{"1": {"fulltext": "f^^mmmmmi\\nEhemistry\\nITS Evolution\\nAND Achievements\\nf G WiECHMANN", "height": "4464", "width": "2832", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "SCIENCE SKETCHES\\nCHEMISTRY\\nITS\\nEVOLUTION AND ACHIEVEMENTS\\nBY\\nFerdinand G. Wiechmann, Ph.D.\\nNEW YORK\\nWILLIAM R. JENKINS\\n851-853 Sixth Avenue\\n1899\\nM", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "TWO COPIES RECEIVEID,\\nLibrary of Congrd8%\\nOffice f tha\\nMOV 1 6 I W\\nReglstir of Copyright^\\n56212\\nCopyright, i8gg, by F, G. Wiechmann\\n[A// rights reserved^\\nPRESS OF\\nWILLIAM R. JENKINS\\nNEW YORK", "height": "4435", "width": "2664", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "WITH LOVE\\nTO\\nMY WIFE", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "PREFACE,\\nIt seems to the writer that space might\\nbe found on the bookshelves of lovers of\\nknowledge for some modest volumes,\\nwhich, without wish or pretence to dis-\\nplace any learned treatises on the topics\\nthey discuss, would offer to their readers\\na correct and concise synopsis of the\\nsubjects they consider.\\nWorks of this description, Science\\nSketches would seem an appropriate\\ndesignation for them, should prove wel-\\ncome to all who take a general interest\\nin science. They should be of value to\\nstudents entering upon some special field\\nof study, presenting them with a general\\nsurvey of their chosen ground, and per-\\nchance might be acceptable even to\\nworkers in various branches of science,\\naffording them a ready acquaintance with\\nthe trend of thought in domains of learn-\\ning other than their own.\\nSome knowledge of the various phases\\nthrough which a science has passed is,", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "moreover, of value in teaching one to\\nplace a more j ust perhaps it were better\\nto say, a more modest estimate on the\\ntheories of the day. For, while it is\\nindisputable that a truth once discovered\\nis never lost, although the form in which\\nit is embodied may be altered, yet it is\\nalso beyond question that doctrines and\\ndicta pass away, even as the men who\\nformulate and pronounce them.\\nThe aim to enlist the interest of non-\\nprofessional readers in an exact science,\\nis an undertaking not without its diflS-\\nculties. On the one hand, care must be\\ntaken not to ground on the shoals of\\nsuperficiality; on the other, heed must\\nbe had not to drift into currents which\\nw^ould speedily carry beyond touch of all\\nsoundings. The selection of a course\\nthat shall pass clear of either danger\\ncertainly calls for the exercise of careful\\nconsideration.\\nPreparation of this sketch, Chem-\\nistry: its Evolution and Achievements,\\nhas been attempted on the lines indi-\\ncated. It is submitted to its readers in\\nthe hope that the grandeur and the\\ncharm of the science may prove discern-\\nible even through the veil of an inade-\\nquate presentation.", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "The writer s indebtedness to the au-\\nthors he has consulted, is indicated by a\\nlist of their works which is appended\\nacknowledgment is furthermore grate-\\nfully made of his special obligations to\\nthe classic writings of Hermann Kopp,\\nthe great historian of chemistry. Many\\nof the chronological data, appearing in\\nthe index of names, were secured from\\nvarious journals, biographies, dictionaries\\nand encyclopaedias.\\nF. G. W-\\nManhattan,\\nVll", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY:\\nITS\\nEVOLUTION AND ACHIEVEMENTS.\\nLa pensee et la matiere thought and\\nmatter, was the explanation of Rodin,\\nthe sculptor, when asked about the\\nsignificance of one of his beautiful crea-\\ntions, a woman s head, broad of brow\\nand of thoughtful mien, emerging from,\\n3^et fettered by, the rock w^hich gave it\\nlife.\\nXo representation more fitting than\\nthis could be selected should one seek to\\nsymbolize the Birth of Chemistry,\\nChemistry, the science of matter, has\\ntaken origin in, and rests upon, a basis\\nof fact broad, massive, secure.\\nEven as aeons have measured the slow\\naccretion of the rock w^hich has so admi-\\nrably served the sculptor s purpose, thus\\npassing ages have witnessed the gradual\\naccumulation and slow growth of the ma-\\nterial from which there has been wrought\\nthe science of chemistry we know to-da3\\\\", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Origin Its beginnings are lost in the haze of\\nistry remote past and undoubtedly date\\nback thousands of years to the time when\\nthe pressing needs of man taught him to\\nadapt to his own ends the means and the\\nmaterials which Nature placed at his\\ndisposal.\\nPassing beyond the domain of history\\nand entering the realm of legend and\\ntradition, we learn that the first to re-\\nceive instruction in chemical lore was\\nwoman.\\nThus, in the book Henoch^ originally\\nwritten about 115-110 B.C., account is\\ngiven of intimate relations existing be-\\ntween certain angels and some denizens\\nof this world.\\nOne of these angels, Azazel, is said to\\nhave taught women some of his arts, the\\nmaking of jewelry and the use of rouge,\\nand the beautifying of the eyebrows, and\\nthe most valuable and choice stones, and\\nall coloring-matters, and the metals of\\nthe earth.\\nThis legend is also met with in the\\nHomilies^ formerly ascribed to Clemens\\nRomanus, and it recurs in the following,\\nthe third, century, in the writings of\\nTertuUianus, De cultic feminarum, Zo-\\nsimos, who probably lived in the fourth\\n2", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "century, likewise quotes this story. It\\nwould thus appear that even in those\\ndays chemistry was held to have been\\nimparted to mankind in a distant past.\\nIn some of the earlier writings of the\\nalchemists these legends re-echo, for\\nthey also express the belief that chem-\\nistry, in the sense then attached to the\\nw^ord, had first been confided to woman\\nby superior beings. In a script claimed\\nto have been addressed by Isis to her son.\\nHoros, Isis relates that she had imposed,\\non the angel Amnael, as the price of her\\nfavor, the condition that he teach her the\\nsecret of making gold and silver; she\\nfurthermore states that she had succeeded\\nin obtaining the fulfillment of her desire.\\nBut recently news has come from the\\nfar East that Monsieur E. x\\\\melineau lias\\ndiscovered, at Abydos, in Eg3 pt, the\\ntombs of the god-kings Osiris, Seth and\\nHoros. This discovery would seem to\\nremove from the realm of myth-land,,\\nOsiris, Isis (his sister-wife, for her name\\nis mentioned on the tomb), and Horos,\\ntheir son; it seems to place before us tan-\\ngible evidence of the existence of mortals,\\nwho lived ten thousand years ago.\\nMay we hope that this tomb, whose\\nsilence of ages has at last been broken,\\n3", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "will yield some clue to the fabled, price-\\nless secret of Isis For, have we not the^\\ntestimony of Zosimos to the effect that\\nprecepts for the making of gold were\\nhewn in stone in the temple of the\\nEgyptian god Pthah\\nA legend to be found in the chronicles-\\nof John of Antioch (about the seventh\\ncentury) would interpret the story of the\\ngolden fleece as a record of the art of\\nmaking gold by chemical means these\\ndirections were said to have been in-\\nscribed upon the skin of an animal.\\nThere seems to be no positive evidence\\nto the effect that the Greeks and Romans\\nwere acquainted with the idea of the\\ntransmutation of metals, that is to say,\\nwith a belief in the production of pre-\\ncious, from base metals. A passage in\\nthe works of Pliny, Historia 7iaturalis^\\nhas, however, often been interpreted to\\nthis effect. Even the works of Homer\\nhave by some been thought to hold\\nalchemistic teachings and wisdom.\\nThe oldest manuscript on chemistry,\\nknown at the present time, is a papyrus\\npreserved at the University of Leyden.\\nThis papyrus is a book consisting of\\ntwenty leaves. Eight of these that is\\nto sa} sixteen pages are covered with\\n4", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "beautiful and most legible writing- in\\nunical characters.\\nThis papyrus came from Thebes, in\\nUpper Egypt, and is believed to have\\nbeen made in the fourth century of our\\nera, if not at an earlier period. It con-\\nsists of a collection of one hundred and\\none precepts, many of these bearing on\\nthe chemistry of the metals. It appears\\nto be an abstract made of other works, for\\nit frequently gives several methods for\\nthe accomplishment of a given purpose.\\nA Latin translation of this document, by\\nLeemans, appeared in 1885; a French\\nversion of the same was published by\\nBerthelot.\\nAs to the origin and meaning of the Origin.\\nterm chemistry, chimia^ in the form of\\nscie7itiam chiniiae, occurs for the first time Chem-\\nin the writings of Julius Maternus Fir-\\nmicus, who lived in the first half of the\\nfourth century. It is, however, open to\\nquestion whether the word was by him\\nused in the sense and as having the\\nmeaning which attached to it later. In\\nsome of the earlier editions of the astrol-\\nogy of Firmicus, entitled Mathcsis, not-\\nably in the one printed in 1497, the\\nexpression is given, not as chimiac, but\\nwith the Arabic prefix, as alchimiac,\\n5", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "Zosimos uses the word chema for the\\nknowledge imparted to man by superior\\nbeings, and employ s the term chemia\\napparently for designating the art of\\nproducing metals.\\nThe earliest Greek manuscripts which\\ndeal with these subjects rarely use the\\nexpression chemia^ but, instead, refer to\\nthe art of coloring, the art of making\\ngold, the art of philosophy, and the\\nsacred or divine art.\\nThe origin of this term has given rise\\nto much stud}^ and comment. It has\\nbeen held to have been derived from the\\nEgyptian, the Arabic and the Greek, and\\nvarious roots in these several languages\\nhave been assigned the role of its sponsor.\\nPlutarch, in the second half of the first\\ncentury, states in his work, Isis and\\nOsiris, that the priests of Egypt desig-\\nnated that country as Chemia, because of\\nits black soil. The black part of the eye,\\nthe pupil, was also known by this same\\nterm.\\nIt has been suggested that the word\\nhas been derived from the Arabic word\\nkema, which means hiding, secreting, and\\nthat the word al-kimija, Arabic for chem-\\nistry, therefore originally signified the\\nknowledge of the hidden, or the secret\\n6", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "art. The Arabians, however, primarily\\ndesignated by this word a preparation\\nmade from the philosopher s stone, which\\ncould bring about a transmutation of\\nother metals into gold or silver.\\nOther writers have maintained that the\\nterm was coined from the name of an\\nEgyptian king, Chemmis. In Sanscrit,\\nkema means gold, and the possibility of\\na derivation of the word chemia from this\\nroot has not been left unnoticed.\\nThe word has also been written as\\nchymia and as chimia^ and attempts have\\nbeen made to trace its derivation to the\\nGreek chymos, fluid or sap; it being in-\\nferred that the term was intended to\\nindicate the art of working wnth solu-\\ntions.\\nBefore the fourth century of the pre- Early\\nsent era, chemistry, in the sense of a J^af\\nscience, did not exist. Up to that time Knowl-\\nno attempts had been made to collate\\nknown facts, or to pursue the study of\\nnatural phenomena for the attainment of\\nany one definite aim or purpose.\\nThe oldest races of man of whom\\nrecords have been preserved, were in\\npossession of more or less knowledge of\\na chemical nature, all of which, however,\\nhad been empirically acquired.\\n7", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "Knowledge of metallurgical processes-\\ndates back to the very earliest of times.\\nThe originating of these arts and opera-\\ntions was, by most nations, ascribed to\\ntheir gods or heroes, and, in nearly all\\ninstances, a certain acquaintance with\\nthe working of metals will be found to be\\ncoeval with the beginnings of a nation s\\nhistory.\\nThe Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks\\nand Romans were among the nations\\npossessing empirical knowledge of certain\\nchemical facts and processes. With the\\nEgyptians the natural sciences were\\ntaught in the temples, by their priests.\\nThis knowledge was carefully guarded\\nand the cult was shrouded in mystery.\\nIt is not impossible that the Egyptians\\nhad some conception of chemistry as a\\nscience, but the evidence to this effect is\\nby no means conclusive.\\nIn the days of Homer, about looo b.c.^\\nthe Greeks regarded iron as a most pre-\\ncious metal this would indicate that at\\nthat time the Greeks could not have been\\npossessed of a very extensive metallur-\\ngical knowledge.\\nPliny is authority for the story, that\\nonce Tiberius was offered a cup wrought\\nof a beautiful metal this metal was\\n8", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "lighter than silver, but closely resem-\\nbled the same in appearance. I^earnin^\\nthat the metal of which the cup was\\nmade had been obtained from clay, and\\nthat no one save its maker knew the\\nprocess of its extracting, Tiberius had\\nthe unfortunate man destroyed, so that\\nhis secret should perish with him and\\nthat a depreciation of the precious metals,\\nwhich might have been caused by this\\nnewly found material, might be avoided.\\nMore than eighteen centuries passed by\\nere the soft lustre of aluminium was again,\\nbeheld by the eyes of man.\\nThe art of dyeing was known to the\\nEgyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks\\nand the Romans. In the manufacture of\\npottery the Egyptians excelled they\\nsometimes glazed their bricks and used\\ncolored enamel in the decorating of finer\\npieces of pottery. The making of glass\\nwas probably also an invention of the\\nEgyptians, notwithstanding that popular\\nbelief ascribes the discovery of this art\\nto the Phoenicians. The sons of the\\nblack soil furthermore possessed a\\nknowledge of embalming, being familiar\\nwith the use of certain chemicals which\\narrested the decay of organic tissue.\\nThe preparation of various beverages\\n9", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "by fermentation was also known in those\\nearly times, the mead of which old\\nNorseland sagas have so much to tell,,\\nwas thus made from honey.\\n^arly The ancients did not possess much\\nof knowledge of Nature which was based\\nT*^ upon observation and experimental in-\\nPhilo-\\nsophy vestigation. As a rule, their natural\\nphilosophy was purely speculative, al-\\nthough there were some thinkers iu\\nthose times who were as keen in ob-\\nserving as in reasoning.\\nMost of these philosophers, however,\\ntook some assumption to be true and\\nthen endeavored to reason out conclu-\\nsions from their premises. That their\\nconclusions were often not only at vari-\\nance with the truth, but diametrically\\nopposed to it, may be easily imagined.\\nWhile the fact is well known that specu-\\nlations concerning the ultimate particles\\nof the primary constituents of the uni-\\nverse were indulged in in very early\\ntimes, it must be clearly understood\\nthat such speculations of the early philo-\\nsophers were entirely distinct from, and\\nindependent of, any knowledge of chem-\\nical facts possessed at the time.\\nHaving given a passing glance at some\\nof the chemical data in possession of", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "the ancients, it may be of interest to con-\\nsider briefly the views entertained by\\nthem in respect to the nature and the\\nconstitution of matter.\\nThe oldest teachings of India held that\\nthe world was made of wind, water,\\nearth, fire and ether. Air, water, earth\\nand fire, the four so-called elements,\\nwere by Empedocles of Agrigent re-\\ngarded as the basis of the world. About\\nthe fifth century before our era, Demo-\\ncritus of Abdera assumed the existence of\\na primal form of matter. This he ima-\\ngined to be made up of the smallest\\npossible particles, which differed from\\none another in form and size, but not in\\nthe nature of their substance. These\\nparticles were supposed to be in a state\\nof continuous motion, forever entering\\ninto combinations, which combinations\\nanon suffered disintegration.\\nAristotle, a pupil of Plato and the Philo-\\npreceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of ^nstotle\\nMacedon, was the author of a system of\\nphilosophy which has endured longer\\nthan any other system of philosophy the\\nworld has ever known. Even in the\\nmiddle ages his views held dominance\\nand w^ere regarded as the embodiment of\\nall knowledge and truth. He considered\\nII", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "the properties of bodies to be the result of\\nthe simultaneous occurrence and inter-\\nmingling of certain fundamental condi-^\\ntions his teachings regarded component\\nelements only in the sense of bearers of\\nthese fundamental properties. Aristotle\\nwas far from looking upon the elements as\\nultimate particles the existence of which\\ncould be demonstrated and through the\\ncombination of which all bodies of the\\nuniverse were formed.\\nThe primary qualities, in his opinion,\\nwere those which were perceptible to the\\nsense of touch for instance, warm, cold,\\ndry, moist, heavy, light, hard, etc. Of\\nthese, he recognized the first four as the\\n.fundamental properties, partly because\\nthe other properties were not so common,\\nand partly because they could be re-\\ngarded as secondary phenomena caused\\nby combinations of some of the former.\\nHe assumed that each element was en-\\ndowed with two fundamental qualities,\\nand as one and the same element could\\nnot, at the same time, have two antagon-\\nistic properties, could not, for instance,\\nbe both wet and dry, only four com-\\nbinations were possible. The four ele-\\nmentary conditions of matter he dis-\\ntinguished were fire (simultaneous", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "dryness and heat), air (heat and damp-\\nness), water (cold and dampness), and\\nearth (cold and dryness). In addition\\nto these, this sage assumed the existence\\nof a fifth element. This was rather of\\na more ethereal nature, and was termed\\nEssentia. The Arabians accepted the\\ndoctrines of Aristotle about the sixth\\ncentury, and up to the sixteenth century\\nthe teachings of his school claimed as\\ndevoted believers and adherents most\\nscholars of all nations.\\nThe simpler substances into which Teach-\\ncomplex substances could be resolved q^^Jj^\\nwere, by the scholastics, termed elements. Schol-\\nNon-decomposibility and the possibility\\nof suffering transmutation were regarded\\nas properties common to all elements.\\nThe latter quality was held to be de-\\npendant on the similarity of the funda-\\nmental properties of the elements be-\\nlieved to be transmutable. As Aristotle\\ntaught, each element was possessed of\\ntwo properties, one in a greater, the\\nother in a less degree. Owing to the\\npreponderance of some one property\\nwhich two elements had in common, one\\nelement could readily be transformed\\ninto the other. Thus, air was warm and\\ndamp, water was damp and cold hence,\\n13", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "air could be transformed into water, and\\nwater into air.\\nDensity was considered as the result of\\ncold, which caused the particles of a body-\\nto approach close to each other. Poros-\\nity was regarded as the effect of warmth;\\nhardness as the result of dryness; soft-\\nness was believed to be produced by\\ndampness, and so forth.\\nAgain, the elements were classified as\\nlight and heavy. The former were fire\\nand air; of these, fire was the absolutely,\\nair the relatively, light element. Water\\nand earth were the heavy elements; water\\nthe relatively, and earth the absolutely,\\nheavy element.\\nBelief Given such views and doctrines, it is\\nTmn^s- difficult to understand that the most\\nmutation marvelous tales of transformations and\\nMatter transmutations could gain general cre-\\ndence. Water, from the earliest times,\\nwas looked upon as a simple, undecom-\\nposable form of matter. The Egyptians\\nand the inhabitants of India regarded it\\nas the fundamental substance from which\\nmany, if not all, other substances had\\nbeen produced.\\nThales, in Greece, about 600 B.C., thus\\ntaught, and Aristotle, as has been pre-\\nviously mentioned, considered water one\\n14", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "of the elements. Pliny ascribed the\\ncreation of water, the forming of clouds,\\nto the condensation of air air that is\\nto say, wind was believed to be pro-\\nduced from water.\\nCrystalline quartz was supposed to\\nconsist of water. Diodor, about 30 B.C.,\\nheld that it was formed from the purest\\nof water by the action of divine fire.\\nThe Greeks called quartz krystallos^\\nwhich signifies ice, and thus indicated\\ntheir belief that quartz was formed\\nfrom water not, however, through\\nthe agency of fire, but through long-\\ncontinued cold. Pliny, Seneca and others\\nalso bear testimony to this effect.\\nAgricola, in the sixteenth century, was\\nprobably the first to dispute this asser-\\ntion he suggested that if crystalline\\nquartz be made from water, in the man-\\nner suggested that is, as ice is formed\\nthen it too, like ice, should be lighter\\nthan water, and should be capable, like\\nice, of floating upon water. These views\\nof Agricola found some supporters, still,\\nbelief in the possibility of the transmuta-\\ntion of water into stone or into earth was\\nseriously discussed in Europe, even by\\neminent experimentators, but little more\\nthan one hundred years ago.\\n15", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "Alchemy The origin of alchemy is undoubtedly\\nto be sought for in remote antiquity.\\nThe legendary lore of the subject tales\\nof fair temptresses and of fallen angels,\\nthe story of the golden fleece and other\\ntraditions have been previously re-\\ncounted.\\nMost alchemists agreed upon Egypt as\\nhaving been the home of their art, and\\nacknowledged Hermes Trismegistos as\\none of the earliest masters, if not as the\\noriginator of their creed and craft. It\\nseems impossible to determine the indi-\\n4 viduality of Hermes if, indeed, he does\\nnot prove to have been but a purely\\nmythical creation. However that may\\nbe, his name occurs frequently in al-\\nchemistic treatises which were written\\nlater than the fourth century.\\nIn the eleventh century, an alchemist,\\nHortulanus, made public a I^atin version\\nof a brief essay which he ascribed to\\nHermes, and which came to be known as\\nthe tabula smaragdina. It is not known\\nin what language this precept was origin-\\nally composed, but it is probably one of\\nthe earliest of alchemistic writings. The\\nI^atin version of Hortulanus, as given by\\nKopp in his Geschichte der Chemiey is\\nhere reproduced and is followed by an\\ni6", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "English translation, for which the writer\\nis indebted to a kind and learned friend.\\nTABULA SMARAGDINA.\\nVerum est sine mendacio, certum et verissi-\\nmum Quod est inferius est sicut id quod est\\n:superius. Et quod est superius est sicut id\\nquod est inferius, ad perpetranda miracula rei\\nunius.\\nEt sicut res omnes fuerunt ab uno, medita-\\ntione unius sic omnes res natae fuerunt ab\\nhac una re, adoptione.\\nPater ejus est Sol, mater ejus est Luna. Porta-\\nTit illud ventus in ventre suo. Nutrix ejus\\nterra est. Pater omnis telesmi totius mundi est\\nhie. Virtus ejus integra est, si versa fuerit in\\nterram.\\nSeparabis terram ab igne, subtile a spisso,\\n^uaviter, magno cum ingenio. Ascendit a\\nterra in coelum, iterumque descendit in terram,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2et recipit vim superiorum et inferiorum.\\nSic habebis gloriam totius mundi. Ideo\\nfugiet a te omnis obscuritas.\\nHaec est totius fortitudinis fortitudo fortis,\\nquia vincet omnem rem subtilem, omnemque\\nsolidam penetrabit.\\nSic mundus creatus est.\\nHinc erunt adaptationes mirabiles, quarum\\nmodus est hie.\\nItaque vocatus sum Hermes Trismegistus,\\nhabens tres partes Philosophiae totius mundi.\\nCompletum est, quod dixi de operatione\\n5olis.\\nTHE EMERALD TABLET.\\nTrue it is without a lie, sure and most true\\n17", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "what is below is like that which is above. And\\nwhat is above is like that which is below, of one\\nsubstance to perform miracles.\\nAnd as all things have come from one being,\\nthe meditation of one, so all things have been\\ngenerated from this one thing by adoption.\\nIts father is the sun, its mother is the moon.\\nThe wind has carried it in its womb. Its nurse\\nis the earth. The father of every talisman of\\nthe whole world is this. Its power is unim-\\npaired when it is turned upon the earth.\\nSeparate the earth from the fire, the subtile\\nfrom the material, gently, with great clever-\\nness. It rises from earth to heaven and again\\ndescends upon earth, and receives the force of\\nthose above and those below.\\nThus thou wilt have the glory of the whole\\nworld. All obscurity, therefore, will leave\\nthee.\\nThis is of all strength the strong strength, be-\\nc .use it will subdue every subtile thing and\\npenetrate every solid.\\nThus has the world been created. Hence\\nthere will be wonderful adoptions whose\\nmeasure is this.\\nTherefore I have been called Hermes Tris-\\nmegistus, possessing three parts of the philo-\\nsophy of the whole world.\\nWhat I have said of the operation of the sun\\nhas been fulfilled.\\nx\\\\nd the meaning of this word- jungle\\nthrough which reason vainly seeks to\\nblaze a trail? Ah, **that is another\\nstory.\\ni8", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "The earliest piece of historical evidence Trans-\\nwhich can be adduced in support of the of Metals\\nclaim that attempts were made to obtain\\ngold and silver from alien substances,\\ndates back to the fourth century.\\nThemistos Euphrades, a Grecian orator\\nof the time, refers to the transmutation\\nof copper into silver and of silver into\\ngold as well known facts. But the first\\nindisputable record of belief in the trans-\\nmutation of silver, tin and copper into\\ngold, occurs toward the end of the fifth\\ncentury, in the writings of Aeneas\\nGazaeos, a native of Syria.\\nAs Kopp has well pointed out, it is\\nnot unlikely that in those early times a\\ncovering or plating of gold or silver may\\nhave been regarded as an actual trans-\\nmutation of the gilded or silvered objects\\ninto the precious metal.