{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Class _/.\\nBook.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "6\\nNATIONAL\\nEDUCATION m EUROPE;\\nBEING AN ACCOUNT\\nOEGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, INSTRUCTION, AND STATISTICS\\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT GRADES\\nTHE PRINCIPAL STATES.\\nBy henry BARNARD, LL. D.,\\nSUPERINTENDENT OP COMMON SCHOOLS IN CONNECTICUT.\\nSECOND EDITION.\\nNEW YORK:\\nPUBLISHED BY CHARL11.S B. NORTON.\\nNo. 71, CHAMBERS STREET.\\n1854.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "V", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "PREFACE,\\nThe following pages were, in part, published in 1851,\\nunder the title of Normal Schools and other Institutions,\\nAgencies and Means designed for the Professional Education\\nof Teachers. They were prepared from observations made\\nduring a tour in Europe in 1835-6, and from documents\\nsubsequently collected, from time to time, to assist the un-\\ndersigned in maturing his own views and plans for the im-\\nprovement of common schools, and particularly in devising\\nmodes of operating beneficially for the advancement of the\\nteachers profession, in the States of Rhode Island and Con-\\nnecticut.\\nThe author has availed himself of a recent visit to Europe,\\nto extend his inquiries, and collect additional documents, not\\nonly respecting the training of teachers, but in every depart-\\npartment of the educational field, and particularly respecting\\nagricultural schools, and institutions for juvenile delinquents.\\nThe results are embodied in this new edition of his original\\nwork, the title of which is changed, so as to convey a more\\nadequate idea of its contents.\\nTo the results of his own observations and study of docu-\\nments, he is able, by permission of the gentlemen named, to\\nadd freely from the elaborate and valuable reports of Prof\\nCalvin E. Stowe, D. D., to the Legislature of Ohio, in 1837,\\nof President Alexander Dallas Bache, LL.D., to the Trustees\\nof the Girard College of Orphans in Philadelphia, in 1839, of\\nHon. Horace Mann, LL. D., to the Massachusetts Board\\nof Education in 1846, and of Joseph Kay, Esq., Traveling\\nBachelor of the University of Oxford, in 1850, on the sub-\\njects treated of in this volume. Without claiming any", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "4 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nthing for his own labors, the undersigned feels authorized in\\nsaying that the present edition contains more reliable statistics\\nand fuller information respecting the whole subject of public\\neducation in Europe, than can be found in any one volume\\nin the English language, or in any number of volumes easily\\naccessible to any large number of American teachers and\\neducators.\\nIt embodies information which can be made available\\nin organizing new, and improving existing systems of public\\ninstruction, and particularly institutions and agencies, de-\\nsigned for the education of teachers in every state of the\\nUnion. Its value does not consist in conveying the spec-\\nulations and limited experience of the author, but the\\nmatured views and varied experience of wise statesmen,\\neducators, and teachers, in perfecting the organization and\\nadministration of educational systems and institutions, through\\na succession of years, under the most diverse circumstances\\nof government, society, and religion.\\nThe experience and views of the undersigned, as to the\\norganization and administration of a system of public educa-\\ntion adapted to the peculiar circumstances and wants of our\\nown country, will be presented to the public in the course\\nof another year, under the title of National Education or,\\nContributions to the History and Improvement of Common\\nSchools, and other means of Popular Education in the United\\nStates.\\nHENRY BARNARD.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS\\nEDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nBY HENRY BARNARD.\\nGERMANY.\\nPage.\\nHistory of Education, 37\\nParochial Schools, 18\\nPublic Schools 39\\nMartin Luther, 19\\nAugustus Herrman Franke, 21\\nOrphan-House at Halle, 21\\nBasedow, 2o\\nPestalozzi, 25\\nZeller 29\\nCentennial Birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30\\nPnigress of Normal Schools, 31\\nGeneral features of the School Systems, 32\\nTable. Normal Schools in Germany in 1848, 34\\nResults of the Normal School System, 35\\nTestimony of Professor Stowe, 35\\nPresident Bache, 39\\nMr. Mann 39\\nRev. Dr. Ryerson, 45\\nProfessor Stephens, 46\\nCourse of Instruction in Primary Schools, 49\\nFor children between ages of si.x and eight, 50\\nConversotion Lesson on Objects, 51\\nElements of Reading, 51\\nWriting 52\\nNumbers Arithmetic, 52\\nFor children between ages of eight and ten, 52\\nE.xercises in Reading, 52\\nE.xercises in Writing, 53\\nMoral and Religious Instruction, 53\\nLanguage or Grammar, 54\\nNumber or Arithmetic, 56\\nDoctrine of Space and Form, 55\\nSingmg by Note, 55\\nFor children from ten to twelve, 55\\nExercises in Reading and Elocution, 55\\nWriting introductory to Drawing 55\\nBible History 55\\nLanguage and Gramme^r, 55\\nKnowledge of Nature, 56\\nArithmetic 57\\nGeometry Doctrine of Magnitudes, 57\\nSinging and Science of Vocal Music, 57\\nChildren from twelve to fourteen, 57\\nReligious Instruction, 58\\nKnowledge of Nature and Mankind, 58\\nLanguage or Exercises in Composition,.. 59\\nApplication of Arithmetic to Business,.. 59\\nElements of Drawing 59\\nExercises in Singing and science of Music, 60\\nExtracts from Report of Hon. H. Mann, 60\\nClassification, 60\\nMethods of teaching young children, 60\\nArithmetic and Mathematics, 63\\nGrammar and Composition, 64\\nWriting and Drawing, 66\\nGeography, 68\\nExercises in Thinking, 70\\nKnowledge of Nature, 71\\nKnowledge of the World, and Society, 72\\nBible History and Bible Knowledge, 73\\nMusic, 74\\nTestimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the prac-\\ntical working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74\\nPRUSSIA.\\nPag*.\\nHistory of Primary Instruction, 81\\nOutline of System, 86\\nStatistics of Pri mary Education in 1848, 88\\nRemarks on Progress of Primary Schools,.... 89\\nSubjects and Methods of Instruction, 91\\nElementary Schools, 91\\nBurgher Schools 92\\nHigher Town Schools, 92\\nText-books 93\\nSchool Examinations 93\\nResults in practical working of System ac-\\ncording to Mr. Kay 94\\nEducation of young children, universal,. 94\\nSchool Attendance, 95\\nChildren employed in factories, 96\\nVoluntary System prior to 1819, 97\\nSchools where the people are of one faith,. 98\\ndifferent do. 98\\nMixed Schools 99\\nDuties of School Committee,.. 99\\nSchools in large towns and cities, 101\\nAdvantages of large schools, 102\\nSchool -houses, 103\\nSuperior Primary Schools, 105\\nReal Schools, Gymnasia, Endowed Schools, 105\\nLarge landed Proprietors, 106\\nLancasterian Method, 106\\nPaid Monitors or Assistants, 107\\nText-books 109\\nSuggestive Character of the Methods, 110\\nInterest of Children in their Studies Ill\\nSpecimens of Schools of different grades, from\\nDr. Bache s Report 112\\nBurgher School at Halle 112\\nMilitary Orphan-House at Annaburg 115\\nPublic Schools of Berlin, 118\\nElementary Schools, 118\\nBurgher Schools, 123\\nDorothean Higher City School of Berlin,.. 