be undermined. In 1803 he\\nagain declared war against England and\\nHolland. He arrested all the English\\nresidents in France between the a^es of\\nsixteen and sixty and kept them confined.\\nThe younger Pitt was just the statesman fit\\nto cope with him, and frustrate his aims. He\\naimed at a European coalition, 1 by which all\\nthreatening dangers from the overwhelming\\ngreatness of one nation might be averted.\\n1 The first coalition of England, Prussia, Holland, and\\nSweden, was for the purpose of keeping the European\\nPeace.\\nThe second coalition (1 799-1 801), composed of\\nRussia, England, Austria, Portugal, Naples, and the\\nOttoman Empire.\\nThe third coalition (1805), composed of England^\\nRussia, Austria, and Sweden.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0099.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "92 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nOn October 21, 1805, the glorious victory\\nat Trafalgar, the outcome and consummation\\nof Nelson s inspiring command, England\\nexpects every man to do his duty, broke the\\nnaval power of France. And yet this was\\nfollowed by the capitulation of Ulm, the\\ndefeat at Austerlitz, and the subsequent\\nTreaty of Presburg, which broke up the\\ncoalition of England, Russia, and Austria,\\nand seriously affected Pitt s health thereby.\\nTruly, Austerlitz killed Pitt.\\nAt once Napoleon proceeded to turn the\\nwhole forces he had on the Continent against\\nEngland, especially after the Peace of Tilsit,\\n(1807). He first attacked England with the\\nContinental System, i.e., he prohibited all\\ndirect and indirect European trade with the\\n1 Though he was still but forty-seven, the hollow\\nvoice and wasted frame of the great Minister had long\\ntold that death was near, and the blow to his hopes\\nproved fatal. Roll up that map, he said, pointing to\\nthe map of Europe, it will not be wanted these ten\\nyears. Once only he rallied from stupor; and those\\nwho bent over him caught a faint murmur of My\\ncountry How I leave my country (Green s Short\\nHistory of English People, p. 799).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0100.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 93\\nBritish Isles. This he confirmed by the\\nDecrees of Berlin (1806) and Milan (1807).\\nIn 181 2 he invaded Russia and entered\\nthe famous city with the cry of Moscow\\nMoscow Even at that moment, however,\\nhis real aim of attack was England, across\\nthe Channel.\\nEngland was ever uppermost in his\\nthoughts. He conquers Germany, but\\nwhy Because Austria and Russia, subsi-\\ndized by England, march against him while\\nhe is brooding at Boulogne over the conquest\\nof England. When Prussia was conquered,\\nwhat was his first thought That now he\\nhas a new weapon against England, since he\\ncan impose the Continental System upon all\\nEurope. Why does he occupy Spain and\\nPortugal It is because they are maritime\\ncountries, with fleets and colonies that may be\\nused against England.\\nNapoleon was driven out of Moscow by\\nfire, and his return march turned literally into\\na defeat, while his plan of a direct attack in\\n1 Prof. Seeley s Expansion of England, p. 105.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0101.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEngland, through Belgium, three years after,\\nwas frustrated at Waterloo.\\nThus the scene of the great Napoleonic\\ndrama in English history closed on June\\n1 8, 1815. J", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0102.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "II.\\nFOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA DURING THE\\nREIGNS OF PETER THE GREAT, CATHERINE\\nPeter the Great, and establishment of Russian power on\\nthe Baltic Consequent collision with the Northern\\nStates and the Maritime Powers Catherine II. and\\nPoland First partition Russia reaches the Black\\nSea Russo-Austrian alliance against Turkey opposed\\nby Pitt Second and third partitions of Poland Rise\\nof Prussia Alexander I. and the conquest of Turkey\\nTreaty of Tilsit Peace of Bucharest Congress of\\nVienna French influence in the East destroyed.\\nPeter the Great (16S9-1725).\\nThe Russian territory now extends over one-\\nseventh of the globe, and Alexander III.\\nrules over more than 100,000,000 souls.\\nRussia is a powerful political rival not only\\nof England alone, but of all the European\\nPowers. 1\\n1 Napoleon, at St. Helena, prophesied that before a cen-\\ntury was over Europe would be Cossack or Republican.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0103.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "96 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nHowever, on Peter the Great s accession to\\nthe throne, his country covered an area of\\nonly 265,000 square miles, and no harbours\\nwere to be found either on the Baltic or the\\nBlack Sea. This was felt to be a serious\\nobstacle for a rising Power. Peter himself\\nsaid, in the preface to the Maritime Regu-\\nlations For some years I had the fill of\\nmy desires on Lake Pereyaslavl, but finally\\nit eot too narrow for me. I then went to the\\nKubensky Lake, but that was too shallow.\\nI then decided to see the open sea and began\\noften to beg the permission of my mother to\\ngo to Archangel. I His first and great\\nobject was to establish harbours on the Baltic\\nor the Black Sea.\\nThe Turks were the preliminary object of\\nhis attack. The first campaign against Azof\\n(1695) proved a failure, but a new campaign\\nwas started again in 1696, and the Czar s\\nbravery and his genius were rewarded with\\n1 The English victory at La Hogue, and the revival\\nof the trade with Holland, had much to do with Peter s\\nvisit to Archangel (E. Schuyler s Peter the Great,\\nvol. i. p. 276).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0104.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "The Expansion of Russia in Europe", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0105.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0106.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 99\\na great victory over Azof. Here begins the\\nmodern history of Russia.\\nImmediately after the capture of Azof\\nPeter determined to carry out his design of\\ncreating a large fleet on the Black Sea. For\\nthe purpose, no sooner had the festivities\\nin Moscow ended than, at a general\\ncouncil of the boyars, it was decided to send\\n3,000 families of peasants and 3,000 streltsi\\nand soldiers to populate the empty town of\\nAzof and firmly to establish the Russian\\npower at the mouth of the Don. At a second\\ncouncil Peter stated the absolute necessity\\nfor a large fleet, and apparently with such\\nconvincing arguments, that the assembly\\ndecided that one should be built. Both\\ncivilians and clergy were called upon for\\nsacrifices. l\\nPeter also sent fifty men of the highest\\nfamilies in Russia to Italy, Holland, and\\nEngland, to study the art of ship-building.\\nPeter himself visited Holland and England\\nthat he might learn ship-building. One\\nthing, however, he could not learn there, and\\n1 E. Schuyler s Peter the Great, vol. i. p. 323.\\nLofC.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0107.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "ioo JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthat was the construction of galleys and\\no-alliots, such as were used in the Medi-\\nterranean, and would be serviceable in the\\nBosphorus and on the coast of the Crimea.\\nFor this he desired to go to Venice. l This\\nclearly shows us that Peter had conceived\\nthe idea of establishing a strong navy on the\\nBlack Sea.\\nThe revolt of the streltsi recalled him\\nhome however, he found no difficulty in\\nsuppressing the insurrection.\\nAfter this, he sent an envoy to the\\nOttoman Empire to obtain permission for\\nthe Russian fleet to enter the Black Sea, to\\nwhich the Porte replied The Black Sea\\nand all its coasts are ruled by the Sultan\\nalone. They have never been in the posses-\\nsion of any other Power, and since the Turks\\nhave gained sovereignty over this sea, from\\ntime immemorial no foreign ship has ever\\nsailed its water, nor ever will sail them.\\nMeanwhile Charles XII., King of Sweden,\\nbe^an to assume an attitude of hostilitv to\\nPeter, and the Battle of Narva was fought,\\n1 E. Schuyler s Peter the Great, vol. i. p. 368.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0108.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 101\\nwhere Peter was miserably defeated. After\\nthis war, Charles made Russia the great\\nobject of his attack instead of Poland. He\\nsaid, I will treat with the Czar at Moscow.\\nPeter replied, My brother Charles wishes\\nto play the part of Alexander, but he will\\nnot find me Darius. The Battle of Pultawa\\n(1709) soon decided Peter s superiority, and\\nthe Peace of Nystadt (172 1) added the\\nBaltic provices and a number of islands in\\nthe Baltic to Russia.\\nIn 1703 a great window for Russia to\\nlook out at Europe so Count Algaratti\\ncalled St. Petersburg was made by Peter on\\nthe marshes of the Neva. This step firmly\\nestablished Russian power on the Baltic.\\nBut to establish Russian power on the\\nBaltic at all was as great a mistake as ever\\nhas been committed by so shrewd a states-\\nman as Peter the Great. The predominance\\nof Russia in the Baltic with her strong navy\\nthreatened the interest of the commerce and\\ncarrying-trade of the English and Dutch.\\nHence it was natural enough that England\\nand Holland, two great maritime powers,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0109.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nshould have joined to protect their interest in\\nthe Baltic as well as the integrity of Sweden\\nagainst Russian aggression. In the case of\\nthe Northern War, England had formed an\\nalliance with Sweden and sent her fleet to\\nthe Baltic under command of Admiral Norris\\nto prevent the Russian sway on those waters.\\nHad Peter thought less of the importance\\nof the Baltic, and concentrated his energies\\non obtaining a sure foothold in the Crimea,\\nConstantinople would now be a Russian\\nsouthern capital.\\nCatherine II. i 762-1 796).\\nThe Seven Years War had been brought\\nto a finish when Catherine II. ascended the\\nRussian throne. The next great European\\ncomplication was brought about by the affairs\\nof Poland.\\nOn the death of Augustus III., Stainslaius\\nPoniatowski was elected King of Poland, and\\nat the request of Prussia and Russia the\\ndissenters, adherents of the Greek Church\\nand the Protestants, received all civil rights.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0110.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 103\\nIn opposition to this a Confederation of\\nBar was formed in 1768, with the object of\\ndethroning the King. Catherine now began\\nto interfere with Poland on behalf of the Greek\\nChristians, and supported the King with\\nher Russian army. This interference made\\nher practically mistress of Poland. Turkey,\\nan ally of the Confederacy, being alarmed at\\nthe growing Russian influence and being\\nurged on by France, declared war upon\\nRussia in order to resist the progress of\\nCatherine in Poland but this proved dis-\\nastrous, as she was miserably defeated, both\\non land and sea, and brought to the verge\\nof ruin. This Russian success alarmed\\nWestern Europe, and especially the two\\nneighbouring Christian Powers, Prussia and-\\nAustria, each of whom had a special interest\\nin the existence of Poland and Turkey.\\nCatherine would not make peace without\\nacquiring territory as a compensation for her\\nexertions and outlay, while Prussia and\\nAustria would not allow her to do this unless\\nthey acquired a certain amount of territory\\nthemselves. Hence the First Partition of", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0111.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "104 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nPoland took place, by which the three Powers\\nsecured equal aggrandizement, Russia re-\\nceiving the eastern part of Lithuania as her\\nshare.\\nIn 1774 the Treaty of Kutschouk Kain-\\nardji was concluded with Turkey, by which\\nthe independence of the Mongol Tartars in\\nthe Crimea was acknowledged by the Sultan\\nRussia obtained the right of protection over\\nall the Christian subjects of the Porte within\\na certain limit, and also the right of free\\nnavigation in all Turkish waters for trading\\nvessels. This treaty firmly planted Russia\\non the northern coasts of the Black Sea.\\nIn 17S3 the Crimea was incorporated with\\nRussia, and in 1787 Catherine visited the\\nsouthern part of Russia as far as Kherson, on\\nthe Black Sea. Joseph II. of Austria, on\\nhearing of her approach to his dominions,\\nhastened to meet her, and together they\\njourneyed through the Crimea, the Czarina\\nunfolding to the Emperor both her own plans\\nand those of Potemkin, her favourite, viz.,\\nto expel all the Turks from Europe, re-\\nestablish the old Empire of Greece, and", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0112.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION, 105\\nplace her younger grandson Constantine on\\nthe throne of Constantinople. Joseph fell\\nin with her view, and it was hinted that\\nsomething like a Western Empire should\\nbe also constituted and placed under the\\nAustrian sway. In this way a division of the\\nOttoman Empire was contemplated between\\nthe two countries. This soon aroused the\\nsuspicions of Turkey, and war was again\\ndeclared. But now it was two against one,\\nand the fate of Turkey again seemed sealed.\\nWilliam Pitt was the first statesman who\\ndirectly opposed Russia and tendered assis-\\ntance to Turkey against Russian encroaching\\npower. His foreign policy of opposition to\\nRussia has been followed more or less by\\ngenerations of English Ministers. The\\nTriple Alliance of England, Prussia, and\\nHolland was formed by Pitt against the\\nColossus of the North, in order to preserve\\nthe balance of power in Europe, and the death\\nof Joseph II., saved Turkey again. Pitt, by\\nmeans of this Alliance, demanded that a peace\\nbe made between Russia and Turkey on the\\nstatus quo ante bclluni and threatened to", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0113.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "106 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nmaintain his demand by arms. The English\\npeople, however, cared very little about a\\nRussian invasion of Turkey, while Catherine\\ndisregarded Pitt s threats.\\nSoon after a peace between Russia and\\nTurkey was concluded at J assy, by which\\nTurkey ceded Oczakow and the land be-\\ntween the Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, con-\\ntaining several good harbours, and notably\\nOdessa the protectorate of Russia over\\nTifiis and Kartalinia was also recognized.\\nBy the above-mentioned acquisitions she\\nfelt certain that very soon Constantinople\\nwould be in her hands. However, a\\nnearer, and, in her opinion, a more im-\\nportant matter engaged her attention. In\\n1792 the new Constitution of Poland was\\ndrawn up by Ignaz Potocki, converting the\\nElective Monarchy into an hereditary one,\\nthe House of Saxony supplying a dynasty of\\nkings. The Confederacy of Jargowitz, which\\nwas formed in opposition to this new Consti-\\ntution, called in the help of Russia.\\nThis now seemed to be a grand oppor-\\ntunity for Russia to finally annex Poland,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0114.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 107\\nbecause the deaths of Frederick the Great\\n(1786) and Joseph (1790), and the French\\nRevolution, which occupied the attention of\\nall Western Europe, set the Czarina free from\\nher most watchful rivals. A Russian army\\ninvaded Poland, and the new Constitution\\nwas repealed. Prussian troops also entered\\nPoland under the pretence of suppressing\\nJacobinism, and Russia again found herself\\nfrustrated, and concluded a Second Partition\\n(1793) with Prussia, by which she received\\nLithuania, Volhynin, and Podolia.\\nIn 1795 the Polish nation rebelled, under\\nthe leadership of Xoscruscko, and this led to\\na Third Partition between Russia, Prussia,\\nand Austria, and the former Power added\\n1 8 1,000 square .miles, with 6,000,000 in-\\nhabitants, together with Curland, to her\\nalready vast dominions.\\nBy this last Partition a road of aggression\\nwas open towards Sweden on the north-west,\\nand towards Turkey on the south.\\nMany combined circumstances led Russia\\nto assume an aggressive policy towards\\nTurkey specially. Sweden, or rather Fin-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0115.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "io8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nland, was not of sufficient importance as a\\nprey to the northern bear a warmer\\nclimate was also wanted. Catherine had al-\\nready discovered the mistaken policy of Peter\\nthe Great, who had spent all his energy\\nin getting the strongholds of the Baltic\\nin opposition to Charles XII. of Sweden.\\nRussian sway on the Baltic meant a direct\\nopposition from two great sea Powers, viz.,\\nEngland and Holland, whose interests would\\nsuffer thereby. A striking proof of the\\nopposition was seen in the case of the\\nNorthern War.\\nThe Partition of Poland produced another\\nstray Power in the Baltic, to wit, Prussia.\\nPrevious to the Partition of Poland,\\nPrussia Proper and her dominions, Branden-\\nberg and Silesia, were separated, Poland\\nbeing between them. The First Partition\\njoined the Prussian kingdom to the main\\nbody of the Monarchy by the Second and\\nThird Partitions Prussia obtained the then\\nSouth Prussia and East Prussia, thereby\\nuniting all into one compact body.\\nThus unconsciously a powerful Russian", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0116.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 109\\nenemy was being formed in the Baltic. Thus\\nRussia had three great enemies England,\\nHolland, and Prussia, joined by Sweden and\\nDenmark, on the Baltic.\\nCatherine had alreadyobtained a firm footing\\non the Black Sea coast, and was confident of\\nher ability to occupy Constantinople and\\nmake it a Russian southern capital; the French\\nRevolution attracting the attention of Western\\nEurope, the Ottoman Empire was left at the\\nmercy of Russia. Again a Russian occupa-\\ntion would give a fine prospect of extending\\nRussian authority into Danubian territory,\\nCentral Asia, and Asia Minor.\\nSo we may conclude that Catherine s\\nannexation of Poland was only a step towards\\nattaining her great aim, and gave her time to\\nmature her plans.\\nAt this juncture Catherine died, and was\\nsucceeded by Paul (1796). He reversed his\\nmother s policy by concluding an alliance\\nwith Turkey against Napoleon, seeing that\\nthe latter s policy was to destroy the Turkish\\nEmpire for the benefit of France. He\\nchanged his policy later, however, after his", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0117.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "no JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nunsuccessful campaign in Holland, and threw\\nhimself into Napoleon s arms by establishing\\nan armed neutrality in the north against Eng-\\nland.\\nAlexander I. (1801-1825).\\nCatherine died (1796), but her plan did\\nnot perish with her. Alexander I. proved a\\nfaithful expounder of the late Czarina s\\nschemes.\\nHis strong handed policy was chiefly\\ndirected against Armenia and the Persian\\nfrontier, although the Danubian territory,\\nPoland and Finland, did not escape his\\nwatchful eyes. Mingrelia and Imeretia were\\nconquered in 1803, Shiroan in 1 805-1 806.\\nAt last Alexander s policy took a definite\\nform at the Treaty of Tilsit (1807), for by\\nthe first provision Russia was to take pos-\\nsession of Turkey in Europe, and push on\\nher conquests in Asia as she thought proper.\\nThis secret treaty, which was made with\\nNapoleon I., caused great uneasiness in\\nEngland, and a coolness sprang up between", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0118.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 1 1 1\\nthe two Powers (i 807-1 812), although Eng-\\nland had adhered to an Anglo-Russian\\nAlliance during Chatham s administration,\\nand Alexander joined the coalition of 1805.\\nIn 1809 Russia gained Finland, with the\\nwhole of East Bothnia and part of West\\nBothnia, as far as the River Tornea, by the\\nTreaty of Friedrichsham. The Peace of\\nBucharest (181 2) was the result of Eng-\\nland s mediation, by which Russia added\\nBessarabia, and the Pruth was made the\\nboundary between Russia and Turkey, while\\nRussia gave up Moldavia and Wallachia,\\nwhich at that time were occupied by her.\\nThe quarrel between Russia and France\\nconcerning the Continental System l\\n1 Upon the Continental System he (Napoleon) had\\nstaked everything. He had united all Europe in the\\ncrusade against England no state, least of all such a\\nstate as Russia, could withdraw from the system with-\\nout practically joining England. Nevertheless, we may\\nwonder that, if he felt obliged to make war upon Russia,\\nhe should have chosen to wage it in the manner he did,\\nby an overwhelming invasion (Seeley s A Short\\nHistory of Napoleon the Great, p. 169). Prof. Seeley\\nalso told the author that if the Continental System had\\nexisted a little longer England would have been ruined,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0119.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "ii2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nbrought about a French invasion of Russia\\nby 678,000 men (181 2). But Russia coped\\nsuccessfully with her powerful foe.\\nThe Congress of Vienna (18 14-18 15) met\\nto restore the balance of power and regulate\\nthe European relations, and also established\\nthe Pentarchy of the Great Powers. Eight\\nnations signed the Act of the Congress of\\nVienna, by which Russia was, generally\\nspeaking, the greatest gainer, for she received\\nthe greater part of the Grand Duchy of\\nWarsaw.\\nAt the Congress of Vienna, Castlereagh\\n(the English representative) evidently had in\\nview three aims (1) to prevent any revival of\\nthe Continental System (2) to protect Eng-\\nlish communication with India; and (3) to\\nmaintain her supremacy in the Mediter-\\nranean. For the first aim, England obtained\\nHeligoland, and the kingdom of the Nether-\\nlands was formed, and the surrender of Java\\nwas made to the Dutch by way of increasing\\nthe wealth and power of that kingdom, and so\\nbecause it seems to me that a revolution would have\\ntaken place in England.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0120.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 113\\nhelping to re-establish the due counterpoise\\nto French power which nature has given to\\nthe possession of the Low Countries for\\nthe second aim, England also obtained the\\npossession of Cape Colony (from the Dutch)\\nand the Mauritius (from France) to render\\nsafe the road to India and for the third\\naim, England retained Malta, and also the\\nseven Ionian islands were brought under\\nEnglish protection.\\nThe Battle of Waterloo stamped out\\nNapoleon s l ambitious schemes. French\\npower and influence in Eastern Europe\\nvanished with Napoleon, and from that time\\nFrance has not fully recovered, and is there-\\nfore unable to settle the Eastern Question\\nfor her benefit. The Napoleonic plan of\\noccupying Constantinople has been stolen\\nby Russia.\\n1 Napoleon s great mistake was that he had laid his\\nplan for an invasion of England and a war in Europe at\\nthe same time (Seeley s A Short History of Napoleon\\nthe Great, p. 115).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0121.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "Ill,\\nTHE NEW EUROPEAN SYSTEM.\\nThe concert of the Great Powers its aims does not\\nprotect small states from its own members, e.g.,\\nPolish Revolution How far can it solve the Turkish\\nquestion\\nNapoleon the Great fell at the Battle of\\nWaterloo, 1815. The concert of the Great\\nPowers, the primary object of which is to\\navoid the recurrence of universal war in\\nEurope, was first established at the Congress\\nof Vienna in the same year. This new\\nEuropean System is, however, only applicable\\nto the case of a small Power or Powers, but\\nnot to the Great Powers themselves. For\\ninstance, in the Schleswig-Holstein, as well\\nas the Franco-Prussian War, none of the\\nother Great Powers could interfere, and\\nmatters were entirely left to themselves.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0122.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0123.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0124.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 117\\nBut in the case of a lesser state or states\\nbecoming breaker of the peace, the Great\\nPowers have never hesitated to step in and\\nsettle the difference according to their mutual\\nagreement. We see good instance of it in\\nthe Independence of Belgium\\nThe concert of the Great Powers is\\nactually a second phase of the Holy Alliance,\\nand the new system has usually its object the\\nprotection of a smaller state against the\\nlarger. Greek Independence was a singular\\nexample of the new system. The revolt of\\nGreece was entirely suppressed by the Sultan,\\nand there was no hope of freeing themselves\\nfrom the Turkish yoke. Though hardly\\njustifiable, the Great Powers at last inter-\\nfered, and made Greece an independent state.