\\nIt was probably the production of al-\\nloys having the color of gold or of silver,\\nthat first led to a belief in the possibility\\nof transmutation. An alloy of copper\\nwith an impure oxide of zinc exhibits a\\nyellow color copper with arsenic yields\\na silvery white compound mercury and\\nlead form an amalgam which could easily\\nbe, and was, mistaken for tin.\\nObtaining silver from a lead ore, in\\n19", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "which it occurred naturally, was, by the\\nalchemists, regarded as proof that a pre-\\ncious metal could be produced from a\\nbase metal by transmutation. The de-\\nposition of metallic copper on iron, when\\nthis was inserted in a solution of some\\ncopper salt, w^as considered a case of\\nconversion of iron into copper. Distilla-\\ntion of a gold or silver amalgam which\\nresulted in the securing of the precious\\nmetal and the loss, by volatilization, of\\nthe mercury was, by the earlier alche-\\nmists, taken as a proof of the creation of\\nthe metal which remained in their hands\\nafter completion of the process.\\nAlchemy, therefore, most likely had\\nits origin in a misconception and misun-\\nderstanding of phenomena imperfectly\\nobserved.\\nSpread Egypt was certainly the home of\\nAlchemy ^^chemistic learning during the first\\ncenturies of the present chronology.\\nAlexandria with its high-school, de-\\nstroyed in 642, formed the central station\\nwhere adepts prosecuted and taught their\\nmysterious cult.\\nA new era for alchemy began with the\\nconquest of Egypt by the Arabians in\\nthe year 640. The conquerors soon came\\nto realize that a mere simulation of color\\n20", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "in alloys did not make gold and silver of\\nthose alloys. They, however, firmly be-\\nlieved that a complete transmutation of\\none metal into another could be effected,\\nand the achievement of this end formed\\nthe goal of their ambition and endeavor.\\nKnowledge of alchemy the Greek\\nterm chemia to w^hich the Arabic article\\nwas prefixed was carried by the Ara-\\nbians to Spain, which country they en-\\ntered in or about 711, after having\\npassed through northern Africa. From\\nSpain alchemy spread over western Eu-\\nrope in the thirteenth century the\\nHermetic art, or the art of the sun, as\\nalchemy was also termed, had its adhe-\\nrents, the so-called adepts, in Germany,\\nFrance and England. The two following\\ncenturies witnessed extension of the art\\nin other parts of the w^orld, but also\\ninitiated its decadence in Spain.\\nThe original and principal aim of Aims of\\nalchemy was the production of a sub- -^^^^^^^y\\nstance w^hich was variously designated as\\nthe philosopher s stone, the great elixir,\\nthe great magisterium, and the red\\ntincture.\\nThis material was supposed to have\\nthe power of transmuting base metals\\ninto gold, in fact, of creating gold, for a\\n21", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "small quantity of the philosopher s stone\\nwas believed to suffice to produce large\\nquantities of the precious metal.\\nThere seems to have been a consider-\\nable difference of opinion among the.\\nadepts as to the extent and the powers\\nof this medium. Some held that it could\\ntransform every base metal and any\\namount of it into gold others, that in a\\nless perfect condition it could transform\\nonly a limited amount of some certain\\nbase metal.\\nSome of the earlier alchemists distin-\\nguished between a great and a smalL\\nelixir, or a red and a white tincture.\\nThe former of these was deemed capable\\nof accomplishing the transmutation of\\nbase metals into gold, the latter of effect-\\ning their transformation into silver only.\\nManu- Directions for making the philosopher s\\nof the stone are numerous and varied, and often\\nPhiloso- mutually contradictory.\\nStone To outline the process in a general\\nway, it appears that, naturally, the first\\nrequisite was the securing of the crude\\nmaterial to be used. This substance was\\nknown as materia prima criida^ as terra\\nvirginea^ and by various other terms, and\\nthe obtaining of this substance was re-\\ngarded as the most difficult part of the", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "whole undertaking. ^11 n y a que le\\npremier pas quicoute/* as the French\\nhave It. Although it was believed to\\noccur in great quantities, its identity was\\nunknown to the workers and the search\\nfor this substance extended to and\\nthrough almost all things under the\\nheavens.\\nFrom this materia prima cruda there\\nwas to be obtained the 7nateria prima\\nmatura^ also designated as mercurius phi-\\nlosophorum^ chaos, azoth, etc a sub-\\nstance in which the principles of mercury\\nand of sulphur were believed to be con-\\ntained in the state of greatest purity.\\nTo this mercuriiis philosophoruvi there\\nwas then to be added aitro philosophorum,\\nphilosopher s gold, and this mixture,\\ncarefully guarded from the air, was\\ndigested at a low heat for a considerable\\nlength of time. This operation was car-\\nried on in the ovum philosophiaim^ a\\nvessel of a form carefully prescribed. As\\na result of this proceeding, which the\\nalchemists termed cineration, corruption,\\nor the death of matter, a black body was\\nobtained \\\\h^ caput corvi or raven s head.\\nThrough continued digestion, termed\\nalbification puri fication resurrection\\nthis black substance became transformed\\n23", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "into a white body the swan. When,\\nthis latter had been secured, the temper-\\nature to which it was exposed was raised;:\\nthe substance turned yellow and finally^\\na brilliant red. And then Behold! the\\nphilosopher s stone in its greatest per-\\nfection\\nDescrip- -^he descriptions of the appearance of\\nthe Phil- the great magisterium differ widely, as\\nosopher s given by various alchemists. By some it\\nStone\\nwas spoken of as a red powder, by others\\nit was said to possess a peach-blow color;\\nothers still affirmed it to be of grey ap-\\npearance. Paracelsus, in the sixteenth\\ncentury, described it as a very stable\\nsubstance, red as a ruby and transparent\\nas crystal, pliable as gum, and yet fragile\\nas glass. In the powdered state, it was-\\nsaid to resemble saffron.\\nAs to the amount of the substance\\nwhich was to be used in order to trans-\\nmute a given quantity of base metal into\\ngold, the statements also differ mate-\\nrially. The more perfect the philoso-\\npher s stone, the less of it, it seems, was\\nrequired. Roger Bacon stated, that one\\npart of this substance could transmute\\none million parts of base metal. From\\nthis statement down the estimates vary,\\nuntil one adept, Kunkel, in the latter\\n24", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "part of the seventeenth century, modestly\\nclaims that one part of the philosopher s\\nstone can transmute but two parts of\\nbase metal.\\nBelief in the possibility of transmuta-\\ntion was, as previously indicated, orig-\\ninally based upon the view held\\nwith regard to the constitutions of the\\nmetals. All metals were believed to be\\ncompounds, and were regarded as being\\ncomposed of two substances which varied\\nin amount and in degree of purity; these\\nfactors determined the nature of the\\nmetal. The names assigned to these\\ntwo substances were mercury and sul-\\nphur, but these terms were used, not to\\ndenote the elements which are now so\\ncalled, but they must rather be regarded\\nas standing for the conceptions of certain\\nproperties. Under the term viercurius^ the\\nalchemists seem to have understood the\\nidea of the non-decomposible; they saw\\nin this constituent the cause of metallic\\nglance and of malleability. The term sul-\\nphur was used by them to express the idea\\nof transmutability and of combustibility.\\nDifEerent metals w^ere regarded as com-\\npounds of these two substances in differ-\\nent proportions. Gold, for instance, was\\nregarded as a compound of much mer-\\n25", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "cury with but little sulphur, but both iix\\nthe state of greatest purity and in firm-\\ncombination.\\nBasing then on the conception that,\\nother metals differed from gold solely irt\\nthe proportions in which these constitu\u00c2\u00ab\\nents, mercury and sulphur, were present,\\nit seemed not unreasonable to seek for an\\nagent whereby these proportions could\\nbe readjusted and gold produced.\\nPowers In the course of time other wonderful\\nPh?loso- properties, besides the power of effecting\\npher s the transmutation of metals, came to be\\nascribed to the philosopher s stone. For\\ninstance, it was reputed to have the\\npower of curing all ills that flesh is heir to.\\nThus, Faust, in Bayard Taylor s mas-\\nterly translation of Goethe s classic:\\nMy father s was a sombre, brooding brain,\\nWhich through the holy spheres of Nature\\ngroped and wandered,\\nAnd honestly, in his own fashion, pondered\\nWith labour whimsical, and pain:\\nWho, in his dusky workshop bending,\\nWith proved adepts in company,\\nMade, from his recipes unending.\\nOpposing substances agree.\\nThere was a Lion red, a woer daring.\\nWithin the Lily s tepid bath espoused.\\nAnd both, tormented then by flame unsparing^\\nBy turns in either bridal chamber housed.\\nIf then appeared, with colours splendid,\\nThe young Queen in her crystal shell,\\nThis was the medicine\\n26", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "This medicine was styled the great\\npanacea/ and it was claimed by some of\\nthe adepts that its possession would con-\\nfer eternal youth and life on its favored\\nowner.\\nThis belief in its powers, however,\\ndoes not occur before the eighth century\\nand probably crept into existence gradu-\\nally owing to Europeans attaching too\\nliteral a meaning to some of the earlier\\ndescriptions of its properties, given, at\\ntimes, by the Arabians, with all the\\nsplendor of Oriental imagery. Thus,.\\nGeber termed the base metals invalids\\nwhich he would cure, that is, transmute,.\\nby aid of the philosopher s stone others\\nwrote of curing through its help the\\ndread evil poverty. A misconception\\nof the kind indicated could thus have\\narisen very easily, and having once been\\nformed, would naturally but serve to\\nstimulate the zeal of the adepts in pur-\\nsuit of their life s quest.\\nAnother object which some alchemists\\nsought to attain was the making of lamps\\nthat would burn forever gold in the\\nliquid state was reported to be the\\nprincipal ingredient of the fluid which\\nw^as to furnish the perpetual light.\\nBelief in the existence of such lamps\\n27", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "was prevalent in the sixteenth and in the\\nseventeenth centuries, and quaint and\\ncurious are the legends which tell of\\nsuch wondrous lamps having been found-\\nburning in tombs and sepulchres, but\\nwhich were instantly extinguished on\\ncoming into contact with air.\\nAbout the year 1600, a German phy-\\nsician, one of the most eminent alchem-\\nists of his time, claimed that the philoso-\\npher s stone could transform quartz into\\ngems, could change a thousand pearls-\\ninto one pearl of exquisite beauty and\\ncould render glass malleable. Even the\\nimparting of moral culture, redemption\\nfrom sin and evil, was believed to lie\\nwithin the power of this magic substance.\\nSendivogius, about the commencement of\\nthe seventeenth century, considered the\\nphilosopher s stone to be a mirror and\\nclaimed that he who possessed it could,\\non peering into the same, behold therein\\nthree parts of the wisdom of the whole\\nworld and thus would grow to be as wise\\nas Aristotle and Avicenna.\\nBut it would be idle and lead too far\\nto attempt here a recounting of the many\\nmarvelous tales of miracles of various\\nkinds said to have been accomplished by^\\nthe aid of this agent of agents.\\n28", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "The story and Finis has not even now,\\nat the end of the 19th century, been\\nwritten beneath the final chapter, is one\\nof intense human interest. On the one\\nhand, one finds most unselfish devotion\\nand self-sacrifice in the pursuit of an\\nimpossible ideal; on the other, a sinking\\nto the lowest depths of deception, fraud\\nand infamy.\\nTurning the broad and well-worn\\npages of some ponderous old tome on\\nthis occult art, written perchance cen-\\nturies ago and heavy with the dust of\\nages, one seems transported into a realm\\nof magic and necromancy. Mysterious\\nsymbols alternate with equally myste-\\nrious and unintelligible directions for the\\nguidance of the seeker after knowledge.\\nWe of to-day who examine these writ-\\nings in the clear, calm light which\\nScience sheds on their pages, may won-\\nder at the power which has been theirs\\nto hold even master-minds in bondage,\\na Newton and a Leibnitz were not above\\ntheir magic spell, but still we cannot\\nrepress a feeling of compassion and of\\nregret for those unnumbered thousands,\\nwhose hopes were foreordained to dis-\\nappointment, whose struggles were fore-\\ndoomed to failure, but who, notwith-\\n29", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "standing, pursued to the bitter end the\\nluring glitter of the phantom gold.\\nlatro- l^he sixteenth century witnessed the\\nistry differentiation of chemistry from alchemy.\\nWhile alchemy of course continued to\\nclaim numerous adepts, other interests\\nbegan to attract the attention of many\\nstudents of natural science.\\nThe belief that chemistry should serve\\nthe interests of medicine, became the\\nguiding star of our science during the\\nnext epoch of its development. But here\\nand there work of a chemical nature was\\ndone also in other directions. One per-\\nsonage who comes rather prominently\\ninto view at this time is Georg Agricola,\\na German, who may be said to occupy a\\nposition of his own in a time the chief\\ntrend of which was towards the healing\\nart.\\nAgricola, although a physician, can\\nperhaps best be described as an industrial\\nchemist. He gave his attention largely\\nto the study of metallurgy and industrial\\npursuits and in 1546 embodied his knowl-\\nedge of metallurgical processes in a work\\nentitled Libri XII de re metallica.\\nIt was Paracelsus, or, to give him the\\nfull benefit of his name, Phillippus\\nAureolus Theophrastus Paracelsus Bom-\\n30", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "bastus von Hohenheim, who asserted\\nthat medicine was but chemistry ap-\\nplied, and it was mainly through his\\nlabors and his influence that chemistry\\nand medicine came to be regarded\\nas so closely allied. Under his guid-\\nance and that of his followers, the\\nguardianship of chemistry passed more\\nand more into the hands of physi-\\ncians. The new departure thus initiated\\nby Paracelsus and his disciples, of whom\\nVan Helmont and Franz de le Boe\\nSylvius were the most distinguished, is\\ngenerally known as the period of iatro-\\nchemistry.\\nDuring this epoch it was commonly\\nbelieved that health as well as sickness\\nwas dependent on chemical processes.\\nNormal physiological phenomena, the\\nconditions of life in its usual state, were\\nregarded as chemical functions in which,\\nthe active constituents reacted on one\\nanother in proper proportion. Patho-\\nlogical phenomena were held to depend\\nupon a disturbance of these normal pro-\\ncesses; one or another of the constituents\\npredominated unduly in short, disease\\nwas regarded as an abnormal chemical\\nprocess and therapeutics was charged\\nwith the task of neutralizing, by chem-\\n31", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "ical means, such constituents as might be\\npresent in excess.\\nIt is Van Helmont who should be\\ncredited with being the first to suggest\\nthe rudiments of chemical physiolog3^\\nHe searched for the actual substances in\\norganic matter, and compared the re-\\naction of various juices which mingle\\nwath one another in the organs, to the\\naction of such juices outside of the\\norgans. His views on the constitution\\nof matter were of great importance to\\nchemistry, for he was the first to for-\\nmally denounce the theory of Aristotle,\\nand to demonstrate that fire is no\\nelement.\\nHe also declined to accept the theory\\nof Paracelsus, that all metals consisted\\nof mercury, sulphur and salt, terms, of\\ncourse, used in a sense different from that\\nwhich now attaches to the same. Van\\nHelmont was also the first to announce,\\nthat in the formation of chemical com-\\npounds, the original substances remain,\\nalthough they may undergo chemical\\nchanges. This claim probably heralds\\nthe first dawn of that important and\\nbrilliant conception the indestructibility\\nof matter.\\nVan Helmont regarded water as the\\n32", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "primal principle of all matter. That it was\\npresent in organic substances, he inferred\\nfrom invariably finding it as a product of\\ncombustion of organic bodies. He be-\\nlieved in the transformation of water\\ninto earthy matter, and in proof of his\\nassertion adduced the fact, that a tree\\nwhich he had planted in a weighed\\namount of soil and which was watered\\ncarefully for five years with rain and\\ndistilled water, had experienced a gain\\nof one hundred and sixty-four pounds,\\nwhile the soil in which it had been\\ngrown had lost but a couple of ounces\\nin weight. Van Helmont also gave con-\\nsiderable attention to the study of gases,\\nand described carbonic acid gas, a pro-\\nduct of fermentation he named it gaz-\\nsylvestre.\\nIn his eyes, the noblest aim to which\\nchemistry could aspire was the discovery\\nof a universal solvent, for it was held\\nthat substances could not experience\\nchemical changes unless they were in a\\nstate of solution. This same ideal sub-\\nstance should also act as a universal\\nmedicine; it was designated as the men-\\nstruuin universale^ or the alkahest. Its\\npreparation was depicted as the crowning\\nglory of chemical achievement.\\n33", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "Andreas Libavius, although a believer\\nin the main tenets of alchemy, contri-\\nbuted much to the progress of chemistry^\\nby his valuable discoveries and observa-\\ntions. He pointed out many of the\\nfollies and errors of Paracelsus and his-\\nschool and was the first to collect in his\\nwritings all of the principal chemical\\nfacts which were then known. His\\ntreatise, Alchymia^ published in 1595, is\\nregarded as the first text- and hand-\\nbook of chemistry.\\nAmong other men prominent in chem-^\\nical science in those times there should\\nbe named Daniel Sennert and Johann\\nRudolph Glauber. Both were Germans.\\nThe latter has been regarded as one of\\nthe best chemists of his day. Otto\\nTachenius, a countryman of Sennert and\\nof Glauber, and a devoted pupil and fol-\\nlower of de le Boe Sylvius, made some\\nvaluable contributions to the knowledge\\ncf the composition of chemical sub-\\nstances. He originated the definition\\nof the term salt: a compound of an acid\\nand an alkali. He also studied the pro-\\nportions by weight in which substances\\nreact chemically, and noted the increase\\nin weight which takes place when lead\\nis transformed into its oxide.\\n34", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "During this period of iatro-chemistry\\nthe interests of chemistry were served to\\ngood purpose, chiefly because its care\\nwas removed from the exclusive control\\nof the alchemists and entrusted in great\\npart to physicians, among whom were\\nmany men of education and culture.\\nChemical reactions and processes came\\nto be carefully studied in order to secure\\nexplanations of observations made for\\nmedical purposes. New chemical com-\\npounds were prepared for use as drugs,\\nand thus, gradually, the domain of\\nchemical knowledge came to be enlarged,\\nthrough painstaking research and ex-\\nperimentation.\\nHaving contributed much to the\\ngeneral advancement of the science, it\\nseems rather strange that the iatro-chem-\\nical theory should not have held sway\\nlonger. The cause of its passing must be\\nsought principally in the endeavors made\\nby its devotees to explain, from its one\\nlimited point of view, all processes and\\nphenomena of life.\\nAs the study of vital processes, in\\nhealth and in disease, became more\\ngeneral and more exact, adherents of\\nthe iatro-chemical school were driven to\\nlabored and oftentimes futile attempts at\\n35", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "explaining phenomena which were ob-\\nserved, and many of the claims they\\nmade could not be upheld when put to\\nthe test of practical experiment.\\nPeriod By the middle of the seventeenth cen-\\n9^ tury, thanks to the endeavors of the\\ntion alchemists and the labors of the iatro-\\nchemists, knowledge of a great number\\nof chemical facts had been amassed.\\nThe metals had been well studied; the\\naction of heat upon many substances,\\norganic and inorganic, had been ob^\\nserved; a knowledge of many salts, com-\\npounds of the alkalies with the mineral\\nacids, had been obtained, and the time\\nhad come for an attempt at collating the\\nnumerous isolated facts and phenomena\\nwhich were known.\\nThe new era which was soon to dawn\\nfor chemistry, chemistry as a science,\\nwas foreshadowed at this time by the\\ngreat Englishman, Francis Bacon of\\nVerulam. Bacon was born in London\\nin 1561 he was Lord-Chancellor of\\nEngland in 1619, and died in 1626.\\nHe taught, that truth in the experi-\\nmental sciences may be ascertained only\\nby progressive generalization starting\\nfrom some fact or principle most care-\\nfully and accurately ascertained. Each\\n36", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "new step must be supported by experi-\\nmental evidence and proof. Only in\\nthis manner, he pointed out, may general\\nlaws be deduced and discovered. The\\n:orrectness of such laws, in their turn,\\nmust be proven and demonstrated by\\ntheir accounting for each and every\\ndetail of all phenomena on which they\\nhear.\\nAnother man whose studies and re-\\nsearches, dictated by a love of science\\nfor science sake, proved of the utmost\\nvalue for the progress of chemistry, was\\nRobert Boyle. He followed the example\\npointed out by Bacon of Verulam, mak-\\ning experiments the proof and touchstone\\nof his statements. Boyle is regarded as\\nthe founder of analytical chemistry,\\nbeing the first to introduce analysis in\\nthe wet way. He contributed a great\\nnumber of valuable data to physics as\\nwell as to chemistry, and was opposed to\\nmost of the teachings of alchemy as well\\nas to the claims of iatro-chemistry.\\nHe demonstrated that neither the four\\nelements of Aristotle, fire, water, air and\\nearth, nor those of the alchemists, salt,\\nsulphur and mercury, could be regarded\\nas the elements of chemistry. He did\\nnot advance any definite chemical theory\\n37", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "Tiimself, indeed, there were in his time\\nnot sufi cient well established data to\\nTvarrant such procedure, but he rather\\ndevoted his time and talents to enriching\\nthe chemical and physical knowledge of\\nhis day by numerous well planned and\\ncarefully executed researches.\\nHe was, for instance, familiar with the\\nfact that air contains something which is\\nconsumed by breathing and by com-\\nbustion. He confirmed the observation\\nmade in 1630, by Jean Rey, a physician\\nof Perigord, that metals, when calcined\\nin air, increase in weight. Boyle, more-\\nover, noticed that when lead is trans-\\nformed into litharge, in a confined and\\nknown volume of air, that the volume of\\nthis air is diminished in the process.\\nHe, however, did not perceive the true\\ncause of this fact, the absorption of the\\noxygen of the air by the lead, but at-\\ntributed the increase in weight the\\nmaterial experienced, to the absorption\\nof a ponderable heat-substance, which,\\nin his opinion, united with the lead\\nduring the calcination.\\nBoyle s activity extended to almost all\\nbranches of chemistry. Perhaps his\\nmost important work and his writings\\nfill six quarto volumes was The\\n38", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "Sceptical Chymist or Che7nicO physical\\nDoubts arid Paradoxes^ touching the Ex-\\nperiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists are\\nwont to endeavor to evince their Salt, Sul-\\nphur, Mercury, to be the true Priiiciples\\nof Things, This book was published\\nin 1661.\\nIn 1665 an English chemist, Hooke, Theory\\npublished a work, Micrographia, in co^bus-\\nwhich he discussed the similar behavior tion by\\nof air and of saltpetre in the supporting\\nof combustion. He concluded, that com- Mayow\\nbustion was effected by virtue of a con-\\nstituent which was present in both air\\nand saltpetre.\\nThe completion of Hooke s theory was\\neffected by John Mayow, who pointed\\nout in a paper, De Sale Nitro et Spiritu\\nNitro-aereo, published in 1669, that the\\nsupporting principle of combustion is\\nthe spiritus nitro-aerens (oxygen) com-\\nmon to both air and the nitre. He\\nalso inquired into the phenomena of\\nrespiration and decided that this pro-\\ncess was analogous to the process of\\ncombustion.\\nBut the views of Hooke and Mayow,\\nnotwithstanding the fact that they were\\nlogical conclusions drawn from experi-\\nments carefully made, did not meet with\\n39", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "general appreciation nor acceptance by\\ntheir contemporaries.\\nPounda- The conception that the process of\\nof the combustion is a process of decomposition\\nPhlo- had been entertained since the earliest\\n-]^eory times. When a substance is burned, a\\nsomething, appearing to the beholder as\\nflame, escapes from the burning body.\\nThat which remains after combustion\\ncame, quite naturally, to be regarded as\\nanother constituent of the body which\\nhad been burned.\\nIf the experiment made by Boyle,\\nshowing the increase in weight which\\nmetals experience on heating, had been\\ncorrectly understood and interpreted, or,\\nif the work of Hooke and Mayow had\\nbeen rightly valued, it is probable that\\nthe theory which we are now called on\\nto consider\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the Phlogiston Theory\\nwould never have been advanced, or, at\\nleast, would never have enjoyed the wide\\npopularity to which it attained.\\nPhlo- This theory was originally advanced\\nHieo^y J- J- materially elaborated\\nby Georg Ernst Stahl. According to\\nits teachings all combustible bodies are\\ncompounds. All inorganic, or, as Becher\\ncalls them, subterranean bodies, are of\\nan earthy character and have as their\\n40", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "fundamental constituents combustible\\nearth, terra ping ids mercurial earth and\\nvitrifiable earth. All compound bodies\\ncontain, in varying proportions, at least\\ntwo of these.