124\\nModel School of Teachers Seminary, 127\\nSeminary School at Weissenfels, 123\\nHigher Burgher School of Potsdam 135\\nSecondary Instruction in Prussia, 139\\nAdmission of pupils, 139\\nSubjects of Instruction, 140\\nDistribution of Teachers, 141\\nNumber of hours of Recitation, 141\\nPlan of Studies 142\\nStudy out of School Hours, 143\\nDuration of courses, 143\\nExamination for University, 114\\nSu])posed defects of Teachers, 144\\nPhysical Education 144\\nReligious Education, 145\\nDiscipline, 145\\nMotives to Study, 145\\nRegulations for Final Examination 146\\nFrederick William Gymnasium of Berlin,... 148\\nRoyal Real School,. 152\\nCity Trade School, 155\\nInstitute of Arts 159\\nLegal Provision respecting Teachers, 165\\nTestimony of Mr. Kay, 169", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "6\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nPage-\\nSocial Condition, 170\\nEducational Advantages 172\\nSchools Preparatory to Normal Schools,... 371\\nExamination on entering 172\\nfor Diploma as Teachers, 173\\nTeachers are Public Officers, 174\\nSalaries fixed, and payment certain, 176\\nFemale Teachers, 178\\nTeachers Conferences J79\\nPensions to old and invalid teachers 181\\nWidows and Orphans of deceased teachers, 182\\nEducational Periodicals 182\\nTeachers Seminary, or Normal Colleges, 183\\nConditions and Examinations for entering,. 185\\nIntellectual Training of a Seminary, 186\\nIndustrial Training, 187\\nDiploma 188\\nLocation and Number of Normal Schools in\\n1846 190\\nSmall Normal Schools of Lastadie, 191\\nSmall Normal School of Pyritz 194\\nNormal School of Potsdam 197\\nNormal Schools at Bruhl 207\\nNormal Seminary in Eisleben, 218\\nSeminary for Teachers at Weissenfels 219\\nSeminary for Teachers of City, at Berlin, 233\\nNormal Schools for Female Teachers, 235\\nSeminary at Marienweider 236\\nDiaconissen Anstalt at Kaisersworth, 236\\nPrussian Schools, a few years ago, 24 1\\nSchool Counselor Dinter, 242\\nJournal of an Institute, or Conference of\\nTeachers 243\\nSchool Counselor Bernhardt 243\\nBernard Overberg 245\\nC. B. Zeller the Influence of Example 253\\nSelf-examination by Beckendorf, 254\\nSAXONY.\\nSystem of Primary Instruction 257\\nInstitution for Superannuated Teachers, 259\\nStatistics of Schools 260\\nRoyal Seminary for Teachers at Dresden, 261\\nExamination for Teachers Diplomas, 262\\nProtection of Teachers Rights, 265\\nCompulsorv Attendance at School, 266\\nSchool Buildings, 267\\nPrimary Schools of Dresden, 268\\nSaxon Sunday Schools, 268\\nPlan of Sunday School at Dresden 269\\nPublic Examination of the Schools 271\\nFletcher Normal Seminary at Dresden, 272\\nBurgher School at Leipsic, 273\\nPlan of Instruction, 275\\nPublic Schools of Leipsic and Dresden, 278\\nSecondary Education in Saxony, 279\\nBlochmann-Vitzhum Gymnasium at Dresden, 280\\nSchool of Mines at Freyberg, 289\\nBADEN.\\nSchool Authorities, 293\\nSystem of Primary Schools, 293\\nEducational Statistics of Baden, 293\\nSchool Attendance, 299\\nInternal Organization, 299\\nPlan of Instruction, 292\\nEvening Classes, 292\\nSunday Classes 297\\nIndustrial Instruction, 297\\nEducation of Children employed in Factories, 297\\nTeachers Conferences 298\\nNormal Seminary at Carlsrube, 299\\nWIRTEMBERG.\\nEducational Statistics 301\\nSystem of Primary Schools, 301\\nDenzel s Introduction to the Art of Teaching, 303\\nNormal Seminary at Esslingen, 310\\nNormal Seminary at Nurtingen 306\\nPage.\\nSubject of Instruction in the Norraal Schools, 305\\nInstitute of Agriculture at Hohenheim 307\\nHESSE CASSEL AND NASSAU.\\nEducational Statistics, 312\\nNormal Seminary at Schluehtern, 312\\nBAVARIA.\\nSystem of Primary Schools, 313\\nNormal Seminary at Bamburg, 314\\nPlan of Seminary by Jacobi, 314\\nEducational Statistics, 315\\nMr. Kay s Estimate of Public Schools 316\\nDr. Grazer s System of Instruction, 319\\nCommon School at Bayreuth 320\\nAUSTRIA.\\nSystem of Public Instruction, 325\\nPopular Schools, 325\\nUpper Schools 326\\nCommercial Academies, .320\\nHigh Schools for Girls 326\\nGymnasia, 326\\nSystem of Inspection, 329\\nRegulations respecting Teachers, 331\\nSystem of Normal Schools 333\\nPolytechnic Institute at Vienna, 335\\nStatistics of Elementary Schools, 338\\nSecondary Schools, .339\\nSuperior 339\\nAcademies of Science, 340\\nSWITZERLAND.\\nOutline of Educational Institutions, 341\\nReconcilement of Difl^erence of Relig. Belief, 341\\nSchool Attendance made Compulsory, 342\\nEducation of Teachers, 344\\nManual Labor in Normal Schools, 344\\nVehrli s Opinions on the Habits of Teachers, 345\\nCourse of Instruction in Primary Schools,... 346\\nReligious Exercises 347\\nLocal Inspection of Schools, 347\\nResults of the Education of the People, 348\\nEducation of Girls in Catholic Seminaries,.. 348\\nCondition of the Peasantry, 349\\nPauperism and Ignorance, 350\\nEducational Establishment at Hofwyl, 351\\nEmanuel Fellenberg 351\\nFellenberg s Principles of Education, 354\\nSubjects of Study 354\\nMoral Education, 3.55\\nIntellectual Education, 355\\nPhysical Education, 356\\nNorma! Course for Teachers at Hofywl, 357\\nBerne Cantonal Society for Teachers, 364\\nNormal School at Kruitzlingen-Thurgova, 367\\nEducational Views of Vehrli, 369\\nProgramme Course of Study, 372\\nNormal School at Kussnacht, Zurich, 373\\nProgramme of Studies, 376\\nNorm. School at Lausanne Cant, of Vaud., .378\\nNormal School at Lucerne, 380\\nFRANCE.\\nHistory of Popular Education, 381\\nOrdinances of National Convention, 381\\nDecrees of Napoleon, 381\\nLaw of the Government of Louis Phillippe,. 382\\nReport of Victor Cousin, 382\\nSpeech of M. Guizot 387\\nDegrees of Primary Instruction, 387\\nLocal and State Inspection, 388\\nProfessional Education of Teachers 389\\nM ission of the Teacher, 389\\nSociety of Elementary Instruction, 390\\nOutline of system of Public Instruct, in 1850, 391\\nUniversity of France, 391", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nPage.\\nCouncil of Public Instruction, 391\\nAcademies, 391\\nRoyal Colleges, 392\\nSystem of Pub. Competion for Professorship, 392\\nSystem of Primary Instruction, 393\\nSchool Attendance, 393\\nLocal Management, 393\\nExamination of Teachers, 393\\nDepartmental Inspection, 394\\nEducation of Teachers, 394\\nCourse of Instruction, 395\\nTeachers Associations, 395\\nFund for Relief of Aged Teachers, 395\\nGovernmental Prizes to Masters, 395\\nExpenditures for School-houses, 395\\nSchools embraced in the University of France, 396\\nPrimary Education in the Communes, 397\\nNumber of Primary Sch. belong, to each Sect, 397\\nAttendance in Primary Schools, 398\\nClasses for Adults, and Apprentices, 899\\nStatistics of Normal Schools, 399\\n,^^tate of Secondary Education, 400\\nPrimary Education in department of Tarn,.. 