\\nThe Independence of Italy was another\\nexample.\\nThus we see that under the new system\\nnow prevalent in Europe, a smaller state at\\nleast attains her end.\\nLet us examine the Polish Revolution\\nagainst Russia. The Poles said, Let us\\nrevolt. We shall undoubtedly be beaten by", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0125.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "uS JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nRussia but we don t mind that at all,\\nbecause we shall at last attain our own end\\nthrough the interference of the Great Powers.\\nThere was every reason for the event turning\\nout as they had calculated. Louis Napoleon\\nwas the first European sovereign who inter-\\nfered in the Polish Revolution, and he invited\\nEngland to join him. England, however,\\ndeclined, owing to the difficulties of the situa-\\ntion. France, from her isolation, failed in\\nher desires, and Louis Napoleon lost his\\nEuropean confidence. Truly the fall of the\\nFrench Empire began from that date.\\nThis Polish Revolution disclosed another\\ncharacteristic of the new European System.\\nIn the event of either country concerned\\nbeing one of the Great Powers, the system\\nis of no effect at all. The late dispute\\nbetween England and Portugal comes under\\nthis heading.\\nOne more interesting question needs in-\\nvestigation. How far this new European\\nSystem is applicable to the question of\\nTurkey, a country which may be placed\\namong the first-class Powers, and where", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0126.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 119\\nChristian inhabitants are in an inferior\\nposition to the Turkish Mahomedans. This\\nis what I have to discuss in the following\\nfive chapters.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0127.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "IV.\\nGREEK INDEPENDENCE.\\nThe Holy Alliance The Greek insurrection Interference\\nof the Three Powers Battle of Navarino Treaty of\\nAdrianople The policy of Nicholas I. Treaty of\\nUnkiar Ikelessi\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Turkey only saved by English and\\nFrench aid Palmerstoji succeeds to Canning s policy.\\nAlexander I.,. Emperor of Russia Francis,\\nEmperor of Austria; and William I., King\\nof Prussia, formed what was known as the\\nHoly Alliance, the first-named being the\\nchief instigator.\\nIts aim was to promote peace and good-\\nwill among European nations, based upon\\nChristianity, although it seemed quite liable\\nto be abused for the benefit of absolute\\nmonarchy, as in the case of Spain. Nearly\\nall the European Powers joined it, England\\n1 The Prince Regent declared his personal adherence\\nto its principles.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0128.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 121\\nbeing the only one who declined. England s\\nargument was that such interference is in-\\nconsistent with the fundamental laws of\\nGreat Britain. It must lead to a system\\nof continual interference incompatible with\\nEuropean interests and the independence of\\nnations. However, we are forced to admit\\nand acknowledge that the present system\\nof Europe is conducted on the same lines,\\nslightly modified, as the Holy Alliance.\\nAt the end of the eighteenth century the\\nsongs of the poet Rhegus and the revolu-\\ntionary influence of France (1789) stirred up\\nthe Greeks to feelings of hatred against the\\nPorte.\\nIn 1 82 1 the Danubian Provinces (Rou-\\nmania), under the leadership of Hypisilands,\\nrose in rebellion, trusting to receiving as-\\nsistance from Alexander I., the instigator of\\nthe Holy Alliance. But their hopes were\\nshattered, and Turkey soon crushed the\\nrevolt. This was the only case in which\\nRussia did not interfere with Turkey in the\\nDanubian question.\\n1 Lord Castlereagh s Speech, 181 2.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0129.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nA little reflection, however, will show the\\ncause of the Russian non-interference in this\\ncase. Alexander s power and influence were\\ndeclining, and Russia was filled internally\\nwith discontent. Secret societies flourished\\neverywhere, and the Czar dreaded a revolu-\\ntion in his own country if he gave help to\\nthe Danubian Provinces, which would be\\napproving a rebellion against a legitimate\\nsovereign.\\nThe Greek rising in the Morea was\\nanswered by a counter Turkish massacre of\\nGreeks in most of the principal cities of\\nTurkey, and Gregory, the head of the Greek\\nChurch at Constantinople, was executed.\\nThis caused great indignation in the Russias\\nand war appeared imminent, but owing to the\\nmediation of England and Austria it was\\naverted.\\nThere is no doubt that Russia felt that it\\nw r as to her advantage to assist a revolutionary\\nmovement, in order that she might secure as\\nmuch influence in Turkey as possible. But\\nAustrian interest in the Balkans was of vital\\nimportance. Her policy was naturally to", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0130.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 123\\noppose Russia in her desires, in order to keep\\nthe Turkish honour unstained and use her as\\na bulwark against Russia.\\nHowever, great enthusiasm was aroused,\\nnot only in England, but also in Germany\\nand Switzerland.\\nLord Byron died, 1 and Shelley wrote for\\nthe Greek cause. Lord Cochrane and Sir\\nRichard Church fought, while the German\\npoet, M tiller, and the Swiss Eynard, warmly\\nupheld the cause of the oppressed Greeks.\\nNotwithstanding this help, the Greeks\\nwere far from fortunate, and the Sultan, with\\nthe help of the Egyptians, captured Athens.\\nBut their brave defence of Missolonghi\\naroused the sympathies of the European\\nPowers.\\nNicholas I. (1825-1855).\\nOn the death of Alexander I. the Holy\\nAlliance vanished (1825), and Nicholas I.\\nascended the throne (1 825-1 855). Now the\\n1 He was engaged in the glorious attempt to restore\\nthat country to her ancient freedom and renown (The\\nEpitaph in the Church near Nevvstead).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0131.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nGreeks appealed to England for help, and\\nCanning l saw that it was the best policy for\\nEngland to assist Greece in order to control\\nthe ambitious plans of Russia. Accordingly\\nhe sent the Duke of Wellington as the\\nEnglish representative, and a protocol was\\nsigned at St. Petersburg by which Greece\\nwas to remain tributary to the Sultan, but to\\nbe independent as regards commercial rela-\\ntions. This protocol developed into the\\nTreaty of London, between England, France,\\nand Russia, by which the three Powers bound\\nthemselves to act as mediators in the\\nEastern question. The mediation of the\\nPowers was rejected by the Porte, but\\naccepted by the Greeks. The result was\\nthat the Turko- Egyptian fleet was totally\\ndestroyed at the Battle of Navarino by the\\n1 In the present state of European politics there\\nseems to be in the East a sort of vacuum, which it is\\nadvisable to supply, in order to counterbalance the\\npreponderance of the North. If anything like an\\nequilibrium is to be upheld, Greece must be supported.\\nMr. Canning, I think, understands this, and intends to\\nbehave towards Greece (R. C. Jebb s Modern\\nGreece, pp. 178-179).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0132.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 125\\nallies, and the Sultan retreated from the\\nMorea. Canning s death in 1827 gave Eng-\\nland an opportunity of retiring from active\\nparticipation in the alliance, especially as she\\nregarded the Battle of Navarino as an\\nuntoward event, so Russia and Turkey\\nwere left alone in conflict.\\nThis, in my opinion, was a half hearted\\npolicy on the part of England, although the\\nCabinet at that time could do no other,\\nbecause their tenets would not allow them to\\nhelp a revolutionary people against a country\\ngoverned by a legitimate sovereignty.\\nNow had the long-wished-for opportunity\\narrived for Russia to carry into effect on\\nTurkey her long-cherished designs. Diebitch,\\na Russian general, crossed the Balkans, and\\nsoon captured Adrianople while Paskevitch\\ntook Kars and Erzeroom in Asia.\\nThese successes resulted in the Treaty of\\nAdrianople (1829), between Russia and Tur-\\nkey. By the treaty 1 Russia gave back almost\\n1 This disadvantageous treaty for Russia was made\\nowing to the disappearance of immense numbers of\\nsoldiers.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0133.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nall her conquests to Turkey, only retaining\\nthe ports of Anapa and Poti, on the eastern\\ncoast of the Black Sea, and the Protectorate\\npowers of the Czar over the Danubian\\nPrincipalities were confirmed and extended.\\nIn return Turkey acquiesced in all the\\nprovisions of the London Conference.\\nThis made Greece practically an indepen-\\ndent state.\\nNicholas pursued the policy of Alexander\\nI. with regard to the Asiatic boundaries, and\\nsuccessfully carried on a war with Persia\\nfrom 1826 to 1828 which was terminated by\\nthe Treaty of Turkmantchai (1828), Russia\\nreceiving the provinces of Erivan and\\nNakhitcheven. This was the period of the\\nexpansion of Russia, and the first appearance\\nof Russia as a real rival of Great Britain.\\nReviewing the general policy of Nicholas\\nthe reader cannot help being struck with the\\nskilful manner and clever system by which\\nthe Czar carried out his plans.\\nBefore his reign the Russian attacks were\\nall made particularly in the south-west and\\nsouth-east direction, viz., the Danubian", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0134.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 127\\nterritory, and Armenia but on his accession\\nhe began to attack from a more southerly\\ndirection even than Turkey, viz., Greece,\\nwhom he assisted in rebellion against her\\nTurkish oppressors. From 1 826-1 828 he\\nattacked in a south-easterly quarter, viz.,\\nArmenia and Persia, at the same time\\noccupying Adrianople and threatening Con-\\nstantinople. Finally, to complete his plans,\\nhe struck a fatal blow at the heart of Turkey,\\nviz., its capital, Constantinople, in 1S33, with\\nthe Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, by which\\nTurkey was practically made a vassal of\\nRussia.\\nThis treaty exercised a sreat influence\\nupon foreign powers. For Russia by it\\nwould have obtained actual possession notonly\\nof the Black Sea but also of its only entrance,\\nthe Dardanelles, which thus would have\\nbecome a fortified Russian outpost.\\nTurkey now was in a very precarious state.\\nShe was almost past the aid of any earthly\\npowers. But luckily two doctors stepped\\ninto the breach, namely, England and France,\\nand, after a course of treatment, the following", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0135.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "128 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nprotocol was indited by the Pentarchy of\\nPowers That ships of war have at all\\ntimes been prohibited from entering the\\nChannel of Constantinople, viz., by the\\nStraits of the Dardanelles and of the Black\\nSea.\\nReshid Pacha had performed for Turkey\\ngreat internal reforms, but, unfortunately, he\\nwas exiled through a Court intrigue. This\\nproved a great blow to Turkish politics.\\nThus Turkey began to decline again and,\\nas John Bright said in an able speech at\\nManchester (1854), Turkey is a decaying\\nnation and Cobden on the same occasion\\nsaid, Turkey is a decaying country, and the\\nTurks cannot be permanently maintained as\\na ruling Power in Europe. The Czar\\nhimself said that a sick man is dying,\\nreferring to Turkey, in his remarkable con-\\nversation with Sir Hamilton Seymour on\\nJanuary 28, 1853.\\nWhen Turkey appeared at her last gasp\\nshe had been saved by England and France,\\nNow, for the second time, the same Powers\\nrescued her from annihilation.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0136.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 129\\nEngland a short time previously had been\\nin a feeble state owing to her severe war with\\nNapoleon the Great. This had exhausted\\nher financially to a great extent. 1\\nHowever, Huskisson s commercial policy\\n(1823), Wellington s Catholic Emancipation\\n(1829), Russell s great Reform Bill (1832),\\nand the Repeal of the Corn Laws by Sir\\nRobert Peel (1846), had exercised a re-\\nfreshing influence upon her general pros-\\nperity.\\nHere Lord Palmerston, a disciple 2 of\\n1 The pressure of the heavy taxation and of the\\ndebts, which now reached eight hundred millions, was\\nembittered by the general distress of the country\\n(J. R. Green s A Short History of the English People,\\np. 812).\\n2 Our ultimate object is the peace of the world but-\\nlet it not be said that we cultivate peace either because\\nwe fear or because we are not prepared for war. The\\nresources created by peace are the means of war. In\\ncherishing these resources we but accumulate those\\nmeans. Our present repose is no more a proof of our\\ninability to act than the state of inertness and inactivity\\nin which I have seen those mighty masses that float in\\nthe waters above your town is a proof they are devoid of\\nstrength and incapable of being fitted for action. You\\nwell know how one of those stupendous masses now\\n9", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0137.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "ISO JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nCanning, appeared on the scene to play his\\npart in the European concert.\\nreposing on their shadow in perfect stillness, how soon,\\nupon any call of patriotism or necessity, it would assume\\nthe likeness of an animated thing, instinct with life and\\nmotion how soon it would ruffle, as it were, its swelling\\nplumage how quickly it would put forth all its beauty\\nand its bravery, collect its scattered elements of strength,\\nand awake its dormant thunders. Such as is one of these\\nmagnificent machines when springing from inaction into\\na display of its strength, such is England herself, while\\napparently passive and motionless she silently causes\\npower to be put forth on an adequate occasion\\n(Canning s speech at Plymouth, August, 1823).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0138.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "V.\\nTHE CRIMEAN WAR.\\nNicholas I. alie?iates France from England by the\\nEgyptian quest ion Mehemet Alt and Palmerston s\\nconvention against him Nicholas I. in England\\nThe Protectorate of the Holy Land; breach between\\nRussia a?id France Proposed partition of Turkey\\nWar of Russia and Turkey The Vienna Note\\nIntervention of France and England to save Turkey\\nTreaty oj Paris; Russia foiled Correspondence\\nbetween Palmers ton and Aberdeeti as to the declara-\\ntion of war National feeling of England secures the\\nformer s triumph French motives i?i joi?iing in the\\nwar.\\nAlthough Turkey was unable to withstand\\nRussia alone, yet, with the help of England\\nand France, she was able to prevent the\\nRussian inroad, on the south.\\nNicholas, ever crafty, now turned his\\nattention to fostering the minor disputes\\nwhich still existed between England and\\nFrance.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0139.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "132 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nBeing envious of the English naval\\nsupremacy in the Mediterranean, France\\nresumed her traditional policy of obtaining\\ninfluence in Egypt, in order to be able to\\nhave a stronghold there against English\\npower, and succeeded in making Egypt a\\nfaithful ally.\\nEngland, on the other hand, clung to the\\nalliance with Turkey, and assisted the Sultan\\nin quelling the rebellion of Mehemet Ali.\\nThus we see there existed a difference\\nbetween the two Powers, notwithstanding that\\nRussia was a common rival of both.\\nNicholas used this difference as a tool to\\nweaken the allies against his own country.\\nIn 1S39 Mehemet Ali, with the silent ap-\\nproval of Russia, determined to become an\\nindependent monarch.\\nThiers, a minister of Louis Phillipe, in\\nhelping Mehemet Ali, the viceroy of Egypt,\\nhad fallen into a Russian trap, although he\\nbelieved and hoped that he was following the\\ntraditional policy of Napoleon the Great.\\nThis proved, however, a mistaken policy\\nfor it was the general European feeling that", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0140.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 133\\nif war resulted the Egyptians would be\\nvictorious, Constantinople would be in\\ndanger; the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi would\\ncome into force, the Russians would rush to\\nhelp the Porte, while the Anglo-French fleets\\nwould be barred from the Dardanelles.\\nLord Palmerston saw that the united\\naction of the five Great Powers might settle\\nthe Eastern Question and destroy the\\ninfluence of Russia, which seemed to be too\\narbitrarily strong. His idea was that a\\nConference should be held by the five Great\\nPowers, and this was approved of by\\nall.\\nThere was no doubt that the Conference\\nwas not as unanimous as could be wished, and\\ncertainly England did not agree with France\\non several points.\\nAt length Palmerston made a convention\\nwith three of the Powers for an armed\\ninterference in the Eastern Question. France\\nwas left alone. And Palmerston determined\\nto pursue the above-mentioned policy.\\nAdmiral Stopford captured Bey rout, and\\nSir Charles Napier bombarded Acre. The", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0141.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "i 3 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nfall of the fortress of Acre which was thought\\nto be impregnable before the English fleet,\\nterminated the war, and Mehemet Ali became\\nonly an hereditary ruler over Egypt under\\nthe over-lord of the Porte.\\nThe breach between England and France\\nhaving become serious, Russia having obtained\\nher desires stationed her fleet at Sebastopol,\\nwhere it remained quiescent during the\\nEnglish bombardment of Acre.\\nThus, although Lord Palmerston succeeded\\nin crushing the French Minister s scheme,\\nyet he fell into the snare laid for him by\\nRussia, viz., of bringing about a diplomatic\\ndisagreement between England and France.\\nBut Russia did not gain by the transaction,\\nfor she in her turn lost her single-handed\\npower over Turkey, which was given into\\nthe hands of the Five Powers.\\nLord Palmerston offered the following\\ncondition to the Turkish Government.\\nEngland having, in conjunction with other\\nChristian Powers, succeeded in restoring\\nSyria to the Sultan, she is entitled to expect\\nthat the Sultan, in return for such assistance,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0142.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 135\\nshould secure his Christian subjects from\\noppression. l\\nAt last the Syrian affairs were settled, but\\nstill England was always dreading a French\\nattack both on Egypt and Syria.\\nIn 1844 the Emperor Nicholas paid his\\nfamous visit to England. What was his\\nobject in coming to England at such a period?\\nThe only idea that I can put forward is, that\\nhe wanted to see to what extent the Anglo-\\nFrench disagreement 2 with regard to Syrian\\n1 Holland s European Concert on the Eastern\\nQuestion, p. 206.\\n2 The growth of intimate relations between England\\nand that country France was manifestly viewed by\\nhim with jealous distrust, calculated as it was to affect\\nmost seriously any designs which might be entertained\\nat St. Petersburg for enlarging Russian territory at the\\nexpense of Turkey. To detach England from this\\nalliance would naturally be regarded by the Czar as a\\nmaster-stroke of policy, and the recent conduct of France\\nin the Eastern Question may have seemed to furnish an\\nopening for making the attempt. If, however, as\\ncurrently believed at the time, one main object of his\\nvisit was to ascertain for himself whether this was possible,\\nhe must soon have been satisfied to the contrary by the\\nvery decided language with which Sir Robert Peel\\nreceived his suggestions as to the probably selfish action\\nof France, in the event of the affairs of Turkey coming", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0143.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "136 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\naffairs had reached also to widen them as\\nmuch as possible in order to make it im-\\npossible to form an Anglo-French alliance\\nagainst him, and thus leave him a free hand\\nin the settlement of the Eastern Question\\nwhen the fall of Turkey should take place.\\nNicholas was at once informed, after his\\narrival, by the British Prime Minister, that\\nno foreign influence in Egypt would be\\nallowed by the British Government, who\\ndesired to keep the way open to India. He\\nat once perceived that the English were\\nfearful of the French historic Napoleonic\\nplans and he at once used this fear to his\\nadvantage.\\nHe first proposed a partition of Turkey,\\nknowing that the English Government would\\nnot dare to agree to it, because it would hurt\\nthe national feeling of England. Soon after\\nthe Anti-Napoleonic Revolution was over\\nthe Holy Alliance was concluded between\\nseveral European Courts, and the moral\\nfeelings in the western states of Europe were\\nto a crisis (Sir T. Martyn s Life of the Prince\\nConsort, vol i. p. 216).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0144.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 137\\nto defend the weak against the strong, and\\nto resist unjust aggression. These feelings\\nwere clearly shown during the Russian\\noppression of Poland (1837), and in the\\nIndependence of Greece (1821-1829).\\nIn England these feelings had manifested\\nthemselves, and any English Government\\nwhich should venture to shock them would\\nhave been certainly upset. Therefore, a\\nproposed partition of Turkey by Russia was\\nreceived by the English Government with\\ndecided disfavour.\\nThen the Czar proposed that the guardian-\\nship of the Holy Land should be entrusted to\\nRussia. This was his ^reat aim, and was his\\nprincipal object.\\nEngland found herself in a dilemma.\\nWhat was she to do She had already\\nrefused the Czar s first proposal, and she felt\\nobliged to accept the second. The three\\nrepresentatives of the Conservative party,\\nnamely, the Duke of Wellington, Sir Robert\\nPeel, and Lord Aberdeen, met the Czar and\\nsigned a secret memorandum, promising to\\nexert their personal influence on behalf of the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0145.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "i 3 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nGreeks as opposed to the Latin Chinch at\\nJerusalem, and so practically to forward\\nRussian claims to the guardianship of the\\nHoly Places, as opposed to those of France,\\nwho was to be ignored in the matter. This\\nmemorandum, to a certain extent favouring\\nRussia s claim to a protectorate of the Greek\\nChurch, was never placed in the Foreign\\nOffice archives, but was forwarded in suc-\\ncession from one English Foreign Secretary to\\nanother, until, as we shall show, poor Lord\\nAberdeen (Wellington and Peel being dead)\\nwas called on for his pound of flesh in\\n1853-\\nThus Nicholas attained the end he had in\\nview, and left England, well pleased with the\\nbrilliant reception he had met with. The\\nGreek and the Catholic Church, Lord\\nPalmerston had written to Canning, 1849,\\nare merely other names for Russian and\\nFrench influence.\\nFrance at once perceived that the Czar s\\nvisit to England was connected with some\\n1 Thornton s Foreign Secretaries of the Nine-\\nteenth Century, vol iii. p. 100.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0146.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 139\\nsecret arrangement to the prejudice of French\\ninterests, and felt highly indignant.\\nFrance did not lose any time, and\\ncommenced plans to overturn Russian in-\\nfluence in the Holy Land. Russia resented\\nthis, thinking that France would be her only\\nenemy. The Holy Land dispute soon became\\ngeneral.\\nThe Turkish compromise did not please\\nRussia and France. Suddenly, the French\\nambassador at Constantinople, M. de Lava-\\nlette, was instructed to demand that the\\ngrants l to the Latin Church should be\\nstrictly executed in the Holy Land. 2\\nIn 1852 Lord Aberdeen was made the\\nBritish Prime Minister, and the Emperor\\nNicholas heard the tidings of Lord Aberdeen s\\nelevation to a premiership with a delight he\\ndid not suppress. 