{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2859", "width": "1671", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Qass_\\nBook-", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "CHEMISTRY\\nIN ITS APPLICATION TO\\nAGEICULTUEE AND PHYSIOLOGY.\\nBY\\nJUSTUS LIEBIG, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A.,\\nPROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OP GIESSEN,\\nETC., ETC., ETC.\\nEDITED FROM THE MANUSCRIPT OF THE AUTHOR\\nBy LYON PLAYFAIR, Ph. D.\\nWITH\\nVERY NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, AND A NEW CHAPTER ON SOILS.\\nFOURTH AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND ENGLISH EDITION,\\nWITH\\nNOTES, AND APPENDIX,\\nBY\\nJOHN Wi WEBSTER, M. D.,\\nERVING PROFESSOR OP CHEMISTRY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY.\\nCAMBRIDGE:\\nPUBLISHED BY JOHN OWEN.\\nBOSTON, JAMES MUNROE AND COMPANY, AND CHARLES C. LITTLE AND JAMES BROWN;\\nNEW YORK, WILEY AND PUTNAM, AND GEORGE C. THORBURN PHILADELPHIA,\\nTHOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT, AND COMPANY, AND CAEEY AND HART;\\nBALTIMORE, CUSHINO AND BROTHER.\\n1843.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by\\nJohn Owen,\\nin the Clerk s office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.\\nC A :.I B k I D G E\\nSTEREOTYPED ^AN D PRINTED BY\\nMET CALF, KEITH, AND NICHOLS,\\nPRINTEISS TO THE CNIVEESITY.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nPreface to the Third American Edition\\nDedication\\nPreface to the Second English Edition\\nObject of the Work\\nPAG a\\nV\\nXlll\\nXVII\\n21\\nPART FIRST.\\nON THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE NUTRITION OF VEGETABLES.\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nI. On the Constituent Elements of Plants 24\\nn. On the Assimilation of Carbon .30\\nIII. On the Origin and Action of Humus 63\\nIV. On the Assimilation of Hydrogen .80\\nV. On the Origin and Assimilation of Nitrogen 85\\nVI. On the Inorganic Constituents of Plants 105\\nVn. The Art of Culture 126\\nVni. On the Alternation (Rotation) of Crops 161\\nIX. On Manure 174\\nSupplementary Chapter. On the Chemical Constitu-\\nents of Soils 208\\nAppendix to Part I. 249\\nAction of Charcoal on Vegetation 249\\nMode of Manuring Vines 253\\nRoot Secretions 256\\nPeat Compost 258\\nSource of the Carbon of Plants 260\\nSource of the Hydrogen of Plants 263\\nDependence of the Nutritive Qualities of Plants on\\nNitrogen .265", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "iv CONTENTS.\\nDifference in the Power of Plants to decompose\\nAmmonia 266\\nPractical Inferences 268\\nUse of Phosphate of Soda .286\\nDaniell s Artificial Manure 287\\nPART SECOND.\\nON THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF FERMENTATION, DECAY, AND\\nPUTREFACTION.\\nCHAPTER PAGE\\nI. Chemical Transformations 289\\nn. On the Causes which effect Fermentation, Decay,\\nand Putrefaction 292\\nm. Fermentation and Putrefaction 300\\nIV. On the Transformation of Bodies which do not con-\\ntain Nitrogen as a constituent, and of those in\\nwhich it is present 305\\nV. Fermentation of Sugar 313\\nVI. Eremacausis, or Decay 322\\nVn. Eremacausis of Bodies destitute of Nitrogen For-\\nmation of Acetic Acid 329\\nVIII. Eremacausis of Substances containing Nitrogen:\\nNitrification .334\\nIX. On Vinous Fermentation Wine and Beer 338\\nX. On the Decay of Woody Fibre 357\\nXL On Vegetable Mould .363\\nXn. On the Mouldering of Bodies Paper, Brown Coal,\\nand Mineral Coal .365\\nXni. On Poisons, Contagions, and Miasms 373\\nAppendix to Part II. 415\\nTables, Showing the Proportion between the Hessian\\nand English Standard of Weights and Measures 416\\nIndex 419", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "PEEEACE\\nTHIRD AMERICAN EDITION.\\nThis volume constitutes the First Part of Professor\\nLiebig s Report on Organic Chemistry, drawn up by\\nrequest of the British Association for the Advancement\\nof Science.*\\nThe interest excited in Great Britain on the appear-\\nance of this work from one of the most eminent\\nchemists in Europe, and the high encomiums be-\\nstowed upon it by individuals, and learned bodies,\\ntogether with the various notices of it which have\\nbeen published by Professor Lindley, Professor Dau-\\nbeny, and others, all concurring in the opinion, that\\nthe information it contains is of great amount, and\\nthat from its publication might be dated a new era\\nThe Second Part has just been published, viz., Animal Chemistry,\\nor Organic Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathology.\\nBy Justus Liebig, M. D., F. R. S., M. R. I. A., Professor of Chemistry\\nin the University of Giessen, c., -c., c. Edited from the Author s\\nManuscript, by William Gregory, M. D., F. R. S., M. R. I. A.,\\nProfessor of Medicine and Chemistry in the University and King s\\nCollege, Aberdeen. With Additions, Notes, and Corrections, by Dr.\\nGregory, and others by John W. Webster, M. D., Erving Professor of\\nChemistry in Harvard University.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "Vi PREFACE TO THE\\nin the art of agriculture, induced the editor to suggest\\nits republication in this country.\\nContrary to the expectations of the author, and of\\nthe editor, the work has received the attention not\\nonly of scientific readers, for whom it was written,\\nbut of practical agriculturists, and those who could\\nhardly have been supposed prepared to derive much\\nadvantage from its perusal. The influence of the\\nopinions of Professor Liebig, and the impetus the\\nappearance of the present work gave to the advance-\\nment of scientific agriculture, have been e,vinced by the\\nmany publications which have since appeared, both in\\nGreat Britain and in this country.\\nWhat is valuable in too many of these publications,\\ndiluted as it has been and mingled with erroneous\\nstatements, was for the first time given in a consistent\\nshape in the present work.\\nAlthough the fact that nitrogen is essential to the\\nnutrition of plants was known before the publication\\nof Professor Liebig s work, and it had, indeed, been\\nascertained by Saussure, that germinating seeds absorb\\nnitrogen, it was not supposed that it is derived from\\nthe atmosphere exclusively. And this has been\\ndeemed the chief discovery of the author, so far as\\npractical questions are concerned. It had indeed been\\nsuspected, that very small quantities of ammonia in\\nthe atmosphere might furnish the nitrogen, ammonia\\nbeing a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. It\\nmay be objected, that the quantity of ammonia pres-\\nent in the atmosphere, and in rain and snow water, is", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. Vll\\nexceedingly small, quite insufficient for the supply of\\nall the nitrogen that enters into the vegetable struc-\\nture. To this it has been replied by Professor Lind-\\nley, in an elaborate review of Liebig s work, that\\nthe quantity of ammonia given off from thousands\\nof millions of putrefying animals must furnish an\\nabundant, an everlasting source of that principle.\\nImportant as ammonia, or its nitrogen, is conceived\\nto be to plants, it will be seen that Liebig considers\\ncarbon not less so.\\nSince the appearance of the former editions of this\\nwork, the opinions of American chemists in regard to\\nhumus, have become so generally diffused, in the\\nvarious Agricultural Keports, that it has not been\\ndeemed necessary to retain, in this edition, much that\\nwas appended to the second.\\nProfessor Lindley, in speaking of humus, recogni-\\nses it as the dark substance which remains when\\nmanure is thoroughly rotted, and which colors the\\nsoil black, and without going into any technical ex-\\namination of this product, we may state, he con-\\ntinues, that it is a substance formed by the decay of\\nplants, and very rich in carbon. He then quotes the\\nexpression of Liebig, that this substance, in the form\\nin which it exists in the soil, does not yield nourish-\\nment to plants, and expresses surprise, that the author\\nshould have thought it worth his while to raise such\\na phantom for the mere pleasure of subduing it, for\\nno one in Great Britain now entertains the opinion,\\nthat humus is in itself the food of plants. Every", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "Viil PREFACE TO THE\\nStudent of botany is taught, that humus becomes the\\nfood of plants only by combining with the oxygen of\\nthe atmosphere and forming carbonic acid gas, and\\nhence the great importance of preserving the roots of\\nplants in communication with the atmosphere, which\\nis the great source of oxygen.\\nIn noticing the effect of alkalies, Professor Lindley\\nremarks, that it will lead to the explanation of many\\nthings that were inexplicable before. When it is\\nsaid, that a plant becomes tired of a soil, and we find\\nthat manuring fails to invigorate it, the destruction of\\nalkalies in the soil, and the want of a sufficient supply\\nof those bases in the manure, seem to offer a solution\\nof the enigma. And in like manner the gradual de-\\ncay of trees in public squares and promenades, where\\nthe soil is incessantly robbed of alkaline matter for\\nthe sake of neatness, may probably be ascribed to the\\nsame cause. So also the injurious action of weeds is\\nexplained, by their robbing the soil of that particular\\nkind of food which is necessary to the crops among\\nwhich they grow. Each will partake of the compo-\\nnent parts of the soil, and in proportion to the vigor\\nof their growth, that of the crop must decrease for\\nwhat one receives the others are deprived of\\nIt is impossible for any one acquainted with gar-\\ndening not to perceive the immense importance of\\nthese considerations, which show, that by adopting\\nthe modern notion, that the action of soil is chiefly\\nmechanical, the science of horticulture has been car-\\nried backwards, instead of being advanced and that", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. IX\\nthe most careful examination of the chemical nature\\nboth of the soil in which a given plant grows, and of\\nthe plant itself, must be the foundation of all exact\\nand economical methods of cultivation.\\nOf the importance of alkalies and salts to plants,\\nthere would seem to be no doubt, and although the\\ncredit of this discovery is in England given to Liebig,\\nit was not new in the United States, having been an-\\nnounced by Dr. S. L. Dana of Lowell, and urged\\nupon the attention of cultivators in the various Re-\\nports on the Agriculture of Massachusetts, several\\nyears ago.\\nAs in this work many chemical and technical terms\\nare necessarily made use of, and it may come into the\\nhands of some persons who are not familiar with them,\\nexplanatory notes have been added which it is hoped\\nmay render the text more intelligible. The notes\\nthat are contained in the original work are distin-\\nguished by initials or abbreviations.\\nA valuable addition has been made in the extracts\\nfrom the lectures delivered after the appearance of\\nLiebig s work by Professor Daubeny at Oxford, on\\nAgriculture and Rural Economy. The greater part\\nof the third lecture is given in the Appendix, being\\na summary of the practical applications of the prin-\\nciples developed and discussed in the body of this\\nwork.\\nIt has been highly gratifying to the editor, to learn\\nfrom the gentleman under whose supervision the work\\nfirst appeared in England, that its republication, and", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "X PREFACE TO THE\\nthe manner in which it has been edited in this coun-\\ntry, have met with his entire approbation. To Dr.\\nPlayfair the editor is also indebted for some valuable\\nsuggestions which were followed in preparing the\\nsecond edition, and for which he would express his\\nthanks.\\nA copious index, in which the original work is de-\\nficient, has been added, and numerous errors of the\\nEnglish press have been corrected.\\nThe estimation in which Professor Liebig s work\\nwas viewed by the British Association for the Ad-\\nvancement of Science, before whom it was brought\\nas a Report, has been expressed by Professor Gregory,\\nof King s College, in the remark, that the Association\\nhad just reason to be proud of such a work, as origi-\\nnating in their recommendation.\\nOn the 30th of November, 1840, at the anniversary\\nmeeting of the Royal Society, one of the Copley\\nmedals was awarded to the author and on this occa-\\nsion, in his absence, the President, the Marquis of\\nNorthampton, addressed his representative, Professor\\nDaniell, as follows.\\nProfessor Daniell, I hold in my hand, and deliver\\nto you one of the Copley medals, which has been\\nawarded by us to Professor Liebig. My principal\\ndifficulty, in the present exercise of this the most\\nagreeable part of my official duty, is to know wheth-\\ner to consider M. Liebig s inquiries as most important\\nin a chemical or in a physiological light. However\\nthat may be, he has a double claim on the scientific", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "THIRD AMERICAN EDITION. XI\\nworld, enhanced by the practical and useful ends to\\nwhich he has turned his discoveries.\\nTo Dr. S, L. Dana, of Lowell, the editor would ac-\\nknowledge his obligations for valuable suggestions\\nand the communication of some important additions,\\nand also to Mr. Charles E. Buckingham, of the Medical\\nSchool of this University, for his valuable assistance\\nin correcting the proofs.\\nJ. W. W.\\nCambridge, September, 1842.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "TO\\nTHE BRITISH ASSOCIATION\\nADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.\\nOne of the most remarkable features of modern\\ntimes is the combination of large numbers of indi-\\nviduals representing the whole intelligence of nations,\\nfor the express purpose of advancing science by their\\nunited efforts, of learning its progress, and of commu-\\nnicating new discoveries. The formation of such as-\\nsociations is, in itself, an evidence that they were\\nneeded.\\nIt is not every one who is called by his situation\\nin life to assist in extending the bounds of science\\nbut all mankind have a claim to the blessings and\\nbenefits which accrue from its earnest cultivation.\\nThe foundation of scientific institutions is an ac-\\nknowledgment of these benefits, and this acknowl-\\nedgment, proceeding from whole nations, may be\\nconsidered as the triumph of mind over empiricism.\\nInnumerable are the aids afforded to the means of\\nlife, to manufactures and to commerce, by the truths\\nb", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "XIV DEDICATION.\\nwhich assiduous and active inquirers have discovered\\nand rendered capable of practical application. But it\\nis not the mere practical utility of these truths which\\nis of importance. Their influence upon mental cul-\\nture is most beneficial and the new views acquired\\nby the knowledge of them enable the mind to recog-\\nnise, in the phenomena of nature, proofs of an Infinite\\nWisdom, for the unfathomable profundity of which,\\nlanguage has no expression.\\nAt one of the meetings of the chemical section of\\nthe British Association for the Advancement of\\nScience, the honorable task of preparing a Report\\nupon the state of Organic Chemistry was imposed\\nupon me. In the present work I present to the As-\\nsociation a part of this Report.\\nI have endeavored to develop, in a manner corre-\\nspondent to the present state of science, the fundamen-\\ntal principles of Chemistry in general, and the laws\\nof Organic Chemistry in particular, in their applica-\\ntions to Agriculture and Physiology to the causes of\\nfermentation, decay, and putrefaction to the vinous\\nand acetous fermentations, and to nitrification. The\\nconversion of woody fibre into wood and mineral coal,\\nthe nature of poisons, contagions, and miasms, and\\nthe causes of their action on the living organism, have\\nbeen elucidated in their chemical relations.\\nI shall be happy if I succeed in attracting the at-\\ntention of men of science to subjects which so well\\nmerit to engage their talents and energies. Perfect\\nAgriculture is the true foundation of all trade and in-", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "DEDICATION. XV\\ndustiy, it is the foundation of the riches of states.\\nBut a rational system of Agriculture cannot be formed\\nwithout the application of scientific principles for\\nsuch a system must be based on an exact acquaintance\\nwith the means of nutrition of vegetables, and with\\nthe influence of soils and action of manure upon them.\\nThis knowledge we must seek from chemistry, which\\nteaches the mode of investigating the composition and\\nof studying the characters of the different substances\\nfrom which plants derive their nourishment.\\nThe chemical forces play a part in all the processes\\nof the living animal organism and a number of trans-\\nformations and changes in the living body are exclu-\\nsively dependent on their influence. The diseases in-\\ncident to the period of growth of man, contagion and\\ncontagious matters, have their analogues in many\\nchemical processes. The investigation of the chemi-\\ncal connexion subsisting between those actions pro-\\nceeding in the living body, and the transformations\\npresented by chemical compounds, has also been a\\nsubject of my inquiries. A perfect exhaustion of this\\nsubject, so highly important to medicine, cannot be\\nexpected without the cooperation of physiologists.\\nHence I have merely brought forward the purely\\nchemical part of the inquiry, and hope to attract at-\\ntention to the subject.\\nSince the time of the immortal author of the Ag-\\nricultural Chemistry, no chemist has occupied him-\\nself in studying the applications of chemical principles\\nto the growth of vegetables, and to organic processes.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "Xvi DEDICATION.\\nI have endeavored to follow the path marked out by\\nSir Humphry Davy, who based his conclusions only\\non that which was capable of inquiry and proof.\\nThis is the path of true philosophical inquiry, which\\npromises to lead us to truth, the proper object of\\nour research.\\nIn presenting this Report to the British Association\\nI feel myself bound to convey my sincere thanks to\\nDr. Lyon Playfair, of St. Andrew s, for the active as-\\nsistance which has been aiforded me in its preparation\\nby that intelligent young chemist during his residence\\nin Giessen. I cannot suppress the wish, that he may\\nsucceed in being as useful, by his profound and well-\\ngrounded knowledge of chemistry, as his talents\\npromise.\\nJUSTUS LIEBIG.\\nGiessen, September 1, 1840.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "EDITOR S PHEFACE\\nTHE SECOND ENGLISH EDITION,\\nThe former edition of this work was prepared in\\nthe form of a Report on the present state of Organic\\nChemistry. The state of a science such as this\\ncould not be exhibited by a systematic treatise on\\norganic compounds, but by showing, that the science\\nwas so far advanced as to be useful in its practical\\napplications.\\nThe work was written by a Chemist, and address-\\ned to Chemists. The author did not flatter himself,\\nthat his opinions would be so eagerly embraced by\\nagriculturists, as circumstances have shown to be the\\ncase. Hence his language and style were less adapt-\\ned for them than for those who are conversant with\\nthe abstract details of chemical science. But the\\neager reception of the work by agriculturists has\\nshown, that they possess an ardent desire to profit\\nby the aids offered to them by Chemistry. It, there-\\nfore, became necessary to adapt the work for those\\nwho have not had an opportunity of making that\\nscience a peculiar object of study.\\n6*", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "Xviii EDITOR S PREFACE TO THE\\nThe Editor has endeavored to effect this change.\\nIn doing so, it was necessary to retain the original\\ncharacter of the work hence those alterations only\\nhave been made which are calculated to render the\\nwork more generally useful. It must be remember-\\ned, that the object of the author was not to write a\\nSystem of Agricultural Chemistry, but to furnish\\na Treatise on the Chemistry of Agriculture. It\\nis to be hoped, that those who are acquainted with\\nthe general doctrines of Chemistry will find no diffi-\\nculty in comprehending any of the principles here\\ndeveloped.\\nThe author has enriched the present edition with\\nmany valuable additions allusion may be particular-\\nly made to the practical illustration of his principles\\nfurnished in the supplementary Chapter on Soils.\\nThe analyses of soils contained in that chapter will\\nserve to point out the culpable negligence exhibited\\nin the examination of English soils. Even in the\\nanalyses of professional chemists, published in detail,\\nand with every affectation of accuracy, the estima-\\ntion of the most important ingredients is neglected.\\nHow rarely do we find phosphoric acid amongst the\\nproducts of their analyses potash and soda would\\nappear to be absent from all soils in the British ter-\\nritories Yet these are invariable constituents of\\nfertile soils, and are conditions indispensable to their\\nfertility.\\nIt is necessary to state, that all additions and alter-\\nations, with a few unimportant exceptions, have been", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "SECOND ENGUSH EDITION. XIX\\nsubmitted to the revision of the author. The Index\\nat the end of the volume has been principally com-\\npiled from one furnished by Professor Webster, of\\nHarvard University, in his American edition of this\\nwork. The editor gladly avails himself of this op-\\nportunity to thank this gentleman for the care and\\nattention which he has displayed in superintending\\nits republication.\\nPrimrose, November 22, 1841.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "OEGANIC CHEMISTEY\\nIN ITS APPLICATION TO\\nVEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND AGKICULTURE.\\nThe object of Chemistry is to examine into the\\ncomposition of the numerous modifications of mat-\\nter, which occur in the organic and inorganic king-\\ndoms of nature, and to investigate the laws by\\nwhich the combination and decomposition of their\\nparts is effected.\\nAlthough material substances assume a vast vari-\\nety of forms, yet chemists have not been able to de-\\ntect more than fifty-five bodies which are simple, or\\ncontain only one kind of matter, and from these all\\nother substances are produced. They are considered\\nsimple only because it has not been proved that they\\nconsist of two or more parts. The greater number\\nof the elements occur in the inorganic kingdom.\\nFour only are found in organic matter.\\nBut it is evident that this limit to their number\\nmust render it more difficult to ascertain the precise\\ncircumstances, under which their union is effected,\\nand the laws which regulate their combinations.\\nHence chemists have only lately turned their atten-\\ntion to the study of the nature of bodies generated\\nby organized beings. A few years have, however,\\nsufficed to throw much light upon this interesting\\ndepartment of science, and numerous facts have been\\ndiscovered which cannot fail to be of importance in\\ntheir practical applications.", "height": "2816", "width": "1623", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "22 CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO NUTRITION.\\nThe peculiar object of organic chemistry is to\\ndiscover the chemical conditions essential to the life\\nand perfect development of animals and vegetables,\\nand generally to investigate all those processes of\\norganic nature which are due to the operation of\\nchemical laws. Now, the continued existence of all\\nliving beings is dependent on the reception by them\\nof certain substances, which are applied to the nu-\\ntrition of their frame. An inquiry, therefore, into\\nthe conditions on which the life and growth of living\\nbeings depend, involves the study of those substan-\\nces which serve them as nutriment, as well as the\\ninvestigation of the sources whence these substances\\nare derived, and the changes which they undergo in\\nthe process of assimilation.\\nA beautiful connexion subsists between the or-\\nganic and inorganic kingdoms of nature. Inorganic\\nmatter affords food to plants, and they, on the other\\nhand, yield the means of subsistence to animals.\\nThe conditions necessary for animal and vegetable\\nnutrition are essentially different. An animal re-\\nquires for its development, and for the sustenance\\nof its vital functions, a certain class of substances\\nwhich can only be generated by organic beings pos-\\nsessed of life. Although many animals are entirely\\ncarnivorous, yet their primary nutriment must be\\nderived from plants for the animals upon which\\nthey subsist receive their nourishment from vegeta-\\nble matter. But plants find new nutritive material\\nonly in inorganic substances. Hence one great end\\nof vegetable life is to generate matter adapted for\\nthe nutrition of animals out of inorganic substances,\\nwhich are not fitted for this purpose. Now the pur-\\nEvery vegetable and animal constitutes a machine of greater or\\nless complexity, composed of a variety of parts dependent on each\\nother, and acting all of them to produce a certain end. Vegetables and\\nanim ,ls, on this account, are called organized beings and the chemi-\\ncal history of those compounds which are of animal or vegetable origin,\\nor of organic substances, is called organic cliemistrij. See Thomson s\\nChemistry of Organic Bodies, and Webster s Manual of Chemistry, 3d\\nedit., p. 3G2.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "SUBJECT OF THE WORK. 23\\nport of this work is, to elucidate the chemical pro-\\ncesses engaged in the nutrition of vegetables.\\nThe first part of it will be devoted to the exam-\\nination of the matters which supply the nutriment\\nof plants, and of the changes which these matters\\nundergo in the living organism. The chemical com-\\npounds which afford to plants their principal con-\\nstituents, viz. carbon and nitrogen, will here come\\nunder consideration, as well as the relations in which\\nthe vital functions of vegetables stand to those of the\\nanimal economy and to other phenomena of nature.\\nThe second part of the work will treat of the\\nchemical processes which effect the complete de-\\nstruction of plants and animals after death, such as\\nthe peculiar modes of decomposition, usually de-\\nscribed diS fei inentation, putrefaction, and decay and\\nin this part the changes which organic substances\\nundergo in their conversion into inorganic com-\\npounds, as well as the causes which determine these\\nchanges, will become matter of inquiry.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "PART I.\\nOF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE NUTRITION\\nOF VEGETABLES.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nOF THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.\\nThe ultimate constituents of plants are those which\\nform organic matter in general, namely, Carbon, Hy-\\ndrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen. These elements are\\nalways present in plants, and produce by their union\\nthe various proximate principles of which they con-\\nsist. It is, therefore, necessary, to be acquainted\\nwith their individual characters, for it is only by a\\ncorrect appreciation of these that we are enabled to\\nexplain the functions which they perform in the veg-\\netable organization.\\nCarbon is an elementary substance, endowed with\\na considerable range of affinity. With oxygen it\\nunites in two proportions, forming the gaseous com-\\npounds known under the names of carbonic acid and\\ncarbonic oxide. The former of these is emitted in\\nimmense quantities from many volcanoes and mineral\\nsprings, and is a product of the combustion and de-\\ncay of organic matter. It is subject to be decom-\\nposed by various agencies, and its elements then ar-\\nrange themselves into new combinations. Carbon is\\nfamiliarly known as chaj^coal, but in this state it is\\nmixed with several earthy bodies in a state of ab-\\nsolute purity it constitutes the diamond.*\\nWood charcoal contains about l-50th of its weigiit of alkaline and\\nearthy salts, which constitute the ashes when it is burned.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "OF THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF PLANTS. 25\\nHydrogen (htflamniable Air) is a very important\\nconstituent of vegetable matter. It possesses a\\nspecial affinity for oxygen, with which it unites and\\nforms water. The whole of the phenomena of decay\\ndepend upon the exercise of this affinity, and many\\nof the processes engaged in the nutrition of plants\\noriginate in the attempt to gratify it. Hydrogen,\\nwhen in the state of a gas, is very combustible, and\\nthe lightest body known but it is never found in\\nnature in an isolated condition. Water is the most\\ncommon combination in which it is presented and\\nit may be removed by various processes from the\\noxygen, with which it is united in this body.\\nNitrogen is quite opposed in its chemical char-\\nacters to the two bodies now described. Its princi-\\npal characteristic is an indifference to all other sub-\\nstances, and an apparent reluctance to enter into\\ncombination with them. When forced by peculiar\\ncircumstances to do so, it seems to remain in the\\ncombination by a vis inei^tice and very slight forces\\neffect the disunion of these feeble compounds.\\nYet nitrogen is an invariable constituent of plants,\\nand during their life is subject to the control of the\\nvital powers. But when the mysterious principle of\\nThis gas was discovered in 1772, and is called also aiote or azotic\\ngas, from the Greek, expressive of its being incapable of supporting\\nlife. The name JYitrogen was given to it from its entering into the\\ncomposition of nitric acid (aqua fortis). It has been suspected to be a\\ncompound, but this has not been verified. The atmosphere is compos-\\ned of four fifths nitrogen and one fifth oxygen, not, however, chemical-\\nly united it also contains a ten thousandth part of carbonic acid and\\nwatery vapor. A mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in the proportions\\nnamed, exhibits the general properties of the atmosphere. Nitrogen\\nmay be obtained from common air by removing its oxygen, and from\\nthe lean part of flesh meat by boiling it in diluted nitric acid. It unites\\nwith different proportions of oxygen, and forms as many distinct com-\\npounds, viz.\\nform 5 P^o^^o^i of Nitrogen, nitrous\\noxide, or exhilarating gas.\\nBinoxide of Nitrogen\\nor Nitric oxide.\\nHyponitrous acid.\\nNitrous acid.\\nNitric acid.\\nFor other details, see Webster s Cliemistnj,dd edit., p. 134, c.\\n3\\nJVitrog.\\n100\\nOxyg.\\n50\\nlOO\\n100\\n100\\n100\\nino\\n150\\n200\\n250", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "26 OF THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.\\nlife has ceased to exercise its influence, this element\\nresumes its chemical character, and materially assists\\nin promoting the decay of vegetable matter, by es-\\ncaping from the compounds of which it formed a\\nconstituent.\\nOxygen, the only remaining constituent of organic\\nmatter, is a gaseous element, which plays a most\\nimportant part in the economy of nature. It is the\\nagent employed in effecting the union and disunion\\nof a vas-t number of compounds. It is superior to\\nall other elements in the extensive range of its af-\\nfinities. The phenomena of combustion and decay\\nare examples of the exercise of its power.\\nOxygen is the most generally diffused element on\\nthe surface of the earth; for, besides constituting\\nthe principal part of the atmosphere which surrounds\\nit, it is a component of almost all the earths and\\nminerals found on its surface. In an isolated state\\nit is a gaseous body, possessed of neither taste nor\\nsmell. It is slightly soluble in water, and hence is\\nusually found dissolved in rain and snow, as well as\\nin the water of running streams.\\nSuch are the principal characters of the elements\\nwhich constitute organic matter but it remains for\\nus to consider in what form they are united in plants.\\nThe substances which constitute the principal mass\\nof every vegetable are compounds of carbon with ox-\\nygen and hydrogen, in the proper relative propor-\\ntions for forming water. Woody fibre, starch, sugar,\\nand gum, for example, are such compounds of carbon\\nwith the elements of water. In another class of sub-\\nstances containing carbon as an element, oxygen and\\nhydrogen are again present but the proportion of\\noxygen is greater than would be required for produc-\\ning water by union with the hydrogen. The numer-\\nous organic acids met with in plants belong, with\\nfew exceptions, to this class.\\nA third class of vegetable compounds contains car-\\nbon and hydrogen, but no oxygen, or less of that\\nelement than would be required to convert all the", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 27\\nhydrogen into water. These may be regarded as\\ncompounds of carbon with the elements of water,\\nand an excess of hydrogen. Such are the volatile\\nand fixed oils, wax, and the resins. Many of them\\nhave acid characters.\\nThe juices of all vegetables contain organic acids,\\ngenerally combined with the inorganic bases, or me-\\ntallic oxides; for these metallic oxides exist in\\nevery plant, and may be detected in its ashes after\\nincineration.\\nNitrogen is an element of vegetable albumen and\\ngluten; it is a constituent of the acid, and of what\\nare termed the indifferent substances of plants,\\nas well as of those peculiar vegetable compounds\\nwhich possess all the properties of metallic oxides,\\nand are known as organic bases.\\nEstimated by its proportional weight, nitrogen\\nforms only a very small part of plants but it is\\nnever entirely absent from any part of them. Even\\nwhen it does not absolutely enter into the composi-\\ntion of a particular part or organ, it is always to be\\nfound in the fluids which pervade it.\\nIt follows from the facts th\\\\is far detailed, that\\nthe development of a plant requires the presence,\\nfirst, of substances containing carbon and nitrogen,\\nand capable of yielding these elements to the grow-\\ning organism; secondly, of water and its elements;\\nand lastly, of a soil to furnish the inorganic matters\\nwhich are likewise essential to vegetable life.\\nOF THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.\\nIn the normal state of growth, plants can only\\nderive their nourishment from the atmosphere and\\nthe soil. Hence it is of importance to be acquainted\\nwith the composition of these, in order that we may\\nbe enabled to judge from which of their constituents\\nthe nourishment is afforded.\\nThe composition of the atmosphere has been exam-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "28 OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE.\\niiied by many chemists with great care, and the results\\nof their researches have shown, that its principal\\nconstituents are always present in the same propor-\\ntion. These are the two gases, oxygen and nitro-\\ngen, the general properties of which have been\\nalready described. One hundred parts, by weight,\\nof atmospheric air contain 23-1 parts of oxygen,\\nand 76-9 parts of nitrogen or 100 volumes of air\\ncontain nearly 21 volumes of oxygen gas. From\\nthe extensive range of affinity which this gas pos-\\nsesses, it is obvious, that were it alone to constitute\\nour atmosphere, and left unchecked to exert its\\npowerful effects, all nature would be one scene of\\nuniversal destruction. It is on this account that\\nnitrogen is present in the air in so large proportion.\\nIt is peculiarly adapted for this purpose, as it does\\nnot possess any disposition to unite with oxygen,\\nand exerts no action upon the processes proceeding\\non the earth. These two gases are intimately mixed,\\nby virtue of a property which .all gases possess in\\ncommon, of diffusing themselves equally through\\nevery part of another gas, with which they are\\nplaced in contact.\\nAlthough oxygen and nitrogen form the principal\\nconstituents of the atmosphere, yet they are not the\\nonly substances found in it. Watery vapor and\\ncarbonic acid gas materially modify its properties.\\nThe former of these falls upon the earth as rain, and\\nbrings with it any soluble matter which it meets in\\nits passage through the air.\\nCarbonic acid gas is discharged in immense quan-\\ntities from the active volcanoes of America, and\\nfrom many of the mineral springs which abound in\\nvarious parts of Europe; it is also generated during\\nthe combustion and decay of organic matter. It is\\nnot, therefore, surprising that it should have been\\ndetected in every part of the atmosphere in which\\nits presence has been looked for. Saussui*e found it\\neven in the air on the summit of Mont Blanc, which\\nis covered with perpetual snow, and where it could", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "OF SOILS. 29\\nnot have been produced by the immediate agency of\\nvegetable matter. Carbonic acid gas performs a\\nmost important part in the process of vegetable\\nnutrition, the consideration of which belongs to\\nanother part of the work.\\nCarbonic acid, water, and ammonia (a compound\\nof hydrogen and nitrogen) are the final products of\\nthe decay of animal and vegetable matter. In an\\nisolated condition, they usually exist in the gaseous\\nform. Hence, on their formation, they must escape\\ninto the atmosphere. But ammonia has not hitherto\\nbeen enumerated amongst the constituents of the\\nair, although, according to our view, it can never be\\nabsent. The reason of this is, that it exists in\\nextremely minute quantity in the amount of air usu-\\nally subjected to experiment in chemical analysis\\nit has consequently escaped detection. But rain\\nwhich falls through a large extent of air, carries\\ndown in solution all that remains in suspension in it.\\nNow ammonia always exists in rain-water, and from\\nthis fact we must conclude that it is invariably pres-\\nent in the atmosphere. Nor can we be surprised at\\nits presence when we consider that many volcanoes\\nnow in activity emit large quantities of it.* This\\nsubject will, however, be discussed more fully in\\nanother part of the work.\\nSuch are the principal constituents of the atmo-\\nsphere from which plants derive their nourishment;\\nfor although other matters are supposed to exist in\\nit in minute quantity, yet they do not exercise any\\ninfluence on vegetation, nor has even their presence\\nbeen satisfactorily demonstrated.\\nOF SOILS.\\nA soil may be considered a magazine of inorganic\\nmatters, which are prepared by the plant to suit the\\nThe annual evolution of carbonic acid from springs and fissures in the\\nancient volcanic district of the EilLi, on the Rhine, has been estimated by\\nBischof, at not less than 100,000 tons, containing 27,000 tons of carbon.\\n3*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "30 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\npurposes for which they are destined in its nutrition.\\nThe composition and uses of such substances cannot,\\nhowever, be studied with advantage, until we have\\nconsidered the manner in which the organic matter\\nis obtained by plants.\\nSome virgin soils, such as those of America, con-\\ntain vegetable matter in large proportion and as\\nthese have been found eminently adapted for the\\ncultivation of most plants, the organic matter con-\\ntained in them has naturally been recognised as the\\ncause of their fertility. T.o this matter, the term\\nvegetable mould or humus has been applied.\\nIndeed, this peculiar substance appears to play such\\nan important part in the phenomena of vegetation,\\nthat vegetable physiologists have been induced to\\nascribe the fertility of every soil to its presence. It\\nis believed by many to be the principal nutriment of\\nplants, and is supposed to be extracted by them\\nfrom the soil in which they grow. It is itself the\\nproduct of the decay of vegetable matter, and must\\ntherefore contain many of the constituents which\\nare found in plants during life. Its action will\\ntherefore be examined in considering whence these\\nconstituents are derived.\\nCHAPTER II.\\nOF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nCOMPOSITION OF HUMUS.\\nThe humus, to which allusion has been made, is\\ndescribed by chemists as a brow^n substance easily\\nsoluble in alkalies, but only slightly so in water, and\\nproduced during the decomposition of vegetable\\nmatters by the action of acids or alkalies. It has,\\nhowever, received various names according. to the\\ndifferent external characters and chemical properties\\nwhich it presents. Thus, ulmin, humic acid, coal of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "COMPOSITION OF HUMUS. 31\\nhumus, and humin, are names applied to modifica-\\ntions of humus. They are obtained by treating peat,\\nwoody fibre, soot, or brown coal with alkalies by\\ndecomposing sugar, starch, or sugar of milk by\\nmeans of acids or by exposing alkaline solutions of\\ntannic and gallic acids to the action of the air.\\nThe modifications of /minus which are soluble in\\nalkalies, are called humic acid; while those which\\nare insoluble have received the designations oi humin\\nand coal of humus*\\nThe names given to these substances might cause\\nit to be supposed that their composition is identical.\\nBut a more erroneous notion could not be enter-\\ntained since even sugar, acetic acid, and resin do\\nnot differ more widely in the proportions of their\\nconstituent elements, than do the various modifica-\\ntions of humus.\\nHumic acid formed by the action of hydrate f of\\nThe soluble matters were formerly called by the eminent Swedish\\nchemist Berzelius, extract of humus, and the insoluble geine (from the\\nGreek yij, the earth), also apoiheme and carlonaceous hvmvs. This\\nsubstance is now known to be composed of various ingredients, and of\\nthese the two acids, which have received the names of Crenic and\\nJipocrcnic, are particularly interesting.\\nSee Professor Hitchcock s Report, and American Joxirnal of Science,\\nVol. XXXVI., Art. XII.\\nDr. S. L. Dana considers geine as forming the basis of all the nour-\\nishing part of all vegetable manures, and, in the three states of vegeta-\\nble extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould, to be the principle which\\ngives fertilit} to soils long after the action of common manures has\\nceased. See Report on the reexaminntion of the Economical Geology\\nof Massachusetts. In the Third Report on the Agriculture of the Slate\\nof Massachusetts, 1840, Dr. Dana remarks, that geine is the decom-\\nposed organic matter of the soil. It is the product of putrefaction;\\ncontinually subjected to air and moisture, it is finally wholly dissipated\\nin air, leaving only the inorganic bases of the plant, with which it was\\nonce combined. Now, whether we consider this as a simple substance,\\nor composed of several others, called crenic, apocrenic, puteanic, ulmic\\nacids, glairin, apotheme, extract, humus, or mould, agriculture ever\\nhas and probably ever will consider it one and the same thing, requir-\\ning always similar treatment to produce it; similar treatment to render\\nit soluble when produced; similar treatment to render it an effectual\\nmanure. It is the end of all compost heaps to produce soluble geine,\\nno matter how compound our chemistry may teach this substance to\\nbe. Page 191.\\nt Hydrates are compounds of oxides, salts, c., with definite quan-\\ntities of water, a substance from which all the water has been re-\\nmoved is anhydrous. Even after exposure to a red heat, caustic potash\\nretains water.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "32 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\npotash upon sawdust contains, according to the\\naccurate analysis of Peligot, 72 per cent, of carbon,\\nwhile the humic acid obtained from turf and brown\\ncoal contains, according to Sprengel, only 58 per\\ncent. that produced by the action of dilute sul-\\nphuric acid upon sugar, 57 per cent, according to\\nMalaguti and that, lastly, which is obtained from\\nsugar or from starch, by means of muriatic acid,\\naccording to the analysis of Stein, 64 per cent. All\\nthese analyses have been repeated with care and\\naccuracy, and the proportion of carbon in the re-\\nspective cases has been found to agree with the\\nestimates of the different chemists above mentioned;\\nso that there is no reason to ascribe the difference\\nin this respect between the varieties of humus to\\nthe mere difference in the methods of analysis or\\ndegrees of expertness of the operators. Malaguti\\nstates, moreover, that humic acid contains an equal\\nnumber of equivalents of oxygen and hydrogen, that\\nis to say, that these elements exist in it in the pro-\\nportions for forming water while, according to\\nSprengel, the oxygen is in excess, and Peligot even\\nestimates the quantity of oxygen at 14 equivalents,\\nand the hydrogen at only 6 equivalents, making the\\ndeficiency of hydrogen as great as 8 equivalents.\\nAnd although Mulder* has very recently explained\\nmany of these conflicting results, by showing that\\nthere are several kinds of humus and humic acids\\nessentially distinct in their characters, and fixed in\\ntheir composition, yet he has afforded no proof that\\nthe definite compounds obtained by him really exist,\\nas such, in the soil. On the contrary, they appear\\nto have been formed by the action of the potash and\\nammonia, which he employed in their preparation.\\nIt is quite evident, therefore, that chemists have\\nbeen in the habit of designating all products of the\\ndecomposition of organic bodies which had a brown\\nor brownish-black color by the names of humic\\nBulletin des Scienc. Phys. et Natur. de Neerl.1840, p. 1-102.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "PROPERTIES OF HUMUS. 33\\nacid or humin, according as they were soluble or\\ninsoluble in alkalies although in their composition\\nand mode of origin, the substances thus confounded\\nmight be in no way allied.\\nNot the slightest ground exists for the belief that\\none or other of these artificial products of the de-\\ncomposition of vegetable matters exists in nature in\\nthe form and endowed with the properties of the\\nvegetable constituents of mould; there is not the\\nshadow of a proof that one of them exerts any influ-\\nence on the growth of plants either in the way of\\nnourishment or otherwise.\\nVegetable physiologists have, without any appar-\\nent reason, imputed the known properties of the\\nhumus and huniic acids of chemists to that constitu-\\nent of mould which has received the same name, and\\nin this way have been led to their theoretical notions\\nrespecting the functions of the latter substance in\\nvegetation.\\nThe opinion, that the substance called humus is\\nextracted from the soil by the roots of plants, and\\nthat the carbon entering into its composition serves\\nin some form or other to nourish their tissues, is\\nconsidered by many as so firmly established, that any\\nnew argument in its favor has been deemed unneces-\\nsary; the obvious difference in the growth of plants,\\naccording to the known abundance or scarcity of\\nhimms in the soil, seemed to afford incontestable\\nproof of its correctness.*\\nYet, this position, when submitted to a strict ex-\\namination, is found to be untenable, and it becomes\\nevident, from most conclusive proofs, that humus, in\\nthe form in which it exists in the soil, does not yield\\nthe smallest nourishment to plants.\\nThe adherence to the above incorrect opinion has\\nThis remark applies more to German than to English botanists and\\nphysiologists. In England, the idea that humus, as such, affords nour-\\nishment to plants is by no means general but on the Continent, the\\nviews of Berzelius on this subject have been almost universally adopt-\\ned.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "34 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nhitherto rendered it impossible for the true theory\\nof the nutritive process in vegetables to become\\nknown, and has thus deprived us of our best guide\\nto a rational practice in agriculture. Any great im-\\nprovement in that most important of all arts is in-\\nconceivable, without a deeper and more perfect ac-\\nquaintance with the substances which nourish plants,\\nand with the sources whence they are derived and\\nno other cause can be discovered to account for the\\nfluctuating and uncertain state of our knowledge on\\nthis subject up to the present time, than that modern\\nphysiology has not kept pace with the rapid progress\\nof chemistry.\\nIn the following inquiry, we shall suppose the hu-\\nmus of vegetable physiologists to be really endowed\\nwith the properties recognised by chemists in the\\nbrownish black deposits, which they obtain by pre-\\ncipitating an alkaline decoction of mould or peat by\\nmeans of acids, and which they name fuimic acid.*\\nHumic acid, when first precipitated, is a flocculent\\nsubstance, is soluble in 2500 times its weight of wa-\\nter, and combines with alkalies, lime and magnesia,\\nforming compounds of the same degree of solubility.\\n(Sprengel.)\\nVegetable physiologists agree in the supposition\\nthat by the aid of water hiimvs is rendered capable\\nThe extract obtained by Berzelins from black, brownish soils has\\nbeen designated as humic extract, in some cases with a substance called\\nglair in. The glairin is described by Thomson as a peculiar substance\\nwhich has been observed in certain sulphureous mineral waters, and\\nwas first noticed by Vauquelin {Jinn, de Chim. XXXIX. 171-!), who de-\\nscribed several of its properties and considered it analogous to gelatin.\\nAn account of it was drawn up by M. Anglada, of Montpellier, and\\ncommunicated to the Royal Academy of Medicine of Paris, in 1827. It\\ngelatinizes with water when sufficiently concentrated. Sometimes it is\\nwhite, and at others of a red color when dried it shrinks to j ^th of its\\nbulk when moist. It saturates ammonia, and decomposes several me-\\ntallic salts. It is destitute of smell and taste. It does not glue sub-\\nstances together like gelatin and albumen. It yields ammonia by de-\\ncomposition, and is capable of putrefaction like animal bodies. The\\ngeneral opinion is, that it is of vegetable origin, and allied to the genus\\ntremella, though its existence in mineral waters has not been account-\\ned for. Thomson s Organic Chemistry., 694. I found it very abun-\\ndant about the hot sulphureous waters of the island of St. Michael,\\nAzores. W.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION OF HUMUS. 35\\nof being absorbed by the roots of plants. But ac-\\ncording to the observation of chemists, humic acid is\\nsoluble only when newly precipitated, and becomes\\ncompletely insoluble when dried in the air, or when\\nexposed in the moist state to the freezing tempera-\\nture. (Sprengel.)\\nBoth the cold of winter and the heat of summer\\ntherefore are destructive of the solubility of humic\\nacid, and at the same time of its capability of being\\nassimilated by plants. So that, if it is absorbed by\\nplants, it must be in some altered form.\\nThe correctness of these observations is easily\\ndemonstrated by treating a portion of good mould\\nwith cold water. The fluid remains colorless, and is\\nfound to have dissolved less than 100,000 part of its\\nweight of organic matters, and to contain merely the\\nsalts which are present in rain-water.\\nDecayed oak-wood, likewise, of which humic acid\\nis the principal constituent, was found by Berzelius\\nto yield to cold water only slight traces of soluble\\nmaterials and I have myself verified this observa-\\ntion on the decayed wood of beech and fir.\\nThese facts, which show that humic acid, in its\\nunaltered condition, cannot serve for the nourishment\\nof plants, have not escaped the notice of physiolo-\\ngists and hence they have assumed that the lime or\\nthe different alkalies, found in the ashes of vegeta-\\nbles, render soluble the humic acid and fit it for the\\nprocess of assimilation.\\nAlkalies and alkaline earths do exist in the differ-\\nent kinds of soil in sufficient quantity to form such\\nsoluble compounds with the humic acid.\\nNow, let us suppose that humic acid is absorbed\\nby plants in the form of that salt which contains the\\nlargest proportion of humic acid, namely, in the form\\nof humate of lime, and then, from the known quantity\\nof the alkaline bases contained in the ashes of plants,\\nlet us calculate the amount of humic acid which\\nmight be assimilated in this manner. Let us admit,\\nlikewise, that potash, soda, and the oxides of iron", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "36 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CAKBOM.\\nand manganese have the same capacity of saturation\\nas lime with respect to humic acid, and then we may\\ntake as the basis of our calculation the analysis of\\nM. Berthier, who found that 1000 lbs. of dry fir-wood\\nyielded 4 lbs. of ashes, and that in every 100 lbs. of\\nthese ashes, after the chloride of potassium and sul-\\nphate of potash were extracted, 53 lbs. consisted of\\nthe basic metallic oxides, potash, soda, lime, magne-\\nsia, iron, and manganese.\\nOne Hessian acre* of woodland yields annually,\\naccording to Dr. Heyer, on an average, 2920 lbs. of\\ndry fir-wood, which contain 6.17 lbs. of metallic\\noxides.\\nNow, according to the estimates of Malaguti and\\nSprengel, 1 lb. of lime combines chemically with 12\\nlbs. of humic acid; 6.17 lbs. of the metallic oxides\\nwould accordingly introduce into the trees 74.04 of\\nhumic acid, which, admitting humic acid to contain\\n58 per cent, of carbon, would correspond to 100 lbs.\\nof dry wood. But we have seen that 2920 lbs. of\\nfir-wood are really produced.\\nAgain, if the quantity of humic acid which might\\nbe introduced into wheat in the form of humates is\\ncalculated from the known proportion of metallic\\noxides existing in wheat straw, (the sulphates and\\nchlorides also contained in the ashes of the straw\\nnot being included,) it will be found that the w^heat\\ngrowing on 1 Hessian acre would receive in that\\nway 63 lbs. of humic acid, corresponding to 93,6 lbs.\\nof woody fibre. But the extent of land just men-\\ntioned produces, independently of the roots and\\ngrain, 1961 lbs. of straw, the composition of which\\nis the same as that of woody fibre.\\nIt has been taken for granted in these calculations\\nthat the basic metallic oxides which have served to\\nintroduce humic acid into the plants do not return\\nto the soil, since it is certain that they remain fixed\\nOne Hessian acre is equal to 40,000 square feet, Hessian, or 26,910\\nsquare feet, English measure P.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "ABSORPTION OF HUMUS. 37\\nin the parts newly formed during the process of\\ngrowth.\\nLet us now calculate the quantity of humic acid\\nwhich plants can receive under the most favorable\\ncircumstances, viz., through the agency of rain-\\nwater.\\nThe quantity of rain which falls at Erfurt, one of\\nthe most fertile districts of Germany, during the\\nmonths of April, May, June, and July, is stated by\\nSchubler to be 19.3 lbs. over every square foot of\\nsurface; 1 Hessian acre, or 26,910 square feet, con-\\nsequently receive 519,363 lbs. of rain-water.\\nIf, now, we suppose that the whole quantity of\\nthis rain is taken up by the roots of a summer plant,\\nwhich ripens four months after it is planted, so that\\nnot a pound of this water evaporates except from\\nthe leaves of the plant and if we further assume\\nthat the water thus absorbed is saturated with\\nhumate of lime (the most soluble of the huraates,\\nand that which contains the largest proportion of\\nhumic acid) then the plants thus nourished would\\nnot receive more than 330 lbs. of humic acid, since\\none part of humate of lime requires 2500 parts of\\nwater for solution.\\nBut the extent of land which we have mentioned\\nproduces 2843 lbs. of corn (in grain and straw, the\\nroots not included), or 22,000 lbs. of beet-root\\n(without the leaves and small radical fibres). It is\\nquite evident that the 330 lbs. of humic acid, sup-\\nposed to be absorbed, cannot account for the quan-\\ntity of carbon contained in the roots and leaves\\nalone, even if the supposition were correct, that the\\nwhole of the rain-water was absorbed by the plants.\\nBut since it is known that only a small portion of\\nthe rain-water which falls upon the surface of the\\nearth evaporates through plants, the quantity of\\ncarbon which can be conveyed into them in any\\nconceivable manner by means of humic acid must be\\nextremely trifling, in comparison with that actually\\nproduced in vegetation.\\n4", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "38 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nOther considei ations of a higher nature confute\\nthe common view respecting the nutritive office of\\nhumic acid, in a manner so clear and conclusive that\\nit is difficult to conceive how it could have been so\\ngenerally adopted.\\nFertile land produces carbon in the form of wood,\\nhay, grain, and other kinds of growth, the masses\\nof which differ in a remarkable degree.\\n2920 lbs. of firs, pines, beeches, c. grow as wood\\nupon one Hessian acre of forest-land with an average\\nsoil. The same superficies yields 2755 lbs. of hay.\\nA similar surface of corn-land gives from 19,000\\nto 22,004 lbs. of beet-root, or 881 lbs. of rye, and\\n1961 lbs. of straw, 160 sheaves of 15.4 lbs. each,\\nin all, 2843 lbs.\\nOne hundred parts of dry fir-wood contain 38\\nparts of carbon therefore, 2920 lbs. contain 1109\\nlbs. of carbon.\\nOne hundred parts of hay,* dried in air, contain\\n44.31 parts carbon. Accordingly, 2755 lbs. of hay\\ncontain 1110 lbs. of carbon.\\nBeet-roots contain from 89 to 89.5 parts water,\\nand from 10.5 to 11 parts solid matter, which con-\\nsists of from 8 to 9 per cent, sugar, and from 2 to\\n2| per cent, cellular tissue. Sugar contains 42.4\\nper cent.; cellular tissue, 47 per cent, of carbon.\\n22,004 lbs. of beet-root, therefore, if they contain\\n9 per cent, of sugar, and 2 per cent, of cellular tis-\\nsue, would yield 1031 lbs. of carbon, of which 833\\nlbs. would be due to the sugar, and 198 lbs. to the\\ncellular tissue the carbon of the leaves and small\\nroots not being included in the calculation.\\nOne hundred parts of straw ,f dried in air, contain\\n1(30 parts of hay, dried at 100\u00c2\u00b0 C. (212\u00c2\u00b0 F.) and burned with oxide\\nof copper in a stream of oxygen gas, yielded 5193 water, 165-8 car-\\nbonic acid, and G-82 of ashes. This gives 45 87 carbon, 5 76 hydrogen,\\n31 55 oxygen, and 6 82 ashes. Hay, dried in the air, loses 11-2 p. c.\\nwater at 100\u00c2\u00b0 C. (212 F. {Dr. UlU.)\\nt Straw analyzed in the same manner, and dried at 100\u00c2\u00b0 C, gave\\n46 37 p. c. of carbon, 5 08 p. c. of hydrogen, 43 93 p. c. of oxygen, and\\n4-02 p. c of ashes. Straw dried in the air at 100\u00c2\u00b0 C. lost IS p. c. of\\nwater. (Dr. Will.)", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "FERTILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS. 39\\n38 per cent, of carbon; therefore 1961 lbs. of straw\\ncontain 745 lbs. of carbon. One hundred parts of\\ncorn contain 43 parts of carbon; 882 lbs. must\\ntherefore contain 379 lbs., in all, 1124 lbs. of car-\\nbon.\\n26,910 square feet of wood and meadow land pro-\\nduce, consequently, 1109 lbs. of carbon; while the\\nsame extent of arable land yields in beet-root,\\nwithout leaves, 1032 lbs., or in corn, 1124 lbs.\\nIt must be concluded from these incontestable\\nfacts, that equal surfaces of cultivated land of an\\naverage fertility produce equal quantities of carbon;\\nyet, how unlike have been the different conditions\\nof the growth of the plants from which this has\\nbeen deduced\\nLet us now inquire whence the grass in a meadow,\\nor the wood in a forest, receives its carbon, since\\nthere no manure no carbon has been given to it\\nas nourishment 1 and how it happens, that the soil,\\nthus exhausted, instead of becoming poorer, becomes\\nevery year richer in this element 1\\nA certain quantity of carbon is taken every year\\nfrom the forest or meadow, in the form of wood or\\nhay, and, in spite of this, the quantity of carbon in\\nthe soil augments it becomes richer in humus.\\nIt is said that in fields and orchards all the carbon\\nwhich may have been taken away as herbs, as straw,\\nas seeds, or as fruit, is replaced by means of manure;\\nand yet this soil produces no more carbon than that\\nof the forest or meadow, where it is never replaced.\\nIt cannot be conceived that the laws for the nutri-\\ntion of plants are changed by culture, that the\\nsources of carbon for fruit or grain, and for grass or\\ntrees, are different.\\nIt is not denied that manure exercises an influence\\nupon the development of plants but it may be\\naffirmed with positive certainty, that it neither serves\\nfor the production of the carbon, nor has any influ-\\nence upon it, because we find that the quantity of\\ncarbon produced by manured lands is not greater", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "40 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nthan that yielded by lands which are not manured.\\nThe discussion as to the manner in which manure\\nacts has nothing to do with the present question,\\nwhich is, the orio-in of the carbon. The carbon must\\nbe derived from other sources and as the soil does\\nnot yield it, it can only be extracted from the atmo-\\nsphere.\\nIn attempting to explain the origin of carbon in\\nplants, it has never been considered that the ques-\\ntion is intimately connected with that of the origin\\nof humus. It is universally admitted that humus\\narises from the decay of plants. No primitive\\nhumus, therefore, can have existed, for plants must\\nhave preceded the humus.\\nNow, whence did the first vegetables derive their\\ncarbon and in what form is the carbon contained\\nin the atmosphere\\nThese two questions involve the consideration of\\ntwo most remarkable natural phenomena, which by\\ntheir reciprocal and uninterrupted influence maintain\\nthe life of the individual animals and vegetables,\\nand the continued existence of both kingdoms of\\norganic nature.\\nOne of these questions is connected with the inva-\\nriable condition of the air with respect to oxygen.\\nOne hundred volumes of air have been found, at\\nevery period and in every climate, to contain 21\\nvolumes of oxygen, with such small deviations that\\nthey must be ascribed to errors of observation.\\nAlthough the absolute quantity of oxygen con-\\ntained in the atmosphere appears very great when\\nrepresented by numbers, yet it is not inexhaustible.\\nOne man consumes by respiration 25 cubic feet of\\noxygen in 24 hours 10 cwt. of charcoal consume\\n32,066 cubic feet of oxygen during its combustion\\nand a small town like Giessen (with about 7000\\ninhabitants) extracts yearly from the air, by the\\nwood employed as fuel, more than 551 millions of\\ncubic feet of this gas.\\nWhen we consider facts such as these, our former", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "QUANTITY OF OXYGEN IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 41\\nstatement, that the quantity of oxygen in the atmo-\\nsphere does not diminish in the course of ages,*\\nthat the air at the present day, for example, does\\nnot contain less oxygen than that found in jars\\nburied for 1800 years in Pompeii, appears quite\\nincomprehensible, unless some source exists whence\\nthe oxygen abstracted is replaced. How does it\\nhappen, then, that the proportion of oxygen in the\\natmosphere is thus invariable\\nThe answer to this question depends upon another j\\nnamely, what becomes of the carbonic acid, which is\\nproduced during the respiration of animals, and by\\nthe process of combustion A cubic foot of oxygen\\ngas, by uniting with carbon so as to form carbonic\\nacid, does not change its volume. The billions of\\ncubic feet of oxygen extracted from the atmosphere,\\nproduce the same number of billions of cubic feet\\nIf the atmosphere possessed, in its whole extent, the same density\\nas it does on the surface of the sea, it would have a height of 24,555\\nParisian feet; but it contains the vapor of water, so that we may as-\\nsume its height to be one geographical mile 22,843 Parisian feet. Now\\nthe radius of the earth is equal to 8G0 geographical miles hence the\\nVolume of the atmosphere 9,:507,500 cubic miles.\\ncube of 210-4 miles.\\nVolume of oxygen 1,954,578 cubic miles.\\ncube of 125 miles.\\nVolume of carbonic acid 3,862-7 cubic miles.\\ncube of 15-7 miles.\\nThe maximum of the carbonic acid contained in the atmosphere has\\nnot here been adopted, but the mean, which is equal to 0-000415. (L.) The\\nweight of carbon which presses upon each square inch of the earth s\\nsurface being 17 39 grains, on an acre of land will be 7 tons. (Johnston.)\\nA man daily consumes 45,000 cubic inches (Parisian). A man\\nyearly consumes 9505-2 cubic feet. 100 million men yearly consume\\n9,505,200,000,000 cubic feet.\\nHence a thousand million men yearly consume 0-79745 cubic miles\\nof oxj^gen. But the air is rendered incapable of supporting the pro-\\ncess of respiration, when the quantity of its oxygen is decreased 12\\npercent.; so that a thousand million men would make the air unfit\\nfor respiration in a million years. The consumption of oxygen by\\nanimals, and by the process of combustion, is not introduced into the\\ncalculation.\\nWhen the air returns from the lungs, the carbonic acid gas amounts,\\non an average, to jjth of the whole or its quantity is increased one\\nhundred times. (Johnston.) A full grown man gives off from his\\nlungs, in the course of a year, upwards of lllO lbs. of carbon. It is\\nestimated by Johnston, that at least one third of the carbon of the\\nfood of men is daily returned to the air.\\n4*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "42 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nof carbonic acid, which immediately supply its\\nplace.\\nThe most exact and most recent experiments of\\nDe Saussure, made in every season for a space of\\nthree years, have shown, that the air contains on an\\naverajie 0-000415 of its own volume of carbonic acid\\ngas so that, allowing for the inaccuracies of the\\nexperiments, which must diminish the quantity ob-\\ntained, the proportion of carbonic acid in the atmo-\\nsphere may be regarded as nearly equal to jgosth part\\nof its weight. The quantity varies according to the\\nseasons but the yearly average remains continually\\nthe same.\\nWe have no reason to believe that this proportion\\nwas less in past ages; and nevertheless, the im-\\nmense masses of carbonic acid which annually flow\\ninto the atmosphere from so many sources, ought per-\\nceptibly to increase its quantity from year to year.\\nBut we find that all earlier observers describe its\\nvolume as from one-half to ten times greater than\\nthat which it has at the present time so that we can\\nhence at most conclude that it has diminished.\\nIt is quite evident that the quantities of carbonic\\nacid and oxygen in the atmosphere, which remain\\nunchanged by lapse of time, must stand in some fixed\\nrelation to one another; a cause must exist which\\nprevents the increase of carbonic acid by removing\\nthat which is constantly forming and there must be\\nsome means of replacing the oxygen, which is re-\\nmoved from the air by the processes of combustion\\nand putrefaction, as well as by the respiration of\\nanimals.\\nBoth these causes are united in the process of\\nvegetable life.\\nThe facts which we have stated in the preceding\\npages prove, that the carbon of plants must be de-\\nrived exclusively from the atmosphere. Now, carbon\\nexists in the atmosphere only in the form of carbonic\\nacid, and therefore in a state of combination with\\noxygen.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "LIBERATION OF OXYGEN. 43\\nIt has been already mentioned likewise, that car-\\nbon and the elements of water form the principal\\nconstituents of vegetables; the quantity of the sub-\\nstances which do not possess this composition being\\nin a very small proportion. Now, the relative quan-\\ntity of oxygen in the whole mass is less than in car-\\nbonic acid; for the latter contains two equivalents\\nof oxygen, whilst one only is required to unite with\\nhydrogen in the proportion to form water. The veg-\\netable products which contain oxygen in larger pro-\\nportion than this, are, comparatively, few in number;\\nindeed in many the hydrogen is in great excess. It\\nis obvious, that when the hydrogen of water is as-\\nsimilated by a plant, the oxygen in combination with\\nit must be liberated, and will afford a quantity of\\nthis element sufficient for the wants of the plants.\\nIf this be the case, the oxygen contained in the car-\\nbonic acid is quite unnecessary in the process of\\nvegetable nutrition, and it will consequently escape\\ninto the atmosphere in a gaseous form. It is there-\\nfore certain, that plants must possess the power of\\ndecomposing carbonic acid, since they appropriate\\nits carbon for their own use. The formation of their\\nprincipal component substances must necessarily be\\nattended with the separation of the carbon of the\\ncarbonic acid fram the oxygen, which must be re-\\nturned to the atmosphere, whilst the carbon enters\\ninto combination with water or its elements. The\\natmosphere must thus receive a volume of oxygen\\nfor every volume of carbonic acid which has been\\ndecomposed.\\nThis remarkable property of plants has been de-\\nmonstrated in the most certain manner, and it is in\\nthe power of every person to convince himself of its\\nexistence. The leaves and other green parts of a\\nplant absorb carbonic acid, and emit an equal volume\\nof oxygen. They possess this property quite inde-\\npendently of the plant for if, after being separated\\nfrom the stem, they are placed in water containing\\ncarbonic acid, and exposed in that condition to the", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "44 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nsun s light, the carbonic acid is, after a time, found\\nto have disappeared entirely from the water. If the\\nexperiment is conducted under a glass receiver filled\\nwith water, the -oxygen emitted from the plant may\\nbe collected and examined. When no more oxygen\\ngas is evolved, it is a sign that all the dissolved car-\\nbonic acid is decomposed but the operation recom-\\nmences if a new portion of it is added.\\nPlants do not emit gas when placed in water which\\neither is free from carbonic acid, or contains an al-\\nkali that protects it from assimilation.\\nThese observations were first made by Priestley\\nand Sennebier. The excellent experiments of De\\nSaussure have further shown, that plants increase in\\nweight during the decomposition of carbonic acid\\nand separation of oxygen. This increase in weight\\nis greater than can be accounted for by the quantity\\nof carbon assimilated a fact which confirms the\\nview, that the elements of water are assimilated at\\nthe same time.\\nThe life of plants is closely connected with that\\nof animals, in a most simple manner, and for a wise\\nand sublime purpose.\\nThe presence of a rich and luxuriant vegetation\\nmay be conceived without the concurrence of animal\\nlife, but the existence of animals is undoubtedly de-\\npendent upon the life and development of plants.\\nPlants not only afford the means of nutrition for\\nthe growth and continuance of animal organization,\\nbut they likewise furnish that which is essential for\\nthe support of the important vital process of respira-\\ntion for besides separating all noxious matters from\\nthe atmosphere, they are an inexhaustible source of\\npure oxygen, which supplies the loss which the air\\nis constantly sustaining. Animals on the other hand\\nexpire carbon, which plants inspire and thus the\\ncomposition of the medium in which both exist, name-\\nly, the atmosphere, is maintained constantly un-\\nchanged.\\nIt may be asked, Is the quantity of carbonic acid", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "ITS SOURCE THE ATMOSPHERE. 45\\nin the atmosphere, which scarcely amounts to i^th.\\nper cent., sufficient for the wants of the whole vege-\\ntation on the surface of the earth, is it possible\\nthat the carbon of plants has its origin from the air\\nalone This question is very easily answered. It\\nis known, that a column of air of 2441 lbs. weight\\nrests upon every square Hessian foot (=0-567 square\\nfoot English) of the surface of the earth; the diame-\\nter of the earth and its superficies are likewise known,\\nso that the weight of the atmosphere can be calcu-\\nlated with the greatest exactness. The thousandth\\npart of this is carbonic acid, which contains upwards\\nof 27 per cent, carbon. By this calculation it\\ncan be shown, that the atmosphere contains 3306\\nbillion lbs. of carbon a quantity which amounts to\\nmore than the weight of all the plants, and of all the\\nstrata of mineral and brown coal, which exist upon\\nthe earth. This carbon is, therefore, more than ade-\\nquate to all the purposes for which it is required.\\nThe quantity of carbon contained in sea-water is\\nproportionally still greater.\\nIf, for the sake of argument, we suppose the su\\nperficies of the leaves and other green parts of plants\\nby which the absorption of carbonic acid is effected,\\nto be double that of the soil upon which they grow,\\na supposition which is much under the truth in the\\ncase of woods, meadows, and corn-fields and if we\\nfurther suppose that carbonic acid equal to 0 00067\\nof the volume of the air, or i^o^^^ of its weight,\\nis abstracted from it during every second of time,\\nfor eight hours daily, by a field of 53,820 square feet\\n2 Hessian acres) then those leaves would re-\\nceive 1102 lbs. of carbon in 200 days.*\\nThe qu antity of carbonic acid which can be extracted from the air\\nin a given time, is shown by the following calculation. During the\\nwhite- wasiiing of a small ciiamber, tlie superficies of the walls and roof\\nof which we will suppose to be 105 square metres, and which receives\\nsix coats of lime in four days, carbonic acid is abstracted from the air,\\nand the lime is consequently converted, on the surface, into a carbon-\\nate. It has been accurately determined that one square decimetre re-\\nceives in this way, a coating of carbonate of lime which weighs 0-732\\ngrammes. Upon the 105 square metres already mentioned there must", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "46 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nBut it is inconceivable, that the functions of the\\norgans of a plant can cease for any one moment\\nduring its life. The roots and other parts of it,\\nwhich possess the same power, absorb constantly\\nwater and carbonic acid. This power is independ-\\nent of solar light. During the day, w^hen plants are\\nin the shade, and during the night, carbonic acid is\\naccumulated in all parts of their structure; and the\\nassimilation of the carbon and the exhalation of\\noxygen commence from the instant that the rays of\\nthe sun strike them. As soon as a young plant\\nbreaks through the surface of the ground, it begins\\nto acquire color from the top downwards and the\\ntrue formation of woody tissue commences at the\\nsame time.*\\nThe proper, constant, and inexhaustible sources\\nof oxygen gas are the tropics and warm climates,\\nwhere a sky, seldom clouded, permits the glowing\\nrays of the sun to shine upon an immeasurably\\nluxuriant vegetation. The temperate and cold zones,\\nwhere artificial warmth must replace deficient heat\\nof the sun, produce, on the contrary, carbonic acid\\nin superabundance, which is expended in the nutri-\\ntion of the tropical plants. The same stream of\\nair, which moves by the revolution of the earth from\\nthe equator to the poles, brings to us, in its passage\\nfrom the equator, the oxygen generated there, and\\ncarries away the carbonic acid formed during our\\nwinter.\\naccordingly be formed 76S6 grammes of carbonate of lime, which con-\\ntain 43 25-6 grammes of carbonic acid. The weight of one cubic deci-\\nmetre of carbonic acid being calculated at two grammes, (more accu-\\nrately 1-07978,) the above-mentioned surface must absorb in four days\\n2-1G3 cubic metres of carbonic acid. 2500 square metres (one Hessian\\nacre) would absorb, under a similar treatment, olj cubic metres 1818\\ncubic feet of carbonic acid in four days. In 200 days it would absorb\\n2575 cubic metres 904,401 cubic feet, which contain 1 1 ,353 lbs. of\\ncarbonic acid, of which 3304 lbs. are carbon, a quantity three times as\\ngreat as that which is assimilated by the leaves and roots growing upon\\nthe same space. L.\\nPlants that grow in the dark, are well known to be colorless. This\\nis seen in the blanching of celery (etiolation), the earth is heaped\\naround the stalks to exclude the light.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "ITS SOURCE THE ATMOSPHERE.. 47\\nThe experiments of De Saussure have proved,\\nthat the upper strata of the air contain more car-\\nbonic acid than the lower, which are in contact with\\nplants; and that the quantity is greater by night\\nthan by day, when it undergoes decomposition.\\nPlants thus improve the air, by the removal of\\ncarbonic acid, and by the renewal of oxygen, which\\nis immediately applied to the use of man and animals.\\nThe horizontal currents of the atmosphere bring\\nwith them as much as they carry away, and the in-\\nterchange of air between the upper and lower strata,\\nwhich their difference of temperature causes, is\\nextremely trifling when compared with the horizon-\\ntal movements of the winds. Thus vegetable culture\\nheightens the healthy state of a country, and a\\npreviously healthy country would be rendered quite\\nuninhabitable by the cessation of all cultivation.\\nThe various layers of wood and mineral coal, as\\nwell as peat, form the remains of a primeval vegeta-\\ntion. The carbon which they contain must have\\nbeen originally in the atmosphere as carbonic acid,\\nin which form it was assimilated by the plants which\\nconstitute these formations. It follows from this,\\nthat the atmosphere must be richer in oxygen at the\\npresent time than in former periods of the earth s\\nhistory. The increase must be exactly proportional\\nto the quantity of carbon and hydrogen contained\\nin these carboniferous deposits. Thus, during the\\nformation of 353 cubic feet of Newcastle splint-coal,\\nthe atmosphere must have received 643 cubic feet\\nof oxygen produced from the carbonic acid assim-\\nilated, and also 158 cubic feet of the same gas\\nresulting from the decomposition of water. In\\nformer ages, therefore, the atmosphere must have\\ncontained less oxygen, but a much larger proportion\\nof carbonic acid, than it does at the present time,\\na circumstance which accounts for the richness and\\nluxuriance of the earlier vegetation.\\nBut a certain period must have arrived in which\\nthe quantity of carbonic acid contained in the air", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "48 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nexperienced neither increase nor diminution in any-\\nappreciable quantity. For if it received an addi-\\ntional quantity to its usual proportion, an increased\\nvegetation would be the natural consequence, and\\nthe excess would thus be speedily removed. And,\\non the other hand, if the gas was less than the\\nnormal quantity, the progress of vegetation would\\nbe retarded, and the proportion would soon attain\\nits proper standard.\\nThe most important function in the life of plants,\\nor, in other words, in their assimilation of carbon,\\nis the separation, we might almost say, the genera-\\ntion of oxygen. No matter can be considered as\\nnutritious, or as necessary to the growth of plants,\\nwhich possesses a composition either similar to or\\nidentical with theirs, and the assimilation of which,\\ntherefore, could take place without exercising this\\nfunction. The reverse is the case in the nutrition\\nof animals. Hence such substances as sugar, starch,\\nand gum, which are themselves products of plants,\\ncannot be adapted for assimilation. And this is\\nrendered certain by the experiments of vegetable\\nphysiologists, who have shown that aqueous solutions\\nof these bodies are imbibed by the roots of plants,\\nand carried to all parts of their structure, but are\\nnot assimilated they cannot therefore be employed\\nin their nutrition. We could scarcely conceive a\\nform more convenient for assimilation than that of\\ngum, starch, and sugar, for they all contain the\\nelements of woody fibre, and nearly in the same pro-\\nportions.\\nIn the second part of the work we shall adduce\\nsatisfactory proofs that decayed woody fibre (^hnmiis)\\ncontains carbon and the elements of water, without\\nan excess of oxygen its composition differing from\\nthat of woody fibre in its being richer in carbon.\\nMisled by this simplicity in its constitution, phy-\\nsiologists found no difficulty in discovering the mode\\nof the formation of woody fibre for they say,* hu-\\nMeyen, Pflanzenphysiologie, II. S. 141.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "SEPARATION OF OXYGEN. 49\\nmus has only to enter into combination with water,\\nin order to effect the formation of woody fibre, and\\nother substances similarly composed, such as sugar,\\nstarch, and gum. But they forget, that their own\\nexperiments have sufficiently demonstrated the inapt-\\nitude of these substances for assimilation.\\nAll the erroneous opinions concerning the modus\\noperandi of humus have their origin in the false\\nnotions entertained respecting the most important\\nvital functions of plants; analogy, that fertile source\\nof error, having, unfortunately, led to the very unapt\\ncomparison of the vital functions of plants with,\\nthose of animals.\\nSubstances, such as sugar, starch, c., which con-\\ntain carbon and the elements of water, are products\\nof the life of plants which live only whilst they\\ngenerate them. The same may be said of humus,,\\nfor it can be formed in plants like the former sub-\\nstances. Smithson, Jameson, and Thomson, found\\nthat the black excretions of unhealthy elms, oaks,\\nand horse-chesnuts, consisted of humic acid in com-\\nbination with alkalies. Berzelius detected similar\\nproducts in the bark of most trees. Now, can it be\\nsupposed that the diseased organs of a plant possess\\nthe power of generating the matter to which its\\nsustenance and vigor are ascribed\\nHow does it happen, it may be asked, that the\\nabsorption of carbon from the atmosphere by plants\\nis doubted by all botanists and vegetable physiolo-\\ngists, and that by the greater number the purification\\nof the air by means of them is wdiolly denied\\nThe action of plants on the air in the absence of\\nlight, that is during night, has been much miscon-\\nceived by botanists, and from this we may trace\\nmost of the errors which abound in the greater part\\nof their writings. The experiments of Ingenhouss\\nwere in a great degree the cause of this uncertainty\\nof opinion regarding the influence of plants in puri-\\nfying the air. His observation, that green plants\\nemit carbonic acid in the dark, led De Saussure and.\\n5", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "50 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nGrischow to new investigations, by which they\\nascertained, that under such conditions plants do\\nreally absorb oxygen and emit carbonic acid; but\\nthat the whole volume of air undergoes diminution\\nat the same time. From the latter fact it follows,\\nthat the quantity of oxygen gas absorbed is greater\\nthan the volume of carbonic acid separated for, if\\nthis were not the case, no diminution could occur.\\nThese facts cannot be doubted, but the views based\\non them have been so false, that nothing, except the\\ntotal want of observation and the utmost ignorance\\nof the chemical relations of plants to the atmo-\\nsphere, can account for their adoption.\\nIt is known that nitrogen, hydrogen, and a num-\\nber of other gases, exercise a peculiar, and in gen-\\neral an injurious influence upon living plants. Is it,\\nthen, probable, that oxygen, one of the most ener-\\ngetic agents in nature, should remain without influ-\\nence on plants when one of their peculiar processes\\nof assimilation has ceased 1\\nIt is true that the decomposition of carbonic acid\\nis arrested by absence of light. But then, namely,\\nat night, a true chemical process commences, in\\nconsequence of the action of the oxygen in the air,\\nupon the organic substances composing the leaves,\\nblossoms, and fruit. This process is not at all con-\\nnected with the life of the vegetable organism,\\nbecause it goes on in a dead plant exactly as in a\\nliving one.\\nThe substances composing the leaves of diff erent\\nplants being known, it is a matter of the greatest\\nease and certainty to calculate which of them, dur-\\ning life, should absorb most oxygen by chemical\\naction when the influence of light is withdraw^n.\\nThe leaves and green parts of all plants contain-\\ning volatile oils or volatile constituents in general,\\nwhich change into resin by the absorption of oxygen,\\nshould absorb more than other parts which are free\\nfrom such substances. Those leaves, also, which\\ncontain either the constituents of nut-galls, or com-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "INFLUENCE OF THE SHADE ON PLANTS. 51\\npounds in whicL nitrogen is present, ought to absorb\\nmore oxygen tli m those which do not contain such\\nmatters. The correctness of these inferences has\\nbeen distinctly proved by the observations of De\\nSaussure for, whilst the tasteless leaves of the\\nAgave americana absorb only 0*3 of their volume of\\noxygen in the dark, during 24 hours, the leaves of\\nthe Pinus Abies, which contain volatile and resinous\\noils, absorb 10 times, those of the Qiiercus Robiir\\ncontaining tannic acid 14 times, and the balmy leaves\\nof the Populus alba 21 times that quantity. This\\nchemical action is shown very plainly, also, in the\\nleaves of the Cotyledon cali/cinum, the Cacalia\\nJicoides, and others for they are sour like sorrel in\\nthe morning, tasteless at noon, and bitter in the\\nevening. The formation of acids is effected during\\nthe night by a true process of oxidation these are\\ndeprived of their acid properties during the day and\\nevening, and are changed by separation of a part of\\ntheir oxygen into compounds containing oxygen and\\nhydrogen, either in the same proportions as in water,\\nor even with an excess of hydrogen, which is the\\ncomposition of all tasteless and bitter substances.\\nIndeed the quantity of oxygen absorbed could be\\nestimated pretty nearly by the different periods\\nwhich the green leaves of plants require to undergo\\nalteration in color, by the influence of the atmosphere.\\nThose which continue longest green will abstract\\nless oxygen from the air in an equal space of time,\\nthan those, the constituent parts of which suffer a\\nmore rapid change. It is found, for example, that\\nthe leaves of the Ilex aquifoliiim, distinguished by\\nthe durability of their color, absorb only 0-86 of\\ntheir volume of oxygen gas in the same time that\\nthe leaves of the poplar absorb 8, and those of the\\nbeech 9| times their volume both the beech and\\npoplar being remarkable for the rapidity and ease\\nwith which the color of their leaves changes.\\nWhen the green leaves of the poplar, the beech,\\nthe oak, or the holly, are dried under the air-pump,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "52 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nwith exclusion of light, then moistened with water,\\nand placed under a glass globe filled with oxygen,\\nthey are found to absorb that gas in proportion as\\nthey change in color. The chemical nature of this\\nprocess is thus completely established. The diminu-\\ntion of the gas which occurs can only be owing to\\nthe union of a large proportion of oxygen with those\\nsubstances which are already in the state of oxides,\\nor to the oxidation of the hydrogen in those vege-\\ntable compounds which contain it in excess. The\\nfallen brown or yellow leaves of the oak contain no\\nlonger tannin, and those of the poplar no balsamic\\nconstituents.\\nThe property which green leaves possess of ab-\\nsorbing oxygen belongs also to fresh wood, whether\\ntaken from a twig or from the interior of the trunk\\nof a tree. When fine chips of such wood are placed\\nin a moist condition under a jar filled with oxygen,\\nthe gas is seen to diminish in volume. But wood,\\ndried by exposure to the atmosphere and then moist-\\nened, converts the oxygen into carbonic acid, with-\\nout change of volume fresh wood, therefore, absorbs\\nmost oxygen.\\nMM. Petersen and Schodler have shown, by the\\ncareful elementary analysis of 24 different kinds of\\nwood, that they contain carbon and the elements of\\nwater, with the addition of a certain quantity of\\nhydrogen. Oak wood, recently taken from the tree,\\nand dried at 100^^ C. (212\u00c2\u00b0 F.), contains 49-432\\ncarbon, 6-069 hydrogen, and 44-499 oxygen.\\nThe proportion of hydrogen which is necessary to\\ncombine with 44-498 oxygen in order to form water,\\nis g of this quantity, namely, 5-56 it is evident,\\ntherefore, that oak wood contains i more hydrogen\\nthan corresponds to this proportion. In Pimis\\nLariv, P. Abies, and P. picea, the excess of hydro-\\ngen amounts to i, and in Tilia europcBa to The\\nquantity of hydrogen stands in some relation to the\\nspecific weight of the wood the lighter kinds of\\nvood contain more of it than the heavier. In ebony", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "EVOLUTION OF CARBONIC ACID DURING THE NIGHT. 53\\nwood (^Diospyros Ebenutn) the oxygen and hydrogen\\nare in exactly the same proportion as in water.\\nThe difference between the composition of the\\nvarieties of wood, and that of simple woody fibre,\\ndepends, unquestionably, upon the presence of con-\\nstituents, in part soluble, and in part insoluble, such\\nas resin and other matters, which contain a large\\nproportion of hydrogen the hydrogen of such sub-\\nstances being in the analysis of the various woods\\nsuperadded to that of the true woody fibre.\\nIt has previously been mentioned that mouldering\\noak wood contains carbon and the elements of water,\\nwithout any excess of hydrogen. But the propor-\\ntions of its constituents must necessarily have been\\ndifferent, if the volume of the air had not changed\\nduring its decay, because the proportion of hydrogen\\nin those component substances of the wood which\\ncontained it in excess is here diminished, and this\\ndiminution could only be effected by an absorption\\nof oxygen, and consequent formation of water.\\nMost vegetable physiologists have connected the\\nemission of carbonic acid during the night with the\\nabsorption of oxygen from the atmosphere, and have\\nconsidered these actions as a true process of respi-\\nration in plants, similar to that of animals, and like\\nit, having for its result the separation of carbon\\nfrom some of their constituents. This opinion has\\na very weak and unstable foundation.\\nThe carbonic acid, which has been absorbed by\\nthe leaves and by the roots, together with water,\\nceases to be decomposed on the departure of day-\\nlight it is dissolved in the juices which pervade\\nall parts of the plant, and escapes every moment\\nthrough the leaves in quantity corresponding to that\\nof the water which evaporates.\\nA soil in which plants vegetate vigorously, con-\\ntains a certain quantity of moisture which is indis-\\npensably necessary to their existence. Carbonic\\nacid, likewise, is always present in such a soil,\\nwhether it has been abstracted from the air or has\\n5*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "54 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nbeen generated by the decay of vegetable matter.\\nRain and well water, and also that from other\\nsources, invariably contains carbonic acid. Plants\\nduring their life constantly possess the power of\\nabsorbing by their roots moisture, and, along with\\nit, air and carbonic acid. Is it, therefore, surprising\\nthat the carbonic acid should be returned unchanged\\nto the atmosphere, along with water, when light\\n(the cause of the fixation of its carbon) is absent?\\nNeither this emission of carbonic acid nor the\\nabsorption of oxygen has any connexion with the\\nprocess of assimilation nor have they the slightest\\nrelation to one another the one is a purely me-\\nchanical, the other a purely chemical process. A\\ncotton wick, inclosed in a lamp, which contains a\\nliquid saturated with carbonic acid, acts exactly in\\nthe same manner as a living plant in the night.\\nWater and carbonic acid are sucked up by capillary\\nattraction, and both evaporate from the exterior part\\nof the wick.\\nPlants which live in a soil containing humus exhale\\nmuch more carbonic acid during the night than those\\nwhich grow in dry situations they also yield more\\nin rainy than, in dry weather. These facts point out\\nto us the cause of the numerous contradictory\\nobservations, which have been made with respect to\\nthe change impressed upon the air by living plants,\\nboth in darkness and in common daylight, but\\nwhich are unworthy of consideration, as they do not\\nassist in the solution of the main question.\\nThere are other facts which prove in a decisive\\nmanner that plants yield more oxygen to the atmo-\\nsphere than they extract from it these proofs,\\nhowever, are to be drawn with certainty only from\\nplants which live under water.\\nWhen pools and ditches, the bottoms of which\\nare covered with growing plants, freeze upon their\\nsurface in winter, so that the water is completely\\nexcluded from the atmosphere by a clear stratum of\\nice, small bubbles of gas are observed to escape, con-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "NEGLECT OF CHEMISTRY BY BOTANISTS. 55\\ntinually, during the day, from the points of the leaves\\nand twigs. These bubbles are seen most distinctly\\nwhen the rays of the sun fall upon the ice they are\\nvery small at first, but collect under the ice and form\\nlarger bubbles. They consist of pure oxygen gas.\\nNeither during the night, nor during the day when\\nthe sun does not shine, are they observed to diminish\\nin quantity. The source of this oxygen is the car-\\nbonic acid dissolved in the water, which is absorbed\\nby the plants, but is again supplied to the water, by\\nthe decay of vegetable substances contained in the\\nsoil. If these plants absorb oxygen during the night,\\nit can be in no greater quantity than that which the\\nsurrounding water holds in solution, for the gas,\\nwhich has been exhaled, is not again absorbed. The\\naction of water-plants cannot be supposed to form\\nan exception to a great law of nature, and the less\\nso, as the different action of aerial plants upon the\\natmosphere is very easily explained.\\nThe opinion is not new, that the carbonic acid of\\nthe air serves for the nutriment of plants, and that\\nits carbon is assimilated by them it has been ad-\\nmitted, defended, and argued for, by the soundest\\nand most intelligent natural philosophers, namely, by\\nPriestley, Sennebier, De Saussure, and even by In-\\ngenhouss himself. There scarcely exists a theory\\nin natural science, in favor of which there are more\\nclear and decisive arguments. How, then, are we\\nto account for its not being received in its full extent\\nby most other physiologists, for its being even dis-\\nputed by many, and considered by a few as quite\\nrefuted\\nAll this is due to two causes, which we shall now\\nconsider.\\nOne is, that in botany the talent and labor of in-\\nquirers has been wholly spent in the examination of\\nform and structure chemistry and physics have not\\nbeen allowed to sit in council upon the explanation\\nof the most simple processes their experience and\\ntheir laws have not been employed, though the most", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "56 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CAKBON.\\npowerful means of help in the acquirement of true\\nknowledge. They have not been used, because their\\nstudy has been neglected.\\nAll discoveries in physics and in chemistry, all\\nexplanations of chemists, must remain without fruit\\nand useless, because, even to the great leaders in\\nphysiology, carbonic acid, ammonia, acids, and bases,\\nare sounds without meaning, \\\\vords without sense,\\nterms of an unknown language, which awaken no\\nthoughts and no associations. They treat these\\nsciences like the vulgar, who despise a foreign lite-\\nrature in exact proportion to their ignorance of it\\nsince even when they have had some acquaintance\\nwith them, they have not understood their spirit and\\napplication.\\nPhysiologists reject the aid of chemistry in their\\ninquiry into the secrets of vitality, although it alone\\ncould guide them in the true path; they reject chem-\\nistry, because in its pursuit of knowledge it destroys\\nthe subjects of its investigation but they forget\\nthat the knife of the anatomist must dismember the\\nbody, and destroy its organs, if an account is to be\\ngiven of their form, structure, and functions.\\nWhen pure potato starch is dissolved in nitric\\nacid, a ring of the finest wax remains. What can\\nbe opposed to the conclusion of the chemist, that\\neach grain of starch consists of concentric layers of\\nwax and amylin, which thus mutually protect each\\nother against the action of water and ether? Can\\nresults of this kind, which illustrate so completely\\nboth the nature and properties of bodies, be attained\\nby the microscope? Is it possible to make the glu-\\nten in a piece of bread visible in all its connexions\\nand ramifications? It is impossible by means of in-\\nstruments but if the piece of bread is placed in a\\nlukewarm decoction of malt, the starch, and the sub-\\nstance called dextrine,* are seen to dissolve like\\nAccording to Raspail, starch consists of vesicles inclosing within\\nthem a fluid resembling gum. Starch maj be put in cold water with-\\nout being dissolved but, when placed in hot water, these spherules", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "OBJECT OF EXPERIMENTS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 57\\nsugar in water, and, at last, nothing remains except\\nthe gluten, in the form of a spongy mass, the minute\\npores of which can be seen only by a microscope.\\nChemistry offers innumerable resources of this kind\\nwhich are of the greatest use in an inquiry into the\\nnature of the organs of plants but they are not used,\\nbecause the need of them is not felt. The most im-\\nportant organs of animals and their functions are\\nknown, although they may not be visible to the\\nnaked eye. But in vegetable physiology, a leaf is in\\nevery case regarded merely as a leaf, notwithstand-\\ning that leaves generating oil of turpentine or oil of\\nlemons must possess a different nature from those\\nin which oxalic acid is formed. Vitality, in its pe-\\nculiar operations, makes use of a special apparatus\\nfor each function of an organ. A rose-twig engraft-\\ned upon a lemon-tree does not bring forth lemons,\\nbut roses. Vegetable physiologists in the study of\\ntheir science have not directed their attention to that\\npart of it which is most worthy of investigation.\\nThe second cause of the incredulity with which\\nphysiologists view the theory of the nutrition of\\nplants by the carbonic acid of the atmosphere is,\\nthat the art of experimenting is not known in physi-\\nology, it being an art which can be learned accurate-\\nly only in the chemical laboratory. Nature speaks\\nto us in a peculiar language, in the language of phe-\\nnomena; she answers at all times the questions which\\nare put to her and such questions are experiments.\\nAn experiment is the expression of a thought we\\nare near the truth when the phenomenon elicited by\\nthe experiment corresponds to the thought while\\nburst, and allow the escape of the liquid. This liquid is the dextrine\\nof Biot, so called because it possesses the property of turning the plane\\nof the polarization of light to the right hand. It is white, insipid, trans-\\nparent in thin flakes and gummy. At 230\u00c2\u00b0 F. it becomes brown and\\nacquires the flavor of toasted bread. It is much employed by the French\\npastry cooks and confectioners being reduced to powder it may be in-\\ntroduced into all kinds of pastries, bread, chocolate, c. For its prep-\\naration, c., see Ure s Dictionary of Arls and Manufactures, a.nd Web-\\nster s Chemistry, 510.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "58 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nthe opposite result shows that the question was false-\\nly stated, and that the conception was erroneous.\\nThe critical repetition of another s experiments\\nmust be viewed as a criticism of his opinions if the\\nresult of the criticism be merely negative, if it do not\\nsuggest more correct ideas in the place of those\\nwhich it is intended to refute, it should be disre-\\ngarded because the worse experimenter the critic\\nis, the greater will be the discrepancy between the\\nresults he obtains and the views proposed by the\\nother.\\nIt is too much forgotten by physiologists, that their\\nduty really is not to refute the experiments of others,\\nnor to show that they are erroneous, but to discover\\ntruth, and that alone. It is startling, when we re-\\nflect that all the time and energy of a multitude of\\npersons of genius, talent, and knowledge, are ex-\\npended in endeavors to demonstrate each other s\\nerrors.\\nThe question whether carbonic acid is the food of\\nplants or not has been made the subject of experi-\\nments with perfect zeal and good faith the results\\nhave been opposed to that view. But how was the\\ninquiry instituted?\\nThe seeds of balsamines, beans, cresses, and\\ngourds, were sown in pure Carrara marble, and\\nsprinkled with water containing carbonic acid. The\\nseeds sprang, but the plants did not attain to the\\ndevelopment of the third small leaf. In other cases,\\nthey allowed the water to penetrate the marble from\\nbelow, yet, in spite of this, they died. It is w^orthy\\nof observation, that they lived longer with pure dis-\\ntilled water than with that impregnated with carbon-\\nic acid but still, in this case also, they eventually\\nperished. Other experimenters sowed seeds of plants\\nin flowers of sulphur and sulphate of barytes, and\\ntried to nourish them with carbonic acid, but without\\nsuccess.\\nSuch experiments have been considered as positive\\nproofs, that carbonic acid will not nourish plants", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO NUTRITION. 59\\nbut the manner in which they were instituted is op-\\nposed to all rules of philosophical inquiry, and to all\\nthe laws of chemistry.\\nMany conditions are necessary for the life of plants;\\nthose of each genus require special conditions and\\nshould but one of these be wanting, although the\\nrest be supplied, the plants will not be brought to\\nmaturity. The organs of a plant, as well as those\\nof an animal, contain substances of the most differ-\\nent kinds some are formed solely of carbon and the\\nelements of water, others contain nitrogen, and in\\nall plants we find metallic oxides in the state of salts.\\nThe food which can serve for the production of all\\nthe organs of a plant, must necessarily contain all its\\nelements. These most essential of all the chemical\\nqualities of nutriment may be united in one substance,\\nor they may exist separately in several; in which\\ncase, the one contains what is wanting in the other.\\nDogs die although fed with jelly, a substance which\\ncontains nitrogen they cannot live upon white bread,\\nsugar, or starch, if these are given as food, to the\\nexclusion of all other substances. Can it be con-\\ncluded from this, that these substances contain no\\nelements suited for assimilation 1 Certainly not.\\nVitality is the power which each organ possesses\\nof constantly reproducing itself; for this it requires\\na supply of substances which contain the constitu-\\nent elements of its own substance, and are capable\\nof undergoing transformation. All the organs to-\\ngether cannot generate a single element, carbon, ni-\\ntrogen, or a metallic oxide.\\nWhen the quantity of the food is too great, or is\\nnot capable of undergoing the necessary transform-\\nation, or exerts any peculiar chemical action, the or-\\ngan itself is subjected to a change all poisons act\\nin this manner. The most nutritious substances may\\ncause death. In experiments such as those describ-\\ned above, every condition of nutrition should be con-\\nsidered. Besides those matters which form their\\nprincipal constituent parts, both animals and plants", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "60 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nrequire others, the peculiar functions of which are\\nunknown. These are inorganic substances, such as\\ncommon salt, the total want of which is in animals\\ninevitably productive of death. Plants, for the same\\nreason, cannot live unless supplied with certain me-\\ntallic compounds.\\nIf we knew with certainty that there existed a\\nsubstance capable, alone, of nourishing a plant and\\nof bringing it to maturity, we might be led to a\\nknowledge of the conditions necessary to the life of\\nall plants, by studying its characters and composi-\\ntion. If humus were such a substance, it would\\nhave precisely the same value as the only single food\\nwhich nature has produced for animal organization,\\nnamely, milk. (Prout.) The constituents of milk are\\ncheese or caseine, a compound containing nitrogen\\nin large proportion butter, in which hydrogen\\nabounds and sugar of milk, a substance with a\\nlarge quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the same\\nproportion as in water. It also contains in solution,\\nlactate of soda, phosphate of lime, and common salt\\nand a peculiar aromatic product exists in the butter,\\ncalled butyric acid. The knowledge of the compo-\\nsition of milk is a key to the conditions necessary\\nfor the purposes of nutrition of all animals.\\nAll substances which are adequate to the nourish-\\nment of animals contain those materials united,\\nthough not always in the same form nor can any\\none be wanting for a certain space of time, without\\na marked effect on the health being produced. The\\nemployment of a substance as food presupposes a\\nknowledge of its capacity of assimilation, and of the\\nconditions under which this takes place.\\nA carnivorous animal dies in the vacuum of an\\nair-pump, even though supplied with a superabun-\\ndance of food it dies in the air, if the demands of\\nits stomach are not satisfied; and it dies in pure\\noxygen gas, however lavishly nourishment be given\\nto it. Is it hence to be concluded, that neither flesh,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO NUTRITION. 61\\nnor air, nor oxygen, is fitted to support life 1 Cer-\\ntainly not.\\nFrom the pedestal of the Trajan column at Rome\\nwe might chisel out each single piece of stone, if\\nupon the extraction of the second we replaced the\\nfirst. But could we conclude from this that the col-\\numn was suspended in the air, and not supported by\\na single piece of its foundation Assuredly not.\\nYet the strongest proof would have been given that\\neach portion of the pedestal could be removed, with-\\nout the downfall of the column.\\nAnimal and vegetable physiologists, however, come\\nto such conclusions with respect to the process of\\nassimilation. They institute experiments, without\\nbeing acquainted with the circumstances necessary\\nfor the continuance of life, with the qualities and\\nproper nutriment of the animal or plant on which\\nthey operate, or with the nature and chemical con-\\nstitution of its organs. These experiments are con-\\nsidered by them as convincing proofs, whilst they\\nare fitted only to awaken pity.\\nIs it possible to bring a plant to maturity by means\\nof carbonic acid and water, without the aid of some\\nsubstance containing nitrogen, which is an essential\\nconstituent of the sap, and indispensable for its pro-\\nduction Must the plant not die, however abundant\\nthe supply of carbonic acid may be, as soon as the\\nfirst small leaves have exhausted the nitrogen con-\\ntained in the seeds\\nCan a plant be expected to grow in Carrara mar-\\nble, even when an azotized substance is supplied to\\nit, if the marble be sprinkled with an aqueous solu-\\ntion of carbonic acid, which dissolves the lime and\\nforms bicarbonate of lime 1 A plant of the family of\\nthe Plumbagme(S, upon the leaves of which fine\\nhornlike, or scaly processes of crystallized carbonate\\nof lime are formed, might perhaps attain maturity\\nunder such circumstances but these experiments\\nare only sufficient to prove, that cresses, gourds, and\\nbalsamines, cannot be nourished by bicarbonate of\\n6", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "62 OF THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBON.\\nlime, in the absence of matter containing nitrogen.\\nWe may, indeed, conclude, that the salt of lime acts\\nas a poison, since the development of plants will ad-\\nvance further in pure water, when lime and carbonic\\nacid are not used.\\nMoist flowers of sulphur attract oxygen from the\\natmosphere, and become acid. Is it possible that a\\nplant can grow and flourish in presence of free sul-\\nphuric acid, with no other nourishment than carbonic\\nacid It is true, the quantity of sulphuric acid\\nformed thus in hours, or in days, may be small, but\\nthe property of each particle of the sulphur to absorb\\noxygen and retain it, is present every moment.\\nWhen it is known that plants require moisture,\\ncarbonic acid, and air, should we choose, as the soil\\nfor experiments on their growth, sulphate of barytes,\\nwhich, from its nature and specific gravity, com-\\npletely prevents the access of air.\\nAll these experiments are valueless for the deci-\\nsion of any question. It is absurd to take for them\\nany soil, at mere hazard, so long as we are ignorant\\nof the functions performed in plants by those inor-\\nganic substances which are apparently foreign to them.\\nIt is quite impossible to mature a plant of the fam-\\nily of the GraniinecB, or of the EquisetacecB, the solid\\nframework of which contains silicate of potash, with-\\nout silicic acid and potash, or a plant of the genus\\nOxalis without potash, or saline plants such as the\\nsaltworts {^Salsola and Salicornia) without chloride\\nof sodium, or at least some salt of similar proper-\\nties. All seeds of the GraminecB contain phosphate\\nof magnesia; the solid parts of the roots of the\\nalihcBa contain more phosphate of lime than woody\\nfibre. Are these substances merely accidentally\\npresent A plant should not be chosen for experi-\\nment, when the matter which it requires for its\\nassimilation is not well known.