401\\nInstitutions for Special Instruction, 405\\nIndustrial Instruction, 406\\nHistory of Normal Schools in France, 413\\nAbbe de Lasalle in 1681 413\\nNormal School of Paris, 1794, 413\\nNormal Class of Strasbourg in 1811 414\\nReport of Cousin in 1832, 415\\nPlan framed by Guizot in 1833, 421\\nNumber of schools in 1849, 424\\nConferences of Teachers, 425\\nLibraries of Teachers, 427\\nPecuniary condition of Teachers, 430\\nInstitute of Christian Brothers, 435\\nLife of John Baptist de Lasalle, 435\\nRegulations of Institute, 442\\nPrimary Normal School at Versailles 447\\nDijon 449\\nSecondary Normal School of Paris, 451\\nPolytechnic School of France, 457\\nSchool of Engineers 462\\nSchool of Roads and Bridges, 463\\nSchool of Mines, 462\\nCentral School of Arts and Manufactures,... 453\\nAgricultural Education in France, 467\\nModel Farm Schools 468\\nRegional Schools of Agriculture, 469\\nNational Agronomic Institute, 470\\nVeterinary Schools, 471\\nReform Farm Schools 474\\nAgricultural School at Grignon, 475\\nGrand Jouan, 485\\nFarm Schools for Juvenile Delinquents, 487\\nin Switzerland, 487\\nWirtemberg, 489\\nHamburgh 490\\nFrance, 492\\nBelgium 496\\nEngland 497\\nConference respecting Reform schools 497\\nRemarks of I). M. Hill 498\\nRev. W. E. Osborn, Bath Prison 502\\nRev. S. Turner, Red Hill Farm School,. 504\\nRev. John Clay, House of Correction,. 505\\nRev. T. Carter, Liverpool Jail, 508\\nRev. F. Bishop, Liverpool Domestic Mis-\\nsion, 510\\nW.Locke, Ragged School Union 511\\nA. Thompson, Aberdeen Indust. Schools, 512\\nRev. H. T. Powell. Warwiclc Asylum, 515\\nRedemption Institute at Hamburgh, 517\\nVisit to, by Prof Stowe, 527\\nMr. Mann 528\\nAgricultural Reform School at Mettray 5.33\\nHorticultural Reform School at Petit-Bourg, 549\\nPrison of La Roquette in Paris, 553\\nReform School at Ruysselede in Belgium 557\\nPhilanthropic Soc. Farm School at Red Hill, 578\\nBELGIUM.\\nPage.\\nHistory of Public Instruction, 583\\nOutline of System adopted in 1842, 585\\nPrimary Schools, 586\\nSecondary, 587\\nSuperior, 588\\nSpecial and Industrial, 588\\nIndustrial Education, 588\\nNormal Instruction, 591\\nTeachers Conferences, 592\\nNormal School 594\\nReform School at Ruysselede, 555\\nHOLLAND.\\nHistory of Primary Instruction, 595\\nOutline of System. School Inspection 595\\nRegulations as to examination of teachers, 601\\nschool inspectors, 603\\ngeneral order of Primary\\nSchools, 605\\nRegulations respecting Religious Instruction, 606\\nTable. Primary Education in 1846, 608\\nPrimary School at the Hague 619\\nNormal School at Harlaem, 617\\nHAMBURGH.\\nRauen-Hause, or Redemption Institute at\\nHorn Sir\\nDENMARK.\\nOutline of System of Public Education, 619\\nSWEDEN.\\nOutline of System of Public Education, 621\\nNORWAY.\\nOutline of System of Public Education, 623\\nRUSSIA.\\nHistory of Public Instruction 625\\nStatistics of schools in 1850, 627\\nGREECE.\\nOutline of System, and Statistics in 1852,.\\n633\\nFTALY.\\nOutline of System in Lombardy and Venice, 635\\nSardinia, 640\\nTuscany, 643\\nRome, 644\\nNaples, 645\\nSPAIN.\\nRegulations respecting Normal Schools, 647\\nPORTUGAL.\\nOutline and Statistics of Public Education,.. 646\\nSCOTLAND.\\nHistory of Parochial Schools, 651\\nNormal School of the Church of Scotland, 661\\nSchool of Free Church, 671\\nIRELAND.\\nHistory of National Education, 677\\nLegislation of Henry VIII., 685\\nProtestant Charter Schools, 677\\nKildare Place Society 669\\nCommissioners of English Parliament, 678\\nNotional Education, 766\\nResults of the System, 679\\n1. Attendance of Cath. and Prot. children, 679\\n2. Teachers 680\\n3. Different grades of schools 685\\n4. School-houses, 689\\n5. School-books, 689", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "8\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nPage.\\n6. System of Inspection, 689\\n7. Appropriations, 690\\n8. Influence on England 691\\nTraining Department and Model Schools, 693\\nAgricultural Education, 699\\nProfessor3hi[)S in Queen s Colleges, 699\\nAgricultural Department in National System, 700\\nModel Farm at Glasnevin, 703\\nList of Lectures at Glasnevin, 707\\nNational School at Larne, 707\\nDunmanway Model School, 709\\nWorkhouse Agricultural School, 710\\nOperations of similar Schools in England,. 710\\nQueen s Colleges and University, 711\\nENGLAND.\\nHistory of Public Elementary Schools, 721\\nCloister and Cathedral Schools, 721\\nBenefit of Clergy to those who could read, 722\\nGrammar and Free Schools, 723\\nAmount of Educational endowments, 724\\nVoluntary Associations to promote schools, 725\\nSunday Schools 726\\nMonitorial System, 727\\nJoseph Lancaster, 728\\nAndrew Bell 727\\nBritish and Foreign School Society, 728\\nNational Society, 729\\nSociety for promoting Christian Knowledge, 729\\nReligions Tract Society, 729\\nSchool for Adults, 729\\nEvening Schools, 729\\nInfant Schools, 730\\nMechanics Institution, 730\\nSociety for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 731\\nCentral Society of Education, 731\\nRagged School Union 731\\nPhilanthropic Society s Reform School 732\\nSchools for Pauper Children, 733\\nEducation of Children in Factories, 746\\nSchools of Industry, 733\\nSchools of Design, 734\\nLancashire Public School Society, 734\\nNational Public School Association, 734\\nParliamentary action in behalf of Schools, 735\\nBill of Mr. Whitbread in 1807, 735\\nEducation Committee in 1816, 736\\nBill of Mr. Brougham 1820, 736\\nEducational Charities, 736\\nEducation Inquiry of, 1833, 736\\nEducational grant in 1833, 736\\nReport of Select Committee of 1834 736\\nEfforts ot\\\\Lord Brougham in 1835 and 1837, 737\\nCommittee of Council in 1839, 739\\nAction of Committee of Council on Education, 740\\nAppointment of James P. Kay, as Secretary, 741\\nAid towards School Buildings, 741\\nNormal School Buildings, 741\\nNormal Pupils, 741\\nSalaries of Teachers 741\\nApprentice Teachers, 741\\nSchool-books and Apparatus,. 742\\nInspection of Schools, 742\\nSummary of results up to 1852, 745\\nRemarks of T. B. Macauley, 747\\nThomas Carlyle, 750\\nHistory and Condition of Normal Schools or\\nTraining Colleges 751\\nExamination Papers on School Management\\nand Alt of Teaching, 757\\nPage.\\nNormal School of British and Foreign School\\nSociety 761\\nNormal Department for Young Men 763\\nCourse of Conversational Reading, 775\\n(iuestio ns to test a School, 777\\nModel School 779\\nFemale Department of Normal School,.... 780\\nHints to Candidates for Admission 784\\nNormal and Model Schools of the Home and\\nInfant School Society 787\\nQualifications of Cand idates, 787\\nCourse of Instruction for Teachers 789\\nGraduated Course in the Model School, 795\\nSyllabus of Lectures on Education, 800\\nSt. Mark s College, or Training Establishment\\nfor Masters for National Schools, 805\\nGeneral Plan, by Rev. Derwent Coleridge,. 806\\nMusical Instruction, 812\\nIndustrial Occupations, 814\\nSchools of Practice, 816\\nOral Teaching 820\\nBattersea Normal School, 823\\nCondition of the Laboring Poor, 824\\nTraining nf Pauper Children, 824\\nVisit to Normal Schools of Switzerland,. 826\\nExternal Training of the Pupils 826\\nGymnastic Exercises, 830\\nExcursions into the Country, 831\\nHousehold Life 832\\nIntellectual Training, 836\\nPhonic Method of Teaching Reading, 837\\nArithmetic, 838\\nElements of Mechanics 839\\nGeography, 839\\nDrawing 840\\nVocal Music 842\\nLectures on Pedagogics, 843\\nMotives and Habits 844\\nTraining of Teachers for Large Towns,. 