3\\nNicholas thought that now an alliance\\n1 In 1840 France succeeded in obtaining from the\\nPorte a grant of distinguished privileges in regard to the\\nHoly Land.\\n2 Ashley s Life of Lord Palmerston, vol. i. p. 279.\\n3 Kinglake s History of Crimean War, vol. i.\\np. 82.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0147.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "140 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nbetween England and France was impossible, 1\\nand at the same time, seeing that Prussia\\nand Austria were neutral, determined to\\nobtain the key of the Black Sea. 2\\nHowever, he wanted to ascertain whether\\nEngland would keep her secret engagement\\n1 Baron Brunnon, the Russian Minister, said to Count\\nVitzthum, he knew that his Emperor (Nicholas), relying\\non Lord Aberdeen s well-known love of peace, and on\\nthe protocol which had been signed by Aberdeen in\\n1844 under entirely different circumstances, regarded\\ntwo things impossible first, that England should\\ndeclare war against Russia and secondly, that she\\nshould conclude an alliance against Russia with France\\n(Count Vitzthum s St. Petersburg and London, vol i.\\np. 66).\\n2 Men dwelling amidst the snows of Russia are\\ndriven by very nature to grow covetous when they\\nhear of the happier lands where all the year round there\\nare roses and long sunny days. And since this people\\nhave a seaboard and ports on the Euxine, they are forced\\nby an everlasting policy to desire the command of the\\nstraits which lead through the heart of an empire into\\nthe midst of that world of which men kindle thoughts\\nwhen they speak of the /Egean and of Greece, and the\\nIonian shores, and of Palestine and Egypt, and of Italy,\\nand of France, and of Spain, and the land of the Moors,\\nand of the Atlantic beyond, and the path of ships on the\\nocean (Kinglake s Invasion of the Crimea, vol. i.\\nP. 54).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0148.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 141\\nto come to a separate understanding with\\nhim. He again proposed a partition of\\nTurkey, on January 28, 1853, at the same time\\nmaking use of the curious expression to Sir\\nHamilton Seymour that a sick man is\\ndying, and that his (the sick man s)\\nproperty should be divided according to\\nagreement between England and Russia.\\nNicholas idea was (a) that Servia, Bosnia,\\nBulgaria, and the other principalities of the\\nDanube, should become independent states\\nunder Russian protection, and (b) that he\\nwould have no objection to offer, to the\\noccupation of Egypt and Candia by England\\nin the event of a distribution of the\\nOttoman Succession upon the fall of the\\nEmpire, (c) that Constantinople should\\nnever be held by the English or French, or\\nany other great nation, and Greece should\\nnot strengthen herself so as to become a\\npowerful state, and (e) that Russia should\\noccupy Constantinople provisionally, not as\\na proprietor, of course, but as a trustee.\\nIn answer to these overtures, Kinglake\\nsays, the Government of the Queen dis-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0149.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "i 4 2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nclaimed all notion of aiming at the possession\\nof either Constantinople or any other of\\nthe Sultan s possessions, and accepted the\\nassurances to the like effect which were given\\nby the Czar. It combated the opinion that\\nthe extinction of the Ottoman Empire was\\nnear at hand, and deprecated the discussions\\nbased on that supposition as tending directly\\nto produce the very result against which they\\nw r ere meant to provide. l\\nThen the Czar sent Prince Menschikoff to\\nConstantinople, and entrusted to him the two\\nfollowing missions viz., [a) to set forth a\\nRussian claim on the Holy Places, and (6)\\nthat all orthodox Christians, who were\\nsubjects of Turkey, should be placed under\\nthe immediate protectorate of Russia.\\nThe above second mission was planned by\\nRussia owing to her deep sympathy with the\\nSclavonic races, who had adhered to the same\\nreligion although they were still under\\nTurkish rule. But this bond was rapidly\\ngetting weaker, and the Christian inhabitants\\n1 Kinglake s Invasion of the Crimea, vol. i. p. 90.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0150.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 143\\nwere determined to throw off, if possible, the\\nMahomedan yoke.\\nBut the second demand of Russia, to my\\nmind, was an unjust claim, because it would\\nhave considerably affected the independence\\nor dignity of the Sultan. 1\\nThe English Ambassador in Turkey, Lord\\nStratford de Redcliffe, a great opponent of\\nRussia, advised the Porte to stand firm and\\nresist to the utmost the second demand. 2 He\\nand Lord Clarendon (the English Foreign\\nSecretary), however, tried to persuade the\\nPorte to agree to the first demand, but the\\nPorte, with decided firmness, declined to\\naccept this advice.\\n1 The Grand Vizier said the mission was meant to\\nwin some important right from Turkey, which would\\ndestroy her independence, and that the Czar s object was\\nto trample under foot the rights of the Porte and the\\nindependence of the Sovereign (Kinglake s Invasion\\nof the Crimea, vol. i. p. 99).\\n2 That the Sultan s promise to protect his Christian\\nsubjects in the free exercise of their religion differed\\nextremely from a right conferred on any foreign Power to\\nenforce that protection, and also the same degree of\\ninterference might be dangerous to the Porte when\\nexercised by so powerful an empire as Russia, on behalf\\nof ten millions of Greeks (Lord Stratford s view).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0151.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "i 4 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nThis was followed, on May 21, 1853, by the\\ndeparture of Prince Menschikoff from Con-\\nstantinople, with the threat that he had come\\nin his great coat, but would return in his uni-\\nform. Russia then crossed the Pruth on July\\n2nd, and occupied the Danubian Principalities\\nas a preliminary to her demands. On the\\nsame day of the Russian invasion the repre-\\nsentatives of the Great Powers assembled at\\nVienna. This Congress drew up what is\\nknown as the Vienna Note. Russia ac-\\nceded to the terms contained in the Note,\\nbut the Porte refused, and offered certain\\namendments. The Powers after a time\\naccepted them, and forwarded them to Russia,\\nwho, however, rejected them. 1 The Con-\\nference then dissolved.\\nIn October, 1853, the Porte declared war\\non Russia and the destruction of the\\n1 When the Emperor gave his reasons for rejecting\\nthe modifications we found that he interpreted the Note\\nin a manner quite different from ourselves, and in a great\\ndegree justified the objections of Turks. We could not\\ntherefore honestly continue to give an interpretation to\\nthe Note, and ask the Turks again to sign it, when we\\nknew that the interpretation of the Emperor is entirely\\ndifferent (Lord Sheridan s letter to Earl Russel, Sept.\\n22, 1853).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0152.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 145\\nTurkish fleet at Sinope sealed the Russian\\nacquiescence to the declaration.\\nEngland and France allied themselves with\\nTurkey against Russia, and declared war on\\nMarch 28, 1854.\\nThe siege of Sebastopol lasted for nearly\\na year, and its fall was followed by the Con-\\ngress of Paris. 1 The plenipotentaries of\\n1 I thought the Emperor Alexander had shown con-\\nsiderable moral courage in making peace after the\\nCrimean War, contrary to the general feeling in Russia,\\nand Prince D gave me the following curious details\\nof what occurred on that occasion, which he said had\\nbeen related to him by one of the Ministers present\\nThe Emperor called a Council of War at St. Petersburg,\\nwhich was composed of the following members Prince\\nDolgorouky, Minister of War; the Grand Duke Con-\\nstantine, Minister of Marine M. de Broek, Minister of\\nFinance Count Blondoff, Prince Moronzow, and, I\\nthink, M. Lapouchine, Minister of the Interior. The\\nEmperor first called on the Minister of War to report on\\nthe state of the army, and he said the resources were\\nexhausted, that more recruiting was almost impossible,\\nand that he did not see how the war could be continued.\\nThe Emperor next addressed himself to his brother,\\nwho, together with Count Blondoff, was in favour of con-\\ntinuing hostilities at all risks. The Emperor asked what\\nwas the state of the navy The Grand Duke answered,\\nSire, we have a fleet in the Baltic, and another in the\\nBlack Sea. The Emperor acquiesced, but added,\\nIO", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0153.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "i 4 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nFrance, England, Russia, Turkey, Sardinia,\\nAustria, and at last Prussia, assembled at\\nParis (February, 1856), and the Treaty of\\nParis was signed, by which the following\\nmatters were settled\\n1. The Great Powers declare the Sub-\\nlime Porte admitted to participate in the\\nTrue but those fleets have never left our harbours.\\nAre they fit to oppose the English and French fleets\\nThe Grand Duke was obliged to reply in the negative.\\nThen, said the Emperor, it appears we have no army\\nand no fleet The Grand Duke sighed, looked down,\\nbut made no answer. The Emperor next addressed the\\nMinister of Finance, and asked what report he could\\ngive. He said, Sire, we have just made one disadvan-\\ntageous loan, upon conditions imposed upon us at Ham-\\nburg, and I believe another to be impossible. The\\nEmperor then addressed the Council, and said, Gentle-\\nmen, it appears from what we have just heard that we\\nhave neither army, navy, nor money how, then, is it\\npossible for me to continue the war Count Blondoff\\nthen stepped forward and said, with deep emotion,\\nSire, after the report we have just heard, it is clear that\\nyour Majesty is forced to make peace, but at the same\\ntime you must dismiss your incompetent Ministers, who\\nhave not known how to serve either your father or your-\\nself dismiss us all. The consternation of the other\\nmembers of the Council at this outburst was great, but\\npeace was signed forthwith (Lady Bloomfield s Court\\nand Diplomatic Life", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0154.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 147\\nadvantages of the public law and system\\n(concert) of Europe. Their Majesties en-\\ngage, each on his part, to respect the inde-\\npendence and the territorial integrity of the\\nOttoman Empire guarantee in common the\\nstrict observance of that engagement and\\nwill, in consequence, consider any act tending\\nto its violation as a question of general\\ninterest (Art. VII.).\\n2. The Black Sea is neutralized its\\nwaters and its ports thrown open to the\\nmercantile marine of every nation, are form-\\nally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag\\nof war, either of the Powers possessing its\\ncoasts, or of any other Power (Art. XL),\\nand, The Black Sea beincr neutralized\\naccording to the terms of Article XL, the\\nmaintenance or establishment upon its coast\\nof military maritime arsenals becomes alike\\nunnecessary and purposeless; in consequence,\\nHis Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias,\\nand His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, engage\\nnot to establish or to maintain upon that\\ncoast any military maritime arsenal (Art.\\nXIII.).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0155.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "148 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nThe docks and fortifications at Sebastopol\\nwere destroyed by the Western Powers but\\nit was allowed that Russia and the Porte\\nshould keep up the number of light vessels\\nnecessary for the service of the coast (Art.\\nXIV.), and merchant ships of all kinds were\\nallowed freely to enter it.\\n3. All control over the mouth of the\\nDanube was taken from Russia and entrusted\\nto the authority of the Riverain Commission\\n(Art. XVII.). A Commission shall be\\nestablished, and shall be composed of dele-\\ngates of Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime Porte,\\nand Wiirtemburg (one for each of those\\nPowers), to whom shall be added commis-\\nsioners from the three Danubian Principali-\\nties, whose nomination shall have been\\napproved by the Porte. This Commission,\\nwhich shall be permanent: (1) Shall prepare\\nregulations of navigation and river police\\n(2) Shall remove the impediments, of what-\\never nature they may be, which still prevent\\nthe application to the Danube of the arrange-\\nments of the Treaty of Vienna (3) Shall\\norder and cause to be executed the necessary", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0156.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 149\\nworks throughout the whole course of the\\nriver (4) Shall, after the dissolution of the\\nEuropean Commission, see to maintaining\\nthe mouths of the Danube and the neigh-\\nbouring parts of the sea in a navigable state\\n(Art. XVII.).\\n4. A portion of Bessarabia on the left bank\\nof the Danube was ceded by Russia in order\\nto make the Turkish defence against Russia\\nmore easy, and more fully to secure the\\nfreedom of the navigation of the Danube\\n(Art. XX.).\\nThere is no doubt Russia was beaten by\\nthe combined alliance against her. She had\\nentirely overreached herself and miscalcu-\\nlated the temper of the other Powers. She\\nhad thought that an Anglo-French alliance\\nwas impossible, and that Prussia and Austria\\nwould have remained neutral. Prussia indeed\\ndid maintain a neutrality at the commence-\\nment of the war, and the King of Prussia\\nhimself said, I am resolved to maintain a\\nposition of complete neutrality, and to this\\nI add with proud elevation that my people", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0157.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "i 5 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand myself are of one mind. They require\\nabsolute neutrality from me.\\nAustria, however, only maintained a con-\\nditional neutrality. The Austrian Emperor,\\nin replying to the Russian Ambassador, Count\\nOrloff, said, Then must Austria be equally\\nfree to act as her interest and dignity may\\ndirect, if Russia was to cross the Danube,\\nor seek to occupy fresh territory, or not\\nevacuate the Principalities when the war was\\nover.\\nLater on both Prussia and Austria formed\\na defensive alliance against Russia, and with\\nthe consent of the Porte, the Principalities\\nwere provisionally occupied by Austria.\\nIn England Lord Aberdeen did his utmost\\nto bring about a peace between Russia and\\nTurkey, but it was a hopeless task. Lord\\nPalmerston, on the other hand, described\\nthe aggressive policy of Russia as follows\\nThe policy and practice of the Russian\\nGovernment has always been to push forward\\nits encroachments as fast and as far as the\\napathy or want of firmness of other Govern-\\nments would allow it to go, but always to", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0158.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 151\\nstop and retire when it was met with decided\\nresistance, and then to wait for the next\\nfavourable opportunity to make another\\nspring on its intended victim. In further-\\nance of this policy, the Russian Government\\nhas always had two strings to its bow\\nmoderate language and disinterested pro-\\nfessions at Petersburg and at London active\\naggression by its agents on the scene of\\noperations. If the aggressions succeed\\nlocally, the St. Petersburg Government adopts\\nthem as a fait accompli which it did not\\nintend, but cannot, in honour, recede from.\\nIf the local agents fail, they are disavowed\\nand recalled, and the language previously\\nheld is appealed to as a proof that the agents\\nhave overstepped their instructions. This\\nwas exemplified in the treaty of Unkiar-\\nSkelessi, and in the exploits of Simonivitch\\nand Vikovitch in Persia. And Lord Palmer-\\nston wrote as follows to Lord Aberdeen\\n(July 4, 1853), when the combined fleets of\\nEngland and France were at Besika Bay\\nIn the meantime, however, I hope you will\\n1 A letter to Lord Clarendon, May 22, 1853.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0159.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "1 52 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nallow the squadrons to be ordered to go up\\nto the Bosphorus as soon as it is known\\nat Constantinople that the Russians have\\nentered the Principalities, and to be further\\nat liberty to go into the Black Sea, if\\nnecessary or useful for the protection of\\nTurkish territory. The advantages of such\\na course seem to be\\nFirst. That it would encourage and assist\\nthe Turks in those defensive arrangements\\nand organizations which the present crisis\\nmay give the Turkish Government facilities\\nfor making, and the benefit of which, in\\nstrengthening Turkey against attack, will\\ncontinue after the crisis is over.\\nSecondly. It would essentially tend to pre-\\nvent any further inroad on Turkish territory\\nin Europe or in Asia, and it is manifest that\\nany such further inroad would much increase\\nthe difficulties of a settlement.\\nThirdly. It would act as a wholesome\\ncheck upon the Emperor and his advisers,\\nand would stimulate Austria and Prussia to\\nincreased exertions to bring the Russian\\nGovernment to reason.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0160.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 15?\\nFourthly. It would relieve England and\\nFrance from the disagreeable, and not very\\ncreditable, position of waiting without ven-\\nturing to enter the back door as friends, while\\nthe Russians have taken forcible possession\\nof the front hall as enemies.\\nIf these orders are to be given, I would\\nsuggest that it is very important that they\\nshould be given without delay, so that we\\nmay be able, when these matters are discussed\\nthis week in Parliament, to say that such\\norders have been sent off. Of course they\\nwould at the same time be communicated to\\nthe Russian Government.\\nBut the Premier did not a^ree with\\nPalmerston s views.\\nThe combined fleets, at the request of the\\nSultan, passed up to Constantinople (October\\n7, 1853). Palmerston then made two propo-\\nsitions to the Cabinet\\nFirst. That instructions should be sent\\nto Constantinople that, in the event of war\\nhaving been declared, the two squadrons\\nshould enter the Black Sea, and should send\\nword to the Russian admiral at Sebastopol", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0161.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "154 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthat, in the existing state of things, any\\nRussian ship of war found cruising in the\\nBlack Sea would be detained, and be given\\nover to the Turkish Government.\\nSecondly. That England and France\\nshould propose to the Sultan to conclude a\\nconvention to the effect that, whereas war has\\nunfortunately broken out between Russia and\\nTurkey, in consequence of differences created\\nby unjust demands made upon Turkey by\\nRussia, and by unwarrantable invasion of the\\nTurkish territory by a Russian army and\\nwhereas it is deemed by England and France\\nto be an object of general European interest,\\nand of special importance to them that the\\npolitical independence and the territorial\\nintegrity of the Ottoman Empire should be\\nmaintained inviolate against Russian aggres-\\nsion, the two Powers engage to furnish to the\\nSultan such naval assistance as may be\\nnecessary in existing circumstances for the\\ndefence of his empire and they moreover\\nengage to permit any of their respective\\nsubjects who may be willing to do so, to enter\\nthe military or naval service of the Sultan.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0162.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN Q UESTION. 1 5 5\\nIn return, the Sultan is to engage that he will\\nconsult with England and France as to the\\nterms and conditions of the new treaty which\\nis to determine, on the conclusion of hos-\\ntilities, the future relations of Russia and\\nTurkey.\\nBut Lord Aberdeen in reply said\\nI cannot say that I think the present\\nstate of the Russo-Turkish question would\\nauthorize such a proceeding on our part as\\nthat which you intend to propose.\\nOn November 1, 1853, Palmerston again\\nsaid in concluding another letter to Lord\\nAberdeen\\nIt seems to me, then, that our course is\\nplain, simple, and straight. That we must\\nhelp Turkey out of her difficulties by\\nnegotiation, if possible and that if negotia-\\ntion fails, we must, by force of arms, carry\\nher safely through her dangers.\\nAfter the destruction of the Turkish fleet\\nat Sinope, Palmerston wrote to Aberdeen as\\nfollows\\nWill you allow me this opportunity of\\nrepeating in writing what I have more than", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0163.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "156 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nonce said verbally, on the state of things\\nbetween Russia and Turkey It appears to\\nme that we have two objects in view the\\none to put an end to the present war between\\nthese two Powers the other to prevent, as\\nfar as diplomatic arrangements can do so, a\\nrecurrence of similar differences, and renewed\\ndangers to the peace of Europe.\\nNow it seems to me that, unless Turkey\\nshall be laid prostrate at the feet of Russia\\nby the disasters of the war an event which\\nEngland and France could not without\\ndishonour permit no peace can be con-\\ncluded between the contending parties unless\\nthe Emperor consents to evacuate the Princi-\\npalities, to abandon his demands, and to\\nrenounce some of the embarrassing stipula-\\ntions of former treaties upon which -he has\\nfounded the pretensions which have been the\\ncause of existing difficulties.\\nTo bring the Emperor to agree to this,\\nit is necessary to exert a considerable\\npressure upon him and the quarter in which\\nthat pressure can at present be most easily\\nbrought to bear is the Black Sea and the", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0164.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 157\\ncountries bordering upon it. In the Black\\nSea, the combined English, French, and\\nTurkish squadrons are indisputably superior\\nto the Russian Meet, and are able to give the\\nlaw to that fleet. What I would strongly\\nrecommend, therefore, is that which I pro-\\nposed some months ago to the Cabinet,\\nnamely, that the Russian Government and\\nthe Russian admiral at Sebastopol should be\\ninformed that so long as Russian troops\\noccupy the Principalities, or hold a position\\nin any other part of the Turkish territory, no\\nRussian ships of war can be allowed to show\\nthemselves out of port in the Black Sea.\\nYou will say that this would be an active\\nhostility towards Russia but so is the decla-\\nration already made, that no Russian ships\\nshall be permitted to make any landing or\\nattack on any part of the Turkish territory.\\nThe only difference between the two declara-\\ntions is that the one already made is incom-\\nplete and insufficient for its purpose, and that\\nthe one which I propose would be complete\\nand sufficient. If the Russian fleet were\\nshut up in Sebastopol, it is probable that the", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0165.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "158 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nTurks would be able to make in Asia an\\nimpression that would tend to facilitate the\\nconclusion of peace.\\nWith regard to the conditions of peace,\\nit seems to me that the only arrangement\\nwhich could afford to Europe a fair security\\nagainst future dangers arising out of the\\nencroachments of Russia on Turkey, and the\\nattempts of the Russian Government to\\ninterfere in the internal affairs of the Turkish\\nEmpire, would be that arrangement which I\\nhave often suggested, namely, that the treaty\\nto be concluded between Russia and Turkey\\nshould be an ordinary treaty of peace and\\nfriendship, of boundaries, commerce, and\\nmutual protection of the subjects of the one\\nparty within the territories of the other and\\nthat all the stipulations which might be\\nrequired for the privileges of the Princi-\\npalities and of Servia, and for the protection\\nof the Christian religion and its churches and\\nthe Ottoman dominions by the Sultan and\\nthe five Powers. By such a treaty, Russia\\nwould be prevented from dealing single-\\nhanded with Turkey in regard to those", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0166.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 159\\nmatters on which she has, from time to time,\\nendeavoured to fasten a quarrel on the\\nSultan.\\nLord Aberdeen s reply was\\nI confess I am not prepared to adopt the\\nmode which you think most likely to restore\\npeace.