\\nWhat value, now, can be attached to experiments\\nin which all those matters which a plant requires in\\nthe process of assimilation, besides its mere nutri-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS. 63\\nment, have been excluded with the greatest care\\nCan the laws of life be investigated in an organized\\nbeing which is diseased or dying 1\\nThe mere observation of a wood or meadow is\\ninfinitely better adapted to decide so simple a ques-\\ntion than all the trivial experiments under a glass\\nglobe the only difference is, that instead of one\\nplant there are thousands. When we are acquainted\\nwith the nature of a single cubic inch of their soil,\\nand know the composition of the air and rain-water,\\nwe are in possession of all the conditions necessary\\nto their life. The source of the different elements\\nentering into the composition of plants cannot\\npossibly escape us, if we know in what form they\\ntake up their nourishment, and compare its composi-\\ntion with that of the vep:etable substances which\\ncompose their structure.\\nAll these questions will now be examined and\\ndiscussed. It has been already shown, that the\\ncarbon of plants is derived from the atmosphere it\\nstill remains for us to inquire, what power is exerted\\non vegetation by the humus of the soil and the\\ninorganic constituents of plants, and also to trace\\nthe sources of their nitrogen.\\nCHAPTER III.\\nON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\nIt will be shown in the second part of this work,\\nthat all plants and vegetable structures undergo two\\nprocesses of decomposition after death. One of\\nthese is named fermentation the other, putrefaction,\\ndecay, or eremacausis*\\nThe word eremacausis was proposed by the author some time since,\\nin order to explain the true nature of decay; it is compounded from\\ni]ijfiia, by degrees, and i^avaic, hurnincr. Tr.\\nEremacausis is the act of gradual combination of the combustible", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "64 ox THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\nIt will likewise be shown, that decay is a slow\\nprocess of combustion, a process, therefore, in\\nwhich the combustible parts of a plant unite with\\nthe oxygen of the atmosphere.\\nThe decay of woody fibre (the principal constit-\\nuent of all plants) is accompanied by a phenomenon\\nof a peculiar kind. This substance, in contact with\\nair or oxygen gas, converts the latter into an equal\\nvolume of carbonic acid, and its decay ceases upon\\nthe disappearance of the oxygen. If the carbonic\\nacid is removed, and oxygen replaced, its decay\\nrecommences, that is, it again converts oxygen into\\ncarbonic acid. Woody fibre consists of carbon and\\nthe elements of water and if we judge only from\\nthe products formed during its decomposition, and\\nfrom those formed by pure charcoal, burned at a high\\ntemperature, w^e might conclude that the causes\\nwere the same in both: the decay of woody fibre\\nproceeds, therefore, as if no hydrogen or oxygen\\nentered into its composition.*\\nA very long time is required for the completion\\nof this process of combustion, and the presence of\\nwater is necessary for its maintenance alkalies\\npromote it, but acids retard it; all antiseptic sub-\\nelements of a body with the oxygen of the air; a slow combustion or\\noxidation.\\nThe conversion of wood into humus, the formation of acetic acid\\nout of alcohol, nitrification, and numerous other processes, are of this\\nnature. Vegetable juices of every kind, parts of animal and vegetable\\nsubstances, moist sawdust, blood, c., cannot be e.Kposed to the air,\\nwithout suffering immediately a progressive change of color and prop-\\nerties, during which oxygen is absorbed. These changes do not take\\nplace when water is excluded, or when the substances are exposed to\\nthe temperature of 32 and diiferent bodies require different degrees\\nof heat, in order to effect the absorption of oxygen, and, consequently,\\ntheir eremacausis. The property of suffering this change is possessed\\nin tiie highest degree by substances which contain nitrogen. Liebig.\\nOrg. Chem. Part 2d.\\nIn the Appendix to the Third Report of the Agriculture of Massa-\\nfhuscUs, 1840, Dr. S. L. Dana adduces the following example, to show\\nthat even a moist plant will not decay, if air is excluded. A piece of\\na white birch tree was taken from a deptli of twenty-five feet below\\nthe surface, in Lowell. It must have been inhumed there probably\\nbefore the creation of man, yet this most perishable of all wood is\\nnearly as sound as if cut from the forest last fall.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "IT EVOLVES CARBONIC ACID. 65\\nstances, such as sulphurous acid, the mercurial salts,\\nempyreumatic oils, c., cause its complete cessation.\\nWoody fibre in a state of decay is the substance\\ncalled humus.*\\nThe property of woody fibre to convert surround-\\ning oxygen gas into carbonic acid diminishes in\\nproportion as its decay advances, and at last a cer-\\ntain quantity of a brown coaly-looking substance\\nremains, in which this property is entirely wanting.\\nThis substance is called mould; it is the product of\\nthe complete decay of woody fibre. Mould consti-\\ntutes the principal part of all the strata of brown\\ncoal and peat.\\nHumus acts in the same manner in a soil permeable\\nto air as in the air itself; it is a continued source of\\ncarbonic acid, which it emits very slowly. An atmo-\\nsphere of carbonic acid, formed at the expense of\\nthe oxygen of the air, surrounds every particle of\\ndecaying humus. The cultivation of land, by tilling\\nand loosening the soil, causes a free and unob-\\nstructed access of air. An atmosphere of carbonic\\nacid is therefore contained in every fertile soil, and\\nis the first and most important food for the young\\nplants which grow in it.\\nIn spring, when those organs of plants are absent\\nwhich nature has appointed for the assumption of\\nnourishment from the atmosphere, the component\\nsubstance of the seeds is exclusively employed in\\nthe formation of the roots. Each new radicle fibril\\nwhich a plant acquires may be regarded as consti-\\ntuting at the same time a mouth, a lung, and a\\nstomach. The roots perform the functions of the\\nleaves from the first moment of their formation\\nthey extract from the soil their proper nutriment,\\nnamely, the carbonic acid generated by the humus.\\nBy loosening the soil which surrounds young\\nplants, we favor the access of air, and the formation\\nThe humic acid of chemists is a product of the decomposition of\\nhumus by alkalies; it does not exist in the humus of vegetable physi-\\nologists. L.\\n6*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "66 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\nof carbonic acid and, on the other hand, the quan-\\ntity of their food is diminished by every difficulty\\nwhich opposes the renewal of air. A plant itself\\neffects this change of air at a certain period of its\\ngrowth. The carbonic acid, which protects the\\nundecayed humus from further change, is absorbed\\nand taken away by the fine fibres of the roots, and\\nby the roots themselves this is replaced by atmo-\\nspheric air, by which process the decay is renewed,\\nand a fresh portion of carbonic acid formed. A\\nplant at this time receives its food both by the roots\\nand by the organs above ground, and advances\\nrapidly to maturity.\\nWhen a plant is quite matured, and when the\\norgans by which it obtains food from the atmosphere\\nare formed, the carbonic acid of the soil is no fur-\\nther required.\\nDeficiency of moisture in the soil, or its complete\\ndryness, does not now check the growth of a plant,\\nprovided it receives from the dew and the atmosphere\\nas much as is requisite for the process of assimila-\\ntion. During the heat of summer it derives its\\ncarbon exclusively from the atmosphere.\\nWe do not know what height and strength nature\\nhas allotted to plants we are acquainted only with\\nthe size which they usually attain. Oaks are shown,\\nboth in London and Amsterdam, as remarkable curi-\\nosities, which have been reared by Chinese gardeners,\\nand are only one foot and a half in height, although\\ntheir trunks, barks, leaves, branches, and whole\\nhabitus, evince a venerable age. The small parsnep\\ngrown at Teltow,* when placed in a soil which yields\\nas much nourishment as it can take up, increases to\\nseveral pounds in weight.\\nThe size of a plant is proportional to the surface\\nof tJte organs which are destined to convey food to it.\\nTeltow is a village near Berlin, where small parsneps are culti-\\nvated in a sandy soil they are much esteemed, and weigli rarely\\nabove one ounce. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "GROWTH OF PLANTS. 67\\nA plant gains another mouth and stomach with every\\nnew fibre of root, and every new leaf.\\nThe power which roots possess of taking up nour-\\nishment does not cease as long as nutriment is\\npresent. When the food of a plant is in greater\\nquantity than its organs require for their own perfect\\ndevelopment, the superfluous nutriment is not re-\\nturned to the soil, but is employed in the formation\\nof new organs. At the side of a cell, already formed,\\nanother cell arises at the side of a twig and leaf,\\na new twig and a new leaf are developed. These\\nnew parts could not have been formed had there not\\nbeen an excess of nourishment. The sugrar and\\nmucilage produced in the seeds, form the nutriment\\nof the young plants, and disappear during the de-\\nvelopment of the buds, green sprouts, and leaves.\\nThe power of absorbing nutriment from the atmo-\\nsphere, with which the leaves of plants are endowed,\\nbeing proportionate to the extent of their surface,\\nevery increase in the size and number of these parts\\nis necessarily attended with an increase of nutritive\\npower, and a consequent further development of new\\nleaves and branches. Leaves, twigs, and branches,\\nwhen completely matured, as they do not become\\nlarger, do not need food for their support. For\\ntheir existence as organs, they require only the\\nmeans necessary for the performance of the special\\nfunctions to which they are destined by nature; they\\ndo not exist on their own account.\\nWe know that the functions of the leaves and\\nother green parts of plants are to absorb carbonic\\nacid, and with the aid of light and moisture, to\\nappropriate its carbon. These processes are contin-\\nually in operation they commence with the first\\nformation of the leaves, and do not cease with their\\nperfect development. But the new products arising\\nfrom this continued assimilation are no longer em-\\nployed by the perfect leaves in their own increase\\nthey serve for the formation of woody fibre, and all\\nthe solid matters of similar composition. The leaves", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "68 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUIMUS.\\nnow produce sugar, amylin or starch, and acids,\\nwhich were previously formed by the roots, when\\nthey were necessary for the development of the stem,\\nbuds, leaves, and branches of the plant.\\nThe organs of assimilation, at this period of their\\nlife, receive more nourishment from the atmosphere\\nthan they employ in their own sustenance and when\\nthe formation of the woody substance has advanced\\nto a certain extent, the expenditure of the nutriment,\\nthe supply of w^hich still remains the same, takes a\\nnew direction, and blossoms are produced. The\\nfunctions of the leaves of most plants cease upon\\nthe ripening of their fruit, because the products of\\ntheir action are no longer needed. They now yield\\nto the chemical influence of the oxygen of the air,\\ngenerally suff er a change in color, and fall off.\\nA peculiar transformation of the matters con-\\ntained in all plants takes place in the period between\\nblossoming and the ripening of the fruit; new com-\\npounds are produced, which furnish constituents of\\nthe blossoms, fruit, and seed. An organic chemical\\ntransformation is the separation of the elements\\nof one or several combinations, and their reunion\\ninto two or several others, which contain the same\\nnumber of elements, either grouped in another man-\\nner, or in different proportions. Of two compounds\\nformed in consequence of such a change, one remains\\nas a component part of the blossom or fruit, while\\nthe other is separated by the roots in the form of\\nexcrementitious matter. No process of nutrition\\ncan be conceived to subsist in animals or vegetables,\\nwithout a separation of effete matters. We know,\\nindeed, that an organized body cannot generate\\nsubstances, but can only change the mode of their\\ncombination, and that its sustenance and reproduc-\\ntion depend upon the chemical transformation of the\\nmatters which are employed as its nutriment, and\\nwhich contain its own constituent elements.\\nWhatever we regard as the cause of these trans-\\nformations, whether the Vital Principle, Increase of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "TRANSFORMATIONS OF ORGANIC SUBST.^NCES. 69\\nTemperature, Light, Galvanism, or any other influ-\\nence, the act of transformation is a purely chemical\\nprocess. Combination and Decomposition can take\\nplace only when the elements are disposed to these\\nchanges. That which chemists name affinity indi-\\ncates only the degree in which they possess this\\ndisposition. It will be shown, when considering the\\nprocesses of fermentation and putrefaction, that every\\ndisturbance of the mutual attraction subsisting be-\\ntween the elements of a body gives rise to a trans-\\nformation. The elements arrange themselves accord-\\ning to the degrees of their reciprocal attraction into\\nnew combinations, which are incapable of further\\nchange under the same conditions.\\nThe products of these transformations vary with\\ntheir causes, that is, with the different conditions on\\nwhich their production depended and are as innu-\\nmerable as these conditions themselves. The chem-\\nical character of an acid, for example, is its unceas-\\ning disposition to saturation by means of a base;*\\nthis disposition differs in intensity in different acids;\\nbut when it is satisfied, the acid character entirely\\ndisappears. The chemical character of a base is\\nexactly the reverse of this, but both an acid and a\\nbase, notwithstanding the great difference in their\\nLiebig applies the term base to compounds which unite with acids\\nand neutralize their characters. The product is a salt. When the\\ncharacters of both acids and bases disappear the compound is neutral.\\nSome acids contain oxygen, others hydrogen. Several metals form\\nacids with oxygen but the greater number of metallic oxides, are, in\\ntheir relations, totally different from the acids. They form compounds,\\nwhich, for the most part, are insoluble in water those soluble in water\\nhave an alkaline taste, and possess the property of restoring the blue\\ncolor of vegetables, which have been reddened by acids. Tliese also\\nchange many vegetable T/elloios to red or brown. The alkalies are\\nsoluble bases. Many salts redden vegetable blues, and others again\\nrestore the blue color of vegetables reddened by acids; in the first\\ninstance, the salt possesses an acid, and in the latter an alkaline,\\nreaction.\\nA simple body, which is capable of forming either an acid or a base,\\nis termed a radical; a compound radical consists of two or three simple\\nradicals, and comports itself in a similar manner to the simple radicals;\\nthat is, it is capable of forming acids and bases.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "70 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\nproperties, effect, in most cases, the same kind of\\ntransformations.\\nHydrocyanic acid {^prussic acid)* and water con-\\ntain the elements of carbonic acid, ammonia^ urea,\\ncyanuric acid, cyanilic acid, oxalic acid, formic acid,\\nmelam, ammelin, melamin, azulmin, meUo7i, hydro-\\nmellonic acid, allantoin, 6^c.-\\\\ It is well known, that\\nall these very different substances can be obtained\\nCyanogen is considered by Liebig as a compound base, and as\\nsuch uniting witli oxygen, hydrogen, and most other nonmetallic\\nelements and with the metals. Cyanogen gas, or bicarburet of nitro-\\ngen, is a compound of nitrogen and carbon, and was named from its\\naffording a blue color and being an ingredient of Prussian blue. For\\nthe method of obtainino- it, c., see Webster s Ckemistrij, Sd edition,\\np. 219.\\nWith hydrogen it constitutes hydrocyanic acid.\\nf Carbonic acid is a gaseous compound of 1 equivalent of carbon,\\nand 2 equivalents of oxygen, represented thus, C -f- 20 or ij, the two\\ndots denoting the two of oxygen.\\nAmmonia consists of 3 equivalents of hydrogen, and 1 equivalent of\\nnitrogen, represented thus, N -j- 3H, or NH3.\\nUrea contains the elements of cyanate of ammonia (NH4 O C4 NO),\\nand exists in urine, from which it is obtained in colorless, transparent\\ncrystals.\\nCyanuric acid is a product of the decomposition of chloride of cyan-\\nogen, of urea, c. It is called a tribasic acid, and its hydrate is thus\\nrepresented, Cys O3 3HO.\\nOxalic acid is a solid acid obtained from several plants, particularly\\nof the genera oxalis, rumex, c. combined with potassa in roots, and\\nwith lime in several kinds of lichens. Oxalate of lime is found in\\nurinary calculi. It is represented thus, i!CO 4- O (2 equivalents of\\ncarbonic oxide I oxvgen). The so-called Essential salt of lemons is\\na binoxalate of potash. It is poisonous.\\nFormic acid, obtained from ants, hence its name. It is now obtained\\nfrom sugar and other vegetable substances. Represented by C^ HO3.\\nMelam is a compound of C12 Nn Hg; it is a white powder insoluble\\nin water, and, by the action of acids, converted into cyanuric acid and\\nammonia.\\nAmmelin, a saline base, represented thus, Ce N3 H5 O2, a product of\\nthe decomposition of melam b} acids and alkalies.\\nMelamin, a saline base, product of the decomposition of melam,\\nCe Ne Hg. Decomposed by acids into ammonia and ammelid or\\nammelin.\\nJlzubnen, the base of azulmic acid, obtained by the decomposition\\nof cyanogen. The acid is Cs H4 N4 O4.\\nMellon, a compound base, a yellow powder. Decomposed into 3\\nvolumes cyanogen and 1 volume nitrogen gas. Ce N4.\\nUijdromellonic acid is Cs N4 H.\\nMtantoinc or allantoic acid occurs in the allantoic fluid of the cow\\nit is formed when uric acid is boiled in water with peroxide of lead.\\nIt is Ci H3 N2 O3 or 2Cy 3HO.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "TRANSFORMATIONS OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 71\\nfrom hydrocyanic acid and the elements of water,\\nby various chemical transformations.\\nThe whole process of nutrition may be understood\\nby the consideration of one of these transformations.\\nHydrocyanic acid and water, for example, when\\nbrought into contact with muriatic acid, are decom-\\nposed into formic acid and ammonia; both of these\\nproducts of decomposition contain the elements of\\nhydrocyanic acid and water, although in another\\nform, and arranged in a different order. The change\\nresults from the strong disposition or struggle of\\nmuriatic acid to undergo saturation, in consequence\\nof which the hydrocyanic acid and water suffer\\nmutual decomposition. The nitrogen of the hydro-\\ncyanic acid and the hydrogen of the water unite\\ntogether and form a base, ammonia, with which the\\nacid unites the chemical characters of the acid\\nbeing at the same time lost, because its desire for\\nsaturation is satisfied by its uniting with ammonia.\\nAmmonia itself was not previously present, but only\\nits elements, and the power to form it. The simul-\\ntaneous decomposition of hydrocyanic acid and wa-\\nter in this instance does not take place in conse-\\nquence of the chemical affinity of muriatic acid for\\nammonia, since hydrocyanic acid and water contain\\nno ammonia. An affinity of one body for a second\\nwhich is totally without the sphere of its attractions,\\nor which, as far as it is concerned, does not exist,\\nis quite inconceivable. The ammonia in this case is\\nformed only on account of the existing attractive\\ndesire of the acid for saturation. Hence we may\\nperceive how much these modes of decomposition,\\nto which the name of transformations or metamorpho-\\nses has been especially applied, differ from the ordi-\\nnary chemical decompositions.\\nIn consequence of the formation of ammonia, the\\nother elements of hydrocyanic acid, namely, carbon\\nand hydrogen, unite with the oxygen of the decom-\\nposed water, and form formic acid, the elements of\\nthis substance with the power of combination being", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "72 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\npresent. Formic acid here represents the excre-\\nmentitious matters ammonia, the new substance,\\nassimilated by an organ of a plant or animal.\\nEach organ extracts from the food presented to it\\nwhat it requires for its own sustenance; while the\\nremaining elements, which are not assimilated, com-\\nbine together and are separated as excrement. The\\nexcrementitious matters of one organ come in con-\\ntact with another during their passage through the\\norganism, and in consequence suffer new transfor-\\nmations; the useless matters rejected by one organ\\ncontaining the elements for the nutrition of a second\\nand a third organ: but at last, being capable of no\\nfurther transformations, they are separated from the\\nsystem by the organs destined for that purpose.\\nEach part of an organized being is fitted for its\\npeculiar functions. A cubic inch of sulphuretted\\nhydrogen introduced into the lungs would cause\\ninstant death, but it is formed, under a variety of\\ncircumstances, in the intestinal canal without any\\ninjurious effect.*\\nIn consequence of such transformations as we\\nhave described, excrements are formed of various\\ncomposition; some of these contain carbon in ex-\\ncess, others nitrogen, and others again hydrogen\\nand oxygen. The kidneys, liver, and lungs, are or-\\ngans of excretion the first separate from the body\\nall those substances in which a large proportion of\\nnitrogen is contained; the second, those with an\\nexcess of carbon; and the third, such as are com-\\nposed principally of oxygen and hydrogen. Alco-\\nhol, also, and the volatile oils which are incapable of\\nbeing assimilated, are exhaled through the lungs,\\nand not through the skin.\\nRespiration must be regarded as a slow process\\nof combustion or constant decomposition. If it be\\nsubject to the laws which regulate the processes\\nThe danger of breathing carbonic acid gas is well known, but\\nlarge quantities can be taken into the stomach with impunity and\\neven benefit.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "TRANSFORMATIONS OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 73\\nof decomposition generally, the oxygen of the in-\\nspired air cannot combine directly with the carbon\\nof compounds of that element contained in the\\nblood the hydrogen only can combine with the\\noxygen of the air, or undergo a higher degree of\\noxidation. Oxygen is absorbed without uniting with\\ncarbon and carbonic acid is disengaged, the car-\\nbon and oxygen of w^hich must be derived from\\nmatters previously existing in the blood.*\\nAll superabundant nitrogen is eliminated from the\\nbody, as a liquid excrement, through the uriaary\\npassages all solid substances, incapable of further\\ntransformation, pass out by the intestinal canal, and\\nall gaseous matter by the lungs.\\nWe should not permit ourselves to be withheld\\nby the idea of a vital principle, from considering in\\na chemical point of view the process of the transfor-\\nmation of the food, and its assimilation by the\\nvarious organs. This is the more necessary, as the\\nviews, hitherto held, have produced no results, and\\nare quite incapable of useful application.\\nIs it truly vitality, which generates sugar in the\\ngerm for the nutrition of young plants, or which\\ngives to the stomach the power to dissolve, and to\\nprepare for assimilation, all the matter introduced\\ninto it A decoction of malt possesses as little\\npower to reproduce itself, as the stomach of a dead\\ncalf; both are, unquestionably, destitute of life.\\nThe examination of the air expired by consumptive persons, as\\nwell as of their blood, would doubtless throw much light on the nature\\no{ phthisis pulmonalis. Considered in a chemical point of view, the\\ndecomposition of the blood, as it takes place in the lungs, is a true\\nprocess of putrefaction. (See Part II.) The lungs are also the seat\\nof the transformation of the various substances contained in the blood.\\nIt certainly well merits consideration, that the most approved reme-\\ndies for counteracting or stopping the progress of this frightful malady\\nare precisely those which are found most efficacious in retarding putre-\\nfaction. Thus, it is well known, that much relief is afforded by a\\nresidence in works in which empyreumatic oils are manufactured by\\ndry distillation, such as manufactories for the preparation of gas or sal-\\nammoniac. For the same reason, the respiration of wood vinegar\\n(pyroligneous acid), of chlorine, and certain of the acids, has been\\nrecognised as a means of alleviating the disease. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "74 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\nBut when amylin or starch is introduced into a de-\\ncoction of malt, it changes, first into a gummy-like\\nmatter, and lastly into sugar. Hard-boiled albumen\\nand muscular fibre can be dissolved in a decoction\\nof a calf s stomach, to which a few drops of muria-\\ntic acid have been added, precisely as in the stom-\\nach itself.* (Schwann, Schulz.)\\nThe power, therefore, to effect transformations,\\ndoes not belong to the vital principle each trans-\\nformation is owing to a disturbance in the attraction\\nof the elements of a compound, and is consequently\\na purely chemical process. There is no doubt that\\nthis process takes place in another form from that\\nof the ordinary decomposition of salts, oxides, or\\nsulphurets. But is it the fault of chemistry that\\nphysiology has hitherto taken no notice of this new\\nform of chemical action\\nPhysicians are accustomed to administer whole\\nounces of borax to patients suffering under urinary\\ncalculi, when it is known that the bases of all al-\\nkaline salts formed by organic acids are carried\\nthrough the urinary passages in the form of alkaline\\ncarbonates, capable of dissolving calculi (Wohler).\\nIs this rational? The medical reports state, that\\nupon the Rhine, where so much cream of tartar is\\nconsumed in wine, the only cases of calculous dis-\\norders are those which are imported from other dis-\\ntricts. We know that the uric acid calculus is\\ntransformed into the mulberry calculus (which con-\\ntains oxalic acid), when patients suffering under the\\nformer exchange the town for the country, where\\nless animal and more vegetable food is used. Are\\nall these circumstances incapable of explanation?\\nThe volatile oil of the roots of valerian may be\\nobtained from the oil generated during the fermen-\\ntation of potatoes (Dumas), and the oil of the\\nSpircBa uhnaria from the crystalline matter of the\\nThis remarkable action has been completely confirmed in this\\nlaboratory (Giessen), by Dr. Vogel, a highly distinguished young\\nphysiologist. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "NATURE OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL PROCESSES. 75\\nbai k of the willow (Piria). We are able to form\\nin our laboratories formic acid, oxalic acid, urea,\\nand the crystalline substances existing in the liquid\\nof the allantois of the cow, all products, it is said,\\nof the vital principle. We see, therefore, that this\\nmysterious principle has many relations in common\\nwith chemical forces, and that the latter can indeed\\nreplace it. What these relations are, it remains for\\nphysiologists to investigate. Truly it would be ex-\\ntraordinary if this vital principle, which uses every-\\nthing for its own purposes, had allotted no share\\nto chemical forces, which stand so freely at its dis-\\nposal. We shall obtain that which is obtainable\\nin a rational inquiry into nature, if we separate\\nthe actions belonging to chemical powers from those\\nwhich are subordinate to other influences. But the\\nexpression vital principle must in the mean time\\nbe considered as of equal value with the terms\\nspecific or dynamic inmedicine: everything is specific\\nwhich we cannot explain, and dynamic is the ex-\\nplanation of all which we do not understand; the\\nterms having been invented merely for the purpose\\nof concealing ignorance by the application of learned\\nepithets.\\nTransformations of existing compounds are con-\\nstantly taking place during the whole life of a\\nplant, in consequence of which, and as the results\\nof these transformations, there are produced gaseous\\nmatters which are excreted by the leaves and blos-\\nsoms, solid excrements deposited in the bark, and\\nfluid soluble substances which are eliminated by the\\nroots. Such secretions are most abundant imme-\\ndiately before the formation and during the con-\\ntinuance of the blossoms; they diminish after the\\ndevelopment of the fruit. Substances containing a\\nlarge proportion of carbon are excreted by the roots\\nand absorbed by the soil. Through the expulsion\\nof these matters unfitted for nutrition, the soil re-\\nceives again with usury the carbon which it had at", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "76 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUJIUS.\\nfirst yielded to the young plants as food, in the\\nform of carbonic acid.\\nThe soluble matter thus acquired by the soil is\\nstill capable of decay and putrefaction, and by\\nundergoing these processes furnishes renewed sour-\\nces of nutrition to another generation of plants; it\\nbecomes hiumis. The cultivated soil is thus placed\\nin a situation exactly analogous to that of forests\\nand meadows for the leaves of trees which fall in\\nthe forest in autumn, and the old roots of grass in\\nthe meadow, are likewise converted into humus by\\nthe same influence a soil receives more carbon in\\nthis form than its decaying humus had lost as car-\\nbonic acid.\\nPlants do not exhaust the cai bon of a soil in the\\nnormal condition of their growth; on the contrary,\\nthey add to its quantity. But if it is true that plants\\ngive back more carbon to a soil than they take from\\nit, it is evident that their growth must depend upon\\nthe reception of nourishment from the atmosphere in\\nthe form of carbonic acid. The influence of humus\\nupon vegetation is explained by the foregoing facts\\nin the most clear and satisfactory manner.\\nHumus does not nourish plants by being taken up\\nand assimilated in its unaltered state, but by pre-\\nsenting a slow and lasting source of carbonic acid,\\nwhich is absorbed by the roots, and is the principal\\nnutriment of young plants at a time when, being des-\\ntitute of leaves, they are unable to extract food from\\nthe atmosphere.\\nIn former periods of the earth s history, its sur-\\nface was covered with plants, the remains of which\\nare still found in the coal formations. These plants,\\nthe gigantic monocotyledons, ferns, palms, and\\nreeds, belong to a class to which nature has given\\nthe power, by means of an immense extension of their\\nleaves, to dispense with nourishment from the soil.\\nThey resemble in this respect the plants which we\\nraise from bulbs and tubers, and which live while\\nyoung upon the substances contained in their seed,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "ITS USE EXPLAINED. 77\\nand require no food from the soil when their exterior\\norgans of nutrition are formed. This class of plants\\nis even at present ranked amongst those which do\\nnot exhaust the soil.\\nThe necessity of the existence of plants such as\\nthese at the commencement of vegetation, must now\\nbe apparent. Humus is a product of the decay of\\nvegetable matter, and therefore could not have ex-\\nisted to supply the first plants with the food neces-\\nsary for the development of the more delicate kinds.\\nHence the plants capable of flourishing under such\\ncircumstances could only be those which receive their\\nnourishment from the air alone. By their decay,\\nhowever, the soil in which they grew became sup-\\nplied with vegetable matter, and the progress of\\nvegetation must have furnished to the earth materi-\\nals adapted for the development of those plants,\\nwhich depend upon the nutriment contained in the\\nsoil, until those organs are formed which are des-\\ntined for the assumption of nourishment from the\\natmosphere.\\nThe plants of every former period are distinguished\\nfrom those of the present by the inconsiderable de-\\nvelopment, of their roots. Fruit, leaves, seeds, near-\\nly every part of the plants of a former world, except\\nthe roots, are found in the brown coal formation.\\nThe vascular bundles, and the perishable cellular tis-\\nsue, of which their roots consisted, have been the\\nfirst to suffer decomposition. But when we examine\\noaks and other trees, which in consequence of revo-\\nlutions of the same kind occurring in later ages have\\nundergone the same changes, we never find their\\nroots absent.\\nThe verdant plants of warm climates are very often\\nsuch as obtain from the soil only a point of attach-\\nment, and are not dependent on it for their growth.\\nHow extremely small are the roots of the Cactus,\\nSedtim, and Sempervivum, in proportion to their\\nmass, and to the surface of their leaves Large for-\\nests are often found growing in soils absolutely des-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "78 ON THE ORIGIN AND ACTION OF HUMUS.\\ntitute of carbonaceous matter and the extensive\\nprairies of the Western Continent show that the car-\\nbon necessary for the sustenance of a plant may be\\nentirely extracted from the atmosphere. Again, in\\nthe most dry and barren sand, where it is impossible\\nfor nourishment to be obtained through the roots, we\\nsee the milky-juiced plants attain complete perfec-\\ntion. The moisture necessary for the nutrition of\\nthese plants is derived from the atmosphere, and\\nwhen assimilated is secured from evaporation by the\\nnature of the juice itself. Caoutchouc and wax,\\nw^hich are formed in these plants, surround the water,\\nas in oily emulsions, with an impenetrable envelope\\nby which the fluid is retained, in the same manner as\\nmilk is prevented from evaporating by the skin\\nwhich forms upon it. These plants, therefore, be-\\ncome turgid with their juices.\\nParticular examples might be cited of plants, which\\nhave been brought to maturity, upon a small scale,\\nwithout the assistance of mould but fresh proofs\\nof the accuracy of our theory respecting the origin\\nof carbon would be superfluous and useless, and\\ncould not render more striking, or more convincing,\\nthe arguments already adduced. It must not, how-\\never, be left unmentioned, that common wood char-\\ncoal, by virtue merely of its ordinary well-know^n\\nproperties, can completely replace vegetable mould\\nor hmnus. The experiments of Lukas, which are\\nappended to this work, spare me all further remarks\\nupon its efficacy.\\nPlants thrive in powdered charcoal, and may be\\nbrought to blossom and bear fruit if exposed to the\\ninfluence of the rain and the atmosphere the char-\\ncoal may be previously heated to redness. Charcoal\\nis the most indiff erent and most unchangeable\\nsubstance known it may be kept for centuries with-\\nout change, and is therefore not subject to decompo-\\nsition. The only substances which it can yield to\\nplants are some salts, which it contains, amongst\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2which is silicate of potash. It is known, however,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "NOT INDISPENSABLE FOR PLANTS. 79\\nto possess the power of condensing gases within its\\npores, and particularly carbonic acid. And it is by\\nvirtue of this power that the roots of plants are sup-\\nplied in charcoal, exactly as in humus, with an at-\\nmosphere of carbonic acid and air, which is renewed\\nas quickly as it is abstracted.\\nIn charcoal powder, which had been used for this\\npurpose by Lukas for several years, Buchner found a\\nbrown substance soluble in alkalies. This substance\\nwas evidently due to the secretions from the roots\\nof the plants which grew in it.\\nA plant placed in a closed vessel in which the air,\\nand therefore the carbonic acid, cannot be renewed,\\ndies exactly as it would do in the vacuum of an air-\\npump, or in an atmosphere of nitrogen or carbonic\\nacid, even though its roots be fixed in the richest\\nmould.*\\nPlants do not, however, attain maturity, under or-\\ndinary circumstances, in charcoal powder, when they\\nare moistened with pure distilled water instead of\\nrain or river water. Rain water must, therefore, con-\\ntain within it one of the essentials of vegetable life;\\nand it will be shown, that this is the presence of a\\ncompound containing nitrogen, the exclusion of which\\nentirely deprives humus and charcoal of their influ-\\nence upon vegetation.\\nA few years since I had an opportunity of observing a striking in-\\nstance of tlie effect of carbonic acid upon vegetation in the volcanic\\nisland of St. Michael (Azores). The gas issued from a fissure in the\\nbase of a hill of trachyte and tuffa from which a level field of some\\nacres extended. This field, at the time of my visit, was in part covered\\nwith Indian corn. The corn at the distance often or fifteen yards from\\nthe fissure, was nearly full grown, and of the usual height, but the\\nheight regularly diminished until within five or sis feet of the hill,\\nwhere it attained but a few inches. This effect was owing to the great\\nspecific gravity of the carbonic acid, and its spreading upon the ground,\\nbut as the distance increased, and it became more and mere mingled\\nwith atmospheric air, it had produced less and less effect. IV.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "80 ON THE ASSIMILATION OF HYDROGEN\\nCHAPTER IV.\\nON THE ASSIMILATION OF HYDROGEN.\\nThe atmosphere contains the principal food of\\nplants in the form of carbonic acid, in the state,\\ntherefore, of an oxide. The solid part of plants\\n(woody fibre) contains carbon and the constituents\\nof water, or the elements of carbonic acid, together\\nwith a certain quantity of hydrogen. It has former-\\nly been mentioned that water consists of the two\\ngases, oxygen and hydrogen. The range of affinity\\npossessed by both these elements is so extensive, that\\nnumerous causes occur which effect the decomposi-\\ntion of water. Indeed, there is no compound which\\nplays a more general or more important part in the\\nphenomena of combination and decomposition. We\\ncan conceive the wood to arise from a combination\\nof the carbon of the carbonic acid with the elements\\nof water, under the influence of solar light. In this\\ncase, 72-35 parts of oxygen, by weight, must be sep-\\narated as a gas for every 27-65 parts of carbon,\\nwhich are assimilated by a plant for this is the\\ncomposition of carbonic acid in 100 parts. Or, what\\nis much more probable, plants, under the same cir-\\ncumstances, may decompose water, the hydrogen of\\nwhich is assimilated along with carbonic acid, whilst\\nits oxygen is separated. If the latter change takes\\nplace, 8-04 parts of hydrogen must unite with 100\\nparts of carbonic acid, in order to form w^oody fibre,\\nand the 72-35 parts by weight of oxygen, which was\\nin combination with the hydrogen of the water, and\\nwhich exactly corresponds in quantity with the oxy-\\ngen contained in the carbonic acid, must be separ-\\nated in a gaseous form.\\nEach acre of land, which produces 10 cwts. of\\ncarbon, gives annually to the atmosphere 2865 lbs. of\\nfree oxygen gas. The specific weight of oxygen is", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "BY THE DECOMPOSITION OF WATER. Ol\\nexpressed by the number 1-1026; hence 1 cubic me-\\ntre of oxygen weighs 3*157 lbs., and 2865 lbs. of\\noxygen correspond to 908 cubic metres, or 32,007\\ncubic feet.\\nAn acre of meadow, wood, or cultivated land in\\ngeneral replaces, therefore, in the atmosphere as\\nmuch oxygen as is exhausted by 10 cwts. of carbon,\\neither in its ordinary combustion in the air or in the\\nrespiratory process of animals.\\nIt has been mentioned at a former page that pure\\nwoody fibre contains carbon and the component parts\\nof water, but that ordinary wood contains more hy-\\ndrogen than corresponds to this proportion. This\\nexcess is owing to the presence of the green princi-\\nple of the leaf, wax, resin, and other bodies rich in\\nhydrogen. Water must be decomposed, in order to\\nfurnish the excess of this element, and consequently\\none equivalent of oxygen must be given back to the\\natmosphere for every equivalent of hydrogen appro-\\npriated by a plant to the production of those sub-\\nstances. The quantity of oxygen thus set at liberty\\ncannot be insignificant, for the atmosphere must re-\\nceive 547 cubic feet of oxygen for every pound of\\nhydrogen assimilated.\\nIt has already been stated, that a plant, in the\\nformation of woody fibre, must always yield to the\\natmosphere the same proportional quantity of oxy-\\ngen that the volume of this gas set free would be\\nthe same whether it were due to the decomposition\\nof carbonic acid or of w^ater. A little consideration\\nwill show that this must be the case. It has repeat-\\nedly been stated, that woody fibre contains carbon\\nin combination with oxygen and hydrogen in the\\nsame proportion in which they exist in water. Water\\ncontains 1 equivalent of each element, whilst carbon-\\nic acid consists of 1 equivalent of carbon, united to\\n2 equivalents of oxygen. In the formation of woody\\nfibre, 2 equivalents of oxygen must therefore be lib-\\nerated. The woody fibre can only be formed in one\\nof two ways either the carbon of carbonic acid", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "82 ASSIMILATION OF HYDROGEN\\nunites directly with water, or the hydrogen of water\\ncombines with the oxygen of the carbonic acid. In\\nthe former of these cases, the two equivalents of ox-\\nygen in the carbonic acid must be liberated; in the\\nlatter, two atoms of water must be decomposed, the\\nhydrogen of which unites with the oxygen of the\\ncarbonic acid, whilst the oxygen of the water, thus\\nset free, is disengaged in the state of a gas. It\\nwas considered most probable that the latter was\\nthe case.\\nFrom their generating caoutchouc, wax, fats, and\\nvolatile oils containing hydrogen in large quantity,\\nand no oxygen, we may be certain that plants pos-\\nsess the property of decomposing water, because\\nfrom no other body could they obtain the hydrogen\\nof those matters. It has also been proved by the\\nobservations of Humboldt on the fungi, that water\\nmay be decomposed without the assimilation of hy-\\ndrogen. Water is a remarkable combination of\\ntwo elements, which have the power to separate\\nthemselves from one another, in innumerable pro-\\ncesses, in a manner imperceptible to our senses while\\ncarbonic acid, on the contrary, is only decomposable\\nby violent chemical action.\\nMost vegetable structures contain hydrogen in\\nthe form of water, which can be separated as such,\\nand replaced by other bodies but the hydrogen\\nwhich is essential to their constitution cannot pos-\\nsibly exist in the state of water.\\nAll the hydrogen necessary for the formation of\\nan organic compound is supplied to a plant by the\\ndecomposition of water. The process of assimila-\\ntion, in its most simple form, consists in the extrac-\\ntion of hydrogen from water, and carbon from car-\\nbonic acid, in consequence of which, either all the\\noxygen of the water and carbonic acid is separated,\\nas in the formation of caoutchouc, the volatile oils\\nwhich contain no oxygen, and other similar sub-\\nstances, or only a part of it is exhaled.\\nThe known composition of the organic compounds", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "BY THE DECOMPOSITION OF WATER. 83\\nmost generally present in vegetables, enables us to\\nstate in definite proportions the quantity of oxygen\\nseparated during their formation.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 22 eq. hydrogen derived ,j^\\nfrom 22 eq. water 2/ C\\nwith the separation of 72 eq. oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 36 eq. hydrogen derived 7\\nfrom 36 eq. water 5 ^^S^^t\\nwith the separation of 72 eq. oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 30 eq. hydrogen derived\\nfrom 30 eq. water 5\\nwith the separation of 72 eq oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 16 eq. hydrogen derived\\nfrom 16 eq. water tannic Mad,\\nwith the separation of 64 eq. oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 18 eq. hydrogen derived a -j\\nti-om 18 eq. water lartanc Jlcia,\\nwith the separation of 4.5 eq. oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 18 eq. liydrogen derived a -j\\nfrom 18 eq. water MaucJicia,\\nwith the separation of 54 eq. oxygen.\\n36 eq. carbonic acid and 24 eq. hydrogen derived ni fT\\nfrom 24 eq. water uuojiurpentme,\\nwith the separation of 84 eq. oxygen.\\nIt will readily be perceived, that the formation\\nof the acids is accompanied with the smallest\\nseparation of oxygen; that the amount of oxygen\\nset free increases with the production of the so-\\nnamed neutral substances, and reaches its maximum\\nin the formation of the oils. Fruits remain acid in\\ncold summers; while the most numerous trees under\\nthe tropics are those which produce oils, caoutchouc,\\nand other substances containing very little oxygen.\\nThe action of sunshine and influence of heat upon\\nthe ripening of fruit is thus, in a certain measure,\\nrepresented by the numbers above cited.\\nThe green resinous principle of the leaf diminishes\\nin quantity, while oxygen is absorbed, when fruits\\nare ripened in the dark red and yellow coloring\\nmatters are formed tartaric, citric, and tannic acids\\ndisappear, and are replaced by sugar, ainylin, or\\ngum. 6 eq. Tartaric Acid, by absorbing 6 eq. oxy-\\ngen from the air, form Grape Sugar, with the separa-\\ntion of 12 eq. carbonic acid. 1 eq. Tannic Acid,\\nby absorbing 8 eq. oxygen from the air, and 4 eq.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "84 ASSIMILATIO OF HYDROGEN.\\nwater, form 1 eq. of Amylin, or starch, with separa-\\ntion of 6 eq. carbonic acid.\\nWe can explain, in a similar manner, the forma-\\ntion of all the component substances of plants\\nwhich contain no nitrogen, whether they are pro-\\nduced from carbonic acid and water, with separation\\nof oxygen, or by the conversion of one substance\\ninto the other, by the assimilation of oxygen and\\nseparation of carbonic acid. We do not know in\\nwhat form the production of these constituents takes\\nplace; in this respect, the representation of their\\nformation which we have given must not be received\\nin an absolute sense, it being intended only to ren-\\nder the nature of the process more capable of ap-\\nprehension; but it must not be forgotten, that if the\\nconversion of tartaric acid into sugar, in grapes, be\\nconsidered as a fact, it must take place under all\\ncircumstances in the same proportions.\\nThe vital process in plants is, with reference to\\nthe point we have been considering, the very re-\\nverse of the chemical processes engaged in the for-\\nmation of salts. Carbonic acid, zinc, and water,\\nwhen brought into contact, act upon one another,\\nand hydrogen is separated, while a white pulverulent\\ncompound is formed, which contains carbonic acid,\\nzinc, and the oxygen of the water. A living plant\\nrepresents the zinc in this process but the process\\nof assimilation gives rise to compounds, which con-\\ntain the elements of carbonic acid and the hydrogen\\nof water, whilst oxygen is separated.\\nDecay has been described above as the great\\noperation of nature, by which that oxygen, which\\nwas assimilated by plants during life, is again re-\\nturned to the atmosphere. During the progress of\\ngrowth, plants appropriate carbon in the form of\\ncarbonic acid, and hydrogen from the decomposition\\nof water, the oxygen of which is set free, together\\nwith a part of all of that contained in the carbonic\\nacid. In the process of putrefaction, a quantity of\\nwater, exactly corresponding to that of the hydro-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN. 85\\ngen, is again formed by extraction of oxygen from\\nthe air while all the oxygen of the organic matter\\nis returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbonic\\nacid. Vegetable matters can emit carbonic acid,\\nduring their decay, only in proportion to the quan-\\ntity of oxygen which they contain acids, therefore,\\nyield more carbonic acid than neutral compounds\\nwhile fatty acids, resin, and wax, do not putrefy\\nthey remain in the soil without any apparent change.\\nThe numerous springs which emit carbonic acid\\nin the neighborhood of extinct volcanoes, must be\\nregarded as another means of compensating for the\\ncarbonic acid absorbed and retained by plants dur-\\ning life, and consequently as a source by which\\noxygen is supplied to the atmosphere. Bischof\\ncalculated that the springs of carbonic acid in the\\nEifel (a volcanic district near Coblenz) send into\\nthe air every day more than 99,000 lbs. of carbonic\\nacid, corresponding to 71,000 lbs. of pure oxygen.\\nCHAPTER V.\\nON THE ORIGIN AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nWe cannot suppose that a plant could attain\\nmaturity, even in the richest vegetable mould, with-\\nout the presence of matter containing nitrogen;\\nsince we know that nitrogen exists in every part of\\nthe vegetable structure. The first and most impor-\\ntant question to be solved, therefore, is How and\\nin what form does nature furnish nitrogen to vege-\\ntable albumen, and gluten, to fruits and seeds 1\\nThis question is susceptible of a very simple solu-\\ntion.\\nPlants, as we know, grow perfectly well in pure\\ncharcoal, if supplied at the same time with rain-\\nwater. Rain-water can contain nitrogen only in\\ntwo forms, either as dissolved atmospheric air, or as", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "86 SOURCE AND ASSIIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nammonia, which consists of this element and hydro-\\ngen. Now, the nitrogen of the air cannot be made\\nto enter into combination with any element except\\noxygen, even by the employment of the most power-\\nful chemical means. We have not the slightest\\nreason for believing that the nitrogen of the atmo-\\nsphere takes part in the processes of assimilation of\\nplants and animals on the contrary, we know that\\nmany plants emit the nitrogen which is absorbed by\\ntheir roots, either in the gaseous form, or in solution\\nin water. But there are on the other hand numerous\\nfacts, showing, that the formation in plants of sub-\\nstances containing nitrogen, such as gluten, takes\\nplace in proportion to the quantity of this element\\nwhich is conveyed to their roots in the state of\\nammonia,* derived from the putrefaction of animal\\nmatter.\\nAmmonia, too, is capable of undergoing such a\\nmultitude of transformations, when in contact with\\nother bodies, that in this respect it is not inferior to\\nwater, which possesses the same property in an\\neminent degree. It possesses properties which we\\ndo not find in any other compound of nitrogen\\nwhen pure, it is extremely soluble in water; it forms\\nsoluble compounds with all the acids and when in\\ncontact with certain other substances, it completely\\nresigns its character as an alkali, and is capable of\\nassuming the most various and opposite forms.\\nFormate of ammonia f changes, under the influence\\nof a high temperature, into hydrocyanic acid and\\nwater, without the separation of any of its elements.\\nAmmonia is a compound gas, consisting of one volume of nitrogen\\nand three volumes of hydrogen. It is produced during the decompo-\\nsition of many animal substances. It is given off when sal-ammoniac\\nand lime are rubbed together. It was formerly called volatile alkali.\\nt Formic acid (p 70. n is also obtained from sugar and many other\\nvegetable substances a pound of sugar yields a quantity capable of\\nsaturating five or six ounces of carbonate of lime. A process for\\nobtaining it has been given by Emmet in the Jlmcriam Journal, Vol.\\nXXXII. p. 140. See details in Webster s Manual of Chemistry, 2d\\nedition, p. 374.\\nIts composition is carbon 2, water 3. With ammonia and other\\nbases it yields the salts called formates.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "SOURCE AND ASSIJIILATION OF NITROGEN. 87\\nAmmonia forms urea,* with cyanic acid,t and a\\nseries of crystalline compounds, with the volatile\\noils of mustard and bitter almonds. It changes\\ninto splendid blue or red coloring matters, when in\\ncontact with the bitter constituent of the bark of\\nthe apple-tree (^phloridzi7i), with the sweet principle\\nof the Variolaria dealbata (orciii), or with the taste-\\nless matter of the Rocella tifictoria (^erythrin). All\\nblue coloring matters which are reddened by acids,\\nand all red coloring substances which are rendered\\nblue by alkalies, contain nitrogen, but not in the\\nform of a base.\\nThese facts are not sufficient to establish the\\nopinion that it is ammonia which affords all vegeta-\\nbles, without exception, the nitrogen which enters\\ninto the composition of their constituent substances.\\nConsiderations of another kind, however, give to\\nthis opinion a degree of certainty which completely\\nexcludes all other views of the matter.\\nLet us picture to ourselves the condition of a\\nwell-cultured farm, so large as to be independent of\\nassistance from other quarters. On this extent of\\nland there is a certain quantity of nitrogen contained\\nboth in corn and fruit which it produces, and in the\\nmen and animals which feed upon them, and also in\\ntheir excrements. We shall suppose this quantity\\nto be known. The land is cultivated without the\\nimportation of any foreign substance containing\\nnitrogen. Now, the products of this farm must be\\nexchanged every year for money, and other necessa-\\nries of life for bodies, therefore, which contain no\\nnitrogen. A certain proportion of nitrogen is ex-\\nported with corn and cattle; and this exportation\\ntakes place every year, without the smallest com-\\npensation; yet after a given number of years, the\\nquantity of nitrogen will be found to have increased.\\nUrea was discovered in urine, being a constituent of uric acid. It\\ncontains the elements of cyanate of ammonia (NH4 O -f- C4 NO).\\nt This acid consists of 1 cyanogen and 1 oxygen. See Webster s\\nChemistry, p. 398.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "88 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nWhence, we may ask, comes this increase of nitro-\\ngen The nitrogen in the excrements cannot repro-\\nduce itself, and the earth cannot yield it. Plants,\\nand consequently animals, must, therefore, derive\\ntheir nitrogen from the atmosphere.\\nIt will in a subsequent part of this work be shown,\\nthat the last products of the decay and putrefaction\\nof animal bodies present themselves in two different\\nforms. They are in the form of a combination of\\nhydrogen and nitrogen, a7nnionia, in the tem-\\nperate and cold climates, and in that of a compound\\ncontaining oxygen, nitric acid, in the tropics\\nand hot climates. The formation of the latter is pre-\\nceded by the production of the first. Ammonia is\\nthe last product of the putrefaction of animal bodies\\nnitric acid is the product of the transformation of\\nammonia. A generation of a thousand million men\\nis renewed every thirty years thousands of millions\\nof animals cease to live, and are reproduced, in a\\nmuch shorter period. Where is the nitrogen which\\nthey contained during life There is no question\\nwhich can be answered with more positive certainty.\\nAll animal bodies during their decay yield the nitro-\\ngen which they contain to the atmosphere, in the\\nform of ammonia. Even in the bodies buried sixty\\nfeet under ground in the churchyard of the Eglise\\ndes Innocens, at Paris, all the nitrogen contained in\\nthe adipocire was in the state of ammonia.* Ammo-\\nnia is the simplest of all compounds of nitrogen;\\nand hydrogen is the element for which nitrogen pos-\\nsesses the most powerful affinity.\\nThe nitrogen of putrefied animals is contained in\\nthe atmosphere as ammonia, in the form of a gas\\nIn 1786 7, when this churchyard was cleared out, it was discov-\\nered that many of the bodies had been converted into a soapy white\\nsubstance. Fourcroy attempted to prove that tJie fatty body was an\\nammoniacal soap, containing phosphate of lime, that the fat was simi-\\nlar to spermaceti and to wax, hence he called it adipocire. Its naelting\\npoint was 120.. F.\\nFor notice of the analysis and opinions of other chemists, see Uke s\\nDictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 14.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "PRODUCTS OF PUTREFACTION. 89\\nwhich is capable of entering into combination with\\ncarbonic acid and of forming a volatile salt. Am-\\nmonia in its gaseous form, as well as all its volatile\\ncompounds, is of extreme solubility in water.* Am-\\nmonia, therefore, cannot remain long in the atmo-\\nsphere, as every shower of rain must condense it, and\\nconvey it to the surface of the earth. Hence also,\\nrain-water must at all times contain ammonia, though\\nnot always in equal quantity. It must be greater in\\nsummer than in spring or in winter, because the in-\\ntervals of time between the showers are in summer\\ngreater and when several wet days occur, the rain\\nof the first must contain more of it than that of the\\nsecond. The rain of a thunder-storm, after a long-\\nprotracted drought, ought for this reason to contain\\nthe greatest quantity which is conveyed to the earth\\nat one time.\\nBut we have formerly stated, that all the analyses\\nof atmospheric air hitherto made have failed to de-\\nmonstrate the presence of ammonia, although, ac-\\ncording to our view, it can never be absent. Is it\\npossible that it could have escaped our most delicate\\nand most exact apparatus The quantity of nitro-\\ngen contained in a cubic foot of air is certainly ex-\\ntremely small, but, notwithstanding this, the sum of\\nthe quantities of nitrogen from thousands and mil-\\nlions of dead animals is more than sufficient to sup-\\nply all those living at one time with this element.\\nFrom the tension of aqueous vapor at 15\u00c2\u00b0 C. (59\u00c2\u00b0\\nF.) 6,98 lines (Paris measure), and from its known\\nspecific gravity at 0\u00c2\u00b0 C. (32\u00c2\u00b0 F.), it follows that\\nwhen the temperature of the air is 59\u00c2\u00b0 F. and the\\nheight of the barometer 28 1 cubic metre or 35*3\\ncubic feet of aqueous vapor are contained in 487\\ncubic metres, or 17,198 cubic feet of air; 35*3 cubic\\nfeet of aqueous vapor weigh about 1.65 lb. Conse-\\nquently, if we suppose that the air saturated with\\nmoisture at 59\u00c2\u00b0 F. allows all the water which it con^\\nAccording to Dr. Thomson, water absorbs 780 times its bulk of\\nammonia.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "90 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\ntains in the gaseous form to fall as rain, then l-l\\npound of rain water must be obtained from every\\n11,477 cubic feet of air. The whole quantity of am-\\nmonia contained in the same number of cubic feet\\nwill also be returned to the earth in this one pound\\nof rain-water. But if the 11,477 cubic feet of air\\ncontain a single grain of ammonia, then ten cubic\\ninches, the quantity usually employed in an analy-\\nsis, must contain only 0.000000050 of a grain.\\nThis extremely small proportion is absolutely inap-\\npreciable by the most delicate and best eudiometer\\nit might be classed among the errors of observation,\\neven were its quantity ten thousand times greater.\\nBut the detection of ammonia must be much more\\neasy when a pound of rain-water is examined, for\\nthis contains all the gas that was diffused through\\n11,477 cubic feet of air.\\nIf a pound of rain-water contain only ,^th of a grain\\nof ammonia, then a field of 26,910 square feet must\\nreceive annually upwards of 88 lbs. of ammonia, or\\n71 lbs. of nitrogen for by the observations of Schu-\\nbler, which were formerly alluded to, about 770,000\\nlbs. of rain fall over this surface in four months, and\\nconsequently the annual fall must be 2,310,000 lbs.\\nThis is much more nitrogen than is contained in the\\nform of vegetable albumen and gluten, in 2920 lbs.\\nof wood, 3085 lbs. of hay, or 200 cwt. of beet-root,\\nwhich are the yearly produce of such a field but it\\nis less than the straw, roots, and grain of corn, which\\nmight grow on the same surface, would contain. f\\nA eudiometer is an instrument used in the analyses of the atmo-\\nsphere. It means a measure of purity. It is also used in the analysis\\nof mixtures of gases. Several varieties are described in Webster s\\nMannal, p. 137.\\nt The advocates of the importance of humus as a nourishment for\\nplants, being driven from their position by the facts brought forward in\\nthe preceding chapters, have found in the ammonia of the atmosphere\\nan explanation of the manner in which humus acquires its solubility,\\nand therefore its capability of being assimilated by plants. Now, it is\\nvery true that humic acid is soluble in ammonia but the humic acid\\nof chemists is nnt contained in soils. Were it so, on treating mould with\\nwater we should obtain a dark-colored solution of humate of ammonia.\\nBut we obtain a solution whicii is entirely devoid of this acid. It can-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "EXISTENCE OF AMBIONIA IN RAIN. 91\\nExperiments made in this laboratory (Giessen)\\nwith the greatest care and exactness have placed the\\npresence of ammonia in rain-water beyond all doubt.\\nIt has hitherto escaped observation, because no per-\\nson thouofht of searchinjj for it.* All the rain-water\\nemployed in this inquiry was collected 600 paces\\nsouthwest of Giessen, whilst the wind was blowing\\nin the direction of the town. When several hundred\\npounds of it were distilled in a copper still, and the\\nfirst two or three pounds evaporated with the addi-\\ntion of a little muriatic acid, a very distinct crystal-\\nlization of sal-ammoniac was obtained the crystals\\nhad always a brown or yellow color.\\nAmmonia may likewise be always detected in snow-\\nwater. Crystals of sal-ammoniac were obtained by\\nevaporating in a vessel with muriatic acid several\\npounds of snow, which were gathered from the sur-\\nface of the ground in March, when the snow had a\\ndepth of 10 inches. Ammonia was set free from\\nthese crystals by the addition of hydrate of lime.\\nThe inferior layers of snow which rested upon the\\nground contained a quantity decidedly greater than\\nthose which formed the surface. f\\nIt is worthy of observation, that the ammonia con-\\ntained in rain and snow water possesses an offensive\\nsmell of perspiration and animal excrements, a\\nfact which leaves no doubt respecting its origin.\\nnot be too distinctly kept in mind that humic acid is the product of the\\ndecomposition of //7 mMS, by means of caustic alkalies. Again, if the\\ncolored solutions of humates of ammonia, lime, or magnesia, be poured\\nupon good mould or decayed oak wood (which is nearly pure hrimus),\\nand allowed to filter, the solutions are observed to pass through quite\\ncolorless they are decolorized just as if they had been filtered through\\ncharcoal. Here, then, humus possesses the property of extracting hu-\\nmrc acid from water or, in other words, soils have the power of ren-\\ndering humic acid insoluble, or unfit for assimilation. Ed.\\nIt has been discovered by Mr. Hayes in rain-water in Vermont,\\nand in hailstones by M Girardin, see London and Edinburgh Philo-\\nsophical Magazine, 1839, Vol. XV. p. 252. See note in Appendix.\\nt Johnston detected it in snow which fell at Durham, G. B., by add-\\ning two drops of sulphuric acid to four pints of snow-water, evaporating\\nto dryness, and mixing the dr};^ mass with quicklime or caustic potash\\nThe residual mass contained a brown organic matter, mixed with the\\nsulphaie of ammonia.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "92 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nHiinefield has proved that all the springs in Greifs-\\nwalde, Wick, Eldena, and Kostenhagen, contain car-\\nbonate and nitrate of ammonia. Ammoniacal salts\\nhave been discovered in many mineral springs in\\nKissingen and other places. The ammonia of these\\nsalts can only arise from the atmosphere.\\nAny one may satisfy himself of the presence of\\nammonia in rain by simply adding a little sulphuric\\nor muriatic acid to a quantity of rain-water, and\\nevaporating this nearly to dryness in a clean porce-\\nlain basin. The ammonia remains in the residue, in\\ncombination with the acid employed and may be\\ndetected either by the addition of a little chloride\\nof platinum, or more simply by a little powdered\\nlime, which separates the ammonia, and thus renders\\nits peculiar pungent smell sensible.* The sensation\\nwhich is perceived upon moistening the hand with\\nrain-water, so different from that produced by pure\\ndistilled water, and to which the term softness is\\nvulgarly applied, is also due to the carbonate of\\nammonia contained in the former.f\\nThe ammonia which is removed from the atmo-\\nsphere by rain and other causes, is as constantly re-\\nplaced by the putrefaction of animal and vegetable\\nmatters. A certain portion of that which falls with\\nthe rain evaporates again with the water, but another\\nportion is, we suppose, taken up by the roots of\\nplants, and, entering into new combinations in the\\ndifferent organs of assimilation, produces albumen,\\ngluten, quinine, morphia, cyanogen, and a number\\nof other compounds containing nitrogen. The chem-\\nical characters of ammonia render it capable of\\nSince tlie appearance of the first edition, this experiment has been\\nrepeated by many in France, Germany, America, and England, and the\\nexistence of ammonia in the atmosphere lias been completely confirm-\\ned. The ass ^rlion, that tliis ammonia possesses the offensive smell\\nof perspiration and animal excrements, has been ridiculed by many\\nas fanciful, by none, however, who have made the experiment. The\\nexperiment is so exceedingly easy to perform, that any one may con-\\nvince himself of tlie accuracy of the statement. En.\\nt A small quantity of iimmonia writer, added to what is commonly\\ncalled hard water, will give it the softness of rain or snow water.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "EXISTENCE OF AMMONIA IN THE JUICES OF PLANTS. 93\\nentering into such combinations, and of undergoing\\nnumerous transformations. We have now only to\\nconsider whether it really is taken up in the form\\nof ammonia by the roots of plants, and in that form\\napplied by their organs to the production of the\\nazotized matters contained in them. This question\\nis susceptible of easy solution by well-known facts.\\nIn the year 1834, I was engaged with Dr. Wil-\\nbrand, Professor of Botany in the University of\\nGiessen, in an investigation respecting the quantity\\nof sugar contained in different varieties of maple-\\ntrees, which grew upon soils which were not ma-\\nnured. We obtained crystallized sugars from all,\\nby simply evaporating their juices, without the ad-\\ndition of any foreign substance and we unexpected-\\nly made the observation, that a great quantity of\\nammonia was emitted from this juice when mixed\\nwith lime, and also from the sugar itself during its\\nrefinement. The vessels which hung upon the trees\\nin order to collect the juice were watched with\\ngreater attention, on account of the suspicion that\\nsome evil-disposed persons had introduced urine\\ninto them, but still a large quantity of ammonia was\\nagain found in the form of neutral salts. The juice\\nhad no color, and had no reaction on that of vegeta-\\nbles. Similar observations were made upon the\\njuice of the birch tree the specimens subjected to\\nexperiment were taken from a wood several miles\\ndistant from any house, and yet the clarified juice,\\nevaporated with lime, emitted a strong odor of\\nammonia.\\nIn the manufactories of beet-root sugar, many\\nthousand cubic feet of juice are daily purified with\\nlime, in order to free it from vegetable albumen and\\ngluten, and it is afterwards evaporated for crystalli-\\nzation. Every person who has entered such a manu-\\nfactory must have been astonished at the great\\nquantity of ammonia which is volatilized along with\\nthe steam. This ammonia must be contained in the\\nform of an ammoniacal salt, because the neutral", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "94 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\njuice possesses the same characters as the solution\\nof such a salt in water it acquires, namely, an\\nacid reaction during evaporation, in consequence of\\nthe neutral salt being converted by loss of ammonia\\ninto an acid salt. The free acid which is thus\\nformed is a source of loss to the manufacturers of\\nsugar from beet-root, by changing a part of the\\nsugar into uncrystallizable grape sugar and syrup.\\nThe products of the distillation of flowers, herbs,\\nand roots, with water, and all extracts of plants\\nmade for medicinal purposes, contain ammonia. The\\nunripe, transparent, and gelatinous pulp of the al-\\nmond and peach emit much ammonia when treated\\nwith alkalies. (Robiquet.) The juice of the fresh\\ntobacco leaf contains ammoniacal salts. The water\\nwhich exudes from a cut vine, when evaporated\\nwith a few drops of muriatic acid, also yields a\\ngummy, deliquescent mass, which evolves much am-\\nmonia on the addition of lime. Ammonia exists in\\nevery part of plants, in the roots (as in beet-root),\\nin the stem (of the maple-tree), and in all blossoms\\nand fruit in an unripe condition.\\nThe juices of the maple and birch contain both\\nsugar and ammonia, and therefore afford all the con-\\nditions necessary for the formation of the azotized\\ncomponents of the branches, blossoms, and leaves,\\nas well as of those which contain no azote or nitro-\\ngen. In proportion as the development of those\\nparts advances, the ammonia diminishes in quantity,\\nand when they are fully formed, the tree yields no\\nmore juice.\\nThe employment of animal manure in the cultiva-\\ntion of grain, and the vegetables which serve for\\nfodder to cattle, is the most convincing proof that\\nthe nitrogen of vegetables is derived from ammonia.\\nThe quantity of gluten in wheat, rye, and barley, is\\nvery different; these kinds of grain also, even when\\nripe, contain this compound of nitrogen in very\\ndifferent proportions. Proust found French wheat\\nto contain 12-5 per cent, of gluten; Vogel found that", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "VARIABLE QUANTITIES OF GLUTEN IN WHEAT. 95\\nthe Bavarian contained 24 per cent. Davy obtained\\n19 per cent, from winter, and 24 from summer\\nwheat; from Sicilian 21, and from Barbary wheat\\n19 per cent. The meal of Alsace wheat contains,\\naccording to Boussingault, 17-3 per cent, of gluten;\\nthat of wheat grown in the Jardin des Plantes\\n26-7, and that of winter wheat 3 33 per cent. Such\\ngreat differences must be owing to some cause, and\\nthis we find in the different methods of cultivation.\\nAn increase of animal manure gives rise not only\\nto an increase in the number of seeds, but also to\\na most remarkable difference in the proportion of\\nthe substances containing nitrogen, such as the\\ngluten which they contain.\\nAnimal manure, in as far as regards the assimila-\\ntion of nitrogen, acts only by the formation of am-\\nmonia. One hundred parts of wheat grown on a\\nsoil manured with cow-dung (a manure containing\\nthe smallest quantity of nitrogen), afforded only\\n11-95 parts of gluten, and 64*34 parts of amylin, or\\nstarch; whilst the same quantity, grown on a soil\\nmanured with human urine, yielded the maximum of\\ngluten, namely 35-1 per cent. Putrefied urine con-\\ntains nitrogen in the forms of carbonate, phosphate,\\nand lactate of ammonia, and in no other form than\\nthat of ammoniacal salts.\\nPutrid urine is employed in Flanders as a ma-\\nnure with the best results. During the putrefaction\\nof urine, ammoniacal salts are formed in large quan-\\ntity, it may be said exclusively; for under the in-\\nfluence of heat and moisture, urea, the most promi-\\nnent ingredient of the urine, is converted into car-\\nbonate of ammonia. The barren soil on the coast\\nof Peru is rendered fertile by means of a manure\\ncalled Guano, which is collected from several islands\\nin the South Sea.* It is sufficient to add a small\\nquantity of guano to a soil, which consists only of\\nThe guano, whicli forms a stratum several feet in thickness upon\\nthe surface of these islands, consists of the putrid excrements of in-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "96 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nsand and clay, in order to procure the richest crop\\nof maize. The soil itself does not contain the\\nsmallest particle of organic matter, and the manure\\nemployed is formed only of urate, phosphate, oxa-\\nlate, and carbonate of ammonia, together with a few\\nearthy salts.*\\nAmmonia, therefore, must have yielded the nitrogen\\nto these plants. Gluten is obtained not only from\\ncorn, but also from grapes and other plants but\\nthat extracted from the grapes is called vegetable\\nalbumen, although it is identical in composition and\\nproperties with the ordinary gluten.\\nIt is ammonia which yields nitrogen to the vege-\\ntable albumen, the principal constituent of plants\\nand it must be ammonia which forms the red and blue\\nnumerable sea fowl that remain on them during the breeding season.\\n(See the Chapter on Manures.)\\nAccording to Fourcroy and Vauquelin it contains a fourth part of\\nits weight of uric acid, with ammonia and potash.\\nThe London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, for July, 1841,\\ncontains a new analysis of the guano, made by M. Voelckel in the\\nlaboratory of Professor Wohler, and confirms what Klaprotli found,\\nviz., that it contains, besides unchanged uric acid, a considerable quan-\\ntity of two of its usual products of decomposition, viz. oxalic acid and\\nammonia. lUU parts of moist guano, contain,\\n{Voelckel). (Klaproth\\nUrate of ammonia, 9.0 l6.0\\nOxalate of do. 10.6\\nDo. of lime, 7.0 12.75\\nPhosphate of ammonia, 6.0\\nPhosphate of ammonia and magnesia, 2.6\\nSulphate of potash, 5.5\\nDo of soda, 3 8 common salt 0.05\\nChloride of ammonium, 4.2\\nPhosphate of lime, 14.3 10.00\\nClay and sand, 4.7 32.00\\nUndetermined organic substances,\\nof which about 12 per cent, is sol- 32.3 28.75\\nuble in water. A small quantity j\\nof a soluble salt of iron. Water, J\\n100.0 99.55\\nMr. J. H. Blake of Boston, who has recently visited Peru, informs\\nme, that near Pabellon de Pica there is a high hill, the base of which,\\nconsisting chiefly of guano, is washed by the sea. From this bed,\\nwhich is nearly a mile in length, and from 800 to 900 feet high, guano\\nmight be obtained at a cost, which would probably not e.xceed a cent\\nand a half per pound, delivered in the United States. (See also Ap-\\npendix.)\\nBoussingault. Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. Ixv. p. 319.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "COMPOSITION OF EXCREMENTITIOUS MATTER. 97\\ncoloring matters of flowers. Nitrogen is not pre-\\nsented to wild plants in any other form capable of\\nassimilation. Ammonia, by its transformation, fur-\\nnishes nitric acid to the tobacco plant, sun-flower,\\nChenopodium, and Borago officinalis, when they grow\\nin a soil completely free from nitre. Nitrates are\\nnecessary constituents of these plants, which thrive\\nonly when ammonia is present in large quantity, and\\nwhen they are also subject to the influence of the\\ndirect rays of the sun, an influence necessary to\\neff ect the disengagement within their stem and\\nleaves of the oxygen, which shall unite with the\\nammonia to form nitric acid.\\nThe urine of men and of carnivorous animals\\ncontains a large quantity of nitrogen, partly in the\\nform of phosphates, partly as urea. Urea is con-\\nverted during putrefaction into carbonate of ammo-\\nnia, that is to say, it takes the form of the very salt\\nwhich occurs in rain-water. Human urine is the\\nmost powerful manure for all vegetables containing\\nnitrogen that of horses and horned cattle contains\\nless of this element, but infinitely more than the\\nsolid excrements of these animals. In addition to\\nurea, the urine of herbivorous animals contains hip-\\npuric acid,* which is decomposed during putrefaction\\ninto benzoic acidf and ammonia. The latter enters\\ninto the composition of the gluten, but the benzoic\\nacid often remains unchanged for example, in the\\nAnthoxanthiun odoratuni.\\nThe solid excrements of animals contain compar-\\natively very little nitrogen, but this could not be\\notherwise. The food taken by animals supports\\nthem only in so far as it offers elements for assimila-\\ntion to the various organs which they may require\\nRouelle announced the discovery of an acid in the urine of the\\nhorse, which he called benzoic, hut in 1834 Liebig sliowed that this was\\nnot benzoic acid, but one easily convertible into it, and distinguished it\\nby the name hipptiric, from i/rn:oc, a horse, and ovqov, urine.\\nf Benzoic acid exists in gum benzoin, c. it is formed, according\\nto Liebig, by the oxidation of a supposed base called henzule. Its\\ncomposition is carbon 14, hydroo-en 5, oxygen 2.\\n9", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "98 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION. OF NITROGEN.\\nfor their increase or renewal. Corn, grass, and all\\nplants, without exception, contain azotized substan-\\nces.* The quantity of food which animals take for\\ntheir nourishment, diminishes or increases in the\\nsame proportion as it contains more or less of the\\nsubstances containing nitrogen. A horse may be\\nkept alive by feeding it with potatoes, which contain\\na very small quantity of nitrogen but life thus\\nsupported is a gradual starvation the animal in-\\ncreases neither in size nor strength, and sinks under\\nevery exertion. The quantity of rice which an\\nIndian eats astonishes the European but the fact\\nthat rice contains less nitrogen than any other kind\\nof grain at once explains the circumstance. f\\nNow, as it is evident that the nitrogen of the\\nplants and seeds used by animals as food must be\\nemployed in the process of assimilation, it is natural\\nto expect that the excrements of these animals will\\nbe deprived of it in proportion to the perfect diges-\\ntion of the food, and can only contain it when mixed\\nwith secretions from the liver and intestines. Under\\nall circumstances, they must contain less nitrogen\\nthan the food. When, therefore, a field is manured\\nwith animal excrements, a smaller quantity of matter\\nThe late Professor Gorhani obtained from Indian corn a substance\\nto which he gave the name Zeiiic, according to whose analysis it con-\\ntains no nitrogen but ammonia has since been obtained from it.\\nt According to the analysis of Braconnot {Jinn, de Chim. et de Phys.\\nt. iv. p. 370), this grain is thus constituted.\\nCarolina rice.\\nPiedmont rice.\\nWater, .5.00\\n7.00\\nStarch, 85.07\\n83 80\\nParenchyma, .4.80\\n4.80\\nGluten, 3.60\\n3.60\\nUncrystallizable sugar, 0.29\\n0.05\\nGummy matter approach- a 71\\ning to starch,\\n0.10\\nOil, 0.13\\n0.25\\nPhosphate of lime, 0.13\\n0.40\\n99.73 J 00.00. With tra-\\nces of muriate of potash, phosphate of potash, acetic acid, sulphur,\\nand lime, and potash united to a vegetable alkali.\\nVauquelin was unable to detect any saccharine matter in rice.\\nThomson s Organic Cheviistry, p. 883.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "FORM IN WHICH AMMONIA IS PRESENTED. 99\\ncontaining nitrogen is added to it than has been\\ntaken from it in the form of grass, herbs, or seeds.\\nBy means of manure, an addition only is made to\\nthe nourishment which the air supplies.\\nIn a scientific point of view, it should be the care\\nof the agriculturist so to employ all the substances\\ncontaining a large proportion of nitrogen which his\\nfarm affords in the form of animal excrements, that\\nthey shall sserve as nutriment to his own plants.\\nThis will not be the case unless those substances\\nare properly distributed upon his land. A heap of\\nmanure lying unemployed upon his land would serve\\nhim no more than his neighbors. The nitrogen in\\nit would escape as carbonate of ammonia into the\\natmosphere, and a mere carbonaceous residue of\\ndecayed plants would, after some years, be found in\\nits place.\\nAll animal excrements emit carbonic acid and\\nammonia, as long as nitrogen exists in them. In\\nevery stage of their putrefaction an escape of am-\\nmonia from them maybe induced by moistening them\\nwith a potash ley; the ammonia being apparent to\\nthe senses by a peculiar smell, and by the dense\\nwhite vapor which arises when a solid body moist-\\nened with an acid is brought near it. This ammonia\\nevolved from manure is imbibed by the soil either\\nin solution in water, or in the gaseous form, and\\nplants thus receive a larger supply of nitrogen than\\nis afforded to them by the atmosphere.\\nBut it is much less the quantity of ammonia,\\nyielded to a soil by animal excrements, than the\\nform in which it is presented by them, that causes\\ntheir great influence on its fertility. Wild plants\\nobtain more nitrogen from the atmosphere in the\\nform of ammonia than they require for their growth,\\nfor the water which evaporates through their leaves\\nand blossoms, emits, after some time, a putrid smell,\\na peculiarity possessed only by such bodies as con-\\ntain nitrogen. Cultivated plants receive the same\\nquantity of nitrogen from the atmosphere as trees,\\nL\u00c2\u00bbrc.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "100 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nshrubs, and other wild plants; but this is not suffi-\\ncient for the purposes of agriculture. Agriculture\\ndiffers essentially from the cultivation of forests,\\ninasmuch as its principal object consists in the pro-\\nduction of nitrogen under any form capable of\\nassimilation; whilst the object of forest culture is\\nconfined principally to the production of carbon.\\nAll the various means of culture are subservient to\\nthese two main purposes. A part only of the carbonate\\nof ammonia which is conveyed by rain to the soil is\\nreceived by plants, because a certain quantity of it\\nis volatilized with the vapor of water; only that\\nportion of it can be assimilated which sinks deeply\\ninto the soil, or which is conveyed directly to the\\nleaves by dew, or is absorbed from the air along\\nwith the carbonic acid.\\nLiquid animal excrements, such as the urine with\\nwhich the solid excrements are impregnated, contain\\nthe greatest part of their ammonia in the state of\\nsalts, in a form, therefore, in which it has completely\\nlost its volatility when presented in this condition,\\nnot the smallest portion of the ammonia is lost to\\nthe plants it is all dissolved by water, and imbibed\\nby their roots. The evident influence of gypsum\\nupon the growth of grasses the striking fertility\\nand luxuriance of a meadow upon which it is strewed\\ndepends only upon its fixing in the soil the am-\\nmonia of the atmosphere, which would otherwise be\\nvolatilized, with the water which evaporates.* The\\ncarbonate of ammonia contained in rain-water is\\ndecomposed by gypsum, in precisely the same man-\\nner as in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac. Soluble\\nsulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime are\\nformed; and this salt of ammonia possessing no\\nvolatility is consequently retained in the soil. All\\nthe gypsum gradually disappears, but its action upon\\nIt has long been the practice in some parts of the country to strew\\nthe floors of stables with gypsum. This prevents the disagreeable odor\\narising from the putrefaction of stable manure, by decomposing the\\njmmoniacal salts which are formed. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "USE OF GYPSUM. 101\\nthe carbonate of ammonia continues as long as a\\ntrace of it exists.\\nThe beneficial influence of gypsum and of many-\\nother salts has been compared to that of aroraatics,\\nwhich increase the activity of the human stomach\\nand intestines, and give a tone to the whole system.\\nBut plants contain no nerves we know of no sub-\\nstance capable of exciting them to intoxication and\\nmadness, or of lulling them to sleep and repose.\\nNo substance can possibly cause their leaves to ap-\\npropriate a greater quantity of carbon from the\\natmosphere, when the other constituents which the\\nseeds, roots, and leaves require for their growth are\\nwanting.* The favorable action of small quantities\\nof aromatics upon man, when mixed with his food,\\nis undeniable; but aromatics are given to plants\\nloithout food to be digested, and still they flourish\\nwith greater luxuriance.\\nIt is quite evident, therefore, that the common\\nview concerning the influence of certain salts upon\\nthe growth of plants evinces only ignorance of its\\ncause.\\nThe action of gypsum or chloride of calcium really\\nconsists in their giving a fixed condition to the\\nnitrogen or ammonia which is brought into the\\nsoil, and which is indispensable for the nutrition of\\nplants.\\nIn order to form a conception of the eff ect of\\nIn 1831, I suggested to a well known and most successful culti-\\nvator (Mr. Haggerston), the application of a weak solution of chlorine\\ngas to the soil in whicli plants were growing. It appeared to act\\nmerely as a stimulant, the plants flourished for a time with great lux-\\nuriance, and in some the foliage was remarkable. The leaves of a\\nPelargonium (well known as the Washiiiaton Geranmm) attained the\\ndiameter of a foot, but the flowers were by no means equal to those\\nof similar plants cultivated in the usual manner the plants soon\\nperished. Probably a supply of nutriment proportioned to the increased\\ndemand was not supplied.\\nThe necessity for this supply is now well known, and Pelargoniums\\nare now grown with great luxuriance and perfection, both of leaves\\nand flowers, by the free use of manure water, obtained by steeping\\nhorsedung in rain-water. The soil, too, best adapted to the plants is\\nchiefly prepared from decayed vegetable matter, derived from decom-\\nposed leaves and plants, mi. ced v^ ith that from the sods of fields.\\n9*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "102 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\ngypsum, it may be sufficient to remark, that 110 lbs.\\nof burned gypsum fixes as much ammonia in the\\nsoil as 6887 lbs. of horse s urine* would yield to it,\\neven on the supposition that all the nitrogen of the\\nurea and hippuric acid were absorbed by the plants\\nwithout the smallest loss, in the form of carbonate\\nof ammonia. If we admit with Boussingaultf that\\nthe nitrogen in grass amounts to j^^ of its weight,\\nthen every pound of nitrogen which we add in-\\ncreases the produce of the meadow 110 lbs., and\\nthis increased produce of 110 lbs. is effected by the\\naid of a little more than 4 lbs. of gypsum.\\nWater is absolutely necessary to effect the decom-\\nposition of the gypsum, on account of its difficult\\nsolubility, (1 part of gypsum requires 400 parts of\\nwater for solution,) and also to assist in the absorp-\\ntion of the sulphate of ammonia by the plants\\nhence it happens, that the influence of gypsum is\\nnot observable on dry fields and meadows. In such\\nit would be advisable to emplo} a salt of more easy\\nsolubility, such as chloride of calcium.\\nThe decomposition of gypsum by carbonate of\\nammonia does not take place instantaneously; on\\nthe contrary, it proceeds very gradually, and this\\nexplains why the action of the gypsum lasts for\\nseveral years.\\nThe advantage of manuring fields with burned\\nclay, and the fertility of ferruginous soils, which\\nhave been considered as facts so incomprehensible,\\nmay be explained in an equally simple manner.\\nThey have been ascribed to the great attraction for\\nwater, exerted by dry clay and ferruginous earth\\nbut common dry arable land possesses this property\\nThf urine of the horse contains, according to Fourcroy and Van-\\nquelin, in 1000 parts,\\nUrea 7 parts.\\nHippurate of soda 24\\nSalts and water 979\\n1000 parts,\\nt Boussingault, Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., t. Ixiii. page 243.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "USE OF BURNED CLAY AS A MANURE. 103\\nin as great a degree and besides, what influence\\ncan be ascribed to a hundred pounds of water spread\\nover an acre of land, in a condition in which it can-\\nnot be serviceable either by the roots or leaves\\nThe true cause is this\\nThe oxides of iron and alumina are distinguished\\nfrom all other metallic oxides by their power of form-\\ning solid compounds with ammonia. The precipi-\\ntates obtained by the addition of ammonia to salts\\nof alumina or iron are true salts, in which the ammo-\\nnia is contained as a base. Minerals containing alu-\\nmina or oxide of iron also possess, in an eminent de-\\ngree, the remarkable property of attracting ammonia\\nfrom the atmosphere and of retaining it. Vauquelin,\\nwhilst enorasfed in the trial of a criminal case, discov-\\nered that all rust of iron contains a certain quantity of\\nammonia. Chevalier afterwards found that ammonia\\nis a constituent of all minerals containing iron that\\neven hematite, a mineral which is not at all porous,\\ncontains one per cent, of it. Bonis showed also, that\\nthe peculiar odor observed on moistening minerals\\ncontaining alumina, is partly owing to their exhaling\\nammonia. Indeed, gypsum and some varieties of\\nalumina, pipe-clay for example, emit so much ammo-\\nnia, when moistened with caustic potash, that even\\nafter they have been exposed for two days, reddened\\nlitmus paper held over them becomes blue. Soils,\\ntherefore, which contain oxides of iron, and burned\\nclay, must absorb ammonia, an action which is fa-\\nvored by their porous condition they further pre-\\nvent the escape of the ammonia once absorbed, by\\ntheir chemical properties. Such soils, in fact, act\\nprecisely as a mineral acid would do, if extensively\\nspread over their surface; with this difference, that\\nthe acid would penetrate the ground, enter into com-\\nbination with lime, alumina, and other bases, and\\nthus lose, in a few hours, its property of absorbing\\nammonia from the atmosphere. The addition of\\nburned clay to soils has also a secondary influence", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "104 SOURCE AND ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN.\\nit renders the soil porous, and, therefore, more per-\\nmeable to air and moisture.\\nThe ammonia absorbed by the clay or ferruginous\\noxides is separated by every shower of rain, and\\nconveyed in solution to the soil.\\nPowdered charcoal possesses a similar action, but\\nsurpasses all other substances in the power which it\\npossesses of condensing ammonia within its pores,\\nparticularly when it has been previously heated to\\nredness. Charcoal absorbs 90 times its volume of\\nammoniacal gas, which may be again separated by\\nsimply moistening it with water. (De Saussure.)\\nDecayed wood approaches very nearly to charcoal in\\nthis power decayed oak wood absorbs 72 times its\\nvolume, after having been completely dried under\\nthe air-pump.* We have here an easy and satisfac-\\ntory means of explaining still further the properties\\nof humus, or wood in a decaying state. It is not\\nonly a slow and constant source of carbonic acid,\\nbut it is also a means by which the necessary nitro-\\ngen is conveyed to plants.\\nNitrogen is found in lichens, which grow on basal-\\ntic rocks. Our fields produce more of it than we\\nhave given them as manure, and it exists in all kinds\\nof soils and minerals which were never in contact\\nwith organic substances. The nitrogen in these cases\\ncould only have been extracted from the atmosphere.\\nWe find this nitrogen in the atmosphere in rain\\nwater and in all kinds of soils, in the form of ammo-\\nnia, as a product of the decay and putrefaction of\\npreceding generations of animals and vegetables.\\nWe find likewise that the proportion of azotized mat-\\nters in plants is augmented by giving them a larger\\nsupply of ammonia conveyed in the form of animal\\nmanure.\\nNo conclusion can then have a better foundation\\nIn experiments instituted by Dr. Daubeny, with a view of ascer-\\ntaining whether vegetable mould had not the same property, he found\\nthat both carbonic acid and ammoniacal gases were condensed within\\nits pores, as thej would be by a lump of charcoal.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS 105\\nthan this, that it is the ammonia of the atmosphere\\nwhich furnishes nitrogen to plants,*\\nCarbonic acid, water, and ammonia, contain the\\nelements necessary for the support of animals and\\nvegetables. The same substances are the ultimate\\nproducts of the chemical processes of decay and pu-\\ntrefaction. All the innumerable products of vitality\\nresume, after death, the original form from which\\nthey sprung. And thus death, the complete dis-\\nsolution of an existing generation, becomes the\\nsource of life for a new one.\\nCHAPTER VI.\\nOF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nCarbonic acid, water, and ammonia, are necessary\\nfor the existence of plants, because they contain the\\nelements from which their organs are formed; but\\nother substances are likewise requisite for the for-\\nmation of certain organs destined for special func-\\ntions peculiar to each family of plants. Plants ob-\\ntain these substances from inorganic nature. In the\\nashes left after the incineration of plants, the same\\nsubstances are found, although in a changed con-\\ndition.\\nAlthough the vital principle exercises a great pow-\\ner over chemical forces, yet it does so only by direct-\\ning the way in which they are to act, and not by\\nchanging the laws to which they are subject. Hence\\nwhen the chemical forces are employed in the pro-\\ncesses of vegetable nutrition, they must produce the\\nsame results which are observed in ordinary chemical\\nphenomena. The inorganic matter contained in plants\\nFrom some experiments with respect to the action of light upon\\nplants, Or Daubeny is inclined to suspect that in some cases hydro-\\ngen is assimilated whilst nitrogen is disengaged. See his. Memoir in\\nPkilus. Trans. 183C.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "106 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nmust, therefore, be subordinate to the laws which\\nregulate its combinations in common chemical pro-\\ncesses.\\nThe most important division of inorganic substan-\\nces is that of acids and alkalies. Both of these have\\na tendency to unite together, and form neutral com-\\npounds, which are termed salts. According to the\\ndoctrine of equivalents, these combinations are al-\\nways effected in definite proportions, that is to say,\\none equivalent of an acid always unites with one or\\ntwo equivalents of a base, whatever that base may\\nbe. Thus 501-17 parts by weight of sulphuric acid\\nunite with 1 eq. of potash, and form 1 eq. of sulphate\\nof potash the same quantity unites with 1 eq. of\\nsoda, and produces sulphate of soda. From this\\nfact follows the rule, that the quantity, which an\\nacid requires of an alkali for its saturation, may be\\nrepresented by a very simple number.\\nIt is perfectly necessary to form a proper concep-\\ntion of what chemists denominate the capacity\\nfor saturation of an acid, before we are able to\\nform a correct idea of the functions performed in\\nplants, by their inorganic constituents. The power\\nof a base to neutralize an acid does not- depend\\nupon the quantity of radical which it contains, but\\naltogether upon the quantity of its oxygen. Thus\\nprotoxide of iron contains 1 eq. of oxygen, and\\nunites with 1 eq. of sulphuric acid in forming a\\nneutral salt but peroxide of iron contains 3 eq. of\\noxygen, and requires 3 eq. of the same acid for its\\nneutralization. Hence when a given weight of an\\nacid is neutralized by different bases, the quantity\\nof oxygen contained in these bases must be the\\nsame as is exhibited by the following scale\\n501*17 parts of Sulphuric Acid neutralize S.jS-.jS Magnesia Oxygen 100\\n64.729 Strontia =100\\n1451-61 Oxide of Silver =100\\n956-8 Barytes 100\\nIt follows from the law of equivalents, that the\\nquantity of oxygen in a base must stand in a simple\\nrelation to the quantity of oxygen in an acid which", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "IMPORTANCE OF ALKALINE BASES. 107\\nunites with it. By this is meant, that the quantities\\nin both cases must either be equal or multiples of\\neach other for the doctrine of equivalents denies\\nthe possibility of their uniting in fractional parts.\\nThis will be rendered obvious by a consideration of\\nthe two following examples\\n100 parts of Cyanic Acid contain 23 26 oxygen 1.\\n100 parts of Cyanic Acid saturate 137-21 parts of potash, which contain\\n23 26 oxygen i\\n100 parts of Nitric Acid contain 73-85 oxygen =5.\\n100 parts of Nitric Acid saturate 214-40 parts of oxide of silver, which\\ncontain 1477 oxygen 1.\\nIn the first of these cases, the relation of the\\noxygen of the base to that of the acid is as 1 1 in\\nthe second, as 1 5. The capacity for saturation\\nof each acid is, therefore, the constant quantity of\\noxygen necessary to neutralize 100 parts of it.\\nMany of the inorganic constituents vary accord-\\ning to the soil in which the plants grow, but a cer-\\ntain number of them are indispensable to their de-\\nvelopment. All substances in solution in a soil\\nare absorbed by the roots of plants, exactly as a\\nsponge imbibes a liquid, and all that it contains,\\nwathout selection. The substances thus conveyed\\nto plants are retained in greater or less quantity, or\\nare entirely separated w^hen not suited for assimi-\\nlation.\\nPhosphate of magnesia in combination with am-\\nmonia is an invariable constituent of the seeds of\\nall kinds of grasses. It is contained in the outer\\nhorny husk, and is introduced into bread along with\\nthe flour, and also into beer. The bran of flour con-\\ntains the greatest quantity of it. It is this salt\\nwhich forms large crystalline concretions, often\\namounting to several pounds in weight, in the ccBcuni\\nof horses belonging to millers and when ammonia\\nis mixed with beer, the same salt separates as a\\nwhite precipitate.\\nMost plants, perhaps all of them, contain organic\\nacids of very diff erent composition and properties,\\nall of which are in combination with bases, such as", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "108 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\npotash, soda, lime, or magnesia. These bases evi-\\ndently regulate the formation of the acids, for the\\ndiminution of the one is followed by a decrease of\\nthe other thus in the grape, for example, the quan-\\ntity of potash contained in its juice is less when\\nit is ripe than when unripe and the acids, under\\nthe same circumstances, are found to vary in a simi-\\nlar manner. Such constituents exist in small quan-\\ntity in those parts of a plant in which the process\\nof assimilation is most active, as in the mass of\\nwoody fibre and their quantity is greater in those\\norgans whose office it is to prepare substances con-\\nveyed to them for assimilation by other parts. The\\nleaves contain more inorganic matters than the\\nbranches, and the branches more than the stem.\\nThe potato plant contains more potash before blos-\\nsoming than after it.\\nThe acids found in the different families of plants\\nare of various kinds it cannot be supposed that\\ntheir presence and peculiarities are the result of\\naccident. The fumaric and oxalic acids in the liver-\\nwort, the kinovic acid in the China nova, the ro-\\ncellic acid in the Rocella tinctoria, the tartaric acid\\nin grapes, and the numerous other organic acids,\\nmust serve some end in vegetable life. But if these\\nacids constantly exist in vegetables, and are neces-\\nsary to their life, which is incontestable, it is equally\\ncertain that some alkaline base is also indispensable,\\nin order to enter into combination with the acids\\nwhich are always found in the state of salts. All\\nplants yield by incineration ashes containing car-\\nbonic acid all therefore must contain salts of an\\norganic acid.*\\nNow, as we know the capacity of saturation of\\norganic acids to be unchanging, it follows that the\\nquantity of the bases united with them cannot vary,\\nand for this reason the latter substances ought to\\nSalts of organic acids yield carbonates on incineration, if they\\ncontain either alkaline or earthy bases.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "INVARIABLE QUANTITY OF ALKALINE BASES. 109\\nbe considered with the strictest attention both by\\nthe agriculturist and physiologist.\\nWe have no reason to believe that a plant in a\\ncondition of free and unimpeded growth produces\\nmore of its peculiar acids than it requires for its\\nown existence; hence, a plant, on whatever soil it\\ngrows, must contain an invariable quantity of alka-\\nline bases. Culture alone will be able to cause a\\ndeviation.\\nIn order to understand this subject clearly, it will\\nbe necessary to bear in mind that any one of the\\nalkaline bases may be substituted for another, the\\naction of all being the same. Our conclusion is\\ntherefore by no means endangered by the existence\\nof a particular alkali in one plant, which may be\\nabsent in others of the same species. If this in-\\nference be correct, the absent alkali or earth must\\nbe supplied by one similar in its mode of action, or\\nin other words, by an equivalent of another base.\\nThe number of equivalents of these various bases\\nwhich may be combined with a certain portion of\\nacid must necessarily be the same, and therefore the\\namount of oxygen contained in them must remain\\nunchanged under all circumstances and on whatever\\nsoil they grow.\\nOf course, this argument refers only to those\\nalkaline bases which in the form of organic salts\\nform constituents of the plants. Now, these salts\\nare preserved in the ashes of plants as carbonates,\\nthe quantity of which can be easily ascertained.\\nIt has been distinctly shown, by the analysis of\\nDe Saussure and Berthier, that the nature of a soil\\nexercises a decided influence on the quantity of the\\ndiff erent metallic oxides contained in the plants\\nwhich grow on it that magnesia, for example, was\\ncontained in the ashes of a pine-tree grown at Mont\\nBreven, whilst it was absent from the ashes of a\\ntree of the same species from Mont La Salle, and\\nthat even the proportion of lime and potash was\\nvery different.\\n10", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "110 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nHence it has been concluded, (erroneously, I be-\\nlieve,) that the presence of bases exercises no par-\\nticular influence upon the growth of plants but\\neven were this view correct, it must be considered\\nas a most remarkable accident that these same\\nanalyses furnish proof for the very opposite opinion.\\nFor although the composition of the ashes of these\\npine-trees was so very different, they contained,\\naccording to the analyses of De Saussure, an equal\\nnumber of equivalents of metallic oxides; or, what\\nis the same thing, the quantity of oxygen contained\\nin all the bases was in both cases the same.\\n100 parts of the ashes of the pine-tree from Mont\\nBreven contained\\nCarbonate of Potash 3G0 Quantity of oxygen in the Potash 0 41\\nLime 46-34 Lime 7-33\\nMagnesia 6-77 Magnesia 1-27\\nSum of the carbonates 56-71 Sum of the oxygen in the bases 9-01\\n100 parts of the ashes of the pine from Mont La\\nSalle contained*\\nCarbonate of Potash 7-36 Quantity of oxygen in the Potash 0.85\\nLime 51-19 Lime 8-10\\nMagnesia 00-00\\nSum of the carbonates 58-55 Sum of the oxygen in the bases 8-95\\nThe numbers 9-01 and 8-95 resemble each other\\nas nearly as could be expected even in analyses\\nmade for the very purpose of ascertaining the fact\\nabove demonstrated, which the analyst in this case\\nhad not in view.\\nLet us now compare Berthier s analyses of the\\nashes of two fir-trees, one of which grew in Norway,\\nthe other in Allevard (department de I Isere). One\\ncontained 50, the other 25 per cent, of soluble salts.\\nA greater difference in the proportion of the alkaline\\nbases could scarcely exist between two totally dif-\\nAccording to the experiments of Saussure, 1000 parts of the wood of\\nihe pine from Mont Breven gave 11-S7 parts of ashes; the same quan-\\ntity of wood from Mont La Salle yielded 11-28 parts. From this we\\nmight conclude that tlie two pines, although brought up in different\\nsoils, yet contained the same quantity of inorganic elements.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "INVARIABLE QUANTITY OF ALKALINE BASES. HI\\nferent plants, and yet even here the quantity of\\noxygen in the bases of both was the same,\\n100 parts of the ashes of firwood from Allevard\\ncontained, according to Berthier, (Ann. de Chim. et\\nde Phys. t, xxxii. p. 248,)\\nPotash and Soda 16-8 in which 3-42 parts must be oxygen.\\nLime 29-5 8-20\\nMagnesia 32 1.20\\n49-5 12-82\\nOnly part of the potash and soda in these ashes\\nwas in combination with organic acids the remain-\\nder was in the form of sulphates, phosphates, and\\nchlorides. One hundred parts of the ashes contain\\n3-1 sulphuric acid, 4-2 phosphoric acid, and 0-3 hy-\\ndrochloric acid, which together neutralize a quantity\\nof base containing 1-20 oxygen. This number there-\\nfore must be subtracted from 12-82. The remainder\\n11-62 indicates the quantity of oxygen in the alka-\\nline bases, combined with organic acids in the fir-\\nwood of Allevard.\\nThe firwood of Norway contained in 100 parts,*\\nPotash 14-1 of which 2-4 parts would be oxygen.\\nSoda 20-7 5-3\\nLime 12-3 3-45\\nMagnesia 435 1-69\\n51-4.5 1284\\nAnd if the quantity of oxygen of the bases in com-\\nbination with sulphuric and phosphoric acid, viz.\\n1-37, be again subtracted from 12-84, 11-47 parts\\nremain as the amount of oxygen contained in the\\nbases which were in combination with organic acids.\\nThese remarkable approximations cannot be acci-\\ndental and if further examinations confirm them\\nin other kinds of plants, no other explanation than\\nthat already given can be adopted.\\nThis calculation is e.vact only in the case where the quantity of\\nashes is equal in weight for a given quantity of wood the difference\\ncannot, however, be admitted to be so great as to change sensibly the\\nabove proportions. Berthier has not mentioned the proportion of ashes\\ncontained in the wood.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "112 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nIt is not known in what form silica, manganese,\\nand oxide of iron, are contained in plants but we\\nare certain that potash, soda, and magnesia, can be\\nextracted from all parts of their structure in the\\nform of salts of organic acids. The same is the\\ncase with lime, when not present as insoluble oxalate\\nof lime. It must here be remembered, that in plants\\nyielding oxalic acid, the acid and potash never exist\\nin the form of a neutral or quadruple salt, but always\\nas a double acid salt, on whatever soil they may\\ngrow. The potash in grapes also, is more frequently\\nfound as an acid salt, viz. cream of tartar (bitartrate\\nof potash), than in the form of a neutral compound.\\nAs these acids and bases are never absent from\\nplants, and as even the form in which they present\\nthemselves is not subject to change, it may be\\naffirmed that they exercise an important influence\\non the development of the fruits and seeds, and also\\non many other functions of the nature of which we\\nare at present ignorant.\\nThe quantity of alkaline bases existing in a plant\\nalso depends evidently on this circumstance of their\\nexisting only in the form of acid salts, for the\\ncapacity of saturation of an acid is constant; and\\nwhen we see oxalate of lime in the lichens occupy-\\ning the place of w^oody fibre which is absent, we\\nmust regard it as certain that the soluble organic\\nsalts are destined to fulfil equally important though\\ndiiferent functions, so much so that we could not\\nconceive the complete development of a plant with-\\nout their presence, that is, without the presence of\\ntheir acids, and consequently of their bases.\\nFrom these considerations we must perceive, that\\nexact and trustworthy examinations of the ashes of\\nplants of the same kind growing upon different soils\\nwould be of the greatest importance to vegetable\\nphysiology, and would decide whether the facts\\nabove mentioned are the results of an unchanging\\nlaw for each family of plants, and whether an inva-\\nriable number can be found to express the quantity", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "SUBSTITUTION OF ALKALINE BASES. 113\\nof oxygen which each species of plant contains in\\nthe bases united with organic acids. In all proba-\\nbility such inquiries will lead to most important\\nresults for it is clear that if the production of a\\ncertain unchanging quantity of an organic acid is\\nrequired by the peculiar nature of the organs of a\\nplant, and is necessary to its existence, then potash\\nor lime must be taken up by it in order to form salts\\nwith this acid that if these do not exist in suffi-\\ncient quantity in the soil, other bases must supply\\ntheir place and that the progress of a plant must\\nbe wholly arrested Avhen none are present.\\nSeeds of the Salsola Kali, when sown in common\\ngarden soil, produce a plant containing both potash\\nand soda while the plants grown from the seeds of\\nthis contain only salts of potash, with mere traces\\nof muriate of soda. (Cadet.)\\nThe examples cited above, in which the quantity\\nof oxygen contained in the bases was shown to be\\nthe same, lead us to the legitimate conclusion, that\\nthe development of certain plants is not retarded\\nby the substitution of the bases contained in them.\\nBut it was by no means inferred that any one base\\ncould replace all the others, which are found in a\\nplant in its normal condition. On the contrary, it\\nis known that certain bases are indispensable for the\\ngrowth of a plant, and these could not be substituted\\nwithout injuring its development. Our inference has\\nbeen drawn from certain plants, which can bear\\nwithout injury this substitution and it can only be\\nextended to those plants which are in the same con-\\ndition. It will be shown afterwards that corn or\\nvines can only thrive on soils containing potash, and\\nthat this alkali is perfectly indispensable to their\\ngrowth. Experiments have not been sufficiently\\nmultiplied so as to enable us to point out in what\\nplants potash or soda may be replaced by lime or\\nmagnesia we are only warranted in affirming that\\nsuch substitutions are in many cases common. The\\nashes of various kinds of plants contain very differ-\\n10*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "114 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nent quantities of alkaline bases, such as potash, soda,\\nlime, or magnesia. When lime exists in the ashes\\nin large proportion, the quantity of magnesia is di-\\nminished, and in like manner according as the latter\\nincreases the lime or potash decreases. In many kinds\\nof ashes not a trace of magnesia can be detected.