844\\nFormation of Character, 846\\nReligious Life 849\\nTheory and Practice of Teaching 851\\nResults of the Experiment, 852\\nChester Diocesan Training College, 855\\nCommercial and Agricultural School, 856\\nModel School 862\\nStatistics of the Diocese, 863\\nIndustrial Training 867\\nRegularity of Attendance, 872\\nNormal Schools for Female Teachers, 875\\nWhiteland Institution, 875\\nSalisbury Diocesan Institute 876\\nLectures on the Principles of Education,.... 877\\nPractice of Education 878\\nKneller Hall Training School for Teachers of\\nPauper Children, 879\\nNumber of Pauper Children, 879\\nJuvenile Criminals, 879\\nCondition of, as to Education, 879\\nParish Apprenticeship, 880\\nPauperism Hereditary, 880\\nWorkhouse Schools 881\\nIndustrial Instruction, 882\\nDistrict Pauper Schools, 884\\nTraining School for Teachers, 885\\nIndustrial Department of, 888\\nDaily Routine, 886\\nDiscipline, 888\\nOrder of Lessons, 889\\nModel Pauper School 890", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAberdeen, industrial schools, 512, 731.\\nAdults, schools and classes for, 269, 399, 729.\\nAdventure schools in Scotland, 609.\\nAgriculture, schools of, in France, 467,\\nIreland, 699.\\nWirteinberg, 307.\\nBelgium, 589.\\nRussia, 626.\\nAgricultural education, 467.\\ncolonies, 487, 557.\\nAgronomic institute at Versailles, 470.\\nAlfort, veterinary school at, 472.\\nAlphabet, how taught. 51.\\nAmusement, taste and habit of, cultivated, 494.\\nAnnaburg, military orphan school at, 115.\\nAnnuaire des deux mondes, e.xtracts from, 406.\\nAnthropology, 361.\\nApparatus, for primary schools, 267.\\npolytechnic, 103, 336.\\nagricultural, 467, 473, 336.\\nveterinary, 472.\\nApprentices, house or family for, 410, 412.\\nschools, 590.\\nArchitecture, study of, 164,486.\\nArithmetic, how taught, 6(1, 63, 130, 137, 617.\\nArts, schools of, in Prussia, 155, 1.59.\\nBerlin, 159.\\nVienna, 335.\\nFrance, 406.\\nEngland, 734.\\nAshley, Lord, 511.\\nAssociation of teachers, 179, 298, 364, 425, 592.\\nAttendance, law respecting, in Prussia, 95, 121.\\nBaden, 294.\\nSaxony, 266.\\nBavaria, 313.\\nSwitzerland, 342.\\nAtcham union workhouse school, 711.\\nAthenaeum in Belgium, 587.\\nAustria, 325.\\nSystem of public instruction, 32.5.\\npopular schools, 325.\\nupper schools, 326.\\ncommercial academies, 326.\\nhigh schools for girls, 326.\\ngymnasia, 326.\\nlyceum, 326.\\nuniversity, 326.\\ninspection, 329.\\nRegulations respecting teachers, 331.\\nSystem of normal schools, 333.\\nPolytechnic institute at Vienna, 335.\\nStatistics of elementary schools, 338.\\nsecondary schools, 339.\\nsuperior, 339.\\nacademies of science, 340.\\nBaehe, A. D., Report on Education in Europe, 3.\\nextracts from, 81, 85, 117, 139, 122,\\n273, 457, 599.\\nBaden, 293.\\nSchool authorities, 293.\\nSystem of primary schools, 293.\\nEducational statistics of Baden, 293.\\nschool attendance, 294.\\ninternal organization, 294.\\nplan of instruction, 296.\\nEvening classes, 297.\\nSunday classes, 297.\\nIndustrial instruction, 297.\\nEducation of children in factorieSj 297.\\nTeachers conferences, 298.\\nNormal seminary at Carlsruhe, 300.\\nBamberg, normal school at, 314.\\nBasedow, 25.\\nBattersea, training college at, 823.\\nBavaria, 314.\\nSystem of primary schools, 313.\\nNormal seminary at Bamburg, 314.\\nPlan of seminary by Jacobi, 314.\\nEducational statistics, 315.\\nMr. Kay s estimate of public schools. 316.\\nDr. Grazer s system of instruction, 319.\\nCommon school at Bayreuth, 320.\\nBayreuth, Dr. Grazer s method at, 319.\\nBeckendorf on self-education, 254.\\nBelgium, 583.\\nHistory of public instruction, 583.\\nOutline of system adopted in 1842, 585.\\nPrimary schools, 586.\\nSecondary, 537.\\nSuperior, 588.\\nSpecial and industrial, 588.\\nIndustrial education, 588.\\nNormal instruction, 591.\\nTeachers conferences, 592.\\nNormal school, 593\\nReform school at Ruysselede, 555.\\nBell, Andrew, system of sciiools, 727.\\nBenefit of clergy, 722.\\nBerlin, schools of, 118, 124, 127, 142, 148, 233.\\nBerne, association of teachers of, 36 t.\\nBernhardt, teachers conference by, 243.\\nBible in Prussian schools, 53, 73.\\nBlack-book, 135.\\nBlockman college at Dresden, 280.\\nBoarding round, 168.\\nBooks. 93, 110, 689, 403.\\nBorough Road normal school, 761.\\nBrevet de capacity, 423.\\nBritish and Foreign School Society, 761.\\nBrougham, Henry (Lord,) educational services, 735.\\nextracts from, 754, 737.\\nBrothers, institute of, at Horn, 491, 501, 524.\\nof the Christian doctrine, 436.\\nBriihl, normal school at, 207.\\nBurgh school in Scotland, 669.\\nBurgher school, detinition of, 92.\\nin Berlin, 123.\\nHalle, 112.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "10\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nBurgher school in Leipsic, 273.\\nBursary or gratuity to teachers, 421, 618.\\nCampe. 25.\\nCnrlsriihe, normal school at, 300.\\nCarter, Rev. J remarks on young criminals, 308.\\nCarved wood work, school for, 410.\\nCathedral schools, 721.\\nCatholic church and schools, 17, 75, 183, 206.\\ncantons in Switzerland, 343.\\nCentral society of education. 731.\\nCentral school of arts in Paris, 408, 463.\\nCertificate to pupils leaving school, 93.\\nteachers in Prussia, 166, 188.\\nSa.xony, 263.\\nFrance, 423.\\nEngland, 753.\\nChalmers, Dr., on parochial schools of Scotland, 658\\nChemistry, 459, 460.\\nChester, training college at, 855.\\nChildren, personal appearance, 75, 105, 109.\\nrich and poor in same school, 105,^09.\\ncatholics and protestants, 343, 428.\\nChristian Brothers, 435, 420.\\nknowledge society, 729.\\nChristmas at a reform school, 522.\\nCity Trade School at Berlin, 155.\\nClassical instruction, 156, 281, 383.\\nClassification in schools, 60, 103. 107.\\nClay, Rev. J., on crime, c., 515.\\nCloister schools, 19, 279.\\nColeman, H., extracts from, 475, 548.\\nColeridge, Derwent, 806.\\nCollective teaching, 775.\\nCollege in French system, 383, 400.\\ntraining. See Training College,\\nComenius, 20.\\nCommercial school, 337.\\nCommittee. See School Committee.\\nCommittee of council on edncntion, 739.\\nCommon as applied to school, 401.\\nComposition, how taught, ,56.\\nCompulsory school attendance, 21, 95, 121, 342.\\nConcours, nature of, 392.\\nConference of teachers in Prussia, 167, 169, 243.\\nBaden, 298\\nFrance, 425.\\nBelgium, 592.\\nrespecting reformatory schools, 497.\\nConversation, exercises in, 50, 60, 66.\\nConservatory of arts in Paris, 467, 407.\\nCorrection, house of, 492.\\nCourses of study, 49, 92, 115, 119, 126, 127, 140,\\n152. 156.\\nCourteilles, Viscount, labors at Mettray, 534.\\nCousin, extracts from, 382, 414, 598.\\non Prussian schools, 382.\\nHolland, .597.\\nnormal schools, 414,\\nCramming system discarded, 270.\\nCrime, juvenile, 732.\\nCuvier on schools of Holland, 597.\\nDemetz, founder of Mettray reform school, 493.\\nDenmark, 619.\\nOutline of system, 620,\\nIceland, 620.\\nDenzel, teachers manual by, 303.\\nDiaconissen Anstalt at Kaiserswerth, 236,\\nDick s bequest, 663.\\nDidactic, or art of teaching, 222, 843, 851.\\nDiesterweg, Dr., 127.\\nDijon, normal school at, 447.\\nDiocesan schools in England, 85.5, 876.\\nDiploma to teachers, 173, 188, 263.\\nDiscipline in polytechnic schools, 461.\\nnormal schools. 449, 455.\\nDismission of a teacher, 265.\\nDomergue on primary schools, 401.\\nDorothean Higher City School in Berlin, 124.\\nDrawing, how taught, 59, 66, 51, 154, 320, 460.\\nDresden, schools in, 261, 268, 272, 278.