\\nLord Palmerston tendered his resignation\\non receiving this reply, but withdrew it ten\\ndays after when the Cabinet adopted his\\nviews.\\nOn June 16, 1854, Lord Palmerston\\nwrote to the Duke of Newcastle, then\\nMinister of War Our only chance of\\nbringing Russia to terms is by offensive and\\nnot by defensive operations. We and the\\nFrench ought to go to the Crimea and take\\nSebastopol. If this blow were accompanied\\nby successful operations in Georgia and Cir-\\ncassia, we might have a Merry Christmas and\\na Happy New Year.\\nThus we see that the English policy during\\nthe Crimean crisis changed from peace\\ntactics to defensive operations, and was sub-\\nsequently turned into an offensive line of", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0167.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "160 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\naction which terminated in a brilliant triumph\\nfor England.\\nBut how was Lord Palmerston able to\\ncarry out his war policy so vigorously The\\nanswer is a very simple one. He was backed\\nand urged on by the nation at large, who\\nwere incensed at the insolence of Russia.\\nThus he was able to pursue his plans, being\\nencouraged and supported by a people who\\nwere well able to carry out what they resolved\\nupon.\\nKinglake said he (Lord Palmerston) was\\ngifted with the instinct which enables a man\\nto read the heart of a nation.\\nHis judgment was rightly pronounced, for\\nPalmerston saw the feelings of his national\\nconstituents and steered his course well and\\nskilfully. 1\\n1 The strength of Lord Palmerston s character and his\\ndetermination in matters of ready action is well illus-\\ntrated through an incident recorded by Baron Bunsen\\nMemoirs of Bunsen Bunsen and Palmerston had\\nelected to be rowed over to Portsmouth from Osborne,\\nwhen guests of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, and, the\\nweather being rough, the Foreign Minister took the helm,\\ndemonstrating the connection between steering the vessel\\nof State, as Bunsen phrased it, and steering a boat at", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0168.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 161\\nWhat, then, was the national feeling of\\nEngland at that time\\nIn the present instance, said the Prince\\nConsort, their (the English) feeling is some-\\nthing of this sort The Emperor of Russia is\\na tyrant, the enemy of all liberty on the\\nContinent, and the oppressor of Poland.\\nFrom these royal remarks, 1 do not think\\nI shall be far wrong in saying that the grow-\\ning tendency of the English people towards\\nliberalism since the Reform Bill of 1832, and\\nthe teaching of William Wilberforce, had led\\nthem to consider Russia not only as a national\\nenemy but as a general opponent of the rights\\nof humanity and civilization. No wonder\\nthat a war became a necessity after this\\npublic manifestation.\\nAt the end of the last chapter I stated that\\nEngland had rapidly increased in wealth and\\nprosperity since the Repeal of the Corn Laws.\\nGladstone, in the House of Commons, stated\\nsea Oh, one learns boating at Cambridge, even though one\\nmay have learnt nothing better] remarked Lord Palmer-\\nston and guide the craft safely to shore he certainly\\ndid. But when they landed, alas the train was gone.\\nII", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0169.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "i62 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthat such was the vigour and elasticity of the\\nEnglish trade, that even after the disadvantage\\nof a bad harvest, and under the pressure of\\nwar, the imports from day to day, and almost\\nfrom hour to hour, were increasing, and that\\nthe very last papers laid on the table showed\\nwithin the last three months of the year that\\nthere was an increase of ,\u00c2\u00a3250,000 in the\\nnational exports. 1 This, then, was one of the\\nreasons which enabled England to carry on\\nthis war so successfully.\\nLet us turn our attention for a short time\\nto France, which at this period was under-\\ngoing considerable internal agitation. Re-\\npublicanism was now abolished and Mon-\\narchy reigned in its stead in the hands of\\nNapoleon III. (1852). There seemed every\\nprospect of the French Monarchy being firmly\\nre-established.\\nThe French Emperor was very desirous of\\nstarting a European War for the purpose of\\nsecuring his seat on the throne, and also for the\\naggrandizement of his country abroad. 2 The\\n1 Gladstone s speech^ May 8, 1854.\\n2 Napoleon s object was clear in the first place, to", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0170.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 163\\ninterests of his country, both religious and\\npolitical, were opposed to those of Russia\\nwith regard to the Holy Places, while both\\nEngland and France had a common interest\\nin keeping the Ottoman Empire from Russia.\\nThis latter interest acted as a means of union\\nbetween the two Powers, both of whom were\\nready at any moment to attack Russia, and\\nthe publication of the Czar s memorable\\nconversation with Sir H. Seymour still\\nfurther cemented that union.\\nThe result we have already seen. Russia\\nwas humiliated.\\nwrest from the Emperor Nicholas the moral hegemony\\nwhich he wielded on the Continent, and then, after\\nconquering Russia, to get his hands free to tear up\\nthe treaties of 18 15, restore to France her so-called\\nnatural frontiers, and reconstruct the map of Europe in\\naccordance with Napoleonic ideas (Count Vitzthum s\\nSt. Petersburg and London, vol. i. p. 73).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0171.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nTHE BLACK SEA CONFERENCE.\\nFrench influence destroyed by the Franco-Prussian War\\nRussia annuls the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of\\nParis Condition of Europe prevents their enfo7 ceme7it\\nby the Powers Loiidon Co?iference Russia secures\\nthe Black Sea; England s mistake Alsace and Lor-\\nrai?ie destroy the balance of power.\\nRussia had convinced herself that the separa-\\ntion of England from France was not a\\nsufficient guarantee to hinder the possibility\\nof the alliance of the two Powers against her,\\nbecause a common interest would unite them\\nimmediately. Russia now determined to\\ncrush down one of the two Powers, indepen-\\ndently of the other, and was only waiting for\\nan opportunity to do so.\\nIn 1870 the Franco-Prussian War broke\\nout through the question of the Spanish\\nSuccession. England maintained a strict", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0172.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 165\\nneutrality, and this now seemed a glorious\\nopportunity for Russia to carry out her long-\\ncherished designs. She supported Prussia\\nmorally, in this way hoping to crush France,\\nand then only England would be left to\\nattack. The result proved favourable\\nFrance was defeated by Prussia, and this\\nwas followed by the fall of the Monarchy,\\nand the proclamation of the Republic (Sep-\\ntember 14, 1870).\\nRussia now looked around, and at a\\nglance saw the favourable position she\\noccupied, and her strength. Austria had\\nbeen weakened by the war with Prussia in\\n1866, Spain and Italy were convulsed with\\nrevolutions, Turkey was naturally weak\\nPrussia had suffered somewhat in 1866 with\\nAustria, and with France in 1870. France\\nherself had undoubtedly received a crushing\\nblow, while England was worried over the\\nAlabama claims with America.\\nThus we see the balance of power was\\nconsiderably shaken by the Franco-Prussian\\nWar, while an alliance among the Western\\nstates seemed impossible.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0173.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "r\\nEn stern Europe k frartlec\\nPrince Gortchakc 1 lecbration that the\\nSea scs of the Treat}* of P\\nMill and void. He declared it\\nlgei sol mitted to bv his\\nindignant, but\\nhelpless, as she was unable to\\namong the Western Powers,\\n..nable to cope sing\\n-7 I 7\\nand the Premi: A E. Gladstone, sent\\nto 1 German Chancellor\\nject, and to inform\\nthe c l was of such a nature\\nallies, would\\nla.\\nBismarck, who was afraid of a Franco-\\nt hnd wished to conciliate\\nthe R a Empera re commended that a\\nera .7 7 held in St. Pd\\nThe English Government objected\\ni Conferee:- h eld in London\\nI i Sag", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0174.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION, 167\\nwhere the following provisions were agreed\\nto\\nArticle I. Articles XL, XIII., and XIV.,\\nof the Treaty of Paris, 1856, are abrogated.\\nArticle II. The principle of the closing\\nof the Straits of the Dardanelles and the\\nBosphorus is maintained, with power to his\\nImperial Majesty the Sultan to open the\\nsaid Straits in time of peace to the vessels of\\nwar of friendly and allied Powers, in case the\\nSublime Porte should judge it necessary in\\norder to secure the execution of the stipula-\\ntions of the Treaty of Paris.\\nArticle III. The Black Sea remains, as\\nheretofore, open to the mercantile marine of\\nall nations.\\nArticle IV. The Commission managing\\nthe navigation of the Danube is maintained\\nin its present composition for a further\\nperiod of twelve years.\\nArticle VIII. The high contracting\\nparties renew and confirm all the stipulations\\nof 1856, which are not annulled or modified\\nby the present treaty.\\nThis treaty resulted in what Russia washed,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0175.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "1 68 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nviz., the opening of the Black Sea to Russian\\nwar ships a right which she had held previous\\nto the Crimean War.\\nMr. Disraeli (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield)\\nvigorously attacked the Gladstonian policy\\nby saying that the neutral character of\\nthe Black Sea is the essence of the Treaty\\nof Paris, and that that, in fact, was the question\\nfor which we had struggled and made great\\nsacrifice and endured these sufferings which\\nnever can be forgotten, and the point upon\\nwhich the negotiations for peace (at Vienna,\\n1855) was broken off was the neutral character\\nof the Black Sea. 1\\n1 No sooner had Napoleon learned that an English\\nCabinet Minister was to go to Vienna than he sent thither\\nalso his own Minister of Foreign Affairs, M. Drouyn de\\nLhuys, while Prince Gortschakoff, who had already been\\ndesignated as Nesselrode s successor, represented Russia\\nat the Conference. The first two points\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the cessation of\\nthe Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia,\\nand the regulation of the navigation of the Danube in\\nconformity with the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna\\npresented little difficulty. On the other hand, a lively\\nword combat, and a not less lively interchange of des-\\npatches, arose over the third point, which demanded\\nthe revision of the Dardanelles Treaty of July 13, 1841)\\nand the abrogation of Russian supremacy in the Black", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0176.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 169\\nIn answer to this attack Mr. Gladstone\\nreplied, I do not speak from direct com-\\nmunication with Lord Clarendon, but I have\\nbeen told since His death that he never\\nattached a value to that neutralization.\\nSea. The words, mettre fin a. la preponderance russe\\ndans la Mer Noire, were of a very elastic nature, and\\ncapable of various interpretations. The Western Powers,\\nmindful of Europe, demanded the neutralization of the\\nBlack Sea and a limitation of the number of Russian and\\nTurkish war ships. Gortschakoff declared that Sebastopol\\nwas not yet taken, and probably never would be taken,\\nand that Russia must reject any attempt to limit her\\nnaval forces as a humiliation unworthy of a Great Power.\\nAustria then proposed a compromise that Russia should\\npledge herself to maintain the status quo of 1853 and\\nthat each of the Western Powers should be entitled to\\nstation two frigates in the Black Sea, in order to see that\\nRussia did not increase her fleet. At the same time\\nAustria promised to consider it as a casus belli if Russia\\nkept there a single ship of war more than in 1853.\\nM. Drouyn de Lhuys, who, in the interest of exhausted\\nFrance, was anxious to bring the war to an end, accepted\\nthis proposed compromise, and induced Lord John\\nRussell to do likewise. Both were disavowed. Drouyn\\nde Lhuys sent in his resignation, and was succeeded at\\nthe Ministry on the Quai d Orsay by Walewski but Lord\\nJohn Russell, scorned alike by his friends and foes,\\nreturned to London, and, in spite of all, remained\\nMinister for the present (Count Vitzthum s, St. Peters-\\nburg and London.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0177.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "170 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nAgain I do not speak from direct communi-\\ncation, but I have been told that Lord\\nPalmerston always looked upon the neutra-\\nlization as an arrangement which might be\\nmaintained and held together for a limited\\nnumber of years, but which, from its cha-\\nracter, it was impossible to maintain as a per-\\nmanent condition for a great settlement of\\nEurope.\\nHowever, Russia had regained what she\\nhad lost at the close of the Crimean War by\\nskilful diplomacy. She now was perfectly at\\nliberty to keep her fleet in the Black Sea, and\\nto refortify Sebastopol and Keotch to such\\nan extent as to render them impregnable.\\nShe felt gratified at the result of the\\nFranco- Prussian War, and on hearing that\\nPrussia had annexed Alsace and Lorraine,\\nGeneral Ignatieff, the Russian Ambassador\\nat Constantinople, hastened to the German\\nAmbassador, Count Karserling, and said,\\nPermit me to congratulate you, and thank\\nyou for you it is a prodigious mistake, but\\non Russia you have conferred the greatest\\npossible boon. At the time of the annexa-", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0178.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN Q UES TION. 1 7 1\\ntion of the two French provinces, Germany\\nthought that they would prove of the greatest\\nvalue to the German Empire, but this idea\\nproved a mistake, and since then Russia has\\nused, and still uses them, as a pivot on which\\nthe Eastern Question turns.\\nFrederick III. s idea of selling back Alsace\\nand Lorraine would no doubt prove a great\\nbenefit, not only to the German nation, but\\nalso to the maintenance of the balance of\\npower in Europe.\\nYet, though Bismarck defeated Napoleon\\nIII. in a sanguinary war, Prince Gortschakoff\\nhad beaten all the signitary powers at the\\nTreaty of Paris by one stroke of the pen, and\\nthe greatest gainer in the Franco-Prussian\\nWar was not Germany but Russia. Verily,\\nindeed, is it once more proved that the Pen\\nis mightier than the Sword.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0179.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "VII.\\nTHE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR OF 1 8/8.\\nBulgarian atrocities The Andrassy Note; England de-\\nstroys its effect The Berlin Memorandum England\\nopposes it Russia prepares for a Turkish war Con-\\nference of Constantinople New Turkish Constitution\\nRusso- Turkish War Treaty of San Stefano\\nIntervention of the Powers The Berli?i Congress\\nFinal treaty of peace.\\nThe Slavs migrated to the Balkan Peninsula\\nas early as 450 a.d., and Bosnia remained the\\nonly Slavonic part of the Turkish Empire\\nwhere a native nobility owned the land and a\\npeasantry tilled it for them.\\nHaving been defeated by the Turks, the\\nnobility became Mahommedans to save their\\npatrimony, while the peasantry, having\\nnothing to lose, remained Christians but the\\ntyrrany of their nobility at length obliged the\\nTurks to put an end to the Feudal System in\\nBosnia (1850-1851).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0180.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 173\\nIn August, 1875, Herzegovina (the south-\\nwestern district of Bosnia) revolted against\\nthe Sultan, being aided by a strong natural\\nposition and receiving the assistance of both\\nServia and Montenegro.\\nWhile this revolt was going on the\\nBulgarians also rose in rebellion against the\\nSultan (1876), but were put down by the\\nTurkish Government, although not without\\nshameful cruelties and outrages beino; com-\\nmitted by the Turkish troops and militia,\\nwhich caused great indignation throughout\\nEurope, 1 and specially so in Russia. This,\\ntherefore, gave the latter country a good\\nopportunity of claiming to be a general pro-\\ntector of the Christians in Turkey.\\nThe Austro-Hungarian Minister, Count\\nAndrassy, on behalf of Austria, Germany, and\\nRussia, drew up a Note in which five 2 chief\\n1 In 1876 (September) Mr. Gladstone published his\\npamphlet entitled Bulgarian Horrors and the Question\\nof the East. It passed through almost countless editions\\nand created a great sensation.\\n2 First, religious liberty, in the sense of religious\\nequality, full and entire second, the abolition of tax-\\nfarming third, the exclusive application to Bosnia and", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0181.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "i 7 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nconcessions were insisted upon from the Porte\\nas necessary for the pacification of the re-\\nvolted provinces.\\nLord Derby, on behalf of the English\\nGovernment, signed I it, but added that the\\nHerzegovina of their own direct taxation fourth, the ap-\\npointment of an executory Commission to carry these\\nreforms into effect, to be composed equally of Mahom-\\nmedans and Christians; fifth, the amelioration of the\\ncondition of the rural population by some more satisfac-\\ntory arrangement between the Christian Rajahs and the\\nMahommedan Agas, or landowners (The Duke of\\nArgyll s The Eastern Question, vol. i. p. 161).\\n1 Sir H. Elliot was directed to give a general sup-\\nport to the Andrassy Note. It will be seen that in the\\nmode of giving this general support to the action of the\\nEuropean Powers, Her Majesty s Government here con-\\ntrived to reduce the value of it to the lowest possible\\namount, and expressly to negative the significance of it.\\nBut more than this it is distinctly implied that any\\nsuch meaning, if it were entertained, would be a violation\\nof the Ninth Article of the Treaty of Paris. The Turks\\nwere thus encouraged to claim under that treaty a\\nlicence and immunity which it never was intended to\\nafford. It is evident, therefore, that the British Cabinet\\nonly joined the other Powers, first, because it was impos-\\nsible to deny the justice of the demand made on Turkey;\\nsecondly, because it would be inconvenient to stand\\nalone against the united opinion of all the other Cabinets\\nof Europe thirdly, because Turkey herself saw some\\nadvantage in accepting the communication (Ibid. vol. i.\\np. 166).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0182.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 175\\nintegrity l of the Ottoman Empire was to be\\nrespected. Here the Czar caught a key-note\\nof the English policy, and he played on it\\nafterwards to his own advantage.\\nThe Porte accepted the conditions of the\\nNote, but the rebels did not trust the Turkish\\npromises, so the insurrections continued.\\nThe Czar then, with Gortschakoff, met\\nBismarck and Andrassy at Berlin, and,\\ntogether, they drew up the Berlin Memo-\\nrandum, 2 in which the three Powers asked\\n1 Lord Derby said that the Note now proposed was\\nsure to lead to farther diplomatic interference in the in-\\nternal affairs of Turkey.\\n2 First, the provision of means sufficient to settle the\\nrefugees in their homes second, the distribution of these\\nmeans by a mixed Commission, with a Herzegovinian\\nChristian as President third, the concentration of\\nTurkish troops into certain places fourth, the retention\\nof arms by the Christians fifth, the Consuls or Delegates\\nof the Powers to have a watch over the application\\nof the promised reforms and repatriation of the people.\\nThe Memorandum farther proceeded thus in its closing\\nparagraph If, however, the armistice were to expire\\nwithout the effort of the Powers being successful in\\nattaining the ends they have in view, the three\\nImperial Courts are of opinion that it would become\\nnecessary to supplement their diplomatic action by\\nthe sanction of an agreement, with a view to such", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0183.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "i 7 6 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthe Sultan to grant an armistice for two\\nmonths in order that the demands of the\\ninsurgents might receive a fair consideration.\\nItaly and France added their voices, but\\nEngland refused l to sign the Memorandum\\nand sent a powerful squadron to Besika Bay,\\nexpecting that the Sultan would refuse the\\nMemorandum because it would endanger the\\nintegrity of the Ottoman Empire. This\\nefficacious measures as might appear to be demanded in\\nthe interest of general peace, to check the evil and pre-\\nvent its development (The Duke of Argyll s The\\nEastern Question, vol. i. p. 193).\\n1 The objections of detail taken by the English\\nCabinet to the Berlin Memorandum were at once met by\\nPrince Bismarck by the declaration that these points\\nwere entirely open to discussion, that they might be\\nmodified according to circumstances, and that he, for\\none, would willingly entertain any improvement which\\nHer Majesty s Government might have to propose.\\nFrance implored Her Majesty s Government to reconsider\\nits decision, and declared that persistence in it would, at\\nsuch a momentous crisis, be nothing short of a public\\ncalamity. She could not conceal the apprehensions for\\nthe future to which this refusal have given rise. Italy\\ndid the same. The position was, that England objected\\nto everything proposed by others, and had nothing to\\npropose herself. Continued trust in the Turks was her\\nonly suggestion (The Duke of Argyll s The Eastern\\nQuestion, vol. i, pp. 202, 203).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0184.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 177\\nBerlin Memorandum displays the skilful\\nway in which Russia, under the clever\\nguidance of the Czar and his Minister Gort-\\nschakoff, carried on negotiation. She was\\nonly seeking a pretence 1 for a single-handed\\nwar policy with Turkey, and in order to do\\nthis she proposed measures at Berlin which she\\nknew would prove objectionable to England.\\nGermany, who dreaded a special alliance\\nbetween France and Russia, was* obliged to\\nagree to these measures, thus becoming a\\ntool of Russia, who wanted to make En Hand\\nfirst deviate from the Treaties of Paris and\\nLondon, and, if possible, to break down the\\nbalance of power in Europe which she herself\\nhad already done by her withdrawal from the\\nBlack Sea clauses in the Treaty of Paris.\\n1 At the first meeting of the Congress (June 13,\\n1878) Lord Beaconsfield made his concerted objec-\\ntion to the advanced position of the Russian troops\\nat the gates of Constantinople. Count Schouvaloff re-\\nplied that this advanced position had been taken up\\nby the Russian army in consequence of the entry of the\\nEnglish fleet into the Bosphorus. Prince Bismarck, the\\nPresident of the Congress, expressed himself satisfied\\nwith the Russian reply (The Duke of Argyll s The\\nEastern Question, vol. ii. p. 144).\\n12", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0185.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "i 7 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEngland fell into the snare together with the\\nother Powers. She objected to the Berlin\\nMemorandum, refused to sign, and sent a\\nfleet to Besika Bay in support of her\\nobjection. This was just what Russia\\ndesired.\\nA new Sultan now ascended the throne,\\nand Russian influence declined while that of\\nEngland increased.\\nIn July, 1J876, Prince Milan of Servia, and\\nPrince Mikita of Montenegro, declared war\\nagainst Turkey, having open assistance from\\nRussia. The rebels, however, were sub-\\njugated by the Turks.\\nIn November, 1S76, Alexander II. of\\nRussia, made a public declaration that if\\nTurkey did not give due guarantees for the\\nbetter government of her Christian subjects\\nhe would force them to do so, either in\\nconcert with his allies or by independent\\naction.\\nThe European Powers, in consequence of\\nthis proclamation, proposed a Conference at\\nConstantinople to settle the matter. The\\nCzar, seeing that the Conference was inevit-", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0186.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 179\\nable, agreed to it. The representatives met,\\nand, as was to be expected, asked nearly the\\nsame conditions as had been contained in the\\nAndrassy Note.