\\nThe existence of vegetable alkalies in combination\\nwith organic acids gives great weight to the opinion,\\nthat alkaline bases in general are connected with\\nthe development of plants.\\nIf potatoes are grown where they are not supplied\\nwith earth, the magazine of inorganic bases, (in\\ncellars, for example,) a true alkali, called Solanin,\\nof very poisonous nature, is formed in the sprouts\\nwhich extend towards the light, while not the small-\\nest trace of such a substance can be discovered in\\nthe roots, herbs, blossoms, or fruits of potatoes\\ngrown in fields. (Otto.)* In all the species of the\\nCinchona, kinic acid is found but the quantity of\\nquinia, cinchonina, and lime, which they contain is\\nmost variable. From the fixed bases in the products\\nof incineration, however, we may estimate pretty\\naccurately the quantity of the peculiar organic bases.\\nA maximum of the first corresponds to a minimum of\\nthe latter, as must necessarily be the case if they\\nmutually replace one another according to their\\nequivalents. We know that different kinds of opium\\ncontain meconic acid in combination with very dif-\\nferent quantities of narcotina, morphia, codeia, c.,\\nthe quantity of one of these alkaloids diminishing\\non the increase of the others. Thus the smallest\\nThe analysis of potatoes afforded M. Henry\\nStarch 13.30\\nWater 73.12\\nAlbumen 92\\nUncrystallizable sugar 3.30\\nVolatile poisonous matter 0.05\\nPeculiar fatty matter 1.12\\nParenchyma 6.79\\nMalic acid and salts 1.40\\n100.00", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "EXCREMENTS OF PLANTS. 115\\nquantity of morphia is accompanied Ly a maximum\\nof narcotina. Not a ti ace of meconic acid* can be\\ndiscovered in many kinds of opium, but there is not\\non this account an absence of acid, for the meconic\\nis here replaced by sulphuric acid. Here, also, we\\nhave an example of what has been before stated, for\\nin those kinds of opium where both these acids ex-\\nist, they are always found to bear a certain relative\\nproportion to one another. Attention to these facts\\nmust be very important in the selection of soils des-\\ntined for the cultivation of plants which yield the\\nvegetable alkaloids.\\nNow if it be found, as appears to be the case in\\nthe juice of poppies, that an organic acid may be re-\\nplaced by an inorganic, without impeding the growth\\nof a plant, we must admit the probability of this sub-\\nstitution taking place in a much higher degree in the\\ncase of the inorganic bases.\\nWhen roots find their more appropriate base in\\nsufficient quantity, they will take up less of another.\\nThese phenomena do not show themselves so fre-\\nquently in cultivated plants, because they are sub-\\njected to special external conditions for the purpose\\nof the production of particular constituents or par-\\nticular organs.\\nWhen the soil, in which a white hyacinth is grow-\\ning in a state of blossom, is sprinkled with the juice\\nof the Phytolacca decandra,f the white blossoms as-\\nsume in one or two hours a red color, which again\\ndisappears after a few days under the influence of\\nsunshine, and they become white and colorless as\\nbefore. I The juice in this case evidently enters into\\nall parts of the plant, without being at all changed\\nin its chemical nature, or without its presence being\\napparently either necessary or injurious. But this\\nRobiquet did not obtain a trace of meconate of lime from 300 lbs.\\nof opium, whilst in other kinds the quantity was very considerable.\\n\u00c2\u00a3nn. de C liim. liii. p. 425.\\nt American nightshade.\\nI Biot, in the Comptes rendus des Siances de V Acadimie des Sciences,\\nii Paris, ler Simestre, 1837, p. 12.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "116 OF THE INOKGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\ncondition is not permanent, and Avhen the blossoms\\nhave again become colorless, none of the coloring\\nmatter remains and if it should occur that any of\\nits elements were adapted for the purposes of nutri-\\ntion of the plant, then these alone would be retained,\\nwhilst the rest would be excreted in an altered form\\nby the roots.\\nExactly the same thing must happen when we\\nsprinkle a plant with a solution of chloride of potas-\\nsium, nitre, or nitrate of strontia they will enter\\ninto the different parts of the plant, just as the col-\\nored juice mentioned above, and will be found in\\nits ashes if it should be burnt at this period. Their\\npresence is merely accidental; but no conclusion can\\nbe hence deduced against the necessity of the pres-\\nence of other bases in plants. The experiments of\\nMacaire-Princep have shown, that plants made to\\nvegetate with their roots in a weak solution of ace-\\ntate of lead, and then in rain-water, yield to the lat-\\nter all the salt of lead which they had previously ab-\\nsorbed. They return, therefore, to the soil all mat-\\nters which are unnecessary to their existence. Again,\\nwhen a plant, freely exposed to the atmosphere, rain,\\nand sunshine, is sprinkled with a solution of nitrate\\nof strontia, the salt is absorbed, but it is again sep-\\narated by the roots and removed further from them\\nby every shower of rain, which moistens the soil, so\\nthat at last not a trace of it is to be found in the\\nplant.\\nLet us consider the composition of the ashes of\\ntwo fir-trees as analyzed by an acute and most accu-\\nrate chemist. One of these grew in Norway, on a\\nsoil the constituents of which never changed, but to\\nwhich soluble salts, and particularly common salt,\\nwere conveyed in great quantity by rain-water. How\\ndid it happen that its ashes contained no appreciable\\ntrace of salt, although we are certain that its roots\\nmust have absorbed it after every shower\\nWe can explain the absence of salt in this case by\\nmeans of the direct and positive observations refer-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "EXCREMENTS OF PLANTS. 117\\nred to, which have shown that plants have the power\\nof returning to the soil all substances unnecessary\\nto their existence J and the conclusion to which all\\nthe foregoing facts lead us, when their real value and\\nbearing are apprehended, is that the alkaline bases\\nexisting in the ashes of plants must be necessary to\\ntheir growth, since if this were not the case they\\nwould not be retained.\\nThe perfect development of a plant, according to\\nthis view, is dependent on the presence of alkalies\\nor alkaline earths for when these substances are\\ntotally wanting its growth will be arrested, and when\\nthey are only deficient it must be impeded.\\nIn order to apply these remarks, let us compare\\ntwo kinds of trees, the wood of which contains une-\\nqual quantities of alkaline bases, and we shall find\\nthat one of these grows luxuriantly in several soils\\nupon which the others are scarcely able to vegetate.\\nFor example, .10,000 parts of oak-wood yield 250\\nparts of ashes, the same quantity of fir-wood only\\n83, of linden-wood 500, of rye 440, and of the herb\\nof the potato-plant 1500 parts.*\\nFirs and pines find a sufficient quantity of alkalies\\nin granitic and barren sandy soils in which oaks will\\nnot grow and wheat thrives in soils favorable for\\nthe linden-tree, because the bases which are neces-\\nsary to bring it to complete maturity, exist there in\\nsufficient quantity. The accuracy of these conclu-\\nsions, so highly important to agriculture and to the\\ncultivation of forests, can be proved by the most\\nevident facts.\\nAll kinds of grasses, the Equisef.ace(B, for exam-\\nple, contain in the outer parts of their leaves and\\nstalk a large quantity of silicic acid and potash in\\nthe form of acid silicate of potash. The proportion\\nof this salt does not vary perceptibly in the soil of\\ncorn-fields, because it is again conveyed to them as\\nmanure in the form of putrefying straw. But this is\\nBerthier, ^nnales de Cliimie et de Physique, t. xxx. p. 248.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "118 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nnot the case in a meadow, and hence we never find a\\nluxuriant crop of grass on sandy and calcareous\\nsoils, which contain little potash, evidently because\\none of the constituents indispensable to the growth\\nof the plants is wanting. Soils formed from basalt,\\ngrauwacke, and porphyry, are, ccetej^is paribus, the\\nbest for meadow-land, on account of the quantity of\\npotash which enters into their composition. The\\npotash abstracted by the plants is restored during\\nthe annual irrigation. The potash contained in the\\nsoil itself is inexhaustible in comparison with the\\nquantity removed by plants. But when we increase\\nthe crop of grass in a meadow by means of gypsum,\\nwe remove a greater quantity of potash with the hay\\nthan can under the same circumstances be restored.\\nHence it happens that, after the lapse of several\\nyears, the crops of grass on the meadows manured\\nwith gypsum diminish, owing to the deficiency of\\npotash. But if the meadow be strewed from time to\\ntime with wood-ashes, even with the lixiviated ashes\\nwhich have been used by soap-boilers, (in Germany\\nmuch soap is made from the ashes of wood,) then\\nthe grass thrives as luxuriantly as before. The ash-\\nes are only a means of restoring the potash, f\\nIt would be of importance to examine what alkalies are contained\\nin the ashes of the seashore plants which grow in the humid hollows\\nof downs, and especially in those of the millet-grass. If potash is not\\nfound in them, it must certainly be replaced by soda as in the Salsola,\\nor by lime as in the Plurabaainea. L.\\nt The compost which has been employed with most advantage as a\\ntop dressing to grass by Mr. Haggerston, on the estate of J. P. Gushing,\\nEsq., at Watertown, is prepared from peat and barilla alone.\\nThe peat previously cut and dried is made into heaps with alternate\\nlayers of barilla, tlie thickness of each layer of peat being eight inches,\\nand of the barilla four inches. This heap is allowed to remain undis-\\nturbed during the winter, in the spring it is carefully turned and then\\nallowed to remain until the ensuing autumn, when it is spread upon\\nthe land.\\nPeat which is to be ploughed into the land, having been deposited in\\nthe yard to which swine have free access, is mixed with stable manure\\nin the proportion of two thirds peat to one third manure.\\nBarilla is the crude soda which is imported from Spain, Sicily, c.,\\nwhere it is prepared by burning the plant called salsola soda. Accord-\\ning to Dr. Ure it contains 20 per cent, of real alkali (soda) with muri-\\nates and sulphates of soda, some lime and alumina, with very little\\nsulphur.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "REPLACEMENT OF EXHAUSTED ALKALIES. 119\\nA harvest of grain is obtained every thirty or forty\\nyears from the soil of the Luneburg heath, by strew-\\ning it with the ashes of the heath-plants {Erica vul-\\ngaris) which grow on it. These plants during the\\nlong period just mentioned collect the potash and\\nsoda, which are conveyed to them by rain-water\\nand it is by means of these alkalies that oats, barley,\\nand rye, to which they are indispensable, are ena-\\nbled to grow on this sandy heath.\\nThe woodcutters in the vicinity of Heidelberg have\\nthe privilege of cultivating the soil for their own use,\\nafter felling the trees used for making tan. Before\\nsowing the land thus obtained, the branches, roots,\\nand leaves, are in every case burned, and the ashes\\nused as a manure, which is found to be quite indis-\\npensable for the growth of the grain. The soil itself\\nupon which the oats grow in this district consists of\\nsandstone and although the trees find in it a quan-\\ntity of alkaline earths sufficient for their own suste-\\nnance, yet in its ordinary condition it is incapable\\nof producing grain.\\nThe most decisive proof of the use of strong\\nmanure was obtained at Bingen (a town on the\\nRhine), w^here the produce and development of vines\\nwere highly increased by manuring them with such\\nsubstances as shavings of horn, c. but after some\\nyears the formation of the wood and leaves de-\\ncreased to the great loss of the possessor, to such\\na degree that he has long had cause to regret his\\ndeparture from the usual methods. By the manure\\nemployed by him, the vines had been too much\\nhastened in their growth; in two or three years\\nthey had exhausted the potash in the formation of\\ntheir fruit, leaves, and wood, so that none remained\\nfor the future crops, his manure not having con-\\ntained any potash.\\nThere are vineyards on the Rhine the plants of\\nwhich are above a hundred years old, and all of\\nthese have been cultivated by manuring them with\\ncow-dung, a manure containing a large proportion", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "120 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nof potash, although very little nitrogen. All the\\npotash, in fact, which is contained in the food con-\\nsumed by a cow is again immediately discharged in\\nits excrements.\\nThe experience of a proprietor of land in the\\nvicinity of Gottingen offers a most remarkable ex-\\nample of the incapability of a soil to produce wheat\\nor grasses in general, when it fails in any one of\\nthe materials necessary to their growth. In order\\nto obtain potash, he planted his whole land with\\nwormwood, the ashes of which are well known to\\ncontain a large proportion of the carbonate of that\\nalkali. The consequence was, that he rendered his\\nland quite incapable of bearing grain for many years,\\nin consequence of having entirely deprived the soil\\nof its potash.\\nThe leaves and small branches of trees contain\\nthe most potash; and the quantity of them which is\\nannually taken from a wood, for the purpose of\\nbeing employed as litter,* contains more of that alkali\\nthan all the old wood which is cut down. The bark\\nand foliage of oaks, for example, contain from 6 to\\n9 per cent, of this alkali; the needles of firs and\\npines, 8 per cent.\\nWith every 2920 lbs. of firwood which are yearly\\nremoved from an acre of forest, only from 0-125 to\\n0-58 lbs. of alkalies are abstracted from the soil,\\ncalculating the ashes at 0*83 per cent. The moss,\\nhowever, which covers the ground, and of which the\\nashes are known to contain so much alkali, con-\\ntinues uninterrupted in its growth, and retains that\\npotash on the surface, which would otherwise so\\neasily penetrate with the rain through the sandy\\nsoil. By its decay, an abundant provision of alkalies\\nThis refers to a custom some time since very prevalent in Ger-\\nmany, altliouffli now discontinued. The leaves and small twigs of\\ntrees were gleaned from the forests by poor people, for the purpose\\nof being used as litter for their cattle. The trees, however, were\\nfound to suffer so much in consequence, that their removal is now\\nstrictly prohibited. The cause of the injury was that stated in the\\ntext. Ed.]", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "NECESSITY OF CERTAIN CONDITIONS FOR NUTRITION. 121\\nis supplied to the roots of the trees, and a fresh\\nsupply is rendered unnecessary.\\nThe supposition of alkalies, metallic oxides, or in-\\norganic matter in general, being produced by plants,\\nis entirely refuted by these well-authenticated facts.\\nIt is thought very remarkable, that those plants\\nof the grass tribe, the seeds of which furnish food\\nfor man, follow him like the domestic animals. But\\nsaline plants seek the seashore or saline springs,\\nand the Chenopodium the dunghill from similar\\ncauses. Saline plants require common salt, and the\\nplants which grow only on dunghills need ammonia\\nand nitrates, and they are attracted whither these\\ncan be found, just as the dung-fly is to animal ex-\\ncrements. So likewise none of our corn-plants can\\nbear perfect seed\u00c2\u00a7, that is, seeds yielding flour,\\nwithout a large supply of phosphate of magnesia and\\nammonia, substances which they require for their\\nmaturity. And hence, these plants grow only in a\\nsoil where these three constituents are found com-\\nbined, and no soil is richer in them than those\\nwhere men and animals dwell together where the\\nurine and excrements of these are found corn-plants\\nappear, because their seeds cannot attain maturity un-\\nless supplied with the constituents of those matters.\\nWhen we find sea-plants near our salt-works,\\nseveral hundred miles distant from the sea, we know\\nthat their seeds have been carried there in a very\\nnatural manner, namely, by wind or birds, which\\nhave spread them over the whole surface of the\\nearth, although they grow only in those places in\\nwhich they find the conditions essential to their life.\\nNumerous small fish, of not more than two inches\\nin length Gasterosteiis aciileatus), are found in the\\nsalt-pans of the graduating house at Nidda (a vil-\\nlage in Hesse Darmstadt). No living animal is found\\nin the salt-pans of Neuheim, situated about 18 miles\\nfrom Nidda but the water there contains so much\\ncarbonic acid and lime, that the walls of the gradu-\\nating house are covered with stalactites. Hence\\n11", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "122 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nthe eggs conveyed to this place by birds do not\\nfind the conditions necessary for their development,\\nwhich they found in the former place.*\\nHow much more wonderful and inexplicable does\\nit appear, that bodies which remain fixed in the\\nstrong heat of a fire, have under certain conditions\\nthe property of volatilizing,and, at ordinary tempera-\\ntures, of passing into a state, of which we cannot\\nsay whether they have really assumed the form of a\\ngas or are dissolved in one Steam or vapors in\\ngeneral have a very singular influence in causing\\nthe volatilization of such bodies, that is, of causing\\nthem to assume the gaseous form. A liquid during\\nevaporation communicates the power of assuming\\nthe same state in a greater or less degree to all sub-\\nstances dissolved in it, although they do not of\\nthemselves possess that propel-ty.\\nBoracic acidf is a substance which is completely\\nfixed in the fire it suffers no change of weight ap-\\npreciable by the most delicate balance, when ex-\\nposed to a white heat, and, therefore, it is not\\nvolatile. Yet its solution in water cannot be evap-\\norated by the gentlest heat, without the escape of a\\nsensible quantity of the acid with the steam. Hence\\nit is that a loss is always experienced in the analysis\\nof minerals containing this acid, when liquids in\\nThe itch-insect (Acarus Scabiei) is considered by Burdach as the\\nproduction of a morbid condition, so likewise lice in children the\\noriginal generation of the fresh-water muscle (mytilus) in fish-ponds,\\nof sea-plants in the vicinity of salt-works, of nettles and grasses, of\\nfish in pools of rain, of trout in mountain streams, c., is according to\\nthe same natural philosopher not impossible. A soil consisting of\\ncrumbled rocks, decayed vegetables, rain and salt water, c is here\\nsupposed to possess the power of generating shell fish, trout, and salt-\\nwort (suJicorvia). All inquiry is arrested by such opinions, when\\npropag;ited by a teacher who enjoys a merited reputation, obtained by\\nknowledge and hard labor. These subjects, however, have hitherto\\nmet with the most superficial observation, although they well merit\\nstrict investigation. The dark, the secret, the mysterious, the enigmatic,\\nis, in fact, too seducing for the youthful and philosophic mind, which\\nwould penetrate tlie deepest depllis of nature, without the assistance\\nof the shaft or ladder of the miner. This is poetrj but not sober\\nphilosophical inquiry.\\nt The acid from borax.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "INORGANIC ORIGIN OF AMMONIA- 123\\nwhich it is dissolved are evaporated. The quantity\\nof boracic acid v^^hich escapes with a cubic foot of\\nsteam, at the temperature of boiling water, cannot\\nbe detected by our most sensible re-agents; and\\nnevertheless the many hunired tons annually brought\\nfrom Italy as an article of commerce, are procured\\nby the uninterrupted accumulation of this apparently\\ninappreciable quantity. The hot steam which issues\\nfrom the interior of the earth is allowed to pass\\nthrough cold water in the lagoons of Castel Nuova\\nand Cherchiago in this way the boracic acid is\\ngradually ^accumulated, till at last it may be ob-\\ntained in crystals by the evaporation of the water.\\nIt is evident, from the temperature of the steam, that\\nit must have come out of depths in which human\\nbeings and animals never could have lived, and yet\\nit is very remarkable and highly important that am-\\nmonia is never absent from it. In the large works\\nin Liverpool, where natural boracic acid is con-\\nverted into borax, many hundred pounds of sulphate\\nof ammonia are obtained at the same time.\\nThis ammonia has not been produced by the ani-\\nmal orgafiis?n, it existed before the creation of human\\nbeings it is a part, a primary constituent, of the\\nglobe itself*\\nThe experiments instituted under Lavoisier s guid-\\nance by the Direction des Poudres et Saltpetres, have\\nproved that during the evaporation of the saltpetre\\nley, the salt volatilizes with the water, and causes\\na loss which could not before be explained. It is\\nknown also, that in sea-storms, leaves of plants in\\nthe direction of the wind are covered with crystals\\nof salt, even at the distance of from 20 to 30 miles\\nfrom the sea.f But it does not require a storm to\\ncause the volatilization of the salt, for the air hang-\\ning over the sea always contains enough of this sub-\\nstance to make a solution of nitrate of silver turbid,\\nSee extract from Professor Daubeny s Lectures, in Appendix,\\nt This was observed in the United States after the great storm of\\nSeptember 23, 1815. See Professor Farrar s account in Mem. A. A. S.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "124 OF THE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.\\nand every breeze must carry this away. Now, as\\nthousands of tons of sea-water annually evaporate\\ninto the atmosphere, a corresponding quantity of the\\nsalts dissolved in it, viz. of common salt, chloride\\nof potassium, magnesia, \u00c2\u00bbnd the remaining constitu-\\nents of the sea-water, will be conveyed by wind to\\nthe land.\\nThis volatilization is a source of considerable loss\\nin salt-works, especially where the proportion of\\nsalt in the water is not large. This has been com-\\npletely proved at the salt-works of Nauheim, by the\\nvery intelligent director of that establishment, M.\\nWilhelmi. He hung a plate of glass between two\\nevaporating houses, which were about 1200 paces\\ndistant from each other, and found in the morning,\\nafter the drying of the dew, that the glass was\\ncovered with crystals of salt on one or the other\\nside, according to the direction of the wind.\\nBy the continual evaporation of the sea, its salts\\nare spread over the whole surface of the earth and\\nbeing subsequently carried down by the rain, furnish\\nAnalyses of sea-water.\\nOf the British Channel. Of the Mediterranean.\\nSchweitzer. Laurens.\\nIn 1000 parts. Marcet. Grs. Grs.\\nWater 964.74372 959.26\\nChloride of Sodium 26.660 27.05948 27.22\\nof Potassium 1.232 0.76552 O.Ol\\nof Magnesium 5.152 3.66658 6.14\\nBromide of Do 0.02929\\nSulphate of Soda 4.660\\nof Lime 1.5 1.40662 0.15\\nof Magnesia 2.29578 7.02\\nCarbonate of Lime 0.03301 i 0.20\\nmagnesia. J\\nAccording to M Clemm, the water of the North Sea contains in 1000\\nparts,\\n24.84 Chloride of Sodium.\\n2.42 Chloride of Magnesium.\\n2.06 Sulpliate of Magnesia.\\n1..35 Chloride of Potassium.\\n1.20 Sulphate of Lime.\\nIn addition to these constituents, it also contains inappreciable quan-\\ntities of carbonate of lime, magnesia, iron, manganese, phosphate of\\nlime, iodides and bromides, silica, sulpliuretted hydrogen, and organic\\nmatter, together with ammonia and carbonic acid. (Liebig s Annalen\\nder Chemie, Bd. xxxvii. s. 3.)", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "CARBONIC ACID CONTAINED IN SEA-WATER. 125\\nto the vegetation those salts necessary to its ex-\\nistence. This is the origin of the salts found in the\\nashes of plants, in those cases where the soil could\\nnot have yielded them.\\nIn a comprehensive view of the phenomena of\\nnature, we have no scale for that which we are\\naccustomed to name, small or great all our ideas\\nare proportioned to what we see around us, but how\\ninsignificant are they in comparison with the whole\\nmass of the globe that which is scarcely observable\\nin a confined district appears inconceivably large\\nwhen reo;arded in its extension throuph unlimited\\nspace. The atmosphere contains only a thousandth\\npart of its w^eight of carbonic acid and yet small\\nas this proportion appears, it is quite sufficient to\\nsupply the whole of the present generation of living\\nbeings with carbon for a thousand years, even if it\\nwere not renew^ed. Sea-water contains j^loo of its\\nweight of carbonate of lime; and this quantity,\\nalthough scarcely appreciable in a pound, is the\\nsource from which myriads of marine mollusca and\\ncorals are supplied with materials for their habita-\\ntions.\\nWhilst the air contains only from 4 to 6 ten-thou-\\nsandth parts of its volume of carbonic acid, sea-\\nwater contains 100 times more, (10,000 volumes of\\nsea-water contain 620 volumes of carbonic acid\\nLaurent, Bouillon, Lagrange). Ammonia* is also\\nfound in this water, so that the same conditions\\nwhich sustain livino- beinors on the land are combined\\nin this medium, in which a whole world of other\\nplants and animals exists.\\nThe roots of plants are constantly engaged in\\ncollecting from the rain those alkalies which formed\\npart of the sea-water, and also those of the water\\nof springs, which penetrates the soil. Without\\nalkalies and alkaline bases most plants could not\\nWhen the solid saline residue obtained by the evaporation of sea-\\nwater is heated in a retort to redness, a sublimate of sal-ammoniac is\\nobtained. Marcet.\\n11*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "126 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nexist, and without plants the alkalies would disap-\\npear gradually from the surface of the earth.\\nWhen it is considered, that sea-water contains\\nless than one-millionth of its own weight of iodine,*\\nand that all combinations of iodine with the metallic\\nbases of alkalies are highly soluble in water, some\\nprovision must necessarily be supposed to exist in\\nthe organization of sea-weed and the different kinds\\nof Fuci, by which they are enabled during their life\\nto extract iodine in the form of a soluble salt from\\nsea-water, and to assimilate it in such a manner, that\\nit is not again restored to the surrounding medium.\\nThese plants are collectors of iodine, just as land-\\nplants are of alkalies and they yield us this ele-\\nment, in quantities such as we could not otherwise\\nobtain from the water without the evaporation of\\nwhole seas.\\nWe take it for granted, that the sea-plants require\\nmetallic iodides f for their growth, and that their\\nexistence is dependent on the presence of those\\nsubstances. With equal justice, then, we conclude,\\nthat the alkalies and alkaline earths, always found\\nin the ashes of land-plants, are likewise necessary\\nfor their development.\\nCHAPTER VII.\\nTHE ART OF CULTURE.\\nThe conditions necessary for the life of all vege-\\ntables have been considered in the preceding part\\nThis substance was discovered in 1812, and is obtained from marine\\nplants; it is found also in sea- water and several mineral springs in\\ncombination with hydrogen, as hydriodic acid. With bases this acid\\nforms hydriodates. Iodine has not been decomposed. It is a solid,\\nand at about 350\u00c2\u00b0 F. passes into vapor of a beautiful violet color hence\\nits name.\\nt Compounds of metals and iodine.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "USE OF HUMUS. 127\\nof the work. Carbonic acid, ammonia, and water\\nyield elements for all the organs of plants. Certain\\ninorganic substances salts and metallic oxides\\nserve peculiar functions in their organism, and many\\nof them must be viewed as essential constituents of\\nparticular parts.\\nThe atmosphere and the soil offer the same kind\\nof nourishment to the leaves and roots. The former\\ncontains a comparatively inexhaustible supply of\\ncarbonic acid and ammonia; the latter, by means of\\nits humus, generates constantly fresh carbonic acid,\\nwhilst, during the winter, rain and snow introduce\\ninto the soil a quantity of ammonia, sufficient for the\\ndevelopment of the leaves and blossoms.\\nThe complete, or it may be said, the absolute\\ninsolubility in cold water of vegetable matter in\\nprogress of decay, (humus,) appears on closer con-\\nsideration to be a most wise arrangement of nature.\\nFor if humus possessed even a smaller degree of\\nsolubility than that ascribed to the substance called\\nhumic acid, it must be dissolved by rain-water.\\nThus, the yearly irrigation of meadows, which lasts\\nfor several weeks, would remove a great part of it\\nfrom the ground, and a heavy and continued rain\\nwould impoverish a soil. But it is soluble only when\\ncombined with oxygen; it can be taken up by water,\\ntherefore, only as carbonic acid.\\nWhen kept in a dry place, humus may be preserved\\nfor centuries but when moistened with water, it\\nconverts the surrounding oxygen into carbonic acid.\\nAs soon as the action of the air ceases, that is, as\\nsoon as it is deprived of oxygen, the humus suffers\\nno further change. Its decay proceeds only when\\nplants grow in the soil containing it for they ab-\\nsorb by their roots the carbonic acid as it is formed.\\nThe soil receives again from living plants the car-\\nbonaceous matter it thus loses, so that the proportion\\nof humus in it does not decrease.\\nThe stalactitic caverns in Franconia, and those in\\nthe vicinity of Baireuth, and Streitberg, lie beneath", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "128 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\na fertile arable soil the abundant decaying vege-\\ntables or humus in this soil, being acted on by\\nmoisture and air, constantly evolve carbonic acid,\\nwhich is dissolved by the rain. The rain-water thus\\nimpregnated permeates the porous limestone, which\\nforms the walls and roofs of the caverns, and dis-\\nsolves in its passage as much carbonate of lime as\\ncorresponds to the quantity of carbonic acid con-\\ntained in it. Water and the excess of carbonic\\nacid evaporate from this solution when it has reached\\nthe interior of the caverns, and the limestone is\\ndeposited on the walls and roofs in crystalline crusts\\nof various forms. There are few spots on the earth\\nwhere so many circumstances favorable to the pro-\\nduction of humate of lime are combined, if the\\nhumus actually existed in the soil in the form of\\nhumic acid. Decaying vegetable matter, water, and\\nlime in solution, are brought together, but the sta-\\nlactites formed contain no trace of vegetable matter,\\nand no humic acid they are of a glistening white\\nor yellowish color, and in part transparent, like cal-\\ncareous spar, and may be heated to redness without\\nbecoming black.\\nThe subterranean vaults in the old castles near\\nthe Rhine, the Bergstrass, and Wetherau, are\\nconstructed of sandstone, granite, or basalt, and\\npresent appearances similar to the limestone caverns.\\nThe roofs of these vaults or cellars are covered\\nexternally to the thickness of several feet with\\nvegetable mould, which has been formed by the\\ndecay of plants. The rain falling upon them sinks\\nthrough the earth, and dissolves the mortar by means\\nof the carbonic acid derived from the mould and\\nthis solution evaporating in the interior of the vaults,\\ncovers them with small thin stalactites, which are\\nquite free from humic acid.\\nIn such a filtering apparatus, built by the hand of\\nnature, we have placed before us experiments which\\nhave been continued for a hundred or a thousand\\nyears. Now, if water possessed the power of dis-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "INSOLUBILITY OF HUMUS. 129\\nsolving a hundred-thousandth part of its own weight\\nof humic acid or humate of lime, and huniic acid\\nwere present, we should find the inner surface of the\\nroofs of these vaults and caverns covered with these\\nsubstances but we cannot detect the smallest trace\\nof them. There could scarcely be found a more\\nclear and convincing proof of the absence of the\\nhumic acid of chemists in common vegetable mould.\\nThe common view, which has been adopted re-\\nspecting the modus operatidi of humic acid, does\\nnot afford any explanation of the following phenom-\\nenon A very small quantity of humic acid dis-\\nsolved in water gives it a yellow or brown color.\\nHence it would be supposed that a soil would be\\nmore fruitful in proportion as it was capable of giv-\\ning this color to water, that is, of yielding it humic\\nacid. But it is very remarkable that plants do not\\nthrive in such a soil, and that all manure must have\\nlost this property before it can exercise a favorable\\ninfluence upon their vegetation. Water from barren\\npeat soils and marshy meadows, upon which few\\nplants flourish, contains much of this humic acid but\\nall agriculturists and gardeners agree that the most\\nsuitable and best manure for plants is that which\\nhas completely lost the property of giving a color\\nto water.\\nThe soluble substance, which gives to water a\\nbrown color, is a product of the putrefaction of all\\nanimal and vegetable matters its formation is an\\nevidence that there is not oxygen sufficient to begin,\\nor at least to complete the decay. The brown\\nsolutions containing this substance are decolorized\\nin the air by absorbing oxygen, and a black coaly\\nmatter precipitates the substance named coal of\\nhumus. Now if a soil were impregnated with this\\nmatter, the efl ect on the roots of plants w^ould be\\nthe same as that of entirely depriving the soil of\\noxygen plants would be as little able to grow in\\nsuch ground as they would if hydrated protoxide\\nof iron were mixed with the soil. Indeed, some", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "130 THE ART OF CULTUEE.\\nbarren soils have been found to owe their sterility\\nto this very cause. The sulphate of protoxide of\\niron (copperas), which forms a constituent of these\\nsoils, possesses a powerful affinity for oxygen, and\\nconsequently prevents the absorption of that gas by\\nthe roots of plants in its vicinity.* All plants die\\nin soils and water which contain no oxygen; absence\\nof air acts exactly in the same manner as an excess\\nof carbonic acid. Stagnant water on a marshy soil\\nexcludes air, but a renewal of water has the same\\neffect as a renewal of air, because water contains it\\nin solution. If the water is withdrawn from a marsh,\\nfree access is given to the air, and the marsh is\\nchanged into a fruitful meadow.\\nIn a soil to which the air has no access, or at most\\nbut very little, the remains of animals and vegeta-\\nbles do not decay, for they can only do so when\\nfreely supplied with oxygen; but they undergo putre-\\nfaction, for which air is present in sufficient quan-\\ntity. Putrefaction is known to be a most powerful\\ndeoxidizing process, the influence of which extends\\nto all surrounding bodies, even to the roots and the\\nplants themselves. All substances from which oxy-\\ngen can be extracted yield it to putrefying bodies\\nyellow oxide of iron passes into the state of black\\noxide, sulphate of iron into sulphuret of iron, c.\\nThe frequent renewal of air by ploughing, and the\\npreparation of the soil, especially its contact with\\nalkaline metallic oxides, the ashes of brown coal,\\nburnt lime or limestone, change the putrefaction of\\nits organic constituents into a pure process of oxi-\\ndation and from the moment at which all the or-\\nganic matter existing in a soil enters into a state\\nof oxidation or decay, its fertility is increased. The\\noxygen is no longer employed for the conversion of\\nThe most obvious method of removing this salt from soils in which\\nit may be contained is to manure the land with lime. The lime unites\\nwith the sulphuric acid and liberates the protoxide of iron, which ab-\\nsorbs oxyoren with much rapidity, and is converted into the peroxide\\nof iron. This conversion is accelerated by giving free access to the\\nair, that is, by loosening the soil.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "INSOLUBILITY OF HUMUS. 131\\nthe brown soluble matter into the insoluble coal of\\nhumus, but serves for the formation of carbonic\\nacid. This change takes place very slowly, and in\\nsome instances the oxygen is completely excluded\\nby it and whenever this happens, the soil loses its\\nfertility. Thus, in the vicinity of Salzhausen (a\\nvillage in Hesse Darmstadt, famed for its mineral\\nsprings,) upon a meadow called Griinschwalheimer,\\nunfruitful spots are seen here and there covered with\\na yellow grass. If a hole be bored from twenty to\\ntwenty-five feet deep in one of these spots, carbonic\\nacid is emitted from it with such violence that the\\nnoise made by the escape of the gas may be dis-\\ntinctly heard at the distance of several feet. Here\\nthe carbonic acid rising to the surface displaces\\ncompletely all the air, and consequently all the oxy-\\ngen, from the soil and without oxygen neither seeds\\nnor roots can be developed; a plant will not vege-\\ntate in pure nitrogen or carbonic acid gas.*\\nHumus supplies young plants with nourishment\\nby the roots, until their leaves are matured sufficient-\\nly to act as exterior organs of nutrition its quan-\\ntity heightens the fertility of a soil by yielding more\\nnourishment in this first period of growth, and con-\\nsequently by increasing the number of organs of\\natmospheric nutrition. Those plants which receive\\ntheir first food from the substance of their seeds,\\nsuch as bulbous plants, could completely dispense\\nwith humus its presence is useful only in so far as\\nit increases and accelerates their development, but it\\nis not necessary, indeed, an excess of it at the\\ncommencement of their growth is in a certain mea-\\nsure injurious.\\nThe amount of food which young plants can take\\nfrom the atmosphere in the form of carbonic acid\\nand ammonia is limited; they cannot assimilate more\\nthan the air contains. Now, if the quantity of their\\nstems, leaves, and branches has been increased by\\nSee note p. 79.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "132 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nthe excess of food yielded by the soil at the com-\\nmencement of their development, they will require\\nfor the completion of their growth, and for the for-\\nmation of their blossoms and fruits, more nourish-\\nment from the air than it can afford, and consequently\\nthey will not reach maturity. In many cases the\\nnourishment afforded by the air under these circum-\\nstances suffices only to complete the formation of\\nthe leaves, stems, and branches. The same result\\nthen ensues as when ornamental plants are trans-\\nplanted from the pots in which they have grown to\\nlarger ones, in which their roots are permitted to\\nincrease and multiply. All their nourishment is em-\\nployed for the increase of their roots and leaves;\\nthey spring, as it is said, into an herb or weed, but\\ndo not blossom. When, on the contrary, we take\\naway part of the branches, and of course their leaves\\nwith them, from dwarf trees, since we thus prevent\\nthe development of new branches, an excess of\\nnutriment is artificially procured for the trees, and\\nis employed by them in the increase of the blossoms\\nand enlaro-ement of the fruit. It is to effect this\\no\\npurpose that vines are pruned.\\nA new and peculiar process of vegetation ensues\\nin all perennial plants, such as shrubs, fruit and\\nforest trees, after the complete maturity of their\\nfruit. The stem of annual plants at this period of\\ntheir growth becomes woody, and their leaves change\\nin color. The leaves of trees and shrubs, on the\\ncontrary, remain in activity until the commencement\\nof the winter. The formation of the layers of wood\\nprogresses, the wood becomes harder and more solid,\\nbut after August the leaves form no more wood all\\nthe carbonic acid which the plants now absorb is\\nemployed for the production of nutritive matter for\\nthe following year instead of woody fibre, starch is\\nformed, and is diffused through every part of the\\nplant by the autumnal sap (seve d Aout).* Ac-\\nHartig, in Erdmann und Schweigger-Seidels Journal, V. 217. 1S35.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "EXCESS OF NUTRIMENT. 133\\ncording to the observations of M. Heyer, the starch\\nthus deposited in the body of the tree can be recog-\\nnised in its known form by the aid of a good micro-\\nscope. The barks of several aspens and pine-trees\\ncontain so much of this substance, that it can be\\nextracted from them as from potatoes by trituration\\nwith water. It exists also in the roots and other\\nparts of perennial plants. A very early winter, or\\nsudden change of temperature, prevents the forma-\\ntion of this provision for the following year; the\\nwood, as in the case of the vine-stock, does not\\nripen, and its growth is in the next year very\\nlimited.\\nFrom the starch thus accumulated, sugar and gum\\nare produced in the succeeding spring, while from\\nthe gum those constituents of the leaves and young\\nsprouts which contain no nitrogen are in their turn\\nformed. After potatoes have germinated, the quantity\\nof starch in them is found diminished. The juice of\\nthe maple-tree ceases to be sweet from the loss of its\\nsugar when its buds, blossoms, and leaves attain\\ntheir maturity.\\nThe branch of a willow, which contains a large\\nquantity of granules of starch in every part of its\\nwoody substance, puts forth both roots and leaves\\nin pure distilled rain-water; but in proportion as it\\nIt is well known that bread is made from the bark of pines in\\nSweden during famines.\\nThe fallowing directions are given by Professor Aiitenrieth for pre-\\nparino; a palatable and nutritious bread from the heech and other woods\\ndestitute of turpentine. Every thing soluble in water is first removed\\nby frequent maceration and boiling, Ihe wood is then to be reduced to\\na minute state of division, not merely into fine fibres, but actual pow-\\nder and after being repeatedly subjected to heat in an oven, is ground\\nin the usual manner of corn. Wood thus prepared, according to the\\nauthor, acquires the smell and tiisle of corn flour. It is, however,\\nnever quite white. It agrees with corn flour in not fermenting with-\\nout the addition of leaven, and in this case some leaven of corn flour is\\nfound to answer best. With this it makes a perfectly uniform and\\nspongy bread and when it is thoroughly baked, and has much crust,\\nit lias a much better taste of bread than what in time of scarcity is pre-\\npared from the bran and husks of corn. Wood-flour also, boiled in\\nwater, forms a thick, tough, trembling jelly, which is very nutritious.\\nPkilosopldcal Transactions. 18:27.\\n12", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "134 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\ngrows, the starch disappears, it being evidently ex-\\nhausted for the formation of the roots and leaves.\\nIn the course of these experiments, M. Heyer made\\nthe interesting observation, that such branches when\\nplaced in snow-water (which contains ammonia)\\nproduced roots three or four times longer than those\\nwhich they formed in pure distilled water, and that\\nthis pure water remained clear, while the rain-water\\ngradually acquired a yellow color.\\nUpon the blossoming of the sugar-cane, likewise,\\npart of the sugar disappears; and it has been ascer-\\ntained, that the sugar does not accumulate in the\\nbeet-root until after the leaves are completely formed.\\nMuch attention has recently been drawn to the\\nfact that the produce of potatoes may be much in-\\ncreased by plucking off the blossoms from the plants\\nproducing them, a result quite consistent with theo-\\nry. This important observation has been completely\\nconfirmed by M. Zeller, the director of the Agricul-\\ntural Society at Darmstadt. In the year 1839, two\\nfields of the same size, lying side by side and ma-\\nnured in the same manner, were planted with pota-\\ntoes. When the plants had flowered, the blossoms\\nwere removed from those in one field, while those in\\nthe other field were left untouched. The former pro-\\nduced 47 bolls, the latter only 37 bolls.\\nThese well-authenticated observations remove ev-\\nery doubt as to the part which sugar, starch, and\\ngum play in the development of plants and it ceases\\nto be enigmatical, why these three substances exer-\\ncise no influence on the growth or process of nutri-\\ntion of a matured plant, when supplied to them as\\nfood.\\nThe accumulation of starch in plants during the\\nautumn has been compared, although certainly erro-\\nneously, to the fattening of hibernating animals be-\\nfore their winter sleep but in these animals every\\nvital function, except the process of respiration, is\\nsuspended, and they only require, like a lamp slowly\\nburning, a substance rich in carbon and hydrogen to", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "EXCESS OF NUTRIMENT. 135\\nsupport the process of combustion in the lungs. On\\ntheir awaking from their torpor in the spring, the fat\\nhas disappeared, but has not served as nourishment.\\nIt has not caused the least increase in any part of\\ntheir body, neither has it changed the quality of any\\nof their organs. With nutrition, properly so called,\\nthe fat in these animals has not the least connexion.\\nThe annual plants form and collect their future\\nnourishment in the same way as, the perennial they\\nstore it in their seeds in the form of vegetable albu-\\nmen, starch and gum, which are used by the germs\\nfor the formation of their leaves and first radicle\\nfibres. The proper nutrition of the plants, their in-\\ncrease in size, begins after these organs are formed.\\nEvery germ and every bud of a perennial plant is\\nthe engrafted embryo of a new individual, while the\\nnutriment accumulated in the stem and roots, corre-\\nsponds to the albumen of the seeds.\\nNutritive matters are, correctly speaking, those\\nsubstances which, when presented from without, are\\ncapable of sustaining the life and all the functions\\nof an organism, by furnishing to the different parts\\nof plants the materials for the production of their\\npeculiar constituents.\\nIn animals, the blood is the source of the material\\nof the muscles and nerves by one of its component\\nparts, the blood supports the process of respiration,\\nby others, the peculiar vital functions every part of\\nthe body is supplied with nourishment by it, but its\\nown production is a special function, without which\\nv;e could not conceive life to continue. If we destroy\\nthe activity of the organs which produce it, or if we\\ninject the blood of one animal into the veins of an-\\nother, at all events, if we carry this beyond certain\\nlimits, death is the consequence.\\nIf we could introduce into a tree woody fibre in a\\nstate of solution, it would be the same thing as plac-\\ning a potato plant to vegetate in a paste of starch.\\nThe office of the leaves is to form starch, woody fibre,\\nand sugar; consequently, if we convey these sub-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "136 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nstances through the roots, the vital functions of the\\nleaves must cease, and if the process of assimilation\\ncannot take another form, the plant must die.\\nOther substances must be present in a plant, be-\\nsides the starch, sugar, and gum, if these are to take\\npart in the development of the germ, leaves, and first\\nradicle fibres. There is no doubt that a grain of\\nwheat contains within itself the component parts of\\nthe germ and of the radicle fibres, and, we must sup-\\npose, exactly in the proportion necessary for their\\nformation. These component parts are starch and\\ngluten; and it is evident that neither of them alone,\\nbut that both simultaneously assist in the formation\\nof the root, for they both suffer changes under the\\naction of air, moisture, and a suitable temperature.\\nThe starch is converted into sugar, and the gluten\\nalso assumes a new form, and both acquire the capa-\\nbility of being dissolved in water, and of thus being\\nconveyed to every part of the plant. Both the starch\\nand the gum are completely consumed in the forma-\\ntion of the first part of the roots and leaves an ex-\\ncess of either could not be used in the formation of\\nleaves, or in any other way.\\nThe conversion of starch into sugar during the\\ngermination of grain is ascribed to a vegetable princi-\\nple called diastase, \\\\v\\\\iich. is generated during the act\\nof commencing germination. But this mode of trans-\\nformation can also be effected by gluten, although it\\nrequires a longer time. Seeds, which have germin-\\nated, always contain much more diastase than is\\nnecessary for the conversion of their starch into\\nsugar, for five parts by weight of starch can be con-\\nverted into sugar by one part of malted barley.\\nThis excess of diastase can by no means be regarded\\nas accidental, for, like the starch, it aids in the form-\\nation of the first organs of the young plant, and dis-\\nappears with the sugar diastase contains nitrogen\\nand furnishes the elements of vegetable albumen.\\nCarbonic acid, water, and ammonia, are the food\\nof fully-developed plants j starch, sugar, and gum,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO NUTRITION. 137\\nserve, when accompanied by an azotized substance,\\nto sustain the embryo, until its first organs of nutri-\\ntion are unfolded. The nutrition of a foetus and de-\\nvelopment of an egg proceed in a totally different\\nmanner from that of an animal which is separated\\nfrom its parent; the exclusion of air does not en-\\ndanger the life of the foetus, but would certainly\\ncause the death of the independent animal. In the\\nsame manner, pure water is more advantageous to\\nthe growth of a young plant, than that containing\\ncarbonic acid, but after a month the reverse is the\\ncase.\\nThe formation of sugar in maple-trees does not\\ntake place in the roots, but in the woody substance\\nof the stem. The quantity of sugar in the sap aug-\\nments until it reaches a certain height in the stem\\nof the plant, above w^hich point it remains stationary.\\nJust as germinating barley produces a substance\\nwhich, in contact w4th starch, causes it to lose its\\ninsolubility and to become sugar, so in the roots of\\nthe maple, at the commencement of vegetation, a\\nsubstance must be formed, which, being dissolved in\\nWaaler, permeates the wood of the trunk, and con-\\nverts into sugar the starch, or whatever it may be,\\nwhich it finds deposited there. It is certain, that\\nwhen a hole is bored into the trunk of a maple-tree\\njust above its roots, filled with sugar, and then closed\\nagain, the sugar is dissolved by the ascending sap.\\nIt is further possible that this sugar maybe disposed\\nof in the same manner as that formed in the trunks\\nat all events it is certain, that the introduction of it\\ndoes not prevent the action of the juice upon the\\nstarch, and since the quantity of the sugar present is\\nnow greater than can be exhausted by the leaves\\nand buds, it is excreted from the surface of the\\nleaves or bark. Certain diseases of trees, for exam-\\nple that called honey-dew, evidently depend on the\\nwant of the due proportion between the quantity of\\nthe azotized and that of the unazotized substances\\nwhich are applied to them as nutriment.\\n12*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "138 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nIn whatever form, therefore, we supply plants with\\nthose substances which are the products of their\\nown action, in no instance do they appear to have\\nany effect upon their growth, or to replace what they\\nhave lost. Sugar, gum, and starch, are not food for\\nplants, and the same must be said of humic acid,\\nwhich is so closely allied to them in composition.\\nIf now we direct our attention to the particular\\norgans of a plant, we find every fibre and every\\nparticle of wood surrounded by a juice containing\\nan azotized matter; while the starch, granules, and\\nsugar, are enclosed in cells formed of a substance\\ncontaining nitrogen. Indeed everywhere, in all the\\njuices of the fruits and blossoms, we find a substance\\ndestitute of nitrogen, accompanied by one which\\ncontains that element.\\nThe wood of the stem cannot be formed, quasi\\nwood, in the leaves, but another substance must be\\nproduced which is capable of being transformed into\\nwood. This substance must be in a state of solution,\\nand accompanied by a compound containing nitro-\\ngen it is very probable that the wood and the\\nvegetable gluten, the starch granules and the cells\\ncontaining them, are formed simultaneously, and in\\nthis case a certain fixed proportion between them\\nwould be a condition necessary for their production.\\nAccording to this view, the assimilation of the\\nsubstances generated in the leaves will (^cceteris\\nparibus) depend on the quantity of nitrogen con-\\ntained in the food. When a sufficient quantity of\\nnitrogen is not present to aid in the assimilation of\\nthe substances which do not contain it, these sub-\\nstances will be separated as excrements from the\\nbark, roots, leaves, and branches. The exudations\\nof mannite, gum, and sugar, in strong and healthy\\nplants cannot be ascribed to any other cause.*\\nM. Trapp in Giessen possesses a Clcrodcndrnn fragrans, which\\ngrows in the house, and exudes on the surface of its leaves in Sep-\\ntember large colorless drops of sugar-candy, which form regular crys-\\ntals upon drying; I am not aware whether the juice of this plant", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO NUTRITION. 139\\nAnalogous phenomena are presented by the pro-\\ncess of digestion in the human organism. In order\\nthat the loss which every part of the body sustains\\nby the processes of respiration and perspiration may\\nbe restored to it, the organs of digestion require to\\nbe supplied with food, consisting of substances con-\\ntaining nitrogen, and of others destitute of it, in\\ndefinite proportions. If the substances which do\\nnot contain nitrogen preponderate, either they will\\nbe expended in the formation of fat, or they will\\npass unchanged through the organism. This is par-\\nticularly observed in those people who live almost\\nexclusively upon potatoes their excremejits contain\\na large quantity of unchanged granules of starch,\\nof which no trace can be detected when gluten or\\nflesh is taken in proper proportions, because in this\\ncase the starch has been rendered capable of assim-\\nilation. Potatoes, which when mixed with hay alone\\nare scarcely capable of supporting the strength of a\\nhorse, form with bread and oats a strong and whole-\\nsome fodder.\\nIt will be evident from the preceding considera-\\ntions, that the products generated by a plant may\\nvary exceedingly, according to the substances given\\nit as food. A superabundance of carbon in the state\\nof carbonic acid conveyed through the roots of\\nplants, without being accompanied by nitrogen, can-\\nnot be converted either into gluten, albumen, wood,\\nor any other component part of an organ; but either\\nit will be separated in the form of excrements, such\\nas sugar, starch, oil, wax, resin, mannite,* or gum,\\nor these substances will be deposited in greater or\\nless quantity in the wide cells and vessels.\\ncontains sugar. Professor Redtenbacher, of Prague, informs me that\\nhe has analyzed the crystals, and found them to be perfectly pure\\nsugar. Ed.\\nMannite forms the greater part of manna. It is found in the\\njuices of several fruits, in the fermented juice of beet-root, carrots,\\nonions, c. it is also obtained in small quantity when starch is\\ntransformed into grape sugar by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid.\\nIt crystallizes in prisms, is faintly sweet, soluble in water and hot\\nalcohol. Its aqueous solution cannot be made to undergo the vinous\\nfermentation. Its formula is Ce H? Og.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "140 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nThe quantity of gluten, vegetable albumen, and\\nmucilage, will augment when plants are supplied\\nwith an excess of food containing nitrogen; and\\nammoniacal salts will remain in the sap, when, for\\nexample, in the culture of the beet, we manure the\\nsoil with a highly nitrogenous substance, or when\\nwe suppress the functions of the leaves by removing\\nthem from the plant.\\nWe know that the ananas is scarcely eatable in\\nits wild state, and that it shoots forth a great quan-\\ntity of leaves when treated with rich animal manure,\\nwithout the fruit on that account acquiring a large\\namount of sugar that the quantity of starch in\\npotatoes increases when the soil contains much\\nhumus, but decreases when the soil is manured with\\nstrong animal manure, although then the number -of\\ncells increases, the potatoes acquiring in the first\\ncase a mealy, in the second a soapy, consistence.\\nBeet-roots taken from a barren, sandy soil contain\\na maximum of sugar, and no ammoniacal salts; and\\nthe Teltowa parsnep loses its mealy state in a\\nmanured land, because there all the circumstances\\nnecessary for the formation of cells are united.*\\nAn abnormal! production of certain component\\nparts of plants presupposes a power and capability\\nof assimilation to which the most powerful chemical\\naction cannot be compared. The best idea of it may\\nbe formed by considering that it surpasses in power\\nthe strongest galvanic battery, wuth which we are\\nnot able to separate the oxygen from carbonic acid.\\nThe affinity of chlorine for hydrogen, and its power\\nto decompose \\\\vater under the influence of light\\nChildren fed upon arrow-root, salep, or indeed any kind of amyla-\\nceous food, which does not contain ingredients fitted for the formation\\nof bones and muscles, become fiit, and acquire much cmhonpoint their\\nlimbs appear full, but they do not acquire strength, nor are their organs\\nproperly developed. L.\\nt Abnormal, (Lat. ab, from, and norma, a rule,) Any thing without,\\nor contrary to, system or rule. In botany, if a flower has five petals,\\nthe rule is, tliat it should have the same number of stamens, or some\\nregular multiple of that number; if it has only four or six stamens,\\nthe flower is abnormal.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "EFFECT OF LIGHT ON CHEMICAL COMBINATION. 141\\nand set at liberty its oxygen, cannot be considered\\nas at all equalling the power and energy with which\\na leaf separated from a plant decomposes the car-\\nbonic acid which it absorbs.\\nThe common opinion, that only the direct solar\\nrays can effect the decomposition of carbonic acid\\nin the leaves of plants, and that reflected or diffused\\nlight does not possess this property, is wholly an\\nerror, for exactly the same constituents are generated\\nin a number of plants, whether the direct rays of\\nthe sun fall upon them, or whether they grow in the\\nshade. They require light, and indeed sunlight,\\nbut it is not necessary that the direct rays of the\\nsun reach them. Their functions certainly proceed\\nwith greater intensity and rapidity in sunshine than\\nin the diffused light of day but there is nothing\\nmore in this than the similar action which light\\nexercises on ordinary chemical combinations it\\nmerely accelerates in a greater or less degree the\\naction already subsisting.\\nThus chlorine* and hydrogen combining form muri-\\natic (hydrochloric) acid. This combination is effected\\nin a few hours in common daylight, but it ensues in-\\nstantly, with a violent explosion, under exposure to\\nthe direct solar rays, whilst not the slightest change\\nin the two gases takes place in perfect darkness.\\nWhen the liquid hydrocarburet of chlorine, resulting\\nfrom the union of the defiant gasf of the associated\\nChlorine is a gas named from its green color it was formerly\\ncalled oxymviriatic acid. It has not been decomposed. It is one of the\\nmost suffocating of the gases, and highly irritating, even when much\\ndiluted with air. It is largely absorbed by water, and the solution has\\nthe property of bleaching. Its solution in water cannot be kept un-\\nchanged, as the chlorine unites to the hydrogen of the water and\\nforms muriatic or hydrochloric acid.\\nBleaching salts are formed by exposing lime to an atmosphere of\\nchlorine. Chlorine is useful for removing offensive odors. A few\\ntable spoonfuls of bleaching powder, sprinkled occasionally in privies,\\nand in larger quantities upon heaps of offensive substances, upon the\\nfloors of slaughter-houses, c. will destroy the unpleasant odor, and\\nat the same time add to the value of the manure.\\nFor description of chlorine, a:id the method of procuring it, see\\nWebster s Chemistry, M edit, p 1(S0.\\nt One of the compounds of hydrogen and carbon.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "142 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nDutch chemists with chlorine, is exposed in a vessel\\nwith chlorine gas to the direct solar rays, chloride\\nof carbon is immediately produced but the same\\ncompound can be obtained with equal facility in the\\ndiffused light of day, -a longer time only being re-\\nquired. When this experiment is performed in the\\nway first mentioned, two products only are observed\\n(muriatic acid and perchloride of carbon) whilst by\\nthe latter method a class of intermediate bodies are\\nproduced, in which the quantity of chlorine con-\\nstantly augments, until at last the whole liquid\\nhydrocarburet of chlorine is converted into the same\\ntwo products as in the first case. Here, also, not\\nthe slightest trace of decomposition takes place in\\nthe dark. Nitric acid is decomposed in common\\ndaylight into oxygen, and peroxide of nitrogen; and\\nchloride of silver becomes black in the diffused light\\nof day, as well as in the direct solar rays; in\\nshort, all actions of a similar kind proceed in the\\nsame way in diffused light as well as in the solar\\nlight, the only difference consisting in the time in\\nwhich they are effected. It cannot be otherwise in\\nplants, for the mode of their nutriment is the same\\nin all, and their component substances afford proof\\nthat their food has suffered absolutely the same\\nchange, whether they grow in the sunshine or in the\\nshade.\\nAll the carbonic acid, therefore, which we supply\\nto a plant will undergo a transformation, provided\\nits quantity be not greater than can be decomposed\\nby the leaves. We know that an excess of carbonic\\nacid kills plants, but we know also that nitrogen to\\na certain degree is not essential for the decomposi-\\ntion of carbonic acid. All the experiments hitherto\\ninstituted prove, that fresh leaves placed in water\\nimpregnated with carbonic acid, and exposed to the\\ninfluence of solar light, emit oxygen gas, whilst the\\ncarbonic acid disappears. Now in these experiments\\nno nitrogen is supplied at tlie same time with the car-\\nbonic acid; hence no other conclusion can be drawn", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "IMPORTAx\\\\CE OF AGRICULTURE. 143\\nfrom them than that nitrogen is not necessary for\\nthe decomposition of carbonic acid, for the exer-\\ncise, therefore, of one of the functions of plants.\\nAnd yet the presence of a substance containing this\\nelement appears to be indispensable for the assimila-\\ntion of the products newly formed by the decompo-\\nsition of the carbonic acid, and their consequent\\nadaptation for entering into the composition of the\\ndifferent organs.\\nThe carbon abstracted from the carbonic acid\\nacquires in the leaves a new form, in which it is\\nsoluble and transferable to all parts of the plant.\\nIn this new form the carbon aids in constituting\\nseveral new products these are named sugar when\\nthey possess a sweet taste, gum or mucilage when\\ntasteless, and excrementitious matters when expelled\\nby the roots.\\nHence it is evident, that the quantity and quality\\nof the substances generated by the vital processes of\\na plant will vary according to the proportion of the\\ndifferent kinds of food with which it is supplied.\\nThe development of every part of a plant in a free\\nand uncultivated state depends on the amount and\\nnature of the food afforded to it by the spot on\\nwhich it grows. A plant is developed on the most\\nsterile and unfruitful soil as well as on the most\\nluxuriant and fertile, the only difference which can\\nbe observed being in its height and size, in the num-\\nber of its twigs, branches, leaves, blossoms, and\\nfruit. Whilst the individual organs of a plant in-\\ncrease on a fertile soil, they diminish on another\\nwhere those substances which are necessary for their\\nformation are not so bountifully supplied and the\\nproportion of the constituents which contain nitrogen\\nand of those which do not in plants varies with the\\namount of nitrogenous matters in their food.\\nThe development of the stem, leaves, blossoms,\\nand fruit of plants is dependent on certain con-\\nditions, the knowledge of which enables us to ex-\\nercise some influence on their internal constituents", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "144 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nas well as on their size. It is the duty of the natu-\\nral philosopher to discover what these conditions\\nare for the fundamental principles of agriculture\\nmust be based on a knowledge of them. There is\\nno profession which can be compared in importance\\nwnth that of agriculture, for to it belongs the pro-\\nduction of food for man and animals on it depends\\nthe welfare and development of the whole human\\nspecies, the riches of states, and all commerce.\\nThere is no other profession in which the applica-\\ntion of correct principles is productive of more bene-\\nficial effects, or is of greater and more decided in-\\nfluence. Hence it appears quite unaccountable, that\\nwe may vainly search for one leading principle in the\\nwritings of agriculturists and vegetable physi^ologists.\\nThe methods employed in the cultivation of land\\nare different in every country, and in every district\\nand when we inquire the causes of these differences,\\nwe receive the answer, that they depend upon cir-\\ncumstances. {^Les circonstances font les assolements.^\\nNo answer could show ignorance more plainly, since\\nno one has ever yet devoted himself to ascertain\\nwhat these circumstances are. Thus also when we\\ninquire in what manner manure acts, we are answered\\nby the most intelligent men, that its action is covered\\nby the veil of Isis and when we demand further\\nwhat this means, we discover merely that the excre-\\nments of men and animals are supposed to contain\\nan incomprehensible something which assists in the\\nnutrition of plants, and increases their size. This\\nopinion is embraced without even an attempt being\\nmade to discover the component parts of manure,\\nor to become acquainted with its nature.*\\nIn addition to the general conditions, such as heat,\\nlight, moisture, and the component parts of the atmo-\\nsphere, which are necessary for the growth of all\\nplants, certain substances are found to exercise a\\nThis statement is now somewhat too general both in this country\\nand in Great Britain airriculture has received important aid from the\\nlabors of chemists and physiologists.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "OBJECT OF AGRICULTURE. 145\\npeculiar influence on the development of particular\\nfamilies. These substances either are already con-\\ntained in the soil, or are supplied to it in the form\\nof the matters known under the general name of\\nmanure. But what does the soil contain, and what\\nare the components of the substances used as ma-\\nnure Until these points are satisfactorily deter-\\nmined, a rational system of agriculture cannot exist.\\nThe power and knowledge of the physiologist, of the\\nagriculturist and chemist, must be united for the\\ncomplete solution of these questions and in order\\nto attain this end, a commencement must be made.\\nThe general object of agriculture is to produce in\\nthe most advantageous manner certain qualities, or\\na maximum size, in certain parts or organs of par-\\nticular plants. Now, this object can be attained\\nonly by the application of those substances which\\nwe know to be indispensable to the development of\\nthese parts or organs, or by supplying the conditions\\nnecessary to the production of the qualities desired.\\nThe rules of a rational system of agriculture should\\nenable us, therefore, to give to each plant that\\nwhich it requires for the attainment of the object in\\nview.\\nThe special object of agriculture is to obtain an\\nabnormal development and production of certain\\nparts of plants, or of certain vegetable matters,\\nwhich are employed as food for man and animals, or\\nfor the purpose of industry.\\nThe means employed for effecting these two pur-\\nposes are very different. Thus the mode of culture,\\nemployed for the purpose of procuring fine pliable\\nstraw for Florentine hats, is the very opposite to\\nthat which must be adopted in order to produce a\\nmaximum of corn from the same plant. Peculiar\\nmethods must be used for the production of nitrogen\\nin the seeds, others for giving strength and solidity\\nto the straw, and others again must be followed\\nwhen w^e wish to give such strength and solidity to\\n13", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "146 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nthe straw as will enable it to bear the weight of the\\nears.\\nWe must proceed in the culture of plants in pre-\\ncisely the same manner as we do in the fattening\\nof animals. The flesh of the stag and roe, or of\\nwild animals in general, is quite devoid of fat, like\\nthe muscular flesh of the Arab; or it contains only\\nsmall quantities of it. The production of flesh and\\nfat may be artificially increased; all domestic ani-\\nmals, for example, contain much fat. We give food\\nto animals, which increases the activity of certain\\norgans, and is itself capable of being transformed\\ninto fat. We add to the quantity of food or we\\nlessen the processes of respiration and perspiration\\nby preventing motion. The conditions necessary to\\neffect this purpose in birds are different from those\\nin quadrupeds and it is well known that charcoal\\npowder produces such an excessive growth of the\\nliver of a goose, as at length causes the death of the\\nanimal.\\nThe increase or diminution of the vital activity of\\nvegetables depends only on heat and solar light,\\nwhich we have not arbitrarily at our disposal all\\nthat we can do is to supply those substances which are\\nadapted for assimilation by the power already present\\nin the organs of the plant. But what then are these\\nsubstances They may easily be detected by the ex-\\namination of a soil, which is always fertile in given\\ncosmical and atmospheric conditions for it is evi-\\ndent, that the knowledge of its state and compo-\\nsition must enable us to discover the circumstances\\nunder which a sterile soil may be rendered fertile.\\nIt is the duty of the chemist to explain the com-\\nposition of a fertile soil, but the discovery of its\\nproper state or condition belongs to the agricul-\\nturist our present business lies only with the former.\\nArable land is originally formed by the crumbling\\nof rocks, and its properties depend on the nature\\nof their principal component parts. Sand, clay, and", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "FERTILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS- 147\\nlime, are the names given to the principal constitu-\\nents of the different kinds of soil.\\nPure sand and pure limestones, in which there are\\nno other inorganic substances except siliceous earth,\\ncarbonate or silicate of lime, form absolutely barren\\nsoils. But argillaceous earths form always a part\\nof fertile soils. Now from whence come the argil-\\nlaceous earths in arable land, what are their con-\\nstituents, and what part do they play in favoring\\nvegetation They are produced by the disintegra-\\ntion of aluminous minerals by the action of the\\nweather; the common potash and soda felspars,\\nLabrador spar, mica, and the zeolites, are the most\\ncommon aluminous earths, which undergo this change.\\nThese minerals are found mixed with other sub-\\ntances in granite, gneiss, mica-slate, porphyry, clay-\\nslate, grauwacke, and the volcanic rocks, basalt, clink-\\nstone, and lava. In the grauwacke, we have pure\\nquartz, clay-slate, and lime in the sandstones, quartz\\nand loam. The transition limestone and the dolo-\\nmites contain an intermixture of clay, felspar, por-\\nphyry, and clay-slate and the mountain limestone\\nis remarkable for the quantity of argillaceous earths\\nwhich it contains. Jura limestone contains 3 20,\\nthat of the Wurtemberg Alps 45 50 per cent, of\\nthese earths. And in the miischelkalk and the cal-\\ncaire grassier they exist in greater or less quantity.\\nIt is known, that the aluminous minerals are the\\nmost widely diffused on the surface of the earth, and\\nas we have already mentioned, all fertile soils, or\\nsoils capable of culture, contain alumina as an inva-\\nriable constituent. There must, therefore, be some-\\nthing in aluminous earth which enables it to exercise\\nan influence on the life of plants, and to assist in\\ntheir development. The property on which this de-\\npends is that of its invariably containing potash and\\nsoda.\\nAlumina exercises only an indirect influence on\\nvegetation, by its power of attracting and retaining\\nwater and ammonia it is itself very rarely found in", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "148 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nthe ashes of plants,* but silica is always present,\\nhaving in most places entered the plants by means\\nof alkalies. In order to form a distinct conception\\nof the quantities of alkalies in aluminous minerals, it\\nmust be remembered that felspar contains 17| per\\ncent, of potash, albite ir43 per cent, of- soda, and\\nmica 3 5 percent.; and that zeolite contains 13\\n16 per cent, of both alkalies taken together. The\\nlate analyses of Ch, Graelin, Lowe, Fricke, Meyer,\\nand Redtenbacher, have also shown, that basalt con-\\ntains from I to 3 per cent, of potash, and from 5 7\\nper cent, of soda, that clay-slate contains from 2-75\\n3-31 per cent, of potash, and loam from 1| 4\\nper cent, of potash.\\nIf, now, we calculate from these data, and from\\nthe specific weights of the different substances, how\\nmuch potash must be contained in a layer of soil,\\nwhich has been formed by the disintegration of\\n26,910 square feet (1 Hessian acre) of one of these\\nrocks to the depth of 20 inches, we find that a soil of\\nFelspar containf? 1,269,000 lbs.\\nClink-stone from 220,400 to 440,000\\nBasalt 52,300 82,600\\nClay-slate 110,0(i0 220,400\\nLoam 95,800 330,600\\nPotash is present in all clays according to Fuchs,\\nit is contained even in marl; it has been found in all\\nthe argillaceous earths in which it has been sought.\\nThe fact that they contain potash may be proved in\\nthe clays of the transition and stratified mountains,\\nas well as in the recent formations surrounding Ber-\\nlin, by simply digesting them with sulphuric acid, by\\nwhich process alum is formed. (Mitscherlich.) It\\nis well known also to all manufacturers of alum, that\\nthe leys contain a certain quantity of this salt ready\\nAlumina is generally supposed to be a common ingredient of the\\nashes of plants, and it is very frequently stated in the results of their\\nanalyses but in most cases it has been mistaken for phospliate of mag-\\nnesia, or phosphate of alumina, with which it has many properties in\\ncommon, and from which it cannot be distinguished without much care\\nand attention. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "FERTILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS. 149\\nformed, the potash of which has its origin from the\\nashes of the stone and brown coal, which contain\\nmuch argillaceous earth.\\nWhen we consider this extraordinary distribution\\nof potash over the surface of the earth, is it reason-\\nable to have recourse to the idea, that the presence\\nof this alkali in plants is due to the generation of a\\nmetallic oxide by a peculiar organic process from the\\ncomponent parts of the atmosphere 1 This opinion\\nfound adherents even after the method of detecting\\npotash in soils was known, and suppositions of the\\nsame kind may be found even in the writings of some\\nphysiologists of the present day. Such opinions be-\\nlong properly to the time when flint was conceived\\nto be a product of chalk, and when everything which\\nappeared incomprehensible on account of not having\\nbeen investigated, was explained by assumptions far\\nmore incomprehensible.\\nA thousandth part of loam mixed with the quartz\\nin new red sandstone, or with the lime in the differ-\\nent limestone formations, affords as much potash to\\na soil only twenty inches in depth as is sufficient to\\nsupply a forest of pines growing upon it for a centu-\\nry. A single cubic foot of felspar is sufficient to\\nsupply a wood, covering a surface of 26,910 square\\nfeet, with the potash required for five years.\\nLand of the greatest fertility contains argillaceous\\nearths and other disintegrated minerals with chalk\\nand sand in such a proportion as to give free access\\nto air and moisture. The land in the vicinity of\\nVesuvius may be considered as the type of a fertile\\nsoil, and its fertility is greater or less in different\\nparts, according to the proportion of clay or sand\\nwhich it contains.\\nThe soil which is formed by the disintegration of\\nlava cannot possibly, on account of its origin, con-\\ntain the smallest trace of vegetable matter, and yet\\nit is well known that when the volcanic ashes have\\nbeen exposed for some time to the influence of air\\nand moisture, a soil is gradually formed in which all\\n13*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "150 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nkinds of plants grow with the greatest luxuriance\\nThis fertility is owing to the alkalies which are con-\\ntained in the lava, and which by exposure to the\\nweather are rendered capable of being absorbed by\\nplants. Thousands of years have been necessary to\\nconvert stones and rocks into the soil of arable land,\\nand thousands of years more will be requisite for\\ntheir perfect reduction, that is, for the complete ex-\\nhaustion of their alkalies.\\nWe see from the composition of the water in riv-\\ners, streamlets, and springs, how little rain-water is\\nable to extract alkali from a soil, even after a term\\nof years this water is generally soft, and the com-\\nmon salt, which even the softest invariably contains,\\nproves, that those alkaline salts, which are carried\\nto the sea b} rivers and streams, are returned again\\nto the land by wind and rain.\\nNature itself shows us what plants require at the\\ncommencement of the development of their germs\\nand first radicle fibres. Becquerel has shown, that\\nthe gramitiecB, leguminosce, cruciferce, cichoracecc, um-\\nhelliferce^ coniferiB, and cucurhitacefB emit acetic acid\\nduring germination. A plant which has just broken\\nthrough the soil, and a leaf just burst open from the\\nbud, furnish ashes by incineration, which contain as\\nnauch, and generally more, of alkaline salts than at\\nany period of their life. (De Saussure.) Now we\\nknow also, from the experiments of Becquerel, in \\\\Yhat\\nmanner these alkaline salts enter young plants the\\nacetic acid formed during germination is diffused\\nthrough the wet or moist soil, becomes saturated\\nwith lime, magnesia, and alkalies, and is again ab-\\nsorbed by the radicle fibres in the form of neutral\\nsalts. After the cessation of life, when plants are\\nsubjected to decomposition by means of decay and\\nputrefaction, the soil receives again that which had\\nbeen extracted from it.\\nLet us suppose, that a soil has been formed by the\\naction of the weather on the component parts of\\ngranite, grauwacke, mountain limestone, or porphy-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "DISINTEGRATION OF SOILS. 151\\nry, and that nothing has vegetated on it for thou-\\nsands of years. Now this soil would become a mag-\\nazine of alkalies in a condition favorable for their\\nassimilation by the roots of plants.\\nThe interesting experiments of Striive have proved\\nthat water impregnated with carbonic acid decom-\\nposes rocks which contain alkalies, and then dis-\\nsolves a part of the alkaline carbonates. It is evi-\\ndent that plants also, by producing carbonic acid\\nduring their decay, and by means of the acids which\\nexude from their roots in the living state, contribute\\nno less powerfully to destroy the coherence of rocks.\\nNext to the action of air, water, and change of tem-\\nperature, plants themselves are the most powerful\\nagents in effecting the disintegration of rocks.\\nAir, water, and the change of temperature prepare\\nthe different species of rocks for yielding to plants\\nthe alkalies which they contain. A soil which has\\nbeen exposed for centuries to all the influences which\\naffect the disintegration of rocks, but from which the\\nalkalies have not been removed, will be able to afford\\nthe means of nourishment to those vegetables which\\nrequire alkalies for their growth during many years\\nbut it must gradually become exhausted, unless those\\nalkalies which have been removed are again replaced\\na period, therefore, will arrive when it will be neces-\\nsary to expose it from time to time to a further dis-\\nintegration, in order to obtain a new supply of solu-\\nble alkalies. For small as is the quantity of alkali\\nwhich plants require, it is nevertheless quite indis-\\npensable for their perfect development. But when\\none or more years have elapsed without any alkalies\\nhaving been extracted from the soil, a new harvest\\nmay be expected.\\nThe first colonists of Virginia found a country the\\nsoil of which was similar to that mentioned above\\nharvests of wheat and tobacco were obtained for a\\ncentury from one and the same field, without the aid\\nof manure but now whole districts are converted\\ninto unfruitful pasture-land, which without manure", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "152 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nproduces neither wheat nor tobacco. From every\\nacre of this land there were removed in the space\\nof one hundred years 13,200 lbs. of alkalies in\\nleaves, grain, and straw it became unfruitful, there-\\nfore, because it was deprived of every particle of\\nalkali, which had been reduced to a soluble state,\\nand because that which was rendered soluble again\\nin the space of one year was not sufficient to satisfy\\nthe demands of the plants. Almost all the culti-\\nvated land in Europe is in this condition; fallow is\\nthe term applied to land left at rest for further\\ndisintegration. It is the greatest possible mistake\\nto suppose that the temporary diminution of fertility\\nin a soil is owing to the loss of humus it is the\\nmere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies.\\nLet us consider the condition of the country\\naround Naples, which is famed for its fruitful corn-\\nland the farms and villages are situated from\\neighteen to twenty-four miles distant from one an-\\nother, and between them there are no roads, and\\nconsequently no transportation of manure. Now\\ncorn has been cultivated on this land for thousands\\nof years, without any part of that which is annually\\nremoved from the soil being artificially restored to\\nit. How can any influence be ascribed to humus\\nunder such circumstances, when it is not even known\\nwhether humus was ever contained in the soil?\\nThe method of culture in that district completely\\nexplains the permanent fertility. It appears very\\nbad in the eyes of our agriculturists, but there it is\\nthe best plan which could be adopted. A field is\\ncultivated once every three years and is in the\\nintervals allowed to serve as a sparing pasture for\\ncattle. The soil experiences no change in the two\\nyears during which it there lies fallow, further than\\nthat it is exposed to the influence of the weather,\\nby which a fresh portion of the alkalies contained\\nin it are again set free or rendered soluble. The\\nanimals fed on these fields yield nothing to these\\nsoils which they did not formerly possess. The", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 153\\nweeds upon which they live spring from the soil,\\nand that which they return to it as excrement must\\nalways be less than that which they extract. The\\nfields, therefore, can have gained nothing from the\\nmere feeding of cattle upon them on the contrary,\\nthe soil must have lost some of its constituents.\\nExperience has shown in agriculture that wheat\\nshould not be cultivated after wheat on the same\\nsoil, for it belongs with tobacco to the plants which\\nexhaust a soil. But if the humus of a soil gives it\\nthe power of producing corn, how happens it that\\nwheat does not thrive in many parts of Brazil, where\\nthe soils are particularly rich in this substance, or\\nin our own climate, in soils formed of mouldered\\nwood that its stalk under these circumstances\\nattains no strength, and droops prematurely? The\\ncause is this, that the strength of the stalk is due\\nto silicate of potash, and that the corn requires\\nphosphate of magnesia, neither of which substances\\na soil of humus can afford, since it does not contain\\nthem; the plant may, indeed, under such circum-\\nstances, become an herb, but will not bear fruit.\\nAgain, how does it happen that wheat does not\\nflourish on a sandy soil, and that a calcareous soil is\\nalso unsuitable for its growth, unless it be mixed\\nwith a considerable quantity of clay?* It is because\\nthese soils do not contain alkalies in sufficient quan-\\ntity, the growth of wheat being arrested by this\\ncircumstance, even should all other substances be\\npresented in abundance.\\nIt is not mere accident that only trees of the fir\\ntribe grow on the sandstone and limestone of the\\nCarpathian mountains and the Jura, whilst we find\\nIn consequence of these remarks in the former edition of this\\nwork. Professor Wohler of Gottingen has made several accurate analy-\\nses of different kinds of limestone belongingr to the secondary and\\ntertiary formations. He obtained the remarkable result, that all those\\nlimestones, by the disintegration of which soils adapted for the culture\\nof wheat are formed, invariably contain a certain quantity of potash.\\nThe same observation has also recently been made by M. Kuhlmann\\nof Lille. The latter observed that the efflorescence on the mortar of\\nwalls consists of the carbonates of soda and potash. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "154 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\non soils of gneiss, mica-slate, and granite in Bavaria,\\nof clinkstone on the Rhone, of basalt in Vogelsberge,\\nand of clay-slate on the Rhine and Eifel, the finest\\nforests of other trees, which cannot be produced on\\nthe sandy or calcareous soils upon which pines\\nthrive. It is explained by the fact that trees, the\\nleaves of which are renewed annually, require for\\ntheir leaves six or ten times more alkalies than\\nthe fir-tree or pine, and hence when they are placed in\\nsoils in which alkalies are contained in very small\\nquantity, do not attain maturity.* When w^e see\\nsuch trees growing on a sandy or calcareous soil\\nthe red-beech, the service-tree, and the wild-cherry for\\nexample, thriving luxuriantly on limestone, we may\\nbe assured that alkalies are present in the soil, for\\nthey are necessary to their existence. Can we, then,\\nregard it as remarkable that such trees should thrive\\nin America, on those spots on which forests of pines\\nwhich have grown and collected alkalies for centu-\\nries, have been burnt, and to which the alkalies are\\nthus at once restored or that the Spartium scopari-\\nttni, Erysirmim latifolium, Blitum capitatum, Senecio\\nviscosus, plants remarkable for the quantity of alka-\\nlies contained in their ashes, should grow with the\\ngreatest luxuriance on the localities of conflagra-\\ntions ?f\\nWheat will not grow on a soil which has produced\\nwormwood, and, vice versa, wormwood does not\\nthrive where wheat has grown, because they are\\nmutually prejudicial by appropriating the alkalies\\nof the soil.\\nOne hundred parts of the stalks of wheat yield\\nOne thousand parts of the dry leaves of oaks yielded 55 parts of\\nashes, of which 2i parts consisted of alkalies soluble in water the\\nsame quantity of pine-leaves gave only 29 parts of ashes, which con-\\ntain 4 6 parts of soluble salts. (De Saussure.)\\nt After the great fire in London, large quantities of the Erysimum\\nlatifolium were observed growing on the spots where a fire had taken\\nplace. On a similar occasion the Blitum capitatum was seen at Copen-\\nhagen, the Scnecio viscosiis in Nassau, and the Spartium scoparium. in\\nLanguedoc. After the burnings of forests of pines in North America,\\npoplars grew on the same soil. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 155\\n15-5 parts of ashes (H. Davy) the same quantity\\nof the dry stalks of barley, 8.54 parts (Schrader)\\nand one hundred parts of the stalks of oats, only\\n4*42; the ashes of all these are of the same com-\\nposition.\\nWe have in these facts a clear proof of what\\nplants require for their growth. Upon the same\\nfield, which will yield only one harvest of wheat, two\\ncrops of barley and three of oats may be raised.\\nAH plants of the grass kind require silicate of pot-\\nash. Now this is conveyed to the soil, or rendered\\nsoluble in it, by the irrigation of meadows. The\\neqiiisetacecB, the reeds and species of cane, for ex-\\nample, which contain such large quantities of silice-\\nous earth, or silicate of potash, thrive luxuriantly in\\nmarshes, in argillaceous soils, and in ditches, stream-\\nlets, and other places where the change of water\\nrenews constantly the supply of dissolved silica.\\nThe amount of silicate of potash removed from a\\nmeadow in the form of hay is very considerable. We\\nneed only call to mind the melted vitreous mass\\nfound on a meadow between Manheim and Heidel-\\nberg after a thunder-storm. This mass was at first\\nsupposed to be a meteor, but was found on examina-\\ntion (by Gmelin) to consist of silicate of potash;\\na flash of lightning had struck a stack of hay, and\\nnothing was found in its place except the melted\\nashes of the hay.\\nPotash is not the only substance necessary for the\\nexistence of most plants; indeed it has been already\\nshown that the potash may be replaced in many-\\ncases by soda, magnesia, or lime but other sub-\\nstances besides alkalies are required to sustain the\\nlife of plants.\\nPhosphoric acid has been found in the ashes of all\\nplants hitherto examined, and always in combination\\nwith alkalies or alkaline earths.* Most seeds con-\\nProfessor Connall was lately kind enough to show me about half\\nan ounce of a saline powder, which had been taken from an interstice\\nin the body of a piece of teak timber. It consisted essentially of phos-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "156 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\ntain certain quantities of phosphates. In the seeds\\nof different kinds of corn particularly, there is abun-\\ndance of phosphate of magnesia.\\nPlants obtain their phosphoric acid from the soil.\\nIt is a constituent of all land capable of cultivation,\\nand even the heath at Liineburg contains it in ap-\\npreciable quantity. Phosphoric acid has been de-\\ntected also in all mineral waters in which its pres-\\nence has been tested 3 and in those in which it has\\nnot been found it ha? not been sought for. The\\nmost superficial strata of the deposits of sulphuret\\nof lead (^galena) contain crystallized phosphate of\\nlead (^greenlead ore) clay-slate, which forms ex-\\ntensive strata, is covered in many places with crys-\\ntals of phosphate of alumina Wavellite) all its\\nfractured surfaces are overlaid with it. Phosphate\\nof lime (^Apatite) is found even in the volcanic\\nboulders on the Laacher See in the Eifel, near\\nAndernach.*\\nThe soil in which plants grow furnishes them with\\nphosphoric acid, and they in turn yield it to animals,\\nto be used in the formation of their bones, and of\\nthose constituents of the brain which contain phos-\\nphorus. Much more phosphorus is thus afforded to\\nthe body than it requires, when flesh, bread, fruit,\\nand husks of grain are used for food, and this ex-\\ncess is eliminated in the urine and the solid excre-\\nments. We may form an idea of the quantity of\\nphosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we\\nconsider that the concretions in the caecum of horses\\nphate of lime, with small quantities of carbonate of lime and phosphate\\nof magnesia. This powder had been sent to Sir David Brewster from\\nIndia, with the assurance that it was the same substance which usually\\nis found in the hollows of teak timber. It has long been known that\\nsilica, in the form of tuhaslieer, is secreted by the bamboo; but I am\\nnot aware that phosphates have been found in the same condition.\\nWithout more precise information, we must therefore suppose that they\\nare left in the hollows by the decny of the wood. Decay is a slow\\nprocess of combustion, and the incombustible ashes must remain after\\nthe organic matter has been consumed. But if this explanation be cor-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2ect, the wood of the teak-tree must contain an enormous quantity of\\nearthy phosphates. Ed.\\nSee the analyses of soils in the Appendix.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "THE FERTILITY OF SOILS. 157\\nconsist of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia,\\nwhich must have been obtained from the hay and oats\\nconsumed as food. Twenty-nine of these stones\\nwere taken after death from the rectum of a horse\\nbelonging to a miller, in Eberstadt, the total weight\\nof which amounted to 3*3 lbs. and Dr. F. Simon has\\nlately described a similar concretion found in the\\nhorse of a carrier, which weighed 1-6 lb.\\nIt is evident that the seeds of corn could not be\\nformed without phosphate of magnesia, which is one\\nof their invariable constituents the plant could not\\nunder such circumstances reach maturity.\\nSome plants, however, extract other matters from\u00c2\u00bb\\nthe soil besides silica, potash, and phosphoric acid,,\\nwhich are essential constituents of the plants ordi-\\nnarily cultivated.* These other matters, we must\\nsuppose, supply, in part at least, the place and per-\\nform the functions of the substances just named.\\nWe may thus regard common salt, sulphate of pot-\\nash, nitre, chloride of potassium, and other matters,\\nas necessary constituents of several plants.\\nClay-slate contains generally small quantities of\\noxide of coppery and soils formed from micaceous-\\nschist contain some metallic fluorides. Now, smalll\\nquantities of these substances also are absorbed into\\nplants, although we cannot affirm that they are\\nnecessary to them.\\nIt appears that in certain cases fluoride of calci-\\num f may take the place of the phosphate of lime in the\\nbones and teeth at least it is impossible otherwise-\\nto explain its constant presence in the bones of\\nFor more minute information regarding soils see the supplement\\ntary chapter at the end of Part I.\\nt Fluorine is the base of the acid contained in Fluor or Derbyshire\\nspar with hydrogen it forms the hydrofluoric acid. The acid is separ.\\nated by heating fiuor spar with sulphuric acid, and is distinguished by\\nits power of corroding glass, and of uniting with its silica. Compounds\\nof Fluorine are called Fluorides, of the acid Hydrojluates Calcium is\\nthe metallic base of lime.\\nX The earthy parts of bones are composed principally of the phos-\\nphate and carbonate of lime in various proportions, variable in different,\\ncniinals, and mixed with small quantities, equally variable, of phos-\\n]4", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "158 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nantediluvian animals, by which they are distinguished\\nfrom those of a later period. The bones of human\\nskulls found at Pompeii contain as much fluoric acid\\nas those of animals of a former world, for if they be\\nplaced in a state of powder in glass vessels, and\\ndigested with sulphuric acid, the interior of the\\nvessel will, after twenty-four hours, be found power-\\nfully corroded (Liebig) whilst the bones and teeth\\nof animals of the present day contain only traces of\\nit. (Berzelius.)\\nDe Saussure remarked, that plants require unequal\\nquantities of the component parts of soils in different\\nstages of their development an observation of much\\nimportance in considering the growth of plants.\\nThus, wheat yielded ^ggg of ashes a month before\\nblossoming, j^g while in blossom, and j\u00c2\u00a7\u00c2\u00a7o after the\\nripening of the seeds. It is therefore evident, that\\nphate of magnesia and fluate of lime. By acting upon calcined bones\\nwith sulphuric acid fluoric acid is disengaged. The following analyses\\nof the bones of man and horned cattle, are given by Berzelius.\\nHuman bone. Ox bone.\\nCartilage soluble in water, 32.17 o-, on\\nVessels 1.13\\nSubphosphate, and a little fluate of lime,\\nCarbonate of lime,\\nPhosphate of magnesia,\\nSoda and very little muriate of soda,\\n100.00 100.00\\nThe bones of man contain three times as much carbonate -of lime as\\nthose of the ox, and the latter are richer in phosphate of lime and\\nmagnesia in the same proportion.\\nThe following are the relative proportions of phosphate and carbonate\\nof lime in bones of different animals, according to De Barros.\\nPhosphate of Lime. Carbonate of Lime.\\nLion, 95.0 2.5\\nSheep, 80.0 19.3\\nHen, 88.9 10.4\\nFrog, 95.2 2.4\\nFish, 91.9 5.3\\n53.04\\n57.35\\n11.30\\n3.85\\n1.16\\n2.05\\n1.20\\n3.45\\nThe enamel of the teeth is composed of\\nHuman.\\nOx.\\nPhosphate of lime, 88.5\\n85.0\\nCarbonate of 8.0\\n7.1\\nPhosphate of magnesia, .1.5\\n3.0\\nSoda, 0.0\\n1.4\\nMembrane, alkali and water, 2.0\\n3.5\\n100.0 100.0", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "FALLOW-CROPS. 159\\nwheat, from the time of its flowering, restores a part\\nof its organic constituents to the soil, although the\\nphosphate of magnesia remains in the seeds.\\nThe fallow-time, as we have already shown, is that\\nperiod of culture during which land is exposed to a\\nprogressive disintegration by means of the influence\\nof the atmosphere, for the purpose of rendering a\\ncertain quantity of alkalies capable of being appro-\\npriated by plants.\\nNow, it is evident, that the careful tilling of fal-\\nlow-land must increase and accelerate this disinte-\\ngration. For the purpose of agriculture, it is quite\\nindifferent, whether the land is covered with weeds,\\nor with a plant which does not abstract the potash\\ninclosed in it. Now many plants in the family of\\nthe leguminoscB are remarkable on account of the\\nsmall quantity of alkalies or salts in general which\\nthey contain; the Windsor bean F\u00c2\u00abcm Paha),iov\\nexample, contains no free alkalies, and not one per\\ncent, of the phosphates of lime and magnesia.\\n(Einhof.) The bean of the kidney-bean {^Phaseohis\\nvulgaris^ contains only traces of salts. (Braconnot.)\\nThe stem of Lucern [Medicago sativa) contains only\\n0-83 per cent., that of the Lentil (^Ervum Lens)\\nonly 0*57 of phosphate of lime wdth albumen.\\n(Crome.) Buck-wheat dried in the sun yields only\\n0-681 per cent, of ashes, of which 0 09 parts are\\nsoluble salts. (Zenneck.)* These plants belong to\\nThe small quantity of phosphates wliich the seeds of the lentils,\\nbeans, and peas contain, must be the cause of their small value as\\narticles of nourishment, since they surpass all other vegetable food in\\nthe quantity of nitrogen which enters into their composition. But as\\nthe component parts of the bones (phosphate of lime and magnesia)\\nare absent, they satisfy the appetite without increasing the strength.\\nThe following is an analysis of lentils (Playfair). 6-09 2 grammes lost\\n0-972 grammes of water at 212\u00c2\u00b0. 0.. 5(1(1 grammes, burned with oxide\\nof copper, gave 0-910 grammes carbonic acid and 33G grammes of\\nwater. The lentils on combustion with oxide of copper, yielded a gas,\\nin which the proportion of the nitrogen to the carbonic acid was\\nas 1: 16.\\nCarbon 44 45\\nHydrogen 6-59\\nNitrogen 6-42\\nWater 15 95", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "160 THE ART OF CULTURE.\\nthose which are termed fallow-crops, and the cause\\nwherefore they do not exercise any injurious influ-\\nence on corn which is cultivated immediately after\\nthem is, that they do not extract the alkalies of the\\nsoil, and only a very small quantity of phosphates.\\nIt is evident that two plants growing beside each\\nother will mutually injure one another, if they with-\\ndraw the same food from the soil. Hence it is not\\nsurprising that the wild chamomile {^Mati^icaria\\nChamoniilla) and Scotch broom {^Spartium Scopa-\\nrium) impede the growth of corn, when it is con-\\nsidered that both yield from 7 to 7-43 per cent, of\\nashes, which contain of carbonate of potash. The\\ndarnel and the fleabane {^Erigeron acre) blossom and\\nbear fruit at the same time as corn, so that when\\ngrowing mingled with it, they will partake of the\\ncomponent parts of the soil, and in proportion to\\nthe vigor of their growth, that of the corn must\\ndecrease for what one receives, the others are\\ndeprived of. Plants will, on the contrary, thrive\\nbeside each other, either when the substances neces-\\nsary for their growth which they extract from the\\nsoil are of different kinds, or when they themselves\\nare not both in the same stages of development at\\nthe same time.\\nOn a soil, for example, which contains potash, both\\nwheat and tobacco may be reared in succession,\\nbecause the latter plant does not require phosphates,\\nsalts which are invariably present in wheat, but re-\\nquires only alkalies, and food containing nitrogen.\\nAccording to the analysis of Posselt and Reimann,\\n10,000 parts of the leaves of the tobacco-plant con-\\ntain 16 parts of phosphate of lime, 8-8 parts of\\nsilica, and no magnesia; whilst an equal quantity\\nof wheat straw contains 47*3 parts, and the same\\nquantity of the grain of wheat 99-45 parts of phos-\\nphates. (De Saussure.)\\nNow, if we suppose that the grain of wheat is\\nequal to half the weight of its straw, then the quan-\\ntity of phosphates extracted from a soil by the same", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS. 161\\nweights of wheat and tobacco must be as 97-7: 16.\\nThis difference is very considerable. The roots of\\ntobacco, as well as those of wheat, extract the phos-\\nphates contained in the soil, but they restore them\\nagain, because they are not essentially necessary to\\nthe development of the plant.\\nCHAPTER VIII.\\nON THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\nIt has long since been found by experience, that\\nthe growth of annual plants is rendered -imperfect,\\nand their crops of fruit or herbs less abundant, by\\ncultivating them in successive years on the same\\nsoil, and that, in spite of the loss of time, a greater\\nquantity of grain is obtained when a field is allowed\\nto lie uncultivated for a year. During this interval\\nof rest, the soil, in a great measure, regains its\\noriginal fertility.\\nIt has been further observed, that certain plants,\\nsuch as peas, clover, and flax, thrive on the same\\nsoil only after a lapse of years whilst others, such\\nas hemp, tobacco, helianthus tuberosus, rye, and oats,\\nmay be cultivated in close succession when proper\\nmanure is used. It has also been found, that several\\nof these plants improve the soil, whilst others, and\\nthese are the most numerous, impoverish or exhaust\\nit. Fallow turnips, cabbage, beet, spelt, summer\\nand winter barley, rye and oats, are considered to\\nbelong to the class which impoverish a soil whilst\\nby wheat, hops, madder, late turnips, hemp, poppies,\\nteasel, flax, weld, and licorice, it is supposed to be\\nentirely exhausted.\\nThe excrements of man and animals have been\\nemployed from the earliest times for the purpose of\\nincreasing the fertility of soils and it is completely\\nestablished by all experience, that they restore cer-\\n14*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "162 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\ntain constituents to the soil, which are removed with\\nthe roots, fruit, or grain, or entire plants grown\\nupon it.\\nBut it has been observed, that the crops are not\\nalways abundant in proportion to the quantity of\\nmanure employed, even although it may have been\\nof the most powerful kind that the produce of\\nmany plants, for example, diminishes, in spite of the\\napparent replacement by manure of the substances\\nremoved from the soil, when they are cultivated on\\nthe same field for several years in succession.\\nOn the other hand it has been remarked, that a\\nfield which has become unfitted for a certain kind of\\nplants was not on that account unsuited for another;\\nand upon this observation, a system of agriculture\\nhas been gradually founded, the principal object of\\nwhich is to obtain the greatest possible produce with\\nthe least expense of manure.\\nNow it was deduced from all the foregoing facts,\\nthat plants require for their growth diiferent con-\\nstituents of soil, and it was very soon perceived,\\nthat an alternation of the plants cultivated main-\\ntained the fertility of a soil quite as well as leaving\\nit at rest or fallow. It was evident, that all plants\\nmust give back to the soil in which they grow differ-\\nent proportions of certain substances, which are capa-\\nble of being used as food by a succeeding generation.\\nBut agriculture has hitherto never sought aid from\\nchemical principles, based on the knowledge of those\\nsubstances which plants extract from the soil on\\nwhich they grow, and of those restored to the soil\\nby means of manure. The discovery of such prin-\\nciples will be the task of a future generation, for\\nwhat can be expected from the present, which recoils\\nwith seemino; distrust and aversion from all the\\nmeans of assistance offered it by chemistry, and\\nwhich does not understand the art of making a\\nrational application of chemical discoveries A\\nfuture generation, however, will derive incalculable\\nadvantage from these means of help.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "THEORY OF ITS USE. 163\\nOf all ^;he views which have been adopted regard-\\ning the cause of the favorable effects of the alter-\\nnations of crops, that proposed by M. Decandolle\\nalone deserves to be mentioned as resting on a firm\\nbasis.\\nDecandolle supposes, that the roots of plants\\nimbibe soluble matter of every kind from the soil,\\nand thus necessarily absorb a number of substances\\nwhich are not adapted to the purposes of nutrition,\\nand must subsequently be expelled by the roots, and\\nreturned to the soil as excrements. Now as excre-\\nments cannot be assimilated by the plant which eject-\\ned them, the more of these matters which the soil\\ncontains, the more unfertile must it be for the plants\\nof the same species. These excrementitious matters\\nmay, however, still be capable of assimilation by\\nanother kind of plants, which would thus remove\\nthem from the soil, and render it again fertile for\\nthe first. And if the plants last grown also expel\\nsubstances from their roots, which can be appropri-\\nated as food by the former, they will improve the\\nsoil in two ways.\\nNow a great number of facts appear at first sight\\nto give a high degree of probability to this view.\\nEvery gardener knows, that a fruit-tree cannot be\\nmade to grow on the same spot where another of the\\nsame species has stood at least not until after a\\nlapse of several years. Before new vine-stocks are\\nplanted in a vineyard from which the old have been\\nrooted out, other plants are cultivated on the soil\\nfor several years. In connexion with this it has\\nbeen observed, that several plants thrive best when\\ngrowing beside one another; and, on the contrary,\\nthat others mutually prevent each other s develop-\\nment. Whence it was concluded, that the beneficial\\ninfluence in the former case depended on a mutual\\ninterchange of nutriment between the plants, and\\nthe injurious one in the latter on a poisonous action\\nof the excrements of each on the other respectively.*\\nThat these supposed exudations are uniformly more or less injuri-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "164 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\nA series of experiments by Macaire-Princep gave\\ngreat weight to this theory. He proved beyond all\\ndoubt, that many plants are capable of emitting ex-\\ntractive matter from their roots. He found that the\\nexcretions were greater during the night than by\\nday and that the water in which plants of the\\nfamily of the LeguminoscB grew acquired a brown\\ncolor. Plants of the same species placed in water\\nimpregnated with these excrements were impeded in\\ntheir growth, and faded prematurely, whilst, on the\\ncontrary, corn-plants grew vigorously in it, and the\\ncolor of the water diminished sensibly; so that it\\nappeared as if a certain quantity of the excrements\\nof the LeguniinosfB had really been absorbed by the\\ncorn-plants. These experiments afforded, as their\\nmain result, that the characters and properties of the\\nexcrements of different species of plants are different\\nfrom one another, and that some plants expel excre-\\nmentitious matter of an acid and resinous character;\\nothers mild substances resemblina; o;um. The former\\no p\\nof these, according to Macaire-Princep, may be re-\\ngarded as poisonous, the latter as nutritious.\\nThe experiments of Macaire-Princep afford posi-\\ntive proof that the roots, probably of all plants, ex-\\npel matters, which cannot be converted in their or-\\nganism either into woody fibre, starch, vegetable al-\\nbumen, or gluten, since their expulsion indicates that\\nthey are quite unfitted for this purpose. But they\\nous to plants of similar species, has been inferred from the fact, that a\\nsoil, in which peach or apple trees have grown, is unfit for young shoots\\nof the same description, so as to render it a necessary rule in practice,\\nthat a piece of ground should be occupied by forest and by fruit trees\\nalternately.\\nReference has also been made to a circumstance, which most travel-\\nlers in the United States have remarked, and which I myself, during\\nmy tour in that country, had frequent opportunities of substantiating,\\nnamely, that where a forest of oak or of maple has been destroyed, the\\ntrees, that are apt to shoot up spontaneously in their place, are of the\\nfir-tribe whereas, if a pine forest be cut down, young oaks and other\\nallied species will make their appearance afterwards. Daubeny s\\nLectures on .