\\nDublin, normal schools at, 693.\\nDucpetiaux, E report on reform schools, 496.\\nextracts from, 517, 532 549, 557.\\nDunmanwny, model agricultural school, 7U9.\\nDupin, Charles, educational map of France, 401.\\nDwelling-house for teacher, J 67, 259, 652, 394.\\nEcclesiastical authority as to schools, 183, 327.\\nEdinburgh, normal schools at, 661, 671.\\nEislehen, normal seminary of, 218.\\nElberfeld, schools in, 97.\\nElementary schools, 92.\\nEmployment of young children, 97, 226,297.\\nEncouragements to pupils, 1J2.\\nEndowed schools, 103, 279, 668, 723, 736.\\nEngland, 721.\\nHistory of public elementary schools. 721.\\nCloister and cathedral schools, 721.\\nBenefit of clergy to those who could read, 722.\\nGrammar and free schools, 723.\\nAmount of educational endowments. 724.\\nVoluntary associations to promote schools, 725.\\nSunday schools, 726.\\nMonitorial system, 727.\\nJoseph Lancaster. 728.\\nAndrew Bell, 727.\\nBritish and Foreign School Society, 728.\\nNational society, 729.\\nSociety for promoting Christian knowledge, 729.\\nReligions tract society, 729.\\nSchool for adults, 729.\\nEvening schools, 729.\\nInfant schools, 730.\\nMechanics institution, 730.\\nSociety for diffusion of useful knowledge, 731.\\nCentral society of education, 731.\\nRagged school union, 731.\\nPhilanthropic society s reform school, 732.\\nSchools for pauper children, 733.\\nEducation of children in factories. 746.\\nSchools of in.Uistry, 733.\\nSchools of design, 734.\\nLancashire public school society, 734.\\nNational public school association, 734.\\nParliamentary action in behalf of schools, i35.\\nAction of Committee of Privy Council, 740.\\nRemarks of T. B. Maca\\\\ilay, 747.\\nThomas Carlyle, 750.\\nHistory and condition of normal schools, 751.\\nExamination papers on school management and\\nart of teaching, 757.\\nNormal school of British and Foreign School So-\\nciety, 761.\\nNormal department for young men, 763.\\nCourse of conversational reading, 775.\\nQuestions to test a school, 777.\\nModel school, 779.\\nFemale department of normal school, 780.\\nHints to candidates for,*id mission, 784.\\nNormal and model schools of the Home and In-\\nfant School Society, 787.\\nSyllabus of lectures on education, 800.\\nSt. Mark s college, or training school, 805.\\nBattersea normal school, 823.\\nChester diocesan training college, 855.\\nNormal schools for female teachers, 875.\\nLectures on the principles of education, 877.\\npractice of education, 878.\\nKneller Hall training school, 879.\\nConference respecting reform schools, 497.\\nphilanthropic sue, farm school at Red Hill, 578.\\nEngineers, schools for, 461, 588.\\nEnglish language, 837.\\nliterature, 837.\\nEsslingen, normal school at, 310.\\nEvening schools, 297, 685, 729.\\nExamination, public, 271.\\noral, 460.\\nby written questions, 231.\\nof teachers in Prussia, 230.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\n11\\nExaniiimtiun of teiichers in Saxony, 264, 270.\\nFrance, 423.\\nHolland. 601.\\nfor universities, 14:!, 14.5.\\nExample, influence of, in teachers, 253.\\nExhibition for poor scholars, 422.\\nFactory children in Prussia. 96.\\nBaden, 2!I7.\\nEngland, 74().\\nFamily arrangement at reform schools, 545.\\nFarm schools for young criminals, 487.\\nFeblnger, 31.\\nFees, or tuition, 176, 596, 599, 658, 746.\\nFelbiger, 25.\\nFellenberg s institute at Hofvvyl, 351.\\nprinciples of education, 354.\\nnormal course, 3,57.\\nFemale teachers, 179, 235, 240.\\nnormal schools for, 235. 240, 404, 767.\\nFleidner, institute at Kaiserswerth, 236.\\nFletcher normiil seminary, 272.\\nForeman in reform schools, how trained, 491, 535,\\n554. 562.\\nForestry, schools of, 307.\\nFormal instruction, 203.\\nFr.vnce, 381.\\nHistory of popular education, 381.\\nOrdinances of national convention, 381.\\nDecrees of Napoleon, 381.\\nLaw of the government of Louis Phillippe, 382.\\nReport of Victor Cousin, 382.\\nSpeech of M. Guizot, 387.\\nDegrees of primary instruction, 387.\\nLocal and state inspection, 388.\\nProfessional education of teachers, 389.\\nMission of the teacher, 389.\\nSociety of elementary instruction, 390.\\nOutline of system in 1850, .391.\\nUniversity of France, 391.\\nCouncil of public instruction, .391.\\nAcademies, 391.\\nRoyal colleges, 392.\\nSystem of competion for professorship, 392.\\nSystem of primary instruction, 393.\\nSchool attendance, 393.\\nLocal management, 393.\\nExamination of Teachers, 393.\\nDe|)artmental inspection, 394.\\nEducation of teachers. 394.\\nCourse of instruction, 395.\\nTeachers associations, 395.\\nFund for relief of aged teachers, 395.\\nGovernmental prizes to masters, 395.\\nExpenditures for school-houses, 395,\\nSchools embraced in university of France, 39fi\\nPrimary education in the communes, 397.\\nNumber of primary sch. belong, to each sect, 397\\nAttendance in primary schools, 398.\\nClasses for adults, and apprentices, 899.\\nStatistics of normal schools, 399.\\nState of secondary education, 400.\\nPrimary education in department of Tarn, 401.\\nInstitutions for special in.struction, 405.\\nindustrial instruction, 406.\\nHistory of normal schools in France, 413.\\nConferences of teachers, 425.\\nLibraries of teachers, 427\\nPecuniary condition of teachers, 430.\\nInstitute of Christian Brothers, 435.\\nPrimary normal school at Versailles, 447.\\nDijon, 449.\\nSecondary normal school of Paris, 451.\\nPolytechnic school of France, 457.\\nengineers, 462.\\nroads and bridges, 462.\\nmines, 462.\\nCentral school of arts and manufactures, 453.\\n.Agricultural education in France, 467.\\nModel farm schools, 468.\\nRegional schools of agriculture, 469.\\nNational agronomic institute, 470\\nVeterinary schools, 471.\\nReform farm schools, 474.\\nAgricultural school at Grignon, 475.\\nGrand Jouan, 485.\\nFarm schools for juvenile delinquents, 487.\\nAgricultural reform school at Mettray, 533.\\nHorticultural reform school at Petit-Bourg, 549.\\nPrison of I^a Roquette in Paris, 553.\\nFranke, educational labors of, 21.\\nteachers class, 24.\\norphan-house, 21, 112.\\nFrederick William Gymnasium, Berlin, 148.\\nFree church of Scotland, 669.\\nschools, 325.\\nFrench language, how taught, 137, 142, 154.\\nFreres Chretiens, 441.\\nFreyberg, school of mines at, 289.\\nFunds, must not diminish school rate or tax, 167.\\nI Gallery lesson, 720, 801.\\nI Garden for teacher, 167.\\nI Gardening, art of, acquired by teachers, 203,431,815.\\nGeography, how taught, 68, 114, 131, 138, 613.\\nI Geometry, how taught, 131, 137.\\nGermany, 17.\\nI History of education, 17.\\nParochial schools, 18.\\nPublic schools, 19.\\nMartin Luther, 19.\\nAugustus Herrman Franke, 21.\\nOrphan-house at Halle, 21.\\nBasedow, 25.\\nPestalozzi, 25.\\nZeller, 29.\\nCentennial birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30.\\nProgress of normal schools, 31.\\nGeneral features of the school systems, 32.\\nTable. Normal schools in Germany in 1848,34.\\nResults of the normal school system, 35.\\nCourse of instruction in ))rimnry schools, 49.\\nFor children between ages of six and eiglit, 50.\\nFjr children from ten to twelve, 55.\\nChildren from twelve to fourteen, 57.\\nExtracts from report of Hon. H. Mann, 60.\\nTestimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the practi-\\ncal working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74.