\\nIf metals are heated in the presence of\\nair, the combustible principle escapes,\\nand the non-combustible earth, the calx,\\nremains. The property of undergoing\\ncombustion can therefore be possessed\\nonly by compound bodies. Substances\\nnot affected by fire, quicklime, for in-\\nstance, were supposed to have already\\nsuffered combustion. The combustible\\nsubstance, the terra piyiguis, is not a\\nfire-matter, but only a principle, and\\nit received from Stahl the name Phlogis-\\nton, from the Greek term for com-\\nbustible. Phlogiston is thus the prin-\\nciple of combustibility.\\nThe phlogiston which escapes into the\\nair is absorbed from the air by plants and\\npasses from vegetable bodies into animal\\nbodies. Bodies which contain phlogiston\\nin great quantity. coal, for instance,\\nalso readily part with it calxes of metals\\nheated with coal, take up phlogiston\\nfrom the coal and are again transformed\\ninto the original metallic substance.\\nThe difference between various metals was\\n41", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "ascribed to the specific calx which each\\nwas supposed to contain. The colors of\\nbodies were attributed to the phlogiston\\nthey possessed and variations in color\\nwere held to be due to changes in the\\nquantity of phlogiston present.\\nStahl, in advancing the theory of\\nphlogiston, did not seek to deny that\\nmetals increase in weight on calcination,\\nalthough he claimed that they lost phlo-\\ngiston. He simply stated that phlogiston\\nescaped on calcination, ^although an\\nincrease of weight was noticeable he\\nfurthermore held that phlogiston was\\nabsorbed on reduction, although a\\ndecrease in weight was to be observed.\\nThis simply illustrates that in the earlier\\npart of this period no regard whatever\\nwas paid to quantitative relations.\\nIn Sweden, Torbern Bergman and\\nCarl Wilhelm Scheele were about this\\ntime the most. noted chemists of their\\ncountry. Bergman s merits were espec-\\nially great in the field of analytical\\nchemistry the credit of having pointed\\nout the ways followed to this day in the\\nanalysis of inorganic substances belongs,\\nin a great measure, to him. He attempt-\\ned many investigations of a quantitative\\ncharacter and sought to determine the\\n42", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "amount of phlogiston in combination\\nwith various metals.\\nScheele, a friend of Bergman s, was a\\npharmacist in Gothenburg. In his\\nleisure hours he faithfully studied the\\nworks of Lemery, Stahl and others, and\\ndevoted much time and labor to the\\ncarrying on of chemical experiments.\\nHis researches extended into the\\ndomains of both organic and inorganic\\nchemistry. In the former field he gave\\nmuch attention to the organic acids, in\\nthe latter he worked principally on man-\\nganese dioxide, chlorine, and baryta\\nthat solutions of baryum-salts can serve\\nas delicate reagents for the detection of\\nsulphuric acid, was a discovery made by\\nhim. He also published exhaustive in-\\nvestigations on air and on fire, and, inde-\\npendently of others, discovered oxygen.\\nScheele was an outspoken adherent of\\nthe phlogiston theory, but his views were\\nnevertheless materially different from\\nthose of Stahl, declaring phlogiston to be\\nthe principal constituent of light and of\\ncombustible air.\\nIt is quite possible not to say prob-\\nable that both Scheele and Bergman\\nwould have abandoned the phlogiston\\ntheory if they had lived long enough\\n43", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "to v/itness the final phase of the con-\\ntroversy.\\nAmong the most eminent chemists of\\nFrance there were, at this time, S. F.\\nGeofEroy, J. Hellot, Duhamel du Mon-\\nceau, and P. J. Macquer. The latter,\\nalthough he himself had executed quan-\\ntitative analyses of mineral waters and\\nof other substances, utterly failed to see\\nand to acknowledge the all-important\\nbearing which quantitative relations had\\non the theory of phlogiston, a theory\\nwhich he sought to defend to the best of\\nhis ability.\\nProminent among English supporters\\nof the phlogiston theory were at one\\ntime. Black, Cavendish and Priestly.\\nHenry Cavendish was an eminent\\nEnglish scientist, who, through his in-\\nvestigations and experiments, forged the\\nprincipal weapons which, in the hands of\\nothers, ultimately caused the destruction\\nof the phlogiston theory. Yet he him-\\nself remained an ardent adherent of its\\nteachings to his end. In 1766, he recog-\\nnized hydrogen to be a peculiar gas.\\nHe believed it to be pure phlogiston\\nand thought that it was set free from\\nmetals by acids, because acids cause\\nthe destruction of metals. Nitrogen gas\\n44", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "lie believed to be air saturated with\\nphlogiston, oxygen, to be air devoid of\\nphlogiston.\\nJoseph Priestly also remained to the\\nend of his life a warm defender of the\\nphlogiston theory. He accounted for\\nthe fact that air is necessary for com-\\nbustion, by stating that phlogiston, if it\\nis to be induced to leave a body, must\\nfind some other substance, air, to com-\\nbine with.\\nPriestley s most important discovery\\nwas made in 1774, when he prepared\\noxygen by heating red oxide of mercury.\\nAlthough he learned that this gas sup-\\nports respiration and combustion more\\nactively than air does, yet he did not ap-\\npreciate the true role which oxygen plays\\nin the process of combustion.\\nAt no time had the phlogiston theory, Deca-\\nalthough so generally accepted, gone ^r^^^\\nunchallenged. Remonstrances against it Phlo-\\nhad been made, among others, by Boer-\\nhave, by Hoffmann and by Buff on. The\\nlatter even went so far as to express it as\\nhis conviction that phlogiston was rather\\nmore likely to exist in the minds of the\\nadherents of the theory than elsewhere\\nin nature.\\nJoseph Black was an investigator of\\n45-", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "great originality and ability. He gave\\nmuch attention to the preparation and the\\nstudy of gases, a work in which he had\\nmany followers and which led to the\\ndesignating of this epoch as that of\\npneumatic chemistry. He became a\\nconfirmed opponent of the phlogiston\\ntheory, although, for a long time, he had\\nbeen one of its adherents. Contrary to-\\nthe teachings of this theory, he had early\\nturned his attention to quantitative de-\\nterminations, and readily perceived that\\nit was of prime importance to study the\\nweight relations in chemical processes, as\\nthese only could lead to an elucidation of\\nreactions.\\nBy his masterly work on the alkaline\\ncarbonates, Black demonstrated that\\nthere was no such substance as phlo-\\ngiston, to the absorption of which the\\ncaustic properties these carbonates ac-\\nquire on treatment with caustic lime\\nwas generally ascribed.\\nHe proved that non-caustic lime de-\\ncreases in weight on being rendered\\ncaustic through ignition, and showed\\nthat this loss in weight was accounted\\nfor by the liberation of fixed air\\n(carbonic anhydride).\\nBut Black did not perceive the ultimate\\n46", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "logical sequences of his own discoveries.\\nNotwithstanding his ingenious researches\\nand their correct interpretation, it re-\\nmained for another to collate all the facts\\nand data and to effect therewith the\\noverthrow of the Phlogiston theory.\\nThis man was Antoine Laurent Lavoi- Lavoi-\\nsier. Born in Paris in 1743, he received j^j^\\nan excellent education and training, Work\\nespecially in the mathematics and the\\nnatural sciences.\\nHis career was equally brilliant as a\\nscientist and as a statesman. He lost\\nhis life on the scaffold in 1794, during\\nthe reign of terror in the French\\nRevolution.\\nSo marked were his attainments and\\nhis services to chemistry, that an admir-\\ning compatriot of his, Adolphe Wurtz,\\nwrote, but thirty years ago La chimie\\nest line science frangaise, Elle fut co^isti-\\ntuee par Lavoisier^ d immortelle memoire.\\nLavoisier was the founder of the anti-\\nphlogistic theory and he was the first to\\ncorrectly interpret the increase in weight\\nwhich metals experience on undergoing\\ncombustion. He recognized that com-\\nbustion is not a process of decomposition,\\nas the phlogiston theory maintained, but\\nthat it is a process of combination. The\\n47", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "substance undergoing combustion com-\\nbines with a certain substance contained\\nin the air.\\nRecords dating from 1772 show that\\nalready at that time this question had\\noccupied his attention. But it was only\\nin 1775 that he enunciated his anti-\\nphlogistic theory.\\nHe demonstrated that the amount by\\nwhich the burned substance increased in\\nweight was exactly equal to the weight of\\nthe gas absorbed. To quote his words\\nThe whole is greater than its part\\nthe products of combustion, which are\\nheavier than the combustible bodies,\\ncannot therefore be the elements of the\\nlatter, for, in chemical reactions, nothing\\nis lost, nothing is created, matter being\\nindestructible. If bodies increase in\\nweight by burning, it is by the gain or\\naddition of a new substance when, on\\nthe other hand, metallic calxes or oxides\\nare reduced to the metallic state, the\\neffect is due, not to the restitution of\\nphlogiston, but to the loss of the vital\\nair which they contain.\\nWhile the views of Lavoisier marked\\na great step in advance and, in fact,\\nushered in a new era in the history of\\nchemical science, it must not be over-\\n48", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "looked, that the phlogiston theory had\\nexercised a most wholesome influence on\\nthe evolution of chemistry.\\nFollowing upon the period of storm\\nand stress in which chemistry first at-\\ntained to the dignity of an independent\\nscience, the phlogiston theory furnished\\nthe light by which chemistry, but newly\\nfreed from the fetters and bondage of\\nalchemy and iatro-chemistry, was guided\\non her way.\\nThat this theory should, at first, have\\nconcerned itself only with qualitative\\nphenomena must also be considered as in\\nperfect keeping with the natural course\\nof events. When it had taught these\\nqualitative phenomena to be thoroughly\\nunderstood and when attention came to\\nbe directed to the consideration of quan-\\ntitative relations, barriers were encount-\\nered which it could not surmount.\\nI^avoisier first employed the term\\noxygen in 1778. Prior to that time\\nhe referred to this gas as vital air, or,\\nas the air eminently adapted for the\\nsupporting of combustion and respira-\\ntion. Oxygen was then also known\\nas dephlogisticated air.\\nIn 1783, Lavoisier and Laplace re-\\npeated the experiments of Cavendish\\n49", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "and verified the latter s discovery of\\nthe compound nature of water. The\\nexperiment consisted in synthetically\\ncombining oxygen with hydrogen\\nphlogiston Knowledge of this\\nfact permitted Lavoisier to give a clear\\nexplanation of the phenomena of the\\ndissolving of metals in acids and of the\\ncombination of metals with oxygen\\nduring combustion.\\nLavoisier made numerous and careful\\nresearches in many directions he was\\ngreat, not only in correctly making, but\\nalso in correctly interpreting the results\\nobtained in experiment by himself and\\nby others, results which were, often-\\ntimes, not properly understood nor\\nrightly valued by the very men who had\\nobtained them.\\nHaving grasped the part which oxygen\\nplays in the formation of acids, oxides\\nand salts, he established a new. chemical\\ntheory, which supplanted the views for-\\nmerly held, and much of what we con-\\nsider true in chemistry at the present\\ntime was first enunciated by him.\\nThe elementary nature of the metals\\nwas pointed out, and the general idea of\\nsimple bodies was established. He\\ndefined an acid as resulting from the\\n50", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "union of a simple body, generally non-\\nmetallic, with oxygen. An oxide re-\\nsulted from the union of a metal with\\noxygen. A salt was defined as being\\nformed by the combination of an acid\\nand an oxide.\\nSimple,* that is to say, elementary,\\nbodies were shown to possess the pro-\\nperty of uniting to form compounds and\\nthe combination was shown to be effected\\nwithout loss of matter. Binary com-\\npounds of the first order were formed by\\nthe union of two elementary bodies.\\nBinary compounds of the second order\\nwere formed by the union of binary com-\\npounds of the first order.\\nOf course, even this anti-phlogistic\\ntheory was not perfect and the constantly\\nincreasing advance of chemical knowl-\\nedge soon presented instances and phe-\\nnomena which this theory could not\\nexplain nor account for. Nevertheless,\\nit was a masterly and broad conception,\\nand like the phlogiston theory which it\\nsupplanted, it contributed, in its day,\\nmaterially to the growth and the develop-\\nment of chemical science.\\nAmong the French chemists who\\navowed themselves followers of Lavoi-\\nsier s teachings, were Guy ton de Mor-\\n51", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "veau, A. F. de Fourcroy, and Claude\\nIvouis BerthoUet.\\nIn Germany, M. H. Klaproth was the\\npioneer of the anti-phlogistic theory.\\nThere was a battle royal ere the adhe-\\nrents of the theory advanced by Stahl\\nand Becher surrendered to the standard\\nbearers of the chimie frangaise, as\\nLavoisier s teachings had come to be\\nknown. General acceptance was not\\naccorded these views in Germany until\\nfully a decade after they had gained the\\nday in France.\\nIt was at Klaproth s request, that the\\nBerlin Academy, in 1792, subjected the\\nwhole question of combustion to a rigor-\\nous test; the results of this investigation,\\nit is almost needless to say, fully con-\\nfirmed the statements of Lavoisier.\\nEra of The precepts set by Lavoisier, the in-\\ntative troduction of the balance as the decisive\\nInvesti- factor in chemical research, opened to\\nchemistry a new era which has most\\nappropriately been termed the era of\\nquantitative investigation.\\nThus far, evolution of the science had\\ntaken place under the directing influence\\nof some one leading thought or theory\\nwhich served to mark the period which\\nit dominated.\\n52", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "This, in a measure, is also true of the\\nera which we are now about to consider.\\nBut the impulse experienced by chemis-\\ntry at this time, may, in its effects, be\\nwell compared to a progressive, ex-\\npanding ripple, such as is caused by a\\ndisturbance in quiet waters.\\nQuantitative relations were indeed the\\nmain issue, the central point, from which\\nactivity was diffused in all directions.\\nBut, so far reaching was this influence,\\nthat from now on it will be necessary to\\ntrace out, as well as may be, individual\\nlines of thought which served to broaden\\nthe scope and reach of the science, while\\nthey themselves became merged in the\\ngeneral advance, the ever widening\\nspread of chemical knowledge.\\nAnalytical methods had by this time\\nbeen sufficiently developed in great part\\nthrough the labors of Vauquelin and of\\nKlaproth so as to permit of quantitative\\ndeterminations.\\nWhile Bergman and Kirw^an were\\nespecially active in ascertaining the\\nquantitative composition of certain neu-\\ntral salts, Klaproth and Vauquelin chiefly\\nstudied mineral substances. The great\\nquestion of the day then was, whether\\nsubstances, in combining to form chem-\\n53", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "ical compounds, combined only in one,\\nor, at most, in a few definite proportions\\nby weight, or whether they could and\\nwould combine in any and all proportions.\\nThe latter view was upheld by Claude\\nLouis BerthoUet. He conceded con-\\nstancy in combination to only very few\\ncompounds, maintaining that most sub-\\nstances could unite in any proportion to\\nform compounds. For instance, he be-\\nlieved that iron and oxygen could unite\\nin any and every proportion and placed\\nferrous oxide and ferric oxide as the two\\nlimits. In his Essaide Statique Chiinique^\\npublished in 1803, he attempted to ex-\\nplain, in analogy with Newton s theory\\nof gravitation, the chemical changes\\nwhich bodies can experience.\\nLavoisier fully appreciated the fact that\\nthe combination of chemical elements\\ntakes place in definite proportions by\\nweight. But it was Cavendish who first\\nfurnished proof of the existence of the\\nlaw of combination in definite propor-\\ntions. To him also belongs the credit of\\nfirst introducing equivalency, the\\nidea and the word, into chemistry.\\nIt was, however, the French chemist\\nJoseph Louis Proust who gave a con-\\nclusive demonstration of the fact, that\\n54", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "chemical combination of bodies does not\\ntake place in any and every proportion,\\nbut that such combination occurs only in\\none, or at most in a few simple ratios.\\nProust pointed out the sources of error\\ninto which many other analysts had\\nfallen, and in so doing based all of his\\nconclusions on exact analytical data.\\nHis views w^ere diametrically opposed to\\nthose of BerthoUet, but they soon came\\nto be accepted as affording the correct\\nexplanation of facts ascertained by care-\\nful observation.\\nThe foundations of stoichiometry, the Atomic\\nmathematics of chemistry, w^ere laid\\nabout this time, the closing quarter of\\nthe eighteenth century, by two German\\nscientists, Carl Friedrich Wenzel and\\nJeremias Benjamin Richter. Their work\\nwas, however, overlooked by most of their\\ncontemporaries and only received the\\nappreciation it so well deserved at a\\nlater date, w^hen general attention was\\ngiven to the labors of John Dalton.\\nThe first conception of the atomic\\ntheory the crowning glory of Dalton s\\ngreat achievements in science was due\\nto his perception of the fact, that w^hen-\\never a definite amount by weight of one\\nsubstance combines in varying proportion\\n55", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "with another substance, the proportions\\nin which combination takes place bear a\\nsimple ratio to one another.\\nThe view that matter consists of\\nminute and indivisible particles had been\\nheld for many centuries even, as will be\\nremembered, by the Greek philosophers\\nof old. The idea that chemical com-\\nbinations were due to the coalescing of\\nunlike particles had been advanced by\\nKirvan in 1783, and by Higgins in 1789.\\nIt can therefore not be claimed that\\nthe conception of the atomic theory\\noriginated with Dalton. However, it\\nwas he who first impressed upon this\\ntheory a theory dealing with the\\nconstitution of matter the quantitative\\naspect\\nHe held that different weights charac-\\nterize the atoms of the various elements\\nthat each element is composed of similar\\natoms of definite weight, and he expressed\\nin his theory the law of multiple propor-\\ntions if two elements combine in dif-\\nferent proportions, the relative amounts\\nof the one which combine with a fixed\\namount of the other are simple multiples\\nof each other. As a sequence of his\\nconsiderations it follows that the total\\natomic weight of a compound (the\\n56", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "molecular weight), is equivalent to the\\nsum of the atomic weights of its con-\\nstituents.\\nThe first reference to his atomic theory\\nwas made by Dalton in a paper read\\nbefore an English philosophical society,\\nOctober 23d, 1803, when he alluded to\\nan inquiry he was making into the\\nrelative weights of the ultimate particles\\nof bodies. The first published account\\nof Dalton s Atomic Theory is to be\\nfound in the work of one of his friends,\\nThomas Thomson, in the third edition of\\nthe Syste7n of Chemistry^ which appeared\\nin 1807. A New System of Che77tical\\nPhilosophy which issued from Dalton s\\nown pen in the following year, contains\\na full exposition of his ideas. These\\nviews of the quantitative relations\\ngoverning chemical compounds, practi-\\ncally form the basis of our chemistry of\\nto-day.\\nIntroduction and futherance of Dal-\\nton s atomic theory was brought about\\nchiefly by Thomson, by Wollaston, and\\nby the great Swedish chemist, Berzelius.\\nJons Jacob Berzelius had been forcibly\\nimpressed with the writings of Richter,\\npreviously alluded to, and had entered\\nupon an extensive investigation of cer-\\n57", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "tain salts in order to test the validity of\\nRichter s views and claims.\\nWhen Dalton s theory came to his\\nknowledge, the analytical results which\\nBerzelius had himself obtained bore wit-\\nness to the cotrectness of Dalton s^\\nreasoning. Painstaking experimental\\ncorroboration of Dalton s atomic theor r\\nmust ever be counted as one of the most\\nvaluable contributions which Berzelius\\nhas made to chemistry.\\nLaw of The truth of Dalton s Atomic Theory\\nw^as also borne out by the discovery,\\nmade in 1805, by Alexander von Hum-\\nboldt and by Gay-Lussac, that two\\nvolumes of hydrogen combine with one\\nvolume of oxygen to form water. This\\nultimately led to the determination of\\nthe law which governs the volume com-\\nbination of gases, the so-called Law of\\nVolumes, announced by Gay-Lussac in\\n1808. This law holds that the ratio in\\nw^hich gases combine by volume is always\\na simple one, and that the volume of the\\nresulting gaseous product bears a simple\\nratio to the volumes of its constituents.\\nDalton at first took issue with Gay-\\nLussac s statements and reasoning, for\\nthe latter made no distinction between\\natoms and atom-complexes, now termed\\n58", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "molecules. But in 1811 an Italian phy- Avoga-\\nsicist, Amadeo Avogadro, succeeded in Hypo-\\nshowing, by establishing a difference be- thesis\\ntween molecules integrantes and molecules\\neleme7ttaires, integral and elementary\\nmolecules, that the observations of Gay-\\nLussac and the teachings of Dalton were\\nin full accord. Our term molecules cor-\\nresponds to the first of these conceptions,\\nour term atoms to the second. Mole-\\ncules are regarded as composed of indi-\\nvisible atoms. Avogadro was the first to\\ndemonstrate that equal volumes of all\\ngases contain an equal number of mole-\\ncules.\\nAmpere s name is often linked with\\nAvogadro s theory, but the essay of\\nthe former did not appear until three\\nyears after Avogadro had made his\\nannouncement. Yet it was only in 1858,\\nthrough Cannizzarro s able presentation\\nof Avogadro s work, that the latter re-\\nceived the recognition which it so justly\\ndeserved.\\nAn hypothesis was advanced in 1815 Prout s\\nby an English physician, Dr. Prout, to J^gg^s\\nthe effect that the atomic weights of all\\nelements are whole numbers and that\\nthe elements themselves are condensa-\\ntion-products of hydrogen.\\n59", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "While the claim that the atomic-\\nweights are simple multiples of the\\natomic weight of hydrogen, has long aga\\nbeen completely disproven by exact\\nanalytical determinations, yet it must not\\nbe overlooked that Front s claims gave\\nthe impetus to many most valuable in-\\nvestigations which have been carried out\\nwith the utmost refinement of analytical\\nskill. It is through such most accurate\\ndeterminations of some of Nature s con-\\nstants, that chemistry has justly gained\\nthe distinction of ranking as one of the\\nexact sciences.\\nLaw of In 1 819, Dulong and Petit discovered\\nand Pet^ the fact, that the specific heat of an\\nelement is inversely proportional to its\\natomic weight, or, as they expressed it,\\nthat the atoms of the different elements\\nhave the same capacity for heat.\\nSpecific heat is defined as the ratio of\\nthe amount of heat required to raise a\\ngiven weight of a body one degree in\\ntemperature, compared to the amount of\\nheat required to raise the same weight\\nof water to the same extent. As the\\naverage value of the product of the\\nspecific heat of an element by its atomic\\nweight is about 6.4, a simple division of\\nthis constant by the specific heat of the\\n60", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2element in the solid state, gives approx-\\nimately the weight of an atom of that\\nelement, thus affording valuable indica-\\ntions in determining these very import-\\nant values, the atomic weights.\\nMitscherlich s theory of isomorphism, Isomor-\\nthat compounds of analogous composi- P\\ntion and containing the same number of\\natoms assume the same form in crystal-\\nlizing, was, b}^ Berzelius, considered to\\nbe of value in the determination of atomic\\nweights. Time, however, has proven that\\nthe results which this theory has yielded\\nare deserving of less credit and credence\\nthan was once accorded them.\\nExperiment having conclusively shown Chem-\\nthat in numerous instances substitu- Equita-\\ntion of one element for another could be lents and\\neffected, the relative amounts of the\\ndifferent elements which could thus re-\\nplace each other naturally called for\\nconsideration. The term equivalent was\\napplied to the smallest amount b}^ weight\\nof an element which could combine with\\nor replace the unit weight of hydrogen.\\nThe weight of an atom, the atomic\\nweight of an element, must then be iden-\\ntical with or must be some multiple of\\nthis value.\\nFor a tune considerable confusion\\n6r i", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "reigned in this question of atomic\\nweights and chemical equivalents, until,\\nchiefly through the researches of Edward\\nFrankland on the organo-metallic sub-\\nstances, the idea of valence was intro-\\nduced.\\nThe terms valence, valency, or quanti-\\nvalence designate the degree of combin-\\ning power of an atom of any element,\\ncompared with the combining power of\\nan atom of hydrogen selected as unity.\\nAccording to the degree of the combin-\\ning power thus defined, the elements are\\nclassed as monads, dyads, triads, etc.\\nThis means that one atom of an element\\ncan combine with or replace one, two,\\nthree or more atoms of hydrogen, as the\\ncase may be.\\nThe relation betw^een the chemical\\nequivalent and the atomic weight of an\\nelement is expressed by the formula the\\natomic weight of an element is equal to\\nthe product of its chemical equivalent by\\nits valence. Thus, in the case of monads,\\natomic w^eight and chemical equivalent\\nare identical; in dyads, the atomic weight\\nis equal to twice, in triads it is equal to\\nthree times the chemical equivalent of\\nthe element.