\\nThe promulgation of a new Constitution for\\nthe Ottoman Empire was the result of the\\nConference, much to the disappointment of\\nRussia, who did not expect that any such result\\nwould be arrived at. Thus, in order to stop\\nany further reforms or concessions being\\nmade by Turkey, she succeeded in removing\\nfrom power the author of the new Constitu-\\ntion, viz., Midhat Pasha, who was an impor-\\ntant personage in Turkish politics.\\nThe following little story shows the skilful\\nway in which the Turkish Minister was\\nremoved from power by the agency of\\nRussia\\nDuring the Conference, the day after the\\nTurks had proclaimed their new Constitu-\\ntion, General Ignatieff met Sir W. White.\\nHave you read the Constitution asked\\nIgnatieff. No, said the Englishman\\n4 what does it matter? It is not serious.\\nBut, said Ignatieff, you must really read", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0187.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "1S0 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\none Article; and so saying he pointed out the\\nArticle which set forth that all provisions to\\nthe contrary notwithstanding the Sultan was\\nto retain an absolute ri^ht to banish from the\\ncapital any person whose presence might\\nseem objectionable to him. Mark my\\nwords, said Ignatieff, the first man to be\\nexiled under that clause will be Midhat\\nPasha, the author of the Constitution.\\nThe prediction was fulfilled to the letter.\\nMeeting Ignatieff some time after, Sir W.\\nWhite recalled the prophecy and its fulfil-\\nment. Oh yes, said the general, care-\\nlessly I arranged that. But you had left\\nConstantinople before Midhat s exile. Cer-\\ntainly, but I arranged it just before I left.\\n4 How It was very simple the weather\\nwas stormy in the Black Sea, and I could not\\nleave for some days after the departure of\\nmy colleague. I went on board my steamer\\nand anchored exactly opposite the Sultan s\\npalace. I did not go and bid him farewell,\\nbut waited. In a day or two, as I anticipated,\\nthere came an aide-de-camp from the Sultan\\nto express his regret and surprise that I,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0188.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 181\\nwhom he had known better than any of the\\nAmbassadors, should be departing without\\npaying him a farewell visit. I replied that,\\nof course, I should have been delighted to\\nhave paid my respects to His Majesty, but\\nthat it was no longer necessary. I had paid\\nmy farewell visit to Midhat Pasha, as, under\\nthe Constitution, it was to him, not the\\nSultan, that such an act of respect was due.\\nAlmost immediately after arriving in Russia\\nI heard of the exile of Midhat. My parting\\nshot had secured his downfall. J\\nThe Conference failed, and Russia declared\\nwar against Turkey, for now she had obtained\\nwhat she had been striving for during the\\ndiplomatic transactions, viz., a pretence for a\\nsingle-handed policy with regard to Turkey,\\nand, secondly, she had obtained sufficient\\ntime for making all necessary w T ar prepara-\\ntions. Now, although she had already got\\nback what she had lost in the Crimean War\\n(through the Franco- Prussian War), yet she\\nwas determined to obtain what she had\\n1 Truth about Russia, p. 282,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0189.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "i82 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nintended to take at the Crimean War, viz.,\\nConstantinople.\\nA large Russian army crossed the Pruth\\n(April, 1877), and encamped before Constan-\\ntinople. In Asia Kars was captured. This\\nled to the Treaty of San Stefano.\\nBy this treaty the Ottoman Empire in\\nEurope was completely abrogated. It re-\\ncognized the independence of Servia, Monte-\\nnegro, and Roumania Bulgaria was created,\\nand its boundaries now extended to the Black\\nand ^Egean Seas, embracing several valu-\\nable harbours. Although the latter country\\nstill remained tributary to Turkey, yet Russia\\nhad the appointment of a Christian prince in\\nher hands. It has now to have a separate\\nadministration, to be supervised by Russian\\ncommissioners, and was also to be garrisoned\\nby Russian troops.\\nIn Bosnia, Crete, Thessaly, and Epirus a\\ncertain amount of reform was to be intro-\\nduced by the Porte under the supervision\\nof Russia. It was also enacted that the\\npart of Bessarabia taken from Russia in\\n1856 should be ceded back to her, to which", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0190.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 183\\nLord Palmerston attached great value, be-\\ncause, he said, it is not of local, but of\\nEuropean interest. Kars, Batoum, and\\nother adjoining districts in Asia were added\\nto Russia, by which cession she undoubtedly\\nheld the strongholds of Armenia. Turkey\\nhad to pay Russia three hundred million\\nroubles.\\nThe results of this treaty may be described\\nas follows It was nothing less than (1)\\nTo take all the European dominions of the\\nOttoman Empire from the Porte and put\\nthem under the administration of Russia\\n(2) to make the Black Sea as much a\\nRussian lake as the Caspian (3) to give\\nRussia a firm hold of the Mediterranean, and\\nthereby imperil the naval supremacy of Eng-\\nland in that quarter.\\nNaturally, England could not accept the\\nTreaty of San Stefano without some altera-\\ntions. Lord Derby resigned on the refusal\\nof his demand that the treaty should be laid\\nbefore Parliament, and Lord Salisbury sent\\nout a vigorous circular which showed the\\ninjustice towards other races of a large", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0191.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 84 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nBulgaria establishing Slav supremacy in the\\nBalkan Peninsula under Russian influence\\nalso the loss of the ports of Bourgas and\\nBatoum by the Turks would give Russia\\ncommand of the Black Sea trade, while\\nthe cession of Kars to her would also in-\\nfluence Turkey s Asiatic possessions. This\\nwould also affect the English interests in\\nthe Persian Gulf, the Levant, and the Suez\\nCanal, which were in the Ottoman keeping,\\nand therefore was a matter of extreme soli-\\ncitude for England. She would be willing,\\nhowever, to join in general stipulations made\\nby the joint Powers, but would not submit to\\nPrince Gortschakoffs commands. Again, an\\nunpaid pecuniary debt owing to Russia by\\nTurkey would give the former dangerous\\npower.\\nThe following words occur in the first\\ndespatch of the English Government to\\nRussia\\nThe course on which the Russian Govern-\\nment has entered involves graver and more\\nserious consideration. It is in contravention\\nof the stipulation of the Treaty of Paris", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0192.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN Q UES TION. 1 8 5\\n(March 30, 1856), by which Russia and\\nthe other signatory Powers engaged, each\\non its own part, to respect the independence\\nand the territorial integrity of the Otto-\\nman Empire. At the close of the Con-\\nference of London of 1871, the above\\nplenipotentiary, in common with those of\\nthe other Powers, signed a declaration\\naffirming it to be an essential principle of\\nthe law of nations that no Power can liberate\\nitself from the engagement of a treaty, nor\\nmodify the stipulations thereof, unless with\\nthe consent of the contracting parties by\\nmeans of an amicable arrangement. In\\ntaking action against Turkey on his own\\npart, and having recourse to arms without\\nfurther consultation with his allies, the\\nEmperor of Russia has separated himself\\nfrom the European concert hitherto main-\\ntained, and has at the same time departed\\nfrom the rule to which he himself had\\nsolemnly recorded his consent, l\\nThe English Government addressed a\\nsecond despatch to Russia, stating that the\\n1 Lord Beaconsfield s speech, April 8, 1878.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0193.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "1 86 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nEnglish Government is of opinion that\\nany treaty concluded by the Governments\\nof Russia and the Porte affecting the treaties\\nof 1856 and 187 1 must be a European treaty,\\nand would not be valid without the assent\\nof the Powers who were parties to those\\ntreaties.\\nThe Russian Minister s (GortschakofTs)\\nreply w r as received at last We repeat\\nthe assurance that we do not intend to\\nsettle by ourselves European questions\\nhaving reference to the peace which is to\\nbe made.\\nThen the English Government sent an-\\nother despatch to Russia and the other\\nforeign Courts, and it was communicated\\nthrough an English Ambassador at St.\\nPetersburg that the Russian Emperor\\nstated categorically that questions bear-\\ning on European interests will be concerted\\nwith European Powers, and he had given\\nHer Majesty s Government clear and positive\\nassurance to this effect.\\nAt length Austria, with the full apprecia-\\ntion of Russia, invited England to a Confe-", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0194.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 187\\nrence at Berlin for the object of establishing\\nan European agreement as to the modifi-\\ncations which it might become necessary to\\nintroduce in existing treaties in order to\\nmake them harmonize with the present\\nsituation.\\nThe English Government, however, stipu-\\nlated beforehand that it would be desirable\\nto have it understood in the first place that\\nall questions dealt with in the San Stefano\\nTreaty between Russia and Turkey should\\nbe fully considered in the Congress, and\\nthat no alteration in the condition of things\\npreviously established by treaty should be\\nacknowledged as valid until it has received\\nthe consent of the Powers.\\nRussia replied that the preliminary treaty\\nof peace between Russia and Turkey will be\\ntextually committed to the Great Powers\\nbefore the meeting of the Congress, and\\nthat in the Congress itself each Power will\\nhave full liberty of assent and of its free\\naction la pleine libertd de ses appreciations\\net de son action\\nThis was a diplomatic triumph for Eng-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0195.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "1 88 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nland, and the treaty was formally submitted\\nto the Congress. But there were certain\\nfacts which must not escape our notice, for\\njust before the publication of the Treaty of\\nSan Stefano the excitement in England had\\nattained its zenith. Russia, perceiving this,\\nand hearing that England was quite ready to\\ntake up arms against her, took the utmost\\nprecautions not to injure English interests\\nso a Russian occupation of Constantinople,\\nor any other circumstance which might\\nexcite the enmity of England, were omitted\\nin the San Stefano Treaty,\\nWhen this became known in England the\\nexcitement abated somewhat and, seeing\\nthis, Russia consented to submit the treaty\\nto the Congress,\\nThe Congress was opened at Berlin, under\\nthe presidency of the German Chancellor,\\nBismarck and Beaconsfield firmly stood his\\nground at the Congress, previously calling\\nout the reserve forces and summoning seven\\nthousand Indian troops to Malta. Austria\\nbegan to arm. Russia now could not be\\nobstinate.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0196.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 189\\nThe following conditions were fixed and\\ndrawn up by the Congress\\nBulgaria,\\nArticle I. Bulgaria is constituted an auto-\\nnomous and tributary principality under the\\nsuzerainty of His Imperial Majesty the\\nSultan it will have a Christian Govern-\\nment and a national militia.\\nArticle III. The Prince of Bulgaria shall\\nbe freely elected by the population and con-\\nfirmed by the Sublime Porte, with the assent\\nof the Powers. No member of the reigning\\ndynasties of the Great European Powers\\nmay be elected Prince of Bulgaria.\\nIn case of a vacancy in the princely dignity,\\nthe election of the new prince shall take place\\nunder the same conditions and with the same\\nforms.\\nEastern Ronmelia.\\nArticle XIII. A province is formed south\\nof the Balkans which will take the name of\\nEastern Roumelia, and will remain under\\nthe direct political and military authority of", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0197.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "190 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nHis Imperial Majesty the Sultan, under\\nconditions of administrative autonomy. It\\nshall have a Christian Governor-general.\\nArticle XVII. The Governor-general of\\nEastern Roumelia shall be nominated by\\nthe Sublime Porte, with the assent of the\\nPowers, for a term of five years.\\nCrete, c.\\nArticle XXIII. The Sublime Porte under-\\ntakes to scrupulously apply to the island of\\nCrete the Organic Law of 1868, with such\\nmodifications as may be considered equit-\\nable.\\nSimilar laws adapted to local requirements,\\nexcepting as regards the exemption from\\ntaxation granted to Crete, shall also be\\nintroduced into the other parts of Turkey\\nin Europe for which no special organization\\nhas been provided by the present treaty.\\nBosnia and Herzegovina.\\nArticle XXV. The provinces of Bosnia\\nand Herzegovina shall be occupied and ad-\\nministered by Austria- Hungary.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0198.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 191\\nMontenegro, Servta, and Rozunajiia.\\nArticle XXVI. The independence of\\nMontenegro, Servia, and Roumania is re-\\ncognized by the Sublime Porte, and by all\\nthe high contracting parties, subject to the\\nconditions set forth in the following\\nIn Montenegro the difference of religious\\ncreeds and confessions shall not be alleged\\nagainst any person as a ground for exclu-\\nsion or incapacity in matters relating to the\\nenjoyment of civil and political rights, ad-\\nmission to. public employments, functions,\\nand honours, or the exercise of the various\\nprofessions and industries in any locality\\nwhatsoever.\\nThe freedom and outward exercise of all\\nforms of worship shall be assured to all\\npersons belonging to Montenegro, as well\\nas to foreigners and no hindrance shall be\\noffered either to the hierarchical organization\\nof the different communions or to their rela-\\ntions with their spiritual chiefs.\\nArticle XLV. The principality of Rou-\\nmania restores to His Majesty the Emperor", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0199.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "1 92 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nof Russia that portion of Bessarabian terri-\\ntory detached from Russia by the Treaty of\\nParis of 1856.\\nCessions in Asia.\\nArticle LVIII. The Sublime Porte cedes\\nto the Russian Empire in Asia the territories\\nof Ardahan, Kars, and Batoum, together with\\nthe latter port.\\nArticle XIX. His Majesty the Emperor\\ndeclares that it is his intention to constitute\\nBatoum a free port, essentially commercial.\\nArticle LX. The valley of Alaxhkerd and\\nthe town of Bayazid, ceded to Russia, are\\nrestored to Turkey.\\nThe Sublime Porte cedes to Persia the\\ntown and territory of Khotou for its delimi-\\ntation of the frontiers of Turkey and of\\nPersia. 1\\n1 The topics regulated by the three Treaties of Paris,\\nLondon, and Berlin are\\n(i.) The admission of the Porte to the concert of\\nEurope (P. Art. 7).\\n(ii.) The agreement as to resort to mediation (P. 8).\\n(iii.) Religious equality in Turkey (P. 9 B. 62).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0200.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 193\\nThe Anglo-Turkish Convention.\\nArticle I. Batouni, Ardahan, Kars, or\\nany of them, shall be retained by Russia,\\nand if any attempt shall be made at any\\nfuture time by Russia to take possession\\nof any further territories of His Imperial\\nMajesty the Sultan in Asia, as fixed by the\\nDefinitive Treaty of Peace, England engages\\nto join His Imperial Majesty the Sultan in\\ndefending them by force of arms.\\nIn order to enable England to make neces-\\n(iv.) The navigation of the Straits (P. 10 L. 2).\\n(v.) The navigation of the Black Sea (P. 12; L. 3).\\n(vi.) The navigation of the Danube (P. 13-193 L.\\n4-7; B. 52-57; L. 1883),\\n(vii.) Roumania (B. 43-51).\\n(viii.) Servia (B. 34, 40-42).\\n(ix.) Montenegro (B. 26-31, 33).\\n(x.) Bulgaria (B. 1-12).\\n(xi.) Eastern Roumelia (B. 13-21).\\n(xii.) Bosnia and Herzegovina (B. 25).\\n11 (xiii.) Other European provinces (B. 23).\\n(xiv.) The Armenian provinces (B. 61).\\n(xv.) Cessions to Greece (B. 24 Cons, of 1881).\\n(xvi.) The Russian boundaries (B. 45, 58-60).\\n(xvii.) The Persian boundary (B. 6oj.\\n(Holland s European Conceit in the Eastern Ques-\\ntion", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0201.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "i 9 4 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nsary provision for executing her engagement,\\nHis Imperial Majesty the Sultan further\\nconsents to assign the island of Cyprus to be\\noccupied and administrated by England.\\nBeaconsfield having thus attained peace\\nwith honour for England, returned, and in\\na speech l in the House, said, They are\\nnot movements of war, they are operations\\nof peace and civilization we have no reason\\nto fear war. Her Majesty has fleets and\\narmies which are second to none.\\n1 In the House of Lords, July 18, 1878.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0202.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "VIII.\\nREMARKS UPON THE TREATY OF BERLIN.\\nThe position of affairs The Salisbury-Schouvaloff Memo-\\nrandum and its disastrous effect on the negotiations\\nat Berlin Russia s gain England and Austria the\\nguardia?is of Turkey Austria s vigorous and straight-\\nforward Balkan policy Thwarted in Servia but\\ntriumphant in Bulgaria Relations of Greece to Austria\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Solution of the Crete question Neutrality of Belgium\\nthreatened Importance of Constantinople to Russia;\\nthe Anglo- Turkish Convention England s feeble policy\\nin Asia Minor The question of Egypt A new route\\nto India by railway from the Mediterranean to Persian\\nGulf\u00e2\u0080\u0094 England s relation to Constantinople.\\nLet us now review and make a few remarks\\non the Treaty of Berlin.\\nFirstly, the whole treaty seems to me to\\nbe virtually a repetition l and revision of the\\nconditions of the European concert in the\\nEastern question.\\nPrince Bismarck s opinion was that the\\n1 See Holland s European Concert in the Eastern\\nQuestion.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0203.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "1 96 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nTreaty of San Stefano meant to alter the\\nstate of things as fixed by former European\\nConventions, consequently the Berlin Con-\\ngress followed for the free discussion of\\nthe Cabinets signatories of the treaties of\\n1856 and 1871.\\nThe Treaties of Paris and London being\\nstill in force, and owing to the rise of a new\\nnationality and the redistribution of territory,\\nthese treaties were altered and amended by\\nthe Congress.\\nBefore we criticize the Treaty of Berlin\\nwe 011 eh t to bear two things in our mind.\\n(1) At the Conference of Paris, 1856, Eng-\\nland, France, and Turkey were victorious,\\nwhile Russia was conquered. (2) At the\\nBerlin Congress, 1878, Russia was victorious\\nover Turkey, while England and France\\nwere neutral.\\nIn both meetings it was asserted and\\nclaimed that the Powers collectively had\\nthe right of settling the Eastern Question\\nas against Russia s single-handed inter-\\nference, England leading the van with fair\\nwords but selfish interests.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0204.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN Q U EST ION. 197\\nOn Russia concluding the San Stefano\\nTreaty with Turkey, England said that,\\naccording to the conditions of the Treaty\\nof Paris, the Great Powers of Europe\\nengaged each on its own part to respect\\nthe independence and integrity of the\\nOttoman Empire, and consequently Turkish\\naffairs produced a general interest through-\\nout Europe.\\nRussia had committed a serious breach\\nof the law of nations by a treaty single-\\nhanded with Turkey. When the European\\nCongress at Berlin was consented to by\\nRussia, England said that the Treaty of\\nSan Stefano was not valid without the con-\\nsent of the signatory Powers of the Treaties\\nof Paris and London. She also demanded\\nfrom Russia that, in the Congress itself,\\neach Power should have full liberty of\\nassent and free action. These demands\\nseemed perfectly reasonable. However,\\nEngland, before the Berlin meeting, con-\\ntracted a secret agreement with Russia, in\\nwhich the modifications asked for by Eng-\\nland in the Treaty of San Stefano were", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0205.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "i 9 8 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nspecified. This agreement did not leave out\\nthe bringing in of other changes by mutual\\nconsent, but, if these failed, tended to be a\\nmutual engagement by the ambassadors of\\nRussia and Great Britain as to their general\\nbehaviour and conduct at the Congress. This\\nsecret agreement between the two Powers\\npractically blocked the full liberty of the\\nother Powers and the full amount of good they\\nmight otherwise have done. England had\\nbeen one of the first to attack Russia for\\ncommitting a breach of the Treaties of\\nParis and London yet she overlooked the\\nfact that she herself had morally broken\\nthe same treaties by her secret negotiation\\nwith Russia, the other Powers not being at\\nthe time cognizant of the fact.\\nOnce more Russia, by the Black Sea\\nConference, had gained full freedom on the\\nBlack Sea, now she had regained the part\\nof Bessarabia which she had lost during the\\nCrimean War, the principal object of which\\nwas to drive Russia from the banks of the\\nDanube. The above-mentioned territory\\nwas ceded to Russia through the influence", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0206.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION, 199\\nof Lord Salisbury, who had secretly promised\\nSchouvaloff, the Russian ambassador, that he\\nwould support the Russian demand with\\nregard to that land.\\nBy the Berlin Treaty England and Austria\\nwere invested with a special responsibility\\nfor protecting the integrity of the Ottoman\\nEmpire against Russian aggression Eng-\\nland in Asia Minor, and Austria in the\\nBalkans.\\nIf Russia attacked through Asia Minor\\nthe English interests would be imperilled\\nand by the disappearance of the Balkan\\nStates, then Austria would be open to\\nRussian immediate attacks a consummation\\nwhich would be little desired by that\\nPower.\\nThis responsibility has undoubtedly from\\nthat time engrossed the attention of Austria\\nand Hungary. She has had to encounter\\nseveral difficulties. Bessarabia was no longer\\na Turkish province, and had been ceded\\nto Russia by the Salisbury-Schouvaloff\\nmemorandum. Also there was no possi-\\nbility of the Balkan States being confede-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0207.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "200 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nrated owing to the different races, language,\\nand feelings of the nationality.\\nIn September, 1879, Bismarck visited\\nVienna and concluded an Austro-German de-\\nfensive alliance against the alliance of France\\nand Russia. Bismarck, however, described\\nthe German policy in the following terse\\nmanner Fight by all means, if you feel\\nyourself strong enough to beat Russia\\nsingle-handed. France and Germany will\\nsee all fair, and you can hardly expect any-\\nbody effectually to help you.\\nNotwithstanding these rather unfavourable\\ncircumstances, and her financial difficulties as\\nwell, still the policy of Austria is at the\\npresent time carried on straightforwardly and\\nvigorously, and the duty with which she\\ncharged herself at the Berlin Treaty is ably\\ndone, and is well backed up by the five\\nmillion Magyars who inhabit Hungary and\\nthe adjoining provinces. This nation had\\nbeen cruelly put under Austria by Russia.\\n(1848-49), and consequently their hatred\\nagainst Russia was deeply rooted.\\nAt present, therefore, Russia s schemes", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0208.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN Q UES TION, 20 1\\nwith regard to Constantinople have been\\nfrustrated, and Austria holds the lead in the\\nBalkan Peninsula race.\\nAustria was asked to occupy Bosnia and\\nHerzegovina, in order to secure peace and\\norder there. She did so, and, notwithstand-\\ning an armed resistance, entered and fulfilled\\nher promise. She is now strengthening her\\nhold on these states by stationary garrisons\\nof soldiers in different parts, and also Jesuits,\\nwho exercise a moral influence over the\\npeople. The affairs of Servia have also\\ndeeply occupied the attention of the Austrian\\nGovernment. She captured King Milan,\\nand used him as a tool for her own purposes.