^tri-iculture.\\nFor an account of experiments on this subject now in progress at Ox-\\nford, see Appendix.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "THEORIES OF ITS USE. 165\\ncannot be considered as a confirmation of the theory\\nof Decandolle, for they leave it quite undecided\\nwhether the substances were extracted from the soil,\\nor formed by the plant itself from food received from\\nanother source. It is certain, that the gummy and\\nresinous excrements observed by Macaire-Princep\\ncould not have been contained in the soil, and as we\\nknow that the carbon of a soil is not diminished by\\nculture, but, on the contrary, increased, we must\\nconclude that all excrements which contain carbon\\nmust be formed from the food obtained by plants\\nfrom the atmosphere. Now, these excrements are\\ncompounds, produced in consequence of the trans-\\nformations of the food, and of the new forms which\\nit assumes by entering into the composition of the\\nvarious organs.\\nM. Decandolle s theory is properly a modification\\nof an earlier hypothesis, which supposed that the\\nroots of different plants extracted different nutritive\\nsubstances from the soil, each plant selecting that\\nwhich was exactly suited for its assimilation. Ac-\\ncording to this hypothesis, the matters incapable of\\nassimilation are not extracted from the soil, whilst\\nM. Decandolle considers that they are retur7ied to it\\nin the form of excrements. Both views explain how\\nit happens that after corn, corn cannot be raised\\nwith advantage, nor after peas, peas but they do\\nnot explain how a field is improved by lying fallow,\\nand this in proportion to the care with which it is\\ntilled and kept free from weeds nor do they show\\nhow a soil gains carbonaceous matter by the cultiva-\\ntion of certain plants such as lucern and sainfoin.\\nTheoretical considerations on the process of nutri-\\ntion, as well as the experience of all agriculturists,\\nso beautifully illustrated by the experiments of Ma-\\ncaire-Princep, leave no doubt that substances are\\nexcreted from the roots of plants, and that these\\nmatters form the means by which the carbon received\\nfrom humus in the early period of their growth is\\nrestored to the soil. But we may now inquire wheth-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "166 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\ner these excrements, in the state in which they are\\nexpelled, are capable of being employed as food by\\nother plants.\\nThe excrements of a carnivorous animal contain\\nno constituents fitted for the nourishment of another\\nof the same species but it is possible that an her-\\nbivorous animal, a fish, or a fowl, might find in them\\nundigested matters capable of being digested in\\ntheir organism, from the very circumstance of their\\norgans of digestion having a different structure.\\nThis is the only sense in which we can conceive that\\nthe excrements of one animal could yield matter\\nadapted for the nutrition of another.\\nA number of substances contained in the food of\\nanimals pass through their alimentary organs without\\nchange, and are expelled from the system these are\\nexcrements but not excretions. Now a part of such\\nexcrementitious matter might be assimilated in pass-\\ning through the digestive apparatus of another ani-\\nmal. The organs of secretion form combinations of\\nwhich only the elements were contained in the food.\\nThe production of these new compounds is a conse-\\nquence of the changes which the food undergoes in\\nbecoming chyle and chyme, and of the further trans-\\nformations to w^hich these are subjected by entering\\ninto the composition of the organism. These mat-\\nters, likewise, are eliminated in the excrements,\\nwhich must therefore consist of two different kinds\\nof substances, namely, of the indigestible constitu-\\nents of the food, and of the new compounds formed\\nby the vital process. The latter substances have\\nbeen produced in consequence of the formation of\\nfat, muscular fibre, cerebral and nervous substance,\\nand are quite incapable of being converted into the\\nsame substances in any other animal organism.\\nExactly similar conditions must subsist in the vi-\\ntal processes of plants. When substances which are\\nincapable of being employed in the nutrition of a\\nplant exist in the matter absorbed by its roots, they\\nmust be again returned to the soil. Such excrements", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "CAUSES OF ITS BENEFICIAL INFLUENCE. 167\\nmifht be serviceable and even indispensable to the\\nexistence of several other plants. But substances\\nthat are formed in a vegetable organism during the\\nprocess of nutrition, which are produced, therefore,\\nin consequence of the formation of woody fibre,\\nstarch, albumen, gum, acids, ,c., cannot again serve\\nin any other plants to form the same constituents of\\nvegetables.\\nThe consideration of these facts enables us to dis-\\ntinguish the difference between the views of Decan-\\ndolle and those of Macaire-Princep. The substances\\nwhich the former physiologist viewed as excrements,\\nbelonged to the soil they were undigested matters,\\nwhich although not adapted for the nutrition of one\\nplant might yet be indispensable to another. Those\\nmatters, on the contrary, designated as excrements\\nby Macaire-Princep, could only in one form serve for\\nthe nutrition of vegetables. It is scarcely necessary\\nto remark, that this excremeutitious matter must un-\\ndergo a change before another season. During au-\\ntumn and winter it beg-ins to suffer a change from\\nthe influence of air and water its putrefaction, and\\nat length, by continued contact with the air, which\\ntillage is the means of procuring, its decay are effect-\\ned and at the commencement of spring it has be-\\ncome converted, either in w^hole or in part, into a\\nsubstance which supplies the place of humus, by be-\\ning a constant source of carbonic acid.\\nThe quickness with w^hich this decay of the ex-\\ncrements of plants proceeds depends on the com-\\nposition of the soil, and on its greater or less po-\\nrosity. It will take place very quickly in a calcareous\\nsoil for the power of organic excrements to attract\\noxygen and to putrefy is increased by contact with\\nthe alkaline constituents, and by the general porous\\nnature of such kinds of soil, which freely permit the\\naccess of air. But it requires a longer time in heavy\\nsoils consisting of loam or clay.\\nThe same plants can be cultivated with advantage\\non one soil after the second year, but in others not", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "168 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\nuntil the jfifth or ninth, merely on account of the\\nchange and destruction of the excrements, which\\nhave an injurious influence on the plants being com-\\npleted in the one, in the second year; in the others,\\nnot until the ninth.\\nIn some neighborhoods clover will not thrive till\\nthe sixth year, in others not till the twelfth flax in\\nthe second or third year. All this depends on the\\nchemical nature of the soil, for it has been found by\\nexperience, that in those districts where the intervals\\nat which the same plants can be cultivated with ad-\\nvantage are very long, the time cannot be shortened\\neven by the use of the most powerful manures. The\\ndestruction of the peculiar excrements of one crop\\nmust have taken place before a new crop can be\\nproduced.\\nFlax, peas, clover, and even potatoes, are plants\\nthe excrements of which, in argillaceous soils, re-\\nquire the longest time for their conversion into\\nhumus; but it is evident, that the use of alkalies\\nand burnt lime, or even small quantities of ashes\\nwhich have not been lixiviated, must enable a soil\\nto permit the cultivation of the same plants in a\\nmuch shorter time.\\nA soil lying fallow owes its earlier fertility, in\\npart, to the destruction or conversion into humus of\\nthe excrements contained in it, which is effected\\nduring the fallow season, at the same time that the\\nland is exposed to a further disintegration.\\nIn the soils in the neio-hborhood of the Rhine and\\nNile, which contain much potash, and where crops\\ncan be obtained in close succession from the same\\nfield, the fallowing of the land is superseded by the\\ninundation; the irrigation of meadows effects the\\nsame purpose. It is because the water of rivers and\\nstreams contains oxygen in solution, that it effects\\nthe most complete and rapid putrefaction of the ex-\\ncrements contained in the soil which it penetrates,\\nand in which it is continually renewed. If it was\\nthe water alone which produced this effect, marshy", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "CULTIVATION OF MEADOWS. 169\\nmeadows should be most fertile. Hence it is not\\nsufficient in irrigating meadows to convert them into\\nmarshes, by covering for several months their sur-\\nface with water, which is not renewed; for the\\nadvantage of irrigation consists principally in sup-\\nplying oxygen to the roots of plants. The quantity\\nof water necessary for this purpose is very small, so\\nthat it is sufficient to cover the meadow with a very\\nthin layer, if this be frequently renewed.\\nThe cultivation of meado\\\\vs forms one of the most\\nimportant branches of rural economy. It contributes\\nmaterially to the prosperity of the agriculturist by\\nincreasing his stock of cattle, and consequently by\\nfurnishing him with manure, which may be applied\\nto the augmentation of his crops. Indeed, the great\\nprogress which has been made in Germany in the\\nimprovement of cattle is mainly attributable to the\\nattention which is devoted in that country to the\\nculture of meadow^s. The environs of Siegin, in\\nNassau, are particulary famed in this respect, and\\nevery year a large number of young farmers repair\\nto it, for the purpose of studying this branch of\\nagriculture iii situ. In that district the culture of\\ngrass has attained such great perfection, that the\\nproduce of their meadow-land far exceeds that ob-\\ntained in any other part of Germany. This is effected\\nsimply by preparing the ground in such a manner as\\nto enable it to be irrigated both in spring and in\\nautumn. The surface of the soil is fitted to suit the\\nlocality, and the quantity of water which can be.\\ncommanded. Thus if the meadows be situated upon\\na declivity, banks of from one to two feet in height\\nare raised at short distances from each other. The\\nwater is admitted by small channels upon the most\\nelevated bank, and allowed to discharge itself over\\nthe sides in such a manner as to run upon the bank\\nsituated below. The grass grown upon meadows\\nirrigated in this way is three or four times higher-\\nthan that obtained from fields which are covered with\\nwater that is deprived of all egress and renewal.\\n15", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "170 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\nIt follows from what has preceded, that the ad-\\nvantage of the alternation of crops is owing to two\\ncauses.\\nA fertile soil ought to afford to a plant all the in-\\norganic bodies indispensable for its existence in suf-\\nficient quantity and in such condition as allows their\\nabsorption.\\nAll plants require alkalies, which are contained in\\nsome, in the Grmninem for example, in the form of\\nsilicates in others, in that of tartrates, citrates,\\nacetates, or oxalates.\\nWhen these alkalies are in combination with silicic\\nacid, the ashes obtained by the incineration of the\\nplant contain no carbonic acid but when they are\\nunited with organic acids, the addition of a mineral\\nacid to their ashes causes an effervescence.\\nA third species of plants requires phosphate of\\nlime, another phosphate of magnesia, and several do\\nnot thrive without carbonate of lime.\\nSilicic acid* is the first solid substance taken up\\nby plants it appears to be the material from which\\nSilica, or siliceous earth, is the most abundant ingredient in the\\nmineral kingdom, being one of the constituents of most rocks, and\\nextensively distributed over the earth in the form of sand, quartz,\\ncarnelian, flint, c., \u00c2\u00abfcc. It is also held in solution by the water\\nof hot springs, as in the Geysers of Iceland, and the Azores, from\\nwhich it is deposited, forming what is called siliceous sinter, and often\\nincrusting the stems of plants and other bodies. The vegetable mat-\\nter in some instances has entirely disappeared, and the silica having\\ntaken its place we have silicified or petrified wood, c. See Web-\\nster s Description of the Island of St. Michael, p. 208. From silica a\\nsubstance is obtained which is considered as its base and called silicon\\nand siliciitm. This base, combined with oxygen, constitutes silica,\\nwhich is capable of combining with other bases from this and other\\nproperties it is called silicic acid. By combination with other sub-\\nstances, as potash, soda, c., silica becomes soluble in water. These\\ncompounds are called silicates. A white, earthy substance is found be-\\nneath peat and in swampy lands and ponds, which has long been mis-\\ntaken for calcareous marl. It has been proved to consist of the siliceous\\nskeletons of infusorial vegetables, if tliey may be so called, or of those\\nequivocal beings, which occupy the borders of the two kingdoms, and\\nrender it difficult, not to say impossible, to draw the line between\\nthem. This siliceous deposite has been found under nearly every peat\\nbog in this country which has been examined. See Professor liailey s\\npaper in American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXV p. 118, and Vol.\\nXL. p. 174.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "CAUSES OF ITS BENEFICIAL INFLUENCE. 171\\nthe formation of the wood takes its origin, acting\\nlike a grain of sand around which the first crystals\\nform in a solution of a salt which is in the act of\\ncrystallizing. Silicic acid appears to perform the\\nfunction of woody fibre in the E qiiisetacece and bam-\\nboos,* just as the crystalline salt, oxalate of lime,\\ndoes in many of the lichens.\\nWhen we ^row in the same soil for several years\\nin succession different plants, the first of which\\nleaves behind that which the second, and the second\\nthat which the third may require, the soil will be a\\nfruitful one for all the three kinds of produce. If\\nthe first plant, for example, be wheat, which con-\\nsumes the greatest part of the silicate of potash in a\\nsoil, whilst the plants which succeed it are of such\\na kind as require only small quantities of potash, as\\nis the case with LeguminoscB, turnips, potatoes, c.,\\nthe wheat may be again sowed with advantage after\\nthe fourth year; for during the interval of three\\nyears the soil will, by the action of the atmosphere,\\nbe rendered capable of again yielding silicate of pot-\\nash in sufficient quantity for the young plants.\\nThe same precautions must be observed with re-\\ngard to the other inorganic constituents, when it is\\ndesired to grow different plants in succession on the\\nsame soil for a successive growth of plants which\\nextract the same components parts, must gradually\\nrender it incapable of producing them. Each of\\nthese plants during its growth returns to the soil a\\ncertain quantity of substances containing carbon,\\nwhich are gradually converted into humus, and are\\nfor the most part equivalent to as much carbon as\\nthe plants had formerly extracted from the soil in a\\nstate of carbonic acid. But although this is sufficient\\nto bring many plants to maturity, it is not enough\\nto furnish their different organs with the greatest\\npossible supply of nourishment. Now the object of\\nSilica is found in the joints of bamboos, in the form of small round\\nglobules, which have received the name of Tubasheer, and are dis-\\ntinguished by their remarkable optical properties. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "172 THE ALTERNATION OF CROPS.\\nagriculture is to produce either articles of commerce,\\nOr food for man and animals but a maximum of\\nproduce in plants is always in proportion to the\\nquantity of nutriment supplied to them in the first\\nstage of their development.\\nThe nutriment of young plants consists of car-\\nbonic acid, contained in the soil in the form of\\nhumus, and of nitrogen in the form of ammonia,\\nboth of which must be supplied to the plants, if the\\ndesired purpose is to be accomplished. The forma-\\ntion of ammonia cannot be effected on cultivated\\nland, but humus may be artificially produced and\\nthis must be considered as an important object in\\nthe alternation of crops, and as the second reason\\nof its peculiar advantages.\\nThe sowing of a field with fallow plants, such as\\nclover, rye, buck-wheat, c., and the incorporation\\nof the plants, when nearly at blossom, with the soil,\\naffect this supply of humus in so far, that young\\nplants subsequently growing in it find, at a certain\\nperiod of their growth, a maximum of nutriment,\\nthat is, matter in the process of decay.\\nThe same end is obtained, but with much greater\\ncertainty, when the field is planted with sainfoin or\\nlucern.* These plants are remarkable on account\\nof the great ramification of their roots, and strong\\ndevelopment of their leaves, and for requiring only\\na small quantity of inorganic matter. Until they\\nreach a certain period of their growth, they retain\\nall the carbonic acid and ammonia which may have\\nbeen conveyed to them by rain and the air, for that\\nwhich is not absorbed by the soil is appropriated by\\nthe leaves they also possess an extensive four or\\nThe alternation of crops with sainfoin and lucern is now univer-\\nsally adopted in Bingen and its vicinity, as well as in the Palatinate;\\nthe fields in these districts receive manure only once every nine years.\\nIn the first years after the land has been manured turnips are sown\\nupon it, in the next following 3 eiiVs barley, with sainfoin or lucern; in\\nthe seventh year potatoes, in the eighth wheat, in the ninth barley;\\non the tenth year it is manured, and then the same rotation again takes\\nplace. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "CAUSES OF ITS BENEFICIAL INFLUENCE. 173\\nsix-fold surface, capable of assimilating these bodies,\\nand of preventing the volatilization of the ammonia\\nfrom the soil, by completely covering it in.\\nAn immediate consequence of the production of\\nthe green principle of the leaves, and of their re-\\nmaining component parts, as well as those of the\\nstem, is the equally abundant excretion of organic\\nmatters into the soil from the roots.\\nThe favorable influence which this exercises on the\\nland, by furnishing it with matter capable of being\\nconverted into humus, lasts for several years, but\\nbarren spots gradually appear after the lapse of\\nsome time. Now it is evident that, after from six\\nto seven years, the ground must become so impreg-\\nnated with excrements, that every fibre of the root\\nwill be surrounded with them. As they remain for\\nsome time in a soluble condition, the plants must\\nabsorb part of them and sufl er injurious effects in\\nconsequence, because they are not capable of assim-\\nilation. When such a field is observed for several\\nyears, it is seen that the barren spots are again cov-\\nered with vegetation, (the same plants being always\\nsupposed to be grown,) whilst new spots become\\nbare and apparently unfruitful, and so on alternately.\\nThe causes which produce this alternate barrenness\\nand fertility in the different parts of the land are\\nevident. The excrements upon the barren spots\\nreceiving no new addition, and being subjected to\\nthe influence of air and moisture, they pass into\\nputrefaction, and their injurious influence ceases.\\nThe plants now find those substances which formerly\\nprevented their growth removed, and in their place\\nmeet with humus, that is, vegetable matter in the act\\nof decay.\\nWe can scarcely suppose a better means of pro-\\nducing humus than by the growth of plants, the\\nleaves of which are food for animals for they pre-\\npare the soil for plants of every other kind, but\\nparticularly for those to which, as to rape and flax,\\n15*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "174 OF MANURE.\\nthe presence of humus is the most essential condi-\\ntion of growth.\\nThe reasons why this interchange of crops is so\\nadvantageous, the principles which regulate this\\npart of agriculture, are, therefore, the artificial pro-\\nduction of humus, and the cultivation of different\\nkinds of plants upon the same field, in such an order\\nof succession, that each shall extract only certain\\ncomponents of the soil, whilst it leaves behind or\\nrestores those which a second or third species of\\nplant may require for its growth and perfect devel-\\nopment.\\nNow, although the quantity of humus in a soil may\\nbe increased to a certain degree by an artificial\\ncultivation, still, in spite of this, there cannot be the\\nsmallest doubt that a soil must gradually lose those\\nof its constituents which are removed in the seeds,\\nroots, and leaves of the plants r\u00c2\u00ab,ised upon it. The\\nfertility of a soil cannot remain unimpaired, unless\\nwe replace in it all those substances of which it has\\nbeen thus deprived.\\nNow this is effected by manure.\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nOF MANURE.\\nWhen it is considered that every constituent of\\nthe body of man and animals is derived from plants,\\nand that not a single element is generated by the\\nvital principle, it is evident that all the inorganic\\nconstituents of the animal organism must be re-\\ngarded, in some respect or other, as manure. During\\ntheir life, the inorganic components of plants which\\nare not required by the animal system, are disen-\\ngaged from the organism, in the form of excrements.\\nAfter their death, their nitrogen and carbon pass\\ninto the atmosphere as ammonia and carbonic acid,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "ANIMAL MANURE. 175\\nthe products of their putrefaction, and at last noth-\\ning remains except the phosphate of lime and other\\nsalts in their bones. Now this earthy residue of the\\nputrefaction of animals must be considered, in a\\nrational system of agriculture, as a powerful manure\\nfor plants, because that which has been abstracted\\nfrom a soil for a series of years must be restored to\\nit, if the land is to be kept in a permanent condition\\nof fertility.\\nANIMAL MANURES.\\nWe may now inquire whether the excrements of\\nanimals, which are employed as manure, are all of\\na like nature and power, and whether they, in every\\ncase, administer to the necessities of a plant by an\\nidentical mode of action. These points may easily\\nbe determined by ascertaining- the composition of\\nthe animal excrements, because we shall thus learn\\nwhat substances a soil really receives by their means.\\nAccording to the common view, the action of solid\\nanimal excrements depends on the decaying organic\\nmatters which replace the humus, and on the pres-\\nence of certain compounds of nitrogen, which are\\nsupposed to be assimilated by plants, and employed\\nin the production of gluten and other azotized sub-\\nstances. But this view requires further confirmation\\nwith respect to the solid excrements of animals, for\\nthey contain so small a proportion of nitrogen, that\\nthey cannot possibly by means of it exercise any\\ninfluence upon vegetation.\\nWe may form a tolerably correct idea of the chem-\\nical nature of the animal excrement without further\\nexamination, by comparing the excrements of a dog\\nwith its food. When a dog is fed with flesh and\\nbones, both of which consist in great part of organic\\nsubstances containing nitrogen, a moist white excre-\\nment is produced which crumbles gradually to a dry\\npowder in the air. This excrement consists of the", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "176 OF MANURE.\\nphosphate of lime of the bones, and contains scarce-\\nly jig part of its weight of foreign organic substan-\\nces. The whole process of nutrition in an animal\\nconsists in the progressive extraction of all the ni-\\ntrogen from the food, so that the quantity of this\\nelement found in the excrements must always be less\\nthan that contained in the nutriment. The analysis\\nof the excrements of a horse by Macaire and Marcet\\nproves this fact completely. The portion of excre-\\nments subjected to analysis was collected whilst\\nfresh, and dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid 100\\nparts of it (corresponding to from 350 to 400 parts\\nof the dung before being dried) contained 0-8 of\\nnitrogen. Now every one who has had experience\\nin this kind of analysis is aware, that a quantity un-\\nder one per cent, cannot be determined with accura-\\ncy. We should, therefore, be estimating its propor-\\ntion at a maximum, were we to consider it as equal\\nto one-half per cent. It is certain, however, that\\nthese excrements are not entirely free from nitrogen,\\nfor they emit ammonia when digested with caustic\\npotash.\\nThe excrements of a cow, on combustion with ox-\\nide of copper, yielded a gas which contained one\\nvol. of nitrogen gas, and 26-30 vol. of carbonic acid.\\n100 parts of fresh excrements contained\\nNitrogen 0-506\\nCarbon 6-204\\nHydrogen 0-824\\nOxygen 4-818\\nAshes 1-748\\nWater 85-900\\n100-000\\nNow, according to the analysis of Boussingault,\\nwhich merits the greatest confidence, hay contains\\none per cent, of nitrogen; consequently in the 25 lbs.\\nof hay which a cow consumes daily, of a lb. of ni-\\ntrogen must have been assimilated. This quantity\\nof nitrogen entering into the composition of muscu-\\nlar fibre would yield 8-3 lbs. of flesh in its natural", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "ITS ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS. 177\\ncondition.* The daily increase in size of a cow is,\\nhowever, much less than this quantity. We find that\\nthe nitrogen, apparently deficient, is actually con-\\ntained in the milk and urine of the animal. The\\nurine of a milch-cow contains less nitrogen than that\\nof one which does not yield milk; and as long as a\\ncow yields a plentiful supply of milk, it cannot be\\nfattened. We must search for the nitrog-en of the\\nfood assimilated, not in the solid, but in the liquid\\nexcrements. The influence which the former exer-\\ncise on the growth of vegetables does not depend\\nupon the quantity of nitrogen which they contain.\\nFor if this were the case, hay should possess the\\nsame influence that is, from 20 to 25 lbs. ought to\\nhave the same power as 100 lbs. of fresh cow-dung.\\nBut this is quite opposed to all experience.\\nWhich then are the substances in the excrements\\nof the cow and horse which exert an influence on\\nvegetation?\\nWhen horse-dung is treated with water, a portion\\nof it to the amount of 3 or 3J per cent, is dissolved,\\nand the water is colored yellow. The solution is\\nfound to contain phosphate of magnesia, and salts\\nof soda, besides small quantities of organic matters.f\\n100 lbs. of flesh contain on an average 15-86 of muscular fibre 18\\nparts of nitrogen are contained in 100 parts of the latter. L.\\nThe flesh of animals when digested in repeated portions of cold wa-\\nter, affords albumen, saline substances, and coloring and extractive\\nmatters. When the part that is no longer acted on by cold water is di-\\ngested in hot water, the cellular substance is removed in the form of\\ngelatine, and fatty matter separates. The insoluble residue is princi-\\npally ^//77\u00c2\u00abe.\\nThe following is the proportion of water, albumen, and gelatine in\\nthe muscular parts of several animals and fishes.\\n100 parts of\\nA/bi\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2imen or\\nTotal of\\nMuscle of\\nWater.\\nFibrine.\\nGelatine.\\nNutritive Matter,\\nBeef,\\n74\\n20\\n6\\n26\\nVeal,\\n75\\n19\\n6\\n25\\nMutton,\\n71\\n22\\n7\\n29\\nPork,\\n76\\n19\\n5\\n24\\nChicken,\\n73\\n20\\n7\\n27\\nCod,\\n79\\n14\\n7\\n21\\nHaddock,\\n82\\n13\\n5\\n18\\nSee B\\nrande s\\nChemistry, 4th\\nedit..\\n,p. 1184.\\nt Dr. C. T.\\nJackson\\nin his\\nGeological and Jlgriculturai\\nSurveri of\\nRhode Islund,\\n(page 205,) give\\ns the foil\\nowing analysis\\nof horse-dung:", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "178 OF MANURE.\\nThe portion of the dung undissolved by the water\\nyields to alcohol a resinous substance possessing all\\nthe characters of gall which has undergone some\\nchange; while the residue possesses the properties\\nof sawdust, from which all soluble matter has been\\nextracted by water, and burns without any smell.\\n100 parts of the fresh dung of a horse being dried at\\n100\u00c2\u00b0 C. (212^ F.) leave from 25 to 30 or 31 parts of\\nsolid substances, and contained, accordingly, from\\n69 to 75 parts of water. From the dried excrements,\\nwe obtain, by incineration, variable quantities of salts\\nand earthy matters according to the nature of the\\nfood which has been taken by the animal. Macaire\\nand Marcet found 27 per cent, in the dung analyzed\\nby them I obtained only 10 per cent, from that of\\na horse fed with chopped straw, oats, and hay. It\\nresults then that with from 3900 to 4400 lbs. of fresh\\nhorse-dung, corresponding to 110 lbs. of dry dung,\\nwe place on the land from 2737 to 3006 lbs. of wa-\\nter, and from 804 to 992 lbs. of vegetable matter and\\naltered gall, and also from 110 to 297 lbs. of salt\\nand other inorganic substances.\\nThe latter are evidently the substances to which\\nour attention should be directed, for they are the\\nsame which formed the component parts of the hay,\\nstraw, and oats with which the horse was fed. Their\\n500 grains,, dried at a heat a little above that of boiling water, lost\\n357 grains of water. The dry mass weighing 143 grains was burned,\\nand left 8 grains of ashes, of which 4-8U grains were soluble in dilute\\nnitric acid, and 3 20 insoluble. The ashes being analyzed, gave\\nSilica 3-2\\nPhosphate of lime 0-4\\nCarbonate of lime 1-5\\nPhosphate of magnesia and soda 29\\n80\\nIt consists, then, of the following ingredients\\nWater 3570\\nVegetable fibre and animal matter 1350\\nSilica 3 2\\nPhosphate of lime 0-4\\nCarbonate of lime 1-5\\nPhosphate of magnesia and soda 29\\n500", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "ITS ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS. 179\\nprincipal constituents are the phosphates of lime and\\nmagnesia, carbonate of lime and silicate of potash\\nthe first three of these preponderated in the corn,\\nthe latter in hay.\\nThus in 1102 lbs. of horse-dung, we present to a\\nfield the inorganic substances contained in 6612 lbs.\\nof hay, or 9146 lbs. of oats (oats containing 3*1 per\\ncent, ashes according to De Saussure). This is suf-\\nficient to supply 1| crop of wheat with potash and\\nphosphates.\\nThe excrements of cows,* black cattle, and sheep,\\ncontain phosphate of lime, common salt, and silicate\\nof lime, the weight of which varies from 9 to 28 per\\ncent., according to the fodder which the animal re-\\nceives the fresh excrements of the cow contain from\\n86 to 90 per cent, of water.\\nHuman faces have been subjected to an exact\\nanalysis by Berzelius. When fresh they contain, be-\\nsides I of their weight of water, nitrogen in very\\nvariable quantity, namely, in the minimum 1|, in the\\nmaximum 5 per cent. In all cases, however, they\\nwere richer in this element than the excrements of\\nother animals. Berzelius obtained by the incinera-\\ntion of 100 parts of dried excrements, 15 parts of\\nashes, which were principally composed of the phos-\\nphates of lime and magnesia.\\nThe following quantitative organic analysis has\\nrecently been executed for the purpose of ascertain-\\nIt has been formerly stated (page 120), that all the potash contained\\nin the food of a cow is again discharged in its excrements. The same\\nalso takes place with the other inorganic constituents of food, either\\nwhen they are not adapted for assimilation, or when present in supera-\\nbundant quantities. The value of manure may thus be artificially in-\\ncreased. We lately saw, for example, some cow-dung, sent by a farm-\\ner, who wished to ascertain the cause of its increased value. Ho had\\nformerly employed this manure for his land, but with so little advan-\\ntage that he found it more profitable to dry it, and use it as fuel. On\\ninquiry, it was found, that his cows had been fed upon oil-cakes. This\\nspecies of food is particularly rich in phosphates. More of these salts\\nbeing present tiian were requisite for the purpose of assimilation, they\\nwere removed from the system in the form of excrementitious matter,\\nand in a condition adapted for the uses of plants. The fact that partic-\\nular kinds of food enrich or impoverish the manure obtained from the\\ncattle fed upon them, has repeatedly been observed. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "180 OF MANURE.\\ning the proportion of carbon, nitrogen, and inorganic\\nmatter contained in faeces, in comparison with the\\nfood taken.* (Playfair.)\\nCarbon 45-24\\nHydrogen 6-88\\nNitrogen (average) 4 00\\nOxygen 30-30\\nAshes 13-58\\nThe inorganic matter contained in the excrements\\nanalyzed is nearly two per cent, less than that found\\nby Berzelius but the proportion always varies, ac-\\ncording to the nature of the food.\\nIt is quite certain, that the vegetable constituents\\nof the excrements with which we manure our fields\\ncannot be entirely without influence upon the growth\\nof the crops on them, for they will decay, and thus\\nfurnish carbonic acid to the young plants. But it\\ncannot be imagined that their influence is very great,\\nwhen it is considered that a good soil is manured\\nonly once every six or seven years, or once every\\neleven or twelve years, when sainfoin or lucern has\\nbeen raised on it, that the quantity of carbon thus\\ngiven to the land corresponds to only 5*8 per cent,\\nof what is removed in the form of herbs, straw, and\\ngrain and further that the rain-water received by a\\nsoil contains much more carbon in the form of car-\\nbonic acid than these vegetable constituents of the\\nmanure.\\nThe peculiar action then, of the solid excrements j\\nis limited to their inorganic constituents, which thus\\nrestore to a soil that which is removed in the form i\\nof corn, roots, or grain. When we manure land with,\\nthe dung of the cow or sheep, we supply it with?\\nsilicate of potash and some salts of phosphoric acid, i\\nIn human faeces we give it the phosphates of lime\\nand magnesia; and in those of the horse, phosphate\\nThe details of the analysis are as follows: 2-356 grammes lefl\\n0320 gramme ashes after incineration these consisted of the pjiosphate\\nof lime and magnesia. 0352 gramme yielded, on combustion with\\noxide of copper, 576 gram, carbonic acid, and 218 gram, water.\\n(L. P.)", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "ITS ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS- 181\\nof magnesia, and silicate of potash. In the straw\\nwhich has served as litter, we add a further quantity\\nof silicate of potash and phosphates; which, if the\\nstraw be putrefied, are in exactly the same condition\\nin which they were before being assimilated.\\nIt is evident, therefore, that the soil of a field will\\nalter but little, if we collect and distribute the dung\\ncarefully a certain portion of the phosphates, how-\\never, must be lost every year, being removed from the\\nland with the corn and cattle, and this portion will\\naccumulate in the neighborhood of large towns. The\\nloss thus suffered must be compensated for in a well-\\nmanaged farm, and this is partly done by allowing\\nthe fields to lie in grass. In Germany, it is con-\\nsidered that for every 100 acres of corn land, there\\nmust, in order to effect a profitable cultiA^ation, be\\n20 acres of pasture-land, which produce annually, on\\nan average, 551 lbs. of hay. Now assuming that\\nthe ashes of the excrements of the animals fed with\\nthis hay amount to 6*82 per cent., then 376 lbs. of\\nthe silicate of lime and phosphates of magnesia and\\nlime must be yielded by these excrements, and will\\nin a certain measure compensate for the loss which\\nthe corn-land had sustained.\\nThe absolute loss in the salts of phosphoric acid,\\nwhich are not again replaced, is spread over so great\\nan extent of surface, that it scarcely deserves to be\\ntaken account of. But the loss of phosphates is\\nagain replaced in the pastures by the ashes of the\\nwood used in our houses for fuel.\\nWe could keep our fields in a constant state of\\nfertility by replacing every year as much as we re-\\nmove from them in the form of produce but an in-\\ncrease of fertility, and consequent increase of crop\\ncan only be obtained when we add more to them\\nthan we take away. It will be found, that of two\\nfields placed under conditions otherwise similar, the\\none will be most fruitful upon which the plants are\\nenabled to appropriate more easily and in greater\\n16", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "182 OF MANURE.\\nabundance those contents of the soil which are\\nessential to their growth and development.\\nFrom the foregoing remarks it will readily be in-\\nferred, that for animal excrements, other subtances\\ncontaining their essential constituents may be sub-\\nstituted. In Flanders, the yearly loss of the necessary\\nmatters in the soil is completely restored by covering\\nthe fields with ashes of wood or bones, which may\\nor may not have been lixiviated and of which the\\ngreatest part consists of the phosphates of lime and\\nmagnesia. The great importance of manuring with\\nashes has been long recognised by agriculturists as\\nthe result of experience. So great a value, indeed,\\nis attached to this material in the vicinity of Mar-\\nburg and in the Wetterau,t that it is transported as\\na manure from the distance of 18 or 24 miles. J Its\\nuse will be at once perceived, when it is considered\\nthat the ashes, after having been washed with water,\\ncontain silicate of potash exactly in the same pro-\\nportion as in straw (10 Si O 3 K 0.), and that\\ntheir only other constituents are salts of phosphoric\\nacid.\\nBut ashes obtained from various kinds of trees are\\nof very unequal value for this purpose; those from\\noak-wood are the least, and those from beech the\\nmost serviceable. The ashes of oak-wood contain\\nonly traces of phosphates, those of beech the fifth\\npart of their weight, and those of the pine and fir\\nfrom 9 to 15 per cent. The ashes of pines from\\nNorway contain an exceedingly small quantity of\\nphosphates, namely, only 1-8 per cent, of phosphoric\\nacid. (Berthier.)\\nLixi.viation signifies the removal by water of the soluble alkaline or\\nsaline matters in any earthy mixture as from that of lime and potash,\\nor from ashes to obtain a ley.\\nt Two well known agricultural districts; the first in Hesse-Cassel,\\nthe second in Hesse-Darmstadt. Trans.\\nAshes are used with great advantage on the light siliceous soil of\\nLong Island, Connecticut, and various other places in the United\\nStates.\\nThe e. ^istence of phosphate of lime in the forest soils of the United\\nStates, is proved not only by its existence in the pollen of the pinus", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "BONE MANURE. 183\\nWith every 110 lbs. of the lixiviated ashes of the\\nbeech which we spread over a soil, we furnish as\\nmuch phosphates as 507 lbs. of fresh human excre-\\nments could yield. Again, according to the analysis\\nof De Saussure, 100 parts of the ashes of the grain\\nof wheat contain 32 parts of soluble, and 44*5 of\\ninsoluble phosphates, in all 76-5 parts. Now the\\nashes of wheat straw contain 11*5 per cent, of the\\nsame salts; hence with every 110 lbs. of the ashes\\nof the beech, we supply a field with phosphoric acid\\nsufficient for the production of 4210 lbs. of straw^\\n(its ashes being calculated at 4*3 per cent, De\\nSaussure), or for 16-20000 lbs. of corn, the ashes of\\nwhich amount, according to De Saussure, to 1*3 per\\ncent.\\nBone manure possesses a still greater importance\\nin this respect. The primary sources from which\\nthe bones of animals are derived are, the hay, straw,\\nor other substances which they take as food. Now\\nif we admit that bones contain 55 per cent, of the\\nphosphates of lime and magnesia (Berzelius), and\\nthat hay contains as much of them as wheat stra\\\\t,\\nit will follow that8*81bs. of bones contain as much\\nphosphate of lime as 1102 lbs. of hay or wheat-\\nstraw, and 2-2 lbs. of it as much as 1102 lbs. of the\\ngrain of wheat or oats. These numbers express\\npretty nearly the quantity of phosphates which a\\nsoil yields annually on the growth of hay and corn.\\nNow the manure of an acre of land with 44 lbs. of\\nbone dust is sufficient to supply three crops of wheat,\\nabies (which is composed of 3 per cent, phosphate of Jime and potash),\\nbut by its actual detection in the ashes of pines and other trees. 10 I\\nparts of the ashes of loood ofpinus abies give 3 per cent, phosphate of\\niron; 100 parts of the ashes of the coal of pinus sytvestris give 172\\nphosphate of lime, 0* 25 phosphate of iron 100 parts of ashes of oak\\ncoal give 7-1 phosphate of lime, 3-7 phosphate of iron 100 parts of the\\naslies of bass w^ood give 5 4 phosphate of lime, 3*2 phosphate of iron\\n100 parts of the ashes of birch wood give 7-3 phosphate of lime, 1-25\\nphosphate of iron; 100 parts of the ashes of oak wood give 1-8 phos-\\nphate of lime 100 parts of the ashes of alder coal give 345 phosphate\\nof linie, 9 phosphate of iron. These are the calculated results from\\nBerthier s analyses. Dr. S. L. Dana, in Report on a Reexamination\\nof the Economical Geology of Massachusetts.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "184 OF MANURE.\\nclover, potatoes, turnips, c., with phosphates. But\\nthe form in which they are restored to a soil does\\nnot appear to be a matter of indifference. For the\\nmore finely the bones are reduced to powder, and\\nthe more intimately they are mixed with the soil,\\nthe more easily are they assimilated. The most easy\\nand practical mode of effecting their division is to\\npour over the bones, in a state of fine powder, half\\nof their weight of sulphuric acid diluted with three\\nor four parts of water, and after they have been\\ndigested for some time, to add one hundred parts\\nof water, and sprinkle this mixture over the field\\nbefore the plough. In a few seconds, the free acids\\nunite wuth the bases contained in the earth, and a\\nneutral salt is formed in a very fine state of division.\\nExperiments instituted on a soil formed from grau-\\nwacke, for the purpose of ascertaining the action of\\nmanure thus prepared, have distinctly shown that\\nneither corn, nor kitchen-garden plants, suffer in-\\njurious effects in consequence, but that on the con-\\ntrary they thrive with much more vigor.\\nIt has also been found, that bones act more speed-\\nily and efficaciously after being boiled. This is\\nprobably owing to the removal of fatty matter, the\\npresence of which impedes the putrefaction of the\\ngelatin contained in them.\\nIn the manufactories of glue, many hundred tons\\nof a solution of phosphates in muriatic acid are\\nyearly thrown away as being useless. It would be\\nimportant to examine whether this solution might\\nnot be substituted for the bones. The free acid\\nwould combine with the alkalies in the soil, espec-\\nially with the lime, and a soluble salt would thus be\\nproduced, which is known to possess a favorable\\naction upon the growth of plants. This salt, muriate\\nof lime (or chloride of calcium), is one of those\\ncompounds which attracts water from the atmosphere\\nwith great avidity, and in dry lands might advan-\\ntageously supply the place of gypsum in decompos-\\ning carbonate of ammonia, with the formation of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "EXPLANATION OF ITS ACTION. 185\\nsal-ammoniac and carbonate of lime. A solution of\\nbones in muriatic acid placed on land in autumn or\\nin winter would, therefore, not only restore a neces-\\nsary constituent of the soil, and attract moisture to\\nit, but would also give it the power to retain all the\\nammonia which fell upon it dissolved in the rain\\nduring the period of six months.*\\nThe ashes of brown coalf and peat often contain\\nsilicate of potash, J so that it is evident, that these\\nImmense quantities of bran are used in all print-works, for the\\npurpose of clearing printed goods. After having served this purpose,\\nit is throvi^n away. But the insoluble part of bran contains much\\nphosphates of magnesia and soda it would therefore be useful to pre-\\nserve it as a manure. This has been done for some years in a farm\\nwith which I am connected, and its value as a manure has been found\\nso great that it is much preferred to cow-dung. In some works this\\nwaste bran is heaped up into little hillocks, which might be disposed\\nof as a manure, instead of being an annoyance on account of the space\\nwhich it occupies. Ed.\\nt Brown coal. Braunkohle, Lignite has the structure and appearance\\nof carbonized wood. It occurs abundantly in Germany in Hessia it\\nforms beds 20 to 40 feet thick, and several square miles in extent.\\nFibrous and compact varieties occur near Bovey Tracey in England,\\nwhere it is called Bovey coal. Small quantities are found at Gay Head,\\nMassachusetts.\\nt The following is the result of an analysis by Dr. C. T. Jackson,\\nof peat from Lexington, Massachusetts. 100 grains, dried at 300\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nweighed 74 grains, loss 26 grains, water. Burned in a platina crucible\\nit left 5-0 ashes. The ashes yielded\\nSilex, 10\\nAlumina, iron, and manganese, 0-6\\nPhosphate of lime, 30\\nPotash, traces.\\n46\\nPeat from Watertown, Massachusetts, yielded 4-5 grains of ashes,\\nwhich gave by analysis\\nSilex, 1-3\\nAlumina, oxide of iron, and manganese, 1-5\\nPhosphate of lime, 1-7\\n4-5\\nThe vegetable matter amounted to 95 5 per cent., consisting of veg-\\netable fibre, and apocrenic and crenic acids, in part combined with the\\nbases obtained from its ashes. See Report on Rhode Island, p. 233.\\nSioamp -rmtck contains the same ingredients as peat, but the vegetable\\nmatters are more finely divided, more soluble, and there is generally a\\nlarger proportion of earthy matters. It is formed of the fine particles\\nof humus, washed out from the upland soils, and of the dead and\\ndecomposed leaves and roots of sv/amp plants.\\nThe pulpy matter of both peat and swamp muck consists chiefly of\\nthe apocrenic acid, in part combined with the earthy bases, and me-\\ntallic oxides. The crenic acid is frequently united with lime and man-\\n16*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "186 OF MANURE.\\nmight completely replace one of the principal con-\\nstituents of the dung of the cow and horse, and\\nthey contain also some phosphates. Indeed, they\\nare much esteemed in the Wetterau as manure for\\nmeadows and moist land.\\nIt is of much importance to the agriculturist, that\\nhe should not deceive himself respecting the causes\\nwhich give the peculiar action to the substances just\\nmentioned. It is known that they possess a very\\nfavorable influence on vegetation and it is likewise\\ncertain that the cause of this is their containing a\\nbody, which, independently of the influence which\\nit exerts by virtue of its form, porosity, and capabil-\\nity of attracting and retaining moisture, also assists\\nin maintaining the vital processes in plants. If it\\nbe treated as an unfathomable mystery, the nature\\nof this aid will never be known.\\nIn medicine, for many centuries, the mode of\\naction of all remedies was supposed to be concealed\\nby the mystic veil of Isis, but now these secrets\\nhave been explained in a very simple manner. An\\nunpoetical hand has pointed out the cause of the\\nwonderful and apparently inexplicable healing vir-\\ntues of the springs in Savoy, by which the inhabi-\\ntants cured their goitre it was shown that they\\ncontain small quantities of iodine. In burnt sponges\\nused for the same purpose, the same element was\\nalso detected. The extraordinary efficacy of Peru-\\nvian bark was found to depend on a small quantity\\nof a crystalline body existing in it, viz. quinine; and\\nthe causes of the various eff ects of opium were\\ndetected in as many diff erent ingredients of that\\ndrug.\\nCalico-printers used for a long time the solid\\nexcrements of the cow, in order to brighten and\\nfasten colors on cotton goods this material ap-\\nfanese iron and matjnesia occur in several of the peats analyzed,\\nhosphoric acid also exists in them, both in its free state, and in com-\\nbination with lime and magnesia. In some peats Dr. J. found traces\\nof oxalic acid and oxalates. lOUL, 210. See Appendix, for Peat\\ncompost.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "EXPLANATION OF ITS ACTION. 187\\npeared quite indispensable, and its action was as-\\ncribed to a latent principle which it had obtained\\nfrom the living organism. But since its action was\\nknown to depend on the phosphates contained in it,\\nit has been completely replaced by a mixture of\\nsalts, in which the principal constituents are the\\nphosphates of soda and lime.*\\nNow all such actions depend on a definite cause, by\\nascertaining which we place the actions themselves\\nat our command.\\nIt must be admitted as a principle of agriculture,\\nthat those substances which have been removed from\\na soil must be completely restored to it, and whether\\nthis restoration be effected by means of excrements,\\nashes, or bones, is in a great measure a matter of\\nindifference. A time will come when fields will be\\nmanured with a solution of glass f (silicate of pgt-\\nash), with the ashes of burnt straw, and with salts\\nof phosphoric acid, prepared in chemical manufac-\\ntories, exactly as at present medicines are given for\\nfever and goitre.\\nThere are some plants which require humus, and\\ndo not restore it to the soil by their excrements\\nwhilst others can do without it altogether, and add\\nhumus to a soil which contains it in small quantity.\\nHence a rational system of agriculture would employ\\nall the humus at command for the supply of the\\nformer, and not expend any of it for the latter and\\nwould in fact make use of them for supplying the\\nothers with humus.\\nWe have now considered all that is requisite in a\\nsoil, in order to furnish its plants with the materials\\nnecessary for the formation of the woody fibre, the\\nThis mixture of salts is sold to calico-printers in large quantities\\nunder the name of dung substitute. It would be well worth experi-\\nment to try its effects as a manure upon land. Its cost is 3d. or 4d. per\\npound, and is not, therefore, dearer than nitrate of soda, which is now\\nso extensively used. Ed.\\nt When glass contains a very large proportion of potash, it is soluble\\nin boiling water and by combination with other substances, silica\\nbecomes soluble in water. According to Dr. Jackson, crenic acid\\nenables water to take it up.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "188 OF MANURE.\\ngrain, the roots, and the stem, and now proceed to\\nthe consideration of the most important object of\\nagriculture, viz. the production of nitrogen in a form\\ncapable of assimilation, the production, therefore,\\nof substances containing this element. The leaves,\\nwhich nourish the woody matter, the roots, from\\nwhich the leaves are formed, and which prepare the\\nsubstances for entering into the composition of the\\nfruit, and, in short, every part of the organism of a\\nplant, contain azotized matter in very varying pro-\\nportions, but the seeds and roots are always partic-\\nularly rich in them.\\nLet us now examine in what manner the greatest\\npossible production of substances containing nitro-\\ngen can be effected. Nature, by means of the atmo-\\nsphere, furnishes nitrogen to a plant in quantity suffi-\\ncient for its normal growth. Now its growth must\\nbe considered as normal, when it produces a single\\nseed capable of reproducing the same plant in the\\nfollowing year. Such a normal condition would suf-\\nfice for the existence of plants, and prevent their\\nextinction, but they do not exist for themselves\\nalone the greater number of animals depend on the\\nvegetable world for food, and by a wise adjustment\\nof nature, plants have the remarkable power of con-\\nverting, to a certain degree, all the nitrogen offered\\nto them into nutriment for animals.\\nWe may furnish a plant with carbonic acid, and all\\nthe materials which it may require we may supply\\nit with humus in the most abundant quantity; but it\\nwill not attain complete development unless nitrogen\\nis also afforded to it a herb will be formed, but no\\ngrain even sugar and starch may be produced but\\nno gluten.\\nBut when we give a plant nitrogen in considera-\\nble quantity, we enable it to attract with greater en-\\nergy from the atmosphere the carbon which is neces-\\nsary for its nutrition, when that in the soil is not\\nsufficient we afford to it a means of fixing the car-\\nbon of the atmosphere in its organism.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "OF URINE. 189\\nWe cannot ascribe much of the power of the ex-\\ncrements of black cattle, sheep, and horses, to the\\nnitrogen which they contain, for its quantity is too\\nminute. But that contained in the feeces of man is\\nproportionably much greater, although by no means\\nconstant. In the faeces of the inhabitants of towns,\\nfor example, who feed on animal matter, there is\\nmuch more of this constituent Hian in those of peas-\\nants, or of such people as reside in the country.\\nThe faeces of those who live principally on bread and\\npotatoes are similar in composition and properties to\\nthose of animals.\\nAll excrements have in this respect a very varia-\\nble and relative value. Thus those of black cattle\\nand horses are of great use on soils consisting of\\nlime and sand, which contain no silicate of potash\\nand phosphates; whilst their value is much less when\\napplied to soils formed of argillaceous earth, basalt,\\ngranite, porphyry, clinkstone, and even mountain-\\nlimestone, because all these contain potash in con-\\nsiderable quantity. In such soils human excrements\\nare extremely beneficial, and increase their fertility\\nin a remarkable degree they are, of course, as ad-\\nvantageous for other soils also; but for the manure\\nof those first mentioned, the excrements of other\\nanimals are quite indispensable.\\nOF URINE.\\nWe possess only one other natural source of ma-\\nnure which acts by its nitrogen, besides the faeces\\nof animals, namely, the urine of man and animals.\\nUrine is employed as a manure either in the liquid\\nstate, or with the faeces which are impregnated w^ith\\nit. It is the urine contained in them which gives to\\nthe solid faeces the property of emitting ammonia,\\na property v/hich they themselves possess only in a\\nvery slight degree.\\nWhen we examine what substances we add to a", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "190 OF MANURE.\\nsoil by supplying it with urine, we find that this\\nliquid contains in solution ammoniacal salts, uric\\nacid (a substance containing a large quantity of ni-\\ntrogen), and salts of phosphoric acid.\\nAccording to Berzelius 1000 parts of human urine\\ncontain\\nUrea 30-10\\nFree Lactic acid,* Lactate of Ammonia, and animal\\nmatter not separable from them 17.14\\nUric acid 1-00\\nMucus of the bladder 32\\nSulphate of Potash 3-71\\nSulphate of Soda 3-16\\nPhosphate of Soda 2 94\\nPhosphate of Ammonia 1 65\\nChloride of Sodium 4-45\\nMuriate of Ammonia 1-50\\nPhosphates of Magnesia and Lime I OO\\nSiliceous earth 0-03\\nWater 933-UO\\n1000-00\\nIf we subtract from the above the urea, lactate of\\nammonia, free lactic acid, uric acid, the phosphate\\nand muriate of ammonia; 1 per cent, of solid matter\\nremains, consisting of inorganic salts, which must\\npossess the same action when brought on a field,\\nwhether they are dissolved in water or in urine.\\nHence the powerful influence of urine must depend\\nupon its other ingredients, namely, the urea and am-\\nmoniacal salts. The urea in human urine exists\\npartly as lactate of urea, and partly in a free state.\\n(Henry.) Now when urine is allowed to putrefy\\nspontaneously, that is, to pass into that state in\\nwhich it is used as manure, all the urea in combina-\\ntion with lactic acid is converted into lactate of am-\\nmonia, and that which was free, into volatile carbon-\\nate of ammonia.\\nIn dung-reservoirs well constructed and protected\\nfrom evaporation, this carbonate of ammonia is re-\\ntained in the state of solution, and when the putre-\\nLactic acid has been found in most animal fluids and in several\\nplants. It was first obtained from sour milk, hence its name from the\\nLatin lac. milk.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "FIXATION OF AMMONIA. 191\\nfied urine is spread over the land, a part of the am-\\nmonia will escape with the water which evaporates,\\nbut another portion will be absorbed by the soil, if\\nit contains either alumina or iron; but in general\\nonly the muriate, phosphate, and lactate of ammonia\\nremain in the ground. It is these alone, therefore,\\nwhich enable the soil to exercise a direct influence\\non plants during the progress of their growth, and\\nnot a particle of them escapes being absorbed by\\nthe roots.\\nOn account of the formation of this carbonate of\\nammonia the urine becomes alkaline, although it is\\nacid in its natural state. When it is lost by being\\nvolatilized in the air, which happens in most cases,\\nthe loss suffered is nearly equal to one half of the\\nweight of the urine employed, so that if we fix it,\\nthat is, if we deprive it of its volatility, we increase\\nits action twofold. The existence of carbonate of\\nammonia in putrefied urine long since suggested the\\nmanufacture of sal-ammoniac from this material.\\nWhen the latter salt possessed a high price, this\\nmanufacture was even carried on by the farmer. For\\nthis purpose the liquid obtained from dunghills was\\nplaced in vessels of iron, and subjected to distilla-\\ntion the product of this distillation was converted\\ninto muriate of ammonia by the common method.\\n(Demachy.) But it is evident that such a thought-\\nless proceeding must be wholly relinquished, since\\nthe nitrogen of 100 lbs. of sal-ammoniac (which con-\\ntains 26 parts of nitrogen) is equal to the quantity\\nof nitrogen contained in 1200 lbs. of the grain of\\nwheat, 1480 lbs. of that of barley, or 2755 lbs. of\\nhay. (Boussingault.)\\nThe carbonate of ammonia formed by the putrefac-\\ntion of urine, can be fixed or deprived of its volatil-\\nity in many ways.\\nIf a field be strewed with gypsum, and then with\\nputrefied urine or the drainings of dunghills, all the\\ncarbonate of ammonia will be converted into the sul-\\nphate which will remain in the soil.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "192 OF MANURE.\\nBut there are still simpler means of effecting this\\npurpose; gypsum, chloride of calcium (bleaching\\nsalts), sulphuric or muriatic acid, and super-phos-\\nphate of lime, are all substances of a very low price,\\nand completely neutralize the urine, converting its\\nammonia into salts which possess no volatility.\\nIf a basin, filled with concentrated muriatic acid,\\nis placed in a common necessary, so that its surface\\nis in free communication with the vapors which rise\\nfrom below, it becomes filled after a few days with\\ncrystals of muriate of ammonia. The ammonia, the\\npresence of which the organs of smell amply testify,\\ncombines with the muriatic acid and loses entirely\\nits volatility, and thick clouds or fumes of the salt\\nnewly formed hang over the basin. In stables the\\nsame may be seen. The ammonia that escapes in\\nthis manner is not only entirely lost, as far as our\\nvegetation is concerned, but it works also a slow,\\nthough not less certain destruction of the walls of\\nthe building;. For when in contact with the lime of\\nthe mortar, it is converted into nitric acid, which\\ngradually dissolves the lime. The injury thus done\\nto a building by the formation of the soluble nitrates,\\nhas received (in Germany) a special name, salpe-\\nterfrass.\\nThe ammonia emitted from stables and necessaries\\nis always in combination wnth carbonic acid. Car-\\nbonate of ammonia and sulphate of lime (gypsum)\\ncannot be brought together at common temperatures,\\nwithout mutual decomposition. The ammonia enters\\ninto combination with the sulphuric acid, and the\\ncarbonic acid with the lime, forming compounds\\nwhich are not volatile, and consequently destitute of\\nall smell. Now, if we strew the floors of our stables,\\nfrom time to time, with common gypsum, they will\\nlose all their offensive smell, and none of the ammo-\\nnia wdiich forms can be lost, but will be retained in\\na condition serviceable as manure.\\nWith the exception of urea, uric acid contains\\nmore nitrogen than any other substance generated", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "NIGHT-SOIL. 193\\nby the living organism it is soluble in water, and\\ncan be thus absorbed by the roots of plants, and its\\nnitrogen assimilated in the form of ammonia, and of\\nthe oxalate, hydrocyanate, or carbonate of ammonia.\\nIt would be extremely interesting to study the\\ntransformations which uric acid suffers in a living\\nplant. For the purpose of experiment, the plant\\nshould be made to grow in charcoal powder pre-\\nviously heated to redness, and then mixed with pure\\nuric acid. The examination of the juice of the plant,\\nor of the component parts of the seed or fruit, would\\nbe a means of easily detecting the differences.\\nNIGHT-SOIL.\\nIn respect to the quantity of nitrogen contained\\nin excrements, 100 parts of the urine of a healthy\\nman are equal to 1300 parts of the fresh dung of a\\nhorse, according to the analyses of Macaire and Mar-\\ncet, and to 600 parts of those of a cow. Hence it\\nis evident that it would be of much importance to\\nagriculture if none of the human urine were lost.\\nThe powerful eff ects of urine as a manure are well\\nknown in Flanders,* but they are considered in-\\nvaluable by the Chinese, who are the oldest agricul-\\ntural people we know. Indeed, so much value is\\nattached to the influence of human excrements by\\nthese people, that laws of the state forbid that any\\nof them should be thrown away, and reservoirs are\\nplaced in every house, in which they are collected\\nwith the greatest care. No other kind of manure\\nis used for their corn-fields, f\\nSee the article On the Agriculture of the Netherlands, Journ.\\nRoyal Jlgri. Soc, Vol. II. part 1, page 43, for much interesting informa-\\ntion on this subject.\\nt Davis, in his History of China, states that every substance con-\\nvertible into manure is dilioently husbanded. The cakes that remain\\nafter the expression of their vegetable oils, horns and hoofs reduced to\\npowder, together with soot and ashes, and the contents of common\\n17", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "194 OF MANURE.\\nChina is the birthplace of the experimental art\\nthe incessant striving after experiments has con-\\nsewers, are much used. The plaster of old kitchens, which in China\\nhave no chimneys but an opening at the top, is much valued so that\\nthey will sometimes put a new plaster on a kitchen for the sake of the\\nold. The ammonia contained in the fuel forms nitrate of lime with\\nthe lime in the mortar. All sorts of hair are used as a manure, and\\nbarbers shavings are carefully appropriated to that purpose. The\\nannual produce must be considerable in a country where some hundred\\nmillions of heads are kept constantly shaved. Dung of all animals, but\\nmore especially night-soil, is esteemed above all others. Being some-\\ntimes formed into cakes, it is dried in the sun, and in this state becomes\\nan object of sale to farmers, who dilute it previous to use. They con-\\nstruct large cisterns or pits, lined with lime plaster, as well as earthen\\ntubs, sunk into the ground, with straw over them to prevent evapora-\\ntion, in which all kinds of vegetables and animal refuse are collected.\\nThese being diluted with a sufficient quantity of liquid, are left to under-\\ngo the putrefactive fermentation, and then applied to the land. In the\\ncase of every thing except rice, the Chinese seem to manure the plant\\nitself rather than the soil, supplying it copiously with their liquid\\npreparation.\\nThe Chinese husbandman, observes Sir G. Staunton, (Embassy,\\nVol. II.,) always steeps the seeds he intends to sow in liquid manure,\\nuntil they swell, and germination begins to appear, which experience\\nhas taught him will have the effect of hastening the growth of plants,\\nas well as of defending them against the insects hidden in the ground\\nin which the seeds are sown. To the roots of plants and fruit-trees,\\nthe Chinese farmer applies liquid manure likewise.\\nLastly, we extract the following from a communication to Professor\\nWebster, of Harvard College, United States Human urine, is, if\\npossible, more husbanded by the Chinese than night-soil for manure\\nevery farm, or patch of land for cultivation, has a tank, where all sub-\\nstances convertible into manure are carefully deposited, the whole\\nmade liquid by adding urine in the proportion required, and invariably\\napplied in that state. This is exactly the process followed in the\\nNetherlands: see Outlines of Flemish Husbandry, page 22.\\nThe business of collecting urine and night-soil employs an im-\\nmense number of persons, who deposit tubs in every house in the cities\\nfor the reception of the urine of the inmates, which vessels are re-\\nmoved daily, with as much care as our farmers remove their honey from\\nthe hives.\\nWhen we consider the immense value of night-soil as a manure, it is\\nquite astounding that so little attention is paid to preserve it. The\\nquantity is immense which is carried down by the drains in London to\\nthe River Thames, serving no other purpose than to pollute its waters.\\nIt has been shown, by a very simple calculation, that the value of\\nthe manure thus lost amounts annually to several millions of pounds\\nsterling. A substance, which by its putrefaction generates miasmata,\\nmay, by artificial means, be rendered totally inoffensive, inodorous, and\\ntransportable, and yet prejudice prevents these means being resorted\\nto. Ed.\\nThese statements are confirmed by otliers, which liave been kindly com-\\nmunicated to me by a gentleman whose opportunities for observation during\\na residence in China of several years, were ample, and whose liberality and\\ndevotion to agriculture and horticulture have already conferred upon the\\ncommunity results of great interest and value. See Appendix.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "NIGHT-SOIL. 195\\nducted the Chinese a thousand years since to dis-\\ncoveries, which have been the envy and admiration\\nof Europeans for centuries, especially in regard to\\ndyeing and painting, and to the manufactures of\\nporcelain, silk, and colors for painters. These we\\nwere long unable to imitate, and yet they were dis-\\ncovered by them without the assistance of scientific\\nprinciples for in the books of the Chinese we find\\nrecipes and directions for use, but never explanations\\nof processes.\\nHalf a century sufficed to Europeans not only to\\nequal but to surpass the Chinese in the arts and\\nmanufactures, and this was owing merely to the ap-\\nplication of correct principles deduced from the study\\nof chemistry. But how infinitely inferior is the agri-\\nculture of Europe to that of China The Chinese\\nare the most admirable gardeners and trainers of\\nplants, for each of which they understand how to\\nprepare and apply the best-adapted manure. The\\nagriculture of their country is the most perfect in\\nthe world; and there, where the climate in the most\\nfertile districts differs little from the European, very\\nlittle value is attached to the excrements of animals.\\nWith us, thick books are w^ritten, but no experiments\\ninstituted the quantity of manure consumed by this\\nand that plant is expressed in hundredth parts, and\\nyet we know not what manure is\\nIf we admit that the liquid and solid excrements\\nof man amount on an average to l^ lb. daily lb.\\nof urine and J lb. faeces), and that both taken to-\\ngether contain 3 per cent, of nitrogen, then in one\\nyear they will amount to 547 lbs., which contain\\n16-41 lbs. of nitrogen, a quantity sufficient to yield\\nthe nitrogen of 800 lbs. of wheat, rye, oats, or of 900\\nlbs. of barley. (Boussingault.)\\nThis is much more than it is necessary to add to\\nan acre of land in order to obtain, with the assistance\\nof the nitrogen absorbed from the atmosphere, the\\nrichest possible crop every year. Every town and\\nfarm might thus supply itself with the manure, which.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "196 OF MANURE.\\nbesides containing the most nitrogen, contains also\\nthe most phosphates and if rotation of the crops\\nwere adopted, they would be most abundant. By\\nusing, at the same time, bones and the lixiviated\\nashes of wood, the excrements of animals might be\\ncompletely dispensed with.\\nWhen human excrements are treated in a proper\\nmanner, so as to remove the moisture which they\\ncontain without permitting the escape of ammonia,\\nthey may be put into such a form as will allow them\\nto be transported even to great distances.\\nThis is already attempted in many towns, and the\\npreparation of night-soil for transportation consti-\\ntutes not an unimportant branch of industry. But\\nthe manner in which this is done is the most in-\\njudicious which could be conceived. In Paris, for\\nexample, the excrements are preserved in the houses\\nin open casks, from which they are collected and\\nplaced in deep pits at Montfaucon, but are not sold\\nuntil they have attained a certain degree of dryness\\nby evaporation in the air. But whilst lying in the\\nreceptacles appropriated for them in the houses, the\\ngreatest part of their urea is converted into car-\\nbonate of ammonia; lactate and phosphate of am-\\nmonia are also formed, and the vegetable matters\\ncontained in them putrefy all their sulphates are\\ndecomposed, whilst their sulphur forms sulphuretted\\nhydrogen and hydro-sulphate of ammonia. The mass,\\nwhen dried by exposure to the air, has lost more\\nthan half of the nitrogen which the excrements\\noriginally contained for the ammonia escapes into\\nthe atmosphere along with the water which evapo-\\nrates and the residue now consists principally of\\nphosphate of lime, with phosphate and lactate of\\nammonia, and small quantities of urate of magnesia\\nand fatty matter. Nevertheless, it is still a very\\npowerful manure, but its value as such would be\\ntwice or four times as great, if the excrements before\\nbeing dried were neutralized with a cheap mineral\\nacid.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "NIGHT-SOIL. 197\\nIn other manufactories of manure the night-soil,\\nwhilst still soft, is mixed with the ashes of wood, or\\nwith earth,* both of which substances contain a large\\nquantity of caustic lime, by means of which a com-\\nplete expulsion of all its ammonia is eifected, and it\\nis completely deprived of smell. But such a residue\\napplied as manure can act only by the phosphates\\nwhich it still contains, for all the ammoniacal salts\\nhave been decomposed and their ammonia expelled.\\nThe preparation of night-soil is now carried on\\nin London to a considerable extent. Owing to the\\nvariable nature of the climate, artificial means are\\nemployed in its desiccation. The night-soil, after\\nbeing subjected to one or other of the modes of\\ntreatment described below, is placed upon iron plates\\nheated by means of furnaces.\\nAs soon as the night-soil is collected, it is placed\\nin large broad trenches, until a sufficient quantity is\\naccumulated for the purposes of the manufacturer.\\nBut here it undergoes the same process of putrefac-\\ntion to which allusion has been made, and acquires a\\npeculiarly offensive smell from the evolution of sul-\\nphuretted hydrogen and other gases, which are\\nobserved to escape. Unless some means be em-\\nployed, at this stage of the process, to retain the\\nammonia, it escapes into the atmosphere in the form\\nof a carbonate. Various methods have been proposed\\nto effect this purpose. Some manufacturers mix the\\nnight-soil with chloride of lime, and evaporate off\\nthe water by the aid of heat. This possesses the\\nadvantage of depriving the excrements of smell,\\nand at the same time partially fixes the ammonia\\nwhich would otherwise escape. Chloride of lime\\nalways contains a considerable excess of lime; hence\\npart of the ammonia contained in the night-soil is\\nexpelled by means of it.\\nMore simple and economical methods might be\\nemployed. A patent, which has been taken out for\\nThis is practised in the vicinity of large cities in the United\\nStates.\\n17*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "198 OF MANURE.\\nthe preparation of this useful manure states in its\\nspecification, that the night-soil is to be mixed with\\ncalcined mud and finely-divided charcoal. By this\\nmeans, the smell is completely and instantaneously\\nremoved, and the ammonia retained by virtue of the\\naffinity, whicii alumina and charcoal exert for that\\ncompound. This plan is both simple and efficacious,\\nbut the ammonia is apt to.be expelled by the appli-\\ncation of the heat employed in drying the manure.\\nThe addition of a cheap mineral acid to the night-\\nsoil, before admixture with these ingredients, would\\nmaterially improve both of the above processes.\\nIt would no doubt be highly advantageous in the\\npreparation of manures, to prepare them so that\\nthey contained all the ingredients necessary for the\\nsupply of the plants to which they are applied. But\\nthese will of course vary according to the nature of\\nthe soils and plants for which they are intended.\\nThus bones, soap-boilers waste, nitrate of soda,\\nand ashes of wood, will often be found to form\\nadvantageous additions. Sulphate of magnesia (Ep-\\nsom salts) would, in most cases, form an invaluable\\ningredient in prepared night-soil. (See Supplemen-\\ntary Chapter on Soils.) The products of the decom-\\nposition proceeding from the action of this salt upon\\nnight-soil are, sulphate of ammonia, phosphate of\\nmagnesia, and the double phosphate of magnesia\\nand ammonia. Now all these salts exert a very\\nfavorable influence upon vegetation, and the phos-\\nphate of magnesia is, in many cases, perfectly indis-\\npensable to the growth and development of certain\\nplants. This suggestion is well worthy of the\\nattention of the farmer.\\nPerhaps the best and most practical method of\\nfixing the ammoniacal salts of urine and night-soil,\\nis to mix them with the ashes of peat or coal. When\\nthe latter are employed, care must be taken to select\\nsuch as are of a porous, earthy consistence. The\\nashes both of peat and coal contain in general mag-\\nnesia; hence their value as an ingredient of prepared", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "GUANO. 199\\nnight-soil. When magnesia is not present, it will\\nbe necessary to add some magnesian limestone or\\nEpsom salts. The night-soil should be mixed thor-\\noughly with the ashes, and exposed to the air to\\ndry. The disagreeable smell is thus quickly removed,\\nand a pulverulent manure obtained, which can be\\napplied to the fields with facility.*\\nAnimal charcoal, which has served for the discol-\\noration of sugar, possesses the property of removing\\nthe offensive smell of night-soil, and is of itself an\\nadmirable manure. In cases where it can be pro-\\ncured with facility, it will be found to add to the\\nefficacy of the latter.f\\nGUANO.\\nThe sterile soils of the South American coast are\\nmanured with a substance called guano, consisting\\nof urate of ammonia and other ammoniacal salts, by\\nthe use of which a luxuriant vegetation and the\\nrichest crops are obtained. Guano has lately been\\nimported in considerable quantity into Liverpool and\\nseveral other English ports, and is now experi-\\nmentally employed as a manure by English agricul-\\nturists. A consideration of its composition and\\nmode of action cannot, therefore, fail to be accept-\\nable.\\nMuch speculation has arisen as to the true origin\\nof Guano, J but the most certain proof is now af-\\nforded, that it has been produced by the accumula-\\nNight soil deprived of its odor and rendered portable is termed\\npoudrelte. One mode of preparing it, practised in France, is by boiling\\nthe refuse matter of slaughter-houses, by steam, into a thick soup and\\nthen mixing the whole into a stiff paste with sifted coal ashes, and\\ndrying. It is almost one half animal matter. If putrefaction should\\nhave begun, the addition of ashes, sweetens the whole, and the pre-\\npared animalized coal, as it is termed, is as sweet to the nose, as\\ngarden mould. Dana.\\nt For an account of Mr. Daniell s artificial manure, see Appendix.\\nt Much of the information regarding Guano here given is extracted\\nfrom a paper in Liebig s Annalen, xxxvii. 3, 291.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "200 OF MANURE.\\ntion of the excrements of innumerable sea-fowl,\\nwhich inhabit the islands upon which it is found.\\nMeyen, the latest writer upon this subject, completely\\ncoincides with this opinion; for he says* Their\\nnumber is Legion they completely cloud the sun,\\nwhen they r-ise from their resting-place in the morn-\\ning in flocks of miles in length. Yet, notwith-\\nstanding their great number, thousands of years\\nmust have elapsed, before the excrements could\\nhave accumulated to such a thickness as they pos-\\nsess at present. Guano has been used by the Peru-\\nvians as a manure since the twelfth century; and\\nits value was considered so inestimable, that the\\ngovernment of the Incas issued a decree, by which\\ncapital punishment was inflicted upon any person\\nfound destroying the fowl on the Guano islands.\\nOverseers were also appointed over each province,\\nfor the purpose of insuring them further protection.\\nUnder this state of things, the accumulation of the\\nexcrements may have well taken place. All these\\nregulations are, however, now abandoned. f Rivero\\nstates, that the annual consumption of guano for the\\npurposes of agriculture amounts to 40,000 fanegas.\\nThe increase of crops obtained by the use of guano\\nis very remarkable. According to the same authority,\\nthe crop of potatoes is increased 45 times by means\\nof it, and that of maize 35 times. The manner of\\napplying the manure is singular. Thus in Arica,\\nwhere so much pepper (^Capsicum haccatum) is cul-\\ntivated, each plant is manured three times first\\nupon the appearance of the roots, second upon that\\nof the leaves, and lastly upon the formation of the\\nfruit. (Humboldt.) From this it will be observed,\\nthat the Peruvians follow the plan of the Chinese,\\nin manuring the plant rather than the soil. The\\ncomposition of guano points out how admirably it is\\nfitted for a manure for not only does it contain\\nUeise um die Erde, B. i. S. 434.\\nf Garcilaso, Historie de los Yncas, Vol. I. p. 134.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "GUANO. 201\\nammoniacal salts in abundance, but also those inor-\\nganic constituents which are indispensable for the\\ndevelopment of plants.\\nThe most recent analysis is that of Volckel, who\\nfound it to consist of\\nUrate of Ammonia\\n9-0\\nOxalate of Ammonia\\n10-6\\nOxalate of Lime\\n70\\nPhosphate of Ammonia\\n60\\nPhosphate of Magnesia and Ammonia\\n2-6\\nSulphate of Potash\\n5-5\\nSulphate of Soda\\n3-8\\nSal-ammoniac\\n4-2\\nPhosphate of Lime\\n143\\nClay and sand\\n4-7\\nOrganic substances not estimated, con-^\\ntaining 12 per cent, of matter insolu- on.o\\nble in water. Soluble Salts of Iron C\\nin small quantity. Water J\\nlOO.O\\nIt will be observed from the above analysis, that\\nurea does not enter into the composition of guano.\\nThe uric acid of the excrements must have been\\ndecomposed into oxalic acid and ammonia. The\\nsoluble substances contained in guano amount to\\nhalf its wreight. It is singular that we do not find\\nnitrates amongst the ingredients w^hich compose it.\\nGuano possesses a urinous smell, precisely similar\\nto that perceived on the evaporation of urine. The\\nexperiments upon the efficacy of this manure in\\nEngland have not yet been sufficiently multiplied to\\nenable us to judge whether or not its virtues have\\nbeen overrated.\\nThe corn-fields in China receive no other manure\\nthan human excrements. But we cover our fields\\nevery year with the seeds of weeds, which from\\ntheir nature and form pass undigested along with\\nthe excrements through animals, without being de-\\nprived of their power of germination, and yet it is\\nconsidered surprising that where they have once\\nflourished, they cannot again be expelled by all our\\nendeavors we think it very astonishing, while we\\nreally sow them ourselves every year. A famous", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "202 OF MANURE.\\nbotanist, attached to the Dutch embassy to China,\\ncould scarcely find a single plant on the corn-fields\\nof the Chinese, except the corn itself.*\\nThe urine of horses contains less nitrogen and\\nphosphates than that of man. According to Four-\\ncroy and Vauquelin it contains only five per cent, of\\nsolid matter, and in that quantity only 0-7 of urea;\\nwhilst 100 parts of the urine of man contain more\\nthan four times as much.\\nThe urine of a cow is particularly rich in salts of\\npotash; but according to Rouelle and Brande, it is\\nalmost destitute of salts of soda. The urine of\\nswine contains a large quantity of the phosphate of\\nmagnesia and ammonia; and hence it is that concre-\\ntions of this salt are so frequently found in the\\nurinary bladders of these animals.\\nIt is evident, that if we place the solid or liquid\\nexcrements of man or the liquid excrements of\\nanimals on our land, in equal proportion to the\\nquantity of nitrogen removed from it in the form of\\nplants, the sum of this element in the soil must\\nincrease every year; for to the quantity which we\\nthus supply, another portion is added from the\\natmosphere. The nitrogen which we export as corn\\nand cattle, and which is thus absorbed by large\\ntowns, serves only to benefit other farms, if w^e do\\nnot replace it. A farm which possesses no pastures,\\nand not fields sufficient for the cultivation of fodder,\\nrequires manure containing nitrogen to be imported\\nfrom elsewhere, if it is desired to produce a full\\ncrop. In large farms, the annual expenditure of\\nnitrogen is completely replaced by means of the\\npastures.\\nThe only absolute loss of nitrogen, therefore, is\\nlimited to the quantity which man carries with him\\nto his grave; but this at the utmost cannot amount\\nto more than 3 lbs. for every individual, and is being\\ncollected during his whole life. Nor is this quantity\\nIngenhouss on the Nutrition of Plants, page 129 (German edition).", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "VALUE OF URINE. 203\\nlost to plants, for it escapes into the atmosphere as\\nammonia during the putrefaction and decay of the\\nbody.\\nA high degree of culture requires an increased\\nsupply of manure. With the abundance of the\\nmanure, the produce in corn and cattle will augment,\\nbut must diminish with its deficiency.\\nFrom the preceding remarks it must be evident,\\nthat the greatest value should be attached to the\\nliquid excrements of man and animals, when a ma-\\nnure is desired which shall supply nitrogen to the\\nsoil. The greatest part of a superabundant crop,\\nor, in other words, the increase of growth which is\\nin our power, can be obtained exclusively by their\\nmeans.\\nWhen it is considered that with every pound of\\nammonia which evaporates a loss of 60 lbs. of corn\\nis sustained, and that with every pound of urine a\\npound of wheat might be produced, the indifference\\nwith which these liquid excrements are regarded is\\nquite incomprehensible. In most places only the\\nsolid excrements impregnated with the liquid are\\nused, and the dunghills containing them are pro-\\ntected neither from evaporation nor from rain. The\\nsolid excrements contain the insoluble, the liquid all\\nthe soluble phosphates, and the latter contain like-\\nwise all the potash which existed as organic salts in\\nthe plants consumed by the animals.\\nFresh bones, wool, hair, hoofs, and horn, are ma-\\nnures containing nitrogen as well as phosphates,\\nand are consequently fit to aid tne process of vege-\\ntable life. All animal matter is fitted for the same\\npurpose. Batchers offal, such as the blood and\\nintestines of animals, form a most powerful manure.\\nIt is in general necessary to dilute such manure by\\nadmixture with other kinds less powerful in their\\naction.\\nOne hundred parts of dry bones contain from 32\\nto 33 per cent, of dry gelatine now supposing this\\nto contain the same quantity of nitrogen as animal", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "204 OF MANURE.\\nglue, viz., 5-28 per cent., then 100 parts of bones\\nmust be considered as equivalent to 250 parts of\\nhuman urine.\\nBones may be preserved unchanged for thousands\\nof years, in dry or even in moist soils, provided the\\naccess of rain is prevented as is exemplified by\\nthe bones of antediluvian animals found in loam or\\ngypsum, the interior parts being protected by the\\nexterior from the action of water. But they become\\nwarm when reduced to a fine powder, and moistened\\nbones generate heat and enter into putrefaction; the\\ngelatine which they contain is decomposed, and its\\nnitroo^en converted into carbonate of ammonia and\\nother ammoniacal salts, which are retained in a\\ngreat measure by the powder itself. (Bones burnt\\ntill quite white, and recently heated to redness,\\nabsorb 7*5 times their volume of pure ammoniacal\\ngas.)\\nARTIFICIAL MANURES.\\nWe have now examined the action of the animal\\nor natural manures upon plants but it is evident,\\nthat if artificial manures contain the same constitu-\\nents, they will exercise a similar action upon the\\nplants to which they are applied. We shall only\\nnotice here one or two of those principally employed.\\nSince it has been ascertained that animal manures\\nact (as far as the formation of organic matter is\\nconcerned) only by the ammonia which they contain,\\nattention has been devoted by chemists to discover\\na more economical means of presenting this ammonia\\nto plants. The water which distils from the retorts\\nin the preparation of coal gas is strongly charged\\nwith this alkali, but is at the same time mixed with\\ntar and other empyreumatic impurities. It has been\\ncustomary to allow the tarry matter to subside, and\\ndecant off the clear, supernatant liquor. This liquor^", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "LIQUOR OF GAS-WORKS. 205\\nbeing diluted to such a degree as to be tasteless, is\\napplied as a manure to the field.*\\nNow, the ammoniacal liquor of the gas-works con-\\ntains the ammonia in the form of carbonate and\\nhydro-sulphate of ammonia (sulphuret of ammonium).\\nThe latter compound is a deadly poison to vegeta-\\nbles, nor can we conceive that by dilution its prop-\\nerties can be changed. The carbonate of ammonia\\nis volatile, and escapes into the atmosphere. To\\nobviate this latter inconvenience and render it more\\ntransportable, it has been proposed to convert the\\ncarbonate into the sulphate, by means of gypsum, f\\nBut this does not remove the hydro-sulphate. A\\nmore simple and efScacious method is to add a solu-\\ntion of sulphate of iron (the green vitriol of the shops)\\nto the liquor, until no further precipitation ensues.\\nSulphuret and carbonate of iron are thus formed,\\nand the whole of the ammonia enters into combina-\\ntion with the sulphuric acid, and forms sulphate of\\nammonia. Care must be taken to avoid too great an\\nexcess of sulphate of iron and the liquor thus pre-\\npared should be freely exposed to the air to promote\\nthe oxidation.\\nThe liquor still, however, contains erapyreumatic\\nmatters, which are injurious to plants. These may\\nbe removed by evaporating the liquor to dryness,\\nand heating the residue to incipient redness. By\\nthis means they are rendered insoluble, and the sul-\\nphate of ammonia is not affected, unless the heat has\\nbeen carried too far. The liquor properly diluted\\nhas been found very advantageous, even without the\\nremoval of the empyreumatic matter.\\nMr. Blake, who has charge of the gas-work in Boston, informs me,\\nthat one chaldron (2700 lbs. of Pictou coal, yields, on the average, 33\\ngallons of amznoniacal liquor containing about 5 per cent, of dry am-\\nmonia and by passing the gases generated from this quantity of coal\\nthrough a solution of proto-sulphate of iron, he has obtained in addition\\n24 gallons of a solution containing about 4 per cent, of dry ammonia.\\nAbout 4 chaldrons of coal are used per diem, at the gas-works in Bos-\\nton, and 200 gallons of liquor, containing from 4 to 5 per cent, of am-\\nmonia, could be furnished d.iily at small cost. W,\\ni Three Lectures on Agriculture, by Dr. Daubeny, page 87.\\n18", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "206 OF MANURE.\\nNitrate of soda has lately engaged much attention,\\nand is supposed to exert its favorable action upon\\nvegetation by yielding nitrogen to those constitu-\\nents of plants which contain it. The experiments\\nwhich have hitherto been instituted with this ma-\\nnure do not warrant us in concluding with positive\\ncertainty that it is the nitrogen alone to which it\\nowes its efficacy, but they certainly render this a\\nplausible explanation of its virtues. Thus Mr.\\nPusey, the late able president of the Royal Agri-\\ncultural Society, has shown, that the same effects\\nare produced by putrefied urine, soot, gas-liquor,\\nand nitrate of soda.* Now the three former act by\\nvirtue of the ammonia which enters into their com-\\nposition. The usual effects produced by these and\\nnitrate of soda are to increase the intensity of the\\ngreen coloring matter, to augment the quantity of\\nstraw, but to produce a light grain. Mr. Hyettf\\nhas communicated the results of an analysis of two\\nsamples of wheat grown under similar circumstances,\\none of which had been treated with nitre, the other\\nnot. The former contained 23*25 per cent, of gluten,\\nand 1.375 of albumen the latter only 19 per cent,\\nof gluten, and 0.62 of albumen. Here the azotized\\nmatters appear to have considerably increased in\\nquantity. There is nothing opposed to the sup-\\nposition that nitric acid may be decomposed by\\nplants, and its nitrogen assimilated. We find that\\nvegetables possess the power of decomposing car-\\nbonic acid, and of appropriating its carbon for their\\nown use. Now this acid is infinitely more difficult\\nto decompose than nitric acid. But there are other\\ncircumstances which oppose the adoption of the view\\nthat nitrate of soda acts by virtue of the nitrogen\\nwhich enters into its composition. Were this the\\ncase, the action should be more uniform than it has\\nhitherto been found to be. On some soils the salt\\ndoes not possess the smallest influence; whilst on\\nJournal of the Roval Agricultural Society, Vol. II p. 123.\\nt Ibid., Vol. II. p. 143.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "NITRATE OF SODA. 207\\nothers it affords great benefit. We can only furnish\\nan explanation of this seeming caprice by a reference\\nto the chemical composition of the soil upon which\\nit is applied. If the advantages attending the ap-\\nplication of nitrate of soda are due to the alkaline\\nbase which it contains, then it is evident that this\\nmanure can be of small value on soils containing a\\nquantity of alkalies sufficient for the purposes of the\\nplants grown upon them; whilst, on the other hand,\\nsuch as are deficient in these must experience benefit\\nthrough its means.* In certain cases in which ni-\\ntrate of soda has failed, nitrate of potash (common\\nsaltpetre) has been very successful. Analyses of\\nwheat grown with nitrate of soda and nitrate of pot-\\nash would be of interest, in order to determine\\nwhether a mutual substitution of their respective\\nbases is effected. It is to be hoped that future ex-\\nperiments will throw more light upon the action of\\nthis interesting manure, for theory cannot be satisfied\\nwith those already existing. It has been usual to\\nemploy a less quantity by weight of nitrate of pot-\\nash than of nitrate of soda. This procedure seems\\nrather empirical, for unless sanctioned by experience,\\nit would a priori appear to be better to add the\\ngreatest quantity of that salt which possesses the\\nhighest equivalent. Now the equivalent of nitrate of\\npotash is considerably higher than that of nitrate\\nof soda.\\nCharcoal in a state of powder must be considered\\nas a very powerful means of promoting the growth\\nof plants on heavy soils, and particularly on such\\nas consist of argillaceous earth, f\\nGeneral Sir Howard Elphitistone informs me, that he found car-\\nbonate of soda (soda ash) an excellent manure for his land. The crops\\nobtained by means of it presented the same general characters as those\\nmanured witli nitrate of potash, and exhibited a greater intensity of\\ncolor. If this is found uniformly to be the case, it will very much\\nstrengthen the supposition that the action of nitrate of soda is due to\\nits alkaline constituent. Ed.\\nt For much valuable information on the subject of manures, see\\nAgricultural Chemistry, Vol. VIII. of Sir H. Davy s collected\\nWorks.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "208 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nIngenhouss proposed dilute sulphuric acid as a\\nmeans of increasing the fertility of a soil. Now,\\nwhen this acid is sprinkled on calcareous soils, gyp-\\nsum (sulphate of lime) is immediately formed, which\\nof course prevents the necessity of manuring the\\nsoils with this material. 100 parts of concentrated\\nsulphuric acid diluted with from 800 to 1000 parts\\nof water, are equivalent to 176 parts of gypsum.\\nSUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER.\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nThe fertility of a soil is much influenced by its\\nphysical properties, such as its porosity, color, attrac-\\ntion for moisture, or state of disintegration. But\\nindependently of these conditions, the fertility de-\\npends upon the chemical constituents of which the\\nsoil is composed.\\nWe have already shown, at considerable length,\\nthat those alkalies, earths, and phosphates, which\\nconstitute the ashes of plants, are perfectly indis-\\npensable for their development and that plants\\ncannot flourish upon soils from which these com-\\npounds are absent. The necessity of alkalies for\\nthe vital processes of plants will be obvious, when\\nwe consider that almost all the different families of\\nplants are distinguished by containing certain acids,\\ndiffering very much in composition and further,\\nthat these acids do not exist in the juice in an\\nisolated state, but generally in combination with\\ncertain alkaline or earthy bases. The juice of the\\nvine contains tartaric acid, that of the sorrel oxalic\\nacid. It is quite obvious, that a peculiar action must\\nbe in operation in the organism of the vine and\\nsorrel, by means of which the generation of tartaric\\nand oxalic acid is effected and also that the same\\naction must exist in all plants of the same genus.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 209\\nA similar cause forces corn-plants to extract silicic\\nacid from the soil. The number of acids found\\nin different plants is very numerous, but the most\\ncommon are those which we have already mentioned;\\nto which may be added acetic, malic, citric, aconitic,\\nraaleic, kinovic acids, c.\\nWhen we observe that the proper acids of each\\nfamily of plants are never absent from it, we must\\nadmit that the plants belonging to that family could\\nnot attain perfection, if the generation of their\\npeculiar acids were prevented. Hence, if the pro-\\nduction of tartaric acid in the vine were rendered\\nimpossible, it could not produce grapes, or in other\\nwords, would not fructify. Now the generation of\\norganic acids is prevented in the vine, and, indeed,\\nin all plants which yield nourishment to men and\\nanimals, when alkalies are absent from the soil in\\nwhich they grow. The organic acids in plants are\\nvery rarely found in a free state in general, they\\nare in combination with potash, soda, lime, or mag-\\nnesia. Thus, silicic acid is found as silicate of\\npotash, acetic acid as acetate of potash or soda,\\noxalic acid as oxalate of potash, soda, or lime, tar-\\ntaric acid as bitartrate of potash, c. The potash,\\nsoda, lime, and magnesia in these plants are, there-\\nfore, as indispensable for their existence as the\\ncarbon from which their organic acids are produced.\\nIn order not to form an erroneous conclusion re-\\ngarding the processes of vegetable nutrition, it must\\nbe admitted that plants require certain salts for the\\nsustenance of their vital functions, the acids of\\nwhich salts exist either in the soil (such as silicic or\\nphosphoric acids) or are generated from nutriment\\nderived from the atmosphere. Hence, if these salts\\nare not contained in the soil, or if the bases neces-\\nsary for their production be absent, they cannot be\\nformed; or in other words, plants cannot grow in\\nsuch a soil. The juice, fruit, and leaves of a plant\\ncannot attain maturity, if the constituents necessary\\nfor their formation are wanting, and salts must be\\n18*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "210 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nviewed as such. These salts do not, however, occur\\nsimultaneously in all plants. Thus, in saline plants,\\nsoda is the only alkali found in corn plants, lime\\nand potash form constituents. Several contain both\\nsoda and potash, some both potash and lime whilst\\nothers contain potash and magnesia. The acids\\nvary in a similar manner. Thus one plant may\\ncontain phosphate of lime, a second, phosphate of\\nmagnesia, a third, an alkali combined with silicic\\nacid, and a fourth, an alkali in combination with a\\nvegetable acid. The respective quantities of the\\nsalts required by plants are very unequal. The\\naptitude of a soil to produce one, but not another\\nkind of plant, is due to the presence of a base which\\nthe former requires, and the absence of that, indis-\\npensable for the development, of the latter. Upon\\nthe correct knowledge of the bases and salts requi-\\nsite for the sustenance of each plant, and of the\\ncomposition of the soil upon which it grows, depends\\nthe whole system of a rational theory of agriculture;\\nand that knowledge alone can explain the process\\nof fallow, or furnish us with the most advantageous\\nmethods of affording plants their proper nourish-\\nment.\\nGive, so says the rational theory, to one plant\\nsuch substances as are necessary for its development,\\nbut spare those, which are not requisite, for the\\nproduction of other plants that require them.\\nIt is the same with regard to these bases as it is\\nwith the water which is necessary for the roots of\\nvarious plants. Thus, whilst one plant flourishes\\nluxuriantly in an arid soil, a second requires much\\nmoisture, a third finds necessary this moisture at\\nthe commencement of its development, and a fourth\\n(such as potatoes) after the appearance of the blos-\\nsom. It would be very erroneous to present the\\nsame quantity of water to all plants indiscriminately.\\nYet this obvious principle is lost sight of in the\\nmanuring of plants. An empirical system of agri-\\nculture has administered the same kind of manures", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 211\\nto all plants; or when a selection has been made, it\\nwas not based upon a knowledge of their peculiar\\ncharacters or composition.\\nThe cost of labor in England has given rise to\\nthe production of much ingenuity in the invention\\nof machines, which have produced improvements in\\nthe mode of application of manures. In order to\\nuse these with advantage, pulverulent manures are\\nemployed, instead of the common stable manure,\\nwhich is generally mixed with much straw.\\nThe necessity for such forms of manure naturally\\nsuggested the employment of bone dust, dried dung,\\nlime, ashes, c. Now, although by these means the\\nnecessary phosphates are furnished to a soil, and\\nsolid animal excrements rendered unnecessary, they\\nhave led to the neglect of the liquid excrements,\\nthat is, of the urine of men and animals, which is\\nthus completely lost to agriculture. For although\\nthe meadows receive, during autumn and winter,\\nwhen cattle are fed upon them, the solid and liquid\\nexcrements of these animals, yet the urine of man,\\ninto which all the nitrogenous constituents of ani-\\nmals are finally deposited, is completely lost to the\\nfields. This most important of all manures, so pro-\\nperly estimated in Flanders, Germany, and China, is\\naltogether lost to the English agriculturist. In large\\ntowns it is either allowed to run into the rivers, or\\nsink into the ground in such a manner as to be of no\\nbenefit to the veg-etable kingdom.\\nThe most important growth in England is that of\\nwheat; then of barley, oats, beans, and turnips. Po-\\ntatoes are only cultivated to a great extent in certain\\nlocalities rye, beet-root, and rape-seed, not very\\ngenerally. Lucern is only known in a few districts,\\nwhilst red clover is found universally. Now, the se-\\nlection of inorganic manures for these plants may be\\nfixed upon by an examination of the coniposition of\\ntheir ashes. Thus wheat must be cultivated in a soil\\nrich in silicate of potash. If this soil is formed from\\nfeldspar, mica, basalt, clinkstone, or indeed of any", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "212 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nminerals which disintegrate with facility, crops of\\nwheat and barley may be grown upon it for many\\ncenturies in succession. But, in order to support an\\nuninterrupted succession, the annual disintegration\\nmust be sufficiently great to render soluble a quanti-\\nty of silicate of potash sufficient for the supply of a\\nfull crop of wheat or barley. If this is not the case,\\nthe soil must either be allowed to lie fallow from\\ntime to time, or plants may be cultivated upon it\\nwhich contain little silicate of potash, or the roots\\nof which are enabled to penetrate deeper into the\\nsoil than corn plants in search of this salt. During\\nthis interval of repose, the materials of the soil dis-\\nintegrate, and potash in a soluble state is liberated\\non the layers exposed to the action of the atmo-\\nsphere. When this has taken place, rich crops of\\nwheat may be again expected.\\nThe alkaline phosphates, as well as the phosphates\\nof magnesia and lime, are necessary for the produc-\\ntion of all corn-plants. Now, bones contain the latter,\\nbut none of the former salts. These must, therefore,\\nbe furnished by means of night-soil, or of urine, a\\nmanure which is particularly rich in them.* Wood\\nashes have been found very useful for wheat in cal-\\ncareous soils for these ashes contain both phos-\\nphate of lime and silicate of potash. In like man-\\nner stable manure and night-soil render clayey soils\\nfertile, by furnishing the magnesia in which they are\\ndeficient. The ashes of all kinds of herbs and de-\\ncayed straw are capable of replacing wood ashes.\\nA compost manure, which is adapted to furnish all\\nthe inorganic matters to wheat, oats, and barley, may\\nbe made, by mixing equal parts of bone dust and a\\nsolution of silicate of potash (known as soluble glass\\nin commerce), allowing this mixture to dry in the\\nair, and then adding 10 or 12 parts of gypsum, with\\n16 parts of common salt. Such a compost would\\nIt has been already stated that bran contains phosphate of soda and\\nphosphate of magnesia, so that it is useful as a manure where phos-\\nphates are desired. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 213\\nrender unnecessary the animal manures, which act\\nby their inorganic ingredients. According to Ber-\\nthier, 100 jDarts of the ashes of wheat straw con-\\ntain,\\nOf matter soluble in water 9-0\\nOf matter insoluble in water 91-0\\nNow 100 parts of the soluble matter contain,\\nCarbonic acid a trace\\nSulphuric acid 20\\nMuriatic acid 130\\nSilica 350\\nPotash and Soda 500\\n1000\\n100 parts of the insoluble matter contain,\\nCarbonic acid .0\\nPhosphoric acid .1-2\\nSilica 750\\nLime 5 8\\nOxide of Iron and Charcoal 10-0\\nPotash 8-0\\n100-0\\nThe silicate of potash employed in the preparation\\nof the compost described above must not deliquesce\\non exposure to the air, but must give a gelatinous\\nconsistence to the water in which it is dissolved, and\\ndry to a white powder by exposure. It is only at-\\ntractive of moisture when an excess of potash is\\npresent, which is apt to exert an injurious influence\\nupon the tender roots of plants. In those cases\\nwhere silicate of potash cannot be procured, a suflEi-\\nciency of wood ashes will supply its place.*\\nAll culinary vegetables, but particularly the cruci-\\nIn some parts of the grand duchy of Hesse, where wood is scarce\\nand dear, it is customary for the common people to club together and\\nbuild baking ovens, which are heated with straw instead of wood. The\\nashes of this straw are carefully collected and sold every year at very\\nhigh prices. The farmers there have found by experience that the\\nashes of straw form the very best manure for wheat; although it exerts\\nno influence on the growth of fallow-crops (potatoes or the leguminosa?,\\nfor example). The stem of wheat grown in this way possesses an un-\\ncommon strength. The cause of the favorable action of these ashes\\nwill be apparent, when it is considered that all corn- plants require sili-\\ncate of potash and that the ashes of straw consist almost entirely of\\nthis compound. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "214 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nferee, such as mustard, {^sinapis alba and nigra,) con-\\ntain sulphur in notable quantity. The same is the\\ncase with turnips, the different varieties of rape, cab-\\nbage, celery, and red clover. These plants thrive\\nbest in soils containing sulphates hence if these\\nsalts do not form natural constituents of the soil,\\nthey must be introduced as manure. Sulphate of\\nammonia is the best salt for this purpose. It is most\\neasily procured by the addition of gypsum or sul-\\nphate of iron* (green vitriol) to putrefied urine.\\nHorn, wool, and hoofs of cattle, contain sulphur\\nas a constituent, so that they will be found a valua-\\nble manure when administered with soluble phos-\\nphates, (with urine, for example.)\\nPhosphate of magnesia and ammonia forms the\\nprincipal inorganic constituent of the potato salts\\nof potash also exist in it, but in very limited quanti-\\nty. Now the soil is rendered unfitted for its culti-\\nvation, even though the herb be returned to it after\\nthe removal of the crop, unless some means are\\nadopted to replace the phosphate of magnesia re-\\nmoved in the bulbous roots. This is best effected\\nby mixtures of night-soil with bran, magnesian lime-\\nstone, or the ashes of certain kinds of coal. I ap-\\nplied to a field of potatoes manure, consisting of\\nnight-soil and sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts),\\nand obtained a remarkably large crop. The manure\\nwas prepared by adding a quantity of sulphate of\\nmagnesia to a mixture of urine and feeces, and mix-\\ning the whole with the ashes of coal or vegetable\\nmould, till it acquired the consistence of a thick\\npaste, which was thus dried by exposure to the sun.\\nIt has been formerly mentioned, that the seconda-\\nry and tertiary limestones contain potash marl, and\\nthe calcareous minerals used for the preparation of\\nhydraulic mortar, may be particularly specified.\\nIf sulphate of iron be employed, it ought not to be added in great\\nexcess, and the urine must be exposed to the air for some time after,\\nfor the purpose of converting the iron into the peroxide. A salt of the\\nprotoxide of iron is injurious to vegetation. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 215\\nThese Lave been found to form excellent manures\\nfor heavy clayey soils, particularly for such as disin-\\ntegrate with difficulty. They are most efficacious\\nwhen burnt, but can only be applied in this state\\nafter harvest, and ought to be ploughed into the soil\\nas quickly as possible. By the action of lime upon\\nclay, the potash contained in the latter is rendered\\nsoluble. This may easily be shown by mixing one\\npart of marl with half its weight of burned lime,\\nadding \\\\vater, and setting aside the mixture to re-\\npose for some time. Even after a space of 24 hours,\\nan appreciable quantity of potash may be detected\\nin the water.*\\nA most striking proof of the influence of potash\\nupon vegetation has been furnished by the investi-\\ngations of the admiiiistration of tobacco in Paris.\\nFor many years accurate analyses of the ashes of\\nvarious sorts of tobacco have been executed, by the\\norders of the administration and it has been\\nI found, as the result of these, that the value of the\\nI tobacco stands in a certain relation to the quantity\\nof potash contained in the ashes. By this means a\\nmode was furnished of distinguishing the different\\ni soils upon which the tobacco under examination had\\ni been cultivated, as well as the peculiar class to\\nI which it belonged. Another striking fact was also\\ndisclosed through these analyses. Certain cele-\\nbrated kinds of American tobacco were found gradu-\\n1 ally to yield a smaller quantity of ashes, and their\\nI value diminished in the same proportion. For this\\nj information I am indebted to M. Pelouze, professor\\nof the Polytechnic School in Paris.\\nOne of the causes of the advantages produced by subsoil ploughing\\nis, that it exposes the soil to the disintegrating influences of the atmo-\\nsphere. Hence it is that the subsoil plough is so beneficial in siliceous\\nM soils, and exerts no apparent eifect upon those which contain much\\nI clay. The former disintegrate and liberate their potash both with fa-\\n|J cility and rapidity whilst the disintegration of the latter proceeds with\\nII slowness, and no appreciable effects are produced. (See Journal of the\\nAgricultural Society, Vol. II. p. 27;) It is probable however, that if\\nthe land received a dressing of lime after subsoil ploughing, the effects\\nwould be produced more rapidly. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "216 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nThere are certain plants which contain either no\\npotash, or mere traces of it. Such are the poppy,\\n\\\\papave7 soinniferuni,) which generates in its organ-\\nism a vegetable alkaloid; Indian corn (^zea mays);\\nand kelianthus tuberosus. For plants such as these\\nthe potash in the soil is of no use, and farmers are\\nwell aware that they can be cultivated without ro-\\ntation on the same soil, particularly when the herbs\\nand straw, or their ashes, are returned to the soil\\nafter the reaping of the crop.