\\nThe importance of exact determina-\\n62", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "tion of the atomic weight values of the Atomic\\nelements will be appreciated, when it is Weights\\nremembered that these values may be\\nregarded as the constellations by which\\nthe courses of chemistry are shaped.\\nOne of the most eminent chemists who\\never engaged in the determination of\\natomic weights was Jean Servais Stas, a\\nBelgian. He was a pupil of Dumas his\\nresults, based on experiments made with\\nlarger quantities of material than are\\nusually employed in such determinations,\\nfurnished much of the evidence that dis-\\nproved the hypothesis of Prout.\\nAmong American chemists who have\\nachieved especial distinction in work\\nalong these lines, there should be men-\\ntioned Morley, Clarke and Richards.\\nSince 1893 American Committee on\\nAtomic Weights has issued, through the\\npen of F. W. Clarke, annual reports on\\nthese values.\\nThe table of Atomic Weights given Table of\\non page 65 has been recommended for\\ngeneral adoption in analytical practice\\nby a commission consisting of H.\\nLandolt, W. Ostwald and K. Seubert.\\nThis representative commission was\\nappointed by the German Chemical\\nSociety.\\n63", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "Its members recommend that\\n1. The atomic weight of oxygen be\\ntaken as 16.000, and that the atomic\\nweights of the other elements be calcu-\\nlated on the basis of their combining\\nratios with oxygen, directly or indirectly\\ndetermined.\\n2. The following atomic weights of\\nthe elements be adopted in practice, as\\nthey are probably the most correct values\\nknown at the present time. (See table.)\\nThese numbers are, as a rule, given\\nonly with so many decimals that even\\nthe last one may be regarded as accurate.\\nIn consequence, the atomic weights de-\\ntermined by Stas, in which the errors\\namount to from 3 to 6 units in the third\\ndecimal, are given with two decimals\\nthe other atomic weights, which have\\nbeen more accurately determined, are\\ngiven with one decimal, and those less\\naccurately determined are given without\\ndecimals. Exceptions to this rule have\\nbeen made only in the cases of nickel,\\nbismuth and tin, marked with an asterisk\\nin the table.\\nIn the case of nickel this was done in\\norder to emphasize the difference be-\\ntween the atomic weights of cobalt and\\nnickel, although in both values there\\n64", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "1-1 ic 1-t on\\nrH C^ Oi 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094 t CVJ 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094 t\\ns lis .2 a\\n51\\n^s\\n^^S^;z;z;z;co^;i,2,p:p.;2^\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2X-\\nE\\ns\\n:2\\n^1\\n^s\\nm--\\nzrl^\\ns\\n5^1\\nTi\\n?^g\\n05\\n2\\n|Sgg2^g\\n;Ki: J:^S:5", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "may be possible deviations of 0.2.\\nThe true atomic weights of bismuth and\\ntin are not correct to a certainty, to\\nwithin 0.1. The value of hydrogen is\\n1.008, correct to within o.ooi, but the\\napproximation of i.oi has been regarded\\nas permissible for the requirements of\\npractice, as it involves an error of only\\none-fifth of one per cent. The values\\ngiven for the elements marked in the\\ntable with interrogation points are not\\nnecessaril}^ exact within whole units of\\nthe atomic weights assigned.\\nChemistry has been exceptionally fa-\\nvored in the last year or two by the\\ndiscovery of new elements.\\nA study of argon and helium, consti-\\ntuents of our atmosphere, has led to the\\ndiscovery of several other new element-\\nary substances. Thus, Ramsay and Tra-\\nvers have recently isolated from liquefied\\nargon three new bodies, krypton (hid-\\nden), neon (new) and metargon.\\nAll of these are gases and occur in the\\nearth s atmosphere in minute amounts;\\nneon, for instance, only to the extent of\\nabout one part in forty thousand parts\\nof air. There seems to be some doubt as\\nto whether metargon is or is not an\\nelement it is said to have about the\\n66", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "same atomic weight as argon, but is pos-\\nsessed of difiEerent properties. It is a\\nsolid at the temperature of liquid air.\\nQuite recently another new gas has been\\nadded to those previously obtained from\\nliquefied argon xenon is the name that\\nlias been assigned to it.\\nIn July, 1898, Professor Nasini of\\nPadua announced that he had, while\\nstudying the gases emanating from the\\nSolfatara di Pozzuoli and the fumarole\\nof Vesuvius, discovered a new gaseous\\nelement. Coronium is the name given\\nto this substance, now first found upon\\nour earth, but which, on the evidence\\nof the spectroscope, has for some time\\nbeen known to exist in the corona of the\\nsun.\\nAt the meeting of the American Asso-\\nciation for the Advancement of Science,\\nin 1898, Charles F. Brush announced\\nthe finding of a new gas, which he had\\nextracted from glass at low pressures.\\nThis new body is said to occur in the air\\nand to be easily absorbed by numerous\\nsubstances, especially by glass. On ac-\\ncount of its peculiar properties its high\\nmolecular velocity, 105 miles per second,\\nand its very low density, o.oooi if hydro-\\ngen be taken as i.o Brush suggested\\n67", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "that this might possibly be the ether, the\\nexistence of which is assumed in physics.\\nThe name which he proposed for this\\nsupposedly new element is, etherion.\\nHowever, the possibility of this substance\\nbeing water-vapor has been recently\\nsuggested by Sir William Crookes and\\nfurther developments must be awaited\\nbefore the question at issue can be deter-\\nmined.\\nThe investigator last named has iso-\\nlated from yttria a body to which he has\\ngiven the name monium, from the Greek\\nword for alone. Its atomic weight\\nwill probably be about ii8 and it is said\\nto enter readily into chemical combina-\\ntion with other elements.\\nElectro- Within the past century and a half\\nical chemistry has witnessed the birth and\\nTheory the growth of a number of theories and\\nhypotheses, which, while they have all\\nexercised some influence, one way or an-\\nother, on the development of our vScience,\\ncan here claim but a passing reference.\\nOf these the first to call for attention\\nis the electro-chemical theory of Berze-\\nlius. Fundamentally this was based\\nupon observations made by Sir Humphry\\nDavy it held that every atom was en-\\ndowed with certain amounts of both\\n68", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "positive and negative electricity. These\\nelectrical charges were supposed to be\\naccumulated .on different parts of the\\natoms, giving rise to negative and posi-\\ntive poles. It was the preponderance of\\nthe one or the other kind of electricity\\nwhich, it was believed, determined the\\nelectrical character of an atom. Atoms\\nelectrijSed in an opposite sense would be\\nattracted to, atoms bearing charges of\\nthe same kind would be repelled from\\none another. On the combination of\\natoms bearing unlike charges, neutraliza-\\ntion of the same would result.\\nBerzelius suggested the existence of Dual-\\ncompound atoms this view of the struc- \\\\p^^\\nture of matter came to be known as the\\ndualistic theory. It was closely allied to\\nthe electro-chemical theory and is best\\nconsidered in connection with the latter,\\nwhich was, for almost twenty years, the\\ndominant theory of chemistry.\\nReference, however brief, must be Fara-\\nmade of the important results secured by l^^-/\\nMichael Faraday in establishing the\\nquantitative relations which obtain when\\nelectrical power is made to do chemical\\nwork. Faraday conceived the idea of\\nsending an electric current successively\\nthrough a series of cells which contained\\n69", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "different solutions which would permit\\nthe passing of electric currents. Such\\nsolutions are termed electrolytes, and his\\nobservations determined that an electric\\ncurrent of a given strength will set free\\nequivalent quantities of the constituents\\nof different electrolytes. His law of con-\\nstant electrolytic action was enunciated\\nin 1833 its discoverer believed that it\\nwould prove a valuable aid in the deter-\\nmination of atomic weights.\\nAttacks Dumas and other French chemists,\\non the ^T^ile ensrasred in studying: the atomic\\nAtomic 7\\nTheory weights of the elements, were led,\\nthrough their determinations of the spe-\\ncific gravity of vapors at high tempera-\\ntures, to seriously doubt the validity of\\nthe law of volumes.\\nIt chanced that Dumas worked chiefly\\nupon substances the molecules of which\\nwere complex, a fact, however, unknown\\nto the experimenter. Finally, and in\\nconsequence of his results, Dumas ques-\\ntioned the truth of the law of Avogadro.\\nOther evidence also seemed to point to\\nthe untenability of Avogadro s conclu-\\nsions, and Leopold Gmelin, a pupil of\\nBerzelius, a most eminent chemist and\\nthe author of several important works on\\nchemistry, was led to abandon the atomic\\n70", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "theory completely. Gmelin held that,\\nas a rule, the proportions in which sub-\\nstances could combine were unlimited in\\nnumber. He issued a table of equiva-\\nlents, which might be styled a list of\\ncombining numbers. When a choice of\\nequivalents seemed permissible, the low-\\nest value was selected. His views on\\nthese matters met with general favor and\\nwere incorporated in many text-books,\\neven as late as thirty years ago.\\nThe theory of radicals can primarily Theory\\nbe traced to the writings of I^avoisier Radicals\\nafter passing through various modifica-\\ntions it attained to prominence about the\\nyear 1838, having received its greatest\\nimpetus from an investigation under-\\ntaken in 1832, by Justus von I^iebig and\\nby Wohler, On the Radical of Benzoic\\nAcid, which showed the existence of\\nan atomic group benzoyl in oil of bit-\\nter almonds and its derivatives. As this\\ntheory, as well as the dualistic theory,\\ninvolved the conception of atoms, both\\ncontributed to restore to favor Dalton s\\nviews, which had once been held in great\\nesteem.\\nAn attempt to apply the theory of ^Ethertn\\nradicals to organic compounds resulted\\nin the so-called ^therin theory,\\n71", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "which was advanced by Dumas and\\nBoullay, defiant gas, for which Berze-\\nlius suggested the name setherin, was\\nregarded as a constituent of the alcohols,\\nthe sugars and other substances, these\\nbodies being in their composition com-\\npared to the compounds of ammonia.\\nSubsti- Berzelius theory of dualism was dis-\\ntution pQsed of primarily through a research on\\nwax-candles by Dumas, an investigation\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2in which the principle of substitution of\\nchlorine for hydrogen was discovered\\nand proven. Dumas further explained\\nby his theory the formation of chloro-\\nform and of chloral, w^hich bodies Liebig\\nhad obtained by the action of chlorine\\non alcohol.\\nNucleus Auguste Laurent, finding that Dumas\\nTheory substitution did not afford a valid\\ninterpretation of all the data observed,\\nsuggested his nucleus theory this was\\nan outgrowth of the theory of radicals,\\nbut, instead of claiming the existence of\\natomic groups of stable and unchange-\\nable composition, Laurent s views held\\nthat such groups admitted of changes by\\nthe substitution of equivalents.\\nUnitary Notwithstanding the efforts of Berze-\\nTheory uphold his dualistic theory, to\\nachieve which he evolved the hypothesis\\n72", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "of conjugate compounds, and notwith-\\nstanding the labors of Kolbe, which were\\ndirected to the same end, Laurent and\\nhis friend Carl Gerhardt carried the day\\nwith their unitary theor3\\\\ This latter\\nmaintained that the nature of a molecule\\nwas determined by the nature, the num-\\nber and the arrangement of the atoms\\nwhich formed it, and furthermore, that\\nthese atoms were capable of being ex-\\nchanged for that is, were capable of\\nbeing replaced by other atoms.\\nLaurent and Gerhardt introduced the Theory\\ntheory of types. They originally recog- ^^yp^^\\nnized three types water, ammonia and\\nh^ drochloric acid, and in their classifica-\\ntion the}^ sought to refer all compound\\nsubstances to one or the other of these\\nas model forms. The continued disco-\\nvery of new bodies, however, soon made\\nthe creation and adoption of other addi-\\ntional types a necessity, and the type-\\ntheory ere long grew to be unwieldy and\\ncumbersome.\\nThe first half of the nineteenth century The\\nwitnessed various attempts to trace rela- Periodic\\nlions between the atomic weights of\\nelements and some of their properties.\\nPossibly the first instance of this kind\\nwhich received general attention was\\n73", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "the work done by Dobereiner, who, in\\n1829, found that certain elements have\\natomic weights which are approximately\\nthe mean of the atomic weights of two\\nother elements closely resembling them\\nin their properties. Dobereiner also as-\\ncertained that groups of three could be\\nformed of some elements whose atomic\\nweights were almost the same and which\\nexhibited close analogies in most of their\\nproperties. A systematic classification-\\nof the elements, basing on the similarity\\nof their properties, was an ardent wish\\nof this investigator. But, of course, ere\\nthis could be accomplished, accurate de-\\nterminations of the atomic weights of all\\nelements were imperative.\\nThe periodic law, which holds that the\\nproperties of the elements are periodic\\nfunctions of their atomic weights, was\\nestablished chiefly through the labors of\\nNewlands, Mendeleeff and Lothar Meyer.\\nIt seems that the first communication\\nNewlands made on this subject was pub-\\nlished early in 1863. In the following\\n3 ear he issued a list of the elements in\\nthe order of their atomic weights the\\nannouncement of the periodic law by the\\ntwo other investigators named was made\\nin 1869.\\n74", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "It is, however, the distinctive merit of\\nMendeleeff to have pointed out that the\\nvalue of any given property of an element\\nis practically an average of the values of\\nthe same property of two other elements\\nw^hich immediately adjoin it, when the\\nelements are arranged in a table progres-\\nsively, in the order of their atomic\\nweights.\\nMoreover, this distinguished Russian\\nchemist, from a close study of his tables\\nillustrative of the periodic law, predicted\\nthe existence and the properties of cer-\\ntain elements not then known. The\\ndiscovery of Gallium, of Scandium and\\nof Germanium, n^de respectively in 1875,\\n1879 and 1886, brilliantly fulfilled the\\nprophecy of Mendeleeff.\\nNeon, the new one, furnishes the\\nmost recent instance of an element sought\\nfor because the probability of its exist-\\nence seemed indicated by a gap in a\\nperiodic arrangement of the elements.\\nIt w^as discovered in and isolated from\\nair by William Ramsay, the well-known.\\nEnglish chemist, whose name is also-\\nlinked with that of lyord Rayleigh in the.\\ndiscovery of argon and of helium.\\nAn arrangement of the elements into\\ngroups and series, based on the principles.\\n75", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "indicated, and a close study of their rela-\\ntions, have led, not only to a prediction\\nof the existence of undiscovered elements,\\nbut have, in some cases, also proved of\\ngreat value in the detection of erroneous\\natomic weights.\\nThe periodicity of many chemical and\\nphysical properties of the elements for\\ninstance, of valence, of electro-chemical\\nand magnetic powers, the toxic pro-\\nperties of metals, and so forth has re-\\nceived careful attention. Through studies\\nof this kind it has become possible, in\\nsome instances, to predict the action of\\ncertain medical preparations, their com-\\nposition and molecular structure being\\nknown.\\nA tracing out of such and similar rela-\\ntions is certainly of great interest. Of\\nrecent years, experienced teachers of\\nchemistry have found a presentation of\\nthe fundamental data of their science\\nbased on the periodic law, of great di-\\ndactic value. While the periodic law, so\\ncalled, cannot as yet give a logical ac-\\ncounting of all phenomena, it seems be-\\nyond question that it is to-day one of the\\nmost important theories of chemistry.\\nThe valency of the element carbon had\\nbeen studied and determined by Frank-\\n76", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "land. His conclusion that carbon is Stereo-\\nChem-\\ntetra-valent was confirmed by the inde-\\npendent investigations of August Kekule,\\nwho, as a result of his researches into\\nthe manner of combination of carbon\\natoms mter se, laid the foundations of\\nthe important chain-theory, which has\\nproved of great value in the realm of\\norganic chemistry.\\nStudy of the structural arrangement\\nof molecules, which resulted in the\\ntheory of the grouping of atoms in space,\\nw^as initiated by the labors of Louis\\nPasteur, on the phenomena of isomerism\\nexhibited by the tartaric acids.\\nThe work of Johnannes Wislicenus on\\nlactic and sarcolactic acids, carried on in\\n1873, foreshadowed the teachings of\\nVan t Hoff and Le Bel, who, in 1874,\\nalmost at the same time but independ-\\nently of one another, formulated the\\nprinciples of stereo-chemistry.\\nVan t Hoff had elaborated his ideas\\nwith the object of explaining the property\\nwhich many carbon-compounds, when in\\nsolution, possess of rotating the plane of\\npolarized light. Le Bel, who followed\\nVan t Hofl s announcement w4th his own\\nconclusions on the subject but a few\\nmonths later, was likewise led to his\\n77\\nistry", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "conceptions by a study of the optical\\nbehavior of certain solutions. A treatise\\nby F. W. Clarke, Chemistry of Three\\nDimensions, published in 1875, likewise\\nemphasizes the conclusion that all mole-\\ncules must be tri-dimensional.\\nThus far the compounds of carbon and\\nthe compounds of nitrogen have received\\nmost attention from those who have\\ngiven special care to the developments of\\nstereochemistry, but chemistry in general\\nhas undoubtedly been enriched in many\\nways through the stimulation given by\\nthis new departure from the old and well\\nbeaten tracks.\\nThe Development of the language of chem-\\nrua^e^of is^^y course been conditioned by\\nChem- and kept pace with the evolution of the\\nscience. The earliest terms employed in\\nchemistry were, as a rule, suggestive of\\nthe origin of the substances which they\\ndenoted. The term sal, for instance,\\nwas applied since the earliest times to\\nall substances having a salty taste.\\nAbout the eighth century the attempt\\nwas made to distinguish between different\\nsubstances having a salty taste, by add-\\ning a word descriptive of the origin of\\nsuch substance thus, common salt was\\ncalled sal maris, salt of the sea.\\n78", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "The thirteenth century witnessed the\\nfree use of certain symbols to denote\\nsome of the metals thus, gold, called\\nSol by the alchemists, was by them de-\\npicted by a circle with a dot in its center;\\nsilver, in their language Ltma^ was re-\\npresented by a crescent copper, which\\nthey termed Verucs, was denoted by a\\ncircle to the bottom of which a small\\ncross was attached.\\nThe original and true meaning of\\nthese symbols is not known many and\\nfanciful, however, have been the explana-\\ntions suggested. For instance, it has been\\nsupposed that the symbol chosen for\\nVenus represented a hand-mirror.\\nSome of the alchemists saw in these\\nsymbols an indication of the chemical\\nproperties of the metals they denoted.\\nThus, the circle was held to illustrate\\nperfection of the metallic condition, the\\nsemi-circle an approximation to this\\nstate however, an attempt to trace the\\nvarious signs which were gradually intro-\\nduced into the science and the numerous\\ntransmutations which they suffered in\\nthe course of time, would carry us far\\nbeyond the purpose and the limit of\\nthese pages.\\nReference by name only can here be\\n79", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "made to the systems of symbols used by\\nGeoffrey, by Bergman, by Dalton, hy\\nBerzelius, by Hassenfratz and Adet.\\nThe last named was specifically in-\\ntended to accompany the chemical no-\\nmenclature devised by Lavoisier, De\\nMorveau and colleagues, the system\\nwhich is the foundation of the one em-\\nployed at the present time.\\nWithin the past decade various at-\\ntempts have been made to agree upon\\nsome method of chemical nomenclature\\nand notation which should meet with\\nuniversal acceptance. Concerning the\\nnames and the symbols of the elements,\\nthose known to the ancients mostly retain\\ntheir original appellation. In naming\\nelements the discovery of which belongs\\nto a later date, it has become customary in\\nthe case of metals to assign the termina-\\ntion 7im or tu?n to the name selected in\\nthe case of non-metals, to make the end-\\ning of the appellation tne, o?i or g-e?z. The\\nchoice of the name of an element rests,\\nof course, with its discoverer. In some\\ncases the names of the planets have been\\nused for the purpose thus. Mercury,\\nTellurium, Selenium own as their spon-\\nsors respectively Mercury, the earth and\\nthe moon.\\n80", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "In other instances the patriotism of the\\ndiscoverer has immortaUzed the name of\\nhis country by bestowing the same upon\\nthe newly found substance. Columbium,\\nGermanium and Gallium may be cited in\\nillustration. The names of deities have\\nalso been pressed into service to this end;\\nthus, Thorium from Thor, one of the\\ngods of Norse mythology.\\nSometimes the name which an element\\nbears has been suggested by some dis-\\ntinctive property which it possesses.\\nIridium is derived from the Latin word\\niris, 2l rainbow Iodine from the Greek\\nterm for the violet Barium from the\\nsame language, from the word which\\ndenotes weighty.\\nThe names of chemical substances, of\\nelements and of compounds, are fre-\\nquently indicated by symbols. As a rule\\nthe symbols which denote the elements\\nare indicative of their names and usually\\nconsist of the initial, or of the initial and\\nsome other letter of such name. Thus,\\ncarbon is designated by the letter C, cal-\\ncium by the letters Ca, and copper by\\nthe letters Cu, these last being taken\\nfrom the Latin appellation of copper,\\ncupy^um.\\nIt is an important matter to remember\\n8i", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "that the symbol of an element stands not\\nonly for its name, but represents at the\\nsame time a definite amount of the ele-\\nment the weight of one atom.\\nAn atom is defined to be the smallest\\nquantity of matter which can enter into\\nchemical combination. If it be desired\\nto indicate more than one atom, the\\nrequisite numeral is placed with the sym-\\nbol. The symbols of compounds, usually\\ntermed formulae, are simply combinations\\nof the symbols of the elements forming\\nthe compound and of numerals which\\nindicate the number of atoms of the\\nelements which are present in the com-\\npound thus, water is a compound of two\\ngases, hydrogen and oxygen. The small-\\nest amount of water, which can exist as\\nsuch, contains two atoms of hydrogen\\nand one atom of oxygen its formula-\\nis therefore H^O.\\nBy a simple and ingenious system of\\nterminals and of prefixes, taken in part\\nfrom the lyatin and the Greek languages,\\nchemists are enabled to have the name\\nof a compound indicate to a certain ex-\\ntent its chemical composition.\\nThe chemical composition of a com-\\npound can be concisely expressed in a\\nformula from the chemical formula of a\\n82", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "substance, one versed in the language of\\nchemistry can usually designate by name\\nthe substance represented.\\nWhen elements or compounds aie sub-\\njected to influences which cause them to\\nundergo changes, the reactions can be\\nindicated by the aid of symbols and for-\\nmulae. As matter is indestructible,\\nnothing is lost in these reactions, and\\nsuch expressions of change must there-\\nfore, of necessit} be equations they are\\ntermed chemical equations. Chemical\\nequations are known respectively as syn-\\nthetic, analytic, and metathetic, as they\\nrepresent the formation of substances by\\nthe union, the decomposition, or the\\ninterchange of constituents.\\nIt was during the epoch of iatro-chem- Didactic\\nistry that chemistry was first taught at jg^nT\\nthe universities. At first the teaching\\nof this subject was included in the\\nlectures on medicine delivered by pro-\\nfessors of that faculty. The first lecturer\\nwho treated chemistry as an independent\\nsubject was a German, Johann Hart-\\nmann. He spoke at the high school at\\nMarburg, in the first quarter of the\\nseventeenth century.\\nUniversity instruction in laboratory\\npractice was established much later, in\\n83", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "fact, only towards the end of the centur3r\\nlast named the first public chemical\\nlaboratory for purposes of instruction\\nwas founded in 1683, b}^ the council of\\nNuremberg it was situate at Altorf\\nand its first director was Johann Moritz\\nHofmann.\\nLectures on chemistry, illustrated by\\nexperiments to serve didactic purposes,\\nwere introduced in France about one\\nhundred 3 ears ago. In England, Sir\\nHumphry Davy is credited with making\\nthis kind of instruction popular, and\\nother CDuntries soon followed the novel\\npractice. Modern methods of laboratory\\ninstruction in chemistry are generally\\nbelieved to have been inaugurated by\\nJustus von Liebig at least it is certain\\nthat his laboratory was one of the first to\\nbe established, and the same has certainly\\nmade its influence felt all over Germany\\nand far beyond her borders.\\nManuals One of the earliest works on chemical\\nist?y Subjects which can in any way be looked\\nupon as a text-book, is an English pub-\\nlication, Compoicnd of Alchyjnie, which\\nwas prepared by George Ripley, about\\nthe year 1471.