\\nGlasnevin, agricultural school at, 683.\\nGovernment, educational duty of, 76, 387, 747, 750.\\nGraded schools, 102.\\nGrammar, how taught, 54, 56, 59, 65.\\nGrand Jouan, agricultural school at, 485.\\nGrazer, system of instruction of, 319.\\nGreece, 633.\\nOutline of system, and statistics in 1852, 633.\\nGreek church, 628.\\nGrignon, agricultural school at, 475.\\nGuizot, plan of schools for France, 387.\\nextracts from, 387.\\nGymnasium, in Prussia, 105, 139.\\nSaxony, 279.\\nAustria, 326.\\nGymnastics, 830.\\nHague, primary school at, 609.\\nHalle, orphan-house at, 21, 113.\\nburgher school at, 112.\\nHamburgh, reform school at, 517.\\nHamilton, Sir William, extract from, 91, 382.\\nHarnisch, method of teaching reading, 114.\\nplan of studies, 115.\\nHebrewschools, 311, 631.\\nHecker, 24, 31.\\nHermann, seminary for classic teachers, 259.\\nHesse Cassel, 311.\\nHickson, W. E. German nationality, 7.\\nschools in Holland, 24,597.\\nHigher burgher school, 124, 127, 135.\\nHill, M. D., on juvenile crime, 498.\\nHitchcock, E., Report on agricultural schooll,703.\\nextF^cts from, 469, 703.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "12\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nHofwyl, Fellenberg s establishment at, 351.\\nHohenheim, agricultural institute at, 307.\\nHolland, 595.\\nHistory of primary instruction, .595.\\nOutline of system. School inspection, 595.\\nRegulations as to examination of teachers, 601.\\nschool inspectors, 003.\\nprimary schools, 605.\\nRegulations respecting religious instruction, 606.\\nTable. Primary education in 1846, 608.\\nPrimary school at the Hague, 609.\\nnormal school at Harlaem, 617.\\nHome and colonial infant school society, 721, 746.\\nHorn, reform school at, 517.\\nHorology, practical school of, 410.\\nIceland, family instruction, 620.\\nIferten. See Yverdim.\\nIgnorance and crime, 749.\\nIndigent children, 487.\\nInduction, methods of, 117, 128.\\nIndustry, school of, 733.\\nIndustrial instruction, in normal schools, 187, 367.\\nprimary schools, 297, 687.\\npauper schools, 882.\\nreform schools, 487.\\nspecial schools, 406.\\nInfant schools, 730.\\nInspection of schools in Austria, 327, 329.\\nBaden, 293.\\nEngland, 742.\\nFrance, 388, 394.\\nHolland, .596, 603.\\nIreland, 689.\\nSuxonv, 258..\\nSpain; 649.\\nSwitzerland, 347.\\nWirtemberg, 302.\\nInstitute of arts at Berlin, 159.\\nagriculture at Hohenheim, 307.\\nInstruction, methods of, 43, 50, 60, 91, 110, 113, 128.\\nIntellectual education, 836.\\nIonian Islands, schools in, 634.\\nIreland, 675.\\nHistory of national education, 675.\\nLegislation of Henry Vlll., 676.\\nProtestant charter schools, 676.\\nKildare-place society, 677.\\nCommissioners of English Parliament, 677.\\nNational Education, 677.\\nResults of the system, 678.\\nTraining department and model schools, 693.\\nAgricultural education, 699.\\nProfessorships in dueeii s Colleges, 699.\\nAgricultural department in national system, 700.\\nModel farm at Glasnevin, 703.\\nList of lectures at Glasnevin, 707.\\nNational school at Lame, 707.\\nDunmanway model school, 709.\\nWorkhouse agricultural school, 710.\\nOperations of similar schools in England, 710.\\nQueen s Colleges and University, 711.\\nIrregular attendance, 266.\\nItaly, 635.\\nSystem in Lombardy and Venice, 635.\\nSardinia, 640.\\nTuscany. 643.\\nRome, 644.\\nNaples, 645.\\nItinerant schools in Norway, 623.\\nJacobi, plan of normal school by, 314.\\nJulius, Dr., Prussian schools as they were, 241.\\nJournals of education, 46, 182, 390.\\nJournal of Education, London, e.ttract from, 401.\\nJury of examination, 460.\\nJuvenile crime, origin of, 493.\\ncost of, 501, 503.\\ncriminals, school for in Belgium, 496, 557.\\nFrance, 492.\\nWirtemberg, 489.\\nJuvenile criminals, school for, in Hamburgh, 490.\\nEngland, 497.\\nSwitzerland, 487.\\nconference respecting, 497.\\nKaiserswerth, school for nurses, governesses, 236\\nKay, Joseph, on education of jieople, 94.\\nextracts from, 74, 94, 222, 226, 261,\\n305,315,341,367,441.\\nKay, James Phillips. See ShiiUleworth.\\nKneller Hall, 879.\\nKindermaim, 31.\\nKirk session, nature and power of, 6.55.\\nKirkpatrick, Dr., on agricultural schools, 700.\\nKnighton, W., lectures on teaching by, 877.\\nKoenigsberg, seminary for teachers at, 83.\\nKribben, or nursery schools, 730.\\nKruitzlingen, normal school at, 367.\\nKussnaclit, normal school at, 373.\\nLalor, author of prize essay, 731.\\nLamartine, on duty of educated men, idii\\nLancashire public school association, 734.\\nLancaster, Joseph, 727.\\nLancasterian system, in England, 728.\\nDenmark, 620.\\nHolland, 595, 610.\\nPrussia, 106.\\nSpain, 647.\\nLanded proprietors, duties to poor children, 106.\\nLap-bag, for needlework, 780.\\nLtt Roquette, prison of, 555.\\nLarne, agricultural school at, 707.\\nLasalle, Abbe de, educational labors of, 435.\\nLastadie, normal school at, 192,\\nLateran, council of, 18\\nLatin, how taught, 137, 285 813.\\nLausanne, normal school at, 378.\\nLearned societies, 405.\\nLiberty of instruction, 584.\\nLibraries for teachfers, 427.\\nLierre, normal school at, 593.\\nLiepsic, burgher school in, 273.\\nreal school. 273.\\nseminary for classic teachers, 259.\\nLocke, John, 25.\\nLombardy. schools in, 635.\\nLucerne, normal school nt, 380.\\nLuther, Martin, educational labors of, 19.\\nletter to elector of Saxony, 19.\\naddress in behalf of Christian schools, 19.\\nLyceum, in Austria, 326.\\nFrance, 383.\\nMacauley, T. B. on public schools, 747.\\nMadras system, of Dr. Bell, 727.\\nMnlthus, on state of schools in England, 726.\\nManufactures, schools of, 406.\\nManagement clauses, 744.\\nManners of school children, 305, 77.\\nMann, Horace, report on schools of Europe, 4.\\nextracts from, 39, 60, 528.\\nManufacturing districts, 96, 266, 297, 325.\\nMarienweider, normal school for females at, 236.\\nMaterial instruction, 203.\\nMap-drawing, 69, 015.\\nMaynooth, 713.\\nMc Neil, Sir John, on agricultural schools, 701.\\nMechanics, science of, 866.\\nMechanics Institutions, 730\\nMecklenberg, duchy of, 311.\\nMental arithmetic, 64.\\nMethodick, 206.\\nMercantile and commercial schools, 335, 856.\\nMethods of teaching left with teacher, 93, 110.\\nMettrav, reform school at, 533.\\nMiddle schools, 91.\\nMilne s Free .School, 668.\\nMines, schools of, 2\u00c2\u00ab9, 462, 410.\\nMinutes of committee of council on education, 739.\\nMilitary schools, 590, 631.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\n13\\nMilitary orphan schools, 115, 532.\\nMixed schools, 79, 98, 401.\\nModel farm school, 468, 532.\\nschools, annexed to normal schools, 165.\\nModels for drawing, 1U3.\\nMonasteries, schools in, 279, 72].\\nMonitorial system, 106, 401, 610.\\nMonitors, 106, 175, 343.\\nMoral Education, 355.\\nMore, Sir Thomas, extract from, 725.\\nMother school of Christian Brothers, 352.\\nMotives to study, 145.\\nMiilhauser s system of writing, 838.\\nMunich, 317.\\nMusic, 74, 126, 131, 211, 228, 842.\\nMutual instruction, 107, 610, 729.\\nNassau, duchy of, 311.\\nNational society, in England, 729.\\nNatural history, how taught, 131, 866,\\nNature, knowledge of. 70, 137.\\nNaval schools, 405, 625.\\nNavigation, 589, 625.\\nNeedle work in school, 780, 590.\\ntaught by teachers wives, 432.