\\nOne cause of the favorable action of the nitrates\\nof soda and potash must doubtless be, that through\\ntheir agency the akalies which are deficient in a soil\\nare furnished to it. Thus it has been found that in\\nsoils deficient in potash, the nitrates of soda or pot-\\nash have been very advantageous whilst those, on\\nthe other hand, which contain a sufficiency of alka-\\nlies, have experienced no beneficial effects through i\\ntheir means. In the application of manures to soils\\nwe should be guided by the general composition of\\nthe ashes of plants, whilst the manure applied to a\\nparticular plant ought to be selected with reference\\nto the substances which it demands for its nourish-\\nment. In general, a manure should contain a large\\nquantity of alkaline salts, a considerable proportion\\nof phosphate of magnesia, and a smaller proportion\\nof phosphate of lime; azotized manure and ammonia-\\ncal salts cannot be too frequently employed.\\nIn the following part of this chapter I shall de-\\nscribe a number of analyses of soils executed by\\nSprengel, together with observations on their sterili-\\nty and fertility, as stated by that distinguished\\nagriculturist. It is unnecessary to describe the Wio-\\nrfws operandi used in the analyses of these soils, for\\nthis kind of research will never be made by farmers,\\nwho must apply to the professional chemist, if they\\nwish for information regarding the composition of\\ntheir soils.\\nUnder the term surface-soil, we mean that portion\\nof soil which is on the surface whilst by subsoil we(", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 217\\nmean that which is below the former, and out of\\nreach of the ordinary plough.\\nCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CERTAIN SOILS, ACCORDING TO\\nANALYSIS.\\n1. Surface-soil (A) a good loamy soil, from the\\nvicinity of Gandersheim. It is remarkable for pro-\\nducing uncommonly fine red clover when manured\\nwith gypsum. (B) is an analysis of the subsoil.\\n100 parts contain\\nSilica, with fine siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron, with a little protoxide\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nMagnesia and silica, in combination with\\nsulphuric acid and humus\\nMagnesia, with silica and humic acid\\ncombined\\nPotash, in combination with silica\\nSoda, principally in combination with\\nsilica, and a little as common salt\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid in combination with lime O-lll\\nCiilorine (in common salt)\\nHumus, with traces of azotized matter\\n100-000 100-000\\nAn inspection of the above analyses will show\\nthat the soil contains a very small proportion of salts\\nof sulphuric acid, a circumstance which accounts\\nfor the favorable action of gyps4im upon it.\\n2. The surface-soil (A) is a fine-grained loamy\\nsoil from Gandersheim, distinguished for the re-\\nmarkably large crops of beans, peas, tares, c.,\\nwhich it produces when manured with gypsum. (B)\\nis the analysis of the subsoil. 100 parts contain\\n(A)\\n91-331\\n1-344\\n1562\\n0-082\\n(B)\\n93-883\\n1-944\\n2226\\n0-320\\n0-800\\n0720\\n0-440\\n0156\\n0-340\\n0-105\\n0-066\\n0-098\\n3ie 0111\\n0012\\n4100\\n0-060\\n0-190\\n0-012\\n0012\\n0-184\\n(A)\\n(B)\\nSilica, with fine siliceous sand\\n90-221\\n92-324\\nAlumina\\n2-106\\n2262\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\n3951\\n2914\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-960\\n2-960\\nLime, principally combined with phos-\\nphoric acid and humus\\n0539\\n0-532\\n19", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "218\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nMagnesia, with silicate of potash, c.\\nPotash\\nSoda\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid (in gypsum)\\nChlorine (in commor. salt)\\nHumus and azotized matter\\nLoss\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n0-780\\n0-340\\n0-066\\n0-304\\n0-010\\na trace\\n0-367\\n01 -22\\na trace\\n0010\\nOIUO\\n0004\\n0900\\n0140\\n0-228\\n100-000\\n100000\\nThe analysis of this soil shows, that, with the ex-\\nception of gypsjim, every ingredient is present\\nwhich is requisite for the nourishment of leguminous\\nplants. Hence it is that gypsum exerts such a\\nfavorable influence upon it.\\n3. Surface-soil (A) a stro\\nBrunswick. (B) the analysi:\\nparts contain\\nSilica, with coarse siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash and soda, the greatest part in\\ncombination with silica\\nPhosphate of iron\\nSulphuric acid (in gypsum)\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\nHumus\\nDamy\\nsand, from\\nthe subsoil. 100\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n95-698\\n96-880\\n0-504\\n0-890\\n2496\\n1-496\\na trace\\na trace\\n0038\\n0-019\\n0-147\\n0-260\\n0-090\\n0-079\\n0-164\\n0110\\n0007\\na trace\\n0-010\\na trace\\n0-846\\n0-226\\n100000 100-000\\nThis soil was much improved by manuring with\\nlime and ashes. It was then found well fitted for\\nclover, beans, and peas.\\n4. Surface-soil (A) a loamy sand, from the envi-\\nrons of Brunswick. (B) analysis of the subsoil at\\nthe depth of 3 feet. 100 parts contain:\\n(A) (B)\\nSilica and fine siliceous sand 94-724 97-340\\nAlumina 1-638 0-806\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron with man-\\nganese 1-960 1201\\nLime 1-028 0-296\\nMaornesia .a trace 0095\\nPotash and soda 0077 0-112\\nPhosphoric acid 0-024 0-015\\nGypsum 0.010 a trace", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 219\\n(A) (B)\\nChlorine of the salt 0 207 a trace\\nHumus 0-512 0U5\\n100-000 100-000\\nThis soil produces luxuriant crops of lucern and\\nsainfoin, as well as of all other plants the roots of\\nwhich penetrate deeply into the ground. The rea-\\nson is apparent. The subsoil contains magnesia,\\nwhich is wanting in the surface-soil.\\n5. Surface-soil (A) a loamy sand, from the envi-\\nrons of Brunswick. (B) analysis of the subsoil at a\\ndepth of 2 feet. 100 parts contain\\nSilica, with coarse siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime, in combination with silica\\nMagnesia in do. do.\\nPotash and soda\\nPhosphate of iron\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\nHumus insoluble in alkalies\\n100-000 100-000\\nThis soil is characterized by its great sterility.\\nWhite clover could not be made to grow upon it.\\nThe obvious cause of its poverty is a deficiency of\\nlime, magnesia, potash, and gypsum for we find\\nthat the fertility of the soil was much increased by\\nmanuring it with marl. The white clover, which\\nformerly had refused to grow on this soil, now grew\\nupon it with much luxuriance. The aridity of the\\nsoil could not have been the cause of its sterility,\\nfor the stiff nature of the subsoil on which it rested\\nprevented a deficiency of moisture.\\n6. Surface-soil (A) a loamy land from the environs\\nof Brunswick. (B) the analysis of the subsoil, at a\\ndepth of 2 feet. 100 parts contain:\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n95-843\\n95-180\\n600\\n1-600\\n1-800\\n2-200\\na trace\\na trace\\n0038\\n0-455\\n0006\\n0-160\\n0-005\\n0004\\n0198\\n400\\n0-002\\na trace\\n0-006\\n0001\\n1-000\\n0-502\\n(A)\\n(B)\\nSilica, with fine siliceous sand\\n94-998\\n96-490\\nAlumina\\n0610\\n1-083\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n1080\\n1-472", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "220 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime, in combination with silica\\nMagnesia, idem\\nPotash, idem\\nSoda, idern\\nPhosphate of iron\\nGypsum\\nCommon salt\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\nHumus accompanied by azotized matter\\nResinous matter\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n0-2(J8\\n0-400\\n0141\\n0-182\\n0-208\\n0-205\\n0050\\n0-070\\n0044\\n0-050\\n008G\\n0030\\n0041\\n0005\\n0-004\\n0-003\\n0-400\\n0010\\n2070\\na trace\\n100000\\n100000\\nThis soil is by no means remarkable for its steril-\\nity, but is decidedly improved by manuring with\\nburned ferruginous loam. It is, however, rendered\\nstill better by the use of burned marl, a manure\\nwhich is rich in iron, potash, gypsum, and phosphate\\nof lime. The marl does not exert so favorable an\\naction when applied in its natural state but the heat\\nliberates the potash from the insoluble compound\\nwhich it forms with silica.\\n7. Surface-soil (A) a loamy sand, from Brunswick.\\n(B) analysis of the subsoil at a depth of 1| feet. 100\\nparts contain\\n(A)\\n(B)\\nSilica, with fine siliceous sand\\n92 980\\n96-414\\nAlumina\\n820\\n1-000\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n1-666\\n1-370\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-188\\n0-240\\nLime, combined with silica\\n0748\\n0-364\\nMagnesia, idem\\n0-1C8\\n0160\\nPotash, idejii\\n0065\\n0045\\nSoda, idem\\n0-130\\n0082\\nPhosphate of iron\\n0246\\n043\\nSulphuric acid contained in gypsum\\na trace\\n0005\\nChlorine\\na trace\\n0-007\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\n0764\\n0270\\nHumus, with azotized organic remains\\n2225\\n100-000 100-000\\nThis soil when manured with gypsum is very fa-\\nvorable to the production of leguminous plants and\\nred clover. But it is very remarkable, on account of\\nthe rust which always attacks the corn plants which\\nmay be grown upon it. This rust and mildew {tiredo\\nlinearis, pucdnia graminis) is a disease which at-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n221\\ntacks the stem and leaves, and is quite different from\\nthe brand [iiredo glumai um) which appears on the\\nseeds and organs of reproduction. Rust is most fre-\\nquently detected on plants growing on soils which\\ncontain bog-ore, or turf iron-ore. According to\\nSprengel, rust contains phosphate of iron, to which\\nthis chemist ascribes the origin of the disease. It\\nis very possible that other causes may operate in the\\nproduction of similar diseases.\\n8. Soil, a fine-grained loamy marl, from the vicin-\\nity of Schoningen. It produces corn, which is, how-\\never, very liable to blight. 100 parts contain\\nSilica, with siliceous sand\\n93-870\\nAlumina\\n1-248\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n1-418\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-360\\nLime (principally carbonate)\\n0-546\\nMagnesia, idem,\\n0560\\nPotash, with silica\\n0-050\\nSoda, with silica\\n0040\\nPhosphate of iron\\n0-246\\nSulphuric acid with lime\\n0-027\\nCarbonic acid, with lime and magnesia\\n1-145\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\n0-400\\nHumus\\n0-090\\n100-000\\nIt will be observed that a considerable quantity of\\nphosphate of iron is contained in this soil, and the\\ncorn which grows upon it is, as in the former case,\\ndisposed to rust.\\n9. Surface-soil (A) a loamy soil, from Brunswick,\\nremarkable on account of producing buck-wheat,\\nwhich is exceedingly poor in the grain. (B) analy-\\nsis of the subsoil at a depth of 1| foot. 100 parts\\ncontain\\nSilica, with coarse siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\nProtoxide and peroxide of manganese\\nLime, in combination with silica\\nMagnesia, idem\\nPotash, with silica\\nSoda\\nPhosphate of iron\\nSulphuric acid with lime\\n19*\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n95-114\\n92-458\\n1080\\n2-530\\n1-900\\n2 502\\n0-320\\n920\\n380\\n0-710\\n0300\\n0-551\\n0020\\n0120\\n0004\\n0-034\\n0052\\n0175\\n0-006\\na trace", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "222\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\nHumus\\n(A) (B)\\n0.005 a trace\\n0-619\\n0200\\n100-000 100000\\nBy manuring the land with wood ashes, the soil is\\nenabled to produce buck-wheat, with rich grain the\\nleguminous plants also thrive luxuriantly upon it.\\nThis increased fertility is due to the ashes, by means\\nof which both potash and phosphates are supplied to\\nthe land.\\n10. Subsoil of a loamy, sandy soil, from Brunswick.\\nIt is remarkable for having produced excellent crops\\nof hops for a long series of years. 100 parts, by\\nweight, consist of:\\nSilica, with siliceous sand\\n95-660\\nAlumina\\n1-586\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n1-616\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-240\\nLime, in combination with silica\\n0-083\\nMagnesia\\n0080\\nPotash\\nOO. iO\\nSoda\\n0-220\\nPhosphoric acid\\n0039\\nSulphuric acid\\n0-003\\nChlorine\\na trace\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\n0-080\\nHumus\\n0-360\\n100000\\nAlthough the hops contain a large quantity of\\npotash, soda, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, lime,\\nand magnesia, yet we do not find that these exist\\nin the soil in superabundant quantity. Nor is it\\nnecessary that they should, for the roots of the hops\\npenetrate 8 or 10 feet deep into the soil, and search\\nout the materials fitted to nourish the plants. Hence\\nit is that hops thrive well on soils comparatively\\npoor in their proper ingredients. The same is the\\ncase with all plants of a similar nature, the roots of\\nwhich possess a tendency to extend in search of\\nfood; we see this particularly in lucern and sainfoin.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 223\\nSOILS OF HEATHS.\\n11. Soil of a heath converted into arable land, in\\nthe vicinity of Brunswick. It is naturally sterile,\\nbut produces good crops when manured with lime,\\nmarl, cow-dung, or the ashes of the heaths which\\ngrow upon it.\\nSilica, and coarse siliceous sand 71 -504\\nAlumina 0780\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron, principally com-\\nbined with humus 0420\\nPeroxide of manganese, idem 0 220\\nLime, idein 0*J34\\nMagnesia, idem 0032\\nPotash and soda principally as silicates 0 058\\nPhosphoric acid, (principally as phosphate of iron) 0-115\\nSulphuric acid (in gypsum) O OIS\\nChlorine (in common salt) 0-014\\nHumus soluble in alkalies 9 820\\nHumus, with vegetable remains 14-975\\nResinous matters 1 910\\n100000\\nAshes of the soil of the heath, before being con-\\nverted into arable land:\\nSilica, with siliceous sand 92 641\\nAlumina 1-352\\nOxides of iron and manganese 2.324\\nLime, in combination with sulphuric and phos-\\nphoric acids 0-929\\nMagnesia, combined with sulphuric acid 0-283\\nPotash and soda (principally as sulphates and\\nphosphates) 0-564\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime 250\\nSulphuric acid, with potash, soda, and lime 1-G20\\nChlorine in common salt 0-037\\n100.000\\n12. Surface-soil of a fine-grained loam, from the\\nvicinity of Brunswick. It is remarkable from the\\ncircumstance, that not a single year passes in which\\ncorn plants are cultivated upon it without the stem\\nof the plants being attacked by rust. Even the\\ngrain is covered with a yellow rust, and is much\\nshrunk. 100 parts of the soil contain:\\nSilica and fine siliceous sand 87 859\\nAlumina 2652\\nPeroxide of iron with a large proportion of protoxide 5- 132", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "224 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nProtoxide and peroxide of manganese 0 840\\nLime principally combined with silica 1-459\\nMagnesia idevi 0-280\\nPotash and soda idem O-OiiQ\\nPhosphoric acid in combination with iron 0-505\\nSulphuric acid in combination with lime 0 068\\nChlorine in common salt 0-006\\nHumus 1-109\\n100-000\\nThis soil does not suffer from want of drainage\\nit is well exposed to the sun, is in an elevated situa-\\ntion, and in a good state of cultivation. In order\\nto ascertain whether the rust was due to the con-\\nstituents of the soil, (phosphate of iron or to cer-\\ntain fortuitous circumstances unconnected with their\\noperation, a portion of the land was removed to\\nanother locality, and made into an artificial soil of\\nfifteen inches in depth. Upon this barley and wheat\\nwere sown but it was found, as in the former case,\\nthat the plants were attacked by rust, whilst barley\\ngrowing on the land surrounding this soil was not\\nat all affected by the disease. From this experiment\\nit follows, that certain constituents in the soil favor\\nthe development of rust.\\n13. Soil of a heath, which had been brought into\\ncultivation in the vicinity of Brunswick. The analy-\\nsis was made before any kind of crops had been\\ngrown upon it. Corn-plants were first reared upon\\nthe new soil, but were found to be attacked by rust,\\neven on those parts which had been manured respec-\\ntively with lime, marl, potash, wood ashes, bone-dust,\\nashes of the heath plant, common salt, and ammonia.\\n100 parts contain:\\nSilica with coarse siliceous sand 51.337\\nAlumina 0528\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron in combination\\nwith phosphoric and humic acids 0-398\\nProtoxide and peroxide of manganese 005\\nLime in combination with humus 0-230\\nMagnesia idem 0-040\\nPotash and soda 0-010\\nPhosphoric acid 0066\\nSulphuric acid 0-022\\nChlorine 0-O14\\nHumus soluble in alkalies 13210", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 225\\nResinous matters 2-040\\nCoal of humus and water 32-100\\n100000\\nThe next analysis represents the soil after being\\nburnt. 100 parts by weight of the soil left after\\nignition only 50 parts. 100 parts of these ashes\\nconsisted of:\\nSilica and siliceous sand 95-204\\nAlumina 1-640\\nPeroxide of iron 1-344\\nPeroxide of manganese 0080\\nLime in combination with sulphuric acid 0-544\\nMagnesia combined with silica 0-465\\nPotash and soda 052\\nPhosphoric acid (principally as phosphate of iron) 330\\nSulphuric acid 322\\nChlorine 0019\\n100-000\\nBy comparing this analysis with the one which\\nhas preceded it, an increase in certain of the con-\\nstituents is observed, particularly with respect to\\nthe sulphuric acid, potash, soda, magnesia, oxide of\\niron, oxide of manganese, and alumina. From this\\nit follows, that the humus, or in other words, the\\nvegetable remains, must have contained a quantity\\nof these substances confined within it, in such a\\nmanner that they were not exhibited by analysis.\\nOats and barley were sown on this land the\\nsecond year after being reclaimed, and both suffered\\nmuch from rust, although different parts of the soil\\nwere manured with marl, lime, and peat-ashes^ whilst\\nother portions were left without manure. In the\\nfirst year, all the different parts of the field pro-\\nduced potatoes, but they succeeded best in those\\ndivisions which had been manured with peat-ashes,\\nlime and marl. In the second year, oats mixed with\\na little barley were sown upon the soil and the\\nstraw was found to be strongest on the parts treated\\nwith peat-ashes, lime, marl, and ashes of wood. Red\\nclover was sown on the third year it appeared in\\nbest condition on those portions of the soil manured\\nwith marl and lime. Upon the divisions of the field", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "226 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0which had been left without manure, as well as on\\nthose manured with bone-dust, potash, ammonia, and\\ncommon salt, the clover scarcely appeared above\\nground. The divisions of the field, which had been\\nmanured in the first year with peat-ashes, ammonia,\\nand ashes of wood, were sown with buckwheat after\\nthe removal of the first crop of clover. The buck-\\nwheat succeeded very well on all the divisions, yet\\na marked difference was perceptible in favor of the\\nportion treated with ammonia. These experiments\\nshow us, that a dressing of lime did not completely\\nremove from the soil its tendency to impart rust to\\nthe plants grown upon it. Nevertheless it is highly\\nprobable, that as soon as the protoxide of iron\\nbecame converted into the peroxide by exposure to\\nthe atmosphere, lime would possess more power in\\ndecomposing the phosphate of iron.\\n14. Subsoil of a loamy soil in the vicinity of\\nBrunswick. It is remarkable from the circumstance\\nthat sainfoin cannot be cultivated upon it more than\\ntwo or three years in succession. The portion\\nanalyzed was taken from a depth of five feet. 100\\nparts contained:\\nSilica with very fine siliceous sand 90-035\\nAlumina 1-976\\nPeroxide of iron 4 700\\nProtoxide of iron ,1115\\nProtoxide and peroxide of manganese 0240\\nLime 0022\\nMagnesia O-llS\\nPotash and soda 300\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with iron 0098\\nSulphuric acid (the greatest part in combination\\nwith protoxide of iron) 1-39J\\nChlorine .a trace\\n100000\\nNow the results of the analysis give a suflflcient\\naccount of the failure of the sainfoin. The soil\\ncontains above one per cent. of. sulphate of the pro-\\ntoxide of iron {green vitriol of commerce), a salt\\nwhich exerts a poisonous action upon plants. Lime\\nis not present in quantity suflScient to decompose", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 227\\nthis salt. Hence it is that sainfoin will not thrive\\non this soil, nor indeed lucern, or any other of the\\nplants with deep roots. The evil cannot be obviated\\nby any methods sufficiently economical for the far-\\nmer, because the soil cannot be mixed with lime at a\\ndepth of five or six feet. For many years experi-\\nments have been made in vain, in order to adapt this\\nsoil for sainfoin and lucern, and much expense in-\\ncurred, which could all have been saved, had the\\nsoil been previously analyzed. This example affords\\na most convincing proof of the importance of chemi-\\ncal knowledge to an agriculturist.\\n15. Surface-soil (A) of a sandy loam in the vicini-\\nty of Brunswick, celebrated for its beautiful crops\\nof clover, rye, potatoes, and barley. The clover\\nmust, however, always be manured with gypsum.\\n(B) is an analysis of the subsoil at the depth of 1^\\nfoot. 100 parts contain\\n(A) (B)\\nSilica with coarse siliceous sand 94-274 95146\\nAlumina 1-5G0 1-416\\nPeroxide of iron with a little phosphoric acid 2 496 2-528\\nPeroxide of manganese 0-240 0320\\nLime 0-400 297\\nMagnesia 0-230 0-221\\nPotash and soda 0102 060\\nSulphuric acid 0039 0-012\\nChlorine 0-005 a trace\\nHumus soluble in alkaline carbonates 0-444\\nHumus 0-210\\n100-000 100-000\\nThe best property of this soil is, that its inferior\\nlayers are nearly of the same composition as the\\nsuperior, as far as the inorganic constituents are\\nconcerned. It is a soil upon which the plants\\nmentioned above will seldom fail; and as it posses-\\nses a very good mixture to the depth of four or five\\nfeet, it would, doubtless, produce lucern also.\\n16. Surface-soil (A) of a sandy loam in the vicinity\\nof Brunswick. It produces excellent crops of oats\\nand clover, when the latter is manured with gypsum.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "228\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n(B) Analysis of the subsoil taken from a depth of\\n1| foot. 100 parts contain:\\n(A)\\nSilica and siliceous sand 94-430\\nAlumina 1.474\\nPeroxide of iron with a little phosphoric acid 2-370\\nPeroxide of manganese a trace\\nLime, principally combined with silica U 680\\nMagnesia, idevi 0-2 JO\\nPotash 190\\nSoda 0-010\\nSulphuric acid a trace\\nChlorine 0015\\nHumus 0-541\\n(B)\\n89-660\\n0980\\n7-616\\na trace\\n954\\n0-520\\n0150\\na trace\\na trace\\n0120\\n100000 100-000\\nBoth the surface and the sub-soil contain only\\ntraces of sulphuric acid. Hence the application of\\ngypsum is attended with great benefit. Without\\ndoubt, marl and lime will be found of essential\\nservice.\\n17. Soil from the environs of Brunswick, consisting\\nprincipally of sand, and eminently remarked for its\\nsterility. It was, however, much improved by ma-\\nnuring it with marl which contained 24 per cent, of\\nlime, together with magnesia, manganese, potash,\\nsoda, gypsum, and common salt. 100 parts of the\\nsoil contained\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\n95-841\\nAlumina\\n0-600\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n1800\\nPeroxide of manganese\\na trace\\nLime in combination with silica\\n038\\nMagnesia, idem\\n006\\nPotash\\n0-002\\nSoda\\n0-003\\nPhosphoric acid combined with iron\\n198\\nSulphuric acid\\n0-002\\nChlorine\\n0-006\\nHumus\\n1-504\\n100000\\nHere another proof is presented, that a soil may\\nbe very rich in humus and yet be very poor as re-\\ngards fertility. By means of the marl, the inorganic\\ningredients of the plants are furnished to the soil,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2which contains them in very small quantity.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 229\\n18. The soil of a very fertile loam from the vicin-\\nity of Walkenried. 100 parts contain:\\nSilica, with coarse-grained siliceous sand 88-456\\nAlumina 0650\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron, accompanied by much\\nmagnetic iron sand 5-608\\nPeroxide of manganese 0-560\\nCarbonate of lime 1-063\\nCarbonate of magnesia 1 688\\nPotash combined with silica 0-040\\nSoda combined with silica O-Ol J\\nPhosphate of lime 0035\\nSulphate of lime a trace\\nCommon salt 005\\nHumus soluble in alkalies 0-550\\nHumus with several azotized organic remains 1-333\\n100-000\\nGypsum acts most excellently upon this land.\\nThe soils in the southern range of the Harz moun-\\ntains are particularly remarked for containing more\\nmagnesia than lime. Even the different varieties\\nof marl contain a considerable quantity of magnesia.\\nThus in a specimen of marl obtained from the vi-\\ncinity of Walkenried, I obtained 55| per cent, car-\\nbonate of lime, and 30^ per cent, carbonate of mag-\\nnesia in another 41 per cent, lime, and 11 per cent,\\nmagnesia 5 and in a third, 47| per cent, lime, and\\n13| per cent, magnesia. Most of these soils contain\\nalso I, 1 per cent, of gypsum, and 1 per cent,\\nphosphate of lime, and are, therefore, well fitted for\\nmanuring other lands.\\n19. Subsoil of a loam from a depth of 1| foot. It\\noccurs in the vicinity of Brunswick. The surface-\\nsoil is remarkable on account of producing beautiful\\nred clover on being manured with gypsum although\\nthe soil itself contains only traces of lime, magnesia,\\npotash, and phosphoric acid. 100 parts of the sub-\\nsoil contained\\nSilica and coarse siliceous sand 88-980\\nAlumina 2-240\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron 3-840\\nPeroxide of manganese a trace\\nCarbonate of lime 2720\\nCarbonate of mao-nesia 0*600\\nPotash and soda 0-095\\n20", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "230\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nPhosphate of lime\\nSulphate of lime\\nCommon salt\\n1-510\\na trace\\n0015\\n100000\\nAt a greater depth than the subsoil of which the\\nanalysis is here given, the soil passes into marl,\\nwhich contains 20| per cent, of carbonate of lime.\\nThe sulphuric acid deficient in the soil was supplied\\nby means of the gypsum.\\nSOILS IN THE KINGDOM OF HANOVER.\\n20. (A) Analysis of a barren heath-soil from\\nAurich in Ostfriesland (B) a sandy soil containing\\nmuch humus but also sterile; (C) a sandy soil\\npossessing the same characters as B. 100 parts\\ncontained:\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n(C)\\nSilica and coarse siliceous sand\\n95-778\\n85-973\\n96 721\\nAlumina\\n320\\n03-20\\n0-370\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n0-4()0\\n440\\n0480\\nPeroxide of manganese\\na trace\\na trace\\na trace\\nLime\\n0-286\\n0160\\n0005\\nMagnesia\\n060\\n0-240\\n0-080\\nSoda\\n036\\n012\\n0.036\\nPotash _\\na trace\\na trace\\na trace\\nPhosphoric acid\\na trace\\na trace\\na trace\\nSulphuric acid\\na trace\\na trace\\na trace\\nCiilorine in common salt\\n0052\\n0019\\n058\\nHumus\\n768\\n4-636\\n800\\nVegetable remains\\n2-300\\n8-200\\n1450\\n100-000 100-000 100 000\\n21. Analysis of the clayey subsoil of a moor,\\nwhich, after being burned, is used as a manure to\\nthe above Soils A, B, C. 100 parts contain\\nSilica and siliceous sand 87-219\\nAlumina 4-200\\nPeroxide of iron with a little phosphoric acid 5.200\\nPeroxide of manganese 0-310\\nLime 0-320\\nMagnesia 380\\nPotash principally combined with silica 0-130\\nSoda principally combined with silica 0-274\\nSulphuric acid combined with lime, magnesia, and\\npotash 0-965\\nChlorine 0-002\\nHumus 1000\\n100000", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 231\\nBy comparing this analysis with that of the three\\nsoils which have preceded, it will be observed that\\nthis subsoil is fitted to impart to them those mineral\\ningredients in which they are deficient.\\n22. Surface soil of a barren heath in the vicinity\\nof Walsrode in Luneberg. 100 parts by weight\\ncontain\\nSilica and siliceous sand 922 16\\nAlumina 0-266\\nPeroxide of iron 0-942\\nProtoxide of iron 0-394\\nPeroxide of manganese a trace\\nLime, in combination with silica, sulphuric acid,\\nand humus 1-653\\nMagnesia, in combination with silica 0036\\nPotash, principally in combination with silica 0038\\nSoda .a trace\\nPhosphoric acid .a trace\\nSulphuric acid 0051\\nChlorine .a trace\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates 2 084\\nHumus 1-900\\nResinous matter 0-420\\n100-000\\nThis soil contains a large quantity of protoxide of\\niron, which, together with a deficiency of phosphoric\\nacidj is the cause of its sterility. But when this\\nland was manured with the ashes of peat, it was\\nrendered much more fertile. The ashes used for this\\npurpose were found to contain in 100 parts\\nSilica, with siliceous sand 96-352\\nAlumina 1859\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron, with a little phos-\\nphoric acid 1120\\nPeroxide of manganese 0160\\nLime 0112\\nMagnesia 0-141\\nPotash 0-093\\nSoda .0 007\\nSulphuric acid 0-152\\nChlorine 0004\\n100 000\\nThe ashes, on exposure to the air, absorbed am-\\nmonia.\\n23. Analysis of a very fertile loamy soil from Got-\\ntingen. It is very rich in humus, and produces beau-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "232\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\ntiful crops of peas, beans, lucern, and beet. The\\nsieve separates from 100 parts of the soil\\nSmall stones, principally limestone I\\nQuartzy sand, with a little magnetic iron sand 15\\nEarthy part .84\\n100\\nconsists\\n83-298\\n1413\\n3-715\\n100 parts of the soil, freed from stones\\nof:\\nSilica, and fine siliceous sand\\nAlumina, combined with silica\\nAlumina, partly in combination with humus\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron, in combination\\nwith silica 0*724\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron, partly free and\\npartly in combination with humus 2-244\\nPeroxide and protoxide of manganese 0-280\\nLime, with coal of humus, sulphur, and phosphoric\\nacid 1-814\\nMagnesia, combined with silica 0-422\\nMagnesia, combined with humus 0-400\\nPotash 0-003\\nSoda 0001\\nPhosphoric acid 01 66\\nSulphuric acid 0-069\\nChlorine 0002\\nCarbonic acid (as carbonate of lime) 440\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies 789\\nHumus, with a little water 3 250\\nNitrogenous matter 0-960\\nResinous matter .a trace\\n100 000\\nThe subsoil is of the same composition as the sur-\\nface, with this difference only, that it contains more\\npotash, soda, and chlorine,* and is interspersed with\\nfragments of fresh-water shells. Hence it is that\\nthe soil produces the deep-rooted plants in such lux-\\nuriance.\\n24. Soil of a sterile moor, which had been burned\\nthree times, and upon which buckwheat had been\\ncultivated. 100 parts contained:\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies 9-250\\nVegetable remains, charcoal, quartzy sand, and\\nearthy particles 90-750\\n100- 000\\nThe portion of the surface-soil subjected to analysis was taken from\\nthe field after long-continued rain. Hence the small quantity of salts\\nof potash and soda.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n233\\n100 parts by weight left, afi\\nof ashes. 100 parts of these\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nCarbonate of lime\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\nPotash\\nSoda\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphate of lime (gypsum)\\nChlorine\\ner ignition, 10 parts\\nishes consisted of:\\n79-GOO\\n6-288\\n0-857\\n0-400\\n7-652\\n1-640\\n0080\\n0-028\\n0-215\\n3235\\n0-005\\n100000\\nSoils such as this, after having been burned seve-\\nral times, and made to produce buckwheat, are com-\\npletely deprived of their potash and soda; and in\\nconsequence of this are rendered quite barren. Hence\\nit is that ashes of wood exert such an astonishing\\neffect upon them.\\n25. Analysis of a very fertile loamy sand, from\\nOsnabriick, near Rotherfeld. It is remarkable for\\nbeing manured only once every 10 or 12 years, and\\nbears beautiful wheat as the last crop. 100 parts\\ncontain\\nSilica, with coarse siliceous sand 86 200\\nAlumina 2000\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron, with a little phos-\\nphoric acid 2-900\\nPeroxide of manganese 0100\\nCarbonic acid, and a little phosphate of lime 4-160\\nCarbonate of magnesia 0-520\\nPotash and soda 0-035\\nPhosphoric acid 0-020\\nSulphuric acid 0021\\nChlorine 0010\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates 544\\nHumus 3-370\\nNitrogenous matter 0-120\\n100-000\\nThe soil in question lies on the southern exposure\\nof a hill, which consists of layers of limestone and\\nmarl. The rain-water penetrates through these lay-\\ners, and becomes saturated with the soluble salts\\ncontained in them, such as potash, gypsum, common\\nsalt, lime, magnesia, and saltpetre. It afterwards\\n20*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "234 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nreaches the soil, and manures it with these ingredi-\\nents. It is only in this manner that we are enabled\\nto explain the fertility of this soil for, reasoning\\nfrom its chemical composition, we should be induced,\\na priori, to suppose that it would be barren. At the\\nbase of this hill, certain portions of the land are\\ncovered with calcareous tuff, containing the above\\nsalts a fact which proves that the water which pen-\\netrates through the soil must also contain them in\\nsolution. The large proportion of humus exhibited\\nby the analysis depends upon the nature of the ma-\\nnure with which it was treated.\\n26. Analysis of a heavy alluvial soil, from Norden.\\n100 parts contain:\\nSilica, and very fine siliceous sand 84*543\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash\\nSoda, in combination with silica\\nPhosphoric acid, in combination with lime\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n3-4.58\\n3-488\\n0-560\\n0-319\\n0-740\\na trace\\n6004\\n0-260\\n0-008\\n0008\\n0-416\\nHumus and nitrogenous matter 0196\\n100-000\\nThe portion of the soil subjected to analysis was\\ntaken at a depth of 10 inches, from a field w^hich\\nhad received no manure for several years. It had\\npreviously produced in succession barley, beans,\\nwheat, and grass, the latter for two years. The soil\\nis remarkable, in a chemical point of view, from the\\nlarge quantity of soda which it contains. Although\\nthe sulphuric acid, chlorine, and potash, are present\\nin small quantity, yet this does not present any bar-\\nrier to the development of the plants, as the surface-\\nsoil is 18 inches in depth.\\n27. Analysis of a heavy alluvial soil in the vicinity\\nof Norden. 100 parts contain;\\nSilica, and very fine siliceous sand 79-174\\nAlumina 3016", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n235\\nPeroxide of iron\\n4-960\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-600\\nCarbonate of lime\\n2-171\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\n2 226\\nPotash, in combination with silica\\n0-025\\nSoda, idem\\n6-349\\nPhosphoric acid\\n0-534\\nSulphuric acid\\na trace\\nChlorine\\n005\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n0-782\\nHumus, with nitrogenous matter\\n0-LS8\\n100.000\\nThe specimen for analysis was taken at a depth\\nof 10 inches from the surface of a field, which had\\nbeen manured five years previously, and had pro-\\nduced since that time rape, rye, wheat, and beans.\\nThe crops of all these were plentiful, and of excel-\\nlent quality. It is singular that this soil, which\\ncontains such a small proportion of gypsum, should\\nbe adapted for the cultivation of beans, and must\\nbe ascribed to the depth of the surface-soil. Yet,\\nnotwithstanding this, gypsum would form a beneficial\\nmanure to the land.\\n28. Analysis of very fertile alluvial soil, from\\nHonigpolder; no manure had ever been applied to\\nit. 100 parts contain:\\nSiliceous sand separated by the sieve 4-5\\nEarthy portion of the soil\\n100 parts of the latter consisted of:\\nSilica, and fine siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLAme\\nMagnesia\\nPotash, principally in combination with silica\\nSoda, idem\\nPhosphoric acid combined with lime\\nSulphuric acid, idem\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\nCarbonic acid, combined with lime\\nHumus soluble in alkalies\\nHumus\\nNitrogenous matter\\nWater\\n95-5\\n1000\\n64-800\\n5.700\\n6100\\n090\\n5-880\\n0-840\\n0-210\\n0393\\n0-430\\n0-210\\n0-201\\n3-920\\n2-540\\n5-600\\n1-582\\n1504\\n100-000", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "236\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nCorn has been cultivated for seventy years upon\\nthis soil, which has never received dung or any other\\nkind of manure 5 it is, however, occasionally fallowed.\\nThe subsoil retains the same composition as the\\nsurface-soil for a depth of 6 12 feet, so that it may\\nbe considered inexhaustible. When one portion of\\nthe soil is rendered unfit for use, the inferior layers\\nare brought up to the surface.\\n29. Analysis of a soil from Rahdingen, near Balje.\\nIn this case the sea has assisted in the formation of\\nthe soil. The field yielded beautiful corn after being\\nmanured with stable dung, being particularly re-\\nmarked for its fine crops of wheat, beans, and winter\\nbarley. 100 parts contain:\\nSilica, siliceous sand, and silicates\\n87-012\\nAlumina\\n4-941\\nPeroxide of iron\\n2430\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-192\\nLime\\n0-292\\nMagnesia\\n0-145\\nPotash and soda soluble in water\\n0-005\\nPhosphoric acid\\n0114\\nSulpliuric acid\\n0-074\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\n0-003\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates\\n0-658\\nHumus\\n2-668\\nNitrogenous matter\\n1-412\\nWater\\n0042\\n100000\\n30. Soil of a field remarkable for producing large\\ncrops of hemp and horse-radish. 100 parts con-\\nsisted of:\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\n84-021\\nAlumina\\n4-498\\nPeroxide of iron\\n5120\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n2-080\\nLime\\n942\\nMagnesia\\n1-740\\nPotash\\n0-050\\nSoda\\n0012\\nPhosphoric acid\\n0-482\\nSulphuric acid\\n0-012\\nChlorine\\n0-008\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline\\ncarbonates\\n0-807\\nHumus and nitrogenous matter\\n0-138\\n100 000", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n237\\n31. Surface-soil of a field near Drackenburs; it\\nproduces very bad red clover. 100 par\\nSilica, with very fine siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash combined with silica\\nSoda, idem\\nPhosphoric acid, in combination with lime\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus and nitrogenous matter\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates\\nts contain:\\n92014\\ni-652\\n3192\\n0480\\n0243\\n0-700\\n0125\\n0026\\n0-078\\na trace\\na trace\\n0150\\n0-340\\n100-000\\nThe cause that clover will not flourish on this soil\\nis probably due to the deficiency of gypsum and\\ncommon salt.\\n32. Surface-soil of a field near Paddingbuttel.\\nThis field is particularly adapted for the growth of\\nred clover. 100 parts consist of:\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash, principally in combination with silica\\nSoda, idem\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates\\nHumus, with nitrogenous matter\\n93-720\\n1-740\\n2-060\\n0-320\\n0121\\n0-700\\n0f 2\\n0-109\\n0-103\\n0005\\n00.50\\n0-890\\n0120\\n100-000\\nSOILS IN BOHEMIA.\\n33. Surface-soil of a very fertile field in the prov-\\nince of Dobrawitz and Lautschin. 100 parts gave\\n4-286\\n95 714\\nSiliceous sand, with much magnetic iron sand\\nEarthy part separated by the sieve\\nlOO OOO", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "238\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nAn aqueous infusion of the soil contained gypsum,\\ncommon salt, magnesia, and humus. 100 parts of\\nthe soil gave\\nSilica\\nAlumina\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash, in combination with silica\\nSoda, idem (principally)\\nPhosphoric acid, in combination with lime\\nSulphuric acid, idem\\nCiilorine (in common salt)\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\nHumus\\nNitrogenous matter\\n89-175\\n2-652\\n3-136\\n0-320\\n1-200\\n1040\\n0-075\\n0354\\n0-377\\n0081\\n066\\n0-9-20\\n0-4.56\\n0-208\\n100000\\n34. Surface-soil of a very fertile field in the prov-\\nince of Dobrawitz and Lautschin. 100 parts of the\\nearth consisted of:\\nSiliceous sand, with a little magnetic iron sand\\nFiner part separated by the sieve\\n43-780\\n56-220\\n100-000\\n100 parts yielded to water 0*175 part of salts,\\nconsisting of common salt, gypsum, magnesia, and\\nhuraic acid. 100 parts, by weight, of the earth con-\\nsisted of:\\nSilica\\n89.634\\nAlumina\\n3224\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n2-944\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nM60\\nLime\\n0-349\\nMagnesia\\n0-3U0\\nPotash, in combination with silica\\n0-160\\nSoda, idem\\n0-428\\nPhosphoric acid, in combination with lime\\n0-246\\nSulphuric acid, idem\\n0-005\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\n0012\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n0-750\\nHumus\\n0-340\\nNitrogenous matter\\n0-448\\n100-000\\n35. Analysis of a soil formed by the disintegration\\nof basalt. 100 parts of the earth consisted of:", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n239\\nSiliceous sand, with very much magnetic iron sand 8-428\\nEarthy portion of the soil 91-572\\n100-000\\nThe aqueous infusion of the earth contained only\\ntraces of common salt and gypsum, with humus,\\nlime, and magnesia. 100 parts consisted of:\\nSilica\\n83-642\\nAlumina\\n3-978\\nProtoxide and peroxide of iron\\n5312\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-960\\nLime\\n1976\\nMagnesia\\n0-650\\nPotash, in combination with silica\\n0080\\nSoda, idem\\n0145\\nPhosphoric acid, in combination with lime\\n273\\nSulphuric acid, ideni\\na trace\\nHumus, soluble in alkaline carbonates\\n1-270\\nChlorine\\na trace\\nHumus,\\n0234\\nNitrogenous matter\\n1-480\\n100000\\nManure consisting of gypsum, common salt, or\\nashes of wood, would be highly conducive to the\\nfertility of this land.\\nSOILS IN THE MARKGRAFSCHAFT MAHREN.\\n36. Surface-soil of a field very remarkable for its\\nfertility. The field is called Haargi^ahen, and is\\nsituated near the village of Nebstein. It has never\\nbeen manured or allowed to lie fallow and ye^ has\\nproduced for the last 160 years the most beautiful\\ncrops thus furnishing a remarkable example of un-\\nimpaired fertility. 100*000 parts of this soil con-\\nsisted of:\\nCoarse and fine siliceous sand, with a little mag-\\nnetic iron sand 35400\\nEarthy matter 64 600\\n100000\\n100 parts of the earth yielded to water 0-010 sul-\\nphuric acid, 0-010 chlorine, 0-007 soda, 0-012 mag-\\nnesia, 0-010 potash, with a little silica, humus, and", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "240\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nnitrogenous matter, but no appreciable trace of ni-\\ntrates. 100 parts of the soil contained:\\nSilica\\n77-209\\nAlumina\\n8-514\\nPeroxide of iron\\n6-592\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n1-520\\nLime\\n0-927\\nMagnesia\\n1-160\\nPotash, principallj in combination with silica\\n0-140\\nSoda, idem\\n0640\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime and iron\\n6-651\\nSulphuric acid, combined with lime\\n0-011\\nChlorine (in common salt)\\n0010\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n0-978\\nHumus\\n0-540\\nNitrogenousjntiatter\\n1-108\\n100-000\\nIt is apparent from the above analysis that, not-\\nwithstanding the long period during which this land\\nhas been cultivated without manure, it still remains\\nvery rich in matters adapted for the nutrition of\\nplants.\\nSOILS IN HUNGARY.\\n37. Analysis of a very fertile soil from Esakang.\\n100 parts of the earth contained\\nVery fine siliceous sand\\nEarthy matter\\n2-8-20\\n97180\\n100 000\\nThe aqueous decoction of the soil contained princi-\\npally gypsum, common salt, silica, magnesia, and\\nhumus. 100 parts of the soil yielded:\\nSilica\\n76-038\\nAlumina\\n4-654\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\n6112\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-900\\nCarbonate of lime\\n3771\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\n4066\\nPotash, combined with silica\\n0-030\\nSoda, combined with silica\\n1-379\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime\\n0-546\\nSulphuric acid\\n0021\\nChlorine in common salt\\n0015", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n241\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\nHumus\\nNitrogenous organic matter\\nM60\\n1100\\n0-208\\n100000\\nSubsoil of the same field at a depth of two feet.\\n100 parts consist of:\\nVery fine siliceous sand with scales of mica\\nEarth separated by the sieve\\n100 parts of the earth contain\\nSilica\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nCarbonate of lime\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\nPotash, combined with silica\\nSoda, principally combined with silica\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime\\nSulphuric acid, idem\\nChlorine in common salt\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\nHumus, witli nitrogenous organic matter\\n2-408\\n97-592\\n100-000\\n59-581\\n3-224\\n4-896\\n0-720\\n17-953\\n11-075\\n0-150\\n0-891\\n846\\n0-004\\n0-004\\n0-536\\n0120\\n100-000\\nBELGIUM.\\n38. Surface-soil of a field distinguished for its fer-\\ntility. It had received no manure for twelve years pre-\\nvious to the time at which the analysis was executed.\\nThe rotation of crops for the latter nine years was as\\nfollows 1. beans, 2. barley, 3. potatoes, 4. winter\\nbarley with red clover, 5. clover, 6. winter barley,\\n7. wheat, 8. oats during the ninth year it was\\nallowed to lie fallow. The soil is more clayey than\\nloamy, and of a very fine grain. Water extracted\\nfrom the soil, 0-013 soda, 0-002 lime, 0-012 magnesia,\\n0-009 sulphuric acid, 0-003 potash, 0-003 chlorine,\\nwith traces of silica and humus. 100 parts con-\\ntained\\nSilica\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nCarbonate of lime\\n21\\n64-517\\n4-810\\n8316\\n0800\\n9-403", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "242\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS,\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\nPotash, principally combined with silica\\nSoda\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus\\n10-3G1\\n0-100\\n0013\\n1-221\\n00U9\\n003\\n0-447\\n100-000\\nENGLAND.\\n39. Surface-soil of a very fertile sandy field from\\nthe vicinity of Tunbridge, Kent, according to Davy.\\n100 parts consisted of:\\nLoose stones and gravel\\n13-250\\nSand and silica\\n58-250\\nAlumina\\n3250\\nPeroxide of iron\\n1-250\\nCarbonate of lime\\n4-750\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\n0-750\\nCommon salt and extractive matter\\n0-750\\nGypsum\\n0-500\\nMatter destructible by heat\\n3-750\\nVegetable fibre\\n3-500\\nWater\\n5-000\\nLoss\\n5-000\\n100-000\\nThe great Davy, who was convinced of the impor-\\ntance of the inorganic constituents of soils, has\\nomitted to detect the phosphoric acid, potash, soda,\\nand manganese. All these must have been present\\nin the soil, for we are informed that it produced\\ngood hops, for which these ingredients are indis-\\npensable.\\n40. A good turnip soil from Holkham, Norfolk,\\nyielded to Davy:\\nSiliceous sand\\nSilica\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide of iron\\nCarbonate of lime\\nVegetable and saline matter\\nMoisture\\nl C66\\n12^\\n0-334\\n7-000\\n0550\\n0-334\\n100-000", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 243\\nIn this case also, phosphoric acid, manganese,\\npotash, magnesia, c., have escaped detection by\\nthis acute chemist; yet doubtless they must be\\npresent in the soil, for we are informed that it pro-\\nduces good turnips.\\n41. An excellent wheat soil from the neighborhood\\nof West Drayton, Middlesex, according to Davy.\\n100 parts contained\\nSand and silica 72-800\\nAlumina 11-600\\nCarbonate of lime 11-200\\nHumus and moisture 4-400\\n100-000\\nThis analysis has been executed so imperfectly,\\nthat it only conveys a very feeble representation of\\nthe nature of the soil. A soil which bears good\\nwheat must contain phosphate of potash, soda, chlo-\\nrine, and sulphuric acid yet none of these are exhib-\\nited by the analysis.\\n42. Surface-soil of a fertile field in the neighbor-\\nhood of Bristol. 100 parts contained:\\nSilica and siliceous sand 60*000\\nAlumina 12000\\nPeroxide of iron 3*500\\nLime (carbonate) 7-500\\nMagnesia 0-500\\nHumus 1*250\\nSaline and extractive matter 0750\\nWater 14-500\\n100000\\nDavy has made several analyses of various fertile\\nsoils, and since his time numerous other analyses\\nhave been published but they are all so superficial,\\nand in most cases so inaccurate, that we possess no\\nmeans of ascertaining the composition or nature of\\nEnglish arable land.\\nSWEDEN.\\n43. Surface-soil of a field which produces the most\\nabundant crops, and has never been manured. (Ber-\\nzelius.) 100 parts consist of:", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "244\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nSiliceous sand\\nSilica\\nAlumina\\nPhosphates of lime and iron\\nCarbonate of lime\\nCarbonate of magnesia\\nInsoluble extractive matter\\nInsoluble extractive matter destructible by heat\\nAnimal matter\\nResin\\nLoss\\n57-900\\n14-500\\n2-000\\n6-000\\n11100\\n1-000\\n1-250\\n4-0(t0\\n1-600\\n0250\\n400\\n100-000\\nThis great chemist has strangely omitted to detect\\nin the soil potash, soda, chlorine, sulphuric acid, and\\nmanganese. As this soil is eminent for its fertility,\\nthere cannot be the slightest doubt that all these\\ningredients must have existed in it in notable quan-\\ntity.\\nISLAND OF JAVA.\\n44. A very fine-grained loamy soil, colored yellow\\nby peroxide of iron, consisted of:\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash, principally in combination with silica\\nSoda, idem\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus\\nWater, with carbonic acid\\n67-660\\n13-572\\n10-560\\n1-640\\n0-912\\n0-570\\nth silica\\n0030\\n0-184\\n0-391\\n0-038\\nOOIO\\n0368\\n4-065\\n100-000\\nWEST INDIES (pORTO RICO).\\n45. Surface-soil of a very barren field. 100 parts\\ncontained", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n245\\nSilica and siliceous sand\\n70-900\\nAlumina\\n6-996\\nPeroxide, and protoxide of iron (much magnetic\\niron sand)\\n6-102\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n0-800\\nLime\\n2-218\\nMagnesia\\n3-280\\nPotash\\n0-130\\nCarbonate of soda\\n6-556\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime\\n1-362\\nSulphuric acid, combined with lime\\n0-149\\nChlorine in common salt\\n0067\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n0540\\nHumus\\n1-500\\n100-000\\nThis soil is improved by gypsum. Its sterility is\\ndue to the excessive quantity of carbonate of soda\\nwhich is present.\\nNORTH AMERICA.\\n46. Surface-soil of alluvial land in Ohio, remark-\\nable for its great fertility. 100 parts consisted of:\\nSilica and fine siliceous sand\\n79-538\\nAlumina\\n7-306\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron (much magnetic\\niron sand)\\n5-824\\nPeroxide of manganese\\n1-320\\nLime\\n0-619\\nMagnesia\\n1024\\nPotash, principally combined with silica\\n0-200\\nSoda\\n024\\nPhosphoric acid, combined with lime and\\noxide of\\niron\\n1-776\\nSulphuric acid, combined with lime\\n0-122\\nChlorine\\n0036\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\n1-950\\nNitrogenous organic matter\\n0-236\\nWax and resinous matter\\n0025\\n100000\\n47. (A.) Surface-soil of a mountainous district in\\nthe neighborhood of Ohio. (B.) analysis of the\\nsubsoil. This soil is also distinguished for its great\\nfertility. 100 parts contain:\\n21*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "246\\nON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\n(A)\\n(B)\\n87-143\\n94-261\\n5-666\\n1-376\\n2220\\n2-336\\n0-360\\n1-200\\n0-564\\n243\\n0-312\\n0-310\\na 120\\n0-025 5\\n0-240\\n0060\\na trace\\n0-027\\n0034\\n0-036\\na trace\\n1-304\\n1072\\n0-080\\n1011\\nSilica with fine siliceous sand\\nAlumina\\nPeroxide and protoxide of iron\\nPeroxide of manganese\\nLime\\nMagnesia\\nPotash, principally combined with siUca\\nSoda\\nPhosphoric acid\\nSulphuric acid\\nChlorine\\nHumus, soluble in alkalies\\nHumus\\nCarbonic acid, combined with lime\\nNitrogenous organic matier\\n100-000 100-000\\nIn the preceding part of the chapter we have in-\\nserted a number of analyses of various soils, as well\\nas the conclusions deduced from them, by means of\\nwhich the farmer may be enabled to ascertain the\\nmanures best adapted for each variety of soil. By\\ninspecting the analyses of the sterile soils, it will be\\napparent that it is in the power of chemistry to point\\nout the causes of their sterility. The general cause\\nwhich conduces to the sterility of soils is either the\\nabsence of certain constituents indispensable for the\\ngrowth of plants, or the presence of others, which\\nSoil from Chelmsford, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack river,\\nwhich has produced a large crop of wheat for 20 years, with only one\\nfailure, analyzed by Dr. Dana. 100 parts contain\\nSoluble geine 3.9228\\nInsoluble 2-6142\\nSulphate of lime -7060\\nPhosphate of -9082\\nSilicates (silica, alumina, iron c.) 91-8485\\nNo trace of carbonate of lime, or of alkaline salts, could be discovered.\\nSoil from Maine, analyzed by Dr. Jackson, has produced 48 bushels\\nof wheat per acre.\\nWater .50\\nVegetable matter 17-5\\nSilica 54-2\\nAlumina 106\\nSubphosphate of alumina .3-0\\nPeroxide of iron 7-0\\nOxide of manganese .1-0\\nCarbonate of lime 15\\n99-8\\nFrom Hitchcock s Final Report, p. 29.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 247\\nexert an injurious or poisonous action. The analy-\\nses are those of Dr. Sprengel, a chemist who has\\nunceasingly occupied himself for the last twenty\\nyears in endeavoring to point out the importance\\nof the inorganic ingredients of a soil for the develop-\\nment of plants cultivated upon it. He considers as\\nessential all the inorganic bodies found in the ashes\\nof plants. Now, although we cannot coincide with\\nhim in the opinion, that iron and manganese are in-\\ndispensable for vegetable life, (for these bodies are\\nfound as excrementitious matter only in the bark,\\nand never form a constituent of an organ,) yet we\\ngratefully acknowledge the valuable services which\\nhe has rendered to agriculture, by furnishing a natu-\\nral explanation of the action of ashes, marl, c., in\\nthe improvement of a soil. Sprengel has shown,\\nthat these mineral manures afford to a soil alka-\\nlies, phosphates, and sulphates; and further, that\\nthey can exert a notable influence only on those\\nsoils in which they are absent or deficient. In a\\nformer chapter of this book I have endeavored to\\npoint out the importance of considering these con-\\nstituents as intimately connected with the vital pro-\\ncesses of the vegetable organism, and have shown\\nthat the different families of plants contain unequal\\nquantities of inorganic ingredients. This subject\\nhas been left unexamined by Sprengel, yet it is one\\nof much importance for the application of manures\\nmust be regulated by the composition of the plants\\nwhich are cultivated on any particular soil. Still,\\nthe composition of the soil must always be kept in\\nview. Thus it would be perfect extravagance to\\nmanure certain soils with marl, ashes, or gypsum;\\nwhilst, on the contrary, these compounds would pro-\\nduce the most beneficial results on other lands.\\nIn a former part of the work, the principal action\\nof gypsum upon vegetation was ascribed to the de-\\ncomposition and fixation of the carbonate of ammonia\\ncontained in rain-water; but gypsum exerts a two-\\nfold action. The power of decomposing carbonate", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "248 ON THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.\\nof ammonia, and of fixing the ammonia, is not pecu-\\nliar to gypsum, but is shared also by other salts of\\nlime (chloride of calcium, for example). But it acts\\nalso as a sulphate, and when useful as such cannot\\nbe replaced by any other salt of lime which does not\\ncontain sulphuric acid.\\nHence gypsum can be replaced as a manure only\\nby a mixture of a salt of lime with ammonia, and a\\nsalt of sulphuric acid. Sulphate of ammonia can\\ntherefore_^be substituted for gypsum, and exerts a\\nmore rapid and effectual action. In France, sul-\\nphuric acid has been poured upon the fields after the\\nremoval of the crops, and has been found to form a\\ngood manure. But this is merely a process for form-\\ning gypsum in situ; for the soils upon which it is\\napplied contain much lime, which enters into com-\\nbination with the sulphuric acid. It would certainly\\nbe much more advantageous to form sulphate of am-\\nmonia by adding the acid to putrefied urine, and to\\napply this mixture to the field.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nEXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE ACTION OF CHARCOAL\\nFEOM WOOD ON VEGETATION.\\nBY EDWARD LUCAS.*\\nIn a division of a low hothouse in the botanical garden\\nat Munich, a bed was set apart for young tropical plants,\\nbut instead of being filled with tan, as is usually the case,\\nit was filled with the powder of charcoal, (a material which\\ncould be easily procured,) the large pieces of charcoal\\nhaving been previously separated by means of a sieve.\\nThe heat was conducted by means of a tube of white iron\\ninto a hollow space in this bed, and distributed a gentle\\nwarmth, such as tan communicates, when in a state of fer-\\nmentation. The plants placed in this bed of charcoal quick-\\nly vegetated, and acquired a healthy appearance. Now, as\\nalways is the case in such beds, the roots of many of the\\nplants penetrated through the holes in the bottom of the\\npots, and then spread themselves out but these plants\\nevidently surpassed in vigor and general luxuriance plants\\ngrown in the common way, for example, in tan. Several\\nof them, of which I shall only specify the beautiful Thim-\\nbergia alata, and the genus Pcireskim, throve quite aston-\\nishingly the blossoms of the former were so rich, that all\\nwho saw it affirmed, they had never before seen such a\\nspecimen. It produced also a number of seeds without\\nany artificial aid, while in most cases it is necessary to ap-\\nply the pollen by the hand. The Peircskice grew so vigoi\\nously, that the P. acideata produced shoots several ells in\\nlength, and the P. grandifolia acquired leaves of a foot in\\nlength. These facts-, as well as the quick germination of\\nthe seeds which had been scattered spontaneously, and the\\nabundant appearance of young Filices, naturally attracted\\nmy attention, and I was gradually led to a series of ex-\\nperiments, the results of which may not be uninteresting\\nSee page 78.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "250 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nfor, besides being of practical use in the cultivation of most\\nplants, they demonstrate also several facts of importance\\nto physiology. The first experiment which naturally sug-\\ngested itself, was to mix a certain proportion of charcoal\\nwith the earth in which different plants grew, and to in-\\ncrease its quantity according as the advantage of the meth-\\nod was perceived. An addition of charcoal, for exam-\\nple, to vegetable mould, appeared to answer excellently for\\nthe Gesneria and Gloxinia, and also for the tropical Jlroidca\\nwith tuberous roots. The first two soon excited the atten-\\ntion of connoisseurs, by the great beauty of all their parts\\nand their general appearance. They surpassed very quick-\\nly those cultivated in the common way, both in the thick-\\nness of their stems and dark color of their leaves their\\nblossoms were beautiful, and their vegetation lasted much\\nlonger than usual, so much so, that in the middle of Novem-\\nber, when other plants of the same kinds were dead, these\\nwere quite fresh and partly in bloom. Jlroidem took root\\nvery rapidly, and their leaves surpassed much in size the\\nleaves of those not so treated the species which are reared\\nas ornamental plants on account of the beautiful coloring\\nof their leaves, (I mean, such as the Caladiinn bicolor,\\nPictwn, Pcecile, .c.,) were particularly remarked for the\\nliveliness of their tints and it happened here also, that\\nthe period of their vegetation was unusually long. A\\ncactus planted in a mixture of equal parts of charcoal and\\nearth throve progressively, and attained double its former\\nsize in the space of a few weeks. The use of the charcoal\\nwas very advantageous with several of the Bromeliacece\\nand Liliacem, with the Citrus and Begonia also, and even\\nwith the PalincB. The same advantage was found in the\\ncase of almost all those plants for which sand is used, in\\norder to keep the earth porous, when charcoal was mixed\\nwith the soil instead of sand the vegetation was always\\nrendered stronger and more vigorous.\\nAt the same time that these experiments were performed\\nwith mixtures of charcoal with different soils, the charcoal\\nwas also used free from any addition, and in this case the\\nbest results were obtained. Cuts of plants from different\\ngenera took root in it well and quickly I mention here\\nonly the Euphorbia fastuosa and fulgens which took root in\\nten days, Pandcmus utilis in three months, P. amaryllifolius,\\nC/iamcedorea elalior in four weeks. Piper nigrum, Begonia,\\nFicus. Cecropia, Chiococca, Buddleya, Hakea, Phyllanlhus,\\nCapparis, Laurus, Slifflia, Jacquinia Mimosa, Cactus, in", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "ACTION OF CHARCOAL ON ATSGETATION. 251\\nfrom eight to ten days, and several others, amounting to\\nforty species, including Ilex and many others. Leaves,\\nand pieces of leaves, and even pedunculi, or petioles, took\\nroot and in part budded in pure charcoal. Amongst others\\nwe may mention the foliola of several of the Cycadece, as\\nhaving taken root, as also did parts of the leaves of the\\nBegonia Telfairue, and Jacaranda brasUiensis leaves of the\\nEuphorbia fastuosa, Oxalis Barrilieri, Ficus, Cyclamen,\\nPolyantlies, Mesembryantheinum also the delicate leaves\\nof the Lophospenniim and Marlynia, pieces of a leaf of the\\nJlgave americana tufts of Pinus, lc. and all without the\\naid of a previously formed bud.*\\nPure charcoal acts excellently as a means of curing\\nunhealthy plants. A Durianthes excdsa, for example, which\\nhad been drooping for three years, was rendered com-\\npletely healthy in a very short time by this means. An\\norange tree which had the very common disease in which\\nthe leaves become yellow, acquired within four weeks its\\nhealthy green color, when the upper surface of the earth\\nwas removed from the pot in which it was contained, and a\\nring of charcoal of an inch in thickness strewed in its\\nplace around the periphery of the pot. The same was the\\ncase with the Gardenia.\\nI should be led too far were I to state all the results\\nof the experiments which I have made with charcoal. The\\nobject of this paper is merely to show the general effect\\nexercised by this substance on vegetation but the reader\\nwho takes particular interest in the subject will find more\\nextensive observations in the Allgemeine Deutsche Garten-\\nzeilung of Otto and Dietrich, in Berlin or Loudon s\\nGardener s Magazine, for March, 1841.\\nThe charcoal employed in these experiments was the\\ndust-like powder of charcoal from firs and pines, such as is\\nused in the forges of blacksmiths, and may be easily pro-\\ncured in any quantity. It was found to have most effect\\nwhen allowed to lie during the winter exposed to the action\\nof the air. In order to ascertain the effects of different\\nkinds of charcoal, experiments were also made upon that\\nobtained from the hard woods and peat, and also upon\\nTlie cuttings of several of these plants being full of moisture, require\\nto be partially dried before they are placed in tlie soil, and are with\\ndifficulty made to strike root in the usual method. The charcoal is\\nprobably useful from its absorbing and antiseptic power. The Hakea\\nis extremely difficult to propagate from cuttings. All the Laurus tribe\\nare obstinate, some of them have not rooted under three years from the\\ntime of planting. W.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "252 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nanimal charcoal, although I foresaw the probability that\\nnone of them would answer so well as that of pine wood,\\nboth on account of its porosity and the ease with which it\\nis decomposed.*\\nIt is superfluous to remark, that in treating plants in\\nthe manner here described, they must be plentifully supplied\\nwith water, since the air having such free access penetrates\\nand dries the roots, so that unless this precaution is taken\\nthe failure of all such experiments is unavoidable.\\nThe action of charcoal consists primarily in its pre-\\nserving the parts of the plants with which it is in contact,\\nwhethep-they be roots, branches, leaves, or pieces of\\nleaves, unchanged in their vital power for a long space\\nof time, so that the plant obtains time to develop the organs\\nwhich are necessary for its further support and propaga-\\ntion. There can scarcely be a doubt also that the char-\\ncoal undergoes decomposition for after being used five to\\nsix years it becomes a coaly earth and if this is the case,\\nit must yield carbon, or carbonic oxide, abundantly to the\\nplants growing in it, and thus afibrd the principal substance\\nnecessary for the nutrition of vegetables.! In what other\\nmanner, indeed, can we explain the deep green color and\\ngreat luxuriance of the leaves and every part of the plants,\\nwhich can be obtained in no other kind of soil, according\\nto the opinion of men well qualified to judge It exercises\\nlikewise a favorable influence by decomposing and absorb-\\ning the matters excreted by the roots, so as to keep the\\nsoil free from the putrefying substances which are often\\nthe cause of the death of the spongiolce. Its porosity, as\\nwell as the power which it possesses of absorbing water\\nwith rapidity, and, after its saturation, of allowing all other\\nwater to sink through it, are causes also of its favorable\\neffects. These experiments show what a close affinity the\\ncomponent parts of charcoal have to all plants, for every\\nexperiment was crowned with success, although plants\\nM Lucas has recently repeated these experiments, and found that\\nthe animal charcoal obtained by the calcination of bones possesses a\\ndecided advantage over all other kinds of charcoal, which he subjected\\nto experiment. Liebig s Jlnnalen^ Batid xxxix. Heft I. S. !27.\\nt As some misconception has arisen regarding this explanation of the\\naction of charcoal upon vegetation, and an idea propagated, that the\\nintroduction of these opinions into Ihis work incorporated them with\\nthose of Liebig, it is necessary to state that they are merely inserted\\nhere as part of the papers of M. Lucas. The true explanation has\\nbeen given in a former part of the work, viz. that charcoal possesses\\nthe power of absorbing carbonic acid and ammonia from tiie atmo-\\nsphere, which serve for the nourishment of plants. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "ON A MODE OF MANURING VINES. 253\\nbelonging to a great many different families were sub-\\njected to trial. {Buchner s Repcrlorium, ii. Keilie, xix.\\nBd. S. 38.)\\nON A MODE OF MANURING VINES.\\nThe observations contained in the following pages should\\nbe extensively known, because they furnish a remaikable\\nproof of the principles which have been stated in the pre-\\nceding part of the work, both as to the manner in which\\nmanure acts, and on the origin of the carbon and nitrogen\\nof plants.\\nThey prove that a vineyard may be retained in fertility\\nwithout the application of animal matters, when the leaves\\nand branches pruned from the vines are cut into small\\npieces and used as manure. According to the first of the\\nfollowing statements, both of which merit complete con-\\nfidence, the perfect fruitfulness of a vineyard has been\\nmaintained in this manner for eight years, and according\\nto the second statement for ten years.\\nNow, during this long period, no carbon was conveyed to\\nthe soil, for that contained in the pruned branches was the\\nproduce of the plant itselt^, so that the vines were placed\\nexactly in the same condition as trees in a forest which\\nreceived no manure. Under ordinary circumstances a\\nmanure containing potash must be used, otherwise the\\nfertility of the soil will decrease. This is done in all wine-\\ncountries, so that alkalies to a very considerable amount\\nmust be extracted from the soil.\\nWhen, however, the method of manuring now to be\\ndescribed is adopted, the quantity of alkalies exported in\\nthe wine does not exceed that which the progressive dis-\\nintegration of the soil every year renders capable of being\\nabsorbed by the plants. On the Rhine 1 litre of wine is\\ncalculated as the yearly produce of a square metre of land\\n(10 8 square feet English). Now if we suppose that the\\nwine is three-fourths saturated with cream of tartar, a pro-\\nportion much above the truth, then we remove from every\\nsquare metre of land with the wine only TS gramme of\\npotash. 1000 grammes (1 litre) of champagne yield only\\n1 54, and the same quantity of Wachenheimer I 72 of a\\nresidue which after being heated to redness is found to\\nconsist of carbonates.\\nOne vine-stock, on an average, grows on every square\\n22", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "254 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nmetre of land, and 1000 parts of the pruned branches con-\\ntain 56 to 60 parts of carbonate, or 38 to 40 parts of pure\\npotash. Hence it is evident that 45 grammes, or 1 ounce,\\nof these branches contain as much potash as 1000g;rammes\\n(1 litre) of wine. But from ten to twenty times this quan-\\ntity of branches are yearly taken from the above extent\\nof surface.\\nIn the vicinity of Johannisberg, Rudesheim, and l^udes-\\nheim, new vines are not planted after the rooting out of the\\nold stocks, until the land has lain for five or six years in\\nbarley and esparsette or lucern in the sixth year the\\nyoung sto\u00c2\u00abks are planted, but not manured till the ninth.\\nON THE BIANURING OF THE SOIL IN VINEYARDS.*\\nIn reference to an article in your paper. No. 7, 1838,\\nand No. 29, 1839, I cannot omit the opportunity of again\\ncalling the public attention to the fact, that nothing more is\\nnecessary for the manure of a vineyard than the branches\\nwhich are cut from the vines themselves.\\nMy vineyard has been manured in this way for eight\\nyears, without receiving any other kind of manure, and yet\\nmore beautiful and richly laden vines could scarcely be\\npointed out. I formerly followed the method usually prac-\\ntised in this district, and was obliged in consequence to\\npurchase manure to a large amount. This is now entirely\\nsaved, and my land is in excellent condition.\\nWhen I see the fatiguing labor used in the manuring\\nof vineyards, horses and men toiling up the mountains\\nwith unnecessary materiaJs, I feel inclined to say to all.\\nCome to my vineyard and see how a bountiful Creator has\\nprovided that vines shall manure themselves, like the trees\\nin a forest, and even better than they The foliage falls\\nfrom trees in a forest, only when they are withered, and\\nthey lie for years before they decay but the branches are\\npruned from the vine in the end of July or beginning of\\nAugust whilst still fresh and moist. If they are then cut\\ninto small pieces and mixed with the earth, they undergo\\nSlightly abridged from an article by M. Krebs of Seeheim, in the\\nZcitsclirift fur die lamlwirlhschafdichen Vereine des Grosherzogthums\\nHcssenr No. 2d, July 9, 1840.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "ON THE MANURING OF THE SOIL IN VINEYARDS. 255\\nputrefaction so completely, that, as I have learned by ex-\\nperience, at the end of four weeks not the smallest trace\\nof them can be found.\\nRebiarks of the Editor. We find the following\\nnotices of the same fact in Henderson s Geschiclile der\\nWeine der alien und neiien Zeit\\nThe best manure for vines is the branches pruned\\nfrom the vines themselves, cut into small pieces, and im-\\nmediately mixed with the soil.\\nThese branches were used as manure long since in the\\nBergstrasse. M. Frauenfelder says\\nI remember that twenty years ago, a man called\\nPeter Miiller had a vineyard here, which he manured with\\nthe branches pruned from the vines, and continued this\\npractice for thirty years. His way of applying them was\\nto hoe them into the soil after having cut them into small\\npieces.\\nHis vineyard was always in a thriving condition so\\nmuch so, indeed, that the peasants here speak of it to this\\nday, wondering that old Miiller had so good a vineyard,\\nand yet used no manure.\\nLastly, Wilhelm Ruf of Schriesheim writes\\nFor the last ten years I have been unable to place\\ndung on my vineyard, because I am poor and can buy\\nnone. But I was very unwilling to allow my vines to de-\\ncay, as they are my only source of support in my old age;\\nand I often walked very anxiously amongst them, without\\nknowing what I should do. At last my necessities became\\ngreater, which made me more attentive, so that 1 remarked\\nthat the grass was longer on some spots where the branch-\\nes of the vine fell than on those on which there were none.\\nSo I thought upon the matter, and then said to myself: If\\nthese branches can make the grass large, strong, and\\ngreen, they must also be able to make my plants grow bet-\\nter, and become strong and green. I dug therefore my\\nvineyard as deep as if I would put dung into it, and cut the\\nbranches into pieces, placing them in the holes and cover-\\ning them with earth. In a year I had the very great ^tis-\\nfaction to see my barren vineyard become quite beautiful.\\nThis plan I continued every year, and now my vines grow\\nBadlsches lajidwirthschaftliches Wochenblatt, v. 1834, S. 52 and 79.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "256 APPENDIX TO PAKT I.\\nsplendidly, and remain the whole summer green, even in\\nthe greatest heat.\\nAll my neighbors wonder very much how my vine-\\nyard is so rich, and that I obtain so many grapes from it,\\nand yet they all know that I have put no dung upon it for\\nten years.\\nROOT SECRETIONS.\\nIt shoald be stated, that the accuracy of the experiments\\nof Macaire-Princep adduced by the author, page 164, is\\nnot generally admitted. Other chemists have been unable\\nto obtain similar results, or if they do are inchned to as-\\ncribe them to injury of the roots of the plants examined.\\nProfessor Lindley in his notice of Liebig s work has re-\\nmarked, that he has no fixed opinion on the subject, it\\nbeing a question of facts and not of induction. Admitting\\nroot secretions, he nevertheless does not deem it necessary\\nto look to the roots for these excretions, when we have so\\nmany proofs of their constant occurrence in other parts of\\na plant, as in the oily, resinous, waxy, acid, and acrid mat-\\nter, from various parts of their surface, and in the peculiar\\nsubstances lodged in the hollows of their stems or elsewhere,\\nsuch as Tabasheer, in the bamboo. These are thought to\\nbe instances, sufficient to satisfy the necessity of excre-\\ntions occurring, and to render it superfluous to look to the\\nroots for further aid in this particular.\\nThe subject of excretion is one of great interest, and\\ndeserving of further examination. Seveial botanists have\\nrecently stated what are deemed fatal objections to the cor-\\nrectness of De Candolle s conclusions from Macaire s ex-\\nperiments. It is maintained, that the process of excretion\\nfrom the roots of plants is not analogous to that of excretion\\nin animals that the deposits consist of materials which\\nwere in superabundance in the system of the plant, and\\nthat the reason why the same species of plants do not grow\\none after the other, is, that the first exhausted the soil of\\nthe materials necessary for the nourishment of the next.\\nIn some parts of the world, wheat crops are said to have\\nbeen obtained fifty years in succession, where the supply\\nof nutriment was sufficient. The application of the recent\\ndiscovery of the means of coloring the wood of trees by\\nThe e. cperiment has been made here with success fV,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "ROOT SECRETIONS. 257\\nintroducing coloring matters into their trunks, is i-eported\\nto have shown that the coloring matters are thrown off\\nfrom the roots, and plants growing near them have been\\npoisoned, although the plant colored continued to grow.\\nReport of British Association Meeting, August, 1841.\\nA series of experiments on this subject has been going\\non during live years in the Botanic Garden, Oxford, under\\nthe direction of Professor Daubeny. His object is to as-\\ncertain, in the first place, how many successive years the\\nsoil may admit of the growth of the same crop, and, if it\\nbecomes deteriorated, at what rate the decrease of produce\\nmay proceed and, in the second place, what kind of vege-\\ntables will afterwards thrive best in soil, which, with refer-\\nence to this particular crop, has become damaged, or\\neffete.\\nWith a view to determine this, I have set apart, in one\\nportion of our Botanical Garden, a number of distinct plots\\nof ground, of known size, and uniform as to quality.\\nThese were in the first instance enriched with an equal\\namount of manure, and brought, as nearly as could be\\ndone, in every respect into a similar condition.\\nFifteen of these beds are planted year after year, with-\\nout intermission, with the following crops viz. potatoes,\\nturnips, barley, oats, poppies {Papaver samniferum) buck-\\nwheat, tobacco [JYicoliana ruslica), flax, hemp, endive,\\nclover {Trifolium pratense), mint {Madlia viridis), beans,\\nparsley, and beet.\\nThe remaining fifteen beds receive in turn the same\\ncrops, but each year a different one is introduced so that\\nby comparing the amount of produce obtained each year\\nfi om the first and second class of beds, those in which\\nthe crop is permanent, and those in which it is made to\\nshift about, we may be enabled to learn, how much of\\nany actual diminution ought to be attributed to the season,\\nand how much to a deterioration or exhaustion of the soil.\\nAs it is scarcely five years since the experiments were\\ncommenced, the progress made has not yet been sufficient\\nto render the results worth quoting but should life and\\nleisure be allowed me for bringino: them to a conclusion,\\nI trust some inferences may herea{lt\u00c2\u00abr be deduced of utility\\nto future husbandmen although I should be far more\\nsanguine with respect to the benefit that would accrue, if a\\npiece of ground of greater extent were set apart for such\\nexperiments, as, under the auspices of any of our great\\nAgricultural Societies, it might not be difficult to effect.\\n22*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "258 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nShould Science, indeed, succeed in settling the true\\ncause of the deterioration of crops, and tiie most advan-\\ntageous order of their succession, it is unnecessary for me\\nto point out how important a boon she would confer upon\\nthe agriculturist.\\nSo extremely various, indeed, are the systems upon\\nwhich the rotation is carried on in different countries, that\\nno fixed principle would appear to regulate them, and the\\nwhole may be considered, as being founded much more\\nupon the authority of long usage and tradition, than upon\\nany actual comparison of the relative advantages of those\\nresorted to in various places.\\nThis inquiry may therefore be pointed out, as being\\none of those lines of investigation, in prosecuting wifPbh\\nthe scientific chemist may be expected to benefit the prac-\\ntical farmer.\\nPEAT COMPOST.\\n(See p. 118, and 185)\\nAccording to the statement of Messrs. Phinney and\\nHaggerston, as contained in the Report on the Geological and\\nAgricultural Survey of Rhode Island, by Dr. C. T. Jack-\\nson, a compost made of three parts of peat and one of sta-\\nble manure, is equal in value to its bulk of clean stable\\ndung, and is more permanent in its effects.\\nDr. Jackson deems it essential that animal matters of\\nsome kind should be mixed with the peat, to aid the de-\\ncomposition and produce the requisite gases. Lime de-\\ncomposes the peat, neutralizes the acids, and disengages\\nthe ammonia. The peat absorbs the ammonia, and be-\\ncomes in part soluble in water. The soluble matter, ac-\\ncording to Dr. Jackson, is the apocrenate of ammonia\\ncrenate of ammonia and crenate of lime being also dis-\\nsolved. With an excess of animal matter and lime, free\\ncarbonate of ammonia is formed.\\nThe peat should be laid down in layers with barn-yard\\nmanure, night-soil, dead fish, or any other animal matter,\\nand then each layer strewed with lime. In Dr. Jackson s\\nReport, he has presented highly valuable results from the\\nuse of this compost, which deserve the attention of every\\nagriculturist. He gives the following details of the man-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "PEAT COMPOST. 259\\nner in which the compost was prepared upon the farm of\\nMr. Sandford, near the village of VVickford in North King-\\nston. In the corner of the field a cleared and level spot\\nwas rolled down smooth and hard, and the swamp muck\\nwas spread upon it, forming a bed eight feet wide, about\\nfifteen or twenty feet long, and nine inches thick. For\\nevery wagon load of the muck one barrel offish was added,\\nand the fish were spread on the surface of the muck, and\\nallowed to become putrescent. The moment they began to\\ndecompose, he again covered them with peat, and a renew-\\ned layer of fish was spread and covered in the same man-\\nner. The fermentation was allowed to proceed for two or\\nthree weeks, when the compost was found to have become\\nfit for the land. To this he was advised to add lime in the\\nproportion of one cask to each load of compost early in\\nthe spring, which it was supposed would complete the de-\\ncomposition in two or three weeks. Such a heap should\\nbe rounded up and covered, so as to prevent the rain wash-\\ning out the valuable salts, that form in it. And in case of\\nthe escape of much ammonia, more swamp muck or peat\\nshould be spread upon the heap, for the purpose of absorb-\\ning it. Dr. Jackson is of opinion, that the phosphoric acid\\nof the peat and animal matter would convert the lime into\\na phosphate, and thus approximate it very closely to bone\\nmanure. Report, p. 170.\\nAny refuse animal matter can be, of course, employed\\nin a similar manner. The carcass of a dead horse, which\\nis often suffered to pollute the air by its noxious effluvia,\\nhas been happily employed in decompo-sing 20 tons of peat\\nearth, and transforming it into the most enriching manure.\\nYoung s Lelttrs ofAgricoln, Letter 25, p. 238.*\\nNight soil may be composted with peat with great advan-\\ntage, sufiicient lime being added to deprive it of odor; large\\nquantities of ammonia are given off and absorbed. t\\nAppended to Dr. Jackson s Report will be found a letter\\nIn a Report on a ReSxamination of tlic Geology of Massachvsetts,\\n1838, Dr. Dana particularly notices the evolution of ammonia from fer-\\nmenting dung, and supposes that the ammonia conibines with geine to\\nform a soluble com pound. See Note to page 83 of the Report.\\n1 jXiir/tt-SolL The quantity of night-soil collected and removed from\\nthe city of IJoston annually, is about four hundred thousand square feet.\\nIt is used by cultivators in the ininiediale vicinity, being composted\\nwith soil, linie, peat, c. Large quantities of animal matter from\\nslaughter-houses, and other sources, are also made use of The heaps\\nare left exposed, uncovered to the air, and the value of the compost is\\nconsequently greatly diminished. See page 199.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "260 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nfrom E. Phinney, Esq., of Lexington, well known as one\\nof the most skilful agriculturists, On the reclaiming of peat\\nbogs and the employment of peat as manure.\\nSOURCE OF THE CARBON OF PLANTS. (fROBI DAXJBENY s\\nLECTURES ON AGRICULTURE, 1841.)\\n(See Chapter II.)\\nllNTiiTwithin the last century, it would have been taken\\nfor granted, that the soil was the source trom whence pro-\\nceeded all the solid matter at least which entered into the\\nconstitution of a plant, and there were several circumstan-\\nces which tended to countenance such an opinion. No\\nplants, it was observed, would continue long to thrive in\\nearth unmixed with some proportion of vegetable mould,\\nand the fertility of the latter is greatly enhanced by the\\naddition of animal or vegetable matter, in that state of de-\\ncay, in which it becomes soluble in water, and therefore\\nfitted to obtain admission into the vessels of plants.\\nHence, when Priestley had demonstrated, that leaves\\ndecompose the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, giving out\\nits oxygen and assimilating its carbon, the doctrine alluded\\nto still to a certain extent maintained its ground; and it was\\neven questioned by Ellis and others, whether in fact, if we\\nwere to strike the balance between the opposite influence\\nof a plant during the day and the night, as much carbonic\\nacid might not be exhaled by it at one period, as had been\\ndecomposed at another.\\nI was therefore induced myself to undei take some ex-\\nperiments,* the results of which appear to establish, that\\nplants, even in a confined atmosphere, do in reality add a\\ngreat deal more oxygen to the air than they abstract from\\nit, whilst tiie amount of carbonic acid which mav be intro-\\nduced undergoes at the same time a corresponding dimi-\\nnution.\\nThis Cifect I even found to take place in diffiised light,\\nas well as under the direct influence of the solar rays, and\\nto be no less common in aquatic than in terrestrial plants.\\nI also showed, that when a branch loaded with flowers,\\nas well as with leaves, was introduced into ajar containing\\nSee PJiilosnphical Transactions for 1836.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "DAUBENY ON THE CARBON OF PLANTS. 261\\na certain proportion of carbonic acid, the balance still con-\\ntinued to be in favor of the purifying influence of the veg-\\netable.\\nThe apparatus I made use of consisted of a large bell-\\nglass jar, containing in one case 600, in another 800 cubic\\ninches of air,* and suspended by pulleys. Its edges dipped\\ninto quicksilver, contained in a double iron cylinder of cor-\\nresponding dimensions to the jar, which, being closed at\\nbottom, constituted a well of about six inches in depth, cal-\\nculated to receive a fluid, and to admit of the glass vessel\\nmoving freely in it. The inner margin of this hollow cylin-\\nder was cemented air-tight, according as circumstances re-\\nquired, either to a plate of iron, or to a pot of the same\\nmaterial upon or in which the plant operated on might be\\nplaced and the jar was then let down upon it, until its\\nedges were sunk a little beneath the surface of the mercury.\\nThus all communication with the external atmosphere\\nwas cut off and the effect of the plant upon the air inclosed\\nin the jar was readily measured, by simply pressing down\\nthe latter, and thus expelling a portion of its contents\\nthrough a tube, communicating with its interior, and intro-\\nduced at its outer extremity under a pneumatic trough,\\nwherein the air might be collected and examined. By con-\\nnecting this extremity with a vessel containing a measured\\nquantity of carbonic acid, and raising the jar a little in the\\nwell of mercury, it was easy to draw in any proportion of\\nthat gas, with which it was thought proper that the plant\\nshould be supplied. A portion of the air was always tested,\\nimmediately after the introduction of every fresh portion\\nof carbonic acid, and again after an interval of some hours,\\nand the proportion of this gas and of o.xygen present was\\neach time carefully registered. The amount of carbonic\\nacid was determined by a solution of potass, that of oxygen\\nby the rapid combustion of phosphorus with a portion of it\\nintroduced into a bent tube.\\nSuch was the mode of procedure, when an entire plant\\nbecame the subject of experiment but some of the most\\nsatisfactory trials were with branches of certain shrubs,\\nthem-^elves too large to be admitted under the jar. These\\nbranches, without being detached from the parent trunk,\\nwere introduced through a hole in the centre of two corre-\\nsponding semicircular plates of iron, which were cemented\\nair-tight, to the inner margin of the iron cylinder on the\\nLarsrer jars, containing from 1200 to 1300 cubic inches were lat-\\nterly employed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "262 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\none hand, and to the stem of the branch on the other. In\\nthis manner, when the jar came to be placed over them,\\nand to dip beneath the surface of the mercury, the external\\nair was as effectually excluded, as when the whole of the\\nplant had been enclosed.\\nThe results of several experiments conducted after\\nthis plan are given in a tabular form in the Memoir but\\nit may be sufficient here to specify one of the most satis-\\nfactory of those undertaken. In this case the jar itself\\ncontained about 600 cubic inches of air, and the plant ex-\\nperimented on was the common lilac {syringa vulgaris).\\nThe proportion of carbonic acid in the jar was each morn-\\ning made equivalent to five or six per cent, by additions\\nthrough the tube.\\nThe first day no great alteration in the air was detect-\\ned, but on the second day, by eight in the evening, the\\noxygen had risen to 26 5 per cent. In the morning it had\\nsunk to 26 0, but by two P. M. it had again risen to no less\\nthan 29-75, and by sunset it had reached 300 per cent. At\\nnight it sunk one half per cent. but the effect during the\\nfollowing day was not estimated, as the sickly appearance\\nwhich the plant now began to assume induced me to sus-\\npend the experiment.\\nIn a second trial, however, the branch of a healthy\\nlilac growing in the garden was introduced into the same\\njar, where it was suffered to remain until its leaves became\\nentirely withered.\\nThe first day the increase of oxygen in the jar was no\\nmore than 025 per cent., but on the second it rose to 25-0.\\nAt night it sunk to nearly 220 per cent., but the next\\nevening it had again risen to 27 0. This was the maximum\\nof its increase, for at night it sunk to 26 0. and in the\\nmorning exhibited signs of incipient decay. Accordingly\\nin the evening the oxygen amounted only to 26-5 the\\nnext evening to 255 the following one to 24-75 and the\\none next succeeding it had fallen to the point at which it\\nstood at the commencement, or to 21-0 per cent.\\nThe reason of this decrease was, however, very mani-\\nfest from the decay and falling off of the leaves so that\\nthis circumstance does not invalidate the conclusion which\\nthe preceding experiments concur in establishing, namely,\\nthat in fine weather a plant, so long at least as it continues\\nhealthy, adds considerably to the oxygen of the air when\\ncarbonic acid is freely supplied.\\nIn the last instance quoted, the exposed surface of all", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "DAUBENY ON THE HYDROGEN OF PLANTS. 263\\nthe leaves enclosed in the jar, which were about fifty in\\nnumber, was calculated at not more than 300 square inches,\\nand yet there must have been added to the air of the jar as\\nmuch as 26 cubic inches of oxygen, in consequence of\\nthe action of this surface upon the carbonic acid introduced.\\nBut there is reason to believe, that even under the cir-\\ncumstances above stated (which appear more favorable to\\nthe due performance of the functions of life than those to\\nwhich Mr. Ellis s plants were subjected), the amount of\\noxygen evolved was much smaller than it would have been\\nin the open air, for I have succeeded, by introducing sev-\\neral plants into the same jar of air in pretty quick succes-\\nsion, in raising the amount of o.\\\\ygen contained from twen-\\nty-one to thirty-nine per cent., and probably had not even\\nthen attained the limit to which the increase of this con-\\nstituent might have been brought.\\nHow great then must be the effect of an entire tree in\\nthe open air under favorable circumstances and we must\\nrecollect that, cceleris paribus, the circumstances will be\\nfavorable to the exertion of the vital energies of the plant,\\nwithin certain limits at least, in proportion as animal respi-\\nration and animal putrefaction furnish to it a supply of car-\\nbonic acid.\\nThese experiments were published in the Philosophical\\nTransactions for 1836, and have been noticed in Dr. Lind-\\niey s popular Introduction to Botany neither am I aware\\nthat the deductions which were drawn from them have any-\\nwhere been disputed.\\nSource of the Hydrogen of Plants from Dauhemfs Lectures.\\n(See Chapter IV.)\\nIt would seem, I think, from the late important re-\\nsearches of M Payen, that the decomposition of water\\ncommences subsequently to that of carbonic acid, whether\\nit be, that the former process requires a greater develop-\\nment and energy in the vegetable functions, or that it takes\\nplace in organs of a different description and of later\\ngrowth.\\nM. Payen seems to have established, that under the\\ngeneral term of ligneous fibre, or lignin, we have hitherto\\nconfounded at least two distinct substances, namely, that\\nwhich constitutes the walls of the cells, and that which, by\\nbeing deposited afterwards on the surfaces of the latter,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "264\\nAPPENDIX TO PART I.\\nimparts to them the solidity of texture which woody fibre\\npossesses.\\nHe has succeeded in isolating the two by chemical\\nmeans, and has found, that whilst the cellular matter has\\nexactly the same composition as starch, being composed\\nof 449 carbon, 6 1 hydrogen, 49 oxygen, or 44 9 carbon\\nand 55 1 of water; the incrusting matter afterwards formed\\nconsists of 53-76 carbon, 40.2 oxygen, and 6 of hydrogen,\\nor of 53-76 carbon, 45-2 of water, and 1 of hydrogen.*\\nThe composition of the Jigneous matter of different\\nkinds of wood will therefore vary according to the relative\\nproportionrof these two ingredients, as is shown in the\\nfollowing table of M. Payen\\nLigneous Bodies.\\nIncrusting matter of the wood\\nCarbon.\\nHydrogen.\\nOxygen.\\nIncrusting\\nmatter.\\n190\\n53-76\\n6-O0\\n40 20\\nWood of Saint Lucia\\n52-!i0\\nG-07\\n4103\\n90\\nEbony\\n^2-65\\n6 00\\n41-15\\n89\\nWalnut\\n51 92\\n5-9(i\\n42 12\\n82\\nOak\\n50-00\\n6 20\\n43-80\\n61\\nDitto according to Gay-Lus-\\nsac, and Thenard\\n51-J5\\n5-H2\\n42-73\\nBeech\\n49 2^\\n6-10\\n44-()o\\n52\\nCelhilar matter\\n44-90\\n6-10\\n49 00\\n00\\nThis then proves, that, in the formation of the matter\\nwhich incrusts and fortifies the walls of the cellular tissue\\nin wood, though not in that of the cellular tissue itself, a\\ndecomposition of water must have taken place since the\\n1 per cent, of hydrogen which Payen has found in excess,\\ncan only have arisen in this manner.\\nThis increase of hydrogen becomes still greater, when,\\nin the progress of vegetation, the plant begins to secrete\\noils, camphors, and other analogous bodies, products,\\nwhich, it is to be remarked, abound most within the tropics,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0where the light of the sun is most intense.\\nHence the decomposition of water, no less than that\\nof carbonic acid, seems due to solar influence, and accord-\\ningly, the greater sweetness of subacid fruits, in a warm\\nthan in a cold summer, arises from the transformation of\\na larger amount of tartaric or other vegetable acids into\\nsugar, owing to that separation of oxygen from the former\\nwhich is accomplished by the agency of light.\\nThe process of assimilation of plants in its most simple\\nPayen has since stated, that this incrusting matter probably con-\\nsists of two or three different principles.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "DAUBENY ON THE NITROGEN OF PLANTS. 265\\nform may therefore be stated, as consisting in the extrica-\\ntion of hydrogen from water, and of carbon from carbonic\\nacid, in consequence of which one of three things must\\nhappen, either all the oxygen of the water and of the\\ncarbonic acid are separated, as in those bodies which, like\\ncaoutchouc, volatile oils, c., consist of nothing else but\\ncarbon and hydrogen or, secondly, only a part of it is\\nexhaled, as in the case of the incrusting matter of wood,\\nand in sugar or, thirdly, that belonging to the carbonic\\nacid alone is decomposed, whilst the water remains, as in\\nstarch and cellular tissue.\\nDependence of the nutritive Qualities of Plants on their JS itro-\\ngen; from Daubeny s Lectures.\\n(See page 139.)\\nThe dependence of the nutritive qualities of various\\narticles of food upon the proportion of nitrogen is well\\nshown in a recent memoir of Monsieur Boussingault,* who\\ngives, on the authority of the celebrated agriculturist Von\\nThaer, a scale of the relative degree of nutriment afforded\\nby various plants to cattle, and then places by the side of it\\na statement of the proportion of azote present in them, from\\nwhich it appears, that the nutritious quality of each bears\\na pretty constant ratio to the quantity of nitrogen they\\ncontain.\\nThis may be seen by the following table\\nEquiv.\\nOrdinary hay 100 its azote being 0-0118\\nRed Clover 90 0-0176\\nBeans 83 0-0141\\nWheat-straw 400 0-0020\\nPotatoes 200 0-0037\\nBeet 397 0-0026\\nMaize 59 0-1)164\\nBarley 54 0-0176\\nWheat 27 0*0213\\nWhen we reflect, indeed, that animal matter, which so\\nabounds in nitrogen, is nevertheless derived, either directly\\nor indirectly, from vegetable, it follows, as a necessary\\nconsequence, that existence can only be maintained by the\\naid of those principles in plants, which contain a certain\\nproportion of the element alluded to.\\nAnnales de Chimie, Vol. LXIII.\\n23", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "266 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nAnd this has been shown by the experiments of Ma-\\ngendie upon dogs, which were fed on sugar, starch, gum,\\nand other substances destitute of nitrogen, and in a very\\nshort time pined away and died.\\nDifference between different Plants in their power of decom-\\nposing Ammonia; from Daubeny s Lectures,\\n(See Chapter V.)\\nIt maybe inferred, from some experiments made by\\nBoussin^ult, that a great difference exists between plants\\nin their power of assimilating nitrogen, and to this differ-\\nence that chemist is disposed to attribute the advantage of\\nalternately growing wliat are called fallow crops, for the\\npurpose of refreshing the soil.\\nDuring germination, he remarks, the quantity of\\nazote which seeds contain appears to be on the increase,\\nbut there is this curious difference between different kinds,\\nthat whilst those of leguminous plants, sown in pure earth\\nand moistened with nothing but distilled water, obtained an\\nincrease of nitrogen which the atmosphere alone could\\nhave afforded, those of barley and other cerealia remained\\nin that respect stationary, unless manure were afforded.\\nBoussingault also shows in a subsequent memoir, that\\npeas, clover, and other legumes absorb azote, even when\\nplanted in a soil that contains no decomposing animal or\\nvegetable matter, but that the cerealia, although if so\\nplaced, they may grow, do not appear to secrete this-\\nprinciple.\\nBoussingault, however, does not go so far as to main-\\ntain, that the latter in no stage of their existence are capa-\\nble of discharging this function, but only that the plant\\nmust have already arrived at a higher state of vigor, in\\norder to derive its supply from such a source.\\nIt is on the same principle, that although the animal\\nin general obtains its food from the various organic bodies\\non which he subsists, yet that in an early stage of existence,\\nbefore his organs are fitted for undergoing the labor of\\nassimilating such materials, nature has provided him in his\\nmother s milk with aliment already almost elaborated.\\nIt is thus, too, that in the seed the embryo is sur-\\nrounded with a mass of albumen, from which it derives its\\nsupport, until its roots become sufficiently vigorous to\\nextract nourishment from the ground.\\nHence it becomes in most cases necessary, that crops", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "DAUBENY ON AMMONIA OF PLANTS. 267\\ncultivated as articles of food should have access to vege-\\ntable or animal manure from which they may derive their\\nazote, but as this supply would soon be exhausted, were it\\nnot at the same time regenerated from the atmosphere, we\\nsee the advantage of intercalating a green fallow crop\\nploughed into the ground with others as leguminous\\nplants, according to the experiments of Boussingault, have\\nthe greatest power of absorbing nitrogen from the air.\\nOn the same principle this chemist suggests the intro-\\nduction of the Jerusalem artichoke into light soils, which,\\nowing to the entire absence of mould, appear irreclaimably\\nbarren; this vegetable, the tubers of which afford nourish-\\nment to cattle almost equal to potatoes, having great power\\nof absorbing both carbon and nitrogen from the air, and\\nthus by degrees generating a certain amount of soil*\\nI have seen this vegetable very commonly cultivated\\nfor the use of cattle, in the light lands of the Grand Duchy\\nof Baden, and in certain parts of Alsace.\\nBut if it be true, as Liebig has endeavored to establish,\\nthat plants obtain every thing except their alkalies and\\nearthy constituents from the atmosphere, what, it may be\\nasked, becomes of the theory that attributes the unfitness\\nof a soil for yielding several successive crops of the same\\nplant to the excretions given out by its roots\\nFor if plants receive the whole of their volatilizable\\ningredients from the atmosphere, these excrementitious\\nmatters, being composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, and\\noxygen, will not be absorbed, and therefore cannot affect\\nthe succeeding vegetation.\\nThe above inference would seem unavoidable, if it\\nwere considered absolutely proved, that nothing but the\\nfixed ingredients of a plant were derived from the earth,\\nbut this is not fully established, even with respect to the\\nhumus, much less with respect to the more soluble matters\\nwhich the soil contains.\\nThese latter, there seems no reason for doubting, may\\nbe taken up by the spongioles of the roots dissolved in\\nIt is to be observed, that Boussingault attributes to plants the\\npower of absorbing nitrogen from the air, but he alleges no proof that\\nthey have that power, and his results may be just as well explained\\nby supposing them to have different powers of absorbing ammonia.\\nIt is to be remarked, that the helianthus tuberosus belongs to a tribe\\nof plants remarkable for their power of absorbing and exhaling water,\\nand hence it is evident, that they will be brouo-ht into contact within a\\ngiven time with a larger amount of ammonia, than other plants, which\\npossess a less degree of energy in that respect.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "268 APPENDIX TO P.^T I.\\nwater, together with the alkaline and earthy ingredients\\nwhich are derived from the soil, nor am 1 aware of any\\nproof that they may not likewise be assimilated when so\\nintroduced.\\nThe theory of M. DecandoUe, therefore, is not affected\\nby the above experiments, but must rest on its own merits,\\nand continue to afford a subject for inquiry to the scientific\\nagriculturist.\\nPradicsU Inferences. From Dr. Daubeny s Lectures on\\nJigricullure delivered at Oxford, 1841.\\nThe first inference that may be drawn, relates to the\\nutility of diligent and frequent tillage, in order to favor the\\ndisintegration of the soil, and the free admission to it of\\noxygen and of water.\\nUnless the former take place, no fresh alkali can be\\nextracted from the subjacent rock by the action of water\\nupon it unless the latter be brought about in a sufficient\\ndegree, the humus excluded from air cannot undergo that\\nprocess of eremacausis, or gradual combustion, on which\\nits influence upon the nutrition of plants has already been\\nshown to depend.\\nHence, in ancient times, the importance attached to\\nthose operations which had this object for their aim,\\nQuid est agrum bene colere asked Cato. Bene arare. Quid\\nsecundum? Arare. Quidtertium? Stercorare.\\nThus ploughing was regarded the most important process\\nin agriculture, after which, though at a long interval, came\\nmanuring.\\nThe design, therefore, of the agriculturist is, to reduce\\nthe soil to that loose and crumbling condition, in which it\\nbecomes entirely pervious to air and moisture, imparting to\\nit the quality which the ancients denominated putre.\\nEt cui putre solum, (namque hoc imitamur arando,)\\nOptima frumentis.\\nHence the superiority of spade husbandry over the\\nplough, if the expense of the labor be not taken into the\\naccount hence the fertility of the small farms of the ancient\\nRomans, notwithstanding their rude methods and their\\ndeficiency of skill hence the fine condition of those tracts\\nof land, which are subjected to the unremitting manual ex-\\nertions of societies of men like the Trappists, whose mis-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 269\\ntaken views of religion have led them into that entire iso-\\nlation from human society, under which even the severest\\nphysical toil becomes itself a relief.\\nThe same principle explains in some degree the utility\\nof subsoil-ploughing, which, by bringing up to the surface\\na portion of earth previously out of the reach of those in-\\nfluences which tend to cause its disintegration, extracts\\nfrom it the alkaline and other ingredients required by the\\nplant for its subsistence.\\nIt is found advantageous, in the first instance, merely\\nto break and pulverize the subsoil to a depth of eighteen\\nor twenty inches, without bringing it to the surface, and\\nonly after a lapse of four or five years to mix it with the\\nvegetable mould above, a practice, the utility of which de-\\npends, not only on the mechanical condition of the land\\nbeing rendered more favorable to culture in consequence\\nof its becoming more friable, but likewise, probably, owing\\nto the chemical decomposition of its component parts having\\ntaken place more completely.\\nOther circumstances, such as its influence on the drain-\\nage of the land, will no doubt cooperate in producing the\\nbenefit which often results from the practice of subsoiling\\nbut that the cause pointed out really contributes to its\\nefficacy, may be inferred from a fact attested by many ex-\\nperienced agriculturists,* namely, that those soils are most\\nbenefited by subsoil-ploughing, which can be rendered\\nthereby more pervious to moisture, and consequently to\\nair whilst those which contain too large a percentage of\\nclay to be affected in this manner by the process, derive\\nno advantage from it.\\nBut it must not be forgotten, that the utmost pains be-\\nstowed upon its elaboration cannot generate any new prin-\\nciples, but only act, by enabling the soil to impart more\\nreadily to the crop those which it already possesses.\\nThis obvious truth will explain the cause of the disap-\\npointment felt by farmers, at finding, that after a certain\\ntime, the most dilio-ent tillage no longer affords them the\\nsame returns as it did at first.\\nIt it said, that Jethro Tull, who first proved the ad-\\nvantages of deepening and pulverizing soils, was neverthe-\\nless obliged at length to admit, that at each repetition of\\nthe experiment the success was less decided, unless manure\\nwere at the same time applied. Judicious tillage, in short,\\nSee English .Agricultural Journal, No. 5, p. 32.\\n23*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "270 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nlike the use of machinery in the arts, does not create any\\nnew power, but only tends to render more available those\\nalready latent in the earth.\\nIt was not therefore without reason, that Cato, after,\\nas we have seen, pronouncing, that the first, and the second\\nthing in agriculture, is to plough, adds, that the third is to\\nmanure, for what is this but the art of providing for the in-\\ntended crop an adequate supply of those ingredients which\\nenter into its composition\\nThe principles therefore which have been laid down,\\nwhilst th y will serve to guide the husbandman in the se-\\nlection of his fertilizers, may also explain the different re-\\nsults that are obtained from the use of the same kind of\\nmineral manure in different soils.\\nAmong those which have excited the greatest interest\\nwithin the last few years, may be mentioned the nitrates of\\npotass, and of soda.\\nThe former, commonly called saltpetre, is produced\\nspontaneously in most parts of the world, and especially in\\nhot countries, in consequence of animal and vegetable\\ndecomposition conducted under particular conditions, and\\naccordingly it has been introduced into agriculture from an\\nearly period.*\\nThe latter, sometimes distinguished from its crystalline\\nform, as cubic nitre, is met with in large quantities in Peru,\\nfourteen leagues from the port of Iquicque, where, ac-\\ncording to Mr. Darwin, it forms a stratum two or three\\nfeet thick, lying close beneath the surface, and following\\nthe margin of a grand basin or plain, elevated 3300 feet\\nabove the level of the Pacific, but which, nevertheless,\\nappears evidently to have been at one time a lake, or in-\\nland sea.\\nThe price of the salt at the ship s side in 1835, at the\\ntime Mr. Darwin visited the spot, was fourteen shillings a\\ncwt., the grand item of expense being its transport to the\\ncoast. J\\nWhere the price operates as an objection to its use, the method\\nof forming artificial nitre-beds, by mixing together vegetable and ani-\\nmal matters in a state of decomposition with calcareous earth, may be\\neconomically adopted. See Cuthbert Johnson, on Saltpetre and Ni-\\ntrate of Soda, Ridgway, 1840.\\nt See Darwin s Journal, in Voyage of the Beagle.\\ni Mr. J. H. Blake of Boston, who recently visited Peru, informs me,\\nthat the cost of the nitrate of soda was ,$2.50 per quintal, and that it\\ncould be obtained here at from 4.^ to 5 cents per lb. The crude nitrate,,\\ncontaining from 70 to 80 per cent, of the pure salt, might be obtained\\nhere at 2^ cents per lb JV.