\\nIn an introduction in verse, with\\nwhich he prefaces his volume, he, after\\n84", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "informing his readers of his intentions,\\noutlines the table of contents\\nBut into Chapters thys Treatis I shall devyde,\\nIn numbre twelve, with dew recapytulatyon\\nSuperfluous rehearsalls I lay asyde,\\nIndendyng only to give trew informatyon\\nBoth of the theoryke and practycall operatyon:\\nThat by my wrytyng who so wyll guyded be,\\nOf hys intente perfyctly speed shall he.\\nAgricola s work, De fe me tallica, pub-\\nlished in 1546, contains a good i^esiune of\\nthe art of metallurgy as it was under-\\nstood at that time, but the first general\\ntreatise on chemistry is probably the\\nAlchy77iia, by Andreas Libau, or Libavius,\\nas he was often called. This work,\\npublished in 1595, is divided into two\\nsections the first of these describes\\nchemical operations and apparatus and\\ncontains directions for the regulation and\\nthe application of fire. The second part\\nof the book treats of the preparation and\\nthe properties of chemical substances\\nand compounds. No consideration is\\ngiven in this book to theoretical dis-\\ncussions.\\nQuite a number of works on chemistry\\nwere issued in the seventeenth century\\nsome of these laid special stress on\\nmedical chemistry, others were more\\n85", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "general in their character. Of these, pos-\\nsibly the Coiirs de Chymie, published by\\nNicolaus Ivcmery in 1675, and the Chymia\\nPhilosophica, by Jacob Earner, which was\\nissued in 1689, were the most important.\\nThe standard work of Hermann Boer-\\nhave, Elementa Chemiae, first published\\nin 1732, consists of two parts, the first\\nof which deals with the theory, the\\nsecond with the practice of chemistry.\\nAs representative works of the phlogistic\\nand of the anti-phlogistic schools re-\\nspectively, there might be mentioned\\nGeorg Ernst Stahl s Fiuidamenta Chemiae\\nDogiJiaticae et Ratioiialis and Antoine\\nLaurent lyavoisier s Elements de Chimie,\\nThe original of the Lehr^hcch der\\nCheviie, by Berzelius, the first volume of\\nw^hich appeared in 1808, experienced\\nmany editions and also a translation into\\nthe German tongue. This work remained\\nan authoritative work during the greater\\npart of the first half of this century.\\nAmong the standard English manuals\\nof chemistry which this century has pro-\\nduced, probably none outranks the\\nTreatise on Chemistry, by Roscoe and\\nSchorlemmer. Of English works of\\nreference in this science, the Dictionary\\nof Chemistry, by Henry Watts, and the\\n86", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "revised edition of this publication by\\nMorley and Muir, undoubtedly hold first\\nplace.\\nHowever, it would be a great and\\nprofitless task to attempt here a recital\\nof the wealth of chemical literature a\\nstore-house of treasure to which all\\ncivilized nations of the world have con-\\ntributed. Some conception of its ex-\\ntent may be gained by learning that\\nA Select Bibliography of Che^nistry^ 1492-\\n1892, prepared by the distinguished\\nAmerican bibliographer and chemist,\\nH. Carrington Bolton, and published in\\n1893, enumerates no less than twelve\\nthousand and thirty-one titles of inde-\\npendent books and their translations.\\nOf these, four thousand five hundred\\nand seven titles are credited to the Ger-\\nman, two thousand seven hundred and\\nsixty-five to the English, and two thou-\\nsand one hundred and forty-one to the\\nFrench language.\\nTwo supplements of this most valuable\\nw^ork add respectively about six thousand\\nand eight thousand titles to the number\\nabove given. The latter of these volumes\\nis limited entirely to the recording of\\ndissertations, while a Caialogice of Scien-\\ntific Periodicals, in which of course many\\n87", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "journals on chemistry are included, and\\nwhich has also issued from the pen of\\nProfessor Bolton, lists no less than eight\\nthousand six hundred titles.\\nChem- Appreciation of the wide domain legi-\\nAnalysis timately open to chemistry brought with\\nit application of its teachings and prin-\\nciples in many ways to many problems.\\nThe directing influence in such adapta-\\ntions was, of course, chemical analysis,\\nwhich has for its object the resolving of\\nsubstances into, and a determination of,\\ntheir components.\\nWith a perfecting of the methods of\\nchemical analysis, a more accurate\\nknowledge and understanding of the\\ncomposition, the properties and the be-\\nhavior of the substances analyzed was\\ngained. In consequence, new processes\\nof manufacture could be devised, those\\nin existence could be more carefully fol-\\nlowed, controlled and improved, and\\nthereby, in many instances, a lowering in\\nthe cost of production effected.\\nNotwithstanding the great importance\\nof analytical chemistry, the purely scien-\\ntific aspect of this branch of the science\\nhad, up to the present decade, been sadly\\nneglected, although in its practical as-\\npects and details analytical chemistry\\n88", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "iad received great attention and care for\\nmany years. It was Wilhelm Ostwald s\\nwork, The Scientific Foundations of Aria-\\nlytical Chemistry, published in 1894,\\nwhich marked a pioneering venture into\\nthis inviting but theretofore practically\\nunexplored domain.\\nIn chemical anal3^sis distinction is\\nmade between proximate and ultimate\\nanalysis. Aim of the former is the de-\\ntermination of individual groups existing\\nin a substance. Thus, milk consists of\\nwater, fats, albumenoids, sugar and salts;\\na proximate analysis of milk would in-\\nvolve the determination of these consti-\\ntuents, as such.\\nUltimate analysis is concerned with\\nthe determination of the individual ele-\\nments which enter into the constitution\\nof a substance. In the illustration cited,\\nfor instance, it would be the task of ulti-\\nmate analysis to determine the carbon,\\nthe hydrogen, the oxygen and all other\\nelementary components of the substances\\nwhich have been enumerated as consti-\\ntuents of milk.\\nMethods of chemical analysis must of\\ncourse be adapted to the physical char-\\nacter of the bodies to which they are\\napplied. Gases, liquids, solids, call for\\n89", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "different modes of treatment, which must\\nbe especially suited and adapted to their\\nrespective properties. It is a frequent\\npractice of the anal3^st to bring a body\\nfrom one state of aggregation into an-\\nother, for instance, to transform a solid\\nsubstance into a solution, before subject-\\ning it to an anah^tical examination.\\nWhen the object of an analysis is only\\nthe ascertaining of the constituents of a\\nsubstance, that is to say, when no at-\\ntempt is made to determine how much of\\neach constituent is present, the process\\nis designated one of qualitative analysis.\\nIf, however, a knowledge of the\\namounts in which the constituents are\\npresent be desired, the analysis assumes\\nthe character of a quantitative determina-\\ntion. In practicing the latter, distinction\\nis made between gravimetric anal3 sis and\\nvolumetric anah^sis, according to the\\nmanner in which the quantitative deter-\\nmination is effected. If the amounts of\\nsubstances are ascertained by weighing,\\nthe work is termed gravimetric if by the\\nuse of measured volumes of reagents, the\\nprocess is designated one of volumetric\\nanalysis.\\nIt has already been mentioned that the\\nera of quantitative anah^sis was intro-\\n90", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "duced through the balance coming into\\ngeneral use in chemistry. The refinement\\nand degree of accuracy to which many\\nmodem chemical determinations can lay\\nclaim is marked, and this is, in no small\\nmeasure, due to the exercise of the\\nmechanical ingenuity and skill which are\\nnowadays bestowed upon the manufac-\\nture of analytical balances.\\nFor many centuries, and in fact up to\\nU ithin a few centuries, fire was consid-\\nered to be the principal agent for the\\nbringing about of chemical changes.\\nHow firm a hold this belief had on the\\nminds of workers in the science, may be\\ninferred from a motto placed in a text-\\nbook on chemistry that was published in\\n1663:\\nSi7ie igni 7iihil operayiiur.\\nAlthough fire played so prominent a\\nrole in the doings of the earlier investi-\\ngators, yet the measurement of tempera-\\ntures was but roughly approximate and\\nvery crude until Boerhave demonstrated\\nthe necessity and importance of employ-\\ning thermometers in many chemical in-\\nvestigations.\\nThe construction of thermometers of\\nthe present type, containing a fluid, was\\nfirst carried out about the middle of the\\n91", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "seventeenth, century, by members of the\\nAcademia del Cime?tto. Fahrenheit, in\\n1 714, employed mercury for the filling of\\nthermometers, and Boerhave, in his\\nfamous treatise on chemistry, expressed\\nthe boiling- and the melting-points of\\nsubstances in degrees Fahrenheit.\\nTo secure the heat needed for their\\noperations, the alchemists and their suc-\\ncessors in the science paid great attention\\nto the form and to the construction of\\ntheir furnaces. Among the fuels used\\nwere wood, wood-charcoal, coal, peat,\\nalcohol and oil. For the obtaining of\\ntheir highest temperatures they employed\\nburning glasses, turning to the sun for\\nthe required energy. Some important\\nadditions to chemical knowledge resulted\\nfrom so practical a sun-cult combustion\\nof the diamond is, for instance, said to\\nhave been first accomplished by the help\\nof the sun s rays.\\nThe obtainment of high temperatures\\nby the use of oxygen was introduced by\\nPriestley, who caused a jet of this gas to\\nimpinge on a glowing coal. The first\\napparatus in which hydrogen was burned\\nin oxygen, was constructed by Hare, in\\n1 801.\\nThe two principal forms of dry analy-\\n92", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "sis which are practiced to-day are blow-\\npipe work, which occupies itself with\\nthe behavior of substances under varying\\nconditions of flame and generally in the\\npresence of reagents, and assaying,\\nwhich is principalh concerned with the\\ndetermination of ores and metals by the\\nprocesses of smelting and cupellation.\\nThe blowpipe, which was originally\\nused for the soldering of metals, was first\\nemployed for the testing of minerals by\\nCronstedt and Engestroem. Bergman and\\none of his assistants, Johann Gottlieb\\nGahn, studied thoroughly the behavior\\nof different substances and reagents un-\\nder the flame of the blowpipe.- Their\\nwork on the testing of minerals by the\\nblowpipe was published in 1779, and was\\nthe first treatise on this important branch\\nof chemical analysis. Gahn s labors in\\nthis field continued for many years; after\\nBerzelius had become his co-worker, the\\nlatter published a book on their methods\\nand results, which experienced transla-\\ntion into several languages.\\nAn Englishman, William Hyde Wol-\\nlaston, was another adept in the use of\\nthe blowpipe. He was a man of consid-\\nerable ability and attainments, but per-\\nhaps his greatest achievement was the\\n93", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "working out of a method for the refining-\\nof platinum, a method which could be\\napplied on a manufacturing scale and\\nwhich made possible the introduction of\\nplatinum vessels in the chemist s labora-\\ntory.\\nAssaying and blowpipe- work, or doci-\\nmacy, as it is often termed, are entirely\\ndistinct from the principles and methods\\nof wet analysis, a term often used to\\nspecify the working with solutions.\\nThis latter important branch of chem.\\nistry received its first potent impulse\\nthrough the labors of Bergman. His\\ndirections for the anal3 sis of mineral\\nsubstances, which appeared in 1777 and\\nthe years following, were probably the\\nfirst directions of the kind published. lu\\nthese he taught how minerals can be\\nbrought into a state of solution, by pow-\\ndering them finely, by fusing them with\\nthe proper reagents and by then subject-\\ning them to the action of acids.\\nWhile Bergman was thus probably the\\nfirst to break ground in this new field,\\nMartin Heinrich Klaproth was the one\\nwho fir\u00c2\u00abt brought chemical anatysis in-\\nto systematic shape and who laid the\\nfoundations of that important structure,\\nanalytical chemistry, to the perfection of\\n94", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "which so many able chemists have since\\ngiven their best endeavors.\\nOne of the greatest benefits bestowed\\nupon chemistry by Klaproth was the\\npractice, which he was the first to intro-\\nduce, of recording the results of his\\nanalyses exactly as he obtained them.\\nAs our mistakes should be stepping-\\nstones to the truth, the value of Klap-\\nroth s procedure is patent. Thus, if the\\nresults of a complete analysis of a sub-\\nstance should fall below loo per cent, to\\nwhich they should figure, and if the dif-\\nference should prove too great to be\\naccounted for on the plea of permissible\\nexperimental error, then search would\\nnaturally be instituted for the cause,\\nduplicate analyses would be made, and\\nthe work, if faulty, corrected. If the\\nduplicate analyses agreed, then there\\nwould be reason to suspect some con-\\nstituent before not determined. Analysts\\nprior to Klaproth did not pursue this\\ncourse, and thereby they undoubtedly\\npassed by many data which they could\\nhave secured.\\nKlaproth left the imprint of his ability\\nnot only on analytical methods, but he\\nlikewise perfected much of the apparatus\\nused in chemical manipulations the\\n95", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "introduction of silver crucibles, for in-\\nstance, was due to him in fact, so great\\nwere his merits in these directions that\\nhe has been termed the creator of\\nanalytical chemistr3^\\nIn France the cause of analytical chem-\\nistry was at that time furthered chiefly\\nby Vauquelin, a pupil, and later on an\\nassistant, of Fourcroy s. His researches\\nextended to both mineral chemistry and\\nto some of the so-called organic sub-\\nstances. His lectures and his laboratory\\ninstruction were largely attended and\\nexercised undoubted influence on the\\ngeneration of chemists next succeeding.\\nOf his writings, the Introduction to Chem-\\nical A?ialysis should be mentioned this\\nwas published in 1799, and a German\\ntranslation of the same was made. Like\\nseveral of his co-laborers in analytical\\nchemistry, Vauquelin had the good for-\\ntune to discover a new element, chro-\\nmium. He also discovered and described\\nthe oxide of beryllium, the metal of\\nwhich, beryllium, was isolated only thirty\\nyears later, by Wohler.\\nThe greatest improvements in analy-\\ntical methods in those days were, how-\\never, wrought by a Swedish chemist,\\nJons Jakob Berzelius, who had set for\\n96", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "himself as his goal the critical ex-\\namination of numerous chemical com-\\npounds in order to learn their exact\\ncomposition and to discover the laws\\nwhich governed their formation. His\\nwork pointed the way for the accurate\\ndetermination of atomic weights and\\npractically established the doctrine of\\nproportions.\\nAmong the pupils of Berzelius, whose\\nnames are also deservedly eminent in the\\nlist of analytical chemists, there must be\\ncited, Nils Nordenskjold, Heinrich and\\nGustav Rose, Mitscherlich, C. G. Gmelin\\nand Friedrich Wohler. Heinrich Rose s\\nAusfuhrliches Ha7idbicch der Analytischen\\nCkemie long ranked as a model of its\\nkind.\\nOf English chemists who achieved\\nmarked success in this branch of chem-\\nistry, there might be named Edward\\nHoward, who gave much attention to\\nthe analysis of meteorites Smithson\\nTennant, who discovered osmium and.\\niridium, and who, in 1796, was the first\\nto make an experimental investigation of\\nthe chemical nature of the diamond,\\nshowing the same to be but a pure form\\nof carbon Dr. Henry, who devoted\\nmuch skill to the analysis of gases, and\\n97", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "William Hyde Wollaston, whose worki\\nhas been previously referred to.\\nOne of the most distinguished analy-\\ntical chemists of our own time was\\nCarl Remigius Fresenius. An assistant\\nof Justus von lyiebig s, in Giessen, and.\\nlater an assistant professor at that Uni-\\nversity, he established at Wiesbaden, in\\n1848, a laboratory which has since gained\\na world-wide reputation.\\nHis manuals on Qualitative and Quan-\\ntitative Analysis are to-day regarded as\\nthe standard works on these subjects,\\nand his Zeitschrift fur Ayialytische Chemie,\\nfounded in 1862, is still the leading\\njournal of its kind.\\nOrganic Before* the time of Robert Boyle, all\\nand^Svn- substances were classified in accordance\\nthesis with their physical properties. Chloride\\nof zinc, chloride of antimony and chloride\\nof arsenic were designated respectively\\nas butyrum zinci, antimonii, arsenid,\\nsimply because they all had about the\\nconsistency of butter they were actually\\nclassed with this substance. Oil of\\nvitriol, the sulphuric acid of to-day, was\\nplaced into the same group with the\\nfatty oils, while sugar was counted in\\nwith the salts because it was a colorless\\nsubstance soluble in water.\\n98", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "In a text-book on chemistry, entitled\\nCours de Chymie^ first published in 1675,\\nthe author, Nicolas lycmery, classified\\nsubstances according to their source or\\norigin he thus distinguished three\\nclasses of bodies, mineral, vegetable and\\nanimal. Lemery s book was at the time\\nregarded as the standard work on chem-\\nistry, and as it experienced translation\\ninto many tongues, his system of classifi-\\ncation met with general acceptance.\\nIt was only towards the close of the\\nlast century that the products of the\\nvegetable and animal kingdoms, so called,,\\nreceived any appreciable attention from:\\nchemists. Scheele and Bergman studied,\\nsome of the organic acids and worked out\\nmethods for their analysis, while the\\nsubject of animal chemistry received con-\\nsideration at the hands of Rouelle.\\nLavoisier determined the constituents\\nof vegetable compounds to be, usually,,\\noxygen, hydrogen and carbon animal\\nsubstances, he found, contained in addi-\\ntion nitrogen, and sometimes phosphorus..\\nIn Lavoisier s eyes, oxygen was, so to-\\nspeak, the centre of the chemical world\\nin most instances he sought to determine\\nwhether a body was in combination with\\noxygen, or, if not, whether its combina-\\n99", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "tion with oxygen could be effected. To\\na body thus in combination or capable of\\ncombining with oxygen he applied the\\nterm ^radical a radical might be\\neither a simple or a compound substance.\\nThis was, as previously stated, the\\nfoundation of the theory of compound,\\nradicals later advanced by Berzelius.\\nSharp distinction between animal and\\nvegetable chemistry was gradually al-\\nlowed to fall into disuse when it was\\nascertained that there were some sub-\\nstances which occurred in both the ani-\\nmal and the vegetable world then the\\nproducts of both of these kingdoms were\\ngrouped together as organic substances,\\nand were classed apart from bodies of a\\nmineral, or, as it was termed, an inorganic\\norigin.\\nBerzelius, after a most thorough re-\\nsearch, reached the conclusion that the\\nso-called organic bodies were in their\\ncomposition also subject to the laws of\\nconstant and multiple proportions.\\nThe boundary line between organic\\nand inorganic substances was, however,\\nnot clearly defined. Gmelin cited, as a\\ndistinguishing characteristic, that organic\\nbodies could not be formed artificially\\nfrom their components, while synthesis,", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "which means a building up from their\\nconstituents, was possible in the case of\\ninorganic compounds. But other views\\nwere also held, the chemists of that time\\nbeing by no means agreed as to what\\nconstituted a proper definition of organic\\nand of inorganic substances.\\nThe discovery by Friedrich Wohler,\\nin 1828, that amonium cyanate, a mineral\\nsubstance, could be transformed into\\nurea, distinctively an animal product,\\nmarks the first drawing aside of the veil\\nwherewith Dame Nature was believed to\\nscreen the mysteries of the living world.\\nAt that time, the belief was commonly\\nheld that all compounds found in the\\nanimal and in the vegetable kingdom\\nowed their existence to the influence of\\na mysterious vital force. The elements\\nunder the domain of life were supposed\\nto be governed by laws of their own,\\nand, while it was known that substances\\nfound in plants and animals could be\\ncaused to undergo changes and transfor-\\nmations, it was not believed to be pos-\\nsible that they could be artificially made\\nfrom their component elements.\\nIt was a long time ere the full and\\nand general bearing of Wohler s discov-\\nery came to be thoroughly appreciated,\\nlOI", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "ere the belief in a vital force was aban-\\ndoned to be replaced by a well-founded\\nfaith in the possibility of the synthesis of\\nall organic compounds.\\nSpec- When, in analytical determinations,\\nAnalvsi^ the means and methods of chemistry\\nalone are not sufficient to secure the\\nrequired degree of accuracy in the results\\nsought for, the aid of a sister-science,\\ngenerally of physics, is invoked.\\nAn illustration in point is spectrum\\nanalysis, a field of investigation opened\\nup through the use of an instrument\\ncalled a spectroscope. By the aid of this\\ndevice the chemist is enabled to learn\\nthe composition of many substances under\\nthe sun, in fact, even of the sun, by ex-\\namining the light which comes to us\\nfrom that bod3\\\\\\nWhen a beam of sunlight is allowed to\\npass through a prism, the various rays\\nof which the white light consists are\\nunequally refracted, and, in consequence,\\nare separated from one another in emerg-\\ning from the prism. These vari-colored\\nrays, exhibiting all the colors of the\\nrainbow, are designated as the spectrum.\\nThree kinds of spectra are distin-\\nguished. The solar spectrum and the\\nspectra given out by the stars consist of", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "colored bands traversed in certain parts\\nby dark lines. Solids heated to incan-\\ndescence, but emitting no vapors plati-\\nnum, for instance give rise to continuous\\nspectra, that is, to bands of color un-\\nbroken by dark lines. Vapors of vola-\\ntile substances, especially vapors of the\\nmetals, cause so-called bright line spectra.\\nAs each metal has a spectrum peculiar ta\\nitself and which is perfectly characteris-\\ntic with respect to the color, the position\\nand the number of the. lines it exhibits,\\nthe value of spectrum analysis for the\\npurposes of chemical research will be\\nreadily appreciated.\\nCredit for applying the principles of\\nspectrum analysis to problems of chem-\\nistry belongs to two German chemists,\\nBunsen and Kirchhoff. By its aid they\\ndiscovered the elements caesium and\\nrubidium gallium, thallium and indium\\nwere likewise discovered by means of the\\nspectroscope, by other analysts.\\nIn an address, entitled The Chem-^\\nistry of the Stars, recently delivered by\\nJ. Norman Lockyer, this distinguished\\nscientist, after recounting recent infor-\\nmation gained in stellar chemistry by\\nmeans of the spectroscope, referred to\\nthe process of celestial evolution, and\\n103", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "suggested the probability that all cos-\\nmical bodies were evolved from meteor-\\nites. Surely a great and important\\ngeneralization to found on evidence sup-\\nplied by a method of nature-study which\\nhad its modest beginning onl}- at the\\nbeginning of this centur3\\\\\\nElectro- One of the most important advances\\nistry i^ade in chemistry in the first decade of\\nthe nineteenth century, was the securing\\nof two new elements, potassium and\\nsodium, from their compounds, potash\\nand soda respectively, by the aid of\\nelectrical power. This was accomplished\\nin 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy, who used\\nelectric currents in these investigations.\\nWater had been decomposed electro-\\nlytically, seven years earlier, by Nichol-\\nson and Carlisle. Berzelius had tried\\nthe action of electricity on salt solutions,\\nammonia and other compounds, and Sir\\nHumphry Davy commenced his work in\\nthis direction by a very careful study of\\nthe electrolytic decomposition of water.\\nDavy s observations laid the founda-\\ntion of the electro-chemical theory,\\nw^hich, later on, was materially enlarged\\nand elaborated by Berzelius. A number\\nof new elements were discovered by dis-\\nsociating chemical compounds by the aid\\n104", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "of the electric current. Besides potas-\\nsium and sodium, calcium, barium,\\nstrontium, chlorine and iodine were thus\\nadded to the list of chemical elements.\\nAmong the French, these researches\\nexcited great interest, and Gay-IyUssac\\nand Thenard paid great attention to the\\npreparation of the alkalies named, potas-\\nsium and sodium, by electro-chemical\\nmethods, in addition to seeking to obtain\\nthese metals by other processes of manu-\\nfacture.\\nEmployment of the electric current for\\nthe separation of metals was advocated\\nin 1865 by Liickow, and its introduction\\ninto analytical chemistry was due chiefly\\nto this investigator and to Gibbs.\\nWithin the past decade, thanks to the\\nefforts of Wilhelm Ostwald, Alexander\\nClassen, Robert Liipke, Edgar F. Smith\\nand others, the methods of electro-chem-\\nistry have reached so advanced a stage,\\nthat regular systems of qualitative\\nanalysis by electric currents have been\\ndevised, and by these means and\\nmethods satisfactory determinations of\\nmany bodies can now be made.\\nA study of the influence of electricity\\non certain of the so-called organic vSub-\\nstances is one of the latest phases upon\\n105", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "which electro-chemical investigation has\\nentered.\\nPhysical Fraught with potent powers for the\\nist?y f^^ advancement of all chemical\\nknowledge, are the teachings of physical\\nchemistry.\\nPhysical chemistry is the name by\\nwhich there is designated that border-land\\nof science lying between chemistry and\\nphysics. Its scope may perhaps best be\\ndefined by stating that it aims at the\\nsolving of chemical problems by physical\\nmeans and also at the solving of problems\\nin physics b}^ invoking the aid of chem-\\nical methods.