\\nNeufchatel, 343, 349.\\nNew Lanark, infant school at, 730.\\nNichols, G., extracts from, 598.\\nNon-attendance at school, 403.\\nNormal schools, definition of, 31, 333.\\nremarks on by C. E. Stowe, 35.\\nA. D. Bache, 39.\\nH. Mann, 39.\\nE. Ryerson, 45.\\nL. Stephens, 46.\\nJoseph Kay, 183, 232.\\nShuttleworth, 826.\\nV. Cousin, 414.\\nI M. Guizot, .388.\\nLord Brougham, 751.\\nhistory of, 20, 30, 413, 661, 751.\\nnumber and condition of,\\nin Prussia, 165, 172, 185, 189, 190.\\nSaxon V, 259, 261.\\nWirteiiiberg, 310, 305.\\nAustria, 333.\\nSwitzerland, 343, 357, 366, 37.3,\\nBavaria, 313.\\nBaden, 300.\\nHesse Cussel, 312.\\nFrance, .399, 421, 431, 447, 451.\\nSpain, 647.\\nPortugal, 646.\\nRussia. 627.\\nBelgium, 591.\\nHolland, 617, 844.\\nDenmark, 620.\\nGreece, 634.\\nEngland. 751.\\nIreland, 693.\\nScotland, 661, 671.\\nGermany, 34.\\ndifferent grades of, 189. 415.\\nforfemaleteachers,235, 404, 594, 875.\\ncatholic teachers, 207.\\nprotestant teachers, 317, 197.\\nteachersof primary schools, 191.\\nsecondarvschools, 451. I\\n259, 264.\\nj] pauper children, 879.\\nreform schools, 490.\\n524. 535.\\nII agricultural do., 700.\\ncity schools, 440, 233.\\nruraldislricts, 415, 445\\ndescription of particular,\\nin Prussia. Lastadie, 192.\\nPyritz, 194.\\nPotsdam, 197.\\nBruhl, 207.\\nEisleben, 218.\\nNormal schools in Prussia, Weissenfels, 219.\\nBerlin, 233.\\nKaiserswerth, 236.\\nSaxony. Leipsic, 259.\\nDresden, 261.\\nBaden. Carlsruhe, 300.\\nWirtemberg. Esslingen, 310.\\nHesse Cassel. Schluchtern, 312.\\nBavaria. Bamberg, 314.\\nSchwabach, 314.\\nAustria. Vienna, 333.\\nSwitzerland. Hofwyl, 357.\\nKruitzlingen, 367.\\nZurich, 372.\\nSwitzerland. Kussnacht, 373.\\nLausanne, 378.\\nLucerne, 380.\\nFrance. Paris, 451.\\nVersailles, 447.\\nDijon, 449.\\nBelgium. Lierre, 593.\\nHolland. Harlaem, 617.\\nScotland. Edinburgh, 661, 671.\\nIreland. Dublin, 693.\\nEngland. Boroughroad, Lon.761.\\nj Chester, 8.55.\\nChelsea, 80.5.\\nBattersea, 833.\\nI Whiteland, 875.\\nKneller Hall, 879.\\nadministration and instruction of,\\ndirection of, 197, 219, 233,262, 373, 617.\\nbuildings and fixtures, 197, 207, 367.\\nI domestic arrangements, 225, 227, 233,\\nI 262, 367, 202, 421, 447, 449.\\ndirector, or principal of, 416.\\nI discipline of, 449, 455, 018.\\nplan of study, 416.\\nexpenses, c., 197, 229, 424, 421.\\nnumber of teachers, 198. 217, 261, 305\\nI of pupils, 198, 208, 261.\\nage of admission, 422, 810.\\nconditions of admission, 165, 185, 199,\\nI 219, 226, 232, 261, 303, 617, 694.\\ni pledge to teach, 422.\\ncourse and subjects of study, 186, 192,\\n218, 272, 300, 306, 312, 372, 376, 378.\\nlength of course, 166, 184, 220, 225\\n260, 261, 333, 617.\\nphysical, 209, 225.\\nintellectual, 180, 201, 213.\\nmoral and religious, 196, 211, 220, 225.\\n234.\\nindustrial, 187, 814, 881, 888.\\nscience of teaching, 229, 232, 234, 617.\\nart of teaching, 204, 216, 234, 262, 6I7!\\nmusical education, 228, 280.\\nexamination for diploma, 166, 188, 204,\\n230, 262, 423.\\nprivileges of graduates. 189.\\ngeneral results of, 35, 39, 755.\\nNorway, 623.\\nOutline of system of public education, 623.\\nNorwood, industrial school for paupers, 733.\\nNovitiate of the Christian Brothers, 444.\\nNursery schools, 730.\\nNurses, training of, 236.\\nOberlin, J. J., author of infant schools, 730.\\nObservation, how cultivated, 50, 206.\\nOral instruction, 761, 612.\\nOrder of exercises in school. See Time Table.\\nOrganization of public schools. See Prussia,\\nFrance, S-c.\\nOrphans, number of, increased by war, 487.\\nof teachers provided for, 181.\\nhouse for at Halle, 21, 112.\\nAnnaburg, 115.\\nOsborn, Rev. W. C, on cost of crime, 502.\\nOutline maps, 69, 613.\\nOverberg, Bernard, labors of, 247.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "14\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nOverseers of schools in Austria, 330.\\nParents, duties of, to schools, in Prussia, 74, 7.5.\\nBavaria, 313.\\nSaxony, 266.\\nFrance, 393.\\nSwitzerland, 34i2.\\nParis, polytechnic school, 457.\\nnormal school at, 451.\\nschool of arts, 463.\\nParish or parochial schools, 346, 651.\\nParkhurst, prison for juvenile criminals, 732.\\nPatronage society, for discharged criminals, 555.\\nPauperism and education, 350, 879.\\nPauper children, number of, 733, 879.\\nschools for, 733.\\nteachers for, 885.\\nPedagogy, 183, 222.\\nPecuniary condition of teacher, 430.\\nPennmanship, see Writing.\\nPensions for disabled teachers, 181,402.\\nPeriodicals, educational, 46, 183, 390.\\nPestalozzi, educational principles of, 25.\\nsystem of in Prussia, 83.\\norphan-house at Neuhof, 487.\\ncontrasted with Basedow, 26.\\nPetit-Bourg, reform school at, 549.\\nPhilanthopinum of Basedow, 25.\\nPhilanthopic society, 578,\\nreform school of, 578.\\nPhonic method, 25, 613, 836.\\nPhysical education, 138, 144.\\nPhysiology, 830, 361.\\nPietists, 25.\\nPiety of teachers, how shown, 194.\\nPlay-ground, 106, 274.\\nPolytechnic school ut Berlin, 159.\\nVienna, 335.\\nParis, 457.\\nPoor schools, in Holland, 609.\\nPortugal, 646.\\nPotsdam, higher burgher school at, 135.\\nnormal school, 197.\\norphan-bouse, 532.\\nPounds, John, author of ragged schools, 731.\\nPractical instruction. 203.\\nPractice, or model schools, 165, 204, 216.\\nPreparatory normal school, 226.\\nPrevention, in school government, 211.\\nPreventive schools, conference respecting, 468.\\nPrimary school in Sa.tony, 269.\\nPrimary schools. See Prussia, France, $-c.\\ngradation of, 91, 387, 609.\\ncourse of instruction in Germany, 49.\\nHolland, 609.\\nAustria, 327.\\nBavaria, 313.\\nFrance, 401.\\nSa.xony, 258,\\nBaden, 296.\\ninspection of. See Inspection.\\nteachers of. See Teachers.\\nPrince schools, 279.\\nPrincen s reading board, 612.\\nPrivate schools, 103.\\nPro-seminaries, 226.\\nPrussia, description of primary instruction, 81.\\nHistory of primary instruction, 81.\\nOutline of system, 85.\\nStatistics of primary education in 1848, 88.\\nRemarks on progress of primary Schools, 89.\\nSubjects and methods of instruction, 91.\\nResults, according to Mr. Kay, 94.\\nMr Mann, 39.\\nMr. Stephens, 46.\\nEducation of young children, universal, 94.\\nSchool attendance, 95.\\nChildren employed In factories, 96.\\nVoluntary system prior to 1819, 97.\\nSchools where the people are of one faith, 98.\\ndifferent do. 98.\\nPrussia, Mixed schools, 99.\\nDuties of school committee, 99.\\nSchools In large towns and cities, 101.\\nAdvantages of large school;*, 102.\\nSchool-houses, 103.\\nSuperior primary schools, 105.\\nReal schools, gymnasia, endowed schools, 105.\\nLarge landed proprietors, 106.\\nliancasterian method, 106.\\nPaid monitors or assistants, 107.\\nText-books, 109.\\nSuggestive character of the methods, 110.\\nInterest of children In their studies. 111.\\nBurgher school at Halle, 112.\\nMilitary orphan-house at Annaburg, 115.\\nPublic schools of Berlin, 118.\\nElementary schools. 118.\\nBurgher schools, 123.\\nDorothean higher city school of Berlin, 124.\\nModel school of teachers seminary. 127.\\nSeminary school at Weissenfels, 123.\\nHigher burgher school of Potsdam, 135.\\nSecondary Instruction in Prussia, 139.\\nFrederick William Gymnasium of Berlin, 143.\\nRoyal real school, 152.\\nCity trade school, 1.55.\\nInstitute of Arts, 159.\\nLegal provision respecting teachers, 165.