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES.\\n271\\nThese particulars are perhaps not unimportant, as they\\nmay serve to show that an ahnost unlimited supply of both\\nthese salts may be calculated upon, and, in the case of the\\nnitrate of soda, that its price might be kept down, rather\\nthan enhanced, by an increased demand.\\nThat, however, with which the agriculturist is most\\nconcerned, is to determine the relative value of these salts\\nas manures, and to discriminate the kind of land to which\\neither or both are beneficial.\\nNow, it is remarkable, that the nitrates, whilst they\\nhave in some cases occasioned a wonderful increase of pro-\\nduce, in others have appeared of little service, and also\\nthat, whereas on certain land both were equally efficacious,\\non a different description of soil, the one has answered,\\nwhilst the other failed.\\nFor a great deal of interesting information on this sub-\\nject, I may refer to the Journal of the Royal Agricultural\\nSociety of England, its last number* more especially:\\non the present occasion I shall confine myself to noticing\\nthe communication of Mr. Hyett, of Painswick, as one,\\nwhich probably points to the true cause of the advantage\\nderived from the employment of these salts.\\nMr. Hyett s experiments were made upon the stone or\\ncornbrash of Gloucestershire, a coarse and impure oolitic\\nlimestone, which had been drilled with white Sicilian wheat\\nin the autumn.\\nNitrate of soda, at the rate of 1 cwt. to the acre, was\\non the 21st of April, sown and hoed in over all the field,\\nexcepting two square portions, which were staked out, and\\nleft unnitrated.\\nOn the 1 6th of May the effect of the salt was per-\\nceived, by the dark green color of the plants.\\nThe results of the harvest were as follows\\nProduce.\\ni\\\\Ieasure per acre.\\nWithout nitrate. With nitrate.\\nValue per acre.\\nExcess.\\nCorn clean\\ntail\\ntotal\\nBu. Pks. Pts.\\n30. 2. 11\\n2. 3. 11\\nBu. Pks. Pts.\\n37. 3. 4\\n5. 3. 7\\nBu. Pka. Pts.\\n7. 0. 9\\n2. 3. 12\\n33. 2. 6 43. 2. 11\\n10. 0. 5\\n1 Weight. 1 Per acre.\\nStraw\\nT. Cwt. qrs. lbs. 1 T. Cwt. qrs. lbs.\\n1. 3. 1. 21 jl. 11. 2. 3\\nT. Cwt. qrs. lbs.\\n0. 8. 0. 10\\nFrom these data Mr. Hyett calculates, that the in-\\ncreased value of the produce, arising from the use of the\\nFor January, 1841.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "272\\nAPPENDIX TO PART I.\\nnitrate of soda, gives a profit of 2/. 17s. 2d. per acre, after\\ndeducting I/. 3s. Od. for the value of the salt employed.\\nBut not only does the nitrate increase the quantity of\\nthe grain, but it tends to augment those ingredients, which\\ncontain the largest amount of nitrogen, and consequently\\nafford the greatest degree of nutriment, namely, the gluten\\nand albumen.\\nThis is shown, by the analysis of the nitrated, and non-\\nnitrated wheat, made by a chemist at his request, the re-\\nsults of which were as follows\\n_\u00c2\u00bb\\nWheat on which the\\nWheat on which no\\nnitrate was used, gave\\nnitrate was us 3d, gave\\nBran\\n25000\\n24-000\\nGluten\\n23 250\u00e2\u0080\u009e\\n19000\\nStarch\\n49 50(r\\n55-500\\nAlbumen\\n1-375\\n-6-25\\nExtract\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2375\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2250\\nLoss and water\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2628\\n100- parts.\\n100- parts.\\nThus it is seen, that in the nitrated wheat there was\\n4 25 per cent, more gluten, and 075 more albumen, than\\nin the non-nitrated sample.\\nConsidering, then, that these constituents contain nearly\\n16 per cent, of nitrogen, we are justified perhaps in at-\\ntributing their increase to the decomposition of the nitric\\nacid present in the salt, and the consequent supply of nitro-\\ngen in greater abundance than is naturally present in the\\nsoil.\\nAnd if such be the mode of its operation, it may be\\npossible to explain why these salts should appear so capri-\\ncious in their eftects on the different kinds of land to which\\nthey have been applied.\\nWhen the ground already contains all the other con-\\nstituents which the plant requires, as, for instance, a suffi-\\ncient amount of the earthy phosphates, and of silicate of\\npotass, the addition of the nitric salt will do good, by sup-\\nplying nitrogen, and thus enabling the vegetable to assimi-\\nlate a proportionate quantity of the other ingredients.\\nBut when the latter are already nearly exhausted, the\\naddition of the nitrates will no longer be of advantage,\\nsince only that portion of nitrogen can be assimilated\\nwhich is equivalent to the amount of the earthy phosphates,\\nof the silicate of potass, and of the other fixed ingredients,\\nwhich the plant obtains from the soil.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 273\\nHence, the proper remedy in such a case would seem\\nto be, that of applying some other manure, which may fur-\\nnish a due supply of the deficient matters.\\nThus, if the nitrates have failed, we should be inclined\\nto try the next year the effect of phosphate of lime, or of\\nanimal manure, upon the same soil.\\nBut it seems to happen sometimes, that the same land,\\nwhich is benefited by the administration of one kind of nitric\\nsalt, is scarcely affected by another.\\nThis anomaly presented itself in an experiment on a\\nsmall scale, which was tried at my request, by my broth-\\ner, the Rev. E. Daubeny, on his farm, in the vicinity of\\nCirencester.\\nThe subsoil is a stiff retentive clay, resting upon the\\ncornbrash limestone, and the farm, before it came into its\\npresent occupation, was in an exhausted condition, though\\nit has latterly yielded somewhat better returns.\\nA coarse analysis of a sample, conducted according to\\nthe method recommended by Mr. Rham, in the Journal of\\nthe English Agricultural Society,* afforded me the follow-\\ning results\\n1000 grains contained, 607, of impalpable powder, consisting of\\nWater .57\\nHumus 57\\nSilica .64\\nAlumina mixed in the silica 24\\nOxide of iron .19\\nCarbonate of lime 90\\nMagnesia a trace\\nClay 296\\nTotal 607\\nAnd 388 of coarser materials, separated by\\nSieve No. 1. the coarsest 117^ consisting\\nSieve No. 2. 151 chiefly of\\nSieve No. 3. the finest 120 I clay, with\\n(50 grs. of\\nTotal 388 carbonate\\nLoss 5 J of lime.\\nFour equal strips of this land, each somewhat ex-\\nceeding i of an acre, and contiguous one to the other,\\nwhich had been sown with wheat in the autumn of 1839,\\nwere measured out.\\nThe first of these, which lay next to the hedge, was\\nleft without any addition of manure.\\nThe second, adjoining, had a top-dressing of cwt. of\\nnitrate of potass given it in April.\\nNumber 1, page 46.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "274 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nThe third portion was left, like the first, without\\naddition.\\nThe fourth, or that farthest from the hedge, had a\\nsimilar top-dressing of nitrate of soda applied at the same\\nperiod.\\nThe salts were respectively scattered over the strips\\nof land in as uniform a manner as possible, and became\\ndiffused through the soil, by means of the showers which\\nfollowed shortly after their application.\\nAs the wheat advanced towards maturity, the nitrated\\npatches were distinguishable, by the more vivid greenness\\nof the crop, and by its standing up somewhat above the\\ngeneral level, but this difference was less perceptible at a\\nlater stage of its progress.\\nIn the autumn the whole was reaped as usual, and the\\nfollowing results obtained\\nNo. 1. produced only 5 bushels, 54 lbs. of grain, or 23\\nbushels, 36 lbs. to the acre, but the crop had been ac-\\ncidentally trodden by sheep, and much devoured by birds.\\nThe straw was not weighed.\\nNo. 2. produced 7 bushels, 57 lbs., or 31 bushels, 48\\nlbs. to the acre, and 520 lbs. of straw 1 ton, cwt. 80 lbs.\\nto the acre.\\nNo. 3. produced 6 bushels, 54 lbs., or 27 bushels, 36\\nlbs. to the acre, and 421 lbs. of straw 16 cwt. to the acre.\\nNo. 4. produced 6 bushels, 48 lbs., or 27 bushels,\\n12 lbs. to the acre, and 432 lbs. of straw 15 cwt. 48 lbs.\\nto the acre.\\nWith respect to weight, that of No. 2. was 62^ lbs. to\\nthe bushel, that of No. 3. and 4. was only 62 lbs.\\nNow 3| lbs. of flour from No. 3, produced of bread\\n4 lbs. 4 ozs.\\nWhereas 3| lbs. from No. 2. produced 4 lbs. 14 ozs.\\nHence the difference, between the produce of the strip\\nof ground which had been manured with nitrate of potass,\\nand that which had received no manure, may be caJculated\\nas follows\\nAmount of produce, of\\nBu. lbs.\\nNo. 3 6 54 6.\\nNo. 2 7 57 7.\\nAs 6 7 100 120, or 20 percent, of increase in the\\namount of produce.\\nTo which add, that the^quantity of flour, that in No.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 275\\n3 had produced 4 lbs. 4 ozs. of bread, in No. 2. produced\\n4 lbs. 14 ozs. Now\\nAs 4 lbs. 4 ozs. 4 lbs. 14 ozs. 100 114.\\nShowing an increase per cent, of 14 20 34 per\\ncent.\\nNow if we calculate the wheat as worth eight shillings\\na bushel, the profit of using the nitrate of potass will stand\\nas follows\\n27 bushels 36 lbs. at 8. J. 11/. value of the produce on\\nthe non-nitrated land add 34 per cent, or |rd 3/. 13\u00c2\u00bb,\\n4d., for the value of the nitrated, which, after deducting\\n1/. 10s. for the value of a cwt. of nitrate of potass, and for\\ncarriage, will leave to the farmer a clear profit of 2/. 3s. 4d.\\nThe superior absorbing power of the nitrated flour,\\nover the non-nitrated, was found to depend upon the pres-\\nence of a larger amount of gluten, for I discovered in the\\nformer 740 grs. in the pound, or 13 per cent. in the latter\\n850 grs. in the pound, or 15 per cent, of that ingredient,\\nthe difference being 2 per cent, in favor of the nitrated\\nwheat, a result which confirms, in a very satisfactory man-\\nner, the statement of Mr. Hyett.*\\nBut how are we to account for the failure of the nitrate\\nof soda, on soil which had been so materially benefited by\\nthe administration of nitrate of potass\\nThe small scale upon which the experiment was\\nconducted, may render us reluctant to build much upon\\nthe results obtained, until it has been again repeated, but\\nsupposing the fact to be hereafter confirmed, I can only\\nconjecture, that the difference must have arisen from a\\ndeficiency in the land, of potass, which would be supplied\\nby the saltpetre, but not by the nitrate of soda, f Should\\nthis be the true solution, those soils, in which nitrate of soda\\nhas succeeded, ought to contain a larger quantity of potass,\\nthan those in which it has failed.\\nThe general principles laid down may also inform us,\\nas to the true plan upon which the succession of our crops\\nshould be regulated.\\nThose plants ought to succeed each other, which con-\\ntain different chemical ingredients, so that the quantities\\nThe amount of gluten is smaller than in the samples reported on\\nby Mr. Hyett, but my gluten was dried, with the greatest care, under\\nthe exhausted receiver of an air-pump, with sulphuric acid, till it\\nceased to lose weight.\\nt Nitrate of soda is stated to exist in barley, but it has not been de-\\ntected in wheat. It would therefore be worth while to see, whether\\nthe above salt is particularly suited to the former crop.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "276 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nof each, which the soil at any given time contains, may be\\nabsorbed in an equal ratio.\\nThus a productive crop of corn could not be obtained,\\nwithout the phosphates of lime and magnesia which are\\npresent in the grain, nor without the silicate of potass which\\ngives stability to the stalks.\\nIt would be injudicious, therefore, to sow any plant\\nthat required much of any of the above ingredients, imme-\\ndiately after having diminished the amount of them present\\nin the soil, by a crop of wheat, or of any other kind of corn.\\nBut, on the other hand, leguminous plants, such as\\nbeans,Vire well calculated to succeed to crops of corn, be-\\ncause they contain no free alkalies, and less than one per\\ncent, of the phosphates.\\nThey thrive, therefore, even where these ingredients\\nhave been withdrawn, and during their growth, atford time\\nfor the ground to obtain a fresh supply of them, by a fur-\\nther disintegration of the subjacent rock.\\nFor the same reason, wheat and tobacco may some-\\ntimes be reared in succession in a soil rich in potass, be-\\ncause the latter plant requires none of those phosphoric\\nsalts which are present in wheat.\\nIn order, ho.wever, to proceed upon certain data, it would\\nbe requisite, that an analysis of the plants most useful to\\nman should be accomplished in the different stages of their\\ngrowth, a labor which has hitherto been only partially un-\\ndertaken, and which perhaps is an object worthy to engage\\nthe attention of a great Body, like that of the English Ag-\\nricultural Association.\\nIt is a curious fact, that the same plant differs in con-\\nstitution when grown in different climates. Thus in the\\nbeet-root, nitre takes the place of sugar, when this plant is\\ncultivated in the warmer parts of France.*\\nThe explanation of this difference is probably as fol-\\nlows\\nBeet-root contains, as an essential ingredient, not only\\nsaccharine matter, but also nitrogen, and it is probable,\\nthat the two are mutually so connected together in the veg-\\netable tissue, that the one cannot exist without the other.\\nThe nitrogen, being derived from the decomposition of am-\\nmonia, must be affected by any cause which diminishes the\\nsupply of the latter and in proportion as this ingredient\\nis wanting, the secretion of sugar will likewise fall off.\\nNow, it has been shown by Liebig, that the formation\\nSee Chaptal.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 277\\nof nitric acid is owing to the decomposition of ammonia,\\nand it is conceived by him, that the last products of the de-\\ncomposition of animal bodies present themselves, in the\\nform of ammonia in cold, and in that of nitric acid in warm\\nclimates. Hence, in proportion to the amount of nitric\\nacid formed, and of nitre absorbed by the plant, that of the\\nnitrogen, and consequently that of the saccharine matter,\\npresent in it, may be diminished.\\nWe may also be guided in the management and selec-\\ntion of manures, by the principles above laid down. The\\nsolid excrement of animals varies of course in composition\\naccording to the nature of their food thus that of herbivo-\\nrous animals, which are fed principally on grasses, contains\\nmuch silicate of potass, as well as phosphoric salts, but\\ncomparatively little nitrogen whilst human faeces contain\\nlittle of the former ingredient, but much phosphate, and a\\nlarger proportion of nitrogen. There will be seen even a\\ndifference in these respects between the manure afforded by\\nthe inhabitants of towns, fed principally upon animal food,\\nand that of peasants, who subsist in a greater degree upon\\nvegetables.\\nIn like manner, the excrement of cattle is more effica-\\ncious as manure, when the animal is well fed, and under-\\ngoing the fatting process, than when it is more scantily\\nnourished.\\nAccording to Sprengel, there is a difTerence between\\ndifferent kinds of herbivorous animals in this respect, cows\\nI have seen no attempt to account for the formation of nitrate of\\nsoda in such large quantities in Peru, and may therefore offer the fol-\\nlowing, as at least a plausible solution.\\nWherever salt lakes occur, which become partially or wholly dried\\nup during a part of the year, carbonate of soda will be formed from the\\ndecomposition of common salt. This I have observed myself on the\\nsandy plains of Hungary, in the neighborhood of Pesth. Now if any\\ncircumstances should concur in such spots, calculated to generate nitric\\nacid, the latter, by its stronger affinity for the alkali, would take the\\nplace of tiie carbonic acid, and nitrate of soda would result.\\nTliis, however, being a deliquescent salt, would not accumulate on\\nthe surface, except in countries like Peru, remarkable for their extreme\\ndryness.\\nBut how are we to account for the generation of so large a quanti-\\nty of nitric acid in this locality.\\nIf we suppose with Mr. Darwin, that the district in which the salt\\nis found was once a lake or inland sea, its change to dry land must have\\ncaused the destruction of all its marine inhabitants. Now the decom-\\nposition of their exuvite would, in a warm climate, present themselves,\\nas stated in the text, in the form, rather of nitric acid, than of ammonia.\\nHence the production of so much nitrate of soda in Peru, is attrib-\\nutable to the heat its preservation to the dryness of the climate.\\n24", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "278 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nrequiring, for the chemical constitution of their body, or\\nfor the formation of their milk, more nitrogen, and more\\nphosphate of lime, than sheep whilst the latter require\\nagain more sulphur, and moie common salt, for the forma-\\ntion of their wool. Hence the excrements of oxen contain\\nless nitrogen than those of sheep, whilst they are more\\nabundant in salt and sulphur.\\nAccordingly it is found in practice, that sheep s dung\\nferments more readily than that of black cattle. The\\nlatter, therefore, says Liebig, is of most service on soils\\nconsisting of lime and sand, which contain no silicate of\\npotass or phosphates, whilst their value is much less when\\napplied to soils formed of argillaceous earth, basalt, gran-\\nite, porphyry, clinkstone, and even mountain limestone,\\nbecause all these contain potass in considerable quantity.\\nHuman excrements, on the contrary, are useful in\\nboth descriptions of soil, but would be inadequate to supply\\nthe silicate of potass which is wanting in the former.\\nThe constituents, however, to which the solid excre-\\nments of animals in general owe their principal efficacy\\nare the earthy phosphates and hence we see, why it is\\nthat animal manure should favor the growth of corn, which\\ncontains so much phosphate of lime and magnesia, and\\nwhy the earth of bones, and even the ashes of certain\\nkinds of wood, such as the beech, which contain phos-\\nphates, may be advantageously substituted, whilst the ash-\\nes of others, as of the oak and fir, which are deficient in\\nthe phosphates, are of very little avail.\\nWe see also the cause of the fertilizing quality of\\nliquid manure, as employed in Holland, for those crops\\nwhich are most subservient to the nourishment of man.\\nLiquid manure consists in a great degree of the urine\\nof various animals, which, during its decomposition, exhales\\na larger quantity of ammonia than any other species of\\nexcrement.\\nNow all kinds of corn contain nitrogen, and conse-\\nquently any manure which yields a ready supply of ammo-\\nnia, must cause a fuller development of those parts of the\\nplant which are of the greatest use to man.\\nEven the kind of animal manure usually employed in\\nthis country owes its efficacy, so far as it is dependent\\nupon the ammonia present, to the urine, rather than to the\\nsolid excrement, of which it is made up, and hence be-\\ncomes materially deteriorated in this respect, when the\\nmore liquid portions are allowed to drain off from it.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 279\\nWe may also derive from these considerations, some\\nuseful cautions, as to the treatment of this same material.\\nAmmonia, in the free or uncombined condition in which\\nit is generated from the decomposition of animal substances,\\nis caustic and noxious to vegetation, and is likewise so\\nvolatile that it will escape into the atmosphere so soon as\\nit is produced, unless some means are taken to detain it.\\nJ his causticity is readily removed by promoting its\\ncombination with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, but\\nto prevent its escape during the time necessary for effect-\\ning this union, various expedients have been resorted to.\\nWhere water in sufficient quantity is present, along\\nwith the other materials of the dung-heap, this alone will\\nin some measure tend to prevent its volatilization, and the\\nsame object is further secured, by admixture with peat, a\\nrecommended by Lord Meadowbank, or with sawdust,\\ntanner. s bark, turf, and other similar substances. These\\ntoo are beneficial, not only by moderating the putrefactive\\nprocess, but also by detaining the ammonia generated\\nwithin their pores, and thus preventing its loss.\\nThe advantage of compost heaps, which are strongly\\nadvocated by some farmers, depends mainly on these prin-\\nciples.\\nThe method recommended by a writer, in a late num-\\nber of the English Agricultural Journal,* to whom a prize\\nof ten sovereigns was awarded for his Essay, consisted, in\\nfirst making a substratum of peat |ths, and sawdust |th\\nspreading over it the dung from the cattle-sheds, and the\\nurine preserved for the purpose in tanks contiguous and\\nthen, after allowing the mixture to remain exposed for a\\nweek, covering it with a fresh layer, nine inches or a foot\\nthick, of peat and sawdust, or of peat alone.\\nSeveral such alternations of peat and manure are to\\nbe piled one above the other during the winter, great care\\nbeing always taken, that the peat should be as dry as pos-\\nsible, by exposing it previously for several months to the\\nweather.\\nNow it will be immediately perceived, that these\\nrecommendations of a practical farmer completely fulfil\\nthe conditions, which theory suggests, for making the best\\nuse of our manure, by first neutralizing the ammonia, and\\nafterwards detaining it within the pores of a spongy sub-\\nstance, until it is spread over the land.\\nThe most effectual plan, however, of preventing its\\nPart II p. 13D.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "280 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nloss, would seem to be, not to wait for the slower action\\nof carbonic acid upon it, but to combine it directly with\\nthose acids, which form with it salts fixed at common tem-\\nperatures.\\nHence, Liebig advises the addition of sulphuric or of\\nmuriatic acid, both cheap substances, to the other materials\\nof the dung-heap, which, forming with the ammonia pres-\\nent, the sulphates and muriates of that alkali, would at\\nonce prevent any loss of it by evaporation.\\nIf these expedients be not adopted, it should at least be\\nborne Jr mind, that unless means are taken to prevent it,\\nthe most valuable portion of the manure is constantly\\nescaping, during exposure to air and sun, by evaporation,\\nand also by draining off into the ground, whence, instead\\nof a material calculated to afford a ready supply of nitro-\\ngen to the plant, we obtain an effete mass, in which that\\nelement is in a great measure wanting, and which, there-\\nfore, can only influence the growth of plants, by virtue of\\nthe phosphoric salts and other fixed ingredients still pres-\\nent in it.\\nThese views also throw some new light upon the use\\nof gypsum, or sulphate of lime, as a manure to certain\\ncrops.\\nThe fact, that leguminous plants contain this substance\\nas an essential ingredient, may in some measure explain\\nits fertilizing effect on them, but it is also found serviceable\\nto turnips and cabbages, which do not appear to contain it,\\nnor does it seem easy thus to explain the superior advan-\\ntage said to arise, from scattering it in fine powder over\\nthe leaves of clover and saintfoin, as is practised in France\\nand in North America, and with such manifest good effect,\\nthat, it is said, if the substance be partially applied to a\\nfield, the portions that have received this dressing may\\nafterwards be distinguished from the rest by the superior\\nluxuriance of the crop.\\nLiebig, therefore, has suggested another mode in\\nwhich gypsum may be beneficial to crops in general, by\\nreference to the property which it possesses, of depriving\\nammonia of its volatility, and thus preventing its escape\\ninto the atmosphere.\\nThis effect arises from the double decomposition which\\nlakes place, when sulphate of lime and carbonate of ammo-\\nnia are brought together, the lime being converted into a\\ncarbonate, and the ammonia uniting with sulphuric acid.\\nThe above theory of its use being admitted, we may", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 281\\nbe encouraged to extend its application to other crops\\nbesides the Leguminosae, and also to mix it with the dung\\nof our stables, so as to prevent the waste of this valuable\\nmaterial, which is constantly occurring. (See p. 191.)\\nBut the farmer must be reminded, that it will be neces-\\nsary, that the sulphate of ammonia resulting from the\\naction of the gypsum, should be brought into contact with\\nsome substance capable of slowly decomposing it, so as to\\nsupply ammonia to the plant.\\nFor there is no reason to believe, that the organs of a\\nvegetable can decompose sulphate of ammonia, and if they\\nwere able so to do, the disengagement of free sulphuric\\nacid in consequence could hardly fail to be injurious to\\ntheir structure.\\nNow a soil consisting of pure sand, or of clay, would\\nbe incapable of acting upon this salt, but contradictory as\\nit may seem to the fact, that carbonate of ammonia is\\ndecomposed by sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime does\\nappear in a slight degree to disengage ammonia even in\\nthe cold, as may be seen by the change of color produced\\nin a piece of turmeric or reddened litmus paper, placed\\nover a vessel containing powdered chalk, as soon as it is\\nmoistened with a solution of sulphate of ammonia.\\nAnd since this interchange of constituents is effected\\nrapidly under the influence of a high temperature, as hap-\\npens in the common method of obtaining carbonate of\\nammonia artificially by double decomposition, it is worth\\ninquiry, whether it may not be favored likewise by exposure\\nto solar heat and light.\\nWhere calcareous matter, therefore, exists in the soil,\\nammonia may be slowly supplied in this manner to the\\ngrowing plant, and it is possible even, that the carbonate\\nof lime, which seems to be generally present in the sap,\\nmay act in the same manner.\\nIn this way we may readily explain the use of scatter-\\ning gypsum over the leaves of clover shortly before a\\nshower of rain. The ammonia present in the latter is thus\\ndetained, and converted into sulphate by the action of the\\ngypsum upon it, and when introduced into the system by\\nthe absorbing surfaces of the plant, it may be again con-\\nverted into carbonate, by the slow action of the carbonate\\nof lime present in the sap.\\nWhen, however, a more rapid disengagement of am-\\nmoniacal gas is required for the nutrition of the intended\\ncrop, we ought not to trust to the slow action of carbonate\\n24*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "282 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nof lime, but should ap|)ly quicklime to the spots over which\\nthe manure has been scattered.\\nIt is probably in part by setting at liberty the volatile\\nalkali imprisoned in the soil, that quicklime acts so bene-\\nficially in agriculture, and in particular, that it improves\\nsoil containing a free acid, such as peat earth for, inde-\\npendently of its use in neutralizing a substance, which\\nchecks vegetation by its antiseptic properties, quicklime\\nmay also disengage a portion of ammonia combined with\\nthis acid, and thus atford to the plant a more abundant\\nsupply oi! the nitrogen, which it requires.\\nChloride of calcium, common salt, sulphuric and mu-\\nriatic acids, phosphate of lime, and other salts, may, it\\nwould seem, on the principles laid down, be substituted,\\nwhen gvpsum cannot be obtained.\\nThe chlorides, indeed, like certain oxides, (such as\\nwater and carbonic acid,) seem to be decomposed by the\\nplant under the influence of light, for chlorine is exhaled\\nby vegetables near the sea, as oxygen is in other situations.\\nHence, if muriate of ammonia should result from the\\naction of common salt upon the carbonate of ammonia\\npresent in rain, it may undergo decomposition when ab-\\nsorbed by the plant, and contribute in consequence to sup-\\nply it with nitrogen.\\nThe above considerations may suggest to us the utility\\nin agriculture of ammoniacal compounds of all kinds, as\\nsubstitutes for animal manure.\\nSal ammoniac is probably too expensive an article to\\nbe employed but sulphate of ammonia may be had of the\\nwholesale chemist at a price considerably more reasonable,\\nnamely, at 22/. per ton and the ammoniacal liquor, which\\nis afforded in abundance by our gas manufactories, through\\nthe distillation of coal, is a still cheaper commodity.\\nThe latter consists principally of carbonate of ammo-\\nnia, mixed with a certain proportion of the hydro-sulphuret,\\nand, until its use in agriculture was discovered, much of it\\nwas allowed to run waste into the Thames, where its nox-\\nious qualities destroyed the fish, and rendered the water\\nunpalatable and disgusting;.\\nIts efficacy as a manure is vouched for by many who\\nhave made trial of it upon their land,* and although the\\nhydro-sulphuret of ammonia in a concentrated form would\\ndoubtless be fatal to vegetation, yet in a proper state of\\nSee a communication by Mr. Paynter, on Gas- water as a Manure,\\nEng. Agricult. Journ. No. 1, p. 4.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 283\\ndilution it may be of service to certain crops, not merely\\nby virtue of the ammonia, but also in consequence of the\\nsulphuretted hydrogen, which it contains, since the latter\\nis found to be an ingredient in the turnip, and in some\\nother tribes of cruciferous plants.\\nWhere, however, it is found troublesome to preserve,\\nor difficult to convey to a distance this volatile material, an\\neasy method presents itself for retaining for any length of\\ntime the ammonia present in it.\\nThis is done, by availing ourselves of the same prin-\\nciple which has been already explained to you, in treating\\nof the uses of gypsum as a manure for as the gas liquor\\nconsists of ammonia, combined principally with carbonic\\nacid, it is evident, that it may be converted into a sulphate\\nby admixture with sulphate of lime.\\nI am indebted to an excellent scientific chemist* for\\nthe following details, which may be of use to the agricul-\\nturist in enabling him to appreciate the importance of this\\ncommodity, and to prepare for himself any quantity that he\\nmay require for his farm.\\nOne gallon of the ammoniacal liquor added to 1 lb. 2-^\\nozs. of powdered but not calcined gypsum, will produce\\nI lb, of crystallized sulphate of ammonia. To effect the\\ndecomposition, the materials should be mixed and stirred\\nup together for ten or twelve hours, a heat, below that of\\nebullition, being at the same time employed. The suljjhate\\nof ammonia remains in solution, and may be obtained in a\\nsolid state, by evaporating at a low temperature.\\nTheory would suggest, that this material ought to sup-\\nply nitrogen to the crop at a much cheaper rate than the\\nnitrates employed for that purpose. For let us suppose,\\nthat the farmer wishes to add to his land 60 lbs. of crys-\\ntallized sulphate of ammonia. This may be obtained by\\nintroducing about 70 lbs. of powdered gypsum uncalcined\\ninto 50 gallons of ammoniacal liquor for my informant\\nfound, that one gallon mixed with chloride of calcium\\nyielded 4800 grs. of carbonate of lime, equivalent to about\\n7200 grs. of crystallized sulphate of ammonia, or 1 lb. 3\\nozs. Now 4800 grs. of carbonate of lime are equivalent\\nto 8250 grs., or to 1 lb. 5 ozs. of sulphate of lime, with 2\\natoms of water.\\nThis, therefore, is the quantity of gypsum required, to\\nMr. Richard Phillips, the superintendent of the chemical depart-\\nment of the establishment, connected with the Museum of Economic\\nGeology, lately instituted by government.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "284 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\nconvert the contents of 1 gallon of gas liquor into sulphate\\nof ammonia, and accordingly, 50 gallons will require 70\\nlbs. of gypsum, and will produce about 60 lbs. of the am-\\nmoniacal sulphate.\\nNow since the price per ton of gypsum is from 2/. to\\n3/., the cost of 70 lbs. of it cannot exceed 2s., and the\\nlabor of mixing the materials may be reckoned at about as\\nmuch more so that to a gas company, where this liquor,\\nnot being employed for manufacturing any of the salts of\\nammonia, has hitherto been regarded as so much refuse,\\nand where the heat requisite for evaporating and crystal-\\nlizing the product can be obtained with scarcely any in-\\ncreased expenditure, the cost of the impure sulphate would\\nnot exceed one penny per pound.\\nThis then is less than half the cost of an equal quantity\\nof nitrate of soda, which at its present price (23s. per\\ncwt.) may be reckoned at two-pence-halfpenny a pound,\\nand yet it may be shown, that a given weight of sulphate\\nof ammonia contains more ammonia, and consequently\\nought to yield more nitrogen, than nitrate of soda.*\\nSulphate of ammonia 75 pis. contain of ammonia 17= nitrogen iJ.\\nwhilst\\nNitrate of soda 86 pts 17= 14.\\nSo far as theory goes, therefore, the balance would\\nseem to be in favor of the efficiency of sulphate of am-\\nmonia over nitrate of soda, in the proportion of 75 to 86.\\nThese considerations are merely offered, by way of\\nencouragement to those who may be disposed to make trial\\nof this promising kind of manure, and of course v. ill go\\nfor little until they have been tested by experiment.\\nThere are other materials also employed as manure,\\nwhich appear to owe their efficacy to the presence of am-\\nmonia, such, for example, as soot, which contains a con-\\nsiderable proportion of this principle united with carbonic\\nacid, and which accordingly has for a long time been ad-\\nvantageously employed as a top-dressing to land.\\nLastly, the foregoing considerations point out the de-\\ncided superiority of human to other sorts of animal manure.\\nIndependently of its being richer in most of those in-\\ngredients on which the fertilizing property of manure de-\\npends, the following circumstance gives it an advantage.\\nNitrate of potass ought to contain ten per cent, less nitric acid\\nthan nitrate of soda, hut, as it is a less deliquescent salt, the difference\\nuetween the two, as obtained in commerce, is not very considerable.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "PRACTICAL INFERENCES. 285\\nWhen the excrements of the horse or ox are employed,\\nwe are obliged to allow of their undergoing a long previous\\nprocess of fermentation, by which a large proportion of their\\nvaluable matter is got rid of, in order, as much as possible,\\nto destroy the vitality of the seeds, which pass undigested\\nalong with the faeces. And after all many still remain,\\nand are thus introduced into the fields when the manure is\\nscattered over them.\\nBy the use of night-soil we avoid this inconvenience,\\nand hence it is, that in China, where it is exclusively em-\\nployed, the corn-fields are remarkably exempt from weeds.\\nChemistry has suggested means for destroying those\\noffensive qualities which have hitherto limited the use of\\nthis species of manure, although it is stated by Liebig,\\nthat the method adopted for that purpose on the Continent\\nis defective, inasmuch as a large proportion of their am-\\nmoniacal contents is allowed to escape.\\nEven under its present management, however, the pro-\\ncess may be regarded as one of the most important pres-\\nents which chemistry has yet made to the practical farmer,\\nby rendering the accumulated filth of a large capital avail-\\nable for his purposes, in the remotest corner of the British\\nempire.\\nProfessor Daubeny concludes his lecture with some high-\\nly ingenious speculations on the primary source of the\\ncarbon and nitrogen present in plants and animals. He\\ndoes not deem it probable that a quantity of organic\\nmatter was called into existence at once, sufficient to sup-\\nply the v/hole of the succeeding races of plants and ani-\\nmals with these ingredients or that the whole, which is\\nnow condensed in the organization of the animal and vege-\\ntable kingdoms, was at any one time present in the atmo-\\nsphere but that the carbon and nitrogen of plants was\\noriginally supplied from the interior of the earth by vol-\\ncanos. The fertility of the neighborhood of Naples Dr.\\nD. attributes to volcanic exhalations.\\nOnce grant, he continues, with Liebig, that the\\nnitrogen, which plants possess, can only be obtained by\\nthem through the decomposition of ammonia, and it will\\nfollow, that unless this gas be supplied from the interior of\\nthe globe, the quantity of organic matter, into which this\\nprinciple enters as a component part, will be undergoing\\na continual diminution.\\nFor we know of no natural processes taking place on\\nthe surface of the globe, which generate ammonia, ex-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "286 APPENDIX TO PART I.\\ncepting those connected with animal and vegetable decompo-\\nsition whilst there are many, such as the combustion of\\nvarious organic substances, which, by resolving bodies\\ncontaining nitrogen into their constituent elements, would\\nhave diminished the aggregate amount of them which might\\nhave formerly existed.\\nSome compensating process, therefore, is clearly re-\\nquired, and that, if I mistake not, is the disengagement of\\nammoniacal gas from the interior of the globe.\\nGranting, then, what upon Liebig s principles seems\\nmost consistent with analogy, namely, that the ammonia,\\nno less^han the carbonic acid, which formed the food of\\nthe first plants, has been produced, not by processes of ani-\\nmal decay, but by such as were proceeding within the globe\\nprior to the creation of living beings, the notion of a slow\\nand continuous disengagement of both compounds, from the\\nearliest period to the present time, will be received perhaps,\\nas at loast the most probable mode of accounting for their\\nunfailing supply.\\nWhilst it relieves us from the difficulty of supposing the\\natmosphere surcharged with these gases at any one period,\\nit suggests to us, at the same time, sublime and interesting\\nviews of the arrangements of the Deity, in thus having made\\nall things subservient to one common end, and having or-\\ndained, that the mighty agents of destruction, which exist\\nin the bowels of the earth, should minister, like the malig-\\nnant Genii of some eastern fable, to the wants and necessities\\nof the living beings, which He has placed upon its surface.\\nUSE OF PHOSPHATE OF SODA IN CALICO PRINTIKG.*\\n(See page 186.)\\nThe discovery of the principle which led to the use of\\nphosphate of soda, was made in the United States, by Dr.\\nDana, of Lowell. The first practical application of the\\nsalt was made, in consequence of Dr. Dana s researches,\\nby Mr. J. D. Prince, Jr., at the works of the Merrimack\\nManufacturing Company in Lowell, in 1834. Mr. J. D.\\nPrince, Sen., the scientific and accomplished superintend-\\nent of the establishment, was engaged with Dr. Dana for a\\nSubstance of a communication from Dr. Dana.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "DANIELL S ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 287\\nseries of years on this subject. In 1839, Mr. Prince, Jr.\\ncarried the process to England, and, with Mr. J. Mercer and\\nBlyth, took out letters patent. Mr. Prince sold his right to\\nMessrs. Mercer and Blyth, who introduced the process into\\nthe establishments on the Continent. The article is now\\nmade by M. Kestner, of Thann, who observes, in his letter\\nto the Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, accompanying\\na sample, and on which their committee reported, Bulletin\\nNo. 6 3, that the article is the invention of Messrs. Mercer\\nand Blyth, printers of calicoes near Manchester.\\nDr. Liebig probably derived his knowledge of this im-\\nprovement from the Bulletin referred to above, and his\\nstatement is only partial respecting the effects of cow-dung.\\nThe discovery of the principle of its action has led to the\\nemployment of other salts, which produce effects equally\\ngood as phosphates.\\nDANIELL S ARTIFICIAL MANURE.*\\nThe basis of this manure is wood reduced to powder,\\nsawdust, which is to be thoroughly saturated with bituminous\\nand animal matters of all or any kind to this is to be\\nadded small proportions of soda and quicklime. The\\nsample exhibited to the Royal Agricultural Society, was a\\ncoarse black powder, having a strong smell, somewhat\\nresembling coal tar. In England its price will be about\\none third that of bone dust. It is a kind of artificial\\nbituminous coal. It should be buried two or three\\ninches under the surface of the soil. For grass land,\\nit is to be well mixed with a considerable portion of\\nordinary unvalued mould. The quantity to be used will\\nvary with the crop. About twenty-four bushels per acre\\nare recommended for wheat, and half as much more,\\nor thirty-si.K bushels, may be carefully applied for turnips\\nor mangel-wurtzel. Its direct effect is thought to be the\\nconveyance to the soil of the direct nutriment of future\\ngrowth. This effect is produced by the supply of ammo-\\nnia to the soil in substances calculated to retain it for a\\ntime, to again absorb it from the atmosphere, as they\\ngive it out to plants during their growth. It will probably\\nprevent also the ravages of insects.\\nAbridged from notices in the New Genesee Farmer, Vol. III., by\\nJ. E. T. J", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "PART II.\\nOF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF FERMENTATION,\\nDECAY, AND PUTREFACTION.\\nCHAPTER I.\\nCHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nWoody fibre, sugar, gum, and all such organic\\ncompounds, suffer certain changes when in contact\\nwith other bodies that is, they suffer decomposition.\\nThere are two distinct modes in which these de-\\ncompositions take place in organic chemistry.\\nWhen a substance composed of two compound\\nbodies, crystallized oxalic acid for example, is brought\\nin contact w4th concentrated sulphuric acid, a com-\\nplete decomposition is effected upon the application\\nof a gentle heat. Now crystallized oxalic acid is a\\ncombination of water with the anhydrous acid but\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid possesses a much greater\\naffinity for water than oxalic acid, so that it attracts\\nall the water of crystallization from that substance.\\nIn consequence of this abstraction of the water, an-\\nhydrous oxalic acid is set free; but as this acid can-\\nnot exist in a free state, a division of its constitu-\\nents necessarily ensues, by which carbonic acid and\\ncarbonic oxide are produced, and evolved in the\\ngaseous form in equal volumes. In this example,\\nthe decomposition is the consequence of the removal\\nof two constituents (the elements of water), which\\nunite with the sulphuric acid, and its cause is the\\nsuperior affinity of the acting body (the sulphuric\\nacid) for water. In consequence of the removal of\\n25", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "290 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nthe component parts of water, the remaining ele-\\nments enter into a new form in place of oxalic acid,\\nwe have its elements in the form of carbonic acid\\nand carbonic oxide.\\nThis form of decomposition, in which the change\\nis effected by the agency of a body which unites with\\none or more of the constituents of a compound, is\\nquite analogous to the decomposition of inorganic\\nsubstances. When we bring sulphuric acid and ni-\\ntrate^pf potash together, nitric acid is separated in\\nconsequence of the affinity of sulphuric acid for pot-\\nash in consequence, therefore, of the formation of\\na new compound (sulphate of potash).\\nIn the second form of these decompositions, the\\nchemical affinity of the acting body causes the com-\\nponent parts of the body which is decomposed to\\ncombine so as to form new compounds, of which\\neither both, or only one, combine with the acting\\nbody. Let us take dry wood, for example, and moist-\\nen it with sulphuric acid after a short time the wood\\nis carbonized, while the sulphuric acid remains un-\\nchanged, with the exception of its being united with\\nmore water than it possessed before. Now this wa-\\nter did not exist as such in the wood, although its\\nelements, oxygen and hydrogen, were present but\\nby the chemical attraction of sulphuric acid for wa-\\nter, they were in a certain measure compelled to\\nunite in this form and in consequence of this, the\\ncarbon of wood was separated as charcoal.\\nHydrocyanic acid* and water, in contact with hy-\\ndrochloric acid,t are mutually decomposed. The\\nnitrogen of the hydrocyanic acid, and a certain quan-\\ntity of the hydrogen of the water, unite together and\\nform ammonia; whilst the carbon and hydrogen of\\nthe hydrocyanic acid combine with the oxygen of the\\nwater, and form forinic acid. The ammonia com-\\nSee pag;e 70. note.\\ni Formerly called Muriatic Acid, obtained from sea salt and compos-\\ned of Hydrogen and Chlorine in equal vols. H CI.\\nI See page 70.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "EXAMPLES. 291\\nbines with the muriatic acid. Here the contact of\\nmuriatic acid with water and hydrocyanic acid caus-\\nes a disturbance in the attraction of the elements of\\nboth compounds, in consequence of which they ar-\\nrange themselves into new combinations, one of\\nwhich, ammonia, possesses the power of uniting\\nwith the acting body.\\nInorganic chemistry can present instances analo-\\ngous to this class of decomposition also but there\\nare forms of organic chemical decomposition of a\\nvery different kind, in which none of the component\\nparts of the matter which suffers decomposition enter\\ninto combination with the body which determines the\\ndecomposition. In cases of this kind a disturbance\\nis produced in the mutual attraction of the elements\\nof a compound, and they in consequence arrange\\nthemselves into one or several new combinations,\\nwhich are incapable of suffering further change under\\nthe same conditions.\\nWhen, by means of the chemical affinity of a sec-\\nond body, by the influence of heat, or through any\\nother causes, the composition of an organic compound\\nis made to undergo such a change, that its elements\\nform two or more new compounds, this manner of\\ndecomposition is called a chemical transformation or\\nmetamorphosis. It is an essential character of chem-\\nical transformations, that none of the elements of the\\nbody decomposed are singly set at liberty.\\nThe changes, which are designated by the terms\\nfermentation, decay, and putrefaction, are chemical\\ntransformations effected by an agency which has\\nhitherto escaped attention, but the existence of\\nwhich will be proved in the following pages.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "292 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nCHAPTER II.\\nON THE CAUSES WHICH EFFECT FERMENTATION, DECAY,*\\nAND PUTREFACTION.\\nAttention has been recently directed to the fact,\\nthat a body in the act of combination or decomposi-\\ntion t*xercises an influence upon any other body with\\nwhich it may be in contact. Platinum, for example,\\ndoes not decompose nitric acid it may be boiled\\nwith this acid without being oxidized by it, even\\nwhen in a state of such fine division, that it no long-\\ner reflects light (black spongy platinum). But an\\nalloy of silver and platinum dissolves with great ease\\nin nitric acid; the oxidation which the silver suffers,\\ncauses the platinum to submit to the same change\\nor, in other words, the latter body, from its contact\\nwith the oxidizing silver, acquires the property of\\ndecomposing nitric acid.\\nCopper does not decompose water, even when\\nboiled in dilute sulphuric acid; but an alloy of cop-\\nper, zinc, and nickel, dissolves easily in this acid\\nwith evolution of hydrogen gas.\\nTin decomposes nitric acid with great facility, but\\nwater with difficulty and yet, when tin is dissolved\\nin nitric acid, hydrogen is evolved at the same time,\\nfrom a decomposition of the water contained in the\\nacid, and ammonia is formed in addition to oxide\\nof tin.\\nIn the examples here given, the only combination\\nor decomposition which can be explained by chemi-\\ncal affinity is the last. In the other cases, electrical\\nAn essential distinction is drawn in the following part of the work,\\nbetween decay and putrefaction {Vcrwesung und Fdulniss), and they are\\nshown to depend on different causes but as tlie word decay is not gen-\\nerally applied to a distinct species of decomposition, and does not indi-\\ncate its true nature, I shall in future, at the sugo^eslinn of the author,\\nemploy the term cremacausis, the meaning of wliich has been already\\nexplained. Eu.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "THEIR CAUSES. 293\\naction ought to have retarded or prevented the oxi-\\ndation of the platinum or copper while they were in\\ncontact with silver or zinc, but, as experience shows,\\nthe influence of the opposite electrical conditions is\\nmore than counterbalanced by chemical actions.\\nThe same phenomena are seen in a less dubious\\nform in compounds, the elements of which are held\\ntogether only by a feeble affinity. It is well known,\\nthat there are chemical compounds of so unstable a\\nnature, that changes in temperature and electrical\\ncondition, or even simple mechanical friction, or con-\\ntact with bodies of apparently totally indifferent na-\\ntures, cause such a disturbance in the attraction of\\ntheir constituents, that the latter enter into new\\nforms, without any of them combining with the act-\\ning body. These compounds appear to stand but\\njust within the limits of chemical combination, and\\nagents exercise a powerful influence on them, which\\nare completely devoid ot action on compounds of a\\nstronger affinity. Thus, by a slight increase of tem-\\nperature, th elements of hypochlorous acid* sep-\\narate from one another with evolution of heat and\\nlight chloride of nitrogen explodes by contact w^ith\\nmany bodies, which combine neither with chlorine\\nnor nitrogen at common temperatures and the con-\\ntact of any solid substance is sufficient to cause the\\nexplosion of iodide of nitrogen, or fulminating silver.\\nIt has never been supposed that the causes of the\\ndecomposition of these bodies should be ascribed to\\na peculiar power, different from that which regulates\\nchemical affinity, a power which mere contact with\\nthe down of a feather is sufficient to set in activity,\\nand which, once in action, gives rise to the decora-\\nposition. These substances have always been viewed\\nas chemical compounds of a very unstable nature, in\\nwhich the component parts are in a state of such\\ntension, that the least disturbance overcomes their\\nchemical affinity. They exist only by the vis inc7 ti(v.,\\nFormerly, protoxide of chlorine.\\n25*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "294 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nand any shock or movement is sufficient to destroy\\nthe attraction of their component parts, and conse-\\nquently their existence in their definite form.\\nPeroxide of hydrogen* belongs to this class of\\nbodies it is decomposed by all substances capable\\nof attracting oxygen from it, and even by contact\\nwith many bodies, such as platinum or silver, which\\ndo not enter into combination with any of its con-\\nstituents. In this respect, its decomposition depends\\nevidei tly upon the same causes which effect that of\\niodide of nitrogen, or fulminating silver. Yet it is\\nsingular, that the cause of the sudden separation of\\nthe component parts of peroxide of hydrogen has\\nbeen viewed as different from those of common de-\\ncomposition, and has been ascribed to a new power\\ntermed the catalytic force. Now, it has not been con-\\nsidered, that the presence of the platinum and silver\\nserves here only to accelerate the decomposition;\\nfor without the contact of these metals, the peroxide\\nof hydrogen decomposes spontaneously, although\\nvery slowly. The sudden separation of the constit-\\nuents of peroxide of hydrogen differs from the de-\\ncomposition of gaseous hypochlorous acid, or solid\\niodide of nitrogen, only in so far as the decomposi-\\ntion takes place in a liquid.\\nA remarkable action of peroxide of hydrogen has\\nattracted much attention, because it differs from\\nordinary chemical phenomena. This is the reduction\\nwhich certain oxides suffer by contact with this sub-\\nstance, on the instant at which the oxygen separates\\nfrom the water. The oxides thus easily reduced,\\nare those of which the whole, or part at least, of\\ntheir oxygen is retained merely by a feeble affinity,\\nsuch as the oxides of silver and of gold, and perox-\\nide of lead.\\nNow, other oxides, which are very stable in com-\\nposition, effect the decomposition of peroxide of hy-\\nA remarkable compound, consisting of 1 Hydrogen, and 2 Oxygen.\\nSee description and process for obtaining, in Webster s Cheinistry,\\np. 134.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "THEIR CAUSE. 295\\ndrogen, without experiencing the smallest change\\nbut when oxide of silver is employed to effect\\nthe decomposition, all the oxygen of the silver is\\ncarried away with that evolved from the peroxide\\nof hydrogen, and, as a result of the decomposition,\\nwater and metallic silver remain. When peroxide\\nof lead is used for the same purpose, half its oxy-\\ngen escapes as a gas. Peroxide of manganese may\\nin the same manner be reduced to the protoxide, and\\nogygen set at liberty, if an acid is at the same time\\npresent, which will exercise an affinity for the pro-\\ntoxide and convert it into a soluble salt. If, for ex-\\nample, we add to peroxide of hydrogen sulphuric\\nacid, and then peroxide of manganese in the state of\\nfine powder, much more oxygen is evolved than the\\ncompound of oxygen and hydrogen could yield and\\nif we examine the solution which remains, we find a\\nsalt of the protoxide of manganese, so that half of\\nthe oxygen has been evolved from the peroxide of\\nthat metal.\\nA similar phenomenon occurs, when carbonate of\\nsilver is treated with several organic acids. Pyruvic\\nacid, for example, combines readily with pure oxide\\nof silver, and forms a salt of sparing solubility in\\nwater. But when this acid is brought in contact\\nwith carbonate of silver, the oxygen of part of the\\noxide escapes with the carbonic acid, and metal-\\nlic silver remains in the state of a black powder.\\n(Berzelius.)\\nNow no other explanation of these phenomena\\ncan be given, than that a body in the act of com-\\nbination or decomposition enables another body, with\\nwhich it is in contact, to enter into the same state.\\nIt is evident that the active state of the atoms of one\\nbody has an influence upon- the atoms of a body in\\ncontact with it; and if these atoms are capable of\\nthe same change as the former, they likewise under-\\nA peroxide is one that contains the largest proportion of oxygen.\\nWhen several compounds of metals and oxygen occur, that which con-\\ntains the s;nallest proportion of oxygen is called the first or protoxide.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "296 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\ngo that change; and combinations and decompo-\\nsitions are the consequence. But when the atoms\\nof the second body are not capable of such an action,\\nany further disposition to change ceases from the\\nmoment at which the atoms of the first body assume\\nthe state of rest, that is, when the changes or trans-\\nformations of this body are quite completed.\\nThis influence exerted by one compound upon the\\nother, is exactly similar to that which a body in the\\nact of ^ombustion exercises upon a combustible body\\nin its vicinity with this difference only, that the\\ncauses which determine the participation and dura-\\ntion of these conditions are different. For the cause,\\nin the case of the combustible body, is heat, which\\nis generated every moment anew; whilst in the phe-\\nnomena of decomposition and combination which we\\nare considering at present, the cause is a body in\\nthe state of chemical action, which exerts the de-\\ncomposing influence only so long as this action\\ncontinues.\\nNumerous facts show, that motion alone exercises\\na considerable influence on chemical forces. Thus,\\nthe power of cohesion does not act in many saline\\nsolutions, even when they are fully saturated with\\nsalts, if they are permitted to cool whilst at- rest.\\nIn such a case, the salt dissolved in a liquid does not\\ncrystallize; but when a grain of sand is thrown into,\\nthe solution, or when it receives the slightest move-\\nment, the whole liquid becomes suddenly solid while\\nheat is evolved. The same phenomenon happens\\nwith water, for this liquid may be cooled much under\\n32\u00c2\u00b0 F. (0\u00c2\u00b0 C), if kept completely undisturbed, but\\nsolidifies in a moment when put in motion.\\nThe atoms of a body must in fact be set in motion\\nbefore they can overcome the vis inertioi so as to ar-\\nrange themselves into certain forms. A dilute solution\\nof a salt of potash mixed with tartaric acid yields no\\nprecipitate whilst at rest; but if motion is communi-\\ncated to the solution by agitating it briskly, solid\\ncrystals of cream of tartar are deposited. A solu-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION. 297\\ntion of a salt of magnesia, also, which is not rendered\\nturbid by the addition of phosphate of ammonia, de-\\nposits the phosphate of magnesia and ammonia on\\nthose parts of the vessel touched with the rod em-\\nployed in stirring.\\nIn the processes of combination and decompo-\\nsition under consideration, motion, by overcoming\\nthe vis ijierticB, gives rise immediately to another\\narrangement of the atoms of a body, that is, to the\\nproduction of a compound which did not before\\nexist in it. Of course these atoms must previously\\npossess the power of arranging themselves in a cer-\\ntain order, otherwise both friction and motion w^ould\\nbe without the smallest influence.\\nThe simple permanence in position of the atoms\\nof a body, is the reason that so many compounds ap-\\npear to present themselves, in conditions, and with\\nproperties, different from those which they possess,\\nwhen they obey the natural attractions of their atoms.\\nThus sugar and glass, when melted and cooled rapid-\\nly, are transparent, of a conchoidal fracture, and\\nelastic and flexible to a certain degree. But the\\nformer becomes dull and opaque on keeping, and\\nexhibits crystalline faces by cleavage, which belong\\nto crystallized sugar. Glass assumes also the same\\ncondition, when kept soft by heat for a long period\\nit becomes white, opaque, and so hard as to strike\\nfire with steel. Now, in both these bodies, the com-\\npound molecules evidently have different positions\\nin the two forms. In the first form their attraction\\ndid not act in the direction in which their power of\\ncohesion was strongest. It is known, also, that when\\nsulphur is melted and cooled rapidly by throwing it\\ninto cold water, it remains transparent, elastic, and\\nso soft that it may be drawn out into long threads\\nbut that after a few hours or days, it becomes again\\nhard and crystalline.\\nThe remarkable fact here is, that the amorphous\\nsugar or sulphur returns again into the crystalline\\ncondition, without any assistance from an exterior-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "298 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\ncause a fact which shows, that their molecules have\\nassumed another position, and that they possess,\\ntherefore, a certain degree of mobility, even in the\\ncondition of a solid. A very rapid transposition or\\ntransformation of this kind is seen in arragonite, a\\nmineral which possesses exactly the same compo-\\nsition as calcareous spar, but of which the hardness\\nand crystalline form prove that its molecules are\\narranged in a different manner. When a crystal of\\narrago\u00c2\u00bbite is heated, an interior motion of its mole-\\ncules is caused by the expansion the permanence\\nof their arrangement is destroyed and the crystal\\nsplinters with much violence, and falls into a heap\\nof small crystals of calcareous spar.\\nIt is impossible for us to be deceived regarding the\\ncauses of these changes. They are owing to a dis-\\nturbance of the state of the equilibrium, in con-\\nsequence of which the particles of the body put in\\nmotion obey other affinities or their own natural\\nattractions.\\nBut if it is true, as we have just shown it to be,\\nthat mechanical motion is sufficient to cause a change\\nof condition in many bodies, it cannot be doubted\\nthat a body in the act of combination or decompo-\\nsition is capable of imparting the same condition of\\nmotion or activity in which its atoms are to certain\\nother bodies or in other words, to enable other\\nbodies with which it is in contact to enter into com-\\nbinations, or suffer decompositions.\\nThe reality of this influence has been already suffi-\\nciently proved by the facts derived from inorganic\\nchemistry, but it is of much more frequent occurrence\\nin the relations of organic matter, and causes very\\nstriking and wonderful phenomena.\\nBy the iavms fermentatioji, putrefaction, and erema-\\ncausis, are meant those changes in form and prop-\\nerties which compound organic substances undergo\\nwhen separated from the organism, and exposed to\\nthe influence of water and a certain temperature.\\nFermentation and putrefaction are examples of that", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION. 299\\nkind of decomposition, which we have named trans-\\nformations the elements of the bodies capable of\\nundergoing these changes arrange themselves into\\nnew combinations, in which the constituents of water\\ngenerally take a part.\\nEretnacausis (or decay) differs from fermentation\\nand putrefaction, inasmuch as it cannot take place\\nwithout the access of air, the oxygen of which is\\nabsorbed by the decaying bodies. Hence, it is a\\nprocess of slow combustion, in which heat is uni-\\nformly evolved, and occasionally even light. In the\\nprocesses of decomposition termed fermentation and\\nputrefaction, gaseous products are very frequently\\nformed, which are either inodorous, or possess a very\\noffensive smell.\\nThe transformations of those matters which evolve\\ngaseous products without odor, are now, by pretty\\ngeneral consent, designated by the term fermenta-\\ntion; whilst to the spontaneous decomposition of\\nbodies which emit gases of a disagreeable smell, the\\nterm putrefaction is applied. But the smell is of\\ncourse no distinctive character of the nature of the\\ndecomposition, for both fermentation and putrefac-\\ntion are processes of decomposition of a similar kind,\\nthe one of substances destitute of nitrogen, the oth-\\ner of substances which contain it.\\nIt has also been customary to distinguish from\\nfermentation and putrefaction a particular class of\\ntransformations, viz., those in which conversions and\\ntranspositions are effected without the evolution of\\ngaseous products. But the conditions under which\\nthe products of the decomposition present them-\\nselves are purely accidental there is, therefore, no\\nreason for the distinction just mentioned.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "300 CnE,-\\\\IICAL TRAXSFORiMATIONS.\\nCHAPTER III.\\nFERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION.\\nSeveral bodies appear to enter spontaneously into\\nthe states of fermentation and putrefaction, particu-\\nlarly such as contain nitrogen or azotized substan-\\nces. Now, it is very remarkable, that very small\\nquantities of these substances, in a state of fermenta-\\ntion or putrefaction, possess the power of causing\\nunlimited quantities of similar matters to pass into\\nthe same state. Thus, a small quantity of the juice\\nof grapes in the act of fermentation, added to a\\nlarge quantity of the same fluid, which does not fer-\\nment, induces the state of fermentation in the whole\\nmass. So likewise the most minute portion of milk,\\npaste, juice of the beet-root, flesh, or blood, in the\\nstate of putrefaction, causes fresh milk, paste, juice\\nof the beet-root, flesh, or blood, to pass into the\\nsame condition when in contact with them.\\nThese changes evidently differ from the class of\\ncommon decompositions which are effected by chem-\\nical affinity; they are chemical actions, conversions,\\nor decompositions, excited by contact with bodies\\nalready in the same condition. In order to form a\\nclear idea of these processes, analogous and less\\ncomplicated phenomena must previously be studied.\\nThe compound nature of the mol ecules of an or-\\nganic body, and the phenomena presented by them\\nwhen in relation with other matters, point out the\\ntrue cause of these transformations. Evidence is\\nafforded even by simple bodies, that in the formation\\nof combinations, the force with which the combining\\nelements adhere to one another is inversely propor-\\ntional to the number of simple atoms in the com-\\npound molecule. Thus, protoxide of manganese by\\nabsorption of oxygen is converted into the sesqui-\\noxide, the peroxide, manganic, and hypermanganic", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 301\\nacids, the number of atoms of oxygen being aug-\\nmented by I, by 1, by 2, and by 5. But all the\\noxygen contained in these compounds, beyond that\\nwhich belongs to the protoxide, is bound to the\\nmanganese by a much more feeble affinity a red\\nheat causes an evolution of oxygen from the per-\\noxide, and the manganic and hypermanganic acids\\ncannot be separated from their bases without under-\\ngoing immediate decomposition.\\nThere are many facts which prove, that the most\\nsimple inorganic compounds are also the most stable,\\nand undergo decomposition with the greatest diffi-\\nculty, whilst those which are of a complex composi-\\ntion yield easily to changes and decompositions.\\nThe cause of this evidently is, that, in proportion to\\nthe number of atoms which enter into a compound,\\nthe directions in which their attractions act will be\\nmore numerous.\\nWhatever ideas we may entertain regarding the\\ninfinite divisibility of matter in general, the exist-\\nence of chemical proportions removes every doubt\\nrespecting the presence of certain limited groups or\\nmasses of matter which we have not the power of\\ndividing. The particles of matter called equivalents\\nin chemistry are not infinitely small, for they possess\\na weight, and are capable of arranging themselves\\nin the most various ways, and of thus forming\\ninnumerable compound atoms. The properties of\\nthese compound atoms differ in organic nature, not\\nonly according to the form, but also in many instan-\\nces according to the direction and place, which the\\nsimple atoms take in the compound molecules.\\nWhen we compare the composition of organic\\ncompounds with inorganic, we are quite amazed at\\nthe existence of combinations, in one single molecule\\nof which, ninety or several hundred atoms or equiv-\\nalents are united. Thus, the compound atom of an\\norganic acid of very simple composition, acetic acid,\\nfor example, contains twelve equivalents of simple\\nelements; one atom of kinovic acid contains 33, 1\\n26", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "302 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nof sugar 36, 1 of amygdalin 90, and 1 of stearic\\nacid 138 equivalents. The component parts of\\nanimal bodies are infinitely more complex even than\\nthese.\\nInorganic compounds differ from organic in as\\ngreat a degree in their other characters as in their\\nsimplicity of constitution. Thus, the decomposition\\nof a compound atom of sulphate of potash is aided\\nby numerous causes, such as the power of cohesion,\\nor the^capability of its constituents to form solid,\\ninsoluble, or at certain temperatures volatile com-\\npounds with the body brought into contact with it,\\nand nevertheless a vast number of other substances\\nproduce in it not the slightest change. Now, in the\\ndecomposition of a complex organic atom, there is\\nnothing similar to this.\\nThe empirical formula of sulphate of potash is\\nSKO4.* It contains only 1 eq. of sulphur, and 1 eq.\\nof potassium. We may suppose the oxygen to be\\ndifferently distributed in the compound, and by a\\ndecomposition we may remove a part or all of it, or\\nreplace one of the constituents of the compound by\\nanother substance. But we cannot produce a differ-\\nent arrangement of the atoms, because they are\\nalready disposed in the simplest form in w^hich it is\\npossible for them to combine. Now, let us compare\\nthe composition of sugar of grapes with the above\\nhere 12 eq. of cai bon, 12 eq. of hydrogen, and 12 eq.\\nof oxygen, are united together, and we know that\\nthey are capable of combining with each other in\\nthe most various ways. From the formula of sugar,\\nwe might consider it either as a hydrate of carbon,\\nwood, starch, or sugar of milk, or further, as a com-\\npound of ether with alcohol or of formic acid with\\nsachulmin.f Indeed, we may calculate almost all\\nthe known organic compounds destitute of nitrogen\\nS denotes sulphur, K (Kali) potash, O oxygen, 4 the number of\\natoms. When no number is used, one atom is understood.\\ni The black precipitate obtained hy the action of hydrochloric acid\\non susrar.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 303\\nfrom sugar, by simply adding the elements of water,\\nor by replacing any one of its elementary constitu-\\nents by a different substance. The elements neces-\\nsary to form these compounds are, therefore, con-\\ntained in the sugar, and they must also possess the\\npower of forming numerous combinations amongst\\nthemselves by their mutual attractions.\\nNow, when we examine what changes sugar under-\\ngoes when brought into contact with other bodies\\nwhich exercise a marked influence upon it, we find,\\nthat these changes are not confined to any narrow\\nlimits, like those of inorganic bodies, but are in fact\\nunlimited.\\nThe elements of sugar yield to every attraction,\\nand to each in a peculiar manner. In inorganic\\ncompounds, an acid acts upon a particular constitu-\\nent of the body, which it decomposes, by virtue of\\nits affinity for that constituent, and never resigns its\\nproper chemical character, in whatever form it may\\nbe applied. But when it acts upon sugar, and\\ninduces great changes in that compound, it does\\nthis not by any superior affinity for a base existing\\nin the sugar, but by disturbing the equilibrium in the\\nmutual attraction of the elements of the sugar\\namongst themselves. Muriatic and sulphuric acids,\\nwhich differ so much from one another both in char-\\nacters and composition, act in the same manner upon\\nsugar. But the action of both varies according to the\\nstate in which they arej thus they act in one way\\nwhen dilute, in another when concentrated, and even\\ndifferences in their temperature cause a change in\\ntheir action. Thus sulphuric acid of a moderate\\ndegree of concentration converts sugar into a black\\ncarbonaceous matter, forming at the same time acetic\\nand formic acids. But when the acid is more diluted,\\nthe sugar is converted into two brown substances,\\nboth of them containing carbon and the elements of\\nwater. Again, w^hen sugar is subjected to the action\\nof alkalies, a whole series of different new products\\nis obtained while oxidizing agents, such as nitric", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "304 CHE?.IICAL TRANSFORMATIONS\\nacid, produce from it carbonic acid, acetic acid, oxalic\\nacid, formic acid, and many other products which\\nhave not yet been examined.\\nIf, from the facts here stated, we estimate the\\npower with which the elements of sugar are united\\ntogether, and judge of the force of their attraction\\nby the resistance which they offer to the action of\\nbodies brought into contact with them, we must\\nregard the atom of sugar as belonging to that class\\nof coin.pound atoms, which exist only by the vis\\ninerticB of their elements. Its elements seem merely\\nto retain passively the position and condition in\\nwhich they had been placed, for we do not observe\\nthat they resist a change of this condition by their\\nown mutual attraction, as is the case with sulphate\\nof potash.\\nNow it is only such combinations as sugar, com-\\nbinations, therefore, which possess a very complex\\nmolecule, which are capable of undergoing the de-\\ncompositions named fermentation and putrefaction.\\nWe have seen that metals acquire a power, which\\nthey do not of themselves possess, namely, that of\\ndecomposing water and nitric acid, by simple con-\\ntact with other metals in the act of chemical combi-\\nnation. We have also seen, that peroxide of hydro-\\ngen and the persulphuret of the same element, in\\nthe act of decomposition, cause other compounds of\\na similar kind, but of which the elements are much\\nmore strongly combined, to undergo the same de-\\ncomposition, although they exert no chemical affinity\\nor attraction for them or their constituents. The\\ncause which produces these phenomena will be also\\nrecognised, by attentive observation, in those matters\\nwhich excite fermentation or putrefaction. All bod-\\nies in the act of combination or decomposition have\\nthe property of inducing those processes or, in\\nother words, of causing a disturbance of the statical\\nequilibrium in the attractions of the elements of\\ncomplex organic molecules, in consequence of which", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES WHICH DO NOT CONTMN NITROGEN. 305\\nthose elements group themselves anew, according to\\ntheir special affinities.\\nThe proofs of the existence of this cause of action\\ncan be easily produced they are found in the char-\\nacters of the bodies which effect fermentation and\\nputrefaction, and in the regularity with which the\\ndistribution of the elements takes place in the sub-\\nsequent transformations. This regularity depends\\nexclusively on the unequal affinity which they possess\\nfor each other in an isolated condition. The action\\nof water on wood, charcoal, and cyanogen, the sim-\\nplest of the compounds of nitrogen, suffices to illus-\\ntrate the whole of the transformations of organic\\nbodies of those in which nitrogen is a constituent,\\nand of those in which it is absent.\\nCHAPTER IV.\\nON THE TRANSFORMATION OF BODIES WHICH DO NOT CON-\\nTAIN NITROGEN AS A CONSTITUENT, AND OF THOSE IN\\nWHICH IT IS PRESENT.\\nWhen oxygen and hydrogen combined in equal\\nequivalents, as in steam, are conducted over char-\\ncoal, heated to the temperature at which it possesses\\nthe power to enter into combination with one of\\nthese elements, a decomposition of the steam ensues.\\nAn oxide of carbon (either carbonic oxide Or car-\\nbonic acid) is under all circumstances formed, while\\nthe hydrogen of the water is liberated, or, if the\\ntemperature be sufficient, unites with the carbon,\\nforming carburetted hydrogen. Accordingly, the\\ncarbon is shared between the elements of the water,\\nthe oxygen and hydrogen. Now a participation of\\nthis kind, but even more complete, is observed in\\nevery transformation, whatever be the nature of the\\ncauses by which it is effected.\\n26*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "306 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS\\nAcetic and meconic* acids suffer a true transform-\\nation under the influence of heat, that is, their com-\\nponent elements are disunited, and form new com-\\npounds without any of them being singly disen-\\ngaged. Acetic acid is converted into acetone and\\ncarbonic acid (C4 H3 03= C3 H3 C02), and\\nmeconic acid into carbonic acid and komenic acid\\nwhilst by the influence of a higher temperature, the\\nlatter is further decomposed into pyromeconic acid\\nand carbonic acid.\\nNo\\\\^in these cases the carbon of the bodies de-\\ncomposed is shared between the oxygen and hydro-\\ngen part of it unites with the oxygen and forms\\ncarbonic acid, whilst the other portion enters into\\ncombination with the hydrogen, and an oxide of a\\ncarbo-hydrogen is formed, in which all the hydrogen\\nis contained.\\nIn a similar manner, when alcohol is exposed to a\\ngentle red heat, its carbon is shared between the\\nelements of the water, an oxide of a carbo-hydro-\\ngen which contains all the oxygen, and some gaseous\\ncompounds of carbon and hydrogen being produced.\\nIt is evident, that during transformations caused\\nby heat, no foreign affinities can be in play, so that\\nthe new compounds must result merely from the\\nelements arranging themselves, according to the\\ndegree of their mutual affinities, into new combina-\\ntions, which are constant and unchangeable in the\\nconditions under which they were originally formed,\\nbut undergo changes when these conditions become\\ndifferent. If we compare the products of two bod-\\nies, similar in composition but different in properties,\\nwhich are subjected to transformations by two differ-\\nent causes, we find that the manner in which the\\natoms are transposed, is absolutely the same in\\nboth.\\nIn the transformation of wood in marshy soils, by\\nwhat we call putrefaction, its carbon is shared\\nAn acid existing in opium, and named from the Greek for poppy.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES CONTAINING NITROGEN. 307\\nbetween the oxygen and hydrogen of its own sub-\\nstance, and of the water, carburetted hydrogen is\\nconsequently evolved, as well as carbonic acid, both\\nof which compounds have an analogous composition\\n(CH2, C02).*\\nThus also in that transformation of sugar, which\\nis called fermentation, its elements are divided into\\ntwo portions the one, carbonic acid, which contains\\nof the oxygen of sugar and the other, alcohol,\\nwhich contains all its hydrogen.\\nIn the transformation of acetic acid produced by\\na red heat, carbonic acid, which contains of the\\noxygen of the acetic acid, is formed, and acetone,\\nwhich contains all its hydrogen.\\nIt is evident from these facts, that the elements\\nof a complex compound are left to their special\\nattractions whenever their equilibrium is disturbed,\\nfrom whatever cause this disturbance may proceed.\\nIt appears, also, that the subsequent distribution of\\nthe elements, so as to form new combinations, always\\ntakes place in the same way, with this difference\\nonly, that the nature of the products formed is\\ndependent upon the number of atoms of the elements\\nwhich enter into action or, in other words, that the\\nproducts differ ad iiijinitum, according to the com-\\nposition of the original substance.\\nON THE TRANSFORMATION OF BODIES CONTAINING NITROGEN.\\nWhen those substances are examined which are\\nmost prone to fermentation and putrefaction, it is\\nfound that they are all, without exception, bodies\\nwhich contain nitrogen. In many of these com-\\npounds, a transposition of their elements occurs\\nspontaneously as soon as they cease to form a part\\nof a living organism that is, when they are drawn\\nC carbon, H hydrogen, O oxygen.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "308 CHEMICAL TRANSFORJIATIONS\\nout of the sphere of attraction in which alone they\\nare able to exist.\\nThere are, indeed, bodies destitute of nitrogen,\\nwhich possess a certain degree of stability only\\nwhen in combination, but which are unknown in an\\nisolated condition, because their elements, freed from\\nthe power by which they were held together, arrange\\nthemselves according to their own natural attrac-\\ntions. Hypermanganic, manganic, and hyposulphu-\\nrous af ids, belong to this class of substances, which\\nhowever are rare.\\nThe case is very different with azotized bodies.\\nIt would appear that there is some peculiarity in the\\nnature of nitrogen, which gives its compounds the\\npower to decompose spontaneously with so much\\nfacility. Now, nitrogen is known to be the most\\nindifferent of all the elements; it evinces no partic-\\nular attraction to any one of the simple bodies; and\\nthis character it preserves in all its combinations, a\\ncharacter which explains the cause of its easy sep-\\naration from the matters with which it is united.\\nIt is only when the quantity of nitrogen exceeds\\na certain limit, that azotized compounds have some\\ndegree of permanence, as is the case with melamin,\\nammelin, c. Their liability to change is also dimin-\\nished, when the quantity of nitrogen is very small\\nin proportion to that of the other elements with\\nwhich it is united, so that their mutual attractions\\npreponderate.\\nThis easy transposition of atoms is best seen in\\nthe fulminating silvers, in fulminating mercury, in\\nthe iodide or chloride of nitrogen, and in all fulmin-\\nating compounds.\\nAll other azotized substances acquire the same\\npower of decomposition, when the elements of water\\nare brought into play; and indeed, the greater part\\nof them are not capable of transformation, while\\nthis necessary condition to the transposition of their\\natoms is absent. Even the compounds of nitrogen,\\nwhich are most liable to change, such as those which", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES CONTAINING NITROGEN. 309\\nare found in animal bodies, do not enter into a state\\nof putrefaction when dry.\\nThe result of the known transformations of azo-\\ntized substances proves, that the water does not\\nmerely act as a medium in which motion is permitted\\nto the elements in the act of transposition, but that\\nits influence depends on chemical affinity. When\\nthe decomposition of such substances is effected\\nwith the assistance of water, their nitrogen is in-\\nvariably liberated in the form of ammonia. This is\\na fixed rule without any exceptions, wJiatever may be\\nthe cause which produces the decompositions. All\\norganic compounds containing nitrogen, evolve the\\nwhole of that element in the form of ammonia when\\nacted on by alkalies. Acids, and increase of tempera-\\nture, produce the same effect. It is only when there is\\na deficiency of water or its elements, that cyanogen\\nor other azotized compounds are produced.\\nFrom these facts it may be concluded, that am-\\nmonia is the most stable compound of nitrogen; and\\nthat hydrogen and nitrogen possess a degree of\\naffinity for each other surpassing the attraction of\\nthe latter body for any other element.\\nAlready, in considering the transformations of sub-\\nstances destitute of nitrogen, we have recognised\\nthe great affinity of carbon for oxygen as a power-\\nful cause for effecting the disunion of the elements\\nof a complex organic atom in a definite manner. But\\ncarbon is also invariably contained in azotized or-\\nganic compounds, while the great affinity of nitrogen\\nfor hydrogen furnishes a new and powerful cause,\\nfacilitating the transposition of their component\\nparts. Thus, in the bodies which do not contain\\nnitrogen we have one element, and in those in which\\nthat substance is present, two elements, w^hich mutu-\\nally share the elements of water. Hence there- are\\ntwo opposite affinities at play, which mutually\\nstrengthen each other s action.\\nNow we know, that the most powerful attractions\\nmay be overcome by the influence of two affinities.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "310 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS\\nThus, a decomposition of alumina may be effected\\nwith the greatest facility, when the affinity of char-\\ncoal for oxygen, and of chlorine for aluminium, are\\nboth put in action, although neither of these alone\\nhas any influence upon it. There is in the nature\\nand constitution of the compounds of nitrogen a kind\\nof tension of their component parts, and a strong\\ndisposition to yield to transformations, which effect\\nspontaneously the transposition of their atoms on the\\ninstaQ.t that water or its elements are brought in\\ncontact with them.\\nThe characters of the hydrated cyanic acid, one\\nof the simplest of all the compounds of nitrogen, are\\nperhaps the best adapted to convey a distinct idea\\nof the manner in which the atoms are disposed of in\\ntransformations. This acid contains nitrogen, hy-\\ndrogen, and oxygen, in such proportions, that the\\naddition of a certain quantity of the elements of\\nwater is exactly sufficient to cause the oxygen con-\\ntained in the water and acid to unite with the car-\\nbon and form carbonic acid, and the hydrogen of the\\nwater to combine with the nitrogen and form am-\\nmonia. The most favorable conditions for a com-\\nplete transformation are, therefore, associated in\\nthese bodies, and it is well known, that the disunion\\ntakes place on the instant in which the cyanic acid\\nand water are brought into contact, the mixture being\\nconverted into carbonic acid and ammonia, with brisk\\neffervescence.\\nThis decomposition may be considered as the type\\nof the transformations of all azotized compounds; it\\nis putrefaction in its simplest and most perfect form,\\nbecause the new products, the carbonic acid and\\nammonia, are incapable of further transformations.\\nPutrefaction assumes a totally different and much\\nmore complicated form, when the products, which are\\nfirst formed, undergo a further change. In these\\ncases the process consists of several stages, of which\\nit is impossible to determine when one ceases and\\nthe other begins.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES CONTAININU NITKOGEN. 311\\nThe transformations of cyanogen, a body com-\\nposed of carbon and nitrogen, and the simplest of all\\nthe compounds of nitrogen, will convey a clear idea\\nof the great variety of products which are produced\\nin such a case: it is the only example of the putre-\\nfaction of an azotized body which has been at all\\naccurately studied.\\nA solution of cyanogen in water becomes turbid\\nafter a short time, and deposits a black, or brownish\\nblack matter, which is a combination of ammonia\\nwith another body, produced by the simple union of\\ncyanogen with water. This substance is insoluble\\nin water, and is thus enabled to resist further change.\\nA second transformation is effected by the cyano-\\ngen being shared between the elements of the water,\\nin consequence of which cyanic acid is formed by a\\ncertain quantity of the cyanogen combining with the\\noxygen of the water, while hydrocyanic acid is also\\nformed by another portion of the cyanogen uniting\\nwith the hydrogen which w^as liberated.\\nCyanogen experiences a third transformation, by\\nwhich a complete disunion of its elements takes\\nplace, these being divided between the constituents\\nof the water. Oxalic acid is the one product of this\\ndisunion, and annnonia the other.\\nCyanic acid, the formation of which has been\\nmentioned above, cannot exist in contact with water,\\nbeing decomposed immediately into carbonic acid\\nand ammonia. The cyanic acid, however, newly\\nformed in the decomposition of cyanogen, escapes\\nthis decomposition by entering into combination with\\nthe free ammonia, by which urea is produced.\\nThe hydrocyanic acid is also decomposed into a\\nbrown matter which contains hydrogen and cyano-\\ngen, the latter in greater proportion than it does in\\nthe gaseous state. Oxalic acid, urea, and carbonic\\nacid, are also formed by its decomposition, and form-\\nSee page 87, note.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "312 CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.\\nic acid and ammonia are produced by the decompo-\\nsition of its radical.\\nThus, a substance into the composition of Avhich\\nonly two elements (carbon and nitrogen) enter, yields\\neight totally different products. Several of these\\nproducts are formed by the transformation of the\\noriginal body, its elements being shared between the\\nconstituents of water; others are produced in con-\\nsequence of a further disunion of those first formed.\\nThe\\\\irea and carbonate of ammonia are generated\\nby the combination of two of the products, and in\\ntheir formation the whole of the elements have as-\\nsisted.\\nThese examples show, that the results of decompo-\\nsition by fermentation or putrefaction comprehend\\nvery different phenomena. The first kind of trans-\\nformation is, the transposition of the elements of one\\ncomplex compound, by which new compounds are\\nproduced with or without the assistance of the ele-\\nments of water. In the products newly formed in\\nthis manner, either the same proportions of those\\ncomponent parts which were contained in the mat-\\nter before transformation, are found, or with them,\\nan excess, consisting of the constituents of water,\\nwhich had assisted in promoting the disunion of the\\nelements.\\nThe second kind of transformation consists of\\nthe transpositions of the atoms of two or more com-\\nplex compounds, by which the elements of both\\narrange themselves mutually into new products, with\\nor without the cooperation of the elements of water.\\nIn this kind of transformation, the new products\\ncontain the sum of the constituents of all the com-\\npounds which had taken a part in the decomposition.\\nThe first of these two modes of decomposition is\\nthat designated fermentation, the second putrefac-\\ntion and when these terms are used in the following\\npages, it will always be to distinguish the two pro-\\ncesses above described,, which are so different in\\ntheir results.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION OF SUGAK. 313\\nCHAPTER V.\\nFERMENTATION OF SUGAR.\\nThe peculiar decomposition, which sugar suffers,\\nmay be viewed as a type of all the transformations\\ndesignated fermentation.*\\nThenard obtained from 100 grammes f of cane-\\nsugar 0-5262 of absolute alcohol. 100 parts of sugar\\nfrom the cane yield, therefore, 103-89 parts of car-\\nbonic acid and alcohol. The entire carbon in these-\\nproducts is equal to 42 parts, which is exactly the\\nquantity originally contained in the sugar.\\nThe analysis of sugar fyom the cane, proves that\\nit contains the elements of carbonic acid and alco-\\nhol, miims 1 atom of water. The alcohol and car-\\nbonic acid produced by the fermentation of a certain\\nquantity of sugar, contained together one equivalent\\nof oxygen, and one equivalent of hydrogen, the ele-\\nments, therefore, of one equivalent of water, more\\nthan the sugar contained. The excess of weight in\\nthe products is thus explained most satisfactorily;\\nit is owing, namely, to the elements of water having\\ntaken part in the metamorphosis of the sugar.\\nIt is known, that 1 atom of sugar contains 12\\nequivalents of carbon, both from the proportions in\\nwhich it unites with bases, and from the composition\\nWhen yeast is made into a thin paste with water, and 1 cubic centi-\\nmetre of this mixture introduced into a graduated glass receiver filled\\nwith mercury, in which are already 19 grammes of a solution of cane-\\nsugar, containing I gramme of pure solid sugar; it is found, after the\\nmixture has been exposed for 24 hours to a temperature of from 20 to\\n2o C. (68-77 F.), that a volume of carbonic acid has been formed,\\nwhich, at 0\u00c2\u00b0 C. (32\u00c2\u00b0 F.) and an atmospheric pressure indicated by 0-7(5\\nmetre Bar. would be from 245 to 250 cubic centimetres. But to this\\nquantity we must add 11 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid, with\\nwiiich tlie 11 grammes of liquid would be saturated, so that in all 255\\n-259 cubic centimetres of carbonic acid are obtained. This volume\\nof carbonic acid corresponds to from 0-503 to 0-5127 grammes bv\\nweight. L.\\nThe gramme equals 15-4440 grains.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "314 FERMENTATION OF SUGAR.\\nof saccharic acid, the product of its oxidation. Now\\nnone of these atoms of carbon are contained in the\\nsugar as carbonic acid, because the whole quantity is\\nobtained as oxalic acid, when sugar is treated with\\nhypermanganate of potash (Gregory); and as oxalic\\nacid is a lower degree of the oxidation of carbon\\nthan carbonic acid, it is impossible to conceive that\\nthe lower degree should be produced from the high-\\ner, by means of one of the most powerful agents of\\noxidation which we possess.\\nIt can be also proved, that the .hydrogen of the\\nsugar does not exist in it in the form of alcohol, for\\nit is converted into water and a kind of carbona-\\nceous matter, when treated with acids, particularly\\nwith such as contain no oxygen and this manner\\nof decomposition is never suffered by a compound\\nof alcohol.\\nSugar contains, therefore, neither alcohol nor car-\\nbonic acid, so that these bodies must be produced by\\na different arrangement of its atoms, and by their\\nunion with the elements of w^ater.\\nIn this metamorphosis of sugar, the elements of\\nthe yeast, by contact with which its fermentation\\nwas effected, take no appreciable part in the trans-\\nposition of the elements of the sugar; for in the\\nproducts resulting from the action, we find no com-\\nponent part of this substance.\\nWe may now study the fermentation of a vegeta-\\nble juice, which contains not only saccharine matter,\\nbut also such substances as albumen and gluten.\\nThe juices of parsnips, beet-roots, and onions, are\\nwell adapted for this purpose. When such a juice\\nis mixed with yeast at common temperatures, it fer-\\nments like a solution of suo-ar. Carbonic acid gas\\nescapes from it with effervescence, and in the liquid,\\nalcohol is found in quantity exactly corresponding to\\nthat of the sugar originally contained in the juice.\\nBut such a juice undergoes spontaneous decomposi-\\ntion at a temperature of from 95\u00c2\u00b0 to 104\u00c2\u00b0 (35\u00c2\u00b0 40\u00c2\u00b0\\nC). Gases possessing an offensive smell are evolved", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "YEAST OR FERMENT. 315\\nin consideratjle quantity, and when the liquor is ex-\\namined after the decomposition is completed, no al-\\ncohol can be detected. The sugar has also disap-\\npeared, and with it all the azotized compounds which\\nexisted in the juice previously to its fermentation.\\nBoth were decomposed at the same time the nitro-\\ngen of the azotized compounds remains in the liquid\\nas ammonia, and, in addition to it, there are three\\nnew products, formed from the component parts of\\nthe juice. One of these is lactic acid, the slightly\\nvolatile compound found in the animal organism\\nthe other is the crystalline body, which forms the\\nprincipal constituent of manna; and the third is a\\nmass resembling gum-arabic, which forms a thick\\nviscous solution with water. These three products\\nweigh more than the sugar contained in the juice,\\neven without calculating the weight of the gaseous\\nproducts. Hence, they are not produced from the\\nelements of the sugar alone. None of these three\\nsubstances could be detected in the juice before fer-\\nmentation. They must, therefore, have been formed\\nby the interchange of the elements of the sugar with\\nthose of the foreign substances also present. It is\\nthis mixed transformation of two or more compounds\\nw^hich receives the special name of putrefaction.\\nYEAST OR FERMENT.\\nWhen attention is directed to the condition of\\nthose substances, which possess the power of induc-\\ning fermentation and putrefaction in other bodies,\\nevidences are found in their general characters, and\\nin the manner in which they combine, that they all\\nare bodies, the atoms of which are in the act of\\ntransposition.\\nThe characters of the remarkable matter, which is\\ndeposited in an insoluble state during the fermenta-\\ntion of beer, wine, and vegetable juices, may first be\\nstudied.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "316 YEAST OR FERMENT.\\nThis substance, which has been called yeast ov fer-\\nment, from the power which it possesses of causing\\nfermentation in sugar, or saccharine vegetable juices,\\npossesses all the characters of a compound of 7iitro-\\ngen in the state of putrefaction and eremacausis.\\nLike wood in the state of eremacausis, yeast con-\\nverts the oxygen of the surrounding air into carbon-\\nic acid, but it also evolves this gas from its own\\nmass, like bodies in the state of putrefaction. (Colin.)\\nWher^kept under water, it emits carbonic acid, ac-\\ncompanied by gases of an offensive smell, (Thenard,)\\nand is at last converted into a substance resembling\\nold cheese. (Proust.) But when its own putrefaction\\nis completed, it has no longer the power of inducing\\nfermentation in other bodies. The presence of wa-\\nter is quite necessary for sustaining the properties\\nof ferment, for by simple pressure its power to ex-\\ncite fermentation is much diminished, and is com-\\npletely destroyed by drying. Its action is arrested\\nalso by the temperature of boiling water, by alcohol,\\ncommon salt, an excess of sugar, oxide of mercury,\\ncorrosive sublimate, pyroligneous acid, sulphurous\\nacid, nitrate of silver, volatile oils, and in short by\\nall antiseptic substances.\\nThe insoluble part of the substance called ferment\\ndoes not cause fermentation. For when the yeast\\nfrom wine or beer is carefully washed with water,\\ncare being taken that it is always covered with this\\nfluid, the residue does not produce fermentation.\\nThe soluble part offerm^ent likeicise does 7iot excite\\nfermentation. An aqueous infusion of yeast may be\\nmixed with a solution of sugar, and preserved in\\nvessels from which the air is excluded, without eith-\\ner experiencing the slightest change. What then,\\nwe may ask, is the matter in ferment which excites\\nfermentation, if neither the soluble nor insoluble\\nparts possess the power This question has been\\nanswered by Colin in the most satisfactory manner.\\nHe has shown, that in reality it is the soluble part.\\nBut before it obtains this power, the decanted infu-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "ITS PROPERTIES. 317\\nsion must be allowed to cool in contact with the air,\\nand to remain some time exposed to its action. When\\nintroduced into a solution of sugar in this state, it\\nproduces a brisk fermentation but without previous\\nexposure to the air, it manifests no such property.\\nThe infusion absorbs oxygen during its exposure\\nto the air, and carbonic acid may be found in it after\\na short time.\\nYeast produces fermentation in consequence of the\\nprogressive decomposition, which it suffers from the\\naction of air and water.\\nNow when yeast is made to act on sugar, it is\\nfound, that after the transformation of the latter\\nsubstance into carbonic acid and alcohol is com-\\npleted, part of the yeast itself has disappeared.\\nFrom 20 parts of fresh yeast from beer, and 100\\nparts of sugar, Thcnard obtained, after the fermen-\\ntation was completed, 13-7 parts of an insoluble\\nresidue, which diminished to 10 parts when employed\\nin the same way with a fresh portion of sugar.\\nThese ten parts were white, possessed of the prop-\\nerties of woody fibre, and had no further action on\\nsugar.\\nIt is evident, therefore, that during the fermenta-\\ntion of sugar by yeast, both of these substances\\nsuffer decomposition at the same time, and disappear\\nin consequence. But if yeast be a body which ex-\\ncites fermentation by being itself in a state of de-\\ncomposition, all other matters in the same condition\\nshould have a similar action upon sugar; and this is\\nin reality the case. Muscle, urine, isinglass, osma-\\nzorae,* albumen, cheese, gliadine, gluten, legumin,\\nand blood, when in a state of putrefaction, have all\\nthe power of producing the putrefaction, or fermen-\\ntation of a solution of sugar. Yeast, which by con-\\ntinued washing has entirely lost the property of in-\\nducing fermentation, regains it when its putrefaction\\nAn extractive animal matter on which the peculiar flavor of broth\\nis supposed to depend hence its name, from the Greek for odor and\\nbroth.\\n27*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "318 YEAST OF FERMENT.\\nhas recommenced, in consequence of its being kept in\\na warm situation for some time.\\nYeast and putrefying animal and vegetable mat-\\nters act as peroxide of hydrogen does on oxide of\\nsilver, when they induce bodies with which they are\\nin contact to enter into the same state of decompo-\\nsition. The disturbance in the attraction of the con-\\nstituents of the peroxide of hydrogen effects a dis-\\nturbance in the attraction of the elements of the\\noxide of silver, the one being decomposed, on ac-\\ncount of the decomposition of the other.\\nNow if we consider the process of the fermentation\\nof pure sugar, in a practical point of view, we meet\\nwith two facts of constant occurrence. When the\\nquantity of ferment is too small in proportion to that\\nof the sugar, its putrefaction^ will be completed before\\nthe transformation of all the sugar is effected. Some\\nsugar here remains undecomposed, because the cause\\nof its transformation is absent, viz. contact with a\\nbody in a state of decomposition.\\nBut when the quantity of ferment predominates, a\\ncertain quantity of it remains after all the sugar has\\nfermented, its decomposition proceeding very slowly,\\non account of its insolubility in water. This residue\\nof ferment is still able to induce fermentation, when\\nintroduced into a fresh solution of sugar, and retains\\nthe same power until it has passed through all the\\nstages of its own transformation. Hence, a certain\\nquantity of yeast is necessary in order to effect the\\ntransformation of a certain portion of sugar, not\\nbecause it acts by its quantity in increasing any\\naffinity, but because its influence depends solely on\\nits presence, and its presence is necessary, until the\\nlast atom of sugar is decomposed.\\nThese facts and observations point out the ex-\\nistence of a new cause, which effects combinations\\nand decompositions. This cause is the action which\\nbodies in a state of combination or decomposition\\nexercise upon substances, the component parts of\\nwhich are united together by a feeble affinity. This", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "AZOTIZED MATTERS THE CAUSE OF PUTREFACTION. 319\\naction resembles a peculiar power, attached to a\\nbody in the state of combination or decomposition,\\nbut exerting its influence beyond the sphere of its\\nown attractions. We are now able to account satis-\\nfactorily for many known phenomena.\\nA large quantity of hippuric acid may be obtained\\nfrom the fresh urine of a horse, by the addition of\\nmuriatic acid; but when the urine has undergone\\nputrefaction, no trace of it can be discovered. The\\nurine of man contains a considerable quantity of\\nurea; but when the urine putrefies, the urea entirely\\ndisappears. When urea is added to a solution of\\nsugar in the state of fermentation, it is decomposed\\ninto carbonic acid and ammonia. No asparagin\\ncan be detected in a putrefied infusion of asparagin,\\nliquorice-root, or the root of marshmallow {^Althcea\\nofficinalis).\\nIt has already been mentioned, that the strong\\naffinity of nitrogen for hydrogen, and that of carbon\\nfor oxygen, are the cause of the facility with which\\nthe elements of azotized compounds are disunited\\nthose affinities aiding each other, inasmuch as by\\nvirtue of them different elements of the compounds\\nstrive to take possession of the different elements\\nof water. Now since it is found that no body desti-\\ntute of nitrogen, possesses, when pure, the property\\nof decomposing spontaneously whilst in contact with\\nwater, we must ascribe this property which azotized\\nbodies possess in so eminent a degree, to something\\npeculiar in the nature of the compounds of nitrogen,\\nand to their constituting, in a certain measure, more\\nhighly organized atoms.\\nEvery azotized constituent of the animal or vege-\\ntable organism runs spontaneously into putrefaction,\\nwhen exposed to moisture and a high temperature.\\nAzotized matters are, accordingly, the only causes\\nof fermentation and putrefaction in vegetable sub-\\nstances.\\nA peculiar principle obtained from asparagus. See Brande s\\nChemistry, p. 1042.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "320 YEAST OR FERMENT.\\nPutrefaction, on account of its effects, as a mixed\\ntransformation of many different substances, may be\\nclassed with the most powerful processes of deoxi-\\ndation, by which the strongest affinities are over-\\ncome.\\nWhen a solution of gypsum in water is mixed with\\na decoction of sawdust, or any other organic matter\\ncapable of putrefaction, and preserved in well-closed\\nvessels, it is found after some time, that the solution\\ncontains no more sulphuric acid, but in its place car-\\nbonic and free hydrosulphuric acid, between which\\nthe lime of the gypsum is shared. In stagnant water\\ncontaining sulphates in solution, crystallized pyrites\\nis observed to form on the decaying roots.\\nNow we know, that in the putrefaction of wood\\nunder water, when air therefore is excluded, a part\\nof its carbon combines with the oxygen of the water,\\nas well as with the oxygen which the wood itself\\ncontains whilst its hydrogen and that of the de-\\ncomposed water are liberated either in a pure state,\\nor as carburetted hydrogen. The products of this\\ndecomposition are of the same kind as those genera-\\nted when steam is conducted over red-hot charcoal.\\nIt is evident, that if with the water a substance\\ncontaining a large quantity of oxygen, such as sul-\\nphuric acid, be also present, the matters in the state\\nof putrefaction will make use of the oxygen of that\\nsubstance as well as that of the water, in order to\\nform carbonic acid and the sulphur and hydrogen\\nbeing set free will combine whilst in the nascent\\nstate, producing hydrosulphuric acid, which will be\\nagain decomposed if metallic oxides be present and\\nthe results of this second decomposition will be water\\nand metallic sulphurets.\\nThe putrefied leaves of woad {^Isatis tinctoria), in\\ncontact with indigo-blue, water, and alkalies, suffer\\nfurther decomposition, and the indigo is deoxidized\\nand dissolved.\\nThe mannite formed by the putrefaction of beet-\\nroots and other plants which contain sugar, contains", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "DIFFERENCE OF FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION. 321\\nthe same number of equivalents of carbon and hydro-\\ngen as the sugar of grapes, but two atoms less of\\noxygen and it is highly probable that it is produced\\nfrom sugar of grapes, contained in those plants, in\\nprecisely the same manner as indigo-blue is con-\\nverted into deoxidized white indigo.\\nDuring the putrefaction of gluten, carbonic acid\\nand pure hydrogen gas are evolved phosphate,\\nacetate, caseate, and lactate of ammonia being at\\nthe same time produced in such quantity, that the\\nfurther decomposition of the gluten ceases. But\\nwhen the supply of water is renewed, the decompo-\\nsition begins again, and in addition to the salts just\\nmentioned, carljonate of ammonia and a white crys-\\ntalline matter resembling mica (caseous oxide) are\\nformed, together with hydrosulphate of ammonia,\\nand a mucilaginous substance coagulable by chlorine.\\nLactic acid is almost always produced by the putre-\\nfaction of organic bodies.\\nWe may now compare fermentation and putrefac-\\ntion with the decomposition which organic com-\\npounds suffer under the influence of a high tempera-\\nture. Dry distillation would appear to be a process\\nof combustion or oxidation going on in the interior\\nof a substance, in which a part of the carbon unites\\nwith all or part of the oxygen of the compound,\\nwhile other new compounds containing a large pro-\\nportion of hydrogen are necessarily produced. Fer-\\nmentation may be considered as a process of com-\\nbustion or oxidation of a similar kind, taking place\\nin a liquid between the elements of the same 7natter,\\nat a very slightly elevated temperature; and putre-\\nfaction as a process of oxidation, in which the oxy-\\ngen of all the substances present comes into play.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "322 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY.\\nCHAPTER VI.\\nEREMACAUSIS, OR DECAY,\\nIn organic nature, besides the processes of decom-\\nposition named fermentation and putrefaction, an-\\nother and not less striking class of changes occurs,\\nwhich bodies suffer from the influence of the air.\\nThis is the act of gradual combination of the com-\\nbustible elements of a body with the oxygen of the\\nair a slow combustion or oxidation, to which we\\nshall apply the term of eremacausis.\\nThe conversion of wood into humus, the formation\\nof acetic acid out of alcohol, nitrification, and numer-\\nous other processes, are of this nature. Vegetable\\njuices of every kind, parts of animal and vegetable\\nsubstances, moist sawdust, blood, c., cannot be\\nexposed to the air, without suffering immediately a\\nprogressive change of color and properties, during\\nwhich oxygen is absorbed. These changes do not\\ntake place when w^ater is excluded, or when the\\nsubstances are exposed to the temperature of 32\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand it has been observed that different bodies require\\ndifferent degrees of heat, in order to effect the\\nabsorption of oxygen, and, consequently, their ere-\\nmacausis. The property of suffering this change is\\npossessed in the highest degree by substances con-\\ntaining nitrogen.\\nWhen vegetable juices are evaporated by a gentle\\nheat in the air, a brown or brownish-black substance\\nis precipitated as a product of the action of oxygen\\nupon them. This substance, which appears to pos-\\nsess similar properties from whatever juice it is\\nobtained, has received the name of extractive matter;\\nit is insoluble or very sparingly soluble in water, but\\nis dissolved with facility by alkalies. By the action\\nof air on solid animal or vegetable matters, a similar", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY. 323\\npulverulent brown substance is formed, and is known\\nby the name of humus.\\nThe conditions which determine the commence-\\nment of eremacausis are of various kinds. Many\\norganic substances, particularly such as are mixtures\\nof several more simple matters, oxidize in the air\\nwhen simply moistened with water; others not until\\nthey are subjected to the action of alkalies; but the\\ngreatest part of them undergo this state of slow\\ncombustion or oxidation, when brought in contact\\nwith other decaying matters.\\nThe eremacausis of an organic matter is retarded\\nor completely arrested by all those substances which\\nprevent fermentation or putrefaction. Mineral acids,\\nsalts of mercury, aromatic substances, empyreumatic\\noils, and oil of turpentine, possess a similar action\\nin this respect. The latter substances have the\\nsame effect on decaying bodies as on phosphuretted\\nhydrogen, the spontaneous inflammability of which\\nthey destroy.\\nMany bodies which do not decay when moistened\\nwith water, enter into eremacausis when in contact\\nwith an alkali. Gallic acid, heematin,* and many\\nother compounds, may be dissolved in water and yet\\nremain unaltered but if the smallest quantity of a\\nfree alkali is present, they acquire the property of\\nattracting oxygen, and are converted into a brown\\nsubstance like humus, evolving very frequently at\\nthe same time carbonic acid. (Chevreul.)