\\nA pioneer in this field was Olivet\\nWolcott Gibbs, a distinguished Americai^\\nchemist. In German}-, Wilhelm Ostwald,\\nAV. Xernst and J. H. Van t HofI are\\namong the leaders of the movement along\\nthese lines.\\nOther chemists whose names are iden-\\ntified with advanced work in pure chem-\\nistry are Ira Remsen, J. P. Cooke,\\nWilliam Crookes, Arrhenius, Raoult,\\nWurtz, Le Bel, Guldberg and Waage.\\nIn Germany, the Zeitschrift fi ir Physi-\\nkalische Cheiiiie^ edited by Ostwald and\\nNernst in America, The Journal of\\nPhysical Chemistry, edited by Bancroft\\nio6", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "and Trevor, are the representative organs\\nof this especial branch of the science.\\nWe may here not transgress into this\\nfascinating domain nor enter into a dis-\\ncussion of its interesting possibilities.\\nExploration of it has, so to say, hardly\\ncommenced, but even so, it has already\\nyielded great treasures to science and is\\nfull of promise for the future.\\nThe origin of metallurgical knowledge Metal-\\ndates back to prehistoric times, different qu^^\\nnations ascribing the creation of the art istry\\nto their gods and heroes.\\nGold and silver were probably the ear-\\nliest known of the metals this is easily\\naccounted for through their occurring in\\nthe native state, that is to vSay, in the\\nelemental condition, so that they could\\nbe employed as found, without first hav-\\ning to be obtained from their ores. The\\noldest manufactured object of gold to\\nw^hich a date can be assigned is a bead,\\nshaped somewhat like a crescent, which\\nwas found by Monsieur de Morgan in a\\nroyal tomb at Nagada, in Egypt the\\nprobable date of erection of that struc-\\nture is about 4400 B.C.\\nNearly all ancient articles of gold\\nwhich have been analyzed have been\\nfound to contain some silver. This\\n107", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "natural alloy of gold and silver\u00e2\u0080\u0094 for\\nsuch it may be considered was termed\\nelectrum it occurred in considerable\\nquantity in Asia Minor. The earliest\\ncoins, the introduction of which Herod-\\notus ascribes to the Iv3^dians, were made\\nof electrum. They resembled oval bul-\\nlets in shape and were stamped on one\\nside only. Their use dates back about\\nseven centuries before the beginning of\\nour chronology.\\nPure silver in ancient times seems to\\nhave been used principally for the mak-\\ning of jewelry and of other ornaments.\\nReference to a ring of silver is to be\\nfound in a translation of The Book of the\\nDead by Wallis Budge this reference\\nwould seem to make the existence of\\nsilver rings date back to at least 3600 B.C.\\nCopper and its alloy, bronze, have been\\nknown from the very earliest of times\\narticles made therefrom have, it is\\nclaimed, been found in deposits dating\\nback to the age of stone. In the tomb\\nat Nagada, previously referred to, there\\nwas also found a button, which, accord-\\ning to the analysis of Berthelot, consisted\\nalmost wholly of pure copper.\\nCopper articles of somewhat later dates\\nare frequently found to contain arsenic\\n108", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "this was probably added to harden the\\ncopper. Tin alloyed with copper consti-\\ntutes bronze objects made of this mate-\\nrial were used in Egypt evidently in very\\nearly times.\\nThe use of iron was known to the\\nEgyptians long before this metal passed\\ninto the hands of the Greeks and Ro-\\nmans. The time when it was first used\\nin Egypt is a matter of dispute. Lepsius\\nholds that it was there employed fully\\nfive thousand years ago.\\nStrange as it may seem, in spite of its\\nwide usefulness this metal was regarded\\nby the Egyptians as the impure metal/\\nand its handling was held to be a sin.\\nThis ancient superstition passed, together\\nwnth the metal, into the keeping of other\\nnations and may to this day be traced in\\nvarious countries far distant from each\\nother it is, for instance, encountered in\\nAfrica, in China and in Scotland.\\nSeveral metallurgical operations were\\nknown to the Romans and the Greeks,\\nbut hardly any information has come\\ndown to us concerning the chemical pro-\\ncesses employed in those times. Diodo-\\nrus, in the second century before our era,\\ndescribed a process of cupelling gold for\\nremoving impurities from that metal.\\n109", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "The process of heating cinnabar with\\niron, in order to obtain metalUc mercury\\nfrom this compound of mercury and sul-\\nphur, was also then known.\\nMining was actively pursued in various\\ncountries, notabl}^ in Spain, France and\\nGermany, as early as the eleventh cen-\\ntury the mercury deposits in Idria w^ere\\ndiscovered towards the end of the fif-\\nteenth century, and the tin mines of\\nEngland have been worked since very\\nearly times.\\nDuring the age of medical chemistry\\nAgricola carefully described the chemical\\noperations involved in metallurgical pro-\\ncesses. By-products were noticed and\\nsecured, and about the middle of the six-\\nteenth centur}^ the discovery was made,\\nin Germany, that cobalt oxide imparts a\\nhlue color to glass.\\nThe eighteenth centur}^ brought Berg-\\nman s investigation on the differences\\nbetween cast iron, wrought iron and\\n-Steel Reaumur s teaching of a practical\\nprocess for the making of steel from\\niron, and Duhamel s study of the making\\nof brass. About that time several trea-\\ntises on metallurgy were published,\\namong them Schlueter s extensive work,\\nw^hich appeared in 1738.", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "In the nineteenth century the process\\nof making steel, devised by Sir Henry\\nBessemer, in 1856, has been perhaps the\\nmost important and, in its effects, the\\nmost far-reaching of all of the numerous\\nadvances made in metallurgical opera-\\ntions. The removal of phosphorus from\\niron, by the Thomas-Gilchrist process,\\nand the utilization of the resulting slag\\nas a valuable fertilizer, mark other\\nachievements of this century in this par-\\nticular field, which are of great import-\\nance and value.\\nConsiderable attention has also been\\ngiven within recent decades to the mak-\\ning of various combinations of metals,\\nalloys, as they are termed. New varieties\\nof brass and of bronze have been manu-\\nfactured aluminium, which owes its\\npresent prominent position in the world\\nof metals in a great measure to its cheap\\nproduction by electro-chemical processes,\\nforms the basis of a number of exceed-\\ningly valuable alloys, bronzes and others.\\nVarious methods have also been found\\nfor securing the intimate combination of\\niron and steel with varying amounts of\\ncarbon, nickel and other elements. This\\nresults in the securing of great strength\\nand power of resistance for the finished\\nIII", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "products. In this respect, indeed, tlie\\ngreat and enduring struggle for supre-\\nmacy going on, the civilized world over,\\nbetween heavy armorplate for purposes\\nof defense and heavy projectiles for pur-\\nposes of attack, may well be looked upon\\nas an episode in the evolution of this\\nparticular branch of metallurgical chem-\\nistry.\\nQuite recently the United States Navy\\nDepartment has received an extensive\\nreport concerning a very important ex-\\nperiment which extended over a period\\nof four years, and which was made to\\ndetermine the feasibility of attaching a\\ncovering of copper directly to the steel\\nor iron hulls of vessels.\\nThe process employed is practically\\none of electro-plating, the copper being,\\nas it were, fused directly into the plates\\nof iron or steel. The coating of copper\\nthus applied has a thickness of about\\none thirty-second of an inch.\\nThe results obtained in this Govern-\\nment trial have proved eminently satis-\\nfactory in every respect. The process is\\nless costly than the process of copper-\\nsheathing as ordinarily employed the\\nhull of the vessel experimented upon was\\nfound to be free from all barnacles, even\\nIT2", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "after long continued service in southern\\nwaters, and last, but not least, it was\\nestablished that no galvanic action had\\nbeen set up between the iron and the\\ncopper, although such an occurence might\\nhave been feared.\\nTaken all in all, the successful out-\\ncome of this crucial test seems to mark a\\nnew departure along lines where the need\\nof improvement had long been felt and\\nsought, and this new process will pro-\\nbably prove to be of the greatest value to\\nthe shipping interests of the world.\\nIncidental reference should here be\\nmade to the various metallic pigments\\nwhich play quite a role in the arts and\\nindustries. Among such colors, we\\nhave white lead, paris green, zinc white\\nand iron ochre. Salts of iron, chromium,\\naluminium, tin and potassium are also\\nlargely used in the dyeing and the print-\\ning of textile fabrics.\\nThe marvelous advances made by elec-\\ntricity have caused its influence to be\\nstrongly felt also in matters chemical.\\nThe winning of metals by electrical pro-\\ncesses has previously been mentioned,\\nand the practical applications of electro-\\nmetallurgy in the arts and in manufacture\\nare numerous.\\n3", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "Electro-plating, the process of covering\\nsurfaces with metallic deposits thrown\\ndown from solutions of their salts by\\nelectrical currents, has made wonderful\\nstrides since the first inception of the\\nidea by de la Rive, in 1836.\\nThe production of whole series of\\nchemical compounds, for instance, the\\nsilicides and the carbides, is also effected\\nthrough the aid of powerful electric\\ncurrents, which are caused to generate\\nintense heat. Thus, carborundum, which\\nis a carbide of silicon, is formed in\\nthe manner indicated, from a mixture\\nof coal, sand and salt it has found con-\\nsiderable application in the arts, on\\naccount of its very great hardness, it\\nreplaces emery for many purposes and it\\nis also used in the making of steel.\\nCalcium carbide, which is made by\\nfusing coke and lime in an electric fur-\\nnace, 3 ields, when brought into contact\\nwith water, that brilliant illuminant,\\nacetylene, which of late has entered into\\nactive competition with the illuminating\\ngas now in common use.\\nMineral- The analytical work of Bergman,\\nCh^^^- ^^^d Klaproth forms the true\\nistry foundation of mineralogical chemistry,\\nalthough sundry scattered observations\\n114", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "on the nature of minerals were made\\neven in the seventeenth century.\\nIt was Hauy who called attention to\\nthe importance of the crystalline struc-\\nture of minerals, and in his system of\\nclassification he paid due regard no less\\nto their physical than to their chemical\\nproperties.\\nIn 1824, Berzelius announced his clas-\\nsification of minerals. This was based\\nprincipally upon his own numerous\\nanalyses and soon displaced all other\\nsystems.\\nAt one time considerable importance\\nwas attached to the theory of isomor-\\nphism, advanced by Eilhard Mitscherlich.\\nThis theory held that identity of crys-\\ntalline form was dependent only upon\\nthe number and the arrangement of the\\natoms in a molecule and was in no wise\\ninfluenced by the chemical nature of\\nthese atoms. According to Mitscher-\\nlich s teachings, an equal number of\\natoms united in the same manner would\\nalways give rise to one and the same\\ncrystalline form.\\nAmong those who have been or are\\nactive workers in mineralogical chem-\\nistry, there should be cited the names of\\nJames D. Dana, whose Text-book of\\n115", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "Mineralogy is a standard work, and C.\\nRammelsberg, of Berlin, the author of\\nthe Handbiich der Mineralchemie who in\\nhis day also contributed largely to the\\nadvancement of this branch of chemistry.\\nThe first half of this century witnessed\\na few isolated attempts at the artificial\\nformation of minerals, for instance,\\nGustav Rose s work on calc-spar and\\narragonite. But synthetic mineralogy,\\nthe producing of minerals in the labora-\\ntory while seeking to imitate Nature s\\nconditions, dates virtually from the 3^ear\\n1 85 1, when systematic attempts in this\\ndirection were first planned and made.\\nJ The methods employed embraced work\\nw^ith solutions as well as with fusions\\ncarried out at high temperatures the\\nresults have proven of great value to\\ngeology, by making possible the testing\\nof many geological h3^potheses and by\\nleading to the advancing of new theories.\\nGeo- Among the most eminent German\\n^gical ^^orkers in chemical geology were Bun-\\nistry sen, who carefully studied the geysers of\\nIceland, and G. Bischof, who published\\na valuable treatise on the subject, the\\nLehrbuch der Chemischeii Geologie.\\nOf American geologists who have\\nattained to eminence in this field of\\n116", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "work, there should be named Thomas\\nSterry Hunt, who was long active in the\\ngeological surv^ey of Canada and whose\\nwork on questions of chemical mineral-\\nogy is highly esteemed, and James\\nFurman Kemp, whose standard pub-\\nlications on geology also contain various\\nimportant contributions on topics of this\\ncharacter.\\nThe French have been most active in\\nthe synthetic work along these lines to\\nmention only St. Claire Deville, Troost,\\nSarasin and Moissan. Moissan, in 1892,\\nsucceeded in making minute diamonds\\nby exposing sugar-carbon and iron\\nfilings, while under great pressure, to a\\ntemperature of over five thousand de-\\ngrees and then suddenly cooling the\\nmass.\\nA sudden chilling, under enormous\\npressure, seems to be a necessary con-\\ndition for the synthesis of diamonds\\ngeologists have not yet succeeded in\\ndetermining the mother- rock of this gem.\\nAn h3 pothesis recently advanced would\\nassign to all diamonds an extra-terrestrial\\norigin, holding that they are brought to\\nthis world by meteorites. Three sep-\\narate finds of diamonds in meteorites\\nhave been made. One of these mes-\\n117", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "sengers from space fell in Chile, another^\\nin Siberia and the third in Arizona,\\nf U. S. America.\\nWhile there is not, as 3^et, sufi cient\\nevidence at hand to establish the above\\nmentioned hypothesis on anything like a\\nprobable basis, yet it remains an inter-\\nesting fact that Moissan succeeded in\\nobtaining diamonds synthetically, under\\nconditions analogous to those to which\\nmeteorites that reach this earth are\\nsupposed to be subjected at one period\\nof their existence.\\nPhyto- The beginnings of phyto-chemistry,\\nistry chemistry of plant-life, can be traced\\nback to investigations made at the close\\nof the eighteenth century.\\nPriestley, Senebier and others were\\nfamiliar with the fact that green plants\\nunder the influence of sunlight v/ill re-\\nmove carbonic acid gas from the atmos-\\nphere and decompose it. They were also\\naware of the fact that ammonia salts are\\nof value in stimulating the growth of\\nplants.\\nAlthough the problems of plant-life,\\nthe mode and manner of plant-nourish-\\nment and growth, had engaged the\\nlabors of many trained observers for\\nmany years, yet, even during the first\\nii8", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "three decades of this century the belief\\nwas almost universal that plants, like\\nanimals, derived their nourishment di-\\nrectly from organic matter.\\nIt was Justus von Liebig who demon-\\nstrated the falsity of these views and who\\nentirely disproved the humus-doctrine,\\nas the theory held at that time was\\ncalled. It was in 1840, after exhaustive\\ninvestigations on the weathering of rocks,\\non the formation of soils and on the\\neffects of rain and the gases which rain\\nholds in solution, that von lyiebig pub-\\nlished his classic work on the application\\nof chemistry to agriculture and physi-\\nology.\\nIn this he demonstrated that the food\\nof plants is inorganic in its nature. The\\nparts played by carbonic acid, by water,\\nby ammonia and by various mineral salts\\nwere pointed out, and the fact was estab-\\nlished that restitution must be made to\\nthe soil of such constituents as are re-\\nmoved therefrom by vegetable growth, if\\na given soil is to continue producing\\ncrops indefinitely.\\nWhen Nature is left to her own time\\nand devices, she replenishes the needed\\nstore by the disintegration of the rocks.\\nThis is accomplished through the agency\\n9", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "of frost, by the solvent power of water\\ncontaining carbonic acid, and, last but\\nnot least, through the silent but ever-\\nactive agency of the industrious earth-\\nworms.\\nOur knowledge of the last named we\\nowe chiefly to the illustrious naturalist,\\nCharles Darwin. Earth-worms live in\\nburrows, in the superficial layers of the\\nground. They can live anywhere in a\\nlayer of earth, provided only that the\\nsame retains a sufficient store of moisture,\\nfor dry air is fatal to them. The}^ live\\nprincipally in the mold, less than one\\nfoot below the surface, but in dry weather\\nthey sometimes go down to a depth of\\neight feet.\\nTheir burrows end in small chambers,\\nlarge enough to admit of the worms turn-\\ning in them. These burrows are formed\\nthrough the earth being swallowed by the\\nworms for the sake of the decomposing\\nvegetable matter which it contains and\\non which the worms feed leaves also\\nform part of the diet of these little\\nanimals. When decaying, these leaves\\ngive rise to the formation of certain,\\nacids, but these acids are neutralized by\\nsome carbonate of calcium secreted by\\ncertain small glands the worms possess", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "these glands empty into the alimentary\\ncanal. Digestion of the vegetable matter\\nis secured by the aid of a digestive fluid\\nwhich resembles the pancreatic juice of\\nthe higher animals it acts only when\\nalkaline.\\nOne part of the alimentary canal of\\nthese worms forms a hard, muscular\\norgan, which is capable of grinding the\\nfood into fine particles. Small stones,\\nswallowed with the earth, act as mill-\\nstones, and the earth therefore is con-\\ntinually, as it were, passing through a\\nmill, and is thus being constantly ground\\ninto a fine mold.\\nAfter the earth has been thus treated\\nby the earth-worms it is voided as cast-\\nings. The mold in a field passes through\\nthe bodies of these worms several times\\na day, and the earth particles are there-\\nfore brought to the surface again and\\nagain to be acted on by the rain and\\ncarbonic acid. Furthermore, through,\\nthe collapsing of old burrows the mold!\\nis kept constantly in slow movement, and\\nits particles are thus continually ground\\nagainst one another. It has been cal-\\nculated that in one acre of land, suited\\nto their needs, more than fifty thousand\\nearth-worms can exist the importance\\n121", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "of their influence may therefore be readily\\ninferred.\\nHowever, when the conditions are suck\\nthat land cannot be allowed to lie fallow\\nfor the length of time needed by nature\\nto carry out her purpose, chemistry comes\\nto the rescue, and, accomplishing in a\\nfew hours the task that without her aid-\\nwould have required years, gives to the\\ncultivator of the soil fertilizers, the\\nneeded food for his crops, in a form\\nto be readily assimilated by the plants.\\nChemistry has taught man to know\\naright the requirements of Mother Earth,\\nthe conditions w^hich must be fulfilled to\\nensure bountiful crops. No longer need\\nvirgins be sacrificed to the Genius of\\nMaize, as was done by some tribes of\\nAmerican Indians, in order to plead for\\na generous yield of the life-sustaining\\ncereal.\\nNotwithstanding the fact that the\\nquestions how plants feed and how plants-\\ngrow have claimed the interest and the-\\nearnest work of many distinguished in-\\nvestigators these many years, we have\\nas yet no positive knowledge as to the\\nexact manner in which the inorganic\\nconstituents, water and carbonic acid\\ngas, are by the plants transformed into^", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "organic products, such as starch, the\\nsugars and cellulose. These substances,\\nproduced by the plants are the food of\\nanimals these in turn, when they die,\\nagain furnish the chemical compounds\\nnecessary for the life and the growth of\\nplants, thus establishing and completing^\\nan endless cycle.\\nAnother tempting problem which has\\nreceived much attention at the hands of\\nphyto-chemists, but which has as yet not\\nfound its full solution, is the chemistr^^\\nof the color changes which foliage ex-\\nperiences in the fall.\\nIt is, of course, well known that plants,\\ntheir leaves and their flow^ers owe their\\ncolors primarily to the magic touch of\\nlight. Thus, a leaf in its period of\\nvitality absorbs all tints of light except\\nthe green this it reflects, and hence the\\nleaf shows a green color. But as the\\nvitality of the leaf declines, changes\\nchemical changes occur in at least one.\\nof its constituents, the chlorophyll, and\\nthen the sunlight falling upon the leaf is\\ndifferently affected. Various hues are\\nreflected as the chemical changes pro-\\ngress. The leaf, erstwhile green, assumes\\nin turn tints of yellow, orange, red a\\nplay of colors which serves to render our\\n123", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "woodlands so beautiful in autumn. It\\nhas been stated that the sequence in\\nwhich the colors of the turning leaves\\nappear is the same as the order in which\\nthe colors of the spectrum range fol-\\nlowing the green come yellow, orange\\nand red evidently favorite tints on\\nthe palette of Nature.\\nTechno- The achievements of chemistry in the\\nChem- industries are so vast and so\\nistry varied, that the mere attempt to enumer-\\nate them all would prove a task scarcely\\nless formidable than the counting of\\nthe denizens of starland, some twenty\\nthousand of which are believed to exist\\nfor every one that is visible to the un-\\naided eye.\\nPure chemistry and applied chemistry\\nare ever inter-active. The latter profits\\nby the advances made by the former,\\nwhile pure chemistry is in turn benefited\\nby the new possibilities and opportuni-\\nties created and offered by the industries.\\nWhile the evolution of the science and\\nits ministrations have gone hand in hand,\\nyet it is unquestioned that a practical,\\nan empirical knowledge was had of many\\nprocesses, chemical in their nature, long\\nbefore there was any true conception of\\ntheir character.\\n124", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "Of the older nations the Egyptians\\nwere probably most favored with knowl-\\nedge of this description. They were\\nfamiliar wnth certain metallurgical pro-\\ncesses for instance, the working of iron\\nand its tempering gold was by them\\nfashioned into ornaments, the rich mines\\nof Nubia furnishing them with most of\\nthis precious metal.\\nTo them was known the art of potter}^\\nthe glazing of earthenware and the use\\nof colored enamels. The manufacture\\nof glass was also practiced in Eg^ pt and\\nis supposed to have originated through\\nan accidental fusion of sand and soda,\\nin the fluxing of gold. The making of\\nglass vessels was carried on extensively\\nin Thebes and even the making of arti-\\nficial gems of glass was known in Egypt\\nin its early days.\\nDyeing fabrics and the use of mor-\\ndants for the purposes of fixing certain\\ncolors on cloth was known to both the\\nEgyptians and Phoenicians. The former\\nalso used chemical substances in their\\npractice of the healing art and in the\\nembalming of their dead.\\nThe tanning of leather by oil and later\\nby means of bark was practiced by some\\nnations of old. The use of soaps com-\\n125", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "pounds of fats and an alkali was known\\nin Germany and in Gaul, even in the\\ntimes of Pliny the purifying of clothes\\nby the burning of sulphur is also men-\\ntioned by this author.\\nAcetic acid, in the form of vinegar,\\nw^as another chemical agent with the\\nproperties of which antiquity w^as ac-\\nquainted. This is apparent from the use\\nCleopatra is said to have put it to as a\\nsolvent for some valuable pearls this\\nsolution she drank, the act being\\nprompted by her desire to gain the dis-\\ntinction of having partaken of the most\\ncostly banquet that could be furnished.\\nTechnological chemistry finds a wdde\\nfield of usefulness in the treatment of\\nmany substances which occur in nature\\nand which possess a certain value even\\nin their crude, natural condition, but\\nwhich can be much improved in quality\\nand in value by appropriate processes.\\nThus it is probable that the sugar-\\ncane, as such, serv^ed as food before any\\nattempt w^as made to express its juice\\nand to boil the same into syrup. It is\\nlikely that this practice originated in\\nIndia.\\nThe first making of solid sugar must\\nbe placed somewhere between the fourth\\n126", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "and the seventh century of our era, pro-\\nbably nearer to the latter than the former\\ndate. The earliest description given of\\nits manufacture is by a Chinese traveler,\\nHiuen-Thsang, who saw the process\\ncarried on in India and who assigned to\\nthe solid sugar the name Chimi a\\nChinese term signifying stone-honey.\\nEven a few centuries ago sugar was\\nregarded as a luxury. In 1372 sugar\\nwas valued in France at five dollars a\\npound at the close of the sixteenth\\ncentury its price in that country was\\nstill almost a dollar per pound and similar\\nvalues obtained elsewhere.\\nIn view of such figures it does not\\nseem difficult to place credence in the\\ntale of the thrifty housewives of New\\nAmsterdam, who, so tradition affirms,\\nwere wont to provide but one lump of\\nsugar, fastened by a string to the rafters\\nof the dining-room, for the common use\\nand enjoyment of the household. Surely\\nan impressive object-lesson on the diffi-\\nculty of attaining to the sweets of life\\nBut now, thanks in great measure to\\nthe advance of technological chemistry,\\nsugar has become a cheap food-staple of\\nmany countries, the total world pro-\\nduction of this article crystallized\\n127", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "sunshine as it has so aptly been termed\\nnow approximating to seven millions of\\ntons per annum, and representing a\\nvalue of many millions of dollars.\\nCoal tar is the basis of many brilliant\\ncolors and of many valuable medicinal\\npreparations. From it there has also\\nbeen obtained a sweetening agent, sac-\\ncharin, which of late years, under\\nvarious names, has been offered as a\\nsubstitute for sugar.