\\nRussia, however, desired to get hold of\\nServia through the ex-queen.\\nIntrigues at the Servian Court were\\nnumerous, and at last the miserable divorce\\nof the king and queen leaked out. The\\npresent young king ascended the throne.\\nThis was a blow to the Austrian influence.\\nBulgaria had been declared an independent\\ncountry by the Berlin Treaty. On this state\\nthe question of supremacy between Russia", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0209.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "2o2 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand Austria in the Balkans hangs to a great\\ndegree. In 1855 Bulgaria and Eastern\\nRoumelia were united into a single state.\\nThis revolution occasioned very great dis-\\npleasure in Russia, and under her influence\\nPrince Alexander was kidnapped and com-\\npelled to abdicate, and Prince Ferdinand of\\nCoburg was elected as the ruling prince.\\nAlthough of German extraction, he is\\nan Austrian by allegiance, and a Roman\\nCatholic. He was originally an officer in\\nthe Hungarian army. There seems to me no\\ndoubt that his election was illegal, because,\\nin the first place, by the Berlin Treaty the\\nruling prince must belong to the Greek\\nChurch.\\nPrince Ferdinand was quite ready to sub-\\nmit his claim for decision to the Great\\nPowers, and abide by the result. All the\\nPowers except England and Austria declared\\nthat he had no claim to the crown, but the\\ntwo had their own way, and he ascended\\nthe Bulgarian throne another repulse and\\nblow to Russian influence. Prince Alexander\\nmeanwhile was given a post in the Austro-", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0210.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 203\\nHungarian army. Only recently, to show\\nthe friendly spirit that exists between Austria\\nand Bulgaria, a loan has been concluded\\nand advanced by the former to the latter.\\nUndoubtedly Austria committed a slight\\nmistake in her policy with regard to Greece.\\nShe had arrogantly displayed her fleet and\\nstrength at Salonika, which no doubt was a\\nsource of irritation to Greece. Her best\\npolicy would have been kindness and con-\\nsideration, not forcible means, for the pros-\\nperity of Austria was to a certain extent\\ndependent on her treatment of neighbouring\\ncountries, and, together with the Great Powers\\nshe was to a certain extent dependent upon\\nGreece s action. The latter, therefore, was\\na necessary bulwark against Russian en-\\ncroachments, and was thus of primary im-\\nportance to England, France, and Italy.\\nIf, therefore, the Turks were driven from\\nEurope, Greece would occupy the place of\\nTurkey with regard to Russia, and would be\\nthe only obstacle to Russian Mediterranean\\nadvance. I would never permit, said the\\nCzar Nicholas, such an extension of Greece", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0211.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nas would render her a powerful state. Truly\\nGreece might well be called the Belgium of\\nthe Mediterranean\\nBy the Berlin Treaty the Porte was advised\\nto cede Thessaly and Epirus to Greece. This\\nwas done, and as the Greeks were noted for\\nbeing good traders and sailors, great progress\\nand improvement was made in their newly\\nacquired territory.\\nIt is difficult to see the reason why the\\nBerlin Coneress did not advise the Porte to\\ncede Crete to Greece. If the island was left\\nalone it would be harmless, and exercise no\\ninfluence on the naval supremacy of the\\nMediterranean.\\nHowever, an occupation of Crete by a Euro-\\npean Power would to a great extent change\\nthe balance of naval power in the Mediter-\\nranean, destroy European tranquillity and\\npeace, the Levant would be in the hands of\\nthe Cretan occupiers. Again, its position\\nwould completely command the yEgean Sea,\\nand if properly fortified might be rendered\\nalmost impregnable. Its natural- wealth,\\npopulation, and general productiveness", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0212.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 205\\nafford ample resources both in times of\\nwar and peace in fact, it might be very-\\nwell termed the Second Gate to the Black\\nSea.\\nTherefore it seems to me the best policy\\nto let this important island remain in a\\nneutral state by an agreement between the\\nGreat Powers, and the sooner it is agreed\\nto the better it would be for the peace of\\nEurope generally.\\nIn my opinion it would have been better\\nto have placed it under Grecian rule for the\\nfollowing reasons\\n(1) Because Greece herself was a neutral\\nnation. (2) They were a commercial people,\\nand peaceful, which would have a beneficial\\neffect upon the island. (3) More than half\\nof the Cretan population are of Grecian\\nextraction.\\nThere is no doubt that if any one I of the\\nGreat Powers had proposed the cession of\\n1 At the ninth meeting of the Congress the Greek\\ndelegates asked the Congress to sanction the annexation\\nto the Hellenic Kingdom of the island of Crete, and the\\nprovince of Thessaly and Epirus (The Duke of Argyll s\\n11 The Eastern Question, vol. ii. p. 167).", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0213.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "206 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nCrete to Greece it would have met with the\\ngeneral approbation of the Congress. This\\nwould not have met with Turkish opposition,\\nparticularly as England had before the Berlin\\nCongress mentioned it in the Anglo-Turkish\\nagreement and to show that Turkey did not\\nattach much importance to Crete, it is related\\nin Turkish history that it was offered to\\nMehemet Ali as a reward for his help in the\\nGreek insurrection besides, the national force\\nof Turkey was not large enough to utilize\\nthe strong natural position of the island.\\nAustria, 1 unless she had been influenced by\\nher national vanity, would have agreed to\\nsuch a proposal owing to the great value as a\\nnational defence that she received from the\\nBalkan States. Again, Germany, France,\\n1 Russia had pointedly and emphatically declared\\nthat she would not oppose any larger measure of liberty\\nwhich the Congress might desire to secure to the\\nprovinces bordering on Greece. There was no symptom\\nof any serious opposition from any other Powers. But\\nEngland had deserted the cause of Greece, because they\\nsold it to the Turks as part of the price to be paid for the\\nisland of Cyprus (The Duke of Argyll s, The Eastern\\nQuestion, vol. ii. p. 170).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0214.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 207\\nand Italy could find no reasonable argument\\nfor opposing this plan.\\nThe policy of England with regard to a\\nneutral state has always been to strengthen\\nits national power, and that to such a degree\\nas to properly maintain its fixed neutrality.\\nIn 181 5 England ceded the Java Islands\\nto the Dutch on the formation of the Nether-\\nlands at the Congress of Vienna. Why did\\nshe do this For this reason because by\\ndoing this the new States would be rendered\\nneutral in case of a French or German inva-\\nsion, and by this cession of Java the Dutch\\nnational power was increased in every way,\\nand their power of maintaining a strict\\nneutrality rendered stronger.\\nAnother instance may strengthen my\\nstatement. Corfu, an important military\\nand naval post, was put under English\\nprotection at the Vienna Congress, 1815.\\nLord Palmerston at one time saw that it\\nwould be impolitic to hand over Corfu to\\nAustria, and declared that the islands ought\\nnever to be abandoned by England.\\nHowever, when the new kingdom of", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0215.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "2oS JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nGreece was formed England cordially agreed\\nto hand over Corfu and several other islands\\nto Greece, on the condition that the Greeks\\nshould choose a king subject to the approval\\nof England. The fortifications of Corfu were\\ndemolished, and the neutrality of the islands\\nwas declared by the Great Powers.\\nThese circumstances, then, tend to show us\\nthat England was distinctly favourable to\\nthe cession of Crete to Greece, and they were\\nconsiderably strengthened by the fact that\\nGreece was an ally of England, and the\\ncommercial relations between the two were\\nvery free.\\nThere is no doubt that the marriage of the\\nCrown Prince of Greece with a German\\nPrincess (1889) has morally strengthened\\nthe position and power of Greece. However,\\nGreece still needs material strength for the\\nmaintenance of a strict neutrality.\\n1 Returning to Greece, said Beaconsfield, no one\\ncould doubt as to the future of this country. States,\\nlike individuals, which have a future, are in a position to\\nbe able to wait (The Duke of Argyll s The Eastern\\nQuestion, vol. ii. p. 169).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0216.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 209\\nTurning- to another country, we find that it\\nis a matter of considerable doubt whether\\nBelgium can maintain a firm neutrality in\\ncase of a Franco-German war. At the time\\nof Lord Palmerston she might perhaps have\\nbeen able to do so, but the recent discoveries\\nin the world of science, and their application\\nto military purposes, and the immense increase\\nof the French and German armies, have\\nchanged the military world, and the neutrality\\nof Belgium is a doubtful point. In 1887 an\\nimportant discussion on this question took\\nplace, which resulted in the fortification of\\nNamur and Liege. This was followed by\\nthe fortification of the Meuse, but it is said\\nthat the Belgians have not enough troops to\\ngarrison these newly-made defences. It has\\nbeen publicly admitted in Belgium that their\\nnational force is not sufficient to defend a\\nviolation of neutrality against France and\\nGermany, therefore Belgium must regard\\nthe first violator of her neutrality as her\\nnational enemy, and will be obliged to ally\\nherself with a nation which is an enemy of\\nthe state which has violated neutrality. This\\n14", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0217.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "2io JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nis not the Belgium which Lord Palmerston\\nmeant it to be.\\nAnother important fact is that since the\\nFranco-German war German attention has\\nbeen turned to the North Sea, and a new\\nnaval harbour and arsenal have been built at\\nWihelmshafen. Two other large harbours\\nin the North Sea have also been improved\\nlately, viz., Hamburg and Bremen. Kiel,\\nthe finest port on the Baltic, has been confis-\\ncated, and is now connected with the North\\nSea by a canal, through which ships of large\\ntonnage may one day pass. Numerous\\nironclads and fleets of large merchant and\\nemigrant steam vessels have been constructed\\nwhich, in case of war, can be armed and\\nturned into transports. Her land forces have\\nbeen well organized and augmented, and\\nmilitary tactics scientifically developed. From\\nthese threatening facts it is certain that in the\\nevent of a Franco-German war both Holland\\nand Belgium would occupy most dangerous\\npositions. Having these events staring them\\nin the face, only one expedient could present\\nitself to the two states, viz., union. This", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0218.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION, 211\\nwould enable them to show a powerful front\\nto the rival Powers, and would enable them\\nboth to maintain a united fixed neutrality,\\nthus showing Lord Palmerston s mistaken\\npolicy of the separation of the two states to\\nbe a weak one with regard to the present\\nstate of affairs, though perhaps it may have\\nserved its purpose at that time.\\nAll these arguments go to prove that a\\ncession of Crete to Greece would be beneficial\\nto both European and Grecian interests.\\nConstantinople was hardly mentioned in\\nthe Berlin Treaty, although it is said that\\nLord Beaconsfield had suggested to General\\nIgnatieff a Russian occupation of the Bos-\\nphorus with an English one of Mitylene.\\nIgnatieff said, however, that Mitylene was\\ntoo near, as it was only two hours steam\\nfrom the north of the Dardanelles. Lord\\nBeaconsfield did not, therefore, press the\\ndiscussion. The importance of Constanti-\\nnople can be explained in a few words.\\nBy possession of the Straits Russia would\\nbe able to make the Black Sea a second\\nCaspian, whose coasts are left undefended,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0219.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nand it would become a great Russian arsenal,\\nfor ten or fifteen thousand troops would\\nbe sufficient to shut out an English fleet from\\nthe Straits, and by this means quite two\\nhundred thousand Russian troops could be\\nwithdrawn from the Black Sea and turned to\\nthe Balkans, Asia Minor, or Central Asia.\\nThe Anglo-Turkish Convention.\\nNotwithstanding the fact that Austria has\\nfulfilled her contract in preventing Russian\\naggression through the Balkans, yet Russia\\ncould find a way through Asia Minor,\\nalthough her progress through Asia was\\nstopped by England at the Anglo-Turkish\\nConvention.\\nBy this treaty, however, England committed\\na still more grave and serious breach of the\\nTreaties of 1856 and 1871 than by this\\nBerlin Treaty. Yet although England and\\nRussia had made a secret agreement before-\\nhand, still the Berlin Treaty was discussed\\nand drawn up by the Congress. Therefore\\nEngland was only morally to blame. But", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0220.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 213\\nthe Anglo-Turkish Convention was concluded\\nbetween the two countries themselves, and\\nwas never submitted for the consideration of\\nthe Great Powers. Lord Beaconsfield sought\\nto screen England by declaring that Russia\\nhad concluded the San Stefano Treaty with\\nTurkey without the knowledge and consent\\nof the Powers, and Russia herself, therefore,\\nhad broken the principles of the 1856 and\\n1 87 1 Treaties. Yet this did not conceal the\\nfact that England herself had not acted up\\nto her tenets in the Anglo-Turkish Conven-\\ntion.\\nThe Porte ceded Ardahan, Kars, and\\nBatoum, together with its port, to Russia.\\nEngland occupied Cyprus, and engaged to\\ndefend Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Palestine,\\nAssyria, Arabia, and Armenia, against Rus-\\nsian invasion.\\nHas England performed her contract in\\nAsiatic Turkey as Austria has done in the\\nBalkans We will see. Cyprus is left\\nalmost in the same condition as it was before\\nour English occupation, and nothing has\\nbeen done by England for the defence of", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0221.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "214 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nAsiatic Turkey, while only a few hundred\\nsoldiers guard against a Russian invasion\\nin Asia Minor. Surely this cannot be\\na sufficient number of men to withstand a\\nRussian army. What, then, has become of\\nthe Anglo-Turkish Convention Russia has\\ntaken advantage of this, and is doing her\\nutmost to bring about war in that quarter.\\nBy the Berlin Treaty the Russian Emperor\\ndeclared that it was his intention to constitute\\nBatoum a free port essentially commercial.\\nLord Salisbury interpreted this remark that\\nthe port of Batoum was to be only a com-\\nmercial port. The Russian Emperor has,\\nhowever, changed his intention, and Batoum\\nis essentially a fortress, and is connected with\\nPoti by a railway through Kutais.\\nWhy cannot, therefore, Russia have an idea\\nof breaking the Berlin Treaty with equal\\nfreedom as England did with regard to the\\nTreaties of 1856 and 1871 by concluding the\\nAnglo-Turkish Convention single-handed\\nIt seems to me that Russia has a great\\nopportunity of advancing to Erzeroum, and\\nfrom there proceeding to Alexandretta and", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0222.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN QUES TION. 2 1 5\\nfrom there to Constantinople. At any rate\\nshe has ample opportunities of reaching the\\nPersian Gulf by piercing the northern fron-\\ntiers and western part of Persia, and thus\\ncompleting the far-seeing policies of Peter\\nthe Great, Nicholas, and Alexander.\\nHow can England withstand this When\\nCyprus was placed under English administra-\\ntion both France and Italy were opposed to\\nthis, France especially so, because she had a\\nspecial interest with regard to Syria, Mow-\\never, she concluded a secret agreement with\\nEngland, that the latter would consent to a\\nFrench Protectorate over Tunis, which was\\ndone in 1881, a protectorate which is now\\nextending to Tripoli. Many regard this\\naction of France as an indirect third offer of\\nEgypt to England, the first having been\\nmade by Nicholas I., and the second by Louis\\nPhilippe.\\nWhatever the French occupation of Tunis\\nmight be, England occupied Egypt in 1885,\\nthus fulfilling Lord Palmerstons prophecy of\\na quarter of a century before, when he said\\nthat if a practicable waterway were created", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0223.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "216 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nbetween the Gulf of Pelusium and the Red\\nSea England would be compelled sooner or\\nlater to annex Egypt, and that he opposed\\nM. de Lessep s scheme because he considered\\nit undesirable that England should annex\\nterritory in that part of the world. l\\nThe Suez Canal was opened in 1869, and\\nLord Palmerston s prophecy was fulfilled.\\nIn 1875 tne English Government purchased\\nthe Khedive s shares (,\u00c2\u00a34,000,000) in the\\nSuez Canal, and this was followed by the\\nbombardment of Alexandria by the British\\nfleet in 1885. The chief aim of the English\\noccupation of Egypt was to possess the inns\\non the north road. 2\\n1 The explanation of Lord Palmerston s opposition\\nto M. de Lessep s scheme, which was given confidentally\\nby him to one of his subordinates in the Foreign Office.\\n2 We do not want Egypt, or wish it for ourselves\\nany more than any rational man, with an estate in the\\nnorth of England and a residence in the south, would\\nhave wished to possess the inns on the north road. All\\nhe could want would have been that the inns should be\\nwell kept, always accessible, and furnishing him, when he\\ncame, with mutton chops and post horses. We want to\\ntrade with Egypt, and to travel through Egypt (Lord\\nPalmerston s Letter to Lord Cowley, November 25, 1859).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0224.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 217\\nIt will be impossible to avoid the conflict\\nof English and French interests as long as\\nthere is only one route through the Suez\\nCanal to India, and an Anglo-French alliance\\non the subject seems to be far distant, par-\\nticularly as England has three-fourths of the\\ntraffic through the canal.\\nIt is also a matter of great importance that\\nEngland should keep Egypt orderly and\\npeaceful. Lord Salisbury, in an excellent\\nspeech on Lord Mayor s Day, 1889, said\\nWe (English) have undertaken to sustain\\nEgypt until she is competent to sustain\\nherself against every enemy, foreign or\\ndomestic. We cannot see that that time\\nhas yet arrived. It may arrive quicker or\\nlater. Other Powers may help us by con-\\ncurring in measures which will improve the\\nposition and increase the prosperity of\\nEgypt, or they may defer that day by taking\\nan opposite course. But whether the day\\ncomes sooner or later, our policy remains\\nunaltered, and we will pursue our task to the\\nend.\\nWe can easily get at the pith of Lord", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0225.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "2i3 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nSalisbury s speech. If France again became\\na co-partner of England in establishing peace\\nand order in Egypt, then England would be\\nquite willing to restore the dual control\\nwith regard to Egypt, and Lord Salisbury in\\n1878 had declared that England did not\\ndesire to annex Egypt.\\nThe dual control of France and England\\nwith regard to Egypt might possibly settle\\naffairs there temporarily, or neutralize that\\ncountry on the same lines as Belgium but\\nstill this is not a sufficient o-uarantee against\\nan Anglo-French dispute on the Egyptian\\nquestion.\\nThe French Government of the present\\nday is not noted for stability, always chang-\\ning, never agreeing, and ready for foreign\\nquarrels, and although now they are support-\\ning the English Government in Egypt, it is\\nnot safe to depend upon them, for the feeling\\nof rivalry is sure to arise, and great caution\\nhas to be exercised in order to prevent\\ncomplications arising. No matter what\\nhappens, England must have free communi-\\ncation with India, and as long as there is", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0226.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 219\\nonly one road, ruptures will be inevitable,\\nand there can be no firm alliance as in the\\ncase of the Crimean War.\\nIt seems to me to be a favourable time to\\nsuggest to Turkey the construction of a rail-\\nway from Constantinople or some other port\\non the Mediterranean to Bussorah on the\\nPersian Gulf w T hy should not England\\nundertake the construction herself? This\\nroute would certainly possess four great\\nadvantages\\n(1) It would be a shorter route to India.\\n(2) It would be a valuable means of quick\\ntransportation of either Turkish or English\\ntroops for the defence oi Asia Minor.\\n(3) It would avoid a clashing of English\\nand French interests in Egypt to a certain\\nextent, and a dual control would thereby be\\nstrengthened, and would produce two more\\nresults, viz\\n(a) A firmer alliance between England\\nand France.\\n(6) England would be able to reduce her\\ntroops in Egypt, and devote them to the\\ndefence of Asia Minor, and by this means be", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0227.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nmore able to withstand Russian attacks in\\nthat quarter and in Persia.\\n(4) Lastly, Turkey would be strengthened\\nfinancially owing to the prosperity of her\\ncommerce, and productions in Asia Minor,\\nwhich is the usual effect of such a communi-\\ncation.\\nBy this means England can fulfil her\\npublic duty to Turkey, which she had under-\\ntaken to do by the Anglo-Turkish Conven-\\ntion, and can maintain her national honour\\npledged when Lord Beaconsfield and Count\\nAndrassy discussed the defence of Turkey\\nfrom Russian invasion in Asia and Europe.\\nIt is difficult to see why this railway\\nscheme was not brought forward at the\\nAnglo-Turkish Convention, because it\\nappears to me to be of primary importance\\nfor the defence of both Asia Minor and\\nIndia and also how it escaped the mind of\\nso clever a statesman as Lord Beaconsfield.\\nIt has, however, been informally discussed\\nboth at political meetings and by pamphlet\\nonly recently the financial difficulties seemed\\nquite surmountable, but political opinions", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0228.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 221\\nare decidedly at variance on the subject.\\nBut it is my opinion that England would be\\nperfectly right in compelling Turkey to carry\\nout this scheme, and if she was not able to\\nexecute it, then England could perform it\\nherself, and she would be only fulfilling one\\nof the duties which she has undertaken to\\nperform with the Sultan at the Anglo-\\nTurkish Convention.\\nThe following articles strangely enough\\nappeared in one of the English daily\\npapers l\\nThe tradition, adhered to even by Lord\\nBeaconsfield, of remaining allied with Turkey\\nat all hazards, is no longer advocated even\\nby Conservative occupants of the Foreign\\nOffice. Since the occupation by England of\\nCyprus, and still more of Egypt, Constanti-\\nnople has lost much of its importance to\\nEngland. The Russian fleet in the Black\\nSea would, in the event of war, pass through\\nthe Dardanelles, with or without the Sultan s\\nconsent, and advance into the Mediterranean.\\nThe rule of the Sultan at Constantinople,\\n1 Pall Mall, September 15, 1886.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0229.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\ntherefore, no longer affords a guarantee\\nagainst a Russian attack of the English\\npossessions in the Mediterranean. Russia\\nalready possesses a road to India via Merv,\\nand the possession of Constantinople could\\nafford her no resistance in this direction.