\\nA very remarkable kind of eremacausis takes\\nplace in many vegetable substances, when they are\\nexposed to the influence of air, water, and ammonia.\\nThey absorb oxygen very rapidly, and form splendid\\nviolet or red-colored liquids, as in the case of orcin\\nand erythrin. They now contain an azotized sub-\\nstance, not in the form of ammonia.\\nAll these facts show, that the action of oxygen\\nseldom affects the carbon of decaying substances,\\nThe coloring matter of logwood.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "324 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY,\\nand this corresponds exactly to what happens in\\ncombustion at high temperatures. It is well known,\\nfor example, that when no more oxygen is admitted\\nto a compound of carbon and hydrogen than is suffi-\\ncient to combine with its hydrogen, the carbon is not\\nburned, but is separated as lampblack^* while, if\\nthe quantity of oxygen is not sufficient even to con-\\nsume all the hydrogen, new compounds are forined,\\nsuch as napthalinf and similar matters, which con-\\ntain a smaller proportion of hydrogen than those\\ncompounds of carbon and hydrogen which previously\\nexisted in the combustible substance.\\nThere is no example of carbon combining directly\\nwith oxygen at common temperatures, but numerous\\nfacts show that hydrogen, in certain states of con-\\ndensation, possesses that property. Lampblack which\\nhas been heated to redness may be kept in contact\\nwith oxygen gas, without forming carbonic acid;\\nbut lampblack, impregnated with oils which contain\\na large proportion of hydrogen, gradually becomes\\nwarm, and inflames spontaneously. The spontaneous\\ninflammabilitv of the charcoal used in the fabrication\\nof gunpowder has been correctly ascribed to the\\nhydrogen, which it contains in considerable quantity;\\nfor during its reduction to powder, no trace of\\ncarbonic acid can be detected in the air surrounding\\nit it is not formed until the temperature of the mass\\nhas reached a red heat. The heat which produces\\nthe inflammation is, therefore, not caused by the\\noxidation of the carbon.\\nThe substances which undergo eremacausis may\\nbe divided into two classes. The first class compre-\\nhends those substances which unite with the oxygen\\nof the air, without evolving carbonic acid and the\\nsecond, such a emit carbonic acid by absorbing\\noxygen.\\nWhen the oil of bitter almonds is exposed to the\\nAs in the combustion of spirits of turpentine, now much employed,\\nunder various names, in lamps.\\nt A substance obtained from coal tar.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "EXAMPLES OF. 325\\nair, it absorbs two equivalents of oxygen, and is con-\\nverted into benzoic acid; but half of the oxygen ab-\\nsorbed combines w^ith the hydrogen of the oil, and\\nforms water, vvrhich remains in union with the anhy-\\ndrous benzoic acid.*\\nBut, although it appears very probable that the\\noxygen acts primarily and principally upon hydro-\\ngen, the most combustible constituent of organic\\nmatter in the state of decay still it cannot thence\\nbe concluded, that the carbon is quite devoid of the\\npower to unite with oxygen, when every particle of\\nit is surrounded with hydrogen, an element with\\nwhich the oxygen combines with greater facility.\\nWe know, on the contrary, that although nitrogen\\ncannot be made to combine with oxygen directly, yet\\nit is oxidized and forms nitric acid, when mixed\\nwith a large quantity of hydrogen, and burned in\\noxygen gas. In this case its affinity is evidently\\nincreased by the combustion of the hydrogen, which\\nis in fact communicated to it. It is conceivable,\\nthat in a similar manner, the carbon may be directly\\noxidized in several cases, obtaining from its con-\\ntact with hydrogen in eremacausis a property which\\nit does not itself possess at common temperatures.\\nBut the formation of carbonic acid during the ere-\\nmacausis of bodies containing hydrogen, must in\\nmost cases be ascribed to another cause. It appears\\nAccording to the experiments of Dobereiner, 100 parts of pyrogal-\\nlic acid absorb ;!8-0!) parts of oxygen when in contact with ammonia\\nand water the acid being changed in consequence of this absorption\\ninto a mouldy substance, which contains less oxygen than the acid it-\\nself. It is evident, that the substance which is formed is not a higher\\noxide and it is found, on comparing the quantity of the oxygen ab-\\nsorbed with that of the hydrogen contained in the acid, that they are\\nexactly in the proportions for forming water.\\nWhen colorless orcin is exposed together with ammonia to the con-\\ntact of oxygen gas, the beautiful red-colored orcein is produced. Now,\\nthe only changes which take place here are, that the absorption of oxy-\\ngen by the elements of orcin and ammonia causes the formation of\\nwater; 1 equivalent of orcin CI 8 H12 OS, and I equivalent of ammo-\\nnia NH3, absorb ij equivalents of oxygen, and 5 equivalents of water\\nare produced, the composition of orcein being C18 HIO 08 N. (Du-\\nmas.) In this case it is evident, that the oxygen absorbed has united\\nmerely with the hydrogen. L.\\n28", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "326 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY.\\nto be formed in a manner similar to the formation of\\nacetic acid, by the eremacausis of saliculite of pot-\\nash.*\\nAn alkaline solution of haematin being exposed to\\nan atmosphere of oxygen, 0*2 grm. absorb 28 6 cubic\\ncentimeters of oxygen gas in twenty-four hours, the\\nalkali acquiring at the same time 6 cubic centimeters\\nof carbonic acid. (Chevreul.) But these 6 cubic\\ncentimeters of carbonic acid contain only an equal\\nvolume of oxygen, so that it is certain from this ex-\\nperiment, that I of the oxygen absorbed have not\\nunited with the carbon. It is highly probable, that\\nduring the oxidation of the hydrogen, a portion of\\nthe carbon had united with the oxygen contained in\\nthe haematin, and had separated from the other ele-\\nments as carbonic acid.\\nThe experiments of De Saussure upon the decay\\nof woody fibre show, that such a separation is quite\\npossible. Moist woody fibre evolved one volume of\\ncarbonic acid for every volume of oxygen which it\\nabsorbed. It has just been mentioned, that carbonic\\nacid contains its own volume of oxygen. Now,\\nwoody fibre contains carbon and the elements of\\nwater, so that the result of the action of oxygen\\nupon it is exactly the same as if pure charcoal had\\ncombined directly with oxygen. But the characters\\nof woody fibre show, that the elements of water are\\nnot contained in it in the form of water for, were\\nthis the case, starch, sugar, and gum must also be\\nconsidered as hydrates of carbon.\\nBut if the hydrogen does not exist in woody fibre\\nin the form of water, the direct oxidation of the car-\\nbon cannot be considered as at all probable, without\\nrejecting all the facts established by experiment re-\\ngarding the process of combustion at low tempera-\\ntures.\\nThis salt, when exposed to a moist atmosphere, absorbs 3 atoms of\\noxygen; melanic acid is produced, a body resembling humus, in conse-\\nquence of the formation of which, the elements of 1 atom of acetic acid\\nare separated from the saliculous acid. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "FORMATION OF CARBONIC ACID. 327\\nIf we examine the action of oxygen upon a sub-\\nstance containing a large quantity of hydrogen, such\\nas alcohol, we find most distinctly, that the direct\\nformation of carbonic acid is the last stage of its\\noxidation, and that it is preceded by a series of\\nchanges, the last of which is a complete combustion\\nof the hydrogen. Aldehyde, acetic, formic, oxalic,\\nand carbonic acids, form a connected chain of pro-\\nducts arising from the oxidation of alcohol and the\\nsuccessive changes which this fluid experiences from\\nthe action of oxygen may be readily traced in them.\\nAldehyde is alcohol mmvs hydrogen acetic acid is\\nformed by the direct union of aldehyde with oxygen.\\nFormic acid and water are formed by the union of\\nacetic acid with oxygen. When all the hydrogen is\\nremoved from this formic acid, oxalic acid is pro-\\nduced and the latter acid is converted into car-\\nbonic acid by uniting with an additional portion of\\noxygen. All these products appear to be formed\\nsimultaneously, by the action of oxidizing agents on\\nalcohol but it can scarcely be doubted, that the\\nformation of the last product, the carbonic acid, does\\nnot take place until all the hydrogen has been ab-\\nstracted.\\nThe absorption of oxygen by drying oils certainly\\ndoes not depend upon the oxidation of their carbon\\nfor in raw nut-oil, for example, which was not free\\nfrom mucilage and other substances, only twenty-one\\nvolumes of carbonic acid were formed for every 146\\nvolumes of oxygen gas absorbed.\\nIt must be remembered, that combustion or oxida-\\ntion at low temperatures produces results quite simi-\\nlar to combustion at high temperatures with limited\\naccess of air. The most combustible element of a\\ncompound, which is exposed to the action of oxygen,\\nmust become oxidized first, for its superior combus-\\ntibility is caused by its being enabled to unite with\\noxygen at a temperature at which the other elements\\ncannot enter into that combination this property\\nhaving the same etFect as a greater affinity.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "328 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY\\nThe combustibility of potassium is no measure of\\nits affinity for oxygen we have reason to believe\\nthat the attraction of magnesium and aluminium for\\noxygen is greater than that of potassium for the\\nsame element but neither of those metals oxidizes\\neither in air or water at common temperatures, whilst\\npotassium decomposes water with great violence,\\nand appropriates its oxygen.\\nPhosphorus and hydrogen combine with oxygen at\\nordinary temperatures, the first in moist air, the\\nsecond when in contact with finely-divided platinum;\\nwhile charcoal requires a red heat before it can enter\\ninto combination with oxygen. It is evident, that\\nphosphorus and hydrogen are more combustible\\nthan charcoal, that is, that their affinity for oxygen\\nat common temperatures is greater and this is not\\nthe less certain, because it is found, that carbon in\\ncertain other conditions shows a much greater affini-\\nty for oxygen than either of those substances.\\nIn putrefaction, the conditions are evidently pres-\\nent, under which the affinity of carbon for oxygen\\ncomes into play; neither expansion, cohesion, nor\\nthe gaseous state, opposes it, whilst in eremacausis\\nall these restraints have to be overcome.\\nThe evolution of carbonic acid, during the decay\\nor eremacausis of animal or vegetable bodies which\\nare rich in hydrogen, must accordingly be ascribed\\nto a transposition of the elements or disturbance in\\ntheir attractions, similar to that which gives rise to\\nthe formation of carbonic acid in the processes of\\nfermentation and putrefaction.\\nThe eremacausis of such substances is, therefore,\\na decomposition analogous to the putrefaction of\\nazotized bodies. For in these there are two affini-\\nties at play; the affinity of nitrogen for hydrogen,\\nand that of carbon for oxygen, and both facilitate the\\ndisunion of the elements. Now there are two affini-\\nties also in action in those bodies which decay with\\nthe evolution of carbonic acid. One of these affini-\\nties is the attraction of the oxygen of the air for the", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES DESTITUTE OF NITROGEN. 329\\nhydrogen of the substance, which corresponds to the\\nattraction of nitrogen for the same element and the\\nother is the affinity of the carbon of the substance\\nfor its oxygen, which is constant under all circum-\\nstances.\\nWhen wood putrefies in marshes, carbon and oxy-\\ngen are separated from its elements in the form of\\ncarbonic acid, and hydrogen in the form of carburet-\\nted hydrogen. But when wood decays or putrefies\\nin the air, its hydrogen does not combine with car-\\nbon, but with oxygen, for which it has a much great-\\ner affinity at common temperatures.\\nNow it is evident, from the complete similarity of\\nthese processes, that decaying and putrefying bodies\\ncan mutually replace one another in their reciprocal\\nactions.\\nAll putrefying bodies pass into the state of decay,\\nwhen exposed freely to the air, and all decaying mat-\\nters into that of putrefaction when air is excluded.\\nAll bodies, likewise, in a state of decay are capable\\nof inducing putrefaction in other bodies in the same\\nmanner as putrefying bodies themselves do.\\nCHAPTER VII.\\nEREMACAUSIS OR DECAY OF BODIES DESTITUTE OE\\nNITROGEN: FORMATION OF ACETIC ACID.\\nAll those substances which appear to possess the\\nproperty of entering spontaneously into fermenta-\\ntion and putrefaction, do not in reality suffer those\\nchanges without some previous disturbance in the\\nattraction of their elements. Eremacausis always\\nprecedes fermentation and putrefaction, and it is not\\nuntil after the absorption of a certain quantity of\\noxygen that the signs of a transformation in the in-\\nterior of the substances show themselves.\\n28*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "330 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY\\nIt is a very general error to suppose that organic\\nsubstances have the power of undergoing change\\nspontaneously, without the aid of an extei nal cause.\\nWhen they are not in a state of change, it is neces-\\nsary, before they can assume that state, that the ex-\\nisting equilibrium of their elements should be dis-\\nturbed and the most common cause of this distur-\\nbance is undoubtedly the atmosphere which surrounds\\nall bodies.\\nThe juices of the fruit or other part of a plant\\nwhich very readily undergo decomposition, retain\\ntheir properties unchanged as long as they are pro-\\ntected from immediate contact with the air, that is,\\nas long as the cells or organs in which they are con-\\ntained resist the influence of the air. It is not until\\nafter the juices have been exposed to the air, and\\nhave absorbed a certain quantity of oxygen, that the\\nsubstances dissolved in them begin to be decom-\\nposed.\\nThe beautiful experiments of Gay-Lussac upon\\nthe fermentation of the juice of grapes, as well as\\nthe important practical improvements to which they\\nhave led, are the best proofs that the atmosphere\\npossesses an influence upon the changes of organic\\nsubstances. The juice of grapes which were ex-\\npressed under a receiver filled with mercury, so that\\nair was completely excluded, did not ferment. But\\nwhen the smallest portion of air was introduced, a\\ncertain quantity of oxygen became absorbed, and\\nfermentation immediately began. Although the juice\\nwas expressed from the grapes in contact with air,\\nunder the conditions therefore necessary to cause its\\nfermentation, still this change did not ensue when\\nthe juice was heated in close vessels to the tempera-\\nture of boiling water. When thus treated, it could\\nbe preserved for years without losing its property\\nof fermenting. A fresh exposure to the air at any\\nperiod caused it to ferment.\\nAnimal food of every kind, and even the most\\ndelicate vegetables, may be preserved unchanged if", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES DESTITUTE OF NITROGEN. 331\\nheated to the temperature of boiling water in vessels\\nfrom which the air is completely excluded. Food\\nthus prepared has been kept for fifteen years, and\\nupon opening the vessels, after this long time, has\\nbeen found as fresh and well-flavoured as when origi-\\nnally placed in them.*\\nThe action of the oxygen in these processes of\\ndecomposition is very simple it excites changes in\\nthe composition of the azotized matters dissolved in\\nthe juices, the mode of combination of the elements\\nof those matters undergoes a disturbance and change\\nin consequence of their contact with oxygen. The\\noxygen acts here in a similar manner to the friction\\nor motion which affects the mutual decomposition of\\ntwo salts, the crystallization of salts from their\\nsolution, or the explosion of fulminating mercury.\\nIt causes the state of rest to be converted into a\\nstate of motion.\\nWhen this condition of intestine motion is once\\nexcited, the presence of oxygen is no longer neces-\\nsary. The smallest particle of an azotized body in\\nthis act of decomposition exercises an influence upon\\nthe particles in contact with it, and the state of\\nmotion is thus propagated through the substance.\\nThe air may now be completely excluded, but the\\nThe process is as follows Let the substance to be preserved be\\nfirst parboiled, or rather somewhat more, the bones of the meat being\\npreviously removed Put the meat into a tin cylinder, fill up the\\nvessel with seasoned rich soup, and then solder on the lid, pierced\\nwith a small hole. When this has been done, let the tin vessel thus\\nprepared be placed in brine and heated to the boiling point, to com-\\nplete the cooking of the meat. The hole of the lid is now to be closed\\nby solderintr, whilst the air is rarefied. The vessel is then allowed to\\ncool, and from the diminution of volume, in consequence of the re-\\nduction of temperature, both ends of the cylinder are pressed inwards\\nand become concave. The tin cases, thus hermetically sealed, are ex-\\nposed in a test-chamber, for at least a month, to a temperature above\\nwhat they are ever likely to encounter; from 9U\u00c2\u00b0 to 110\u00c2\u00b0 F. If the\\nprocess has failed, putrefaction takes place, and gas is evolved, which\\nwill cause the ends of the case to bulge, so as to render them convex,\\ninstead of concave. But the contents of those cases which stand the\\ntest will infallibly keep perfectly sweet and good in any climate, and\\nfor any number of years. If there be any taint about the meat when\\nput up, it inevitably ferments, and is detected in the proving process.\\nUrk s Diet, of.^rts and Manuf.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "332 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY\\nfermentation or putrefaction proceeds uninterrupted-\\nly to its completion. It has been remarked, that the\\nmere contact of carbonic acid is sufficient to produce\\nfermentation in the juices of several fruits.\\nThe contact of ammonia and alkalies in general\\nmay be mentioned amongst the chemical conditions,\\nwhich determine the commencement of eremacausis\\nfor their presence causes many substances to absorb\\noxygen and to decay, in which neither oxygen nor\\nalkalies alone produce that change.\\nThus alcohol does not combine with the oxygen\\nof the air at common temperatures. But a solution\\nof potash in alcohol absorbs oxygen with much\\nrapidity, and acquires a brown color. The alcohol is\\nfound after a short time to contain acetic acid, form-\\nic acid, and the products of the decomposition of\\naldehyde by alkalies, including aldehyde resin, which\\ngives the liquid a brown color.\\nThe most general condition for the production of\\neremacausis in organic matter is contact with a body\\nalready in the state of eremacausis or putrefaction.\\nWe have here an instance of true contagion for\\nthe communication of the state of combustion is in\\nrealit}^ the effect of the contact.\\nIt is decaying wood which causes fresh wood around\\nit to assume the same Qondition, and it is the very\\nfinely divided woody fibre in the act of decay which\\nin moistened gall-nuts converts the tannic acid with\\nsuch rapidity into gallic acid.\\nA most remarkable and decided example of this\\ninduction of combustion has been observed by De\\nSaussure. It has already been mentioned, that moist\\nwoody fibre, cotton, silk, or vegetable mould, in the\\nact of fermentation or putrefaction, converts oxygen\\ngas which may surround it into carbonic acid, with-\\nout change of volume. Now, De Saussure added\\na certain quantity of hydrogen gas to the oxygen,\\nand observed a diminution in volume immediately\\nafter the addition. A part of the hydrogen gas had\\ndisappeared, and along with it a portion of the oxy-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES DESTITUTE OF NITROGEN. 333\\ngen, but a corresponding quantity of carbonic acid\\ngas had not been formed. The hydrogen and oxy-\\ngen had disappeared in exactly the same proportion\\nas that in which they combine to form water a true\\ncombustion of the hydrogen, therefore, had been in-\\nduced by mere contact with matter in the state of\\neremacausis. The action of the decaying substance\\nhere produced results exactly similar to those effect-\\ned by spongy platinum but that they proceeded\\nfrom a different cause was shown by the fact that\\nthe }iresence of carbonic oxide, which arrests com-\\npletely the action of platinum on carburetted hydro-\\ngen, did not retard in the slightest degree the com-\\nbustion of the hydrogen in contact with the decaying\\nbodies.\\nBut the same bodies were found by De Saussure\\nnot to possess the property just described, before\\nthey were in a state of fermentation or decay and\\nhe has shown that even when they are in this state,\\nthe presence of antiseptic matter destroys completely\\nall their influence.\\nLet us suppose a volatile substance containing a\\nlarge quantity of hydrogen to be substituted for the\\nhydrogen gas in De Saussure s experiments. Now,\\nthe hydrogen in such compounds being contained in\\na state of greater condensation would suffer a more\\nrapid oxidation, that is, its combustion would be\\nsooner completed. This principle is in reality at-\\ntended to in the manufactories in which acetic acid\\nis prepared according to the new plan. In the pro-\\ncess there adopted all the conditions are afforded\\nfor the eremacausis of alcohol, and for its consequent\\nconversion into acetic acid.\\nThe alcohol is exposed to a moderate heat, and\\nspread over a very extended surface, but these con-\\nditions are not sufficient to effect its oxidation.\\nThe alcohol must be mixed with a substance which\\nis with facility changed by the oxygen of the air,\\nand either enters into eremacausis by mere contact\\nwith oxygen, or by its fermentation or putrefaction", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "334 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY\\nyields products possessed of this property. A small\\nquantity of beer, acescent wine, a decoction of malt,\\nhoney, and numerous other substances of this kind,\\npossess the action desired.\\nThe difference in the nature of the substances\\nwhich possess this property shows, that none of\\nthem can contain a peculiar matter which has the\\nproperty of exciting eremacausis they are only the\\nbearers of an action, the influence of which extends\\nbeyond the sphere of its own attractions. Their\\npower consists in a condition of decomposition or\\neremacausis, which impresses the same condition\\nupon the atoms of alcohol in its vicinity; exactly as\\nin the case of an alloy of platinum and silver dis-\\nsolving in nitric acid, in which the platinum becomes\\noxidized, by virtue of an inductive action exercised\\nupon it by the silver in the act of its oxidation.\\nThe hydrogen of the alcohol is oxidized at the\\nexpense of the oxygen in contact with it, and forms\\nwater, evolving heat at the same time the residue\\nis aldehyde, a substance which has as great an affin-\\nity for oxygen as sulphurous acid, and combines,\\ntherefore, directly with it, producing acetic acid.\\nCHAPTER VIII.\\nEREMACAUSIS OF SUBSTANCES CONTAINING NITROGEN.\\nNITRIFICATION.\\nWhen azotized substances are burned at high\\ntemperatures, their nitrogen does not enter into\\ndirect combination with oxygen. The knowledge\\nof this fact is of assistance in considering the pro-\\ncess of the eremacausis of such substances. Azotized\\norganic matter always contains carbon and hydrogen,\\nboth of which elements have a very strong affinity\\nfor oxygen.\\nNow nitrogen possesses a very feeble affinity for", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES CONTAINING NITROGEN. 335\\nthat element, so that its compounds during their\\ncombustion present analogous phenomena to those\\nwhich are observed in the combustion of substances\\ncontaining a large proportion of hydrogen and car-\\nbon a separation of the carbon of the latter sub-\\nstances in an uncornbined state takes place, and in\\nthe same way the substances containing nitrogen\\ngive out that element in its gaseous form.\\nWhen a moist azotized animal matter is exposed\\nto the action of the air, ammonia is always liberated;\\nnitric acid is never formed.\\nBut when alkalies or alkaline bases are present, a\\nunion of oxygen with the nitrogen takes place under\\nthe same circumstances, and nitrates are formed\\ntogether with the other products of oxidation.\\nAlthough we see the most simple means and direct\\nmethods employed in the great processes of decom-\\nposition which proceed in nature, still we find that\\nthe final result depends on a succession of actions,\\nwhich are essentially influenced by the chemical\\nnature of the bodies submitted to decomposition.\\nWhen it is observed that the character of a sub-\\nstance remains unaltered in a whole series of phe-\\nnomena, there is no reason to ascribe a new charac-\\nter to it, for the purpose of explaining a single\\nphenomenon, especially where the explanation of\\nthat according to known facts offers no difficulty.\\nThe most distinguished philosophers suppose that\\nthe nitrogen in an animal substance, when exposed\\nto the action of air, water, and alkaline bases,\\nobtains the power to unite directly with oxygen, and\\nform nitric acid, but we are not acquainted with a\\nsingle fact which justifies this opinion. .It is only\\nby the interposition of a large quantity of hydrogen\\nin the state of combustion or oxidation, that nitro-\\ngen can be converted into an oxide.\\nWhen a compound of nitrogen and carbon, such\\nas cyanogen, is burned in oxygen gas, its carbon\\nalone is oxidized; and when it is conducted over a\\nmetallic oxide heated to redness, an oxide of nitro-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "336 EREMACAUSIS OR DECAY\\ngen is very rarely produced, and never when the\\ncarbon is in excess. Kuhhnann found in his experi-\\nments, that it was only when cyanogen was mixed\\nwith an excess of oxygen gas, and conducted over\\nspongy platinum, that nitric acid was generated.\\nKuhlmann could not succeed in causing pure nitro-\\ngen to combine directly with oxygen, even under\\nthe most favorable circumstances; thus, with the\\naid of spongy platinum at different temperatures, no\\nunion took place.\\nThe carbon in the cyanogen gas must, therefore,\\nhave given rise to the combustion of the nitrogen by\\ninduction.\\nOn the other hand we find that ammonia (a com-\\npound of hydrogen and nitrogen) cannot be exposed\\nto the action of oxygen, without the formation of an\\noxide of nitrogen, and in consequence the production\\nof nitric acid.\\nIt is owing to the great facility with which ammo-\\nnia is converted into nitric acid, that it is so difficult\\nto obtain a correct determination of the quantity of\\nnitrogen in a compound subjected to analysis, in\\nwhich it is either contained in the form of ammonia,\\nor from which ammonia is formed by an elevation of\\ntemperature. For w^hen ammonia is passed over\\nred-hot oxide of copper, it is converted, either com-\\npletely or partially, into binoxide of nitrogen.\\nWhen ammoniacal gas is conducted over peroxide\\nof manganese or iron heated to redness, a large\\nquantity of nitrate of ammonia is obtained, if the\\nammonia be in excess and the same decomposition\\nhappens when ammonia and oxygen are together\\npassed over red-hot spongy platinum.\\nIt appears, therefore, that the combination of\\noxygen with nitrogen occurs rarely during the com-\\nbustion of compounds of the latter element with\\ncarbon, but that nitric acid is always a product when\\nammonia is present in the substance exposed to\\noxidation.\\nThe cause wherefore the nitrogen in ammonia", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "OF BODIES CONTAINING NITROGEN. 337\\nexhibits such a strong disposition to become con-\\nverted into nitric acid is, undoubtedly, that the two\\nproducts, which are the result of the oxidation of\\nthe constituents of ammonia, possess the power of\\nuniting with one another. Now this is not the case\\nin the combustion of compounds of carbon and\\nnitrogen; here one of the products is carbonic acid,\\nwhich, on account of its gaseous form, must oppose\\nthe combination of the oxygen ^and nitrogen, by\\npreventing their mutual contact, while the superior\\naffinity of its carbon for the oxygen during the act\\nof its formation will aid this effect.\\nWhen sufficient access of air is admitted during\\nthe combustion of ammonia, water is formed as well\\nas nitric acid, and both of these bodies combine\\ntogether. The presence of water may, indeed, be\\nconsidered as one of the conditions essential to\\nnitrification, since nitric acid cannot exist without it.\\nEremacausis is a kind of putrefaction, differing\\nfrom the common process of putrefaction, only in\\nthe part which the oxygen of the air plays in the\\ntransformations of the body in decay. When this is\\nremembered, and when it is considered that in the\\ntransposition of the elements of azotized bodies\\ntheir nitrogen assumes the form of ammonia, and\\nthat in this form, nitrogen possesses a much greater\\ndisposition to unite with oxygen than it has in any of\\nits other compounds we can with difficulty resist the\\nconclusion, that ammonia is the general cause of\\nnitrification on the surface of the earth,\\nAzotized animal matter is not, therefore, the im-\\nmediate cause of nitrification; it contributes to the\\nproduction of nitric acid only in so far as it is a\\nslow and continued source of ammonia.\\nNow it has been shown in the former part of this\\nwork, that ammonia is always present in the atmo-\\nsphere, so that nitrates might thence be formed in\\nsubstances which themselves contained no azotized\\nmatter. It is known, also, that porous substances\\npossess generally the power of condensing ammonia;\\n29", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "338 VINOUS FERMENTATION.\\nthere ftre few ferruginous earths which do not evolve\\nammoniacal products when heated to redness, and\\nammonia is the cause of the peculiar smell perceived\\nupon moistening aluminous minerals. Thus, ammo-\\nnia, by being a constituent of the atmosphere, is a\\nvery widely diffused cause of nitrification, which\\nw^ill come into play whenever the different conditions\\nnecessary for the oxidation of ammonia are com-\\nbined. It is probable, that other organic bodies in\\nthe state of eremacausis are the means of causing\\nthe combustion of ammonia; at all events, the cases\\nare very rare, in which nitric acid is generated from\\nammonia, in the absence of all matter capable of\\neremacausis.\\nFrom the preceding observations on the causes of\\nfermentation, putrefaction, and decay, we may now\\ndraw several conclusions calculated to correct the\\nviews generally entertained respecting the fermenta-\\ntion of wine and beer, and several other important\\nprocesses of decomposition which occur in nature.\\nCHAPTER IX.\\nON VINOUS FERMENTATION: V^^INE AND BEER.\\nIt has already been mentioned, that fermentation\\nis excited in the juice of grapes by the access of air;\\nalcohol and carbonic acid being formed by the de-\\ncomposition of the sugar contained in the fluid. But\\nit was also stated, that the process once commenced,\\ncontinues until all the sugar is completely decom-\\nposed, quite independently of any further influence\\nof the air.\\nIn addition to the alcohol and carbonic acid formed\\nby the fermentation of the juice, there is also pro-\\nduced a yellow or gray insoluble substance, contain-\\ning a large quantity of nitrogen. It is this body\\nwhich possesses the power of inducing fermentation", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "YEAST FROM BEER AND WINE. 339\\nin a new solution of sugar, and which has in conse-\\nquence received the name oi ferment.\\nThe alcohol and carbonic acid are produced from\\nthe elements of the sugar, and the ferment from those\\nazotized constituents of the grape-juice, which have\\nbeen termed gluten, or vegetable albumen.\\nAccording to the experiments of De Saussure,\\nfresh impure gluten evolved, in five weeks, twenty-\\neight times its volume of a gas which consisted of\\ncarbonic acid, and of pure hydrogen gas ammo-\\nniacal salts of several organic acids were formed at\\nthe same time. Water must, therefore, be decom-\\nposed during the putrefaction of gluten the oxygen\\nof this water must enter into combination with some\\nof its constituents, whilst hydrogen is liberated, a\\ncircumstance which happens only in decompositions\\nof the most energetic kind. Neither ferment nor\\nany substance similar to it is formed in this case;\\nand we have seen that in the fermentation of sac-\\ncharine vegetable juices, no escape of hydrogen gas\\ntakes place.\\nIt is evident, that the decomposition which gluten\\nsuffers in an isolated state, and that which it under-\\ngoes when dissolved in a vegetable juice, belong to\\ntwo different kinds of transformations. There is\\nreason to believe, that its change to the insoluble\\nstate depends upon an absorption of oxygen, for its\\nseparation in this state may be effected, under cer-\\ntain conditions, by free exposure to the air, without\\nthe presence of fermenting sugar. It is known also\\nthat the juice of grapes, or vegetable juices in gen-\\neral, become turbid when in contact with air, before\\nfermentation commences; and this turbidness is owing\\nto the formation of an insoluble precipitate of the\\nsame nature as ferment.\\nFrom the phenomena which have been observed\\nduring the fermentation of wort,* it is known wdth\\nWort is an infusion of malt; it consists of the soluble parts of this\\nsubstance dissolved in water. Ed.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "340 VINOUS FERMENTATION.\\nperfect certainty, that ferment is formed from gluten\\nat the same time that the transformation of the sugar\\nis effected; for the wort contains the azotized mat-\\nter of the corn, namely, gluten in the same condition\\nas it exists in the juice of grapes. The wort fer-\\nments by the addition of yeast, but after its decora-\\nposition is completed, the quantity of ferment or\\nyeast is found to be thirty times greater than it was\\noriginally.\\nYeast from beer and that from wine, examined un-\\nder the microscope, present the same form and gen-\\neral appearance. They are both acted on in the\\nsame manner by alkalies and acids, and possess the\\npower of inducing fermentation anew in a solution\\nof sugar; in short, they must be considered as\\nidentical.\\nThe fact that water is decomposed during the pu-\\ntrefaction of gluten has been completely proved. The\\ntendency of the carbon of the gluten to appropriate\\nthe oxygen of water must also always be in action,\\nwhether the gluten is decomposed in a soluble or in-\\nsoluble state. These considerations, therefore, as well\\nas the circumstance which all the experiments made\\non this subject appear to point out, that the conver-\\nsion of gluten to the insoluble state is the result of\\noxidation, lead us to conclude, that the oxygen con-\\nsumed in this process is derived from the elements\\nof water, or from the sugar w^hich contains oxygen\\nand hydrogen in the same proportion as water. At\\nall events, the oxygen thus consumed in the fermen-\\ntation of wine and beer is not taken from the at-\\nmosphere.\\nThe fermentation of pure sugar in contact with\\nyeast must evidently be a very different process from\\nthe fermentation of wort or tnust*\\nIn the former case, the yeast disappears during\\nthe decomposition of sugar; but in the latter, a\\ntransformation of gluten is effected at the same time,\\nThe liquid expressed from grapes when fully ripe is called must.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "OILY AND ETHEREAL PRODUCTS. 341\\nby which ferment is generated. Thus yeast is de-\\nstroyed in the one case, but is formed in the other.\\nNow since no free hydrogen gas can be detected\\nduring the fermentation of beer and wine, it is evi-\\ndent that the oxidation of the gluten, that is, its\\nconversion into ferment, must take place at the cost\\neither of the oxygen of the water, or of that of the\\nsugar whilst the hydrogen which is set free must\\nenter into new combinations, or by the deoxidation\\nof the sugar, new compounds containing a large pro-\\nportion of hydrogen, and small quantity of oxygen,\\ntogether with the carbon of the sugar, must be\\nformed.\\nIt is well known, that wine and fermented liquors\\ngenerally contain, in addition to the alcohol, other\\nsubstances which could not be detected before their\\nfermentation, and which must have been formed,\\ntherefore, during that process in a manner similar to\\nthe production of mannite. The smell and taste\\nwhich distinguish wune from all other fermented\\nliquids are known to depend upon an ether of a vol-\\natile and highly combustible acid the ether is of an\\noily nature, and has received the name (Enajithic\\nether. It is also ascertained, that the smell and\\ntaste of brandy from corn and potato are owing to a\\npeculiar oil, the oil of potatoes. This oil is more\\nclosely allied to alcohol in its properties, than to\\nany other organic substance.\\nThese bodies are products of the deoxidation of\\nthe substances dissolved in the fermenting liquids\\nthey contain less oxygen than sugar or gluten, but\\nare remarkable for the large quantity of hydrogen\\nwhich enters into their composition.\\nGEnanthic acid contains an equal number of equiv-\\nalents of carbon and hydrogen, exactly the same\\nproportions of these elements, therefore, as sugar,\\nbut by no means the same proportion of oxygen.\\nThe oil of potatoes contains much more hydrogen.\\nAlthough it cannot be doubted, that these volatile\\nliquids are formed by a mutual interchange of the\\n29*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "342 \\\\TNOUS FERMENTATION.\\nelements of gluten and sugar, in consequence, there-\\nfore, of a true process of putrefaction, still it is cer-\\ntain, that other causes exercise an influence upon\\ntheir production and peculiarities.\\nThe substances in wine to which its taste and\\nsmell are owing, are generated during the fermenta-\\ntion of the juice of such grapes as contain a certain\\nquantity of tartaric acid they are not found in\\nwines which are free from all acid, or which contain\\na different organic acid, such as acetic acid.\\nThe wines of warm climates possess no odor\\nwines grown in France have it in a marked degree,\\nbut in the wines from the Rhine the perfume is most\\nintense. The kinds of grapes on the Rhine, which\\nripen very late, and scarcely ever completely, such\\nas the Riessling and Orleans, have the strongest\\nperfume or bouquet, and contain, proportionally, a\\nlarger quantity of tartaric acid. The earlier grapes,\\nsuch as the Rulander, and others, contain a large\\nproportion of alcohol, and are similar to Spanish\\nwines in their flavor, but they possess no bouquet.\\nThe grapes grown at the Cape from Riesslings\\ntransplanted from the Rhine, produce an excellent\\nwine, which does not, however, possess the aroma\\nwhich distinguishes Rhenish wine.\\nIt is evident from these facts, that the acid of\\nwines, and their characteristic perfumes, have some\\nconnexion, for they are always found together and\\nit can scarcely be doubted, that the presence of the\\nformer exercises a certain influence on the formation\\nof the latter. This influence is very plainly observ-\\ned in the fermentation of liquids, which are quite\\nfree from tartaric acid, and particularly of those\\nwhich are nearly neutral or alkaline, such as the\\nmash* of potatoes or corn.\\nThe brandy obtained from corn and potatoes con-\\ntains an ethereal oil, of a similar composition in both,\\nMash is the mixture of malt, potatoes, and water, in the mash tun,\\na large vessel in which it is infused.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "OILY AND ETHEREAL PRODUCTS. 343\\nto which these liquors owe their peculiar smell. This\\noil is generated during the fermentation of the mash\\nit exists ready formed in the fermented liquids, and\\ndistils over with alcohol, when a gentle heat is\\napplied.\\nIt is observed, that a greater quantity of alcohol is\\nobtained when the mash is made quite neutral by-\\nmeans of ashes or carbonate of lime, but that the\\nproportion of oil in the brandy is also increased.\\nNow it is known, that brandy made from potato\\nstarch, which has been converted into sugar by di-\\nlute sulphuric acid, is completely free from the po-\\ntato oil, so that this substance must be generated in\\nconsequence of a change suffered by the cellular\\ntissue of the potatoes during their fermentation.\\nExperience has shown, that the simultaneous fer-\\nmentation or putrefaction of the cellular tissue, by\\nwhich this oil is generated, may be completely pre-\\nvented in the fabrication of brandy from corn.*\\nThe same malt, which in the preparation of brandy\\nyields a fluid containing the oil of which w^e are\\nspeaking, affords in the formation of beer a spiritu-\\nous liquor, in which no trace of that oil can be de-\\ntected. The principal difference in the preparation\\nof the two liquids is, that in the fermentation of wort,\\nan aromatic substance (hops) is added, and it is cer-\\ntain that its presence modifies the transformations\\nwhich take place. Now it is known that the volatile\\noil of mustard, and the empyreumatic oils, arrest\\ncompletely the action of yeast and although the oil\\nof hops does not possess this property, still it di-\\nminishes, in a great degree, the influence of decom-\\nposing azotized bodies upon the conversion of alco-\\nhol into acetic acid. There is, therefore, reason to\\nbelieve that some aromatic substances, when added\\nto fermenting mixtures, are capable of producing very\\nIn the manufactory of M. Dubrunfaut, so considerable a quantity\\nof this oil is obtained under certain circumstances from brandy made\\nfrom potatoes, that it might be employed for the purpose of illuminating\\nhis whole manufactory. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "344 VINOUS FERMENTATION.\\nvarious modifications in the nature of the products\\ngenerated.\\nWhatever opinion, however, may be held regard-\\ning the origin of the volatile odoriferous substances\\nobtained in the fermentation of wine, it is quite cer-\\ntain that the characteristic smell of wine is owing\\nto an ether of an organic acid, resembling one of the\\nfatty acids (cenanthic ether).\\nIt is only in liquids which contain other very solu-\\nble acids, that the fatty acids and cenanthic acids are\\ncapable of entering into combination with the ether\\nof alcohol, and of thus producing compounds of a\\npeculiar smell. This ether is found in all wines\\nwhich contain free acid, and is absent from those in\\nwhich no acids are present. This acid, therefore, is\\nthe m.eans by which the smell is produced since\\nwithout its presence cenanthic ether could not be\\nformed.\\nThe greatest part of the oil of brandy made from\\ncorn consists of a fatty acid not converted into\\nether; it dissolves oxide of copper and metallic ox-\\nides in general, and combines with the alkalies.\\nThe principal constituent of this oil is an acid\\nidentical in composition with cenanthic acid, but\\ndifferent in properties. (Mulder.) It is formed in\\nfermenting liquids, which, if they be acid, contain\\nonly acetic acid, a body which has no influence in\\ncausing other acids to form ethers.\\nThe oil of brandy made from potatoes is the .hy-\\ndrate of an organic base analogous to ether, and\\ncapable, therefore, of entering into combination with\\nacids. It is formed in considerable quantity in fer-\\nmenting liquids which are slightly alkaline; under\\ncircumstances, consequently, in which it is incapable\\nof combining with an acid.\\nThe products of the fermentation and putrefaction\\nof neutral vegetable and animal matters are gener-\\nally accompanied by substances of an offensive odor;\\nbut the most remarkable example of the generation\\nof a true ethereal oil is seen in the fermentation of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "ODORIFEROUS PRODUCTS. 345\\nthe Herha centaurium niinorius, a plant which pos-\\nsesses no smell. When it is exposed in water to a\\nslightly elevated temperature it ferments, and emits\\nan agreeable penetrating odor. By the distillation\\nof the liquid, an ethereal oily substance of great vola-\\ntility is obtained, which excites a pricking sensation\\nin the eyes, and a flow of tears, (Biichner.)\\nThe leaves of the tobacco plant present the same\\nphenomena; when fresh they possess very little or\\nno smell. When they are subjected to distillation\\nAvith water, a weak ammoniacal liquid is obtained,\\nupon which a fatty crystallizable substance swims,\\nwhich does not contain nitrogen, and is quite desti-\\ntute of smell. But when the same plant, after being\\ndried, is moistened with water, tied together in small\\nbundles, and placed in heaps, a peculiar process of\\ndecomposition takes place. Fermentation com-\\nmences, and is accompanied by the absorption of\\noxygen the leaves now become warm and emit the\\ncharacteristic smell of prepared tobacco and snufF.\\nWhen the fermentation is carefully promoted and\\ntoo high a heat avoided, this smell increases and be-\\ncomes more delicate; and after the fermentation is\\ncompleted, an oily azotized volatile matter called\\nnicotine is found in the leaves. This substance,\\nnicotine, which possesses all the properties of a\\nbase, was not present before the fermentation. The\\ndifferent kinds of tobacco are distinguished from one\\nanother, like wines, by having very different odori-\\nferous substances, which are generated along with\\nthe nicotine.\\nWe know, that most of the blossoms and vegetable\\nsubstances which possess a smell owe this property\\nto a volatile oil existing in them; but it is not less\\ncertain, that others emit a smell only when they\\nundergo change or decomposition.\\nArsenic and arsenious acid are both quite inodor-\\nous. It is only during their oxidation that they emit\\ntheir characteristic odor of garlic. The oil of the\\nberries of the elder-tree, many kinds of oil of turpen-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "346 VINOUS FERMENTATION.\\ntine, and oil of lemons, possess a smell only during\\ntheir oxidation or decay. The same is the case with\\nmany blossoms; and Geiger has shown, that the\\nsmell of musk is owing to its gradual putrefaction\\nand decay.\\nIt is also probable, that the peculiar odorous prin-\\nciple of many vegetable substances is newly formed\\nduring the fermentation of the saccharine juices of\\nthe plants. At all events, it is a fact, that very\\nsmall quantities of the blossoms of the violet, elder,\\nlinden, or cowslip, added to a fermenting liquid, are\\nsufficient to communicate a very strong taste and\\nsmell, which the addition of the water distilled from\\na quantity a hundred times greater would not effect.\\nThe various kinds of beer manufactured in Bavaria\\nare distinguished by different flavors, which are\\ngiven by allowing small quantities of the herbs and\\nblossoms of particular plants to ferment along with\\nthe wort. On the Rhine, also, an artificial bouquet\\nis often given to wine for fraudulent purposes, by the\\naddition of several species of the sage and rue to\\nthe fermenting liquor but the fictitious perfume\\nthus obtained differs from the genuine aroma, by its\\ninferior durability, and by being gradually dissi-\\npated.\\nThe juice of grapes grown in different climates\\ndiffers not only in the proportion of free acid which\\nit contains, but also in respect to the quantity of\\nsugar dissolved in it. The quantity of azotized\\nmatter in the juice seems to be the same in whatever\\nparts the grapes may grow at least no difference\\nhas been observed in the amount of yeast formed\\nduring fermentation in the south of France, and on\\nthe Rhine.\\nThe grapes grown in hot climates, as well as the\\nboiled juice obtained from them, are proportionally\\nrich in sugar. Hence, during the fermentation of\\nthe juice, the complete decomposition of its azotized\\nmatters, and their separation in the insoluble state,\\nare effected before all the sugar has been converted", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "TAMOUS PROPERTIES OF WINES. 347\\ninto alcohol and carbonic acid. A certain quantity\\nof the sugar consequently remains mixed with the\\nwine in an undecomposed state, the condition neces-\\nsary for its further decomposition being absent.\\nThe azotized matters in the juice of grapes of the\\ntemperate zones, on the contrary, are not completely\\nseparated in the insoluole state, when the entire\\ntransformation of the sugar is effected. The wine\\nof these grapes, therefore, does not contain sugar,\\nbut variable quantities of undecomposed gluten in\\nsolution.\\nThis gluten gives the wine the property of becom-\\ning spontaneously converted into vinegar, when the\\naccess of air is not prevented. For it absorbs\\noxygen and becomes insoluble; and its oxidation is\\ncommunicated to the alcohol, which is converted\\ninto acetic acid.\\nBy allowing the wine to remain at rest in casks\\nwith a very limited access of air, and at the lowest\\npossible temperature, the oxidation of this azotized\\nmatter is effected without the alcohol undergoing\\nthe same change, a higher temperature being neces-\\nsary to enable alcohol to combine with oxygen. As\\nlong as the wine in the stilling-casks deposites yeast,\\nit can still be caused to ferment by the addition of\\nsugar, but old well-layed wine has lost this property,\\nbecause the condition necessary for fermentation,\\nnamely, a substance in the act of decomposition or\\nputrefaction, is no longer present in it.\\nIn hotels and other places where wine is drawn\\ngradually from a cask, and a proportional quantity\\nof air necessarily introduced, its eremacausis, that\\nis, its conversion into acetic acid, is prevented by\\nthe addition of a small quantity of sulphurous acid.\\nThis acid, by entering into combination with the\\noxygen of the air contained in the cask, or dissolved\\nin the wine, prevents the oxidation of the organic\\nmatter.\\nThe various kinds of beer differ from one another\\nin the same way as the wines.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "348 FERMENTATION OF BEER.\\nEnglish, French, and most of the German beers,\\nare converted into vinegar when exposed to the\\naction of air. JBut this property is not possessed by\\nBavarian beer, which may be kept in vessels only\\nhalf-filled without acidifying or experiencing any\\nchange. This valuable quality is obtained for it by\\na peculiar management of the fermentation of the\\nwort. The perfection of experimental knowledge\\nhas here led to the solution of one of the most beau-\\ntiful problems of the theory of fermentation.\\nWort is proportionally richer in gluten than in\\nsugar, so that during its fermentation in the common\\nway, a great quantity of yeast is formed as a thick\\nscum. The carbonic acid evolved during the process\\nattaches itself to the particles of yeast, by which\\nthey become specifically lighter than the liquid in\\nwhich they are formed, and rise to its surface. Glu-\\nten in the act of oxidation comes in contact with\\nthe particles of the decomposing sugar in the inte-\\nrior of the liquid. The carbonic acid from the sugar\\nand insoluble ferment from the gluten are disengaged\\nsimultaneously, and cohere together.\\nA great quantity of gluten remains dissolved in\\nthe fermented liquid, even after the transformation\\nof the sugar is completed, and this gluten causes\\nthe conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid, on\\naccount of its strong disposition to attract oxygen,\\nand to undergo decay. Now, it is plain, that with\\nits separation, and that of all substances capable of\\nattracting oxygen, the beer would lose the property\\nof becoming acid. This end is completely attained\\nin the process of fermentation adopted in Bavaria.\\nThe wort, after having been treated with hops in\\nthe usual manner, is thrown into very wide flat\\nvessels, in which a large surface of the liquid is\\nexposed to the air. The fermentation is then allowed\\nto proceed, while the temperature of the chambers\\nin which the vessels are placed is never allowed to\\nrise above from 45 to 50^ F. The fermentation lasts\\nfrom three to six weeks, and the carbonic acid", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "THE BAVARUN PROCESS. 349\\nevolved during its continuance is not in large bub-\\nbles which burst upon the surface of the liquid, but\\nin small bubbles like those which escape from a\\nliquid saturated by high pressure. The surface of\\nthe wort is scarcely covered with a scum, and all\\nthe yeast is deposited on the bottom of the vessel\\nin the form of a viscous sediment.\\nIn order to obtain a clear conception of the great\\ndifference between the two kinds of fermentation, it\\nmay perhaps be sufficient to recall to mind the fact,\\nthat the transformation of gluten or other azotized\\nmatters is a process consisting of several stages.\\nThe first stage is the conversion of the gluten into\\ninsoluble ferment in the interior of the liquid, and\\nas the transformation of the sugar goes on at the\\nsame time, carbonic acid and yeast are simultane-\\nously disengaged. It is known with certainty, that\\nthis formation of yeast depends upon oxygen being\\nappropriated by the gluten in the act of decomposi-\\ntion but it has not been sufficiently shown, whether\\nthis oxygen is derived from the water, sugar, or\\nfrom the gluten itself; whether it combines directly\\nwith the gluten, or merely with its hydrogen, so as\\nto form water. For the purpose of obtaining a\\ndefinite idea of the process, we may designate the\\nfirst chano;e as the staofe of oxidation. This oxida-\\ntion of the gluten, then, and the transposition of the\\natoms of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid,\\nare necessarily attendant on each other, so that if the\\none is arrested the other must also cease.\\nNow, the yeast which rises to the surface of the\\nliquid is not the product of a complete decomposi-\\ntion, but is oxidized gluten, still capable of under-\\ngoing a new transformation by the transposition of\\nits constituent elements. By virtue of this condition\\nit has the power to excite fermentation in a solution\\nof sugar and if the gluten be also present, the\\ndecomposing sugar induces its conversion into fresh\\nyeast, so that, in a certain sense, the yeast appears\\nto reproduce itself.\\n30", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "350 FERMENTATION OF BEER.\\nYeast of this kind is oxidized gluten in a state of\\nputrefaction, and by virtue of this state it induces\\na similar transformation in the elements of the sugar.\\nThe yeast formed during the fermentation of Ba-\\nvarian beer is oxidized gluten in a state of decay.\\nThe process of decomposition which its constituents\\nare suffering, gives rise to a very protracted putre-\\nfaction {^fermentation) in the sugar. The intensity\\nof the action is diminished in so great a degree,\\nthat the gluten which the fluid still holds in solution\\ntakes no part in it the sugar in fermentation does\\nnot excite a .similar state in the gluten.\\nBut the contact of the already decaying and pre-\\ncipitated gluten or yeast, causes the eremacausis of\\nthe gluten dissolved in the \\\\vort oxygen gas is\\nabsorbed from the air, and all the gluten in solution\\nis deposited as yeast.\\nThe ordinary frothy yeast may be removed from\\nfermenting beer by filtration, without the fermenta-\\ntion being thereby arrested but precipitated yeast\\nof Bavarian beer cannot be removed without the\\nwhole process of its fermentation being interrupted.\\nThe beer ceases to ferment altogether, or, if the\\ntemperature is raised, undergoes the ordinary fer-\\nmentation.\\nThe precipitated yeast does not excite ordinary\\nfermentation, and consequently is quite unfitted for\\nthe purpose of baking but the common frothy yeast\\ncan cause the kind of fermentation by which the\\nformer kind of yeast is produced.\\nWhen common yeast is added to wort at a tem-\\nperature of between 40^ and 45\u00c2\u00b0 F., a slow tranquil\\nfermentation takes place, and a matter is deposited\\non the bottom of the vessel, which may be employed\\nto excite new fermentation and when the same\\noperation is repeated several times in succession,\\nthe ordinary fermentation changes into that process\\nby which only precipitated yeast is formed. The\\nyeast now deposited has lost the property of excit-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "THE BAVARIAN PROCESS. 351\\ning ordinary fermentation, but it produces the other\\nprocess even at a temperature of 50\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\nIn wort subjected to fermentation, at a low tem-\\nperature, with this kind of yeast, the condition\\nnecessary for the transformation of the sugar is the\\npresence of that yeast; but for the conversion of\\ngluten into ferment by a process of oxidation, some-\\nthing more is required.\\nWhen the power of gluten to attract oxygen is\\nincreased by contact with precipitated yeast in a\\nstate of decay, the unrestrained access of air is the\\nonly other condition necessary for its own conver-\\nsion into the same state of decay, that is, for its\\noxidation. We have already seen, that the presence\\nof free oxygen and gluten are conditions which\\ndetermine the eremacausis of alcohol and its conver-\\nsion into acetic acid, but they are incapable of exert-\\ning this influence at low temperatures. A low tem-\\nperature retards the slow combustion of alcohol,\\nwhile the gluten combines spontaneously with the\\noxygen of the air, just as sulphurous acid does when\\ndissolved in water. Alcohol undergoes no such\\nchange at low temperatures, but during the oxidation\\nof the gluten in contact with it, is placed in the same\\ncondition as the gluten itself when sulphurous acid\\nis added to the wine in which it is contained. The\\noxygen of the air unites both with the gluten and\\nalcohol of wine not treated with sulphurous acid\\nbut when this acid is present it combines with nei-\\nther of them, being altogether absorbed by the acid.\\nThe same thing happens in the peculiar process of\\nfermentation adopted in Bavaria. The oxygen of\\nthe air unites only with the gluten and not with the\\nalcohol, although it would have combined with both\\nat higher temperatures, so as to form acetic acid.\\nThus, then, this remarkable process of fermenta-\\ntion with the precipitation of a mucous-like ferment\\nconsists of a simultaneous putrefaction and decay in\\nthe same liquid. The sugar is in the state of putre-\\nfaction, and the gluten in that of decay.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "352 FERMENTATION OF BEER.\\nAppert s method of preserving food, and this kind\\nof fermentation of beer, depend on the same prin-\\nciple.\\nIn the fermentation of beer after this manner, all\\nthe substances capable of decay are separated from\\nit by means of an unrestrained access of air, while\\nthe temperature is kept sufficiently low to prevent\\nthe alcohol from combining with oxygen. The re-\\nmoval of these substances diminishes the tendency\\nof the beer to become acescent, or, in other words,\\nto suffer a further transformation.\\nIn Appert s mode of preserving food, oxygen is\\nallowed to enter into combination with the substance\\nof the food, at a temperature at which decay, but\\nneither putrefaction nor fermentation, can take place.\\nWith the subsequent exclusion of the oxygen and\\nthe completion of the decay, every cause which could\\neffect further decomposition of the food is removed.\\nThe conditions for putrefaction are rendered insuffi-\\ncient in both cases in the one by the removal of the\\nsubstances susceptible of decay, in the other by the\\nexclusion of the oxygen which would effect it.\\nIt has been stated to be uncertain, whether gluten\\nduring its conversion into common yeast, that is,\\ninto the insoluble state in which it separates from\\nfermenting liquids, really combines directly with\\noxygen. If it does combine with oxygen, then the\\ndifference between gluten and ferment would be,\\nthat the latter would contain a larger proportion of\\noxygen. Now it is very difficult to ascertain this,\\nand even their analyses cannot decide the question.\\nLet us consider, for example, the relations of alloxan\\nand alloxantin* to one another. Both of these bod-\\nies contain the same elements as gluten, although in\\ndifferent proportions. Now they are known to be\\nconvertible into each other, by oxygen being absorb-\\ned in the one case, and in the other extracted. Both\\nProducts of the decomposition of uric acid by nitric acid, consisting\\nof carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. See description, c. in\\nWebster s Cliemistry, pp 425 and 430.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION OF BEER. 353\\nare composed of absolutely the same elements, in\\nequal proportions with the single exception, that\\nalloxantin contains 1 equivalent of hydrogen more\\nthan alloxan.\\nWhen alloxantin is treated with chlorine and ni-\\ntric acid, it is converted into alloxan, into a body,\\ntherefore, which is alloxantin minus 1 equivalent of\\nhydrogen. If on the other hand a stream of sulphuret-\\nted hydrogen is conducted through alloxan, sulphur\\nis precipitated, and alloxantin produced. It may be\\nsaid, that in the first case hydrogen is abstracted,\\nin the other added. But it would be quite as simple\\nan explanation, if we considered them as oxides of\\nthe same radical the alloxan being regarded as a\\ncombination of a body composed of C^ N^ H^ 0^ with\\n2 equivalents of water, and alloxantin as a combina-\\ntion of 3 atoms of water, with a compound consist-\\nino; of C^ W W 0^ The conversion of alloxan into\\nalloxantin would in this case result from its eight\\natoms of oxygen being reduced to seven, while al-\\nloxan would be formed out of alloxantin, by its com-\\nbining with an additional atom of oxygen.\\nNow, oxides are known which combine with water,\\nand present the same phenomena as alloxan and al-\\nloxantin. But no compounds of hydrogen are known\\nwhich form hydrates and custom, which rejects all\\ndissimilarity until the claim to peculiarity is quite\\nproved, leads us to prefer an opinion, for which there\\nis no further foundation than that of analogy. The\\nwoad (^Isatis tinctorid) and several species of the\\nNeriwrn contain a substance similar in many respects\\nto gluten, which is deposited as indigo blue, when\\nan aqueous infusion of the dried leaves is exposed\\nto the action of the air. Now it is very doubtful\\nwhether the blue insoluble indigo is an oxide of the\\ncolorless soluble indigo, or the latter a combination\\nof hydrogen with the indigo blue. Dumas has found\\nthe same elements in both, except that the soluble\\ncompound contained 1 equivalent of hydrogen more\\nthan the blue.\\n30*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "354 FERMENTATION OF BEER.\\nIn the same manner the soluble gluten may be con-\\nsidered a compound of hydrogen, which becomes\\nferment by losing a certain quantity of this element\\nwhen exposed to the action of the oxygen of the air\\nunder favorable circumstances. At all events, it is\\ncertain that oxygen is the cause of the insoluble con-\\ndition of gluten for yeast is not deposited on keep-\\ning wine, or during the fermentation of Bavarian\\nbeer, unless oxygen has access to the fluid.\\nNow, whatever be the form in which the oxygen\\nunites with the gluten, whether it combines di-\\nrectly with it or extracts a portion of its hydrogen,\\nforming water, the products formed in the interior\\nof the liquid, in consequence of the conversion of\\nthe gluten into ferment, will still be the same. Let\\nus suppose that gluten is a compound of another\\nsubstance with hydrogen, then this hydrogen must\\nbe removed during the ordinary fermentation of must\\nand wort, by combining with oxygen, exactly as in\\nthe conversion of alcohol into aldehyde* by erema-\\ncausis.\\nIn both cases the atmosphere is excluded the\\noxygen cannot, then, be derived from the air, neither\\ncan it be supplied by the elements of w^ater, for it is\\nimpossible to suppose, that the oxygen will separate\\nfrom the hydrogen of water, for the purpose of unit-\\ning with the hydrogen of gluten, in order again to\\nform water. The oxygen, must, therefore, be ob-\\ntained from the elements of sugar, a portion of which\\nsubstance must, in order to the formation of ferment,\\nundergo a different decomposition from that which\\nproduces alcohol. Hence a certain part of the sugar\\nwill not be converted into carbonic acid and alcohol,\\nbut will yield other products containing less oxygen\\nthan sugar itself contains. These products, as has\\nalready been mentioned, are the cause of the great\\nA liquid havinjr a peculiar ethereal smell, and obtained by passing\\nthe vapor of ether throuorh a large glass tube heated to redness, and by\\nother processes. It consists of carbon 4 hydrogen 4, oxygen 2. Its\\nname is from the Latin, alcohol dehijdratus.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "THE BAVARIAN PROCESS. 355\\ndifference in the qualities of fermented liquids, and\\nparticularly in the quantity of alcohol which they\\ncontain.\\nMust and wort do not, therefore, in ordinary fer-\\nmentation, yield alcohol in proportion to the quantity\\nof sugar which they hold in solution, a part of the\\nsugar being employed in the conversion of gluten\\ninto ferment, and not in the formation of alcohol.\\nBut in the fermentation of Bavarian beer, all the\\nsugar is expended in the production of alcohol and\\nthis is especially the case whenever the transforma-\\ntion of the sugar is not accompanied by the forma-\\ntion of yeast.\\nIt is quite certain, that in the distilleries of brandy\\nfrom potatoes, where no yeast is formed, or only a\\nquantity corresponding to the malt which has been\\nadded, the proportion of alcohol and carbonic acid\\nobtained during the fermentation of the mash corre-\\nsponds exactly to that of the carbon contained in\\nthe starch. It is also known, that the volume of car-\\nbonic acid evolved during the fermentation of beet-\\nroots gives no exact indication of the proportion of\\nsugar contained in them, for less carbonic acid is\\nobtained than the same quantity of pure sugar would\\nyield.\\nBeer obtained by the mode of fermentation adopt-\\ned in Bavaria contains more alcohol, and possesses\\nmore intoxicating properties, than that made by the\\nordinary method of fermentation, when the quanti-\\nties of malt used are the same. The strong taste\\nof the former beer is generally ascribed to its con-\\ntaining carbonic acid in larger quantity, and in a\\nstate of more intimate combination but this opinion\\nis erroneous. Both kinds of beer are, at the conclu-\\nsion of the fermentation, completely saturated with\\ncarbonic acid, the one as much as the other. Like\\nall other liquids, they both must retain such a por-\\ntion of the carbonic acid evolved as corresponds to\\ntheir power of solution, that is, to their volumes.\\nThe temperature of the fluid during fermentation", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "356 FERMENTATION OF BEER.\\nhas a very important influence on the quantity of\\nalcohol generated. It has been mentioned, that the\\njuice of beet-roots allowed to ferment at from 86^ to\\n95\u00c2\u00b0 (30^ to 35\u00c2\u00b0 C.) yields no alcohol; and that\\nafterwards, in the place of the sugar, mannite, a\\nsubstance incapable of fermentation, and containing\\nvery little oxygen, is found, together with lactic acid\\nand mucilage. The formation of these products di-\\nminishes in proportion as the temperature is lower.\\nBut in vegetable juices, containing nitrogen, it is\\nimpossible to fix a limit, where the transformation\\nof the sugar is undisturbed by any other process of\\ndecomposition.\\nIt is known, that in the fermentation of Bavarian\\nbeer, the action of the oxygen of the air, and the\\nlow temperature, cause complete transformation of\\nthe sugar into alcohol the cause which would pre-\\nvent that result, namely, the extraction of the oxy-\\ngen of part of the sugar by the gluten, in its con-\\nversion into ferment, being avoided by the introduc-\\ntion of oxygen from without.\\nThe quantity of matters in the act of transforma-\\ntion is naturally greatest at the beginning of the\\nfermentation of must and wort and all the phenom-\\nena which accompany the process, such as evolution\\nof gas, and heat, are best observed at that time.\\nThese signs of the changes proceeding in the fluid\\ndiminish when the greater part of the sugar has\\nundergone decomposition but they must cease en-\\ntirely before the process can be regarded as com-\\npleted.\\nThe less rapid process of decomposition which\\nsucceeds the violent evolution of gas, continues in\\nwine and beer until the sugar has completely dis-\\nappeared; and hence it is observed, that the specific\\ngravity of the liquid diminishes during many months.\\nThis slow fermentation, in most cases, resembles the\\nfermentation of Bavarian beer, the transformation\\nof the dissolved sugar being in part the result of a\\nslow and continued decomposition of the precipita-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "DECAY OF WOODY FIBRE. 357\\nted yeast but a complete separation of the azotized\\nsubstances dissolved in it cannot take place when\\nair is excluded.*\\nNeither alcohol alone, nor hops, nor indeed both\\ntogether, preserve beer from becoming acid. The\\nbetter kinds of ale and porter in England are pro-\\ntected from acidity, but at the loss of the interest\\nof an immense capital. They are placed in large\\nclosed wooden vessels, the surfaces of which are\\ncovered with sand. In these they are allowed to lie\\nfor several years, so that they are treated in a man-\\nner exactly similar to wine during its ripening.\\nA gentle diffusion of air takes place through the\\npores of the wood, but the quantity of azotized sub-\\nstances being very great in proportion to the oxygen\\nwhich enters, they consume it, and prevent its union\\nwith the alcohol. But the beer treated in this way\\ndoes not keep for two months without acidifying if\\nit be placed in smaller vessels, to which free access\\nof the air is permitted.\\nCHAPTER X.\\nDECAY OF WOODY FIBRE.\\nThe conversion of woody fibre into the substances\\ntermed humus and mould is, on account of its in-\\nfluence on vegetation, one of the most remarkable\\nprocesses of decomposition which occur in nature.\\nDecay is not less important in another point of\\nThe great influence which a rational management of fermentalion\\nexercises upon the quality of beer is well known in several of the Ger-\\nman states. In the grand-duchy of Hesse, for example, a considerable\\npremium is offered for the preparation of beer, according to the\\nBavarian method and the premium is to be adjudged to any one who\\ncan prove, that the beer brewed by him has lain for six months in the\\nstore-vats without becoming acid. Hundreds of casks of beer became\\nchanged to vinegar before an empirical knowledge of those conditions\\nwas obtained, the influence of which is rendered intelligible by the\\ntheory. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "358 DECAY OF WOODY FIBRE.\\nview; for, by means of its influence on dead vege-\\ntable matter, the oxygen which plants retained dur-\\ning life is again restored to the atmosphere.\\nThe decomposition of woody fibre is effected in\\nthree forms, the results of which are different, so\\nthat it is necessary to consider each separately.\\nThe first takes place when it is in the moist con-\\ndition, and subject to free uninterrupted access of\\nair the second occurs when the air is excluded\\nand the third when the wood is covered with water,\\nand in contact with putrefying organic matter.\\nIt is known that woody fibre may be kept under\\nwater, or in dry air, for thousands of years without\\nsuffering any appreciable change but that w^hen\\nbrought into contact wuth air, in the moist con-\\ndition it converts the oxygen surrounding it into the\\nsame volume of carbonic acid, and is itself gradually\\nchanged into a yellowish brown, or black matter, of\\na loose texture.*\\nIt has already been mentioned, that pure woody\\nfibre contains carbon and the elements of water.\\nHumus, however, is not produced by the decay of\\npure woody fibre, but by that of wood which contains\\nforeign soluble and insoluble organic substances, be-\\nsides its essential constituents.\\nThe relative proportions of the component elements\\nare, on this account, different in oak wood and in\\nbeech, and the composition of both of these differs\\nvery much from woody fibre, w^hich is the same in\\nall vegetables. The difference, however, is so triv-\\nial, that it may be altogether neglected in the con-\\nsideration of the questions which will now be brought\\nunder discussion; besides, the quantity of the for-\\neign substances is not constant, but varies according\\nto the season of the year.\\nAccording to the experiments of De Saussure, 240 parts of dry\\nsaw-dust of oak wood convert 10 cubic inches of oxygen into the same\\nquantity of carbonic acid, which contains 3 parts, by weight, of car-\\nbon while the weight of the sawdust is diminished by 15 parts.\\nHence, 12 parts, by weight, of water, are at the same time separated\\nfrom the elements of the wood. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "DECAY OF WOODY FIBRE. 359\\nAccoi ding to the careful analysis of Gay-Lussac\\nand Thenai d, 100 parts of oak wood, dried at 212^\\n(100\u00c2\u00b0 C), from which all soluble substances had\\nbeen extracted by means of water and alcohol, con-\\ntained 52-53 parts of carbon, and 47-47 parts of hy-\\ndrogen and oxygen, in the same proportion as they\\nare contained in water.\\nNow it has been mentioned, that moist wood acts\\nin oxygen gas exactly as if its carbon combined di-\\nrectly with oxygen, and that the products of this\\naction are carbonic acid and humus.\\nIf the action of the oxygen were confined to the\\ncarbon of the wood, and if nothings but carbon were\\nremoved from it, the remaining elements would ne-\\ncessarily be found in the humus, unchanged except\\nin the particular of being combined with less carbon.\\nThe final result of the action would therefore be a\\ncomplete disappearance of the carbon, w^hilst noth-\\ning but the elements of water would remain.\\nBut when decaying wood is subjected to exami-\\nnation in different stages of its decay, the remark-\\nable result is obtained, that the proportion of carbon\\nin the different products augments. Consequently,\\nif we did not take into consideration the evolution\\nof carbonic acid under the influence of the air, the\\nconversion of wood into humus might be viewed as\\na removal of the elements of water from the carbon.\\nThe analysis of mouldered oak wood, which was\\ntaken from the interior of the trunk of an oak, and\\npossessed a chocolate brown color and the structure\\nof wood, showed that 100 parts of it contained 53-56\\nparts of carbon and 46-44 parts of hydrogen and\\noxygen in the same relative proportions as in w^ater.\\nFrom an examination of mouldered w^ood of a light-\\nbrown color, easily reducible to a fine powder, and\\ntaken from another oak, it appeared that it contained\\n56-211 carbon and 43-789 water.\\nThese indisputable facts point out the similarity\\nof the decay of wood, with the slow combustion or\\noxidation of bodies which contain a large quantity", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "360 DECAY OF WOODY FIBRE.\\nof hydrogen. Viewed as a kind of combustion, it\\nwould indeed be a very extraordinary process, if the\\ncarbon combined directly with the oxygen; for it\\nwould be a combustion in which the carbon of the\\nburning body augmented constantly, instead of\\ndiminishing. Hence it is evident, that it is the hy-\\ndrogen which is oxidized at the expense of the\\noxygen of the air; while the carbonic acid is formed\\nfrom the elements of the wood. Carbon never com-\\nbines at common temperatures with oxygen, so as to\\nform carbonic acid.\\nIn whatever stage of decay wood may be, its ele-\\nments must always be capable of being represented\\nby their equivalent numbers.\\nThe following formula illustrates this fact with\\ngreat clearness\\nCo6 H22 022 oak wood, according to Gay-Lussac and Thenard.*\\nC35 H20 O 20 humus from oak wood (Meyer). f\\nC34H18 01d~ (Dr. Will) 4\\nIt is evident from these numbers, that for every\\ntwo equivalents of hydrogen which are oxidized,\\ntwo atoms of oxygen and one of carbon are set\\nfree.\\nUnder ordinary circumstances, woody fibre requires\\na very long time for its decay; but this process is\\nof course much accelerated by an elevated tempera-\\nture and free unrestrained access of air. The decay,\\non the contrary, is much retarded by absence of\\nmoisture, and by the wood being surrounded with\\nan atmosphere of carbonic acid, which prevents the\\naccess of air to the decaying matters.\\nSulphurous acid, and all antiseptic substances,\\narrest the decay of woody fibre. It is well known,\\nthat corrosive sublimate is employed for the purpose\\nof protecting the timber of ships from decay; it is\\na substance which completely deprives vegetable or\\nanimal matters, the most prone to decomposition, of\\nThe calculation gives 52-5 carbon, and 475 water,\\nt The calculation gives 54 carbon, and 46 water.\\nt The calculation gives 5G carbon, and 44 water.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "WOODY FIBRE. 361\\ntheir property of entering into fermentation, putre-\\nfaction, or decay.*\\nBut the decay of woody fibre is very much accel-\\nerated by contact with alkalies or alkaline earths\\nfor these enable substances to absorb oxygen, which\\ndo not possess this power themselves; alcohol,\\ngallic acid, tannin, the vegetable coloring matters,\\nand several other substances, are thus affected by\\nthem. Acids produce quite an opposite effect they\\ngreatly retard decay.\\nHeavy soils, consisting of loam, retain longest the\\nmost important condition for the decay of the vege-\\ntable matter contained in them, viz., water; but\\ntheir impermeable nature prevents contact with the\\nair.\\nIn moist sandy soils, particularly such as are com-\\nposed of a mixture of sand and carbonate of lime,\\ndecay proceeds very quickly, it being aided by the\\npresence of the slightly alkaline lime.\\nNow let us consider the decay of woody fibre\\nduring a very long period of time, and suppose that\\nits cause is the gradual removal of the hydrogen in\\nthe form of water, and the separation of its oxygen\\nin that of carbonic acid. It is evident, that if we\\nsubtract from the formula C^% H 0 the 22 equiv-\\nalents of oxygen, with 11 equivalents of carbon, and\\n22 equivalents of hydrogen, which are supposed to\\nbe oxidized by the oxygen of the air, and separated\\nin the form of water; then from 1 atom of oak wood,\\n25 atoms of pure carbon will remain as the final\\nproduct of the decay. In other words, 100 parts of\\noak, W hich contain 52*5 parts of carbon, will leave\\nas a residue 37 parts of carbon, which must remain\\nunchanged, since carbon does not combine with\\noxygen at common temperatures.\\nBut this final result is never attained in the decay\\nof wood under common circumstances and for this\\nreason, that with the increase of the proportion of\\nSee an account of the process for kyanizing timber in tlie Farm-\\ner s Register, Vol. III. p. 368.\\n31", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "362 DECAY OF WOODY FIBRE.\\ncarbon in the residual humus, as in all decomposi-\\ntions of this kind, its attraction for the hydrogen,\\nwhich still remains in combination, also increases,\\nuntil at length the affinity of oxygen for the hydro-\\ngen is equalled by that of the carbon for the same\\nelement.\\nIn proportion as the decay of woody fibre ad-\\nvances, its property of burning with flame, or in\\nother words, of developing carburetted hydrogen on\\nthe application of heat, diminishes. Decayed wood\\nburns without flame whence no other conclusion\\ncan be drawn, than that the hydrogen, which analysis\\nshows to be present, is not contained in it in the\\nsame form as in wood.\\nDecayed oak contains more carbon than fresh\\nwood, but its hydrogen and oxygen are in the same\\nproportion.\\nWe should naturally expect that the flame given\\nout by decayed wood would be more brilliant, in\\nproportion to the increase of its carbon; but we find,\\non the contrary, that it burns like tinder, exactly as if\\nno hydrogen were present. For the purposes of fuel,\\ndecayed or diseased wood is of little value, for it\\ndoes not possess the property of burning with flame,\\na property upon which the advantages of common\\nwood depend. The hydrogen of decayed wood must\\nconsequently be supposed to be in the state of water;\\nfor had it any other form, the characters we have de-\\nscribed would not be possessed by the decayed wood.\\nIf we suppose decay to proceed in a liquid, w^hich\\ncontains both carbon and hydrogen, then a compound\\ncontaining still more carbon must be formed, in a\\nmanner similar to the production of the crystalline\\ncolorless naphthalin from a gaseous compound of\\ncarbon and hydrogen. And if the compound thus\\nformed were itself to undergo further decay, the\\nfinal result must be the separation of carbon in a\\ncrystalline form.\\nScience can point to no process capable of ac-\\ncounting for the origin and formation of diamonds,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "VEGETABLE MOULD. 363\\nexcept the process of decay. Diamonds cannot be\\nproduced by the action of fire, for a high temperature\\nand the presence of oxygen gas, would call into\\nplay their combustibility. But there is the greatest\\nreason to believe that they are formed in the humid\\nway, that is, in a liquid, and the process of decay is\\nthe only cause to which their formation can with\\nprobability be ascribed.\\nAmber, fossil resin, and the acids in mellite, are\\nthe products of vegetable matter which has suffered\\ndecomposition. They are found in wood or brown\\ncoal, and have evidently proceeded from the decom-\\nposition of substances which were contained in quite\\na different form in the living plants. They are all\\ndistinguished by the proportionally small quantity\\nof hydrogen which they contain. The acid from\\nmellite (mellitic acid) contains precisely the same\\nproportions of carbon and oxygen as that from\\namber (succinic acid); they differ only in the pro-\\nportion of their hydrogen. M. Bromeis* found, that\\nsuccinic acid might be artificially formed by the\\naction of nitric acid on stearic acid, a true process\\nof eremacausis the experiment was made in this\\nlaboratory (Giessen).\\nCHAPTER XI.\\nVEGETABLE MOULD.\\nThe term vegetable mould, in its general significa-\\ntion, is applied to a mixture of disintegrated miner-\\nals, with the remains of animal and vegetable sub-\\nstances. It may be considered as earth in which\\nhumus is contained in a state of decomposition. Its\\naction upon the air has been fully investigated by\\nIngenhouss and De Saussure.\\nWhen moist vegetable mould is placed in a vessel\\nLiebig s Annalen, Band xxxiv., heft 3.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "364 VEGETABLE MOULD.\\nfull of air, it extracts the oxygen therefrom with\\ngreater rapidity than decayed wood, and replaces it\\nby an equal volume of carbonic acid. When this\\ncarbonic acid is removed and fresh air admitted,\\nthe same action is repeated.\\nCold water dissolves only loiooth of its own weight\\nof vegetable mould and the residue left on its\\nevaporation consists of common salt with traces of\\nsulphate of potash and lime, and a minute quantity\\nof organic matter, for it is blackened when heated\\nto redness. Boiling water extracts several sub-\\nstances from vegetable mould, and acquires a yellow\\nor yellowish brown color, which is dissipated by\\nabsorption of oxygen from the air, a black flocculent\\ndeposit being formed. When the colored solution is\\nevaporated, a residue is left which becomes black on\\nbeing heated to redness, and afterwards yields car-\\nbonate of potash when treated with water.\\nA solution of caustic potash becomes black when\\nplaced in contact with vegetable mould, and the ad-\\ndition of acetic acid to the colored solution causes no\\nprecipitate or turbidness. But dilute sulphuric acid\\nthrows down a light flocculent precipitate of a brown\\nor black color, from which the acid can be removed\\nwith difficulty by means of water. When this pre-\\ncipitate, after having been washed with water, is\\nbrouo-ht whilst still moist under a receiver filled with\\noxygen, the gas is absorbed with great rapidity; and\\nthe same thing takes place when the precipitate is\\ndried in the air. In the perfectly dry state it has\\nentirely lost its solubility in water, and even alkalies\\ndissolve only traces of it.\\nIt is evident, therefore, that boiling water extracts\\na matter from vegetable mould, which owes its solu-\\nbility to the presence of the alkaline salts contained\\nin the remains of plants. This substance is a pro-\\nduct of the incomplete decay of woody fibre. Its\\ncomposition is intermediate between woody fibre and\\nhumus, into which it is converted, by being exposed\\nin a moist condition to the action of the air.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD, COAL, ETC. 365\\nCHAPTER XII.\\nON THE MOULDERING OF BODIES. PAPER, BROWN\\nCOAL, AND MINERAL COAL.\\nThe decomposition of wood, woody fibre, and all\\nvegetable bodies when subjected to the action of\\nwater, and excluded from the air, is termed mould-\\nering.\\nWood, or brown coal and mineral coal, are the re-\\nmains of vegetables of a former world their ap-\\npearance and characters show, that they are products\\nof the processes of decomposition termed decay and\\nputrefaction. We can easily ascertain by analysis\\nthe manner in which their constituents have been\\nchanged, if we suppose the greater part of their bulk\\nto have been formed from woody fibre.\\nBut it is necessary, before we can obtain a distinct\\nidea of the manner in which coal is formed, to con-\\nsider a peculiar change which woody fibre suffers by\\nmeans of moisture, when partially or entirely ex-\\ncluded from the air.\\nIt is known, that when pure woody fibre, as linen,\\nfor example, is placed in contact with water, con-\\nsiderable heat is evolved, and the substance is\\nconverted into a soft friable mass, which has lost\\nall coherence. This substance was employed in the\\nfabrication of paper before the use of chlorine, as an\\nagent for bleaching. The rags employed for this\\npurpose were placed in heaps, and it was observed,\\nthat on their becoming warm a gas was disengaged,\\nand their weight diminished from 18 to 25 per cent.\\nWhen sawdust moistened with water is placed in\\na closed vessel, carbonic acid gas is evolved in the\\nsame manner as when air is admitted. A true putre-\\nfaction takes place, the wood assumes a white color,\\nloses its peculiar texture, and is converted into a\\nrotten friable matter.\\n31*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "366 DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD, COAL, ETC.\\nThe white decayed wood found in the interiors of\\ntrunks of dead trees which have been in contact with\\nwater, is produced in the way just mentioned.\\nAn analysis of wood of this kind, obtained from\\nthe interior of the trunk of an oak, yielded, after\\nhaving been dried at 212\u00c2\u00b0,\\nCarbon 48-11 48-14\\nHydrogen (v31 606\\nOxygen 4531 44-43\\nAshes 127 1-37\\n100-00 10000\\nNow, on comparing the proportions obtained from\\nthese numbers with the composition of oak wood, ac-\\ncording to the analysis of Gay-Lussac and Thenard,\\nit is immediately perceived, ihat a certain quantity\\nof carbon has been separated from the constituents\\nof wood, whilst the hydrogen is, on the contrary, in-\\ncreased. The numbers obtained by the analysis cor-\\nrespond very nearly to the formula C33 H27 024.*\\nThe elements of water have, therefore, become\\nunited with the wood, whilst carbonic acid is disen-\\ngaged by the absorption of a certain quantity of\\noxygen.\\nIf the elements of 5 atoms of water and 3 atoms\\nof oxygen be added to the composition of the woody\\niibre of the oak, and 3 atoms of carbonic acid de-\\nducted, the exact formula for white mouldered wood\\nis obtained.\\nWood C36H22 022\\nTo this add 5 atoms of water H 5 O 5\\n3 atoms of oxygen 03\\nC36 H27 O 30\\nSubtract from this 3 atoms carbonic acid C 3 O 6\\nC33 H27 024\\nThe process of mouldering is, therefore, one of\\nputrefaction and decay, proceeding simultaneously,\\nin which the oxygen of the air and the component\\nThe calculation from this formula gives in 100 parts 47-9 carbon,\\n61 hydrogen, and 46 oxygen.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD, COAL, ETC. 367\\nparts of water take part. But the composition of\\nmouldered wood must change according as the\\naccess of oxygen is more or less prevented. White\\nmouldered beech-wood yielded on analysis 47*67\\ncarbon, 5-67 hydrogen, and 46 6S oxygen this cor-\\nresponds to the formula C33 H25 024.\\nThe decomposition of wood assumes, therefore,\\ntwo different forms, according as the access of the\\nair is free or restrained. In both cases carbonic\\nacid is generated and in the latter case, a certain\\nquantity of water enters into chemical combination.\\nIt is highly probable, that in this putrefactive\\nprocess, as well as in all others, the oxygen of the\\nwater assists in the formation of the carbonic acid.\\nWood coal (brown coal of Werner) must have\\nbeen produced by a process of decomposition similar\\nto that of mouldering. But it is not easy to obtain\\nwood coal suited for analysis, for it is generally\\nimpregnated with resinous or earthy substances, by\\nwhich the composition of those parts which have\\nbeen formed from woody fibre is essentially changed.\\nThe wood coal, which forms extensive layers in\\nthe Wetterau (a district in Hesse Darmstadt), is\\ndistinguished from that found in other places, by\\npossessing the structure of wood unchanged, and by\\ncontaining no bituminous matter. This coal was\\nsubjected to analysis, a piece being selected upon\\nwhich the annual circles could be counted. It was\\nobtained from the vicinity of Laubach; 100 parts\\ncontained\\nCarbon 57-28\\nHydrogen 6 03\\nOxygen 36-10\\nAshes 0-59\\n100-00\\nThe large amount of carbon, and small quantity\\nof oxygen, constitute the most obvious difference\\nbetween this analysis and that of wood. It is evi-\\ndent, that the wood which has undergone the change\\ninto coal must have parted with a certain portion of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "368 DECOMPOSITION OF WOOD, COAL, ETC.\\nits oxygen. The proportion of these numbers is\\nexpressed by the formula C33 H21 016.*\\nWhen these numbers are compared with those\\nobtained by the analysis of oak, it would appear\\nthat the brown coal was produced from woody fibre\\nby the separation of one equivalent of hydrogen,\\nand the elements of three equivalents of carbonic\\nacid.\\n1 atom wood C36 H22 022\\nMinus 1 atom hydrogen and 3 atoms car- n o u i\\nbonic acid C 3 H 1 O 6\\nWood Coal C33 H21 016\\nAll varieties of wood coal, from whatever strata\\nthey may be taken, contain more hydrogen than\\nwood does, and less oxygen than is necessary to\\nform water with this hydrogen; consequently, they\\nmust all be produced by the same process of decom-\\nposition. The excess of hydrogen is either hydro-\\ngen of the wood which has remained in it unchanged,\\nor it is derived from some exterior source. The\\nanalysis of wood coal from Ringkuhl, near Cassel,\\nwhere it is seldom found in pieces with the structure\\nof wood, gave, when dried at 212^,\\nCarbon\\n62 60\\n6383\\nHydrogen\\n5 02\\n4-80\\nOxygen\\n26-52\\n25-51\\nAshes\\n5-86\\n5-86\\n100-00 10000\\nThe proportions derived from these numbers cor-\\nrespond very closely to the formula C^^ H 0% or\\nthey represent the constituents of wood, from which\\nthe elements of carbonic acid, water, and 2 equiva-\\nlents hydrogen, have been separated.\\nC36H22 0-22=Wood.\\nSubtract C 4 H 7 Ol3=:4 atoms carbonic acid -f-5 atoms of water\\n-\\\\-2 atoms of hydrogen.\\nC32 H15 O 9= Wood coal from Ringkuhl.\\nThe formation of both these specimens of wood\\nThe calculation give.=i 57 5 carbon, and 5-98 hydrogen.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "FORMATION OF WOOD COAL. 369\\ncoal appears from these formulae to have taken place\\nunder circumstances vvhich did not entirely exclude\\nthe action of the air, and consequent oxidation and\\nremoval of a certain quantity of hydrogen. Now\\nthe Laubacher coal is covered with a layer of basalt,\\nand the coal of Ringkuhl was taken from the lowest\\nseam of layers, which possess a thickness of from\\n90 to 120 feet; so that both may be considered as\\nwell protected from the air.\\nDuring the formation of brown coal, the elements\\nof carbonic acid have been separated from the wood\\neither alone, or at the same time with a certain quan-\\ntity of water. It is quite possible, that the difference\\nin the process of decomposition may depend upon\\nthe high temperature and pressure under which the\\ndecomposition took place. At least, a piece of wood\\nassumed the character and appearance of Laubacher\\ncoal, after being kept for several weeks in the boiler\\nof a steam-engine, and had then precisely the same\\ncomposition. The change in this case was effected in\\nwater, at a temperature of from 334\u00c2\u00b0 to 352\u00c2\u00b0 F.\\n(150\u00c2\u00b0- 160\u00c2\u00b0 C), and under a corresponding pres-\\nsure. The ashes of the wood amounted to 0*51 per\\ncent. a little less, therefore, than those of the Lau-\\nbacher coal but this must be ascribed to the pecu-\\nliar circumstances under which it was formed. The\\nashes of plants examined by Berthier amounted\\nalways to much more than this.\\nThe peculiar process by which the decomposition\\nof these extinct vegetables has been effected, namely,\\na disengagement of carbonic acid from their sub-\\nstance, appears still to go on at great depths in all\\nthe layers of wood coal. At all events it is remark-\\nable, that springs impregnated with carbonic acid\\noccur in many places, in the country between Meiss-\\nner, in the electorate of Hesse, and the Eifel, which\\nare known to possess large layers of wood coal.\\nThese springs of mineral water are produced on the\\nspot at which they are found the springs of com-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "370 CONVERSION OF WOOD\\nraon water meeting with carbonic acid during their\\nascent, and becoming impregnated with it.\\nIn the vicinity of the layers of wood coal at Salz-\\nhausen (Hesse Darmstadt) an excellent acidulous\\nspring of this kind existed a few years ago, and\\nsupplied all the inhabitants of that district; but it\\nwas considered advantageous to surround the sides\\nof the spring with sandstone, and the consequence\\nwas, that all the outlets to the carbonic acid were\\nclosed, for this gas generally gains access to the\\nwater from the sides of the spring. From that time\\nto the present this valuable mineral water has dis-\\nappeared, and in its place is found a spring of com-\\nmon water.\\nSprings of water impregnated with carbonic acid\\noccur at Schwalheim, at a very short distance from\\nthe layers of wood coal at Dorheim. M. Wilhelmi\\nobserved some time since, that they are formed of\\ncommon spring water which ascends from below, and\\nof carbonic acid which issues from the sides of the\\nspring. The same fact has been shown to be the\\ncase in the famed Fachinger spring, by M. Schapper.\\nThe carbonic acid gas from the springs in the\\nEifel, is, according to BischofF, seldom mixed with\\nnitrogen or oxygen, and is probably produced in a\\nmanner similar to that just described. At any rate\\nthe air does not appear to take any part in the for-\\nmation of these acidulous springs. Their carbonic\\nacid has evidently not been formed either by a com-\\nbustion at high or low temperatures; for if it were\\nso, the gas resulting from the combustion would ne-\\ncessarily be mixed with of nitrogen, but it does\\nnot contain a trace of this element. The bubbles of\\ngas which escape from these springs are absorbed\\nby caustic potash, with the exception of a residuum\\ntoo small to be appreciated.\\nThe wood coal of Dorheim and Salzhausen must\\nhave been formed in the same way as that of the\\nneighboring village of Laubach and since the latter\\ncontains the exact elements of woody fibre, minus a", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "INTO BROWN OR WOOD COAL. 371\\ncertain quantity of carbonic acid, its composition\\nindicates very plainly the manner in which it has\\nbeen produced.\\nThe coal of the upper bed is subjected to an in-\\ncessant decay by the action of the air, by means of\\nwhich its hydrogen is removed in the same manner\\nas in the decay of wood. This is recognised by the\\nway in which it burns, and by the formation of car-\\nbonic acid in the mines.\\nThe gases which are formed in mines of wood coal,\\nand cause danger in their working, are not combus-\\ntible or inflammable as in mines of mineral coal\\nbut they consist generally of carbonic acid gas, and\\nare very seldom intermixed with combustible gases.\\nWood coal from the middle bed of the strata at\\nRingkuhl gave on analysis 65*40, 64*01 carbon and\\n4*75, 4*76* hydrogen; the proportion of carbon\\nhere is the same as in specimens procured from\\ngreater depths, but that of the hydrogen is much\\nless.\\nWood and mineral coal are always accompanied\\nby iron pyrites (sulphuret of iron) or zinc blende\\n(sulphuret of zinc); which minerals are still formed\\nfrom salts of sulphuric acid, with iron or zinc, during\\nthe putrefaction of all vegetable matter. It is pos-\\nsible, that the oxygen of the sulphates in the layers\\nof wood coal is the means by which the removal of\\nthe hydrogen is effected, since wood coal contains\\nless of this element than wood.\\nAccording to the analysis of Richardson and Reg-\\nnault, the composition of the combustible materials\\nin splint coal from Newcastle, and cannel coal from\\nLancashire, is expressed by the formula C24 H13 0.\\nWhen this is compared with the composition of\\nwoody fibre, it appears that these coals are formed\\nfrom its elements, by the removal of a certain quan-\\ntity of carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid in\\nThe analysis of brown coal from Ringkuhl, as well as all those of\\nthe same substance oriven in this work, have been executed in this labo-\\nratory by M. Kiihnert of Cassel. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "372 CONVERSION OF WOOD INTO MINERAL COAL.\\nthe form of combustible oils. The composition of\\nboth of these coals is obtained by the subtraction\\nof 3 atoms of carburetted hydrogen, 3 atoms of\\nwater, and 9 atoms of carbonic acid from the formula\\nof wood.\\nI C36H22 022 wood\\n3 atoms of carburetted hydrogen C 3 HC\\n3 atoms of water H 3 03 I\\n9 atoms of carbonic acid C 9 018 C12 H9 021\\nMineral coal C24 H13 O\\nCarburetted hydrogen generally accompanies all\\nmineral coal; other varieties of coal contain volatile\\noils, which may be separated by distillation with\\nwater. (Reichenbach.) The origin of naphtha is\\nowing to a similar process of decomposition. Caking\\ncoal from Caresfield, near Newcastle, contains the\\nelements of cannel coal, minus the constituents of\\nolefiant gas C4 H4.\\nThe inflammable gases which stream out of clefts\\nin the strata of mineral coal, or in rocks of the coal\\nformations, always contain carbonic acid, according\\nto a recent examination by BischofF, and also car-\\nburetted hydrogen, nitrogen, and olefiant gas the\\nlast of which had not been observed, until its ex-\\nistence in these gases was pointed out by Bischoff.\\nThe analysis of fire-damp, after it had been treated\\nwith caustic potash, showed its constituents to be.\\nGas from an\\nabandoned\\nmine near\\nWallesweiler.\\nVol.\\nLight carburetted hydrogen 91 3G\\nOlefiant gas 632\\nNitrogen gas 2- 32\\nGerhard s\\npas-\\nGas from a\\nsage near\\nLu-\\nmine near\\nisenthal.\\nLiekwege.\\nVol.\\nVol.\\n8308\\n79 10\\n1-98\\n1611\\n14 94\\n4-79\\n10000 lOOOO 10000\\nThe evolution of these gases proves, that changes\\nare constantly proceeding in the coal.\\nIt is obvious from this, that a continual removal\\nof oxygen in the form of carbonic acid is effected\\nfrom layers of wood coal, in consequence of which\\nthe wood must approach gradually to the composition", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS. 373\\nof mineral coal. Hydrogen, on the contrary, is dis-\\nengaged from the constituents of mineral coal in the\\nform of a compound of carbo-hydrogen a complete\\nremoval of all the hydrogen would convert coal into\\nanthracite.\\nThe formula C36 H22 022, which is given for\\nwood, has been chosen as the empirical expression\\nof the analysis, for the purpose of bringing all the\\ntransformations, which woody fibre is capable of\\nundergoing, under one common point of view.\\nNow, although the correctness of this formula\\nmust be doubted, until we know with certainty the\\ntrue constitution of woody fibre, this cannot have\\nthe smallest influence on the account given of the\\nchanges to which woody fibre must necessarily be\\nsubjected in order to be converted into wood or\\nmineral coal. The theoretical expression refers to\\nthe quantity, the empirical merely to the relative pro-\\nportion in which the elements of a body are united.\\nWhatever form the first may assume, the empirical\\nexpression must always remain unchanged.\\nCHAPTER XHI.\\nON POISONS, CONTAGIONS, AND MIASMS.\\nA GREAT many chemical compounds, some derived\\nfrom inorganic nature, and others formed in animals\\nand plants, produce peculiar changes or diseases in\\nthe living animal organism. They destroy the vital\\nfunctions of individual organs and when their ac-\\ntion attains a certain degree of intensity, death is\\nthe consequence.\\nThe action of inorganic compounds, such as acids,\\nalkalies, metallic oxides, and salts, can in most cases\\nbe easily explained. They either destroy the con-\\ntinuity of particular organs, or they enter into com-\\n32", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "374 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nbination with their substance. The action of sul-\\nphuric, muriatic, and oxalic acids, hydrate of potash,\\nand all those substances which produce the direct\\ndestruction of the organs with which they come\\ninto contact, may be compared to a piece of iron,\\nwhich can cause death by inflicting an injury on par-\\nticular organs, either when heated to redness, or\\nwhen in the form of a sharp knife. Such substances\\nare not poisons in the limited sense of the word, for\\ntheir injurious action depends merely upon their\\ncondition.\\nThe action of the proper inorganic poisons is\\nowing, in most cases, to the formation of a chemical\\ncompound by the union of the poison with the con-\\nstituents of the organ upon which it acts it is\\nowing to an exercise of a chemical affinity more\\npowerful than the vitality of the organ.\\nIt is well to consider the action of inorganic sub-\\nstances in general, in order to obtain a clear con-\\nception of the mode of action of those which are\\npoisonous. We find that certain soluble compounds,\\nwhen presented to different parts of the body, are\\nabsorbed by the blood, whence they are again elim-\\ninated by the organs of secretion, either in a changed\\nor in an unchanged state.\\nIodide of potassium, sulpho-cyanuret of potassium,\\nferro-cyanuret of potassium, chlorate of potash, sili-\\ncate of potash, and all salts with alkaline bases,\\nwhen administered internally to man and animals in\\ndilute solutions, or applied externally, may be again\\ndetected in the blood, sweat, chyle, gall, and splenic\\nveins but all of them are finally excreted from the\\nbody through the urinary passages.\\nEach of these substances, in its transit, produces\\na peculiar disturbance in the organism, in other\\nwords, they exercise a medicinal action upon it, but\\nthey themselves suffer no decomposition. If any of\\nthese substances enter into combination with any\\npart of the body, the union cannot be of a perma-\\nnent kind for their reappearance in the urine shows", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF SALTS ON THE ORGANISM. 375\\nthat any compounds thus formed must have been\\nagain decomposed by the vital processes.\\nNeutral citrates, acetates, and tartrates of the\\nalkalies, suffer change in their passage through the\\norganism. Their bases can indeed be detected in\\nthe urine, but the acids have entirely disappeared,\\nand are replaced by carbonic acid which has united\\nwith the bases. (Gilbert Blane and Wohler.)\\nThe conversion of these salts of organic acids\\ninto carbonates, indicates that a considerable quan-\\ntity of oxygen must have united with their elements.\\nIn order to convert 1 equivalent of acetate of potash\\ninto the carbonate of the same base, 8 equivalents\\nof oxygen must combine with it, of which either 2\\nor 4 equivalents (according as an acid or neutral\\nsalt is produced) remain in combination with the\\nalkali; whilst the remaining 6 or 4 equivalents are\\ndiseno:ao:ed as free carbonic acid. There is no evi-\\ndence presented by the organism itself, to which\\nthese salts have been administered, that any of its\\nproper constituents have yielded so great a quantity\\nof oxygen as is necessary for their conversion into\\ncarbonates. Their oxidation can, therefore, only be\\nascribed to the oxygen of the air.\\nDuring the passage of these salts through the\\nlungs, their acids take part in the peculiar process\\nof eremacausis which proceeds in that organ; a cer-\\ntain quantity of the oxygen gas inspired unites with\\ntheir constituents, and converts their hydrogen into\\nwater, and their carbon into carbonic acid. Part of\\nthis latter product (1 or 2 equivalents) remains in\\ncombination wath the alkaline base, forming a salt\\nwhich suffers no further change by the process of\\noxidation; and it is this salt which is separated by\\nthe kidneys or liver.\\nIt is manifest, that the presence of these organic\\nsalts in the blood must produce a change in the pro-\\ncess of respiration. A part of the oxygen inspired,\\nwhich usually combines with the constituents of the\\nblood, must, when they are present, combine with", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "376 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\ntheir acids, and thus be prevented from performing\\nits usual office. The immediate consequence of this\\nmust be the formation of arterial blood in less quan-\\ntity, or in other words, the process of respiration\\nmust be retarded.\\nNeutral acetates, tartrates, and citrates placed in\\ncontact with the air, and at the same time with\\nanimal or vegetable bodies in a state of eremacausis,\\nproduce exactly the same effects as we have de-\\nscribed them to produce in the lungs. They partici-\\npate in the process of decay, and are converted into\\ncarbonates just as in the living body. If impure\\nsolutions of these salts in water are left exposed\\nto the air for any length of time, their acids are\\ngradually decomposed, and at length entirely disap-\\npear.\\nFree mineral acids, or organic acids which are not\\nvolatile, and salts of mineral acids with alkaline\\nbases, completely arrest decay w^hen added to decay-\\ning matter in sufficient quantity; and w^hen their\\nquantity is small, the process of decay is protracted\\nand retarded. They produce in living bodies the\\nsame phenomena as the neutral organic salts, but\\ntheir action depends upon a different cause.\\nThe absorption by the blood of a quantity of an\\ninorganic salt sufficient to arrest the process of\\neremacausis in the lungs, is prevented by a very\\nremarkable property of all animal membranes, skin,\\ncellular tissue, muscular fibre, c. namely, by their\\nincapability of being permeated by concentrated\\nsaline solutions. It is only when these solutions\\nare diluted to a certain degree with water that they\\nare absorbed by animal tissues.\\nA dry bladder remains more or less dry in satu-\\nrated solutions of common salt, nitre, ferro-cyanuret\\nof potassium, sulpho-cyanuret of potassium, sulphate\\nof magnesia, chloride of potassium, and sulphate of\\nsoda. These solutions run off its surface in the\\nsame manner as water runs from a plate of glass\\nbesmeared with tallow.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "EFFECTS OF SALTS ON THE ORGANISM. 377\\nFresh flesh, over which salt has heeri strewed, is\\nfound after 24 hours swimming in brine, although\\nnot a drop of water has been added. The water\\nhas been yielded by muscular fibre itself, and having\\ndissolved the salt in immediate contact with it, and\\nthereby lost the power of penetrating animal sub-\\nstances, it has on this account separated from the\\nflesh. The water still retained by the flesh contains\\na proportionally small quantity of salt, having that\\ndegree of dilution at which a saline fluid is capable\\nof penetrating animal substances.\\nThis property of animal tissues is taken advantage\\nof in domestic economy for the purpose of removing\\nso much water from meat that a sufficient quantity is\\nnot left to enable it to enter into putrefaction.\\nIn respect of this physical property of animal\\ntissues, alcohol resembles the inorganic salts. It is\\nincapable of moistening, that is, of penetrating, ani-\\nmal tissues, and possesses such an affinity for water\\nas to extract it from moist substances.\\nWhen a solution of a salt, in a certain degree of\\ndilution, is introduced into the stomach, it is ab-\\nsorbed but a concentrated saline solution, in place\\nof being itself absorbed, extracts water from the\\norgan, and a violent thirst ensues. Some inter-\\nchange of water and salt takes place in the stomach\\nthe coats of this viscus yield water t6 the solution,\\na part of which having previously become sufficiently\\ndiluted, is, on the other hand, absorbed. But the\\ngreater part of the concentrated solution of salt\\nremains unabsorbed, and is not removed by the\\nurinary passages it consequently enters the intes-\\ntines and intestinal canal, where it causes a dilution\\nof the solid substances deposited there, and thus\\nacts as a purg-ative.\\nEach of the salts just mentioned possesses this\\npurgative action, which depends on a physical prop-\\nerty shared by all of them 5 but besides this they\\nexercise a medicinal action, because every part of\\n32*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "378 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, ML\\\\SMS.\\nthe organism with which they come in contact ab-\\nsorbs a certain quantity of them.