\\nSaccharin, or, to give it its proper\\nchemical appellation, anhydro-ortho-sul-\\nphamid-benzoic-acid, is a compound of\\nthe elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,\\nsulphur and nitrogen it was discovered\\nin 1879. It is a white, crystalline sub-\\nstance, soluble, though not readily so, in\\ncold water and is characterized by an\\nintensely sweet taste its sweetening\\npower is estimated to be, for equal\\nw^eights, from three hundred to five hun-\\ndred times that of pure sugar.\\nWhile saccharin and other similar sub-\\nstances may have some value as medi-\\ncinal agents, their attempted substitution\\nfor sugar in the preparation of food and\\ndrink is decidedly reprehensible. Not\\nonly is sugar a true food, which saccharin\\nis not, for taken into the system it is\\n128", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "eliminated unchanged, but there is\\nabundant evidence on record establishing\\nthe fact that saccharin interferes with\\nthe proper exercise of the digestive\\nfunction. In some instances even de-\\ncidedly injurious effects on men and on\\nanimals have followed the use of this\\npreparation.\\nMany attempts have been made to\\nproduce food- substances synthetically.\\nWhile it is claimed that the syntheses of\\nsugar and albumen have been accom-\\nplished, yet we are to-day as far as ever\\nfrom having achieved any practical\\nresults along these lines.\\nIn some instances, however, valuable\\nresults have been obtained in modifying\\ncertain natural products in such a man-\\nner as to fit them for consumption as\\nfood-stuffs. An illustration in point is\\nthe manufacture of oleomargarine, but-\\nterine or artificial butter, as it is called,\\nwhich dates back to the experiments of\\nMege-Mouries, in 1870.\\nIn a tank heated with steam he ren-\\ndered carefully washed beef-suet with\\nsome water, a little potassium carbonate\\nand some pepsin. After digestion of the\\nmixture for the proper length of time\\nand after the melted fats had risen to\\n129", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "the surface, some salt was added and the\\nfat was removed. It was allowed to cool,\\nto permit of the crystallizing out of\\nsome of its constituents, and the fluid oil\\nremaining, the oleopalmitin, was squeezed\\nout by presses. To the oil thus obtained\\nsome milk or cream and a little butter-\\ncolor were added, the mixture w^as well\\nchurned and salted and was then ready\\nfor the market.\\nLeaf-lard is now largely used as the\\ncrude material in this process. In cold\\nweather a little pure cottonseed oil is\\nadded to it in order to give an improved\\ntexture to the finished product. This\\nindustry has attained to considerable im-\\nportance.\\nEndeavors have also been made to-\\nfurnish the essence of foods in a compact\\nform. For it is possible to put much\\nfood into a condensed form in which it\\nwill keep properly for a considerable\\nlength of time. Food tablets have been\\nprepared of soup, of beef, of milk and of\\neggs, forming as it were, the very essence\\nof nutriment.\\nBut very grave doubts exist whether\\nfood in such a form can and will be pro-\\nperly assimilated by the animal system\\nin fact, some experiments made a year\\n130", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "or two ago by some United States troops\\nin Colorado, with the so-called emergency\\nration, returned a very decisive negative\\nin answer to the question.\\nIn this connection reference may not\\nbe amiss to the interesting fact, that of\\nlate the preparation of carbonated liquids\\nhas been made very convenient through\\nthe introduction of small iron capsules\\ncharged with liquefied carbonic acid the\\ncapsules contain each about two grammes\\nof the liquefied gas, a charge amply suffi-\\ncient for the conversion of at least a\\nquart of water, or other liquid, into a\\nsparkling, refreshing beverage.\\nHowever, it would lead too far afield,\\neven should one only attempt to indicate\\nall the many chemical processes to which\\nso great a number of the necessities,\\nand the comfojts of our daily life are\\nowing.\\nAs furnishing a basis for many of these\\nindustries, there would have to be consi-\\ndered the manufacture of the mineral\\nacids hydrochloric, sulphuric and nitric;\\nalso the preparation of sodium carbonate\\nand of other alkaline products.\\nThe manufacture of textile fabrics of\\nvarious materials silk wool cotton linen\\nwould have to claim our attention. So\\n131", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "would the preparation of many colors\\nand dyestuffs derived from animal, vege-\\ntable and mineral sources the art of\\npottery and ceramics the manufacture\\nof paper, of ink, of matches the com-\\npounding of gun-powder and of smoke-\\nless powders, of nitro-glycerine and of\\nother high explosives, with their power-\\nful mission in peace and in war.\\nBesides, the making of sugar, the pre-\\nparation of starch, of flour and glucose,\\nthe manufacture of alcoholic beverages\\nof various kinds, the preservation of cer-\\ntain foods one and all might be studied\\nand called upon to bear witness to the\\nimportance of chemistry in its applica-\\ntions.\\nBut, as it is not feasible to discuss all\\nthese in detail, interesting as it might be,\\nthere shall here be chosen in illustration\\nbut a few instances where the creative\\npower of chemical science stands clearly\\nrevealed.\\nThe preparation of artificial silk from\\ncellulose is an instance in kind. Cellu-\\nlose is the fundamental constituent of\\nplant structure it forms a material part\\nof the solid matter of every plant. In its\\nchemical composition it is allied to starch,\\nbeing, like starch, a compound of carbon,\\n132", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "of hydrogen and oxygen and having the\\nsame percentage composition as starch.\\nCellulose is insoluble in water and in\\nalcohol, it is tasteless and is not a\\nnutrient. In the process here to be con-\\nsidered, the cellulose is brought into so-\\nlution by treatment with chloride of zinc,\\nand this solution is then forced in fine\\njets into a fluid like alcohol or acetone.\\nThis causes the precipitation of the cellu-\\nlose in the form of fine continuous\\nthreads the reagents are dissolved and\\nw^ashed out, leaving only the desired\\nproduct. The threads so obtained can\\nbe colored at will they can also be made\\nwaterproof and can of course be woven\\ninto fabrics of any desired shape and\\nsize. The finished article resembles silk\\nso closely that even connoisseurs of the\\nsilkworm s product cannot always distin-\\nguish between the latter and its fLii-de-\\nSteele rival.\\nIn this case it is a substance of animal\\norigin which is skilfully imitated by\\nchemical processes in the manufacture\\nof artificial India rubber w^e have an in-\\nstance of the substitution, after the\\nproper treatment, of one vegetable pro-\\nduct for another.\\nAn English chemist, \\\\V. A. Tilden,\\n133", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "discovered that a peculiar liquid sub-\\nstance, isoprene, which had previously\\nbeen obtained by the destructive distilla-\\ntion of India rubber, could be obtained\\nby the influence of heat upon oil of tur-\\npentine, rape-seed, linseed and various\\nother vegetable oils.\\nIsoprene is a compound of carbon and\\nhydrogen it boils at a low temperature,\\nabout 40\u00c2\u00b0 Fahrenheit, and is converted,\\nby treatment with strong mineral acids,\\nhydrochloric acid, for instance, into a\\nsolid which is tough and elastic and\\nwhich, also in other respects closely re-\\nsembles India rubber. Many attempts\\nhave been made to provide synthetic sub-\\nstitutes for both gutta percha and India\\nrubber the process here referred to for\\nobtaining the latter certainly seems a\\npromising one, if only it can be properly\\ncontrolled on a manufacturing scale.\\nMany essential oils and other organic\\nsubstances have been synthetically pre-\\npared. Among them benzaldehyde, the\\nprincipal constituent of oil of bitter al-\\nmonds, oil of cinnamon, cumarin to\\nwhich the Tonka bean owes its delicate\\naroma and vanillin, the odorous prin-\\nciple of the vanilla-bean. This vanillin\\nis made from coniferin, a substance which\\n134", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "occurs in spruces, in firs and in larches.\\nEven the flower s subtle charm, its\\nperfume, needs no longer be extracted\\nfrom the blossoms for the odors of the\\nheliotrope, the violet, the lilac and ger-\\nanium, these and many more, can now\\nbe made in the laboratory and are as\\nfragrant as though they owed their ex-\\nistence to the favored children of the\\ndew and the sunshine.\\nPossibly one of the most striking\\nachievements of technological chemistry\\nis presented by the wonderful array of\\nbeautiful and brilliant colors w^hich the\\nchemist s art has called forth from coal-\\ntar and from other apparently most unpro-\\nmising sources. The great and extensive\\ncoal-tar color industry is built, in great\\npart, upon the exhaustive studies of the\\nfamous German chemist, x\\\\ugust Wilhelm\\nvon Hofmann, a man in whom there were\\ncombined to a rare degree the essential\\nqualifications which mark the scientific\\ninvestigator, the teacher and the scholar.\\nThe aniline colors now number several\\nhundreds and have almost wholly re-\\nplaced the coloring matters formerly\\nused indigo, madder- root, cochineal,\\nsafflower and the yellow dye-woods.\\nPerkin, in 1S56, made mauve from\\n135", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "aniline, one of the constituents of coal-\\ntar oil. This was the first aniline dye to\\nbe prepared on a large scale.\\nA synthesis in organic chemistry which\\nhas produced far reaching results in\\nseveral directions, was the artificial pre-\\nparation of alizarin by Grabe and Lieber-\\nmann. Alizarin is one of the coloring\\nmatters which occur in the madder-root.\\nIts name was bestowed upon it by its\\ndiscoverers, Colin and Robiquet, in 1826,\\nthe term being taken from the oriental\\nappellation of madder, alizari.\\nThe root of this plant has been used\\nin Eg3 pt and in India, since time imme-\\nmorial, for the dyeing of cloth wrap-\\npings found on mummies proved to have\\nbeen colored by this substance. The\\nculture of the madder plant was also\\npractised extensively in Holland, in\\nFrance and in Alsace, and about forty\\nyears ago the total annual production of\\nmadder was not far from five hundred\\nthousand tons.\\nGrabe and Liebermann found, as be-\\nfore stated, that alizarin could be artifi-\\ncially prepared they obtained it, by a\\nseries of ingenious chemical reactions,\\nfrom anthracene, a constituent of coal-\\ntar. This was the first instance of the\\n136", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "o\\nsynthethic production of a colorin\\nprinciple which had formerly been\\nobtained exclusively from a vegetable\\nsource.\\nOne of th\u00c2\u00ae important results of this\\nfamous discovery was the turning over\\nto agriculture for its purposes of vast\\ntracts of land, w^hich had up to that time\\nbeen used for the cultivation of the\\nmadder-root. Grabe and Liebermann s\\nachievement also, incidentally, stimu-\\nlated greatly the coal-tar industries and\\nincreased materially the manufacture of\\ncaustic soda and of sulphur trioxide.\\nAnother instance, w^here synthetic\\nchemistry produced a color that had for\\nmany centuries been obtained only from\\nplants, we have in the artificial manufac-\\nture of indigo. This substance was used\\nvery long ago in India as w^ell as in\\nEgypt. In Europe, the w^oad, w^hich\\nalso belongs to the plants that produce\\nindigo, w^as for ages the chief source of\\nsupply of this dye its use by the Gauls\\nand by the ancient Britons is clearly\\n-established. In Germany its cultivation\\nwas practised as early as the sixth cen-\\ntury and was carried on for many centu-\\nries thereafter. But gradually woad was\\nsupplanted by indigo and the use of this\\n137", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "substance as a blue pigment and as a\\ndye became general.\\nThe chemical composition of indigo\\nreceived attention at the hands of several\\nchemists. Fritzsche, in 1840, distilled\\nindigo with caustic soda and secured a\\nsubstance which he called aniline. This\\nterm is derived from the Sanscrit appel-\\nlation 7iila, the indigo-plant, the word\\n7iila signifying dark-blue as a matter\\nof interest it may here be remarked that\\nthe name of the river Nile is said to be\\ntraceable to the same source.\\nMany chemists were concerned with the\\ninvestigation of indigo. To name but a\\nfew, we have lyaurent, Erdmann, Baeyer,\\nKnop, Emmerling and Nencke. The\\nlast named succeeded, in 1875, in obtain-\\ning a small amount of artificial indigo by\\nthe action of ozonised air on indol. At\\npresent several methods of indigo-syn-\\nthesis are known.\\nThe synthetical preparation of ultra-\\nmarine, a substance which replaced the\\ncostly lapis lazuli used in the painter s\\nart, was effected after chemical analysis\\nhad revealed its quantitative composi-\\ntion. This will serve as an illustration\\nof a mineral substance successfully pro-\\nduced in the laboratory and leading to\\n138", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "the establishing of an important manu-\\nfacturing industry.\\nAny consideration of technological\\nchemistry, however brief, would be in-\\ncomplete without at least a passing refer-\\nence to a recent achievement which is\\nfraught with great possibilities for the\\nfuture of many chemical processes\\nreference is made to the liquefaction of\\nair on a commercial scale.\\nThe possibility of the liquefaction of\\nair, in quantity, was demonstrated in\\n1893 by James Dewar, of Edinburgh;\\nOlszewski, of the University of Cracow,\\nclaims to have obtained this substance in\\nsmall quantities even in 1884.\\nDewar s method of procedure consisted\\nin making use of liquefied carbonic acid\\nor of ammonia, which, by its evaporation\\nensured the liquefaction of another gas,\\nethylene. This liquid was in turn em-\\nployed to cool and to liquefy still other\\ngases and liquid air was finally obtained\\nas the end-result of a series of such oper-\\nations.\\nIt proved, however, a costly treasurCj\\nDewar estimating the expense of obtain-\\ning a quart of liquid air at something\\nmore than two thousand dollars.\\nIt remained for the practical ingenuity\\n139", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "of an American, Charles E. Tripler, of\\nNew York, to devise a process by which\\nliquid air can be obtained so readily and\\nat a cost sufficiently low to make it avail-\\nable for many purposes and in any quan-\\ntity desired.\\nMr. Tripler s process is based on the\\nprinciple that gases which have been\\nsubjected to great pressure absorb much\\nheat on being again allowed to expand.\\nB} means of a forty horse-power en-\\ngine, provided with three pistons fur-\\nnishing respective!} sixt} three hundred\\nand two thousand pounds of pressure to\\nthe square inch, air in liquid form is\\nproduced solely through the aid of ordi-\\nnary air which has been subjected to\\ncooling and to these pressures.\\nThe temperature of the air to be liqui-\\nfied is lowered to 312\u00c2\u00b0 below zero on\\nFahrenheit s scale. At this point it\\nturns into a liquid that is practically\\ncolorless.\\nAir, as is well known, is essentially a\\nmixture of oxygen and nitrogen by\\nvolume, approximately one-fifth of the\\nformer and four-fifths of the latter gas.\\nNitrogen evaporates more rapidly from\\nliquid air than oxygen and, in conse-\\nquence, liquid air undergoes changes iu\\n140", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "its composition on suffering evaporation\\nit grows constantly richer in oxygen.\\nThe chemical and physical properties\\nof most bodies when brought into contact\\nwith liquid air are so wholly unlike the\\nproperties they exhibit at ordinary tem-\\nperatures, that their study under these\\nnovel conditions seems like the opening\\nup of a new realm to the explorer an\\nArctic region, as it were, replete with\\nwonders.\\nIt must certainly be counted a great\\ntriumph of Science that she can thus\\nimpress into service the forces of Nature,\\nand produce a cold so intense, that, by\\ncomparison with it, the lowest tempera-\\nture ever recorded by intrepid explorers\\nof the frozen North sinks into insigni-\\nficance.\\nLiquid air when poured over ice boils\\nat once and becomes transformed into\\nvapor. As its temperature is more than\\n300 degrees below the temperature of\\nice, this result, startling as it seems, is\\ninevitable. Thrown into a vessel of\\nboiling water, liquid air instantly changes\\nthe boiling water into ice a jet of steam\\nforced into liquid air immediately con-\\ngeals into glittering crystals of frost.\\nMercury, immersed in this novel re-\\n141", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "agent, becomes a solid, which is so hard,,\\nthat, appropriately shaped, it can to alt\\nintents and purposes be used as a ham-\\nmer as long as the magic spell of the\\nfrost-giant endures.\\nMost metals and many other substances\\nturn brittle as glass when they are sub-\\njected to the action of liquid air. On\\naccount of its richness in oxygen, con-\\nstantly increasing, it will be remembered,,\\nas its evaporation progresses, the pre-\\nsence of liquid air readily ensures com-\\nbustion. Wires of iron and steel will,\\nw^hen ignited, burn freely in this liquid\\nitself so intensely cold.\\nEmployment of liquid air as the motive\\npower in engines of all kinds, application,\\nof its tremendous expansive and explo-\\nsive force to the purposes of industry\\nand of war, mark but a few of its many\\nuses which the future will witness.\\nAs soon as man shall have learned to\\nperfectly control this new and powerful\\nagent advances in that direction have\\neven now been made it stands unques-\\ntioned that it will prove a potent factor\\nfor the good of mankind and the pro-^\\ngress of civilization.\\nPharma- The beginnings of pharmaceutical,\\nchemistry must be traced to the age of\\n142", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "iatro-chemistry, for at that period the Chem*\\npreparation of medicines was the chief\\naim of chemistry.\\nParacelsus may be regarded as one of\\nthe founders of pharmacy, inasmuch as\\nhe introduced into medicine the use of\\nmany chemical preparations employed\\neven to this day. He prescribed as\\ndrugs, many metallic compounds among\\nothers salts of copper, of lead, of arsenic,\\nof mercury and antimony. In the use of\\nthe last named he had, however, been\\npreceded by Basil Valentine. Tincture\\nof iron, dilute sulphuric acid, various\\nessences and laudanum were also among\\nthe many curative agents employed by\\nParacelsus.\\nThe reckless manner in which some of\\nhis followers used metallic preparations\\nin their medical practice caused much\\ntrouble and discussion, and finally edicts\\nagainst the use of such substances were\\nissued. But even some of the adherents\\nof the new school, that is to say, the\\nschool of Paracelsus, did not fail to per-\\nceive that there was not a little in the\\nteachings of their master that might be\\ndiscarded to advantage. Two notable\\nmen of this class were Croll and Van\\nMynsicht, the latter of whom intro-\\n143", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "duced tartar emetic into pharmaceutical\\npractice.\\nCroll first made use of sulphate of pot-\\nash and ere long the alkaline salts came\\nto be of great importance in medicine.\\nAmong those employed were the chloride\\nand the carbonate of potash the sul-\\nphate of sodium Glauber s salt, as it is^\\nnow generally termed was then desig-\\nnated as sal mirabile and was greatly\\nprized by physicians on account of its\\nvaluable properties. The medicaments\\nused gradually increased in number\\nnitrate of silver, various salts of acetic\\nacid, salt of sorrel, acid juices of fruits,\\nbenzoic and succinic acids and man\\nother substances were tried and added to\\nthe stores of pharmacy. Spirits of wine,,\\nthe aqua vitae of the alchemists, was\\nturned to new account in the preparation\\nof tinctures and of various essences.\\nValerius Cordus, a German physician,\\nis said to have been the first to make\\nether from alcohol by means of sulphuric\\nacid.\\nWithin the past decades the skill of\\nthe pharmaceutical chemist has been\\ndirected to the discovery and the pre-\\nparation of remedies which are not found\\nin Nature, as well as to the synthetic\\n144", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "manufacture of many drugs which she\\ndoes offer. The introduction of chloral\\nhydrate, salicylic acid and antipyrin pro-\\nbably inaugurated this new departure\\nto-day there are known long lists of\\nh3^pnotics, narcotics and antipyretics\\nthat claim coal-tar or similar materials\\nas their parent-substance. Certain glands\\nand other organs of animals are alsO\\nmade to yield preparations which find\\nvalued application in the correction of\\nsome of the ills that flesh is heir to.\\nOne of the important lines of investi-\\ngation lately entered upon in pharma-\\nceutical chemistry is the attempt to trace\\nthe relation between the chemical com-\\nposition of drugs and their physiological\\naction. Some advances in this direction\\nhave even now been made what vast\\nand far reaching consequences would\\nfollow the solution of this problem, the\\nfulfillment of this day-dream of more\\nthan one eminent physician and chemist,,\\ncan hardly be foretold. It would cer^\\ntainly mark a new era in the history of\\nthe practice of medicine.\\nDuring the second half of the last, and\\nthe earlier years of this century, the\\npharmaceutical profession was charged\\nwith the keeping of the best interests of\\n145", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "chemistry, through fostering the growth,\\nand development of many of its eminent _\\ndisciples. In this connection one need-\\nbut recall the names of Scheele, Vauque^\\nlin and Klaproth many others might\\neasily be added to the list. Among the\\ninstitutes of pharmacy of note in their\\ntime, the Trommsdorff Institute, estab-\\nlished in 1795 at Erfurt, perhaps deserves^\\nspecial mention.\\nToxi- It was a sad, but perhaps an unavoid-\\nand ^t)le outcome of conditions that an.\\nLegal increasing knowledge of the potent\\nistry powers inherent in many drugs and\\nchemical preparations should have led\\nto occasional abuse and to their applica-\\ntion for criminal purposes. A recital\\nmerely of crimes which have passed into\\nhistory and which have been executed\\nby the aid of poisons, w^ould form a long\\nand thrilling tale. But the advances\\nmade in analytical chemistry have for-\\ntunately made it possible for the science\\nherself to be the Nemesis of those who\\nmisuse her gifts to further unlawful\\ndesigns.\\nToxicology, which embraces a knowl-\\nedge of the poisons, their effects and\\ntheir detection, has of late years met\\nwith increased attention and study, and\\n146", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "now it would prove rather an exceptional\\ninstance where the criminal use of a\\npoison could not be detected and proven.\\nChemical means and methods are also\\noften employed in other instances to aid\\njustice in tracing crime and in fastening-\\nthe charge upon the guilty. The detec-\\ntion of forgeries in documents, the exam-\\nination of blood and other stains, the\\ndetermination of fraudulent and injurious\\nadulterants in foods and in drugs, all\\ncome properly within the scope of chem-\\nical investigation and control.\\nThe domain of physiological chemistry Medical\\nis broad in scope. Originally its aim P^em-\\nwas a study of the various tissues, the\\nfluids and the solid components of the\\nanimal organism. Among the early\\ninvestigators of these problems were\\nFourcroy, Vauquelin, Chevreul and La-\\nvoisier the latter giving expression to\\nhis belief that the processes of life were\\nchemical in their nature.\\nMethods of analysis adapted to the\\nrequirements and calculated to overcome\\nthe peculiar difficulties of physiological\\nchemistry were gradually evolved.\\nNotable questions that were elucidated\\nby their aid and through most painstak-\\ning research were, the composition of\\n147", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "bone-matter, the constitution of blood.\\nand the phenomenon of its coagulation,\\nthe composition of the gastric juice, of\\nmilk and of other secretions of the animal\\nbody, including the character and proper-\\nties of the various constituents of urine.\\nExperimental study of the all-important\\nquestion of animal nutrition was initiated\\nand conducted by Justus von Liebig\\nhis investigations and deductions regard-\\ning metabolism were a revelation to his\\ncontemporaries and aided materially in\\nbringing about abandonment of the\\nbelief in the mysterious power of the so-\\ncalled vital force.\\nVon Liebig appreciated the different\\nfunctions of the albumenoids, of protein-\\nand gluten, as tissue and muscle builders,\\nand of the carbohydrates, sugar and\\nstarch, and of the fats as heat producers.\\nSince his days the problems of nutrition\\nand the composition of nutrients have\\nnever failed to claim the attention of\\neminent workers. Virt, Pettenkofer,\\nRanke, Atwater, Wiley, are but a few of\\nthose who have enriched physiological\\nchemistry in this particular direction by\\ntheir labors.\\nWhen a fair knowledge concerning the\\nchemical composition of the various con-\\n143", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "stituents of the animal economy had\\nbeen gained, investigation was directed\\ninto new channels study was attempted\\nof the relations which these various sub-\\nstances bear to each other, of the specific\\nfunctions each has to perform and of the\\nconditions under which these various\\nsubstances are produced and destroyed.\\nWell-known among the men active in\\nsuch researches are Preyer, Hoppe-\\nSeyler, Virchow, C. Ludwig, Hammar-\\nsten and Chittenden.\\nThe poisons which are formed in de-\\ncaying animal matter, the so-called\\ncadaver-alkaloids or ptomaines, w^ere first\\ninvestigated by Selmi. On account of\\nthe highly poisonous character which\\nsome of these possess, Brieger named\\nthem toxines.\\nWhen it had been ascertained that\\ntoxines of various natures are produced\\nalso in the progress of some of the\\ndiseases most fatal to human life, great\\nskill and energy were brought to bear\\nupon the seeking of antidotes for these\\npoisons, and in this connection are to be\\nrecorded some of the most wonderful\\nachievements of bacteriology and chem-\\nistry the discoveries leading to the use\\nof the so-called anti-toxines.