\\nEngland, on the other hand, in the event\\nof Russia s impeding the conveyance of\\nEnglish troops through the Suez Canal, has\\nat her disposal another way to India, one\\nwhich leads exclusively through British\\ndominions the new Canadian railway. One\\nno longer thinks of defending India at\\nConstantinople, but in Afghanistan and on\\nthe Anglo-Afghan frontier. England has as\\nmuch interest as the other Powers in pre-\\nventing Russia from advancing towards\\nConstantinople, but this is no longer held to\\nbe a vital interest that would have to be\\nprotected even by force of arms.\\nThis is certainly a serious mistake in\\npolicy if backed up by the English Govern-\\nment, even more so than that of the Duke of\\nWellington, 182 7-1 830.\\nIf Constantinople were once occupied by", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0230.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 223\\nRussia, it is certain that Turkey would be a\\nthing of the past, the Russian fleet on the\\nBlack Sea would at once sail into the\\nMediterranean and attack the English\\nsupremacy there. The Russian occupation\\nwould enable them to withdraw quite 200,000\\ntroops from the Black Sea coasts which\\ncould be used for an attack on the Balkans,\\nArmenia, or Central Asia Cyprus would be\\nlost to England, and Asia Minor to Turkey\\nRussia would have a largely increased power\\nin the Mediterranean, and the Persian Gulf\\nwould be no longer open to English ships.\\nIf the Franco- Russian alliance of to-day\\nremained firm, and war was to be declared,\\nthen England wx uld only have two long\\nroutes to India: (a) round the Cape of Good\\nHope, (b) the new Canadian railway. Lord\\nCharles Beresford said, With the Cape\\nwell fortified and held by a military force,\\nEngland might laugh at the world. But\\nthe Cape would be unsafe, owing to France\\nhaving now firm hold of the Indian Ocean\\nMalta, viz., Madagascar.\\nNotwithstanding that the new Canadian", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0231.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nroute passes exclusively through British\\ndominions, yet it cannot be called a direct\\nroute, for it is certainly a seven days longer\\njourney than the Gibraltar route to Cal-\\ncutta. Russia, on the other hand, could\\nsend an immense number of troops in seven\\nor ten days from Moscow to the Afghan\\nfrontiers, and in about another extra day\\nfrom St. Petersburg, or the Caucasian\\nPeninsula.\\nThis would be all in favour of Russia\\ngaining the .first military move a matter of\\nextreme importance in the present advanced\\nstage of military tactics.\\nThis question may also be viewed from\\ntwo other points\\nFirst, Cobden l and Bright were once\\nunder the idea that if Russia occupied\\nConstantinople, she would change into a\\n1 If Russia obtained Constantinople, she must cease\\nto be barbarous before she could become formidable\\nand if she made a great navy, it must be by doing as the\\nVenetians, the Dutch, the English, and the Americans did,\\nby the accumulation of wealth, the exercise of industry,\\nthe superior skill and intelligence of her artizans\\n(Cobden s Manchester Speech).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0232.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 225\\npeaceful and civilized nation, and that Eng-\\nland would be materially benefited com-\\nmercially. This was merely an imaginary\\ndream, for there is no doubt in my mind\\nthat a Russian occupation of the Turkish\\ncapital is a preliminary to shutting out Eng-\\nlish trade from the Black Sea by heavy\\nprotective duties. Second, England has\\nengaged herself, together with the other\\nEuropean Powers, to respect the integrity\\nand independence of the Ottoman Empire\\nby the Treaties of Paris, London, and Berlin,\\nand still more emphatically by the Anglo-\\nTurkish Convention. If, therefore, she\\nfollowed the policy of leaving Constantinople\\nto its fate, and simply defended her interests\\non the Afghan frontiers, she would at once\\nbe branded with disgrace, and stigmatized as\\na breaker of the 1856, 1871, and 1878\\nTreaties, and a backslider from the Anglo-\\nTurkish Convention.\\nAt the present time, however, an indirect\\nchange of policy may be observed. Early\\nin March, 1889, the First Lord of the\\nAdmiralty (Lord George Hamilton) intro-\\n15", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0233.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nduced and passed the Naval Defences Bill,\\nauthorizing an expenditure of ^21,500,000\\non the Navy by constructing eight first\\nand two second-class battle-ships, nine first-\\nclass and thirty-three smaller cruisers, and\\neighteen torpedo gun-boats. This surely\\nimplies that England is determined to pre-\\nvent Russian encroachments both at Con-\\nstantinople and in the Mediterranean.\\nReviewing the above, the following things\\nseem plainly revealed, viz., that Russia has\\nin the majority of cases assumed an offensive\\npolicy while England has maintained a de-\\nfensive one with regard to Eastern Europe.\\nPitt started a splendid scheme of resist-\\nance against Russia Canning worked upon\\nit, and developed the European Concert\\nscheme with regard to Turkey; Palmerston\\nimproved, expanded, and eventually com-\\npleted a perfectly harmonious unison; while\\nBeaconsfield composed and worked varia-\\ntions upon the original strain of the Concert.\\nSurely the example of such noble and great\\nstatesmen is worthy of veneration both in\\nthe present and the future.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0234.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "IX.\\nCENTRAL ASIA.\\nRise of British power in India Rivalry of France Aims\\nof Napoleon Russian influence in Central Asia Its\\ngreat extension after the Crimean War And after\\nthe Berlin Congress Possible points of attack on\\nIndia Constantinople the real aim of Russia s Asiatic\\npolicy Recent Russian annexations and railways in\\nCentral Asia Reaction of Asiatic nvdventents on the\\nBalkan question Dangerous condition of Austria\\nPossible future Russian advances in Asia England s\\ntrue policy the co?istruction of a speedy route to India\\nby railway from the M edit err ajiean to the Persian\\nGulf\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Alliance of England, France, Turkey, Austria,\\nand Italy would effectively thzvart Russian schemes.\\nI do not mean to detain my readers for\\nany length of time upon this tedious subject\\nwhich has been so often discussed. I shall\\nsketch the policy of England and Russia in\\nthe region in question. However, it must\\nnot be forgotten that the subject is important,\\nas it leads up to the great Pacific Question\\nwhich will occupy European attention for\\nmany years to come.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0235.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nThe foundation of the British Empire in\\nIndia dates from the Battle of Plassey, June\\n2 3 1 757\u00c2\u00bb a n d Clive s Second Governorship\\nof the East India Company established the\\nIndia administration on a firm basis.\\nWarren Hastings improved and properly\\norganized the foundation laid by Clive, and\\nLord Cornwallis consolidated Bengal and\\nthe other chief states, and rendered them\\nfairly secure.\\nLord Wellesley was the first who felt fully\\nconvinced that England should be the per-\\nmanent predominant Power in India, and he\\ncarried out this policy by extensive sub-\\nsidiary alliances with native princes by which\\nthe states were placed under British pro-\\ntection.\\nIt is said that this policy was suggested\\nby the great events that were taking place\\nin Europe, where French ideas and French\\narms under the genius of Bonaparte were\\nreducing kingdoms and states to provinces\\nof an Empire. I\\nLord Minto first opened relations with the\\n1 Carlo s British India, p. 59.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0236.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 229\\nPunjaub, Afghanistan, and Persia. He was\\nsucceeded by Lord Moira, who saw that the\\nBritish frontiers in India could never be\\nsecured till the natural barrier of the Hima-\\nlayas and the sea were reached while Lord\\nDalhousie proved a faithful follower and im-\\nprover of this policy, and at last made India\\na completely organized state.\\nEngland s Opponents in British India.\\nThe Portuguese ascendency in India was\\nof short duration. It was followed by a\\nkeen rivalry between the English and\\nFrench, the former eventually obtaining the\\nprecedence. This was owing to the naval\\nsuperiority of the English in Indian seas,\\nunder the wise guidance of Chatham, sup-\\nported by the skilful military and civil ad-\\nministration of Clive and Hastings.\\nIn 1 797-1 798 Napoleon threatened to in-\\nvade India from the north; first he threatened\\nan attack from the Deccan, then in the\\nlatter part of the year he concluded an\\nalliance with several Asiatic princes pre-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0237.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "2jo JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nparatory to another attack from the same\\nquarter.\\nThe Marquis Wellesley was at once sent\\nout and landed in Madras, April 26, 1798.\\nAffairs seemed critical. Napoleon was pre-\\nparing for a great invasion of Egypt prior\\nto a descent on India. Tippoo Sultan, in\\nIndia was raising troops, disciplined under\\nFrench management, and strengthened by\\nFrench help, commanded by Raymond.\\nRao Sindia (the Mahratta ruler), the Pesha-\\nwar (Governor of Poonah), the Ameer of\\nAfghanistan, and Holkar were all hostile\\nto English interests in India, and threatened\\nto plunge everything into war with the\\nassistance of the French.\\nWellesley plainly saw that a defensive\\npolicy was the best. Accordingly he made\\nan alliance with some.of the Mahratta powers\\nto frustrate a French invasion from the\\nnorth. He also strongly urged the English\\nHome Government to take possession of\\nthe Cape of Good Hope, and the Isles of\\nFrance and Bourbon, in order to cut off\\nthe sea route to India from France. This", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0238.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 231\\nadvice was followed by the English Govern-\\nment, who retained Malta, Mauritius, the Cape\\nof Good Hope, and the Ionian Islands by the\\nprovisions of the Congress of Vienna, 18 15.\\nHe then began to crush Tippoo Sultan and\\nhis allies, and by the brilliant victories of\\nAssaye and Argaum brought them to his feet.\\nHaving conquered these Native states he\\nnow began to take measures to consolidate\\nthem. He allowed the princes to retain\\ntheir titles, but subjected them to the English\\nPower, which secured them from foreign\\naggression, and also let them have full liberty\\nwith regard to internal administration.\\nOn his recall in 1805 a policy of non-\\ninterference was carried on by his successor,\\nLord Cornvvallis.\\nDuring the Napoleonic European War,\\nLord Minto was Governor-General. Under\\nhis able administration the French Isles of\\nBourbon and Mauritius and the Dutch East\\nIndian Islands were captured. He also sent\\npolitical missions into Persia, Sindia, and\\nPoonah to crush down the French influence\\nand intrigue there.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0239.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "232 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nNapoleon fell in 1815, and the most for-\\nmidable opponent to British Indian interests\\ndisappeared.\\nYet the Marquis of Hastings and his suc-\\ncessors still carried out the same policy of\\nannexation as had been in existence during\\nthe alarms of Napoleon, and the Indian\\nfrontiers have ever since been keenly watched\\nand guarded from foreign attack. The second\\nMahratta War (181 7-1 8 19) and the first\\nBurmese War (1 824-1 826) are instances of\\nBritish watchfulness over the frontiers.\\nAs was to be expected, Russia appeared\\non the scene in the place of France, and\\nthe drama of the Anglo- Russian struggle in\\nAfghanistan was enacted in 1837.\\nFor some time previously Russia had been\\ngradually advancing into Central Asia. This\\nmovement started with Peter the Great,\\nwhile Alexander I. arranged with Napoleon\\nby the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) to annex what-\\never he pleased in Central Asia. Hence the\\nRussian boast of Nicholas that Russia has\\nno boundary in Central Asia. For some\\ntime, however, Turkish affairs occupied the", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0240.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "The Expansion of Russia in Asia.\\nSerf*", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0241.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0242.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 235\\nRussian minds, and Asia was left untouched,\\nwhile for twenty or thirty years after the fall\\nof Napoleon, all the great countries were\\nendeavouring to restore the balance of power\\nin Europe. Then in 1830 Russia began to\\nshow her hand, and seized Jaxartes, and in\\n1837 the siege of Herat by the Persians (no\\ndoubt incited by the Russians), which is\\nsometimes called the north-western gate of\\nIndia, and the failure of negotiations with\\nDost Mohammed, who was backed by Russian\\ninfluence, urged the English to take strong\\nmeasures in order to protect India from\\nRussian invasion, especially through the\\ntwo Afghan Passes, the Bolon and Khy-\\nber.\\nThe first English move was the sending\\nof an expedition to Cabul, and its occupation\\nin 1839. Its intention was to place a ruler\\nover Afghanistan who should be under Eng-\\nlish influence. This was considered defensive\\npolicy.\\nIn 1847 Lord Palmerston wrote to Lord\\nJohn Russell the following\\nThe roads through Persia are good, and", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0243.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "236 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nthe Caspian gives additional facilities. From\\nAstrabad through Afghanistan are very\\npracticable military roads. A Russian force\\nin occupation of Afghanistan might convert\\nAfghanistan into the advanced post of Russia.\\nThe annexation of Sind (1843), Punjaub\\n(1849), Oudh (1856), and the second Bur-\\nmese War (1852), are all policies on the same\\nlines.\\nJust at this period Russia was warmly\\nengaged with Turkish affairs, and in 1 853\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n1856 was employed in the Crimean War\\nagainst England, France, and Turkey. She\\nwas beaten, and by the Treaty of Paris was\\ndriven back from the Danube, and forbidden\\nto put a Russian fleet of any description in\\nthe Black Sea, and the fortifications of Sebas-\\ntopol were dismantled. Thus a Russian\\nadvance on the Balkans and Armenia seemed\\nthen almost hopeless. Therefore she turned\\nher attention to Central Asia, and vigorously\\ncarried out her plans for several years.\\nIn 1864 the Russian forces captured\\nTchenken, in Turkestan, and she had ad-\\nvanced as far as the river Syr Daria. In", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0244.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION.\\n237\\n1865 s h e declared war with Bokhara, and\\ncaptured Taskend, which was followed by the\\nsurrender of Khojind (1866).\\nIn 1 86 7 the province of Syr Adria was\\nannexed, and in the same year Nicholas in-\\nstalled a Russian Government in Turkestan.\\nIn 1868 Samarcand was subjugated, and the\\nAmeer of Bokhara was practically made a\\nvassal of the Czar. In 1869 Krasnovodok,\\non the east coast of the Caspian, next fell a\\nprey to Russian greed, and a fort was built\\nthere, and at present forms one of the Russian\\nmilitary outposts.\\nDuring and after the Franco-German War\\nshe was busily engaged in Central Asia, and\\nstill increased and extended her boundaries,\\nuntil at length the Oxus was reached, and\\nthe Clarendon boundary in 1872 for a time\\nstopped her roving footsteps. In 1873, how-\\never, the whole territory of the Khan of\\nKhiva was drawn in, and the river Atrak\\nwas now the boundary with Persia. Zeraf-\\nshan next fell before her, and now the Tian\\nShan mountains and the eastern part of\\nSemipolatinsk formed the eastern boundary", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0245.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "238 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nwith China. Lastly, 1876 saw the annexa-\\ntion of Ferghana.\\nLet us now direct our attention to the\\nEnglish frontiers and territory, which she\\nwas trying to consolidate more firmly.\\nThe Indian Mutiny of 1857 had led to the\\ntransferring of the Government of India from\\nthe East India Company to the Crown, and\\nthe reins of government from a Governor-\\nGeneral to a Viceroy (1858). The tour of\\nthe Prince of Wales through India, 1875\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n1876, had done a good deal of good in creat-\\ning a friendly feeling with the natives, and\\nhe had met with a brilliant reception. This\\nwas the preliminary to Queen Victoria being\\nproclaimed Empress of India in 1877.\\nThe Russo-Turkish War (1878), the San\\nStefano Treaty, and the Congress of Berlin,\\nproduced a new phase in the Afghan ques-\\ntion. The opposition of Austria to Russia\\nat the Balkans, the defence of England in\\nAsia Minor, both by the provisions of the\\nBerlin Treaty, and the Anglo-Turkish Con-\\nvention had frustrated the schemes of\\nRussia in Europe she therefore turned her", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0246.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 239\\nundivided energies to her advance in Central\\nAsia, with the object of dividing the atten-\\ntion and forces of the English between Asia\\nMinor and the Afghan frontiers.\\nIn 1880 the final conquest of the Turco-\\nmans along the northern frontier of Persia\\nand the east coast of the Caspian facilitated\\nher designs, and Askhabad was occupied.\\nThe dispute of the Kulja frontier with China\\nwas a winning move also in the eastern\\ndirection, also a part of Semipolatinsk was\\nadded, and fresh boundaries were made in\\nthe south-west of Ferghana towards the\\nChinese Empire, which measure caused Eng-\\nland to adopt a defensive policy by the third\\nBurmese War (1885).\\nIn 1882 the Russo-Merv Convention was\\nconcluded, finally deciding the submission of\\nthe latter, while in 1884 His Imperial\\nHighness (of Russia) had determined to ac-\\ncept the allegiance of the Merv-Turcomans,\\nand to send an officer to administer the\\ngovernment of that region. r The annexa-\\ntion of Merv gave Russia possession of the\\n1 Sir E. Thornton s telegram from St. Petersburg.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0247.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nriver Murghab, giving her an opportunity of\\nhaving a waterway to Herat if needed.\\nThis action compelled England to appoint\\na Commission to define the North-West\\nfrontier of Afghanistan (1885). England at\\nthis time was worried also with Egyptian\\naffairs. Russia, notwithstanding, advanced\\nand occupied Sarakhs and various other\\nposts on the North- West frontier, all being\\nstrategically important. This aroused the\\nEnglish Government, who at once asked for\\na vote of credit of ^11,000,000, and began\\nto show such a determined front that Russia\\nwas compelled to make certain conces-\\nsions.\\nHowever, at the conclusion of the negotia-\\ntions it was found that Russia had pushed\\nherself a considerable distance towards Herat,\\nand had reached Ak Robat, while the railway\\nto Samarcand was nearly finished. Thus\\nRussia certainly scored a winning point, and,\\nif desirous, could attack the Anglo-Indian\\nfrontier by three ways\\n(1) By advancing towards Cabul from\\nBokhara across the Oxus.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0248.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 241\\n(2) By marching towards Candahar vid\\nHerat by the Meshed line.\\n(3) By attacking the same place through\\nthe Attric Valley and Merv route.\\nThe unsettled condition of the boundary\\nbetween the Oxus and the Heri Rud, and\\nparticularly the Upper Oxus, will undoubtedly\\nprove a source of discord between Russia\\nand England for many years to come.\\nIn spite of the strenuous efforts of Russia\\nin advancing, and extending her power and\\nboundaries in Central Asia, yet her great and\\nabsorbing thought was not revealed openly\\nto the watchful eyes of European Powers,\\nviz., to have full control of Constantinople,\\nthe key to the Black Sea, and by obtaining\\nthis to command the Mediterranean and be\\nparamount in Western Europe.\\nA favourite manoeuvre in military opera-\\ntions is to try and divert an opponent s eyes\\nfrom the true point of attack, and by so doing\\nto weaken the opposition at that point.\\nAs we have casually mentioned before, the\\nelder Pitt conquered America in Germany,\\nand afterwards when Charles III. of Spain\\n16", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0249.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nconcluded a secret Treaty known as the\\n(third) Family compact with France, in-\\ntending really to make war upon England,\\nChatham determined to attack without delay\\nthe Havannah and Philippine Islands.\\nAeain, as another illustration of the above\\nstatement, we saw that Napoleon s Egyptian\\nexpedition and his invasion of Russia were\\nreally underhand blows at England.\\nBut why did he not attack America or\\nIreland Surely if he had sailed directly\\nfrom Brest, 1798, to either of the above\\nplaces, instead of going to Egypt as he did,\\nwith the combined fleets of France, Spain,\\nand Holland, he would have dealt a much\\ndeadlier blow at British power.\\nLet us examine the policy of Russia which\\nhas caused me to make the above statement.\\nCatherine II. had resolved to reach Con-\\nstantinople through the Balkan Peninsula.\\nPitt withstood this resolution by supporting\\nthe Ottoman Empire, together with Austria,\\nas conducive to the interests of both nations.\\nAustria, therefore, became an enemy of\\nRussia.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0250.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 243\\nAlexander I., therefore, seeing the united\\ninterests of England, France, Austria, and\\nTurkey allied against him, changed his front\\nand determined to reach Constantinople\\nalong the Caucasian route. He plainly saw\\nthat by this manoeuvre he would compel\\nEngland and France to defend the Caucasus.\\nAt the beginning of his career the Czar\\nNicholas followed the same plans as his\\npredecessor, but carried them out much more\\nfirmly he increased his field of operations\\nby invading Persia, 1 826-1 828, and occupied\\nArmenia.\\nBy this measure, no doubt, he expected to\\nattract either England or France, perhaps\\nboth of them, to the Caucasian Question,\\nthereby weakening the power of their alliance\\nin the Balkans. France certainly would feel\\nconsiderable uneasiness for the Holy Places\\nwhich had a special charm for her Catholic\\nfollowers. England would also have felt\\nqualms, seeing that if Russia occupied Persia,\\nand made it an outpost for attacking India\\nthrough Afghanistan she would have con-\\nsiderable trouble in defending her posses-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0251.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "244 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nsion. However, this scheme did not prove\\nso effective as Nicholas wished, for it did not\\ndivide the attention of England and France\\nin the Balkans.\\nRussia, therefore^ perceiving this, followed\\nthe Napoleonic scheme of a direct attack on\\nIndia with the help of several Asiatic states.\\nIn 1830 she first appeared in Central Asia\\nand soon subjugated Persia and induced the\\nShah to occupy Herat, 1837. Alarmed at\\nthis, the whole energy of England was\\ndirected towards Afghanistan, and special\\npreparations, which lasted for a quarter of a\\ncentury, were made to defend an attack from\\nthat quarter. The home affairs of England,\\ntogether with these alarming schemes of\\nRussia with regard to India, determined the\\nWellington Ministry to advocate non-inter-\\nference in Balkan affairs.\\nRussia also removed French opposition\\nfrom the Balkans to Syria by stirring up\\nquarrels between the Greek and Latin\\nChurches in Jerusalem. In addition to this,\\nas I have shown, Nicholas separated Eng-\\nland and France by his diplomatic tact.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0252.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 245\\nThus Turkey was left alone with Austria\\nin the Balkans. Nicholas then, feeling con-\\nfident of success, at once threatened Con-\\nstantinople by taking the steps which led to\\nthe Crimean War. He, however, over-\\nreached himself, and was beaten, as we have\\nseen, by the allied armies of England, France,\\nand Turkey.\\nImmediately after the Crimean War\\nRussia again stretched out her hands on\\nPersia as she had done in 1837. Lord\\nPalmerston, however, closed them by de-\\nclaring war with the same country. We\\nare beginning, wrote Lord Palmerston, to\\nrepel the first openings of trenches against\\nIndia by Russia, and whatever difficulties\\nFerokh may make about Afghanistan we\\nmay be sure that Russia is his prompt and\\nsecret backer. 