\\nThe composition of the salts has nothing to do\\nwith their purgative action; it is quite a matter of\\nindifference as far as the mere production of this\\naction is concerned (not as to its intensity), whether\\nthe base be potash or soda, or in many cases lime\\nand magnesia; and whether the acid be phosphoric,\\nsulphuric, nitric, or h}^drochloric.\\nBesides, these salts, the action of which does not\\ndepend upon their power of entering into combina-\\ntion with the component parts of the organism, there\\nis a large class of others which, w^hen introduced\\ninto the living body effect changes of a very different\\nkind, and produce diseases or death, according to\\nthe nature of these changes, without effecting a\\nvisible lesion of any organs.\\nThese are the true inorganic poisons, the action\\nof which depends upon their power of forming per-\\nmanent compounds with the substance of the mem-\\nbranes, and muscular fibre.\\nSalts of lead, iron, bismuth, copper, and mercury,\\nbelong to this class.\\nWhen solutions of these salts are treated with a\\nsufficient quantity of albumen, milk, muscular fibre,\\nand animal membranes, they enter into combination\\nwith those substances, and lose their own solubility\\nwhile the water in which they were dissolved loses\\nall the salt which it contained.\\nThe salts of alkaline bases extract water from\\nanimal substances; whilst the salts of the heavy\\nmetallic oxides are, on the contrary, extracted from\\nthe water, for they enter into combination with the\\nanimal matters.\\nNow, when these substances are administered to\\nan animal, they lose their solubility by entering into\\ncombination with the membranes, cellular tissue, and\\nmuscular fibre; but in very few cases can they reach\\nthe blood. All experiments instituted for the pur-\\npose of determining whether they pass into the urine", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "INORGANIC POISONS. 379\\nhave failed to detect them in that secretion. In fact,\\nduring their passage through the organism, they\\ncome into contact with many substances by which\\nthey are retained.\\nThe action of corrosive sublimate and arsenious\\nacid is very remarkable in this respect. It is known\\nthat these substances possess, in an eminent degree,\\nthe property of entering into combination with all\\nparts of animal and vegetable bodies, rendering them\\nat the same time insusceptible of decay or putrefac-\\ntion. Wood and cerebral substance are both bodies\\nwhich undergo change with great rapidity and facili-\\nty when subject to the influence of air and water;\\nbut if they are digested for some time with arsenious\\nacid or corrosive sublimate, they may subsequently\\nbe exposed to all the influences of the atmosphere\\nwithout altering in color or appearance.\\nIt is further known, that those parts of a body\\nwhich come in contact with these substances during\\npoisoning, and which therefore enter into combina-\\ntion with them, do not afterwards putrefy so that\\nthere can be no doubt regarding the cause of their\\npoisonous qualities.\\nIt is obvious, that if arsenious acid and corrosive\\nsublimate are not prevented by the vital principle\\nfrom entering into combination with the component\\nparts of the body, and consequently from rendering\\nthem incapable of decay and putrefaction, they must\\ndeprive the organs of the principal property which\\nappertains to their vital condition, viz. that of suffer-\\ning and eff ecting transformations or, in other words,\\norganic life must be destroyed. If the poisoning is\\nmerely superficial, and the quantity of the poison so\\nsmall that only individual parts of the body which\\nare capable of being regenerated have entered into\\ncombination with it, then eschars are produced, a\\nphenomenon of a secondary kind, the compounds\\nof the dead tissues with the poison being thrown off\\nby the healthy parts. From these consideration s it\\nmay readily be inferred, that all internal signs of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "380 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\npoisoning are variable and uncertain; for cases may\\nhappen, in which no apparent indication of change\\ncan be detected by simple observations of the parts,\\nbecause, as has been already remarked, death may\\noccur without the destruction of any organs.\\nWhen arsenious acid is administered in solution,\\nit may enter into the blood. If a vein is exposed\\nand surrounded with a solution of this acid, every\\nblood-globule will combine with it, that is, will be-\\ncome poisoned.\\nThe compounds of arsenic, which have not the\\nproperty of entering into combination with the tis-\\nsues of, the organism, are without influence on life,\\neven in large doses. Many insoluble basic salts of\\narsenious acid are known not to be poisonous. The\\nsubstance called alkargen, discovered by Bunsen,\\nhas not the slightest injurious action upon the organ-\\nism yet it contains a very large quantity of arsenic,\\nand approaches very closely in composition to the\\norganic arsenious compounds found in the body.\\nThese considerations enable us to fix with tolera-\\nble certainty the limit at which the above substances\\ncease to act as poisons. For since their combina-\\ntion with organic matters must be regulated by\\nchemical laws, death will inevitably result, when the\\norgan in contact w4th the poison finds sufficient of it\\nto unite with atom for atom; whilst if the poison is\\npresent in smaller quantity, a part of the organ will\\nretain its vital functions.\\nAccording to the experiments of Mulder,* the\\nequivalent in which fibrin combines with muriatic\\nacid, and with the oxides of lead and copper, is\\nexpressed by the number 6361. It may be assumed,\\ntherefore, approximatively, that a quantity of fibrin\\ncorresponding to the number 6361 combines with 1\\nequivalent of arsenious acid, or 1 equivalent of cor-\\nrosive sublimate.\\nWhen 6361 parts of anhydrous fibrin are combined\\nPoggendorfTs Annalen, Band xl. S. 259.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "INORGANIC POISONS. 381\\nwith 30,000 parts of water, it is in the state in which\\nit is contained in muscular fibre or blood in the\\nhuman body. 100 grains of fibrin in this condition\\nwould form a neutral compound of equal equivalents\\nw^ith 3j^o grains of arsenious acid, and 5 grains of\\ncorrosive sublimate.\\nThe atomic weight of the albumen of eggs and of\\nthe blood deduced from the analysis of the compound\\nwhich it forms with oxide of silver is 7447, and that\\nof animal gelatin 5652.\\n100 grains of albumen containing all the water\\nwith which it is combined in the living body, should\\nconsequently combine with I5 grain of arsenious\\nacid.\\nThese proportions, which may be considered as\\nthe highest which can be adopted, indicate the re-\\nmarkably high atomic weights of animal substances,\\nand at the same time teach us, what very small quan-\\ntities of arsenious acid or corrosive sublimate are\\nrequisite to produce deadly eflfects.\\nAll substances administered as antidotes in cases\\nof poisoning, act by destroying the power which\\narsenious acid and corrosive sublimate possess, of\\nentering into combination with animal matters, and\\nof thus acting as poisons. Unfortunately no other\\nbody surpasses them in that power, and the com-\\npounds which they form can only be broken up by\\naffinities so energetic, that their action is as injuri-\\nous as that of the above-named poisons themselves.\\nThe duty of the physician consists, therefore, in his\\ncausing those parts of the poison which may be free\\nand still uncombined, to enter into combination with\\nsome other body, so as to produce a compound inca-\\npable of being decomposed or digested in the same\\nconditions. Hydrated peroxide of iron is an inval-\\nuable substance for this purpose.*\\nWhen the action of arsenious acid or corrosive\\nsublimate is confined to the surface of an organ,\\nOn the preparation, c., of this antidote, see Appendix.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "382 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nthose parts only are destroyed which enter into com-\\nbination with it; an eschar is formed, which is grad-\\nually thrown off.\\nSoluble salts of silver would be quite as deadly a\\npoison as corrosive sublimate, did not a cause exist\\nin the human body by which their action is prevented,\\nunless their quantity is very great. This cause is\\nthe presence of common salt in all animal liquids.\\nNitrate of silver, it is well known, combines with\\nanimal substances, in the same manner as corrosive\\nsublimate, and the compounds formed by both are\\nexactly similar in the character of being incapable\\nof decay or putrefaction.\\nWhen nitrate of silver in a state of solution is\\napplied to skin or muscular fibre, it combines with\\nthem instantaneously; animal substances dissolved\\nin any liquid are precipitated by it, and rendered\\ninsoluble, or, as it is usually termed, they are coagu-\\nlated. The compounds thus formed are colorless,\\nand so stable, that they cannot be decomposed by\\nother powerful chemical agents. They are blackened\\nby exposure to light, like all other compounds of\\nsilver, in consequence of a part of the oxide of silver\\nwhich they contain being reduced to the metallic\\nstate. Parts of the body which have united with\\nsalts of silver no longer belong to the living organ-\\nism, for their vital functions have been arrested by\\ncombination with oxide of silver and if they are\\ncapable of being reproduced, the neighboring living\\nstructures throw them off in the form of an eschar.\\nWhen nitrate of silver is introduced into the\\nstomach, it meets with common salt and free muriatic\\nacid and if its quantity is not too great, it is im-\\nmediately converted into chloride of silver, a sub-\\nstance which is absolutely insoluble in pure water.\\nIn a solution of salt or muriatic acid, however,\\nchloride of silver does dissolve in extremely minute\\nquantity; and it is this small part which exercises\\na medicinal influence when nitrate of silver is admin-\\nistered the remaining chloride of silver is elimi-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "INORGANIC POISONS. 383\\nnated from the body in the ordinary way. Solubility\\nis necessary to give efficacy to any substance in the\\nhuman body.\\nThe soluble salts of lead possess many properties\\nin common with the salts of silver and mercury; but\\nall compounds of lead with organic matters are\\ncapable of decomposition by dilute sulphuric acid.\\nThe disease called painter s colic is unknown in all\\nmanufactories of white lead in which the workmen\\nare accustomed to take as a preservative sulphuric\\nacid-lemonade (a solution of sugar rendered acid by\\nsulphuric acid).\\nThe organic substances which have combined in\\nthe living body with metallic oxides or metallic salts,\\nlose their property of imbibing water and retaining\\nit, without at ths same time being rendered incapa-\\nble of permitting liquids to penetrate through their\\npores. A strong contraction and shrinking of the\\nsurface is the general effect of contact with these\\nmetallic bodies. But corrosive sublimate, and several\\nof the salts of lead, possess a peculiar property, in\\naddition to those already mentioned. When they are\\npresent in excess, they dissolve the first formed\\ninsoluble compounds, and thus produce an effect\\nquite the reverse of contraction, namely, a softening\\nof the part of the body on which they have acted.\\nSalts of oxide of copper, even when in combina-\\ntion with the most powerful acids, are reduced by\\nmany vegetable substances, particularly such as sugar\\nand honey, either into metallic copper, or into the\\nred suboxide, neither of which enters into combina-\\ntion with animal matter. It is well known that sugar\\nhas been long employed as the most convenient\\nantidote for poisoning by copper.\\nWith respect to some other poisons, namely, hy-\\ndrocyanic acid and the organic bases strychnia and\\nbrucia, we are acquainted with no facts calculated to\\nelucidate the nature of their action. It may, how-\\never, be presumed with much certainty, that experi-\\nments upon their mode of action on different animal", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "384 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nsubstances would very quickly lead to the most\\nsatisfactory conclusions regarding the cause of their\\npoisonous effects.\\nThere is a peculiar class of substances, which are\\ngenerated during certain processes of decomposition,\\nand which act upon the animal economy as deadly\\npoisons, not on account of their power of entering\\ninto combination with it, or by reason of their con-\\ntaining a poisonous material, but solely by virtue of\\ntheir peculiar condition.\\nIn order to attain a clear conception of the mode\\nof action of these bodies, it is necessai y to call to\\nmind the cause on which we have shown the phe-\\nnomena of fermentation, decay, and putrefaction to\\ndepend.\\nThis cause may be expressed by the following\\nlaw, long since proposed by La Place and Berthollet,\\nalthough its truth with respect to chemical phenom-\\nena has only lately been proved. A molecule set\\nin motion by any poiver can impart its own motion to\\nanother molecule with which it may he in contact^\\nThis is a law of dynamics, the operation of which\\nis manifest in all cases, in which the resistance\\n{^force, affinity, or cohesion^ opposed to the motion is\\nnot sufficient to overcome it.\\nWe have seen that ferment or yeast is a body in\\nthe state of decomposition, the atoms of which, con-\\nsequently, are in a state of motion or transposition-\\nYeast placed in contact with sugar communicates to\\nthe elements of that compound the same state, in\\nconsequence of which, the constituents of the sugar\\narrange themselves into new and simpler forms,\\nnamely, into alcohol and carbonic acid. In these\\nnew compounds the elements are united together by\\nstronger affinities than they were in the sugar, and\\ntherefore under the conditions in which they were\\nproduced further decomposition is arrested.\\nWe know, also, that the elements of sugar assume\\ntotally different arrangements, when the substances\\nwhich excite their transposition are in a different", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "PUTRID POISONS. 385\\nstate of decomposition from the yeast just mentioned.\\nThus, when sugar is acted on by rennet or putrefy-\\ning vegetable juices, it is not converted into alcohol\\nand carbonic acid, but into lactic acid, mannite, and\\ngum.\\nAgain, it has been shown, that yeast added to a\\nsolution of pure sugar gradually disappears, but that\\nwhen added to vegetable juices which contain gluten\\nas well as sugar, it is reproduced by the decomposi-\\ntion of the former substance.\\nThe yeast with which these liquids are made to\\nferment, has itself been originally produced from\\ngluten.\\nThe conversion of gluten into yeast in these veg-\\netable juices is dependent on the decomposition\\n(fermentation) of sugar for, when the sugar has\\ncompletely disappeared, any gluten which may still\\nremain in the liquid does not suffer change from\\ncontact with the newly-deposited yeast, but retains\\nall the characters of gluten.\\nYeast is a product of the decomposition of gluten;\\nbut it passes into a second stage of decomposition\\nwhen in contact with water. On account of its being\\nin this state of further change, yeast excites fermen-\\ntation in a fresh solution of sugar, and if this second\\nsaccharine fluid should contain gluten, (should it be\\nwort, for example,) yeast is again generated in con-\\nsequence of the transposition of the elements of the\\nsugar exciting a similar change in this gluten.\\nAfter this explanation, the idea that yeast repro-\\nduces itself as seeds reproduce seeds, cannot for a\\nmoment be entertained.\\nFrom the foregoing facts it follows, that a body\\n.in the act of decomposition (it may be named the\\nexciter), added to a mixed fluid in which its constit-\\nuents are contained, can reproduce itself in that\\nfluid, exactly in the same manner as new yeast is\\nproduced when yeast is added to liquids containing\\ngluten. This must be more certainly effected when\\nthe liquid acted upon contains the body by the met-\\n33", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "386 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\naraorphosis of which the exciter has been originally\\nformed.\\nIt is also obvious, that if the exciter be able to\\nimpart its own state of transformation to one only\\nof the component parts of the mixed liquid acted\\nupon, its own reproduction may be the consequence\\nof the decomposition of this one body.\\nThis law may be applied to organic substances\\nforming part of the animal organism. We know that\\nall the constituents of these substances are formed\\nfrom the blood, and that the blood by its nature and\\nconstitution is one of the most complex of all exist-\\ning matters.\\nNature has adapted the blood for the reproduction\\nof every individual part of the organism; its princi-\\npal character consists in its component parts being\\nsubordinate to every attraction. These are in a per-\\npetual state of change or transformation, which is\\netfected in the most various ways through the in-\\nfluence of the different organs.\\nThe individual organs, such as the stomach, cause\\nall the organic substances conveyed to them which\\nare capable of transformation to assume new forms.\\nThe stomach compels the elements of these sub-\\nstances to unite into a compound fitted for the for-\\nmation of the blood. But the blood possesses no\\npower of causing transformations on the contrary,\\nits principal character consists in its readily suffering\\ntransformations and no other matter can be com-\\npared in this respect with it.\\nNow it is a well-known fact, that when blood,\\ncerebral substance, gall, pus, and other substances\\nin a state of putrefaction, are laid upon fresh\\nwounds, vomiting, debility, and at length death,\\nare occasioned. It is also well known, that bodies\\nin anatomical rooms frequently pass into a state of\\ndecomposition which is capable of imparting itself\\nto the living body, the smallest cut with a knife,\\nwhich has been used in their dissection, producing\\nin these cases dangerous consequences.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "PUTRID POISONS. 387\\nThe poison of bad sausages belongs to this class\\nof noxious substances. Several hundred cases are\\nknown in which death has occurred from the use of\\nthis kind of food. In Wiirtcmberg, especially, these\\ncases are very frequent, for there the sausages are\\nprepared from very various materials. Blood, liver,\\nbacon, brains, milk, meal, and bread, are mixed to-\\ngether with salt and spices the mixture is then put\\ninto bladders or intestines, and after being boiled is\\nsmoked.\\nWhen these sausages are well prepared, they may\\nbe preserved for months, and furnish a nourishing,\\nsavoury food; but when the spices and salt are de-\\nficient, and particularly when they are smoked too\\nlate or not sufficiently, they undergo a peculiar kind\\nof putrefaction, which begins at the centre of the\\nsausage. Without any appreciable escape of gas\\ntaking place they become paler in color, and more\\nsoft and greasy in those parts which have under-\\ngone putrefaction, and they are found to contain free\\nlactic acid, or lactate of ammonia, products which\\nare universally formed during the putrefaction of\\nanimal and vegetable matters.\\nThe cause of the poisonous nature of these sau-\\nsages was ascribed at first to hydrocyanic acid, and\\nafterwards to sebacic acid, although neither of these\\nsubstances had been detected in them. But sebacic\\nacid is no more poisonous than benzoic acid, with\\nwhich it has so many properties in common; and the\\nsymptoms produced are sufficient to show that hy-\\ndrocyanic acid is not the poison.\\nThe death which is the consequence of poisoning\\nby putrefied sausages succeeds very lingering and\\nremarkable symptoms. There is a gradual wasting\\nof muscular fibre, and of all the constituents of the\\nbody similarly composed; the patient becomes much\\nemaciated, dries to a complete mummy, and finally\\ndies. The carcass is stiff as if frozen, and is not\\nsubject to putrefaction. During the progress of the", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "388 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\ndisease the saliva becomes viscous and acquires an\\noffensive smell.\\nExperiments have been made for the purpose of\\nascertaining the presence of some matter in the\\nsausages to which their poisonous action could be\\nascribed; but no such matter has been detected.\\nBoiling water and alcohol completely destroy the\\npoisonous properties of the sausages, without them-\\nselves acquiring similar properties.\\nNow this is the peculiar character of all substances\\nwhich exert an action by virtue of their existing\\ncondition, of those bodies the elements of which\\nare in the state of decomposition or transposition; a\\nstate which is destroyed by boiling water and alco-\\nhol without the cause of the influence being imparted\\nto those liquids for a state of action or power can-\\nnot be preserved in a liquid.\\nSausages, in the state here described, exercise an\\naction upon the organism, in consequence of the\\nstomach and other parts with which they come in\\ncontact not having the power to arrest their decom-\\nposition and entering the blood in some way or\\nother, while still possessing their whole power, they\\nimpart their peculiar action to the constituents of\\nthat fluid.\\nThe poisonous properties of decayed sausages are\\nnot destroyed by the stomach as those of the small-\\npox virus are. All the substances in the body capa-\\nble of putrefaction are gradually decomposed during\\nthe course of the disease, and after death nothing\\nremains except fat, tendons, bones, and a few other\\nsubstances, which are incapable of putrefying in the\\nconditions afforded by the body.\\nIt is impossible to mistake the modus operandi of\\nthis poison, for Colin has clearly proved that mus-\\ncle, urine, cheese, cerebral substance, and other\\nmatters, in a state of putrefaction, communicate\\ntheir own state of decomposition to substances much\\nless prone to change of composition than the blood.\\nWhen placed in contact with a solution of sugar,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "MORBID POISONS. 389\\nthey cause its putrefaction, or the transposition of\\nits elements into carbonic acid and alcohol.\\nWhen putrefying muscle or pus is placed upon a\\nfresh ViTound, it occasions disease and death. It is\\nobvious that these substances communicate their\\nown state of putrefaction to the sound blood from\\nlohich they lo ere produced, exactly in the same man-\\nner as gluten in a state of decay or putrefaction\\ncauses a similar transformation in a solution of\\nsugar.\\nPoisons of this kind are even generated by the\\nbody itself in particular diseases. In small-pox,\\nplague, and syphilis, substances of a peculiar na-\\nture are formed from the constituents of the blood.\\nThese matters are capable of inducing in the blood\\nof a healthy individual a decomposition similar to\\nthat of which they themselves are the subjects in\\nother words, they produce the same disease. The\\nmorbid virus appears to reproduce itself just as seeds\\nappear to reproduce seeds.\\nThe mode of action of a morbid virus exhibits\\nsuch a strong similarity to the action of yeast upon\\nliquids containing sugar and gluten, that the two\\nprocesses have been long since compared to one\\nanother, although merely for the purpose of illustra-\\ntion. But when the phenomena attending the action\\nof each respectively are considered more closely, it\\nwill in reality be seen that their influence depends\\nupon the same cause.\\nIn dry air, and in the absence of moisture, all\\nthese poisons remain for a long time unchanged; but\\nwhen exposed to the air in the moist condition, they\\nlose very rapidly their peculiar properties. In the\\nformer case, those conditions are afforded which\\narrest their decomposition without destroying it\\nin the latter, all the circumstances necessary for the\\ncompletion of their decomposition are presented.\\nThe temperature at which water boils, and contact\\nwith alcohol, render such poisons inert. Acids, salts\\nof mercury, sulphurous acid, chlorine, iodine, bro-\\n33*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "390 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nmine, aromatic substances, volatile oils, and partic-\\nularly empyreumatic oils, smoke, and a decoction of\\ncoffee, completely destroy their contagious properties,\\nin some cases combining with them or otherwise\\neffecting their decomposition. Now all these agents,\\nwithout exception, retard fermentation, putrefaction\\nand decay, and when present in sufficient quantity,\\ncompletely arrest these processes of decomposition.\\nA peculiar matter to which the poisonous action\\nis due, cannot, we have seen, be extracted from\\ndecayed sausages; and it is equally impossible to\\nobtain such a principle from the virus of small-pox\\nor plague, and for this reason, that their peculiar\\npower is due to an active condition recognisable by\\nour senses, only through the phenomena which it\\nproduces.\\nIn order to explain the effects of contagious mat-\\nters, a peculiar principle of life has been ascribed to\\nthem, a life similar to that possessed by the germ\\nof a seed, which enables it under favorable condi-\\ntions to develop and multiply itself. It would be\\nimpossible to find a more correct figurative repre-\\nsentation of these phenomena it is one which is\\napplicable to contagions, as well as to ferment, to\\nanimal and vegetable substances in a state of fer-\\nmentation, putrefaction or decay, and even to a piece\\nof decaying wood, which by mere contact with fresh\\nwood, causes the latter to undergo gradually the\\nsame change and become decayed and mouldered.\\nIf the property possessed by a body of producing\\nsuch a change in any other substance as causes the\\nreproduction of itself, with all its properties, be\\nregarded as life, then, indeed, all the above phenom-\\nena may be ascribed to life. But in that case they\\nmust not be considered as the only processes due to\\nvitality, for the above interpretation of the expres-\\nsion embraces the majority of the phenomena which\\noccur in organic chemistry. Life would, according\\nto that view, be admitted to exist in every body in\\nwhich chemical forces act.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "MORBID POISONS. 391\\nIf a body A, for example oxamide (a substance\\nscarcely soluble in water, and without the slightest\\ntaste), be brought into contact with another com-\\npound B, which is to be reproduced; and if this\\nsecond body be oxalic acid dissolved in water; then\\nthe following changes are observed to take place:\\nThe oxamide is decomposed by the oxalic acid,\\nprovided the conditions necessary for their exercis-\\ning an action upon one another are present. The\\nelements of water unite with the constituents of\\noxamide, and ammonia is one product formed, and\\noxalic acid the other, both in exactly the proper\\nproportions to combine and form a neutral salt.\\nHere the contact of oxamide and oxalic acid induces\\na transformation of the oxamide, which is decomposed\\ninto oxalic acid and ammonia. The oxalic acid thus\\nformed, as well as that originally added, are shared\\nby the ammonia, or in other w^ords, as much free\\noxalic acid exists after the decomposition as before\\nit, and is of course still possessed of its original\\npower. It matters not whether the free oxalic acid\\nis that originally added, or that newly produced it\\nis certain that it has been reproduced in an equal\\nquantity by the decomposition.\\nIf we now add to the same mixture a fresh portion\\nof oxamide, exactly equal in quantity to that first\\nused, and treat it in the same manner, the same\\ndecomposition is repeated the free oxalic acid en-\\nters into combination, whilst another portion is\\nliberated. In this manner a very minute quantity\\nof oxalic acid may be made to effect the decomposi-\\ntion of several hundred pounds of oxamide and\\none grain of the acid to reproduce itself in unlimited\\nquantity.\\nWe know that the contact of the virus of small-\\npox causes such a change in the blood, as gives rise\\nto the reproduction of the poison from the constitu-\\nents of the fluid. This transformation is not arrested\\nuntil all the particles of the blood which are suscep-\\ntible of the decomposition have undergone the met-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "392 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\namorphosis. We have just seen that the contact of\\noxalic acid with oxamide caused the production of\\nfresh oxalic acid, which in its turn exercised the\\nsame action on a new portion of oxamide. The\\ntransformation was only arrested in consequence of\\nthe quantity of oxamide present being limited. In\\ntheir form both these transformations belong to the\\nsame class. But no one except a person quite unac-\\ncustomed to view such changes will ascribe them to\\na vital power, although w^e admit they correspond\\nremarkably to our common conceptions of life they\\nare really chemical processes dependent upon the\\ncommon chemical forces.\\nOur notion of life involves something more than\\nmere reproduction, namely, the idea of an active\\npower exercised by virtue of a definite form, and\\nproduction and generation in a definite form. By\\nchemical agency we can produce the constituents of\\nmuscular fibre, skin, and hair but we can form by\\ntheir means no organized tissue, no organic cell.\\nThe production of organs, the cooperation of a\\nsystem of organs, and their power not only to pro-\\nduce their component parts from the food presented\\nto them, but to generate themselves in their original\\nform and with all their properties, are characters\\nbelonging exclusively to organic life, and constitute\\na form of reproduction independent of chemical\\npowers.\\nThe chemical forces are subject to the invisible\\ncause by which this form is produced. Of the exist-\\nence of this cause itself we are made aware only by\\nthe phenomena which it produces. Its laws must be\\ninvestigated just as we investigate those of the other\\npowers which effect motion and changes in matter.\\nThe chemical forces are subordinate to this cause\\nof life, just as they are to electricity, heat, mechan-\\nical motion, and friction. By the influence of the\\nlatter forces, they suffer changes in their direction,\\nan increase or diminution of their intensity, or a\\ncomplete cessation or reversal of their action.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 393\\nSuch an influence and no other is exercised by the\\nvital principle over the chemical forces but in every\\ncase where combination or decomposition takes\\nplace, chemical affinity and cohesion are in action.\\nThe vital principle is only known to us through\\nthe peculiar form of its instruments, that is, through\\nthe organs in which it resides. Hence, whatever\\nkind of energy a substance may possess, if it is\\namorphous and destitute of organs from which the\\nimpulse, motion or change proceeds, it does not live.\\nIts energy depends in this case on a chemical action.\\nLight, heat, electricity, or other influences may in-\\ncrease, diminish, or arrest this action, but they are\\nnot its efficient cause.\\nIn the same way the vital principle governs the\\nchemical powers in the living body. All those sub-\\nstances to which we apply the general name of food,\\nand all the bodies formed from them in the organism,\\nare chemical compounds. The vital principle has,\\ntherefore, no other resistance to overcome, in order\\nto convert these substances into component parts of\\nthe organism, than the chemical powers by which\\ntheir constituents are held together. If the food pos-\\nsessed life, not merely the chemical forces, but this\\nvitality, would offer resistance to the vital force of\\nthe organism it nourished.\\nAll substances adapted for assimilation are bodies\\nof a very complex constitution their atoms are\\nhighly complex, and are held together only by a\\nweak chemical action. They are formed by the union\\nof two or more simple compounds and in propor-\\ntion as the number of their atoms augments, their\\ndisposition to enter into new combinations is dimin-\\nished that is, they lose the power of acting chem-\\nically upon other bodies.\\nTheir complex nature, however, renders them\\nmore liable to be changed, by the agency of external\\ncauses, and thus to suffer decomposition. Any ex-\\nternal agency, in many cases even mechanical friction,\\nis sufficient to cause a disturbance in the equilibrium", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "394 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nof the attraction of their constituents they arrange\\nthemselves either into new, more simple, and perma-\\nnent combinations, or if a foreign attraction exercise\\nits influence upon it, they arrange themselves in\\naccordance with that attraction.\\nThe special characters of food, that is, of substan-\\nces fitted for assimilation, are absence of active\\nchemical properties, and the capability of yielding\\nto transformations.\\nThe equilibrium in the chemical attractions of the\\nconstituents of the food is disturbed by the vital\\nprinciple, as we know it may be by many other causes.\\nBut the union of its elements, so as to produce new\\ncombinations and forms, indicates the presence of a\\npeculiar mode of attraction, and the existence of a\\npower distinct from all other powers of nature,\\nnamely, the vital principle.\\nAll bodies of simple composition possess a greater\\nor less disposition to form combinations. Thus oxalic\\nacid is one of the simplest of the organic acids,\\nwhile stearic acid is one of the most complex; and\\nthe former is the strongest, the latter one of the\\nweakest, in respect to active chemical character. By\\nvirtue of this disposition, simple compounds produce\\nchanges in every body which offers no resistance to\\ntheir action they enter into combination and cause\\ndecomposition.\\nThe vital principle opposes to the continual action\\nof the atmosphere, moisture and temperature upon\\nthe organism, a resistance which is, in a certain\\ndegree, invincible. It is by the constant neutraliza-\\ntion and renewal of these external influences that\\nlife and motion are maintained.\\nThe greatest wonder in the living organism is the\\nfact, that an unfathomable wisdom has made the\\ncause of a continual decomposition or destruction,\\nnamely, the support of the process of respiration,\\nto be the means of renewing the organism, and of\\nresisting all the other atmospheric influences, such\\nas those of moisture and changes of temperature.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 395\\nWhen a chemical compound of simple constitution\\nis introduced into the stomach, or any other part of\\nthe organism, it must exercise a chemical action\\nupon all substances with which it comes in contact\\nfor we know the peculiar character of such a body\\nto be an aptitude and power to enter into combina-\\ntions and effect decompositions.\\nThe chemical action of such a compound is of\\ncourse opposed by the vital principle. The results\\nproduced depend upon the strength of their respec-\\ntive actions either an equilibrium of both powers is\\nattained, a change being effected without the de-\\nstruction of the vital principle, in which case a medi-\\ncinal effect occasioned; or the acting body yields\\nto the superior force of vitality, that ^itis digested\\nor lastly, the chemical action obtains the ascendency\\nand acts as a poison.\\nEvery substance may be considered as nutriment,\\nwhich loses its former properties when acted on by\\nthe vital principle, and does not exercise a chemical\\naction upon the living organ.\\nBodies of another class change the direction, the\\nstrength, and intensity of the resisting force (the\\nvital principle), and thus exert a modifying influence\\nupon the functions of its organs. They produce a\\ndisturbance in the system, either by their presence,\\nor by themselves undergoing a change; these are\\nmedicaments.\\nCompounds of a third class are called poisons,\\nwhen they possess the property of uniting with or-\\ngans or with their component parts, and when their\\npower of effecting this is stronger than the resis-\\ntance offered by the vital principle.\\nThe quantity of a substance and its condition must\\nobviously completely change the mode of its chemi-\\ncal action.\\nIncrease of quantity is known to be equivalent to\\nsuperior affinity. Hence a medicament administered\\nin excessive quantity may act as a poison, and a\\npoison in small doses as a medicam,ent.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "396 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nFood will act as a poison, that is, it will produce\\ndisease, when it is able to exercise a chemical action\\nby virtue of its quantity; or, when either its con-\\ndition or its presence retards, prevents, or arrests\\nthe motion of any organ.\\nA compound acts as a poison when all the parts\\nof an organ with which it is brought into contact\\nenter into chemical combination with it, while it may\\noperate as a medicine, when it produces only a par-\\ntial change.\\nNo other component part of the organism can be\\ncompared to the blood, in respect of the feeble re-\\nsistance which it offers to exterior influences. The\\nblood is not an organ which is formed, but an organ\\nin the act of formation indeed, it is the sum of all\\nthe organs which are being formed. The chemical\\nforce and the vital principle hold each other in such\\nperfect equilibrium, that every disturbance, however\\ntrifling, or from whatever cause it may proceed, effects\\na change in the blood. This liquid possesses so\\nlittle of permanence, that it cannot be removed from\\nthe body without immediately suffering a change,\\nand cannot come in contact with any organ in the\\nbody, without yielding to its attraction.\\nThe slightest action of a chemical agent upon the\\nblood exercises an injurious influence; even the mo-\\nmentary contact with the air in the lungs, although\\neffected through the medium of cells and membranes,\\nalters the color and other qualities of the blood.\\nEvery chemical action propagates itself through the\\nmass of the blood; for example, the active chemical\\ncondition of the constituents of a body undergoing\\ndecomposition, fermentation, putrefaction, or decay,\\ndisturbs the equilibrium between the chemical force\\nand the vital principle in the circulating fluid.\\nNumerous modifications in the composition and con-\\ndition of the compounds produced from the elements\\nof the blood, result from the conflict of the vital\\nforce wnth the chemical affinity, in their incessant\\nendeavor to overcome one another.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 397\\nAll the characters of the phenomena of contagion\\ntend to disprove the existence of life in contagious\\nmatters. They without doubt exercise an influence\\nvery similar to some processes in the living organ-\\nism; but the cause of this influence is chemical\\naction, which is capable of being subdued by other\\nchemical actions, by opposed agencies.\\nSeveral of the poisons generated in the body by\\ndisease lose all their power when introduced into\\nthe stomach, but others are not thus destroyed.\\nIt is a fact very decisive of their chemical nature\\nand mode of action, that those poisons which are\\nneutral or alkaline, such as the poisonous matter of\\nthe contagious fever in cattle [typhus contagiosiis\\nrvminantium), or that of the smallpox, lose their\\nwhole power of contagion in the stomach whilst\\nthat of sausages, which has an acid reaction, retains\\nall its frightful properties under the same circum-\\nstances.\\nIn the former of these cases, the free acid present\\nin the stomach destroys the action of the poison,\\nthe chemical properties of which are opposed to it;\\nwhilst in the latter it strengthens, or at all events\\ndoes not offer any impediment to poisonous action.\\nMicroscopical examination has detected peculiar\\nbodies resembling the globules of the blood in ma-\\nlignant putrefying pus, in the matter of vaccine, c.\\nThe presence of these bodies has given weight to\\nthe opinion, that contagion proceeds from the de-\\nvelopment of a diseased organic life and these for-\\nmations have been regarded as the living seeds of\\ndisease.\\nThis view, which is not adapted to discussion, has\\nled those philosophers, who are accustomed to search\\nfor explanations of phenomena in forms, to consider\\nthe yeast produced by the fermentation of beer as\\npossessed of life. They have imagined it to be com-\\nposed of animals or plants, which nourish themselves\\nfrom the sugar in which they are placed, and at the\\n34", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "398 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nsame time yield alcohol and carbonic acid as excre-\\nmentitious matters.*\\nIt would perhaps appear wonderful if bodies, pos-\\nsessing a crystalline structure and geometrical figure,\\nwere formed during the processes of fermentation\\nand putrefaction from the organic substances and\\ntissues of organs. We know, on the contrary, that\\nthe complete dissolution into organic compounds is\\npreceded by a series of transformations, in which\\nthe organic structures gradually resign their forms.\\nBlood, in a state of decomposition may appear to\\nthe eye unchanged j and when we recognise the\\nglobules of blood in a liquid contagious matter, the\\nutmost that we can thence infer is, that those glob-\\nules have taken no part in the process of decompo-\\nsition. All the phosphate of lime may be removed\\nfrom bones, leaving them transparent and flexible\\nlike leather, without the form of the bones being in\\nthe smallest degree lost. Again, bones may be\\nburned until they be quite white, and consist merely\\nof a skeleton of phosphate of lime, but they will still\\npossess their original form. In the same way pro-\\ncesses of decomposition in the blood may affect in-\\ndividual constituents only of that fluid, which will\\nbecome destroyed and disappear, whilst its other\\nparts will maintain the original form.\\nSeveral kinds of contagion are propagated through\\nthe air: so that, according to the view already\\nmentioned, we must ascribe life to a gas, that is, to\\nan aeriform body.\\nAll the supposed proofs of the vitality of con-\\ntagions are merely ideas and figurative representa-\\ntions, fitted to render the phenomena more easy of\\napprehension by our senses, without explaining them\\nThese figurative expressions, with which we are so\\nwillingly and easily satisfied in all sciences, are the\\nfoes of all inquiries into the mysteries of nature they\\nare like the/ato morgana, which show us deceitful\\nAnnalen der Pharmacie, Band xxix. S. 93 und 100.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 399\\nviews of seas, fertile fields, and luscious fruits, but\\nleave us lano-uishino; when we have most need of\\nwhat they promise.\\nIt is certain, that the action of contagions is the\\nresult of a peculiar influence dependent on chemical\\nforces, and in no way connected with the vital prin-\\nciple. This influence is destroyed by chemical ac-\\ntions, and manifests itself wherever it is not sub-\\ndued by some antagonist power. Its existence is\\nrecognised in a connected series of changes and\\ntransformations, in which it causes all substances\\ncapable of undergoing similar changes to participate.\\nAn animal substance in the act of decomposition,\\nor a substance generated from the component parts\\nof a living body by disease, communicates its own\\ncondition to all parts of the system capable of enter-\\ning into the same state, if no cause exist in these\\nparts by which the change is counteracted or de-\\nstroyed.\\nDisease is excited by contagion.\\nThe transformations produced by the disease as-\\nsume a series of forms.\\nIn order to obtain a clear conception of these\\ntransformations, we may consider the changes which\\nsubstances, more simply composed than the living\\nbody, suffer from the influence of similar causes.\\nWhen putrefying blood or yeast in the act of trans-\\nformation is placed in contact with a solution of\\nsugar, the elements of the latter substance are trans-\\nposed, so as to form alcohol and carbonic acid.\\nA piece of the rennet-stomach of a calf in a state\\nof decomposition occasions the elements of sugar to\\nassume a different arrangement. The sugar is con-\\nverted into lactic acid without the addition or loss\\nof any element. (1 atom of sugar of grapes C12\\nH12 012 yields two atoms of lactic acid =2 (C6\\nH6 06.)\\nWhen the juice of onions or of beet-root is made\\nto ferment at high temperatures, lactic acid, mannite,\\nand gum are formed. Thus, according to the differ-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "400 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nent states of the transposition of the elements of the\\nexciting body, the elements of the sugar arrange\\nthemselves in different manners, that is, different\\nproducts are formed.\\nThe immediate contact of the decomposing sub-\\nstance with the sugar is the cause by which its\\nparticles are made to assume new forms and natures.\\nThe removal of that substance occasions the cessa-\\ntion of the decomposition of the sugar, so that,\\nshould its transformation be completed before the\\nsugar, the latter can suffer no further change.\\nIn none of these processes of decomposition is\\nthe exciting body reproduced for the conditions\\nnecessary to its reproduction do not exist in the\\nelements of the sugar.\\nJust as yeast, putrefying flesh, and the stomach\\nof a calf in a state of decomposition, when intro-\\nduced into solutions of sugar, effect the transforma-\\ntion of this substance, without being themselves re-\\ngenerated in the same manner, miasms and certain\\ncontagious matters produce diseases in the human\\norganism, by communicating the state of decompo-\\nsition, of which they themselves are the subject, to\\ncertain parts of the organism, without themselves\\nbeing reproduced in their peculiar form and nature\\nduring the progress of the decomposition.\\nThe disease in this case is not contagious.\\nNow when yeast is introduced into a mixed liquid\\ncontaining both sugar and gluten, such as wort, the\\nact of decomposition of the sugar effects a change\\nin the form and nature of the gluten, which is, in\\nconsequence, also subjected to transformation. As\\nlong as some of the fermenting sugar remains, gluten\\ncontinues to be separated as yeast, and this new\\nmatter in its turn excites fermentation in a fresh\\nsolution of sugar or wort. If the sugar, however,\\nshould be first decomposed, the gluten which re-\\nmains in solution is not converted into yeast. We\\nsee, therefore, that the reproduction of the exciting\\nbody here depends,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 401\\n1. Upon the presence of that substance from which\\nit was originally formed\\n2. Upon the presence of a compound which is\\ncapable of being decomposed by contact with the\\nexciting body.\\nIf we express in the same terms the reproduction\\nof contagious matter in contagious diseases, since it\\nis quite certain that they must have their origin in\\nthe blood, we must admit that the blood of a healthy\\nindividual contains substances, by the decomposition\\nof which the exciting body or contagion can be pro-\\nduced. It must further be admitted, when contagion\\nresults, that the blood contains a second constituent\\ncapable of being decomposed by the exciting body.\\nIt is only in consequence of the conversion of the\\nsecond constituent, that the original exciting body\\ncan be reproduced.\\nA susceptibility of contagion indicates the pres-\\nence of a certain quantity of this second body in the\\nblood of a healthy individual. The susceptibility\\nfor the disease and its intensity must augment ac-\\ncording to the quantity of that body present in the\\nblood; and in proportion to its diminution or dis-\\nappearance, the course of the disease will change.\\nWhen a quantity, however small, of contagious\\nmatter, that is, of the exciting body, is introduced\\ninto the blood of a healthy individual, it will be\\nagain generated in the blood, just as yeast is repro-\\nduced from wort. Its condition of transformation\\nwill be communicated to a constituent of the blood;\\nand in consequence of the transformation suffered by\\nthis substance, a body identical with or similar to\\nthe exciting or contagious matter will be produced\\nfrom another constituent substance of the blood.\\nThe quantity of the exciting body newly produced\\nmust constantly augment, if its further transforma-\\ntion or decomposition proceeds more slowly than\\nthat of the compound in the blood, the decompo-\\nsition of which it effects.\\nIf the transformation of the yeast generated in\\n34*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "402 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS. j\\nthe fermentation of wort proceeded with the same\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2rapidity as that of the particles of the sugar con-\\ntained in it, both would simultaneously disappear\\nwhen the fermentation was completed. But yeast\\nrequires a much longer time for decomposition than\\nsugar, so that after the latter has completely disap-\\npeared, there remains a much larger quantity of\\nyeast than existed in the fluid at the commencement\\nof the fermentation, yeast which is still in a state\\nof incessant progressive transformation, and there-\\nfore possessed of its peculiar property.\\nThe state of change or decomposition which effects\\none particle of blood, is imparted to a second, a\\nthird, and at last to all the particles of blood in the\\nwhole body. It is communicated in like manner to\\nthe blood of another individual, to that of a third\\nperson, and so on, or in other words, the disease\\nis excited in them also.\\nIt is quite certain, that a number of peculiar sub-\\nstances exist in the blood of some men and animals,\\nwhich are absent from the blood of others.\\nThe blood of the same individual contains, in\\nchildhood and youth, variable quantities of substan-\\nces, which are absent from it in other stages of\\ngrowth. The susceptibility of contagion by peculiar\\nexciting bodies in childhood, indicates a propagation\\nand regeneration of the exciting bodies, in conse-\\nquence of the transformation of certain substances\\nwhich are present in the blood, and in the absence\\nof which no contagion could ensue. The form of a\\ndisease is termed benignant, when the transforma-\\ntions are perfected on constituents of the body which\\nare not essential to life, without the other parts\\ntaking a share in the decomposition; it is termed\\nmalignant when they affect essential organs.\\nIt cannot be supposed, that the different changes\\nin the blood, by which its constituents are converted\\ninto fat, muscular fibre, substance of the brain and\\nnerves, bones, hair, c., and the transformation of\\nfood into blood, can take place without the simulta-", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "THEIR :\\\\IODE OF ACTION. 403\\nneous formation of new compounds which require to\\nbe removed from the body by the organs of excre-\\ntion.\\nIn an adult these excretions do not vary much\\neither in their nature or quantity. The food taken\\nis not employed in increasing the size of the body,\\nbut merely for the purpose of replacing any sub-\\nstances which may be consumed by the various\\nactions in the organism; every motion, every mani-\\nfestation of organic properties, and every organic\\naction being attended by a change in the material\\nof the body, and by the assumption of a new form\\nby its constituents.*\\nBut in a child this normal condition of sustenance\\nis accompanied by an abnormal condition of growth\\nand increase in the size of the body, and of each\\nindividual part of it. Hence there must be a much\\nlarger quantity of foreign substances, not belonging\\nto the organism, diffused through every part of the\\nblood in the body of a young individual.\\nWhen the organs of secretion are in proper action,\\nthese substances will be removed from the system\\nbut when the functions of those organs are impeded,\\nthey will remain in the blood or become accumulated\\nin particular parts of the body. The skin, lungs,\\nand other organs, assume the functions of the dis-\\neased secreting organs, and the accumulated sub-\\nstances are eliminated by them. If, when thus\\nexhaled, these substances happen to be in the state\\nof progressive transformation, they are contagious\\nthat is, they are able to produce the same state of\\ndisease in another healthy organism, provided the\\nlatter organism is susceptible of their action, or\\nin other words, contains a matter capable of suffer-\\ning the same process of decomposition.\\nThe experiments of Barruel upon the different odors emitted from\\nblood on the addition of sulphuric acid, prove that peculiar substances\\nare contained in the blood of different individuals; the blood of a man\\nof a fair complexion and that of a man of dark complexion w-ere found\\nto yield different odors the blood of animals also differed in this respect\\nvery perceptibly from that of man. L.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "404 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nThe production of matters of this kind, which\\nrender the body susceptible of contagion, may be\\noccasioned by the manner of living, or by the nutri-\\nment taken by an individual. A superabundance of\\nstrong and otherwise wholesome food may produce\\nthem, as well as a deficiency of nutriment, unclean-\\nliness, or even the use of decayed substances as\\nfood.\\nAll these conditions for contao-ion must be con-\\nsidered as accidental. Their formation and accu-\\nmulation in the body may be prevented, and they\\nmay even be removed from it without disturbing its\\nmost important functions or health. Their presence\\nis not necessary to life.\\nThe action, as well as the generation of the matter\\nof contagion is, according to this view, a chemical\\nprocess participated in by all substances in the\\nliving body, and by all the constituents of those\\norgans in which the vital principle does not over-\\ncome the chemical action. The contasfion, accord-\\ningly, either spreads itself over every part of the\\nbody, or is confined particularly to certain organs,\\nthat is, the disease attacks all the organs or only a\\nfew of them, according to the feebleness or intensity\\nof their resistance.\\nIn the abstract chemical sense, reproduction of a\\ncontagion depends upon the presence of two sub-\\nstances, one of which becomes completely decom-\\nposed, but communicates its own state of transform-\\nation to the second. The second substance thus\\nthrown into a state of decomposition is the newly-\\nformed contagion.\\nThe second substance must have been originally a\\nconstituent of the blood the first may be a body\\naccidentally present; but it may also be a matter\\nnecessary to life. If both be constituents indispen-\\nsable for the support of the vital functions of certain\\nprincipal organs, death is the consequence of their\\ntransformation. But if the absence of the one sub-\\nstance which was a constituent of the blood do not", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 405\\ncause an immediate cessation of the functions of\\nthe most important organs, if they continue in their\\naction, although in an abnormal condition, conval-\\nescence ensues. In this case the products of the\\ntransformations still existing in the blood are used\\nfor assimilation, and at this period secretions of a\\npeculiar nature are produced.\\nWhen the constituent removed from the blood is\\na product of an unnatural manner of living, or when\\nits formation takes place only at a certain age, the\\nsusceptibility of contagion ceases upon its disap-\\npearance.\\nThe effects of vaccine matter indicate, that an\\naccidental constituent of the blood is destroyed by\\na peculiar process of decomposition, which does not\\naffect the other constituents of the circulating fluid.\\nIf the manner in which the precipitated yeast of\\nBavarian beer acts (page 350) be called to mind,\\nthe modus operandi of vaccine lymph can scarcely\\nbe matter of doubt.\\nBoth the kind of yeast here referred to and the\\nordinary ferment are formed from gluten, just as the\\nvaccine virus and the matter of smallpox are pro-\\nduced from the blood. Ordinary yeast and the virus\\nof human smallpox, howevfer, effect a violent tumul-\\ntuous transformation, the former in vegetable juices,\\nthe latter in blood, in both of which fluids respec-\\ntively their constituents are contained, and they are\\nreproduced from these fluids with all their character-\\nistic properties. The precipitated yeast of Bavarian\\nbeer on the other hand acts entirely upon the sugar\\nof the fermenting liquid and occasions a very pro-\\ntracted decomposition of it, in which the gluten\\nwhich is also present takes no part. But the air\\nexercises an influence upon the latter substance, and\\ncauses it to assume a new form and nature, in con-\\nsequence of which this kind of yeast also is repro-\\nduced.\\nThe action of the virus of cow-pox is analogous\\nto that of the low yeast it communicates its own", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "406 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS,\\nstate of decomposition to a matter in the blood, and\\nfrom a second matter is itself regenerated, but by a\\ntotally different mode of decomposition; the product\\npossesses the mild form, and all the properties of\\nthe lymph of cow-pox.\\nThe susceptibility of infection by the virus of\\nhuman smallpox must cease after vaccination, for\\nthe substance to the presence of which this suscep-\\ntibility is owing has been removed from the body by\\na peculiar process of decomposition artificially ex-\\ncited. But this substance may be again generated\\nin the same individual, so that he may again become\\nliable to contagion, and a second or a third vaccina-\\ntion will again remove the peculiar substance from\\nthe system.\\nChemical actions are propagated in no organs so\\neasily as in the lungs, and it is well known that dis-\\neases of the lungs are above all others frequent and\\ndangerous.\\nIf it is assumed, that chemical action and the vital\\nprinciple mutually balance each other in the blood, it\\nmust further be supposed that the chemical powers\\nwill have a certain degree of preponderance in the\\nlungs, where the air and blood are in immediate\\ncontact; for these organs are fitted by nature to\\nfavor chemical action they offer no resistance to the\\nchanges experienced by the venous blood.\\nThe contact of air with venous blood is limited to\\na very short period of time by the motion of the\\nheart, and any change beyond a determinate point\\nis, in a certain degree, prevented by the rapid re-\\nmoval of the blood which has become arterialized.\\nAny disturbance in the functions of the heart, and\\nany chemical action from without, even though weak,\\noccasions a change in the process of respiration.\\nSolid substances, also, such as dust from vegetable,\\nanimal, or inorganic bodies, act in the same way as\\nthey do in a saturated solution of a salt in the act\\nof crystallization, that is, they occasion a deposition", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 407\\nof solid matters from the blood, by which the action\\nof the air upon the latter is altered or prevented.\\nWhen gaseous and decomposing substances, or\\nthose which exercise a chemical action, such as sul-\\nphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, obtain access\\nto the lungs, they meet with less resistance in this\\norgan than in any other. The chemical process of\\nslow combustion in the lungs is accelerated by all\\nsubstances in a state of decay or putrefaction, by\\nammonia and alkalies; but it is retarded by empy-\\nreumatic substances, volatile oils, and acids. Sulphu-\\nretted hydrogen produces immediate decomposition\\nof the blood, and sulphurous acid combines with the\\nsubstance of the tissues, the cells, and membranes.\\nWhen the process of respiration is modified by\\ncontact with a matter in the progress of decay, when\\nthis matter communicates the state of decomposition,\\nof which it is the subject, to the blood, disease is\\nproduced.\\nIf the matter undergoing decomposition is the\\nproduct of a disease, it is called contagion but if\\nit is a product of the decay or putrefaction of ani-\\nmal and vegetable substances, or if it acts by its\\nchemical properties, (not by the state in which it is,)\\nand therefore enters into combination with parts of\\nthe body, or causes their decomposition, it is termed\\nmiasm.\\nGaseous contagious matter is a miasm emitted\\nfrom blood, and capable of generating itself again in\\nblood.\\nBut miasm properly so called, causes disease with-\\nout being itself reproduced.\\nAll the observations hitherto made upon gaseous\\ncontagious matters prove, that they also are sub-\\nstances in a state of decomposition. When vessels\\nfilled with ice are placed in air impregnated with\\ngaseous contagious matter, their outer surfaces be-\\ncome covered with water containing a certain quan-\\ntity of this matter in solution. This water soon\\nbecomes turbid, and in common language putrefies,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "408 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASIMS.\\nor, to describe the change more correctly, the state\\nof decomposition of the dissolved contagious matter\\nis completed in the water.\\nAll gases emitted from putrefying animal and\\nvegetable substances in processes of disease, gener-\\nally possess a peculiar nauseous offensive smell, a\\ncircumstance which, in most cases, proves the pres-\\nence of a body in a state of decomposition. Smell\\nitself may in many cases be considered as a reaction\\nof the nerves of smell, or as a resistance offered by\\nthe vital powers to chemical action.\\nMany metals emit a peculiar odor when rubbed,\\nbut this is the case with none of the precious metals,\\nthose which suffer no change when exposed to air\\nand moisture. Arsenic, phosphorus, musk, the oils\\nof linseed, lemons, turpentine, rue, and peppermint,\\npossess an odor only when they are in the act of\\neremacausis (oxidation at common temperatures).\\nThe odor of gaseous contagious matters is owing\\nto the same cause; but it is also generally accom-\\npanied by ammonia, which may be considered in\\nmany cases as the means through which the con-\\ntagious matter receives a gaseous form, just as it is\\nthe means of causing the smell of innumerable sub-\\nstances of little volatility, and of many which have\\nno odor. (Robiquet.)*\\nAmmonia is very generally produced in cases of\\ndisease; it is always emitted in those in which con-\\ntagion is generated, and is an invariable product of\\nthe decomposition of animal matter. The presence\\nof ammonia in the air of chambers in which diseased\\npatients lie, particularly of those afflicted with a\\ncontagious disease, may be readily detected for the\\nmoisture condensed by ice in the manner just de-\\nscribed, produces a white precipitate in a solution\\nof corrosive sublimate, just as a solution of ammonia\\ndoes. The ammoniacal salts also, which are obtained\\nby the evaporation of rain water after an acid has\\nAnn. de Chim. et de Pliys. XV. 27.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "THEIK MODE OF ACTION. 409\\nbeen added, when treated with lime so as to set free\\ntheir ammonia, emit an odor most closely resembling\\nthat of corpses, or the peculiar smell of dunghills.\\nBy evaporating acids in air containing gaseous\\ncontagions, the ammonia is neutralized, and we thus\\nprevent further decomposition, and destroy the pow-\\ner of the contagion, that is, its state of chemical\\nchange. Muriatic and acetic acids, and in several\\ncases nitric acid, are to be preferred for this purpose\\nbefore all others. Chlorine also is a substance which\\ndestroys ammonia and organic bodies with much\\nfacility; but it exerts such an injurious and prejudi-\\ncial influence upon the lungs, that it may be classed\\namongst the most poisonous bodies known, and\\nshould never be employed in places in which men\\nbreathe.\\nCarbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, which\\nare frequently evolved from the earth in cellars,\\nmines, wells, sewers, and other places, are amongst\\nthe most pernicious miasms. The former may be re-\\nmoved from the air by alkalies; the latter, by burn-\\ning sulphur (sulphurous acid), or by the evaporation\\nof nitric acid.\\nThe characters of many organic compounds are\\nwell worthy of the attention and study both of phys-\\niologists and pathologists, more especially in relation\\nto the mode of action of medicines and poisons.\\nSeveral of such compounds are known, which to\\nall appearance are quite indifferent substances, and\\nyet cannot be brought into contact with one another\\nin water without suffering a complete transformation.\\nAll substances which thus suffer a mutual decompo-\\nsition, possess complex atoms they belong to the\\nhighest order of chemical compounds. For example,\\namygdalin, a constituent of bitter almonds, is a per-\\nfectly neutral body, of a slightly bitter taste, and\\nvery easily soluble in water. But when it is intro-\\nduced into a watery solution of synaptas, (a constit-\\nuent of sweet almonds,) it disappears completely\\nwithout the disengagement of any gas, and the wa-\\n35", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "410 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nter IS found to contain free hydrocyanic acid, hydru-\\nret of benzule (oil of bitter almonds), a peculiar acid\\nand sugar, all substances of which merelj the ele-\\nments existed in the amygdalin. The same decom-\\nposition is effected when bitter almonds, which con-\\ntain the same white matter as the sweet, are rubbed\\ninto a powder and moistened with water. Hence it\\nhappens that bitter almonds pounded and digested\\nin alcohol, yield no oil of bitter almonds containing\\nhydrocyanic acid, by distillation with water for the\\nsubstance which occasions the formation of those\\nvolatile substances, is dissolved by alcohol without\\nchange, and is therefore extracted from the pounded\\nalmonds. Pounded bitter almonds contain no amyg-\\ndalin, also, after having been moistened with water,\\nfor that substance is completely decomposed when\\nthey are thus treated.\\nNo volatile compounds can be detected by their\\nsmell in the seeds of the Sinapis alba and ^S. nigra.\\nA fixed oil of a mild taste is obtained from them by\\npressure, but no trace of a volatile substance. If,\\nhowever, the seeds are rubbed to a fine powder, and\\nsubjected to distillation with water, a volatile oil of\\na very pungent taste and smell passes over along\\nwith the steam. But if, on the contrary, the seeds\\nare treated with alcohol previously to their distilla-\\ntion with water, the residue does not yield a volatile\\noil. The alcohol contains a crystalline body called\\nsinapin, and several other bodies. These do not\\npossess the characteristic pungency of the oil, but it\\nis by the contact of them with water, and with the\\nalbuminous constituents of the seeds, that the vola-\\ntile oil is formed.\\nThus bodies regarded as absolutely indifferent in\\ninorganic chemistry, on account of their possessing\\nno prominent chemical characters, when placed in\\ncontact with one another, mutually decompose each\\nother. Their constituents arrange themselves in a\\npeculiar manner, so as to form new combinations a\\ncomplex atom dividing into two or more atoms of", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 411\\nless complex constitution, in consequence of a mere\\ndisturbance in the attraction of their elements.\\nThe white constituents of the almonds and mus-\\ntard which resemble coagulated albumen, must be in\\na peculiar state in order to exert their action upon\\namygdalin, and upon those constituents of mustard\\nfrom which the volatile pungent oil is produced. If\\nalmonds, after being blanched and pounded, are\\nthrown into boiling water, or treated with hot alco-\\nhol, with mineral acids, or with salts of mercury,\\ntheir power to effect a decomposition in amygdalin\\nis completely destroyed. Synaptas is an azotized\\nbody which cannot be preserved when dissolved in.\\nwater. Its solution becomes rapidly turbid, deposits\\na white precipitate, and acquires the offensive smell\\nof putrefying bodies.\\nIt is exceedingly probable, that the peculiar state\\nof transposition into which the elements of synaptas\\nare thrown when dissolved in water, may be the\\ncause of the decomposition of amygdalin, and forma-\\ntion of the new products arising from it. The action\\nof synaptas in this respect is very similar to that of\\nrennet upon sugar.\\nMalt, and the germinating seeds of corn in gener-\\nal, contain a substance called diastase, which is\\nformed from the gluten contained in them, and can-\\nnot be brought in contact with starch and water,\\nwithout effecting a change in the starch.\\nWhen bruised malt is strewed upon warm starch\\nmade into a paste with water, the paste after a few\\nminutes becomes quite liquid, and the water is found\\nto contain, in place of starch, a substance in many\\nrespects similar to gum. But when more malt is\\nadded and the heat longer continued, the liquid ac-\\nquires a sweet taste, and all the starch is found to\\nbe converted into sugar of grapes.\\nThe elements of diastase have at the same time\\narranged themselves into new combinations.\\nThe conversion of the starch contained in food in-\\nto sugar of grapes in diabetes indicates, that amongst", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "412 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nthe constituents of some one organ of the body, a\\nsubstance or substances exist in a state of chemical\\naction, to which the vital principle of the diseased\\norgan opposes no resistance. The component parts\\nof the organ must suffer changes simultaneously with\\nthe starch, so that the more starch is furnished to it,\\nthe more energetic and intense the disease must\\nbecome; while if only food which is incapable of\\nsuffering such transformations from the same cause\\nis supplied, and the vital energy is strengthened by\\nstimulant remedies and strong nourishment, the\\nchemical action may finally be subdued, or in other\\nwords, the disease cured.\\nThe conversion of starch into sugar may also be\\neffected by pure gluten, and by dilute mineral acids.\\nFrom all the preceding facts, we see that very va-\\nrious transpositions, and changes of composition and\\nproperties, may be produced in complex organic\\nmolecules, by every cause which occasions a disturb-\\nance in the attraction of their elements.\\nWhen moist copper is exposed to air containing\\ncarbonic acid, the contact of this acid increases the\\naffinity of the metal for the oxygen of the air in so\\ngreat a degree that they combine, and the surface of\\nthe copper becomes covered with green carbonate\\nof copper. Two bodies, which possess the power\\nof combining together, assume, however, opposite\\nelectric conditions at the moment at which they come\\nin contact.\\nWhen copper is placed in contact with iron, a pe-\\nculiar electric condition is excited, in consequence\\nof which the property of the copper to unite with\\noxygen is destroyed, and the metal remains quite\\nbright.\\nWhen formate of ammonia is exposed to a temper-\\nature of 388\u00c2\u00b0 F. (180\u00c2\u00b0 C.) the intensity and direction\\nof the chemical force undergo a change, and the\\nconditions under which the elements of this com-\\npound are enabled to remain in the same form cease\\nto be present. The elements, therefore, arrange", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "THEIR MODE OF ACTION. 413\\nthemselves in a new form hydrocyanic acid and\\nwater being the results of the change.\\nMechanical motion, friction, or agitation, is suffi-\\ncient to cause a new disposition of the constituents\\nof fulminating silver and mercury, that is, to effect\\nanother arrangement of their elements, in conse-\\nquence of which, new compounds are formed.\\nWe know that electricity and heat possess a de-\\ncided influence upon the exercise of chemical affinity\\nand that the attractions of substances for one anoth-\\ner are subordinate to numerous causes which change\\nthe condition of these substances, by altering the\\ndirection of their attractions. In the same manner,\\ntherefore, the exercise of chemical powers in the\\nliving organism is dependent upon the vital principle.\\nThe power of elements to unite together, and to\\nform peculiar compounds, which are generated in an-\\nimals and vegetables, is chemical affinity but the\\ncause by which they are prevented from arranging\\nthemselves according to the degrees of their natural\\nattractions, the cause, therefore, by which they are\\nmade to assume their peculiar order and form in the\\nbody, is the vital principle.\\nAfter the removal of the cause which forced their\\nunion, that is, after the extinction of life, most\\norganic atoms retain their condition, form, and na-\\nture, only by a vis inertim; for a great law of nature\\nproves, that matter does not possess the power of\\nspontaneous action. A body in motion loses its mo-\\ntion only when a resistance is opposed to it and a\\nbody at rest cannot be put in motion, or into any\\naction whatever, without the operation of some ex-\\nterior cause.\\nThe same numerous causes which are opposed to\\nthe formation of complex organic molecules, under\\nordinary circumstances, occasion their decomposition\\nand transformations when the only antagonist power,\\nthe vital principle, no longer counteracts the influ-\\nence of those causes. Contact with air and the most\\nfeeble chemical action now effect changes in the com-\\n35*", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "414 POISONS, CONTAGIONS, MIASMS.\\nplex molecules even the presence of any body the\\nparticles of which are undergoing motion or trans-\\nposition, is often sufficient to destroy their state of\\nrest, and to disturb the statical equilibrium in the\\nattractions of their constituent elements. An imme-\\ndiate consequence of this is, that they arrange them-\\nselves according to the different degrees of their\\nmutual attractions, and that new compounds are\\nformed in which chemical affinity has the ascendancy,\\nand opposes any further change, while the conditions\\nunder which these compounds were formed remain\\nunaltered.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "APPENDIX TO PAET 11.\\nANTIDOTE TO ARSENIC.\\nThe following is from a letter of Samuel L. Dana, M. D.,\\nof Lowell, to Dr. Bartlett, published in the Boston Daily\\nAdvertiser. August 3d, I84 2.\\nAccording to the experiments of M. Guibourt, white ox-\\nide of arsenic, (or white arsenic) digested with hydrated\\nperoxide of iron, forms a compound, whose proportions\\ndiffer from that of arsenite of iron, by containing a larger\\nportion of iron. It is this salt, which forms in the stomach,\\nwhen peroxide of iron is administered as an antidote to\\narsenic. It contains 3| times as much iron as arsenic. It\\nis perfectly insoluble and innocuous. Three things are\\nessential to the action of this antidote.\\n1st. Perfect freedom from protoxide of iron.\\n2d. Perfect freedom from free alkali, or alkali com-\\nbined with the oxide of iron.\\n3d. It must be freshly prepared without drying.\\n1st. If the antidote contains protoxide of iron, then\\nthat combines with the arsenic and forms a compound\\nwhich, though of sparing solubility, is yet poisonous and\\nprevents the ulterior good action of the peroxide of iron.\\nA mixture of prot and peroxides of iron is no antidote to\\narsenic.\\n2d. If carbonate of potash is used to precipitate a solu-\\ntion of persalt of iron, a portion falls, combined with alka-\\nli. Hence Berzelius recommends bicarbonate of potash,\\ncold, to be used for this purpose. The effect of alkali,\\nfree, or thus combined with peroxide of iron, will be, to\\nform soluble poisonous arsenites as above noticed.\\n3d. The effect depends on the antidote being freshly\\nprepared. I would therefore, in order to insure the 2d\\nand 3d conditions, recommend the solution of pernitrate of\\niron to be taken dilute, followed by aq. am. and wet by a", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "416\\nTABLES.\\nlittle vinegar or tartaric acid, or cream of tartar remedies\\nalways at hand.\\nTo insure perfect freedom from protoxide of iron,\\nI would always pass a current of chlorine, through the\\nsolution of prepared nitrate of iron, before that is con-\\nsidered as fit, to be kept on hand, for the ready formatioa\\nof hydrated peroxide of iron.\\nTABLES:\\nSHOWING THE PROPORTION BETWEEN THE HESSIAN AND\\nENGLISH STANDARD OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.\\nIn general all the weights and measures employed in this\\nedition are those of the English standard. In a few cases\\nonly, the Hessian weights and measures have been re-\\ntained. In these the numbers do not represent absolute\\nquantites, but are merely intended to denote a proportion\\nto other numbers. This has been done to avoid any un-\\nnecessary intricacy in the calculations, and to present\\nwhole numbers to the reader, without distracting his at-\\ntention by decimal parts. For those, however, who wish\\nto be acquainted with the exact English quantities, a table\\nis here given below.\\n1 lb. English is equal to 0-90719 lb. Hessian hence,\\nabout one-tenth less than the latter.\\n1 lb. Hessan is equal to\\n1102 lb.\\nEnglish\\n2 lbs. Hessian are equal to\\n2-204\\nlbs\\n3\\n3-306\\n4\\n4-409\\n5\\n5-511\\n6\\n6-612\\n7\\n7716\\n8\\n8-818\\n9\\n9-!t2\\n10\\n11 02\\ni\\n20\\n2204\\nu\\n30\\n33 06\\n40\\n44-09\\n50\\n55-11\\n60\\n66-12\\nu\\n70\\n77 16\\n(C\\n80\\n88 18\\n90\\n99-29\\n100\\n110-2\\n200\\n220-4", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "TABLES.\\n417\\n300 lbs. Hessian are equal to 330-6 lbs. English.\\n400 4400\\n500 5511\\n600 661-2\\n700 771-6\\n800 881-8\\n900 9920\\n1000\\n11U2-0\\nSQUARE FEET.\\nThe Hessian acre is equal to 40,000 Hessian square\\nfeet, or 26,911 English square feet 1 English square foot\\nbeing equal to 1 4864 Hessian. The following is a Table\\nto save the trouble of calculation. The table is only stated\\nto the figure 10, but by removing the decimal point one or\\ntwo figures, the whole series given in the case of the\\npounds will also be obtained.\\n1 Square Foot Hessian is equal to 0G73 Square Foot English.\\n2 feet 1-345\\n3\\n4\\n5\\n6\\n7\\n8\\n9\\n10\\n2-018\\n2-691\\n3-363\\n4-036\\n4-709\\n5-382\\n6-054\\n6-727\\nfeet\\nCUBIC FEET.\\nOne English cubic foot contains 1 8 121 8 of a Hessian\\ncubic foot the Hessian and English cubic inch may be\\nconsidered as equal, one English cubic inch containing\\nr0487 15 Hessian cubic inch.\\n1 cubic foot Hessian is equal to 0-551 cubic foot English.\\n2 feet 1-103\\n3 1-655\\n4 2207 feet.\\n5 27.59\\n6 3-311\\n7 3-863\\n8 4415\\n9 4-966\\n10 5518", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "418\\nTABLES.\\nTABLE OF THE CORKESPONDING DEGREES ON THE SCALES OF\\nFAHRENHEIT, REAUMUR, AND CELSIUS, OR CENTIGRADE.\\n1\\n3\\nG\\n03\\nPi\\nc\\nO\\nfa\\nVI)\\n212\\n80\\n100\\n149\\n52\\n65\\n50\\n8\\n10\\n203\\n76\\n95\\n140\\n48\\n60\\n41\\n4\\n5\\n194\\n72\\n90\\n131\\n44\\n55\\n32\\n185\\n68\\n85\\n122\\n40\\n50\\n23\\n4\\n5\\n176\\n64\\n80\\n113\\n36\\n45\\n14\\n8\\n10\\n167\\n60\\n75\\n104\\n32\\n40\\n5\\n12\\n15\\n158\\n56\\n70\\n95\\n28\\n35\\n4\\n16\\n20\\n86\\n24\\n30\\n13\u00c2\u00bb\\n20\\n25\\n77\\n20\\n25\\n22\\n-24\\n30\\n68\\n16\\n20\\n31\\n-28\\n35\\n59\\n12\\n15\\n40\\n32\\n40\\nDenotes below the cipher on Fahrenheit s scale.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nACI\\n.Abnormal, meaning of the term,\\n140.\\nAbsorption, by roots, 107.\\nOf salts, IIG.\\nAcetone, 306.\\nAcid, acetic, emitted by plants, 150.\\ncompound atom of, 301.\\ntransformation of, 306.\\nformation of, 329-334.\\nApocrenic, 31.\\nBoracic, 122.\\nCarbonic, 24-70.\\ncontained in the atmo-\\nsphere, 28.\\ndecomposed by plants,\\n43.\\nfrom respiration, 44.\\nfrom springs, 29.\\nwhy necessary to\\nplants, 105.\\nCrenic, 31.\\nCyanic, transformation of, 310.\\nCyanuric, 70.\\nFormic, 71, 86, 290.\\nHippuric, 97.\\nHumic, 31.\\nproperties of, 34.\\nHydrocyanic, 70, 290.\\nHydromellonic, 70.\\nHypochlorous, 293.\\nKinic, 114.\\nKinovic, 301.\\nLactic, 190.\\nproduction of, 321.\\nMeconic, 115.\\nMelanic, 326.\\nMellitic, 363.\\nNitric, source of, 88.\\nOxalic, 70.\\nPhosphoric, in ashes of plants,\\n155.\\nRocellic, in plants, 108.\\nALK\\nAcid, succinic, 363.\\nSulphuric, action of, on soils,\\n208, 248.\\nTartaric, in grapes, 108.\\nAcids, action of upon sugar, 303.\\nArrest decay, 361\\nCapacity for saturation, 108.\\nOrganic, in plants, 27, 107.\\nwhen formed, 51.\\nAcre, Hessian, 36.\\nAdipocire, 88.\\nAffinity, action of, 71.\\nChemical, examples of, 292.\\nWeak, example of, 293.\\nAgave Americana, absorbs oxygen,\\n51.\\nAo-riculture, in China, 193.\\nObject of, 100, 145, 172.\\nhow attained, 146.\\nIts importance, 143.\\nA principle in, 187.\\nAir, access of, favored, 65.\\nAmmonia in, 29, 91.\\nCarbonic acid in, 41.\\nEffect of upon juices, 330.\\non soils, 167.\\nExpired in phthisis, 73.\\nImproved by plants, 47.\\nNecessary to plants, 130.\\nAlbumen, 96, contains nitrogen, 27.\\nAlcohol, effect of heat on, 306.\\nExhaled, 72.\\nProducts of its oxidation, 327.\\nFrom sugar, 313.\\nAldehyde, 327.\\nAlkalies, 69, from granitic soils, 117.\\nPresence of, indicated, 215.\\nPromote decay of wood, 361.\\nQuantity in aluminous minerals,\\n148.\\nAlkaline Bases, in plants, on what\\ntheir existence depends, 112.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "ANA\\n420\\nAZO\\nMkaline Bases, salts contained in\\nfertile soils, 153.\\nSalts in plants, sources of, 151.\\nJlllantoin, 70.\\nMloxan, 352.\\nAlloxantin, 352.\\nMumina, in fertile soils, 147.\\nIts influence on vegetation, 147.\\nMistaken in ashes, 148.\\nAmber, origin of, 363.\\nJlmmelin, 70.\\nAmmonia, 70, 86, carbonate of, from\\nurine, 191.\\nhow fixed, 191.\\nCause of nitrification, 338.\\nChanges colors, 87.\\nCondensed by charcoal, 104.\\nConversion of, into nitric acid,\\n338.\\nDecomposition of by plants, 2G6.\\nEarly existence of, 123.\\nFixed by gypsum, 191.\\nFrom animals, 174.\\nContained in beet-root, c., 93.\\nmaple juice, 94.\\nstables, c., 192.\\nFurnishes nitrogen, 104.\\nLoss from evaporation, 99.\\nprevented, 280.\\nProduced by animal organism,\\n123.\\nProduct of decay, 88.\\ndisease, 408.\\nProperties of, 88.\\nQuantity absorbed by charcoal,\\n104.\\nby decayed\\nwood, 104.\\nIn rain water, 90.\\nHow detected, 91.\\nSeparated from soils by rain, 104.\\nIn snow water, 91.\\nSolubility of, 89.\\nSulphate of, 281.\\nTransformation of, 86.\\nJlmmoiiidcal Liquor, 283.\\nJlmylin, its effect, 74.\\nAnalysis of decayed wood, 359.\\nOf fire-damp, 372.\\nOf fishes, 177.\\nOf horse-dung, 177.\\nOf peat, 185.\\nOf guano, 201.\\nOf lentils, 159.\\nOf oak-wood, 358.\\nOf night-soil, 179.\\nOf salt water, 124.\\nAnalysis, of soils, 217, 245.\\nOf wood coal, 367, 368.\\nAnimal food, preservation of, 330.\\nLife, connexion of, with plants,\\n22.\\nBodies, products of decay, 88.\\ncomplex, 302.\\nAnimals, excrements of, 189.\\nNutriment of, 22.\\nAnnual plants, how nourished, 135.\\nAnlhoxanthum Odoratuvi, acid in,\\n97.\\nAnthracite, 373.\\nAntidotes to Poisons, 381.\\nApatite, 156.\\nApotheme, 31.\\nArable Land, 146.\\nAromatics, their influence on fer-\\nmentation, 343.\\nArgillaceous Earth, its origin, 147.\\nArragonite, transformation of, 298.\\nArroio Root, 140.\\nArsenious Arid, action of, 381.\\nArtificial Manure, 199, 287.\\nAshes, as manure, 182, 198.\\nComparative value of, 182.\\nOf fir-wood, 111.\\nOf pine trees, 110.\\nOf plants, origin of salt in, 125.\\nImportance of examination of,\\n112.\\nOf wheat, 158.\\nused as a manure, 213.\\nOf bones, 183.\\nOf peat, 18.5.\\nOf coals, 198.\\nPhosphate of lime in, 183.\\nAssimilation, of carbon, 30.\\nOf carbonic acid, and ammonia,\\n131.\\nOf hydrogen, 80 84.\\nOf nitrogen, 85-105.\\nIts power, 140.\\nAtmosphere, ammonia in, 29, 92.\\nComposition of, 27.\\nHow maintained, 44.\\nComposition is invariable, 40.\\nCarbonic acid in the, 28-41.\\nMotion of, 46.\\nOxygen in, 26.\\nAtoms, motions of, 297.\\nPermanence in position of, 297.\\nj?/? raciion, powerful, overcome, 309.\\nAzores, glairin found there, 34.\\nCarbonic acid at the, 79.\\nSilica in hot springs of, 170.\\nAzote, 25.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "BOT\\n421\\nCAR\\nj lzotized matter in juices of plants,\\n137.\\nSubstances, combustion of, 334.\\nAzulmin, 70.\\nBamboo, silica in, 171.\\nBark of trees, products in, 49.\\nBarilla, 118.\\nBarley, analysis of, 155.\\nBarruel, his experiments on the\\nblood, 403.\\nBase, what, 106.\\nBases, alkaline, in plants, on what\\ntheir existence depends, 112.\\nOrganic, 27.\\nOxygen contained in, 106.\\nIn plants, 108.\\nSubstitution of, 109.\\nBeans, alkalies in, 159.\\nNutritive power of, 159.\\nBecquerel, experiments of, 150.\\nBeech, ashes of, 182.\\nBeer, 347-257.\\nBavarian, 343.\\nVarieties of, 347.\\nBeet-root sugar, 38.\\nAmmonia from, 93.\\nFrom sandy soils, 140.\\nBelgium, soils of, 241.\\nBenignant Disease, 402.\\nBenzoic acid, formed, 97.\\nBerzeliiis, humic extract of, 34.\\nHis analysis of bones, 158.\\nBirch Tree, ammonia from, 94.\\nBischoff, estimate of carbonic acid,\\nc., 29.\\nBlake, on nitrate of aoda, 270.\\nBleaching Salts, 141.\\nBlood, its office, 135.\\nAction of chemical agents upon,\\n396.\\nIts feeble resistance to exterior\\ninfluences, 3il6.\\nOrganic salts in, 375.\\nIts character, 386.\\nBlossoms, when produced, 68.\\nIncreased, 132.\\nRemoval of, from potatoes, 134.\\nBones, dust of, 183.\\nDurability of, 204.\\nGelatine in, 203.\\nUse in composts, 212.\\nComposition of, 157, 158.\\nBouquet of wines, 342.\\nBoracic Acid, 122.\\nBotanists, neglect of chemistry by,\\n55.\\n36\\nBran, use of, 185.\\nBrandxj, from corn, 342.\\nOil of, 342.\\nBrazil, wheat in, 153.\\nBread, from wood, 133.\\nBrown Coal, 185.\\nBuckwheat, ashes of, 159.\\nBulbs, how nourished, 76.\\nCalcareous Spar, 298.\\nCalcium, fluoride of, 157.\\nChloride of, 192.\\nCalculous Disorders, 74.\\nCalico Printing, use of cow-dung\\nin, 186.\\nUse of phosphate of soda in, 286.\\nSubstitute for, 186, 286.\\nCaoutchouc, in plants, 78.\\nCarbon, 24.\\nAfforded to the soil by plants, 76.\\nAssimilation of, 30 -63.\\nCombination of, with oxygen, 24.\\nOf decaying substances seldom\\naffected by oxygen, 360.\\nDerived from air, 44.\\nIn decaying wood, 360.\\nIn decaying woody fibre, 361.\\nIn sea- water, 45.\\nOxide of, formed, 305.\\nQuantity m grain, 38.\\nin land, 39.\\nin straw, 38.\\ngiven off by man, 41.\\nRestored to the soil, 76.\\nReceived by leaves, 43.\\nIts affinity for oxygen, 328.\\nCarbonate of ammonia decomposed\\nby gypsum, 100.\\nOf soda, 207.\\nOf lime in caverns and vaults,\\n128.\\nCarbonic acid, 70, in the atmo-\\nsphere, 28.\\nIn St Michaels, 79.\\nChanges in leaves, 142.\\nDecomposed by plants, 43.\\nEmission of, at night, 49.\\nEvaporation of, 56.\\nEvolution from decaying bodies,\\n328.\\nFrom decaying plants, 84.\\nexcrements, 99.\\nhumus, 65.\\nrespiration, 72.\\nsprings, 29, 85.\\nwoody fibre, 64.\\nQuantity extracted from air, 45.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "CON\\n422\\nDAU\\nCarbonic J}cid, influence of light\\non its decomposition, 53.\\nIncrease of, prevented, 42.\\nCarbon of Plants, source of, 260\\n2d5.\\nCarburetled hydrogen with coal,\\n372.\\nCaverns, stalactites in, 127,\\nCharcoal, what, 24.\\nCondenses ammonia, 104.\\nExperiments of Lucas on, 249.\\nMay replace humus, 78.\\nTheory of its action, 78.\\nPromotes growth of plants, 240.\\nC/ e^ms/brrf, analysis of soil of, 246.\\nChemical effects of light, 141.\\nForces can replace the vital prin-\\nciple, 75.\\nProcesses in nutrition of vege-\\n.tables, 22.\\nTransformations, 69, 289.\\nChemistrij, definition of, 21\\nOrganic, what is, 22.\\nNeglected by botanists, 55 and\\nphysiologists, 56.\\nChina, its agriculture, 193.\\nCollection and use of manure\\nin, 1!)3.\\nChlorine gas, 141 effect of, 101.\\nChloride of calcium, 192.\\nOf nitrogen, 2; 3.\\nOf potassium, its effect, 116.\\nOf sodium, its volatility, 123.\\nClay, burned, advantages of, as a\\nmanure, 102.\\nClays, potash in, 148.\\nClay slate, 157.\\nCoal, formation of, 369.\\nAmmoniacal liquor from, 2U5.\\nInflammable gases from, 372.\\nOrigin of substances in, 363.\\nOf humus, 30, 129.\\nWood or brown, 185.\\nColors of flowers, 96.\\nCombustion at low temperatures,\\n327.\\nOf decayed wood, 362.\\nInduction of, 332.\\nRemoves oxygen, 42.\\nSpontaneous, 324.\\nCompost manure, 1 18, 212, 279.\\nConcretions from horses. 156.\\nConstituents of plants, 24.\\nConsumption, 73.\\nContagion, reproduction of, on\\nwhat dependent, 389.\\nContagion, susceptibility to, how\\noccasioned, 401.\\nContagions, how produced, 389.\\nPropagation of, 398.\\nContagious matters, action of, 394,\\n399, 413.\\nTheir effects explained, 390.\\nLife in, disproved, 392.\\nReproduction of, 392.\\nCopper alloy, its action, on sulphu-\\nric acid, 2;i2.\\nCorn, how cultivated in Italy, 152\\nPhosphate of magnesia in, 156.\\nEffect of carbonic acid on, 7!).\\nCorn brandy, 342.\\nCorrosive sublimate, action of, 381.\\nCow, excrements of the, 120, 176,\\n178.\\nVariable in value, 179.\\nUrine of the, 177; rich in potash,\\n119.\\nCoio pox, action of virus of, 405.\\nCrops, rotation of, 161.\\nFavorable effects of, 162.\\nPrinciples regulating, 174, 275.\\nCubic nitre, 270.\\nCultivation, its benefits, 47.\\nDifferent methods of, 144.\\nObject of, 14.5.\\nCulture, art of, 126.\\nOf plants, principles of the, 144.\\nCyanic acid, transformation of, 311.\\nCyanogen, combustion of, 335.\\nA compound base, 70.\\nTransformation of, 311.\\nCyanuric acid, 70.\\nDana, Dr. S. L on geine, 31.\\nOn phosphate of lime, 182.\\nOn ammonia, 259.\\nOn phosphate of soda in calico\\nprinting, 286.\\nDaniel s manure, 287.\\nDarioin, on nitrate of soda, 270.\\nDaubeny, experiments of, 105.\\nOn forest trees, 164.\\nOn nutritive qualities of plants,\\n265.\\nOn source of carbon, 285.\\nOn source of carbon of plants,\\n260.\\nOn source of hydrogen of plants,\\n203.\\nCarbon of, 260.\\nExperiments at Oxford, 257.\\nExperiments on his farm, 273.\\nSource of hydrogen, 263.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "EXC\\n423\\nFRU\\nDavis, his account of Chinese\\nmanure, 193.\\nDeath from nutritious substances,\\n59.\\nThe source of life, 105.\\nDecatidoUe, his theory of excre-\\ntion, 163.\\nDifference of his views and\\nthose of Macaire-Princep, 1G7.\\nDecay, 292.\\nA source of ammonia, 88.\\nOf wood, 301.\\nOf plants restores oxygen, 84.\\nand putrefaction, 291.\\nDecompositiun. 68, 289.\\nOrganic, chemical, 291.\\nDextrine, 56, 57.\\nDiamond, its origin, 363.\\nDiastase, 136.\\nContains nitrogen, 136.\\nDisease, how excited, 386.\\nDog, excrement of the, 175.\\nDung hills, liquid from, 191.\\nReservoirs, 191.\\nSubstitute, 187.\\nEbony wood, oxygen and hy-\\ndrogen in, 53.\\nEffete matters separated, 68.\\nEifel, springs evolve carbonic acid,\\n29.\\nElements of plants, 24\\nNot generated by organs, 59.\\nElphinstone, Sir Howard, on soda-\\nash as a manure, 207.\\nEngland, analysis of soils in, 242.\\nEquilihrmm of attractions dis-\\nturbed, 298.\\nEquisetacetB contain silica, 171.\\nEremacausis, ()3, 299.\\nAnalogous to putrefaction, 328.\\nArrested, 323.\\nDefinition of, 299.\\nNecessary to nitrification, 335.\\nOf bodies containing nitrogen,\\n334.\\nOf bodies destitute of nitrogen,\\n329.\\nEther, cenanthic, 344.\\nEtiolation, 46.\\nEudiometer, 90.\\nExcrementitious matter, production\\nof, illustrated, 71.\\nExcrement, animal, its chemical\\nnature, 175.\\nOf the dog, cow, ,c., 175.\\nInfluence of, as manure, 180.\\nExcrements of plants, 163.\\nConversion of, into humus, 35.\\nOf man, amount of, 195.\\nValue of, 189.\\nPreservation of, 193.\\nExcretion, organs of, 72.\\nOf plants, theory of, 163.\\nExperiments in physiology, object\\nof, 56.\\nOf physiologists not satisfactory,\\n61.\\nExtract of humus, 31.\\nFallow, changes from, 152.\\nCrops, 159.\\nTime, 159.\\nFattening of animals, 146.\\nFaces, analysis of, 179.\\nFerment, 313, 314.\\nFermentation, 299, 300.\\nCauses of, 2;i2.\\nOf Bavarian beer, 348.\\nOf beer, 349.\\nGay-Lussac s experiments inj\\n330.\\nOf sugar, 313.\\nOf vegetable juices, 314.\\nVinous, 338.\\nOf wort, 339.\\nFertility of fields, how preserved,\\n181.\\nFires, plants on localities of, 154.\\nFirs, succeed oaks, 164.\\nFirroood, analysis of its ashe.s, 111.\\nFishes, in salt-pans, 121.\\nAs manure, 259\\nFlanders, manure in, 193.\\nFleuhane, 160.\\nFlesh, composition of, 177.\\nEffect of salt on, 377.\\nFlour, bran of, 185.\\nFlowers, colors due to ammonia, 96.\\nFluorine, 157; in ancient bones,\\n158.\\nFoliage, increased, 101.\\nFood, effect on products of plants,\\n139.\\nOf young plants, 131.\\nTransformation and assimilation.:\\nof, 72.\\nFormation of wood, 138.\\nFormic acid, 70, 290.\\nTheory of its formation, 71\\nFrom hydrocyanic acid, 71.\\nFossil resin, origin of, 303.\\nFranconia, caverns in, 127.\\nFna7, increased, 132.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "HES\\n424\\nINO\\nFruit, ripening cf, 83.\\nchanges attendinff,\\n132.\\nFulminating silver, 233.\\nGASEOUS substances in the lungs,\\neffect of, 407.\\nGasterosteun aculeatus, in salt-pans,\\n121.\\nGasioorks, liquor of, 205, 283.\\nGay-Lussac^ his experiments, 330.\\nGeine, 31.\\nGermany, cultivation in, 181.\\nGermination of potatoes, 1 33.\\nOf grain, 137.\\nGlairin, 34.\\nGlass, as a manure, 187.\\nEffect ofheat on, 2.97.\\nGlue, manure from, 184.\\nGluten, conversion of, into yeast,\\n348-3.56.\\nDecomposition of, 321.\\nGas from, 339.\\nGrain, germination of, 137.\\nManure for, 119.\\nRust in, 220.\\nGranitic, soil affords alkalies, 117.\\nGrapes, fermentation of, 338.\\nJuice of, differences in, 346.\\nPotash in, 112.\\nGrasses, seeds of, follow man, 121.\\nSilica in, 170.\\nValued in Germany, 169.\\nCompost for, 118.\\nGrauwacke, soil from, 147.\\nGrowth of plants, conditions for\\nthe, 144.\\nGuano, 95, 199.\\nGypsum, decomposition of, 100,\\n280.\\nIts influence, 101.\\nUse of, 191.\\nTheory of, 280.\\nSubstitutes for, 282.\\nAction of, 247, 280.\\nReplaced, 248.\\nHAILSTONES, 91.\\nHay, carbon in, 38.\\nContains nitrogen, 176.\\nsilica, 155.\\nAnalysis of, 38.\\nHaystack, effect of lightning upon\\na, 155.\\nHesse, custom in, 213.\\nHessian and English weights and\\nmeasures, 416.\\nHessian acre, 36.\\nHibernating animals, 134.\\nHippuric acid, 97.\\nHorse, urine of the, 102\\nConcretions in the, 157.\\nHorse dung, action of water upon,\\n177.\\nAnalysis of, 173.\\nHuman faces, analysis of, 179.\\nHumate of lime, quantity received\\nby plants, 37.\\nHumic acid, 31, C5, 90.\\nAction of, 129.\\nProperties of, 34.\\nIs not contained in soils, 90.\\nQuantity received by plants, 37.\\nInsolubility of, 128.\\nHumus, 30, 90.\\nAction of, 63.\\nAnalysis of, 32.\\nErroneous opinions concerning,\\n49.\\nExtract of, 31.\\nAction upon oxygen, 127.\\nCoal of, 129.\\nConversion of woody fibre into,\\n358.\\nHow produced, 3iS8.\\nIts insolubility, 127.\\nProperties of, 34.\\nReplaced by charcoal, 78.\\nSource of carbonic acid, 65.\\nTheory of its action, 65.\\nUnnecessary for plants, 33, 77.\\nHungary, soils of, 240.\\nHydrates, 31.\\nHydrocyanic acid, 70, 2.90.\\nHydrogen assimilation of, 80-82.\\nProperties of, 25.\\nExcess of in wood accounted\\nfor, 81.\\nOf decayed wood, 359.\\nIn plants, 203.\\nOf plants, source of, 82, 263.\\nPeroxide of, 294.\\nHyett, Mr., on nitrate of soda, 206,\\n271.\\nIce, bubbles of gas in, 54.\\nIndian corn, analysis of, 98.\\nIndifferent substances, 27.\\nInflammable air, 25.\\nIngenhouss, his experiments, 49.\\nInorganic compounds, 301.\\nAction of, 374.\\nIn what tliey differ from organic,\\n302.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "MAN\\n425\\nNIT\\nInorganic constituents of plants,\\n105, 12(3.\\nCompounds, stability of, 301.\\nIodine, 12H.\\nIron, oxide of, attracts ammonia,\\nlo:}.\\nIrritration of meadows, effect of,\\n127, 161).\\nItch insect, 122.\\nJackson, analysis of horse-dung,\\n177.\\nOn peat compost, 258.\\nJava, soil of, 244.\\nJuices of vegetables, 27.\\nLactic acid, production of, 321.\\nLava, soil from, 149.\\nLead, salts of, compounds with\\norganic matter, 383.\\nLeaves, absorb carbonic acid, 43.\\nAshes of, contain alkalies, 154\\nCessation of their functions, (JS.\\nChange color from absorption of\\noxygen, 68.\\nConsequence of the production\\nof their green principle, 173.\\nDecompose carbonic acid, 142.\\nTheir office, 135.\\nPower of absorbing nutriment,\\nhow increased, 67.\\nQuantity of carbon received by,\\n45.\\nContain azotized matter, 188.\\nLentils, analysis of, 159.\\nLife, notion of, 392.\\nLight, absence of, its effect, 49.\\nChemical effects of, 105, 142.\\nInfluences decomposition of car-\\nbonic acid, 53.\\nLme, phosphate of, 183, 184, 212.\\nLimestone, analysis of, 153.\\nLiziviation, 182.\\nLucern, phosphate of lime in, 159\\nBenefits attending its culture,\\n172.\\nLucas, his experiments, 219.\\nMaCAIRE-PRINCEP, his experi-\\nments, 161, 256.\\nMagnesia, phosphate of, in seeds,\\n62.\\nMaine, analysis of soil of, 246.\\nMannite. 139.\\nManure,\\\\74,2 ^S.\\nAnimal, yields ammonia, 95, 278.\\nArtificial, 204, 212, 287.\\n36*\\nMamire, components of, should be\\nknown, 144.\\nCarbonic acid from, 9.\\nHuman, 2rj4.\\nOf the Chinese, 193.\\nEffect of, 173.\\nBone, 183.\\nDaniell s artificial, 287.\\nManuring of vines, 253, 254.\\nMaple juice, ammonia from, 94.\\nTrees, sugar of, 94.\\nMeadoios, irrigation of, 127, 169.\\nMedicine, action of, remedies in,\\n186.\\nMeconic acid, 115.\\nMelam, 70.\\nMelamin, 70.\\nMelitic acid, 363.\\nMellon, 70.\\nMerrimack Manuf. Co., first use of\\nphosphate of soda by, 286.\\nMetallic compounds required by\\nplants, (51).\\nMetamorphosis, 2: 1.\\nMiasm, defined, 407.\\nMichaels, St., carbonic acid at, 79.\\nMinerals attract ammonia, 103.\\nMorbid poisons, 389.\\nMotion, its influence on chemical\\nforces, 296.\\nMould, vegetable, 363,\\nConversion of woody fibre into,\\n364.\\nCondenses ammonia, 104.\\nMouldering of bodies, 365.\\nMust, fermentation of, 340.\\nNaples, soils of, 152, 285.\\nMight-soil, 193, 199, 2.59, 284.\\nJVde, soil of its vicinity, 168.\\nNitrate of soda as a manure, 206.\\nTheory of its formation, 277.\\nOf Peru, 270, 277.\\nExperimeats with, 271.\\nNitrated wheat, 272.\\nFlour, 275.\\nNitric acid, from ammonia, 336.\\nAnimals, 88.\\nHow formed, 335.\\nNitrification, 334.\\nCondition for, 336.\\nNitrogen from animals, 87.\\nAbsorption of by plants, 267.\\nAccount of, 25\\nApplication of substances con-\\ntaining it, 99.\\nAssimilation of, 85, 97.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "OXY\\n426\\nPLA\\nJ\\\\ itrogcn, chloride of, 293.\\nCliaracteristic of, J5.\\nCompounda of, 25, 27.\\npeculiarity in,\\n319.\\nIn albumen, 27.\\nFrom the atmosphere, 88.\\nIn plants, 25, 27, 2G5.\\nSource of, 28:5, 285.\\nProduction of, the object of agri-\\nculture, Ui).\\nTransformation of bodies con-\\ntaining, 305.\\nof bodies not\\ncontaining, 305.\\nIn rice, 98.\\nIn solid excrements, 189.\\nIn urine, 189\\nNutrition, conditions essential to,\\n22, 59.\\nInorganic substances required\\nin, GO.\\nSuperfluous, how employed, 07.\\nOf young plants, 172.\\nOaks, ashes of, 154.\\nE.Ycretions of, 49.\\nDwarf, 6G.\\nFollowed by firs, 1G4.\\nOak-wood aft ords humic acid, 35.\\nComposition of, 358.\\nMouldered, analysis of, 359.\\nOdor of substances, 345.\\nOf gaseous contagious matter,\\n408.\\nCEnanthic ether, 344.\\nOhio, analysis of soils of, 245.\\nOrcin, 325.\\nOrgans of excretion, 72.\\nOrgaiiic acids, 26.\\nDecomposition of, 295.\\nChemistry, 21, 22.\\nCompounds, 82\\nCompared with inorganic salts\\nin plants, 301.\\nOrganized bodies do not generate\\nsubstances, Gtt.\\nOsmuzome, 317.\\nOxalic acid, 70.\\nOxford, experiments at, 257.\\nOxainide, decomposition of, 391.\\nOxides, metallic, in fir-wood. 111.\\nOxygen, 26.\\nAction on alcohol, 327.\\nProperties of, 26.\\nAbsorption of, at night, 51\\nOxygen, absorption by respiration,\\n72.\\nleaves, 51.\\nplants, 49.\\nwood, 358.\\nAction upon woody fibre, 359.\\nIts action in decomposition, 331.\\nEmitted by leaves, 43.\\nGiven to air by land, 80.\\nExtracted from air by mould, 364.\\nIn air, 28.\\nConsumption of, 40, 41.\\nIn water, 82.\\nPromotes decay, 130.\\nSeparated during the formation\\nof acids, S i.\\nIs furnished by the decomposi-\\ntion of water, 81.\\nPJiYEN, his table of composition\\nof woods, 264.\\nPeat, compost of, 118, 258.\\nAnalysis of, 18.5.\\nPerennial plants, how nourished,\\n135.\\nPeroxide, what, 295.\\nPeroxide of hydrogen, 294.\\nPeterson and Schodter, their analy-\\nsis of woods, 52.\\nPhosphates necessary to plants, 155.\\nPhosphate of iron, the probable\\ncause of rust, 221.\\nIn pollen, 182.\\nPhosphate of lime in teak wood,\\n156.\\nIn forest soils, 182.\\nPhosphoric acid in ashes of plants,\\n155.\\nPhthisis, remedies in, 73.\\nPhysiologists, their experiments not\\nsatisfactory, 62.\\nNeglect of chemistry by, 56.\\nPipe-clay, ammonia in, 103.\\nPlants absorb oxygen, 50.\\nAshes of, salts in. 1 10.\\nConditions necessary for their\\nlife, 62.\\nConstituents of, 24.\\nDecay of, a source of oxygen, 84.\\nDecompose carbonic acid, 43.\\nDevelopment of, requisites for,\\n27, 117,136,143\\nEffect of, on rocks, 150.\\nElements of, 24.\\nEmit acetic acid, 150.\\nExhalation of carbonic acid\\nfrom, 53.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "PRO\\n427\\nSAT\\nPlants, of a former world, 76.\\nFormation of their components,\\nb3.\\nFunctions of, 44.\\nImprove tlie air, 47.\\nInfluence of gases on, 50.\\nof shade, 50.\\nInorganic constituents of, 105.\\nLife of, connected with that of\\nanimals, 22.\\nMilky-juiced, in barren soils, 78.\\nNutritive qualities of, depend-\\nence on nitrogen, 265.\\nOrganic acids in, 26, 106.\\nsalts in, 108.\\nPerennial, nourished, 135.\\nProducts of, vary, 139.\\nSize of, proportioned to organs\\nof nourishment, 66.\\nSources of their nourishment,\\n27.\\nSuccession of, its advantage, 162.\\nVital processes of, 84.\\nWild, obtain nitrogen from the\\nair, 99.\\nYield oxygen, 48.\\nPlatinum does not decompose nitric\\nacid, 292.\\nPloughing, its use, 130.\\nRecommended by Cato, 270.\\nPoisons generated by disease, 374.\\nInorganic, 374-379.\\nPeculiar class of, 384.\\nRendered inert by heat, 389.\\nPoisoning, superficial, 379.\\nBy sausages, 387.\\nPompeii, air from, 41.\\nBones from, 158.\\nPotash, action of, upon mould, 364.\\nIn limestones, 153.\\nIn grapes, 112.\\nLey of, its effects on excre-\\nments, 99.\\nPresence of, in plants, accounted\\nfor, 148.\\nReplaced by soda, 113.\\nRequired by plants, 62.\\nQuantity in soils, 148.\\nSi licate of, in soils, 62.\\nSources of, 148.\\nPotatoes, oil of, 341.\\nEffect of, as food, 139.\\nAnalysis of, 114.\\nGermination of, 133.\\nProduce of, increased, 134.\\nPoiidrette, 199.\\nProducts of transformations, 69.\\nPrince, J. D., first to apply phos-\\nphate of soda, ,c., 286.\\nPurgative effect of salts explained,\\n377.\\nPus, globules in, 397.\\nPuseij, Mr., on nitrate of soda, 206.\\nPutr(faction, 63, 299, 300.\\nOf animals, 174.\\nCauses of, 292.\\nCommunicated, 389.\\nSource of ammonia, 104.\\ncarbonic acid, 99.\\nPutrefying sausages, death from,\\n387; their mode of action, 388.\\nSubstances, their effect on\\nwounds, 389\\nalkaline. 397.\\nacid, 397.\\nRadical, what, 69.\\nRain-water, alkali extracted by, 150.\\nReduction of oxides, 294.\\nReeds and canes require silica, 155.\\nRemoval of branches, effects of, 132.\\nReservoirs of dung, 191\\nRespiration, oxygen consumed by,\\n41.\\nRhine, soils in its vicinity, 168.\\nWines, 342.\\nRice, analysis of, 98.\\nRipening of fruit, 132.\\nRoot secretions, 163, 256\\nRoots absorb, 107.\\nEmit excrementitious matter,\\n163.\\nTheir office, 125.\\nSecretions of, 256.\\nRotation of crops, 161, 174.\\nSal ammoniac, as manure, 282.\\nSaliculitc of potash, 326.\\nSaline plants, 121.\\nSalsola kali, 113.\\nSalt, volatilization of, 123.\\nSalts, absorption of, 116.\\nEffect of, on the organism, 375.\\non flesh, 377.\\non the stomach, 377.\\nOrganic, in plants, 27.\\nin the blood, 376.\\nPassage of through the lungs,\\n376.\\nSalt-works, loss in, 1~ 4.\\nSaltwort, 122.\\nSand, plants in, 78.\\nSandy soil, decay of wood in, 361.\\nSaturation, capacity of, 106.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "STA\\n428\\nTOB\\nSausages, poisonous, 387.\\nSaussure, his experiments on air, 42.\\nAnalysis of pines, 110.\\nOn the growth of plants, 153.\\nSchuhler, his observations on rain,\\n90.\\nSea-water, analysis of, 124.\\nContains carbon, 45.\\nContains ammonia, 125.\\nSecretions, root, 256.\\nSilica, 170, in grasses, 155.\\nSolution of, 170.\\nIn reeds and canes, 155.\\nSilicate of \u00e2\u0096\u00a0potash in plants, 62.\\nAs a manure, 187, 212, 213.\\nSiliceous sinter, 170.\\nSilver, carbonate of, action on or-\\nganic acids, 295.\\nSalts, poisonous effects of, 382.\\nSimple bodies, 21.\\nSinapis alba, 410.\\nSize of plants proportional to organs\\nof nourishment, 66.\\nSmell, wliat, 345.\\nSnow ID (iter, ammonia in, 91.\\nSoda may replace potash, 113.\\nNitrate of, theory of its forma-\\ntion, 277.\\nPhosphate of, in calico printing,\\n286.\\nSoda-ash, 207.\\nSoils, advantage of loosening, 65,\\n130.\\nChemical constituents of, 208.\\nBest for meadow-land, 118.\\nCarbon restored to, 75.\\nChemical nature of its influence,\\n167.\\nConstituents of, 208.\\nExhaustion of, 151.\\nFerruginous, improved, 130.\\nFertile, contain phosphoric acid,\\npotash, c., 242, 243.\\nFertile, of Vesuvius, 149.\\nFrom lava, 149.\\nOf heaths, 223.\\nImbibe ammonia, 99.\\nImproved by crops, 161.\\nImpoverished by crops, 161.\\nVarious kinds of, 208.\\nStagnant water, effect of, 130.\\nStalactites in caverns, 127.\\nStarch, composition of, 83.\\nAccumulation of, in plants, 132.\\nDevelopment of plants influ-\\nenced by, 134.\\nEffect of, on malt, 74.\\nStarch, vesicles in, 56.\\nProduct of the life of plants, 49.\\nIn willows, 133.\\nStaunton, Sir G., on Chinese ma-\\nnure, 194.\\nStraw, analysis of, 38.\\nSirM\u00c2\u00bbe, experiments of, 151.\\nSubstitution of bases, 109.\\nS?ibsoil ploughing, 215, 269.\\nSuccession of crops, 275.\\nSuccinic acid, 363.\\nSugar, action of alkalies upon, 303.\\nacids upon, 303.\\nComposiiion of, 313.\\nCarbon in sugar, 38.\\nContained in the maple-tree, 93.\\nIn clerodendion fragrans, c.,\\n138.\\nDevolopment of plants, influence\\non, 134.\\nFermentation of, 313.\\nFormic acid from, 86.\\nIn beet-roots, 93.\\nMetamorphosis of, 313.\\nOrganic compounds, all form\\nsugar, 302.\\nProduct of the life of plants, 49.\\nTransformation of, 304.\\nWhen produced, 67.\\nSulphur, crystallized, dimorphous,\\n297.\\nIn plants, 214.\\nSulphuric Acid, action of, on soils,\\n208, 248.\\nSulphurous Acid arrests decay, 360.\\nSwamp muck, 185.\\nSiceden, soils of, 243.\\nStcine, urine of, 202.\\nSijnaptas, 411.\\nTjibasheer, 171.\\nTables, of Hessian and English\\nweights, 416.\\nTannic Acid, 83.\\nTartaric Acid, 83.\\nConverted into sugar, 83.\\nIn wine, 342.\\nTeak Tree, salts found in, 155.\\nTeeth, analysis of, 158.\\nTeltoica Parsnep, 66, 140.\\nThenard, his experiments on yeast,\\n313.\\nThermometers scales of, 418.\\nTin, action on nitric acid, 292.\\nTobacco, juice contains ammonia,\\n94.\\nLeaves of, 345.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "YIN\\n429\\nwoo\\nTobacco, value of, proportional to\\nquantity of potash in the soil,\\nNitric acid in, 97.\\nIn Virginia, 151.\\nTransfurmutioii, by heat, 306.\\nChemical, 71,21)1.\\nChemical transformations differ\\nfrom decompositions, 71,\\nOf acetic acid, 306.\\nOf arragonite, 298.\\nOf carbonic acid, 142.\\nOf meconic acid, 306.\\nNot affected by the vital princi-\\nple, 74.\\nExplained, 74.\\nOf bodies containing nitrogen,\\n305.\\nOf bodies destitute of nitrogen,\\n305.\\nResults of, 75.\\nOf sugar, 303.\\nOf wood, 306.\\nOf cyanic acid, 311.\\nOf cyanogen, 31 1.\\nOf gluten, 339.\\nTransplantation, effect of, 132.\\nTrees, diseases of, 137.\\nRequire alkalies, 154.\\nUlmin, 30.\\nUrea, 70, 87 converted into car-\\nbonate of ammonia, 97.\\nIn urine, 189.\\nUric Acid, yields ammonia, 192.\\nTransformations of, 193.\\nUrinary calculi, treatment of, 74.\\nOrgans, eliminate nitrogen, 73.\\nUrine, contains nitrogen, 97.\\nIts use as a manure, 95, 201, 211.\\nOf men, c., 190.\\nOf horses, 202.\\nHuman, analysis of, 190.\\nOf cows, 202.\\nIts use in China and Flanders,\\n95, 194.\\nOf swine, 202.\\nVaccination, its effect, 405.\\nVegetable Albumen, 96.\\nLife, one end of, 23.\\nMould, 363.\\nJuices, fermentation of, 314.\\nVesuvius, fertile soil of, 149.\\nVines, new mode of manuring, 253.\\nJuice of, yields ammonia, 94.\\nVinous Fermentation, 338.\\nVirginia, early products of its soUa,\\n151.\\nVirus, of small pox, 405.\\nVaccine, 405.\\nVitality, what, .59.\\nVital Principle, 73.\\nValue of the term, 75.\\nHow balanced in the blood, 374.\\nVital Processes of plants, 1 66.\\nVoelckel, his analysis of guano, 96.\\nWater, carbonic acid of, ab-\\nsorbed, 44.\\nComposition of, 81.\\nDissolves mould, 364.\\nFreezing of, 296.\\nPlants, their action upon, 56.\\nRain, contains ammonia, 91.\\nrequired by plants, 28.\\nrequired by gypsum, 102.\\nHard, made soft, 92.\\nSalt, analysis of, 124.\\nIVavellite, 156.\\nWest Indies, soil of, 244.\\nWheat, analysis of, 154.\\nAshes of, used as a manure, 213.\\nExhausts, 152.\\nNitrated, 272.\\nGluten of, 94.\\nManure for, 213.\\nWhy it does not thrive on cer-\\ntain soils, 153.\\nIn Virginia, 151.\\nWilbrand, Dr., on maple sugar, 93.\\nWilloics, growth of, 133.\\nWine, effect of gluten upon, 347.\\nFermentation of. 347.\\nProperties of, 347.\\nSubstances in, 341.\\nTaste and smell, 342.\\nVarieties of, 342.\\nWood, decomposition of, 320.\\nWiihler, his analysis of limestone,\\n153.\\nWood charcoal, may replace hu-\\nmus, 78.\\na manure, 249.\\nDecayed combustion of, 362.\\nAbsorbs ammonia, 104.\\nAnalysis of, 52.\\nBread from, 133.\\nComposition of, 264.\\nConversion of, into humus, 335.\\nDecay of, 357.\\nRequires air, 358.\\nDecomposition of, 320.\\nElements of, 358, 360.", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "WOR\\n430\\nZIN\\nWood, transformation of, 306.\\nEffect of moisture and air on,\\n358.\\nFormation of, 138.\\nSource of its carbon, 39.\\nWood Coal, how produced, 365.\\nAnalysis of, 367, 368.\\nWoody Fibre, changes in, 358.\\nComposition of, 358.\\nDecomposition of, 358.\\nFormation of, 48.\\nMoist, evolves carbonic acid, 358.\\nMould from, 364.\\nWormioood, effect of its culture,\\n120.\\nWort, fermentation of, 350.\\nWounds, effect of putrefying sub-\\nstances on, 386.\\nYeast, 315.\\nDestroyed, 341.\\nExperiments on, 316.\\nFormed, 340.\\nIts mode of action, 318.\\nIts production, 315.\\nTwo kinds of, 350.\\nZeiNE, 98.\\nZinc, decomposition of water with,", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "", "height": "2816", "width": "1569", "jp2-path": "chemistryinitsap00lieb_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "", "height": 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