\\n149", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "Here there will be recalled the dis--\\ncovery b}^ lyouis Pasteur of the specific\\nagent by which that most terrible of\\ndiseases, hydrophobia, can be mastered\\nthe preparation of an anti-toxine with\\nwhich the ravages of diphtheria have,\\nin many instances, been successfully\\nchecked the preparation of Koch s\\nserum by which the existence of tuber-\\nculosis in animals can be diagnosed and\\nin consequence of which precautionary\\nmeasures against the spread of this mal-\\nady can be taken.\\nThe first suggestion of producing unv\\nconsciousness, anaesthesia, through the\\ninhalation of gases, is credited to Sir\\nHumphry Davy. At least he was famil-\\niar to some extent with the properties\\nof laughing-gas nitrous oxide, as the\\nchemists call it.\\nThe anaesthetic property of ether a\\nsubstance discovered by Valerius Cor-\\ndus, about 1530 was commented upon\\nby Paracelsus in 1541. This important\\nmatter seems, however, to have been\\nwholly lost sight of, forgotten, until the\\ntime when Faraday again called attention\\nto it, three hundred years after ether was\\nfirst known.\\nThe inhalation of this substance as a\\n150", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "specific agent for relieving pain seems\\nto have been first considered in October,\\n1846. At that time W. T. G. Morton,\\na dentist of Boston, applied to Dr. War-\\nren, a surgeon of that city, to determine\\nwhether the vapor of ether could be used\\nin allaying pain in surgical operations,\\nas Morton had found it would do in den-\\ntal practice.\\nDr. Warren soon acted upon this sug-\\ngestion and successfully used ether in an\\noperation, in the Massachusetts General\\nHospital, Morton administering the re-\\nagent to the patient at the time. Shortly\\nafterT\\\\^ards a Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Bos-\\nton, in conversation with Warren claimed\\nthat it was he who had acquainted\\nMorton with the use of this reagent for\\ndental operations.\\nIn 1847 an English physician, James\\nYoung Simpson, acting on the suggestion\\nof a Mr. Waldie of Liverpool, introduced\\nthe use of chloroform as an anaesthetic.\\nThe use of anaesthetics on the one\\nhand, and the method of treating wounds\\nantiseptically, introduced by the English\\nsurgeon, Sir Joseph Lister, will ever rank\\namong the most brilliant achievements\\nof medical chemistry.\\nThe extensive studies of Pasteur on\\n151", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "fermentation have opened up the vast\\nfield of bacteriology with its wonders of\\nthe infinitely small. This topic is foreign\\nto our present quest, but it is vividly\\ncalled to mind in connection with the\\nlatest researches of E. Biichner, Tiibin-\\ngen, who would relegate the phenomena\\nof alcoholic fermentation entirely to\\nchemical action, claiming that this va-\\nriety of fermentation is due, not directly\\nto the growth of the yeast-plant, but\\nto a kind of ferment obtainable there-\\nfrom.\\nHygiene, the art of preserving health,\\nhas of course profited largely by the\\nrevelations of physiological chemistry.\\nHaving ascertained the character and\\nthe nutrient value of various classes and\\nkinds of food, it was but a short step to\\nseek to safeguard against their adultera-\\ntion, which means, at the very least, a\\nlowering of their normal and proper\\nvalue. So important a matter has this\\ncome to be, that many larger commu-\\nnities maintain special officials for the\\nsole purpose of watching and ensuring\\nthe purity of their food-supply.\\nMany diseases can be communicated\\nthrough the agency of food and drink.\\nAmong the diseases which can be so\\n152", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "spread are tuberculosis, scarlet and ty-\\nphoid fever and cholera. In former times\\nthe ravages of these scourges were almost\\nunchecked until their full course had\\nbeen run, but since the true cause and\\ncharacter of many of these contagious\\nand infectious diseases have come to be\\nunderstood thanks in great part to the\\nfindings and teachings of bacteriology,\\nthe aid of chemistry has been invoked to\\nsupply remedial and preventive agents.\\nAn account of the properties, the uses\\nand the benefits conferred by antiseptics\\nand disinfectants would form a chapter\\nof no slight interest in a detailed history\\nof medical chemistry.\\nAs one of the most important and bril-\\nliant researches recently made in physio-\\nlogical chemistry there must be noted\\nthe endeavor of Professor Leopold\\nSchenk, of Vienna, to influence the sex\\nof human offspring by regulating the\\ndiet of the mother.\\nIn his method insistence is placed upon\\nthe chemical nature of the food consumed\\nand upon the complete combustion of\\nthis food in the system by means of\\nchemical analysis a careful control is kept\\nas to the regularity and the completeness\\nwith which this proceeds.\\n153", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "Schenk claims that under certain cir-\\ncumstances male progeny may be pro-\\ncured by aid of the influences which he\\nhas indicated creation at will of female\\noffspring, he admits, is as yet beyond\\nour ken. If his work bears the test of\\ntime and experience, a great advance irr\\nphysiology will have been made, and in\\npart through the aid of our science.\\nMay we, dare we, hope that Chemistry\\nthe Beneficent, at whose shrine we all\\nknowingly or unknowingly pay daily\\ntribute and homage, will some time\\nreturn answer to our pleading and reveal\\nto us the long-sought secret of Life\\n154", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "WORKS CONSULTED.\\nGladstone, J. H. The Metals Used by the\\nGreat Nations of Antiquity, A Lecture\\ndelivered at the Royal Institution^ 1898.\\nKopp, H. Geschichte der Chemie, 1843- 1847.\\nKopp, H. Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Che-\\nmie, 1869.\\nKopp, H. Die Entwickelung der Chemie in\\nder neueren Zeit^ 1873.\\nROssiNG, A. Einfilhrung in das Studium der^\\ntheoretischen Chemie^ 1890.\\nRoscoE, H. E., and Schorlemmer, C. A\\nTreatise on Chemistry^ 1878.\\nSadtler, S. p. a Handbook of Industrial\\nOrganic Chemistry, 1891.\\nSchorlemmer, C. (Smithells, A.) The Rise\\nand Development of Organic Chemistry,\\n1894.\\nThomson, T. The History of Chemistry, 1830-\\n1831.\\nVenable, F. p. a Short History of Chemistry,\\n1894.\\nVon Meyer, E. (M Gowan, G.) A History of\\nChemistry f om Earliest Times to the Pres-\\nent Day, 1 89 1.\\nWiECHMANN, F. G. Lecture-notes on Theo-\\nretical Chemistry, 1895.\\n155", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "INDEX OF NAMES.\\nPAGS\\n1 763-1 832. Adet, Pierre Auguste 80\\n5th Century, ^neas Gazaos 19\\n1490-1555. Agricola, Georg. .15, 30, 85, no\\n356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great 11\\n1850- Am^lineau, E 3\\nAmnael 3\\n1775-1836. Ampere, Andr6 Marie 59\\n384-322 B.C. Aristotle of Stagira, ir, 12, 13, 14,\\n28, 32, 37\\n19th Cent y. Arrhenius, Svante 106\\n1844- Atwater, Wilbur Olin 148\\n978-1036. Avicenna 28\\n1776-1856. Avogadro, Amadeo 59, 70\\nAzazel 2\\n1561-1626. Bacon, Francis, of Verulam.36, ^y\\n12 14-1294. Bacon^ Roger 24\\n1835- Baeyer von, Adolf 138\\n1867- Bancroft, Wilder D 106\\n1641-1709. Barner, Jacob 86\\n15th Cent y. Basilius Valentintts 143\\n1635-1682. Becher, J 40, 52\\n1813-1898. Bessemer, Henry, Sir 11 r\\n1735-1784. Bergman, Torbern, 42, 43, 53, 80,\\n93. 94, 99\u00c2\u00bb 1 10, 114\\n1827- Berthelot, Marcellin Pierre. 5, 108\\n1748-1822. Berthollet, Claude Louis, 52, 54-5\\n1779-1848. Berzelius, Jons Jacob .57, 58, 61,\\n68, 69, 70, 72, 80, 86, 93,\\n96, 97, 100, 104, 115\\n1792-1870. Bischof, Karl Gustav 116\\n157", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\n1728-1799. Black, Joseph 44, 45, 46\\n1843- Bolton, Henry Carrington. .87, 88\\n1668-1738. Boerhaave,Hermann.45, 86, 91, 92\\n19th Cent y. Boullay, P. fils 72\\n1627-1691. Boyle, Robert 37, 38, 40, 98\\ni9lh Cent y. Brieger 149\\n1849- Brush, Charles Francis 67\\n19th Cent y. Biichner, E 152\\nBudge, Wallis 108\\n1707-1788. Buffon de, Jean Louis Leclerc 45\\n1811-1899. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm\\nEberhard 103, 116\\n1731-1810. Cavendish, Henry, Lord, 44, 49, 54\\n19th Cent y. Cannizzaro, S 59\\n19th Cent y. Carlisle, Antony 104\\nChemmis 7\\n1786-1889. Chevreul, Michel Eugene 147\\n1856- Chittenden, Russell Henry 149\\n1847- Clarke, Frank\\\\Vigglesworth,63,78\\n1843- Classen, Alexander 105\\nist Century. Clemens, Romanus 2\\nCleopatra 126\\n1784- Colin, Jean Jacques 136\\n1827-1894. Cooke, Josiah Parsons 106\\n-1544. Cordus, Valerius 144, 150\\n-1609. Croll, Oswald 143, 144\\n1832- Crookes, William, Sir 68, 106\\n1 722-1765. Cronstedt, Alexander Fried-\\nrich 93\\n1766-1844. Dalton, John .55, 56, 57, 58, 59,\\n71, 80\\n1813-1895. Dana, James Dwight 115\\n1 809-1882. Darwin, Charles Robert 120\\n1778-1829. Davy, Humphry,Sir.68, 84,104, 150\\n460-357 B.C. Democritus of Abdera 11\\n1818-1881. Deville, H. E. St. Claire 117\\n158", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "PACK\\n1842- Dewar, James 139\\nist Cen. B.C. Diodorus 15, 109\\n1780-1849. Dobereiner, Johann Wolf-\\ngang 74\\n1785-1838. Dulong, Pierre Louis 60\\n1800-1884. Dumas, Jean-Baptiste Andr^, 63,\\n70, 72\\n19th Cent y. Emmerling 138\\nEmpedocles of Agrigent 11\\ni8th Cent y. Engestroem von, Gustav. 93\\n1804-1869. Erdmann, Otto Linn^ 138\\n1686-1736. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Dominik 92\\n1791-1869. Faraday, Michael 69, 150\\nFaust 26\\n4th Cent y. Firmicus, Julius Maternus. 5\\n1755-1809. Fourcroy de, Antoine F., 52,96,\\n147\\n1825- Frankland, Edward 62, 76\\n1818-1897. Fresenius, Carl Remigius 98\\n181 1-1892. Fritzsche, F. W 138\\n1745-1818. Gahn, Johann Gottlieb 93\\n1778-1850. Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 58, 59,\\n105\\n702-765. Geber 27\\n1672-173 1. Geoffroy, Elienne Francois, 44, 80\\n18 16-1856. Gerhardt, Carl 73\\n1822- Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott. 105, 106\\n1604-1668. Glauber, Johann Rudolph. 34\\n1792- Gmelin, Christian Gottlob 97\\n1788-1853. Gmelin, Leopold 70, 71, 100\\n1749-1832. Goethe von, Johann Wolf-\\ngang 26\\n19th Cent y. Graebe, C 136, 137\\n19th Cent y. Guldberg 106\\n19th Cent y. Hammarsten, Olof 149\\ni8th,i9thC. Hare 92\\n159", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "1568-1631. Hartmann, Johann \u00c2\u00ab3\\n1755-1827. Hassenfratz, Jean Henri 80\\n1743-1822. Hauy, R6n6 Just 115\\n1685-1766. Hellot, Jean 44\\n1577-1644. Helmont van, Jean Baptiste,3i,\\n32, 33\\n1734-1816. Henry, Thomas 97\\nHermes Trismegistos. .16, 17, 18\\nHerodotus 108\\ni8th Cent y. Higgins, W 56\\n7th Cent y. Hiuen-Thsang 127\\n1621-1698. Hofmann, Jo lann Moritz 84\\n18 18-1892. Hofmann von, A. \\\\V 135\\n1660-1742. Hoffmann, Friedrich 45\\nab t 1000 B.C. Homer 4, 8\\n1635-1703. Hooke, Robert 39, 40\\n1825-1895. Hoppe-Seyler, F 149\\nHoros 3\\nnth Cent y. Hortulanus 16\\ni8th Cent y. Howard, Edward 97\\n1769-1859. Humboldt von, Friedrich\\nHeinrich Alexander. 58\\n1826-1S92. Hunt, Thomas Sterry 117\\nIsis 3\\nj8c5-i88o. Jackson, Charles Thomas 151\\n7th Cent y. John of Antioch 4\\n1829-1896. Kekul6 von Stradonitz,\\nFriedrich August. 77\\n1859- Kemp, James Furman 117\\n1824-1887. Kirchoff, Gustav Robert 103\\n1750-1812. Kirwan, Richard 53, 56\\n1743-1817. Klaproth, Martin Heinrich, 52, 53,\\n94, 95, 114, 146\\n1817-1891. Knop, Wilhelm 138\\n1843- Koch, Robert 150\\n160", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\n1818-T884. Kolbe, Hermann 73\\n1817-1892. Kopp, Hermann 16, 19\\n1630-1702. Kunkel, Johann 24\\n1831- Landolt, Hans 63\\n1749-1827. Laplace de, Pierre Simon 49\\n1801-1873. La Rive de, Auguste 114\\n1807-1853. Laurent, Auguste 72, 73, 138\\n1743-1794. Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 47,\\n48, 49\u00c2\u00bb 50, 52, 54, 71, 80, 86, 99, 147\\n_i9th Cent y. Le Bel, J. A 77, 106\\n19th Cent y. Leemans 5\\n1646-17 16. Leibnitz von, Gottfried Wil-\\nhelm 29\\n1645-1715. Lemery, Nicolaus 43, 86, 99\\n1810-1884. Lepsius, Karl Richard 109\\n1540-1616. Libavius, Andreas 34, 85\\n19th Cent y- Liebermann, C 136, 137\\n1803-1873. Liebig von, Justus, 71, 72, 84, 98,\\n119, 148\\n1827- Lister, Joseph, Sir 151\\n1836- Lockyer, Joseph Norman. 103\\n1816-1895. Ludwig, Carl Friedrich W. 149\\n19th Cent y. Luckow 105\\n19th Cent y* Liipke, Robert 105\\n1718-1784. Macquer, P. J 44\\n1645-1679. Mayow, John 39\u00c2\u00bb 4o\\n19th Cent*y. M^ge-Mouries 129\\n1834- Mendel^eff, Dimitri Iwano-\\nwitsch 74, 75\\n1830-1895. Meyer von, Julius Lothar 74\\n1794-1863. Mitscherlich, Eilhard, 61, 97, 115\\n1852- Moissan, Henri 117, 118\\n1700-1781. Monceau, Duhamel du, Henri\\nLouis 44, no\\n19th Cent y. Morgan de, Jacques 107\\nJ838- Morley, Edward Williams. 63\\n161", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\n19th Cent y. Morley, Henry Forster 87\\n1737-1816. Morveau de, Guyton 51, 80\\n1819-1868. Morton, William Thomas\\nGreen 151\\n1848- Muir, Matthew Moncrieff\\nPattison 87\\n17th Cent y. Mynsicht van, Adrian 143\\n19th Cent y. Nasini, R 67\\nNemesis 146\\n19th Cent y. Nencke 138\\n19th Cent y. Nernst, Walter 106\\n1838-1898. Newlands, John A. R 74\\n1643-1727. Newton, Isaac, Sir 29, 54\\n1753-1815. Nicholson, William 104\\n1832- Nordenskjold, Nils Adolf Erik 97\\n19th Cent y. Olszewski, Karl 139\\nOsiris 3\\n1853- Ostwald, Wilhelm, 63, 89, 105, 106\\n1493-1541. Paracelsus, 24, 30, 31, 32, 34, 143,\\n150\\n1822-1895. Pasteur, Louis 77, 150, 151\\n1838- Perkin, William Henry 135\\n1791-1820. Petit, Alexis Therese 60\\n1818- Pettenkofer von, M. J 148\\n382-336 B.C. Philip of Macedon 11\\n429-347 B.C. Plato II\\n23-79. Pliny, Caius Plinius Secundus, 4,\\n8, 15, 126\\nist Cent y. Plutarch 6\\n1841-1897. Preyer, Thierry Wilhelm 149\\n1733-1804. Priestley, Joseph.. .44, 45, 92, 118\\n1755-1826. Proust, Joseph Louis 54j 55\\n1 785-1850. Prout, William 59 60, 63\\nPthah 4\\n1813- Rammelsberg,C 116\\n1852- Ramsay, William 66, 75\\n162", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\n19th Cent y. Ranke 148\\n19th Cent y. Raoult 106\\n1842- Rayleigh, Lord 75\\n1683-1756. Reaumur de, Ren6 A. F no\\n1846- Remsen, Ira 106\\n-1645. Rey, Jean 38\\n19th Cent y. Richards 63\\n1762-1807. Richter, Jeremias Benjamin,\\n55. 57, 58\\n1415-1490. Ripley, Georg 84\\n1780-1840. Robiquet, Pierre-Jean 136\\n1833- Roscoe, Henry Enfield, Sir. 86\\n1798-1872. Rose, Gustav 97, 1 16\\n1795-1864. Rose, Heinrich 97\\n1703-1770. Rouelle, Guillaume Fran9ois 99\\n19th Cent y, Sarasin 117\\n1742-1786. Scheele, Carl Wilhelm,\\n42, 43, 99, 146\\n19th Cent y. Schenk, Leopold 153\\ni8th Cent y. Schliiter, Christoph Andreas no\\n1834-1892. Schorlemmer, Carl 86\\n19th Cent y. Selmi 149\\n-1646. Sendivogius, Michael 28\\n4B.C.-65A.D. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 15\\n1742-1809. Senebier, Jean 118\\n1572-1637. Sennert, Daniel 34\\nSeth 5\\n19th Cent y. Seubert, Karl 63\\n1811-1870. Simpson, James Young 150\\n19th Cent y. Smith, Edgar F 105\\n1660-1734. Stahl, Georg Ernst, 40, 42, 4$,\\n52,86\\n1813-1891. Stas, Jean Servais 63, 64\\n1614-1672. Sylvius, Franz de le Boe .31, 34\\n17th Cent y. Tachenius, Otto 34\\n1825-1878. Taylor, Bayard 26\\n163", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "PACK\\n1761-1815. ^Tennant, Smithson 97\\n150-230. Tertullianus\\n640-550 B.C. Thales 14\\n4th Cent y. Themistos Euphrades 19\\n1777-1857. Th^nard, Louis Jacques 105\\n1773-1852. Thomson, Thomas 57\\n42 B.C. -37 A.D.Tiberius, Claudius Nero\\nCaesar 8, 9\\n1842- Tilden, W. A 135\\n19th Cent y. Travers, Morris W 6S\\n1864- Trevor, Joseph E 107\\n1849- Tripler, Charles E 140\\n1776-1850. Troost, Gerard 117\\n1852- Van*t Hoff, Jacobus Hen-\\ndrikus 77, 106\\n1763-1829. Vauquelin, Louis Nicolas, 53. 96,\\n114, 146, 147\\n182 1- Virchow, Rudolf 149\\n19th Cent y- Virt 14S\\n19th Cent y. Waage 106\\n19th Cent y. Waldie 151\\n1778-1856. Warren, John Collins 151\\n1815-1884. Watts, Henry S\\n1740- 1 793. Wenzel, Carl Friedrich 55\\n1844- Wiley, Harvey Washington. 148\\n1835- Wislicenus, Johannes 77\\n1800-1882. Wohler, Friedrich, 71, 96, 97, lor\\n1766-1828. Wollaston, William Hyde,\\n57, 93 9S\\n18 17-1884. Wurtz, Charles Adolphe. .47, 106\\n5th Cent y. Zosimos of Panopolis 2, 4, 6\\n164", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "SUBJECT INDEX.\\nPACK\\nAcademia del Cimento 92\\nAcetic acid. 126\\nAcetylene 114\\nAetherin theory 71\\nAir, an element 11,13\\nAlbumenoids, functions of 14S\\nAlchemistic symbols 79\\nAlchemists, early writings of 5\\nAlchemy 16\\nAlchemy, aims of 21\\nAlchymia 34, 85\\nAlkahest 33\\nAlizarin, synthesis of 136\\nAlloys Ill\\nAlloys, colors of 19, 121\\nAluminium iii\\nAluminium cup of Tiberius 8\\nAmmonium cyanate loi\\nAnaesthetics 150\\nAnalysis, chemical 8a\\nAniline 13S\\nAniline colors 135\\nAnimal chemistry 99,\\nAnimal nutrition 148:\\nAnthracene 136\\nAnti-phlogistic theory 47\\nAntiseptics 153,\\nAnti-toxines i49\\n165", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "page:\\nArgon 66, 75\\nAristotle, philosophy of. 1 1\\nAqua vitae 144\\nAssaying 93\\nAtom, definition of 82\\nAtomic theory 55\\nAtomic theory, attacks on 70\\nAtomic weights and equivalents 62\\nAtomic weights, determination of 63\\nAtomic weights table 65\\nAusfiihrliches Handbuch der Analytischen\\nChemie 97\\nAvogadro s hypothesis 59\\nBacon, teachings of 36\\nBalance, analytical 91\\nBenzaldehyde 134\\nBenzoyl 71\\nBeryllium, discovery of 96\\nBerzelius, analytical work of 96\\nBlack s research on alkaline carbonates 46\\nBlow-pipe analysis 93\\nBolton s Bibliographies 87\\nBoyle s investigations 37\\nBronze 108, 11 1\\nBurning glass, combustion effected by 92\\nCaesium, discovery of 103\\nCalcium carbide 114\\nCalx ot metals 41\\nCarbides 114\\nCarbohydrates, functions of 148\\nCarbonic acid, liquefied 131\\nCarbon-steel iir\\nCarborundum 114\\n166", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "PAGR\\nCatalogue of Scientific Periodicals 87\\nCellulose 132\\nChemia 6\\nChemical analysis 88\\nChemical combination, views on 54\\nChemical equations 83\\nChemical equivalents 61\\nChemical knowledge, early 7\\nChemical nomenclature 80\\nChemistry, early instruction in 84\\nChemistry, language of 78\\nChemistry, manuals of 84\\nChemistry of the stars 103\\nChemistry of Three Dimensions 78\\nChemistry, oldest manuscript on 4\\nChemistry, origin of 2\\nChemistry, origin of the term 5\\nChloroform 151\\nChlorophyll 123\\nChromium, discovery of 96\\nChro7iicles of John of Antioch 4\\nChymia Philosophica 86\\nCinnabar no\\nCoal-tar colors 135\\nCoins, earliest 108\\nColor of leaves 123\\nCombustion-theory 39\\nCompound of Alchyynie 84\\nCompounds, symbols of 82\\nConiferin 134\\nConjugate compounds 73\\nConstitution of metals, alchemists view of. 25\\nCopper, early use of 108\\nCopper-coating of vessels 112\\nCoronium 67\\n167", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "PACK\\nCours de Chymie ,86, 99.\\nCrucibles, silver 96\\nCumarin 134\\nCup ofTiberius 8\\nDalton s atomic theory. i 56\\nDemocritus primal form of matter 11\\nDephlogisticated air 49\\nDe re tnetallica 30, 85\\nDiamond, composition of 97\\nDiamond, synthesis of. 117\\nDidactic chemistry 83\\nDictionary of Chemistry 86\\nDiseases communicable through food 152\\nDisinfectants 153\\nDocimacy 94\\nDrugs, relation between composition and\\naction 145\\nDrugs, synthesis of 145\\nDualistic theory 69\\nDulong and Petit s law 60\\nDyeing, early knowledge of 9\\nDyads, definition of 62\\nEarly systems of natural philosophy 10\\nEarth, an element iii 13\\nEarth-worms 120\\nEgypt, the home of alchemy 16\\nEgyptian symbol of immortality 154\\nElectro-chemical theory 68\\nElectro-chemistry 104\\nElectrolysis of chemical compounds 104\\nElectro-metallurgy 113\\nElectro-plating 114\\nElectrum 108\\n168", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "pack:\\nElemenia Chemiae 86-\\nElements de Chimie 86\\nElements, newly discovered 66\\nElements, symbols of 82\\nElixir, great and small 22\\nEmbalming, early practice of. 9\\nEmerald tablet, the 17\\nEquations, chemical 83\\nEquivalents, Gmelin s table of 71\\nEra of quantitative investigation 52\\nEssential oils, synthesis of 134\\nEther 144, 150\\nEtherion 68\\nFaraday s law 69\\nFermentation 152\\nFertilizers 122\\nFire, an element 11, 12\\nFixed air 46\\nFood adulteration 152\\nFood, synthesis of 129\\nFood-tablets 130\\nFormulae, chemical 82\\nFimdameyita Chemiae 86\\nGallium, discovery of 75, 103\\nGaZ sylvestre :i^2\\nGeological chemistry 116\\nGermanium, discovery of 75\\nGlass, manufacture of 9, 125\\nGlauber s salt 144\\nGmelin s table of equivalents 71\\nGold, early use of 107\\nGold, philosophers* 23\\nGold, supposed constituents of 25\\n169", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nGolden fleece 4\\nGravimetric analysis 90\\nHandbuch der Miner alchemie 116\\nHare s hydrogen apparatus 92\\nHelium, discovery of 66, 75\\nHenoch 2\\nHermetic art 21\\nHistoria naturalis 4\\nHomilies 2\\nHooke and Mayow s theory of combustion. 39\\nHumus-doctrine 119\\nHygiene 152\\nlatro-chemistry 30\\nIdria, mercury mines of no\\nImmortality, Egyptian symbol of. 154\\nIndestructibility of matter 32\\nIndia rubber, artificial 133\\nIndigo, synthesis of. 137\\nIndium, discovery of 103\\nIndol 138\\nInorganic and organic substances ico\\nIntroductioJi to Chemical Analysis 96\\nIridium, discovery of 97\\nIron, Bergman s investigation of no\\nIron, early use of 109\\nIsis and Osiris 6\\nIsomorphism 61, 115\\nIsoprene 134\\nJournal of Physical Chemistry 106\\nKlaproth s work 94\\nKoch s serum 150\\nKrypton, discovery of 66\\n170", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "PAGB\\nLamps, perpetually burning 27\\nLanguage of chemistry 78\\nLapis lazuli 138\\nLaudanum, early use of 143\\nLaughing gas 150\\nLavoisier s work 47\\nLaw of Dulong and Petit 60\\nLaw of volumes/ 58\\nLeaves, color-changes of. 123\\nLegal chemistry 146\\nLehrbuch der Chemie 86\\nLehrbuch der Chemischen Geologie 116\\nLemery s classification 99\\nLeyden papyrus 4\\nLiquid air 139\\nMadder 136\\nMagisterium, the great 21\\nManuals of chemistry 84\\nManuscript, oldest, on chemistry 4\\nMathesis 5\\nMatter, Aristotle s primary qualities of 12\\nMatter, indestructibility of 32\\nMauve 135\\nMead 10\\nMedical chemistry 147\\nMendel^efTs predictions 75\\nMercury of the alchemists 25\\nMetal calxes 41\\nMetallic pigments 113\\nMetallurgical chemistry 107\\nMetals, transmutation of 19, 21\\nMetargon, discovery of 66\\nMeteorites, diamonds in 117\\nMeteorites, early analyses of 97\\n171", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nMicrographia 39\\nMineralogical chemistry 114\\nMineralogy, synthetic 116\\nMonads, definition of 62\\nMonium, discovery of 68\\nMordants, early use of 125\\nNagada, tomb at 107\\nNatural philosophy, early systems of 10\\nNeon, discovery of 66, 75\\nNew System of Chemical Philosophy. 57\\nNitrous oxide 150\\nN\u00c2\u00aemenclature, chemical 80\\nNucleus theory 72\\nNutrition, animal 148\\nOleomargarine 129\\nOrganic analysis and synthesis 98\\nOrganic and inorganic substances 100\\nOrigin of alchemy 16\\nOrigin of chemistry 2\\nOrigin of the word chemistry 5\\nOiiris, tomb of 3\\nOsmium, discovery of 97\\nOriim philosophicum 23\\nOxygen, term first used 49\\nPanacea, the great 27\\nPapyrus of Leyden 4\\nPerfumes, synthesis of 135\\nPeriod of transition 36\\nPeriodic law 73\\nPeriodicity of properties 76\\nPerpetually burning lamps 27\\nPharmaceutical chemistry 142\\n172", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nPhilosopher s gold 23\\nPhilosopher s stone, descriptions of 24\\nPhilosopher s stone, manufacture of 22\\nPhilosophers stone, powers of 26\\nPhilosophy of Aristotle 11\\nPhlogiston theory 40\\nPhlogiston theory, decadence of 45\\nPhysical chemistry 106\\nPhysiological chemistry 147\\nPhyto-chemistry i iS\\nPlatinum, refining of. 93\\nPotassium, discovery of 104\\nProust s investigations 54\\nProut s hypothesis 59\\nProxmiate analysis 89\\nPtomaines 149\\nQualitative analysis 90\\nQuantitative analysis 90\\nQuantitative investigation, era of 52\\nQuantivalence 62\\nQuartz changed into gems 28\\nQuartz formed from water 15\\nRadicals 100\\nRadicals, theory of 71\\nRaven s head 23\\nRubidium, discovery of 103\\nSaccharin 1 28\\nSal maris 78\\nSal mirabile 1 44\\nSalt, definition of 34\\nScandium, discovery of 75\\nSceptical Chymist^ The 39\\nJ 73", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "PAGB\\nScheele s investigations 43\\nSchenk s theory 153\\nScholastics, teachings of 13\\nScientific Foundations of Analytical Chem-\\nistry 89\\nSelect Bibliography of Chemistry 87\\nSilicides 114\\nSilk, artificial 132\\nSilver, early use of. 107\\nSilver crucibles 96\\nSilver rings 108\\nSoaps, early use ol 125\\nSodium, discovery of 104\\nSpecific heat 60\\nSpectrum analysis 102\\nSpirits of wine 144\\nSpread of alchemy 20\\nSteel, Bessemer s process iii\\nSteel, R^amur s process no\\nStereo-chemistry 77\\nStoichiometry, foundations of 55\\nStone-honey 127\\nStrontium, discovery of. 105\\nSubstitution theory 72\\nSugar 126\\nSulphate of potash 144\\nSulphate of sodium 144\\nSulphur, early use of 126\\nSulphur of the alchemists 25\\nSwan, the 24\\nSymbols, alchemistic 79\\nSymbols, systems of chemical 80\\nSynthesis of food 129\\nSynthesis of water 50\\nSynthetic mineralogy 116\\n174", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nSystem of Chemistry 57\\nTable of atomic weights 65\\nTabula sinaragdina 16\\nTeachings of scholastics 13\\nTechnological chemistry 124\\nTemperature, measurement of 91\\nTerra pinguis 41\\nText-book of Mineralogy 116\\nThallium, discovery of. 103\\nThermometer, construction of. 91\\nThomas-Gilchrist process iii\\nTiberius, cup of 8\\nTincture, the red 21\\nTincture, the white 22\\nTomb of Osiris 3\\nToxicology 146\\nToxines 149\\nTransition, period of. 36\\nTransmutation of metals 14, 19\\nTreatise on Chemistry 86\\nTriads, definition of 62\\nTrommsdorff Institute 146\\nTypes, theory of 73\\nUltimate analysis 89\\nUltramarine 138\\nUnitary theory 72\\nUniversal solvent 33\\nUrea, synthesis of loi\\nValence 61\\nVanillin 134\\nVital air 49\\nVital force loi\\n175", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "PAGE\\nVolumetric analysis 90\\nWater, an element 11. 13, 14, 32\\nWater, electrolysis of 104\\nWater, synthesis of 50\\nWater, transmutability of 15\\nWet analysis 94\\nWoad 137\\nXenon, discovery of 67\\nZeitschrift fuer Analytische Chemie 98\\nZeitschrift fuer Physikalische Chemie 106\\n176", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3800", "width": "2281", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4464", "width": "2832", "jp2-path": "chemistryitsevol00wiec_0190.jp2"}}