1\\nIn 1857 the peace of Paris was concluded\\nby which the Shah renounced all claim over\\nHerat and Afghanistan. This was a clever\\npolitical stroke against a Russian attack on\\nIndia.\\n1 Lord Palmerston s Letter to Lord Clarendon, Feb.\\n17. i357-", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0253.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nIn 1849 Lord Palmerston wrote\\nPersia must, I (Lord Palmerston) fear,\\nnow be looked on as an advanced post for\\nRussia whenever she chooses to make use of\\nit. She will command it either by over-\\npowering force or by bribing the state by\\nprospect of acquisition in Afghanistan.\\nHowever, ultimately the same policy was\\nagain resorted to by the Czar to worry Eng-\\nland in Central Asia. Again the Russians\\nadvanced into Central Asia towards the\\nIndian frontier and extended their borders\\nboth south and east with great celerity.\\nBut a fresh complication arose extremely\\nfavourable for Russian plots. The Franco-\\nGerman War (1870) seemed to be an intro-\\nduction to the accomplishment of her wishes.\\nFrance was miserably defeated, while the\\nhands of Germany were fully tied up with\\nAlsace and Lorraine. Two formidable\\nopponents to Russian arms were therefore\\nplaced hors de combat. England and Austria\\nwere thus the only powers left for the\\ndefence of Constantinople. Austria had\\npreviously been weakened by a war with", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0254.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 247\\nPrussia. It therefore seemed that England\\nwas the only strong supporter of the Otto-\\nman Empire, and Russia determined to\\nconquer Turkey in Central Asia, so she\\nconquered and annexed Central Asia as far\\nas possible until her boundaries reached\\nAfghanistan and the Chinese Empire in\\n1874. Being naturally alarmed at these\\nencroachments, England again was obliged\\nto devote all her energies to the Indian and\\nAfghan frontiers, and engaged in the Afghan\\nWar.\\nRussia now saw that she was in a better\\nposition with regard to Turkey than she had\\nbeen before the Crimean War, for although\\nTurkey was still assisted by Austria, yet the\\nlatter had not fully recovered from the\\nPrusso-Austrian War. Again France was in\\na convulsed state, while England was\\nharassed with Afghan affairs. A general\\nalliance of the Mediterranean Powers seemed\\ntherefore impossible.\\nRussia, therefore, boldly declared war in\\n1878, and marched to the gates of Constan-\\ntinople, and eventually concluded the San", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0255.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nStefano Treaty. This aroused both England\\nand Austria, and, owing to their warlike\\nattitude, the Berlin Congress was convened,\\nand Russia again found her hands withheld\\nfrom the Turkish metropolis, although she\\nsucceeded in definitely dividing the attention\\nof England and Austria in the Balkans by\\nturning English eyes towards Asia Minor.\\nHer success was still greater in obtaining\\nthe outlet of the Danube and the arsenal of\\nBatoum in the Black Sea.\\nGlancing, then, at the situation generally,\\none can perceive that Russia saw that the\\nEnglish opposition in Asia Minor would\\nprove formidable, but she did not think that\\nthe Austrian defence of the Balkans would\\nturn out so dangerous to her hopes. Her\\nreasons for thinking this w r ere plain. Eng-\\nland at this crisis was a nation of the first\\nmagnitude, both in strength and wealth, and\\nif only she (England) had fortified and\\noccupied Cyprus as she ought to have done,\\nshe would have proved a valuable ally to\\nTurkey, and would also have commanded the\\n^Egean Sea. Russia saw that the most", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0256.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "THE EA S TERN Q UES T10N. 249\\nadvantageous policy would be to distract\\nEngland s attention both from Cyprus and\\nAsia Minor. To accomplish this she for the\\nthird time started to conquer Turkey through\\nCentral Asia.\\nIn 1878 she concluded a secret agreement\\nwith Persia by which the territory down to\\nSarakhs from the Russian frontier was ceded\\nto her. Her influence in Khorasan was\\nincreasing day by day, and especially so in\\nMeshed, owing to the skill and tact of\\nM. Vlassoff, the Russian Consul-General in\\nthat district. India was again threatened by\\nher, and Herat approached. Her boundaries\\nwere extended into the Chinese dominions,\\nand great uneasiness was caused in England\\nconcerning the boundary question of the\\nOxus.\\nThe most effective and important step,\\nhowever, taken by Russia for the accomplish-\\nment of her schemes, was the construction of\\nthe Caspian-Samarcand Railway. It was\\nstarted in 1881 with the primary object of\\nfacilitating the war operations of General\\nSkobeloff for the reduction of the Tekkes.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0257.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "25 o JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nLord Hartington called General Annenkoff,\\nthe promoter of the railway, a foolish\\nfellow. However, Samarcand was reached in\\n1885, during the time that an Anglo-Russian\\nwar was threatening about the Murghab\\nquestion. Thus a general military 1 com-\\nmunication of Russia with Asia was estab-\\nlished. She had three ways of sending\\ntroops and materials in the direction of the\\neastern shores of the Caspian\\n(1) From St. Petersburg to Saratoff on\\n1 Russia is divided into fifteen military districts,\\nwhich comprise also Finland, Siberia, the Caucasus, the\\nTrans-Caspian region, and Turkestan. The entire Russian\\neffective force, including officers, artillery, engineers, train,\\nc, consists of\\nRegular army 1,766,278\\nCossack troops 145,325\\nIrregular troops 6 33i\\nTotal 1,917,934\\nBy adding to these figures, the effective troops not\\nlevied in time of peace, say 100,000 men, we reach\\nan effective of 2,000,000 for the war footing. The\\nRussian militia, which may be called out in times of war,\\namounts to 3,000,000 men Harpers Magazine,\\nJanuary, 1890), The Russian Army by a Russian\\nGeneral.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0258.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION, 251\\nthe Volga, via Moscow, by railway, from\\nthere to Astrakhan by steamboat on the\\nriver, and from the latter place to Krau-\\nsaovodsk or Uzan Ada.\\n(2) From St. Petersburg to Voladis\\nCaucase per railway, from thence to Tiflis by\\npost road (an eighteen hours journey), from\\nTiflis to Baku by railway, and from there to\\nUzan Ada.\\n(3.) From Odessa or the Crimea to Poti\\non the eastern Black Sea coast by steam, from\\nPoti to Baku, and from there to Uzan Ada.\\nThe water traffic across, the Caspian, from\\nits differents ports is carried on by fifteen\\nships of the Caucasus and Mercury Company.\\nThey are in receipt of a large annual subsidy\\nfrom the state for the conveyance of mails\\nand troops, and also for the use of their boats\\nfor transport in case of war. One of these\\nfifteen steamers sails from Baku to Uzan\\nAda twice a week. 1\\nThe Trans-Caucasian Railway starts from\\nthe latter place, running east and afterwards\\nnorth-east to Merv. From there it proceeds\\n1 The Times,", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0259.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nin the same direction, crossing the Oxus,\\npassing Bokhara, and eventually terminates at\\nSamarcand a distance altogether of about\\nnine hundred miles.\\nThe work of laying the rails was done by\\ntwo battalions of Russian soldiers (five\\nhundred each) and also by five thousand\\nnative labourers, whose wage was threepence\\na day. Wages have since been increased to\\nsixpence a day. From the amount expended\\nin labour we can see that the railway\\nexpense did not prove inordinately dear, viz.,\\n30,000,000 roubles, including also the cost of\\nthe Siberian Railway, especially as the Russian\\nestimate at first was 60,000,000 roubles. The\\naverage rate of laying the rails was exceed-\\ningly rapid, viz., four or five miles a day.\\nThere are now one hundred and four\\nlocomotives and one thousand two hundred\\nwagons, fifteen new locomotives have lately\\nbeen ordered, six new passenger wagons, and\\neighty cistern cars. A commission has\\nrecently reported in favour of a further grant\\nto General Annenkoff of 8,000,000 roubles. 1\\n1 The Times,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0260.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 253\\nThis line has opened a wide field for\\ntrade with Central Asia. The traffic in\\n1888 alone was about ,\u00c2\u00a33,000,000, and\\nGeneral Annenkoff announced that the net\\nprofit of the railway in 1888 amounted to\\nabout ^80,000, that 2,000,000 pods of cotton\\nhad been conveyed by it during the same\\nyear, and that in 1889 a total of 4,000,000\\npods was anticipated. 1\\nViewing from a political and strategical\\npoint of view this railway has been an\\neven more important factor. The northern\\nfrontier of Persia by its means has been\\nplaced completely at the mercy of Russia,\\nand by it she was enabled to consolidate her\\nnew Asiatic territories which she had annexed\\nand conquered, Russian troops were able to\\nbe transported to the Afghan frontier at a\\nvery short notice from all parts of Russia.\\nWithout doubt the construction of the\\nTrans-Caspian Railway and its threatening\\nresults have proved of immense value\\nfor the success of Russia. By its means\\nEngland was induced to turn her attention\\n1 The Times.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0261.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "254 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nfrom Asia Minor to Indian affairs. This\\nresulted in embroiling England with the\\nsecond Afghan War, compelled her to appoint\\na boundary commission, and plunged her into\\nthe third Burmese War. All these catas-\\ntrophes compelled her to neglect her Anglo-\\nTurkish Convention promises a result aimed\\nat by her Russian friends\\nEven in Persia English influence is at a\\ndiscount, and proportionately Russian in-\\nfluence is rising. The appointment of Sir\\nH. D. Wolff, a clever diplomatist, to the\\nTeheran Court, and the brilliant reception\\naccorded to the Shah during his recent visit\\nby the English, were too late to do any good.\\nIt may do good, and it may not.\\nLet us now see what effect upon Austria\\nthe Russo-Asiatic policy had.\\nFirstly, Austria had been left alone to cope\\nwith Russia in the Balkans, and she was\\npracticably left to defend the Ottoman\\nEmpire. France and Germany were practic-\\nably disarmed, and were unable materially to\\nassist Turkey against Russia. England, as\\nwe have seen before, was occupied elsewhere,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0262.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 255\\nand had practically deserted Asia Minor,\\nalthough this might be altered if only she\\nwould station troops at Cyprus or somewhere\\nnear at hand. Austria did not wish for a\\nnaval alliance only, which she considered\\npractically useless in event of war, but she\\nwanted a complete alliance. An alliance\\nbetween the two Powers failed at the Berlin\\nCongress, and also in October, 1886.\\nThus Russia obtained her desires in\\ndividing the two Powers in Europe and Asia,\\nand prevented a general alliance by threaten-\\ning Central Asia.\\nCertainly Austria had performed her\\nBalkan duty well, although she was clearly\\noverweighted, and the result was internal\\nexhaustion, financial difficulties, social dis-\\ncontent, the result of pecuniary troubles. 1\\n1 A disastrous bankruptcy was the result of the wars\\nwhich marked the beginning of the century, and the\\ncrash of 1873 caused most serious loss both to state and\\nindividuals. The stock exchange of Vienna is one of\\nthose where speculation is not rife. The Budget of 1888\\nfor Austria gave ^41,335,000 as the amount of revenue,\\nand \u00c2\u00a348,030,000 as that of expenditure, and the public\\ndebt as ^83,091,060. For Hungary, the revenue was\\nin 1887 ,\u00c2\u00a328,937,630, and the expenditure 29,547,853.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0263.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nOf all the great European cities, the\\nsocialists are at the present moment strongest\\nin Vienna. An able political writer of the\\npresent day has said: The Dualism of the\\nMonarchy (Austria- Hungary) is very nearly\\ndead, and if Austria is to exist at all she\\nmust rapidly become tripartite, and ultimately\\nresolve herself into a somewhat loose con-\\nfederation. 1\\nThese domestic difficulties have caused her\\nto gradually lose her influence in the Balkans,\\nand the abdication of King Milan of Servia\\nhas proved a still more serious blow to her\\npower in that quarter.\\nIt seems to me impolitic for Russia to go\\nto war with the five million Magyars. It\\nwould be better to influence Austria so as to\\nincrease her internal discords and foster them\\nby skilful diplomacy if she wished to attain\\nher objects. For instance, to demonstrate\\nagainst the accession of Prince Ferdinand to\\nThe public debt for the whole of the Empire is twenty-\\nseven millions of florins Leger s History of Austro-\\nHungary (translated by Mrs. B. Hill), p. 633.\\n1 The Present Condition of European Politics,\\np. 203.", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0264.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUEST/ON. 257\\nthe Bulgarian throne, to oppose the Bulgarian\\nloans, and give pecuniary help herself to\\nimmigrants from Montenegro to Servia.\\nThe consequence would be that Austria\\ncould not possibly remain peaceful when\\ninhabited by bitter anti-Russian Magyars.\\nShe would have to make war preparations\\nand spend money, and would thus increase\\nher financial difficulties, and the result would\\nbe the breaking down of the Dual Monarchy,\\nthe personal union of fifty-six states, a\\nmixture of races, religions, and tongues.\\nA strong and compact confederation can\\nonly be obtained by sound financial dealings.\\nAustria once broken down by internal dis-\\ncord, then Constantinople and the Balkans\\nwould be Russian possessions.\\nIf Russia is desirous of accomplishing her\\nends, her great aim must be to prevent any\\nof the great Powers from making an alliance\\nwith Austria. Owing to the Franco-Russian\\nalliance, Russia is quite powerful enough to\\nhinder any effective alliance with Germany.\\nWith regard to an alliance with England,\\nthere is one strong barrier which, if kept up,\\n17", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0265.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC,\\nwill always prevent such a coalition, viz., the\\nTrans-Caspian Railway.\\nThe following ideas would still further\\nseparate the two Powers\\n(i) The extension of the railway from\\nSamarcand to Kokan, because from Kokan\\nRussia can threaten to push on her border\\nto Eastern Turkestan, and move southward\\nto Tibet, and from there will be able to\\nthreaten the territory of Cashmere, which\\nare the boundaries at present unsettled.\\n(2) An extension of railway from Samar-\\ncand to Tashkend, which is contemplated,\\nand when completed will connect Siberia\\nfrom a military point of view. It can be\\nalso taken north-west, along the north-\\neastern shore of the Aral Sea, and may be\\nconnected with the parent line at Orenburg,\\nand connected with Russia and Central Asia\\nfor military purposes.\\n(3) To construct a line from Mertvi, or\\nDead Bay, on the Caspian, to the western\\nshore of the Sea of Aral. This would prove\\nanother quick mode of transit, particularly\\nfrom St. Petersburg and Moscow to Kilif,", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0266.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 259\\non the Oxus, and also to Samarcand. At\\npresent steamers ply on the Amu Daria\\nfrom the Aral Sea southwards as far as\\nKilif on the northern boundary of Afghanis-\\ntan.\\nThese steamers are 20 feet broad, 150\\nfeet long, and are of 500-horse power, travel-\\nling 16 miles an hour, and are capable of\\nconveying 300 soldiers and 20 officers.\\n(4) To throw off a branch line from\\nBokhara to Kilif, and from there to Balkh.\\n(5) Two branch lines (a) from Merv to\\nHerat, via Penjdeh (J?) from Merv to\\nSarakhs, via Chacha, and still further to\\nKuhsan, in the direction of Herat.\\n(6) By entering the Persian dominion\\nfrom the present northern boundary to\\noccupy Meshed, proceeding thence to Kuhsan\\nto meet the line from Sarakhs.\\nIn consequence of the approaching depar-\\nture for Persia of M. de Buelzoff, the newly-\\nappointed minister at Teheran, most of the\\nRussian newspapers warmly advocated the\\nimmediate construction of a line from the\\nnorthern part of Persia.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0267.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "260 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\n(7) An extension of railway from Meshed\\nthrough Khorasan and Serstan southwards\\nas far as Nasirabad, and eventually to get a\\nport on the Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean.\\nOnce let Russia get the long-wished-for\\noutlet in the southern seas, and then she\\nwill be still more able to strike another\\nblow against English influence. There is\\nnot the least doubt that Persian affairs will\\noccupy the attention of England for some\\nyears to come.\\nAll these extensions will, if carried out,\\nmean a Russian invasion all along the\\nHindostan frontier, and thus would further\\nindirectly her European aspiration.\\nOn the other hand, looking from an Eng-\\nlish point of view, we can suggest a scheme\\nof frustration by means of sound and politic\\nadministration.\\nFor instance, at present large railways\\nstart from Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay,\\ntraversing Delhi and Lahore, terminating\\nat Peshawar; from Lahore the line runs to\\nKurrachee, on the Arabian Sea, and a\\nbranch line goes north-west from Sakkar", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0268.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 261\\nto Pishin, via Quetta. Thus we see the\\nEnglish defence of her Indian frontier is\\nfairly well looked after, although a for-\\nward policy of railway construction in\\nIndia may, and no doubt will, be advan-\\ntageous to English defence and commerce.\\nEngland is certainly heavily handicapped\\nowing to the want of a short and safe com-\\nmunication with India. The Suez Canal is\\nnot safe enough, both the Canadian Railway\\nand the Cape of Good Hope routes are long,\\ntherefore it is a matter of great moment\\nthat she should have a safe and quick route\\nby which she might despatch troops and\\nmaterials with celerity.\\nThe following route, if carried out, would\\nprove of the very greatest advantage to\\nEngland. First, the occupation of the\\nKarrack Island in the Persian Gulf, which\\nis in every respect suitable for a military\\nstation, having good water and being healthy.\\nIt is with truth often termed the key of the\\nPersian Gulf.\\nSecondly, a railway should be constructed\\nfrom Scandarum, on the Mediterranean, to", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0269.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "262 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nBussorah, on the Persian Gulf, through the\\nEuphrates Valley a saving of from seven\\nhundred to one thousand miles, and of\\nnearly four days.\\nIf an Afghan war arose, troops could be\\nlanded at Kurrachee instead of Bombay,\\nand time would be gained and the monsoon\\nalso avoided. Troops could be forwarded\\nat very short notice from Malta to Pishin\\nand Peshawar, with almost equal speed to\\nthat with which Russia can collect troops in\\nCentral Asia.\\nIf once opened, the trade of Central Asia,\\nIndia, and China would find its way by this\\nroute, and open out Persian and Indian\\nrelations with Europe as much as the Suez\\nCanal l did after its opening Persia would\\n1 A few years ago a swift voyage from England to\\nCalcutta, via the Cape of Good Hope, was from a\\nhundred and ten to a hundred and twenty days. Now\\nsteamers by way of the Canal make the same voyage in\\nabout thirty days. Here, then, is a diminution of 75 per\\ncent, on the enormous stocks of goods continually re-\\nquired to be held unused, involving continued risk of\\ndepreciation, loss of interest, cost of insurance, to meet\\nthe requirements of mere transit (S. A. Wells Prac-\\ntical Economics, p. 236).", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0270.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 263\\nbe considerably strengthened. It would\\nalso, together with the military occupation\\nof Karrack and Cyprus (if done properly),\\ngive a guarantee to both India and Persia\\nagainst Russian attacks.\\nThe distance from Scandarum to Bussorah\\nis only seven hundred miles, and would be\\nsafe against attacks, being protected by the\\ndouble rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, for\\nmost of its course. Its cost would be\\nestimated at ^9,000,000, which might easily\\nbe raised in the London market. Also if\\nthe Mudinia Aksu line be extended to Scan-\\ndarum, via Kiniah or the Scutari-Ismid line\\nto Aleppo, through Angora, Kaisariyeh, and\\nAbbiston, other beneficial effects may be\\nproduced. In the latter case it amounts,\\nand is practically similar, to an extension\\nof the Eastern Railway to the Persian\\nGulf, which starts from Paris, and passes\\nVienna, Belgrade, Sophia, Adrianople, ter-\\nminating at Constantinople. So a direct\\nland route could be obtained from Bussorah\\nto Calais or Rotterdam if a bridge was\\nconstructed over the Bosphorus.", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0271.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264 JAPAN AND THE PACIFIC.\\nAs I have already shown in chapter VIII.,\\nthe construction of the Euphrates Railway\\nwould avoid a Franco-English conflict of\\ninterests in Egypt to a certain extent, and\\na dual control would be established thus a\\nstrong and effective alliance would ensue,\\ncaused by mutual interests, and England\\nwould be able thereby to withdraw her\\ntroops from Egypt, and devote them to the\\ndefence of Asia Minor. Thus a firm alliance\\nbetween England and Turkey would follow,\\nand would prevent a Mahommedhan rebellion\\nin India against England, the Sultan being\\nlooked upon as the Mahommedhan Pope.\\nEngland will also be able to call Indian\\ntroops to her assistance in Asia Minor. It\\nwill follow that as a larger number of troops\\nand a better communication is obtained in\\nAsia Minor, Austria would be quite willing\\nto ally herself with England, instead of\\nrefusing, as she had done twice before, the\\nEnglish power at sea being only of little\\nuse. England and Austria therefore can\\nnot only jointly support Turkey, but also\\nEngland can come to the assistance of", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0272.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE EASTERN QUESTION. 265\\nAustria in Europe, and Austria make common\\ncause with England in the event of Turkey\\nbeing attacked in Asia Minor.\\nHaving a French, Austrian, and Turkish\\nalliance, England can send her home troops\\nboth to India and Asia Minor by the Eastern\\nRailway in a very short space of time, and\\ncan strengthen both countries and also help\\nin the Balkans if required, and a firm and\\nlasting alliance would be made.\\nWhy cannot Italy join this alliance It\\nis a matter of necessity and advantage, both\\ngeographically and strategically, to do so,\\nand if an alliance in Southern Europe could\\nthus be made, the safety of the Balkans,\\nAsia Minor, Persia, and Afghanistan might\\nbe assured, even if Germany joined Russia,\\nand the lofty hopes of Russia would be\\ndashed to the ground.\\nTHE END.\\niS", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0273.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "tifl e \u00c2\u00a9resrtjam ^rcggf,\\nUNWIN BROTHERS,\\nCHILWORTH AND LONDON.\\nBD- 95-", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0274.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0275.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0276.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3575", "width": "1994", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0277.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "A\\nw* v .-as-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2ij. ,0* A V\\no o\\nf^o\\nA", "height": "3494", "width": "1943", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0278.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "DOBBS BROS.\\nLIBRARY BINDING\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2JAN 7 8^ J\\n3 ST.MJGUSTINE \\\\fi C/\\nV V", "height": "3483", "width": "2065", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0279.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3484", "width": "2035", "jp2-path": "japanpacificandj00inag_0280.jp2"}}