\\nTestimony of Mr. Kay, 169.\\nSocial condition, 170.\\nEducational advantages, 172.\\nSchools preparatory to normal schools, 41, 171.\\nExamination on entering, 172.\\nTeachers are public officers 174.\\nSalaries fixed, and payment certain, 176.\\nFiemale teachers, 178.\\nTeachers conferences, 179.\\nPensions to old and invalid teachers, 181.\\nWidows and orphans of deceased teachers, 182.\\nEducational periodicals, 182.\\nTeachers seminary, or normal colleges, 183.\\nConditions and examinations for entering, 41,185.\\nIntellectual training of a seminary, 186.\\nIndustrial training, 187.\\nDiploma, 173, 188.\\nLocation of normal schools in 1846, 190.\\nSmall normal schools of Lastadie, 191.\\nSmall normal school of Pyrifz, 194.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Normal school of Potsdam, 197.\\nNormal schools at Bruhl, 207.\\nNormal seminary In Elsleben, 218.\\nSeminary for teachers at Weissenfels, 219.\\nSeminary for teachers of city, at Berlin, 233.\\nNormal schools for female teachers, 235.\\nSeminary at Marienwelder, 236.\\nDiaconlssen Anstalt, at Kaisersworlh, 236.\\nPrussian schools, a few years ago, 241.\\nSchool counselor, Dinter, 242.\\nJournal of a conference of teachers, 243.\\nSchool counselor, Bernhardt, 243.\\nBernard Overberg, 246.\\nC. B. Zeller the influence of example, 253.\\nSelf examination by Beckendorf, 254.\\nPublicity of public schools, 75.\\nPublic schools, rich and poor attend, 75, 316.\\nprotestant and catholic, 63, 317.\\nPunishments, in reform schools, 512, 537, 552.\\nPupil teachers, 753.\\nPyritz, normal school at, 194.\\nQualifications required in a teacher in Prussia, 165.\\nAustria, 331.\\nSaxony, 2.59.\\nIreland, 693.\\nFrance, 423.\\nQueen s College and University in Ireland, 7i3.\\nscholars, in England, 753.\\nQuestions for self-examination by teachers, 254.\\nexaminers In schools, 777.\\non school management and art \u00c2\u00abf\\nteaching,757.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "POBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\n15\\nRagged schools, origin of, 731.\\nRaikes, Robert, and Sunday schools, 726.\\nRambult, 25.\\nRate, or tax for schciuls, 734.\\nRatich, labors of, 20.\\nRauhen-hrtus, at Horn, 490, 517.\\nRnumer, F., extracts from, 635.\\nReading, how taught, 50, 51, 55, 61, 114, 131, 612,\\nRealia, 91, 321.\\nReal instruction, 56, 59.\\nReal schools at Berlin, 152.\\nLeipsic, 277.\\nVienna, 335.\\nReal objects, lessons on, 70.\\nRed Hill, reform school at, 578.\\nReformation, influence of, 18.\\nReform schools for young criminals 487, 559.\\npublic or |)rivate, 557.\\nbuildings, 493, 5J8, 539, 549, 558.\\nfarm, 559, 561.\\nfamily arrangement, 545, 581.\\nofficers, 519, 53.5, 5,i0, 562.\\nforemen, 491, .5.35, 562, 554.\\nconditions of admission, 558, 560.\\nnumber, 519, 536, 555, 560.\\nage, 520, 561.\\nprevious life, 561, 557.\\nclassification, 518, 550, 564.\\ndress, 540, 563.\\ninstruction, 519, 538, 566.\\nemployments, 535, 540, 558, 571.\\ndaily routine, 521, 544, 564.\\namusements. 522.\\nfood, 519, .562.\\ninfirmary, 544, 563.\\ndormitories, 539, 549, 563.\\npunishment, 541, 552, 569.\\nreward, 495, 530, 553, 568.\\nmeetings of pupils and officers, 569.\\ndischarge, 560.\\ncost, 501, 526, 534, 543, 565, 573.\\nresult, 495. 520, 530, 556, 570.\\naid to discharged inmates, 555, 576.\\nin Switzerland, 487.\\nWirtemberg, 48 L\\nHamburgh, 490,117.\\nFrance, 492.\\nBelgium, 496,5.57.\\nEngland, 497, 578.\\nReichelen, M., extracts from, 118. [134, 138, 145.\\nReligious instruction in Prussia, .53, 55, 57, 73, 124,\\nHolland, 60.% 614.\\nIreland, 679.\\ndenominations, 103, 183, 302.\\nRegional school of agriculture, 469.\\nRepeaters, in French seminaries, 447, 458, 466.\\nRepetition schools in Austria, 326.\\nRewards in school, 145.\\nRochow, caiion of, 27, 31.\\nRosier, Abbe, founder of agricultural schools, 467.\\nRousseau, 25.\\nRoval real school at Berlin, 152.\\nRules, 862, 209, 211, 618.\\nRural schools or colonies, 487.\\nRussia, 625.\\nHistory of Public Instruction, 625.\\nStatistics of schools in 1850, 630.\\nRuysselede, reform school at, 557.\\nRyerson, Dr., extracts from, 45.\\nSalaries of teachers, 176, 265, 302, 432.\\nSalle, Abbe de la. See Lasalle.\\nSalzman, 25.\\nSampson, Abbot, 721.\\nSand, writing in, suggested the Madras system, 727.\\nSardinia, 640.\\nSavings society for teachers, 433, 444.\\nBA..XONY, 257.\\nSystem of primary instruction, 257.\\nInstitution for superannuated teachers, 259.\\nStatistics of schools, 260..\\nSaxony, Royal sem. for teachers at Dresden, 261.\\nExamination for teachers diplomas, 262.\\nProtection of teachers rights, 265.\\nCompuliorv attendance at school, 266.\\nSchool buildings, 267.\\nPrimary schools of Dresden, 268.\\nSaxon Sunday schools, 268.\\nPlan of Sunday school at Dresden, 269.\\nPublic examination of the schools, 271.\\nFletcher normal seminary at Dresden, 272.\\nBurgher school at Leipsic, 273.\\nPlan of instruction, 275.\\nPublic schools of Leipsic and Dresden, 278\\nSecondary education in Snxony, 279.\\nBlochmann Gymnasium at Dresden, 280.\\nSchool of mines at Freyberg 289.\\nSears, Barnas, extracts fnjni, 19.\\nSecondary education, in Austria, 326, 339.\\nPrussia, 139.\\nSaxony, 279.\\nRussia, 627.\\nFrance, 400.\\nnormal schools at Paris, 451.\\nSects, can unite in same school system, 75, 79, 99\\n102, 343.\\nSeminary for teachers. See JVonnal Schools.\\nSeminary school at Berlin, 127.\\nWeissenfels, 133.\\nSessional school in Scotland, 655.\\nSexes, separation of, in schools, 490.\\nSeydlitz, endowment for schools of arts, 1.59.\\nSchluchtern, normal school at, 312.\\nSchmidt, method of drawing, 154.\\nScholars. See Pupils.\\nSchool fittings, requisites of, 38.\\nSchool-houses and furniture in Austria, 329.\\nBaden, 78.\\nEngland, 742.\\nFrance, 395.\\nPrussia, 61, 78, 108.\\nIreland, 689.\\nSchool-houses and furniture in Saxony, 267.\\nSchool committee, local, in Prussia, 98.\\nSaxony, 258.\\nBaden, 293.\\nmanagement 757, 769, 800.\\nSchool regulations, 139.\\nSchul-vorstand, 86. See School Committee.\\nScientific institutions, 406, 591, 626.\\nScotland, 651.\\nHistory of Parochial School, 651.\\nNormal School of the Church of Scotland, 661.\\nSchool of Free Church, 671.\\nSbuttleworth, Sir James Kay, 740, 823.\\nextracts from, 444, 367.\\nSinging, See Music.\\nSimultaneous method. 111.\\nSiste.-s of Charity, 348, 535, 548.\\nSmith, Adam, on parish schools, 725.\\nSocial influence of good jjublic schools, 317, 657.\\nSociety for the public good, in Holland, 595.\\nSpain, 647.\\nSpecial instruction, schools for, 405.\\nState, relation of, to schtxds, 76, 747.\\nStatisticsof education in Austria, 338.\\n1 Prussia, 48, 88.\\nI Holland, 608.\\nSaxony, 260.\\nI. Baden, 291.\\nI Bavaria, 318, 315.\\nWirtemberg, 301.\\nLombardy, 636.\\nSardinia, 640.\\nRome, 644.\\nNaples, 645.\\nPortugal, 646.\\nDenmark, 619.\\nNorway, 623.\\nSweden, 622.\\nRussia, 627.\\nGreece, 633.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "16\\nPUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE.\\nStatisticsof education in England, 745.\\nIreland, 694.\\nScotland, 669.\\nFrance, 366.\\nBelgium, 583.\\nStephens, Prof. L., extract from, 46, 84.\\nStettin, normal schools at, 31.\\nSteinmetz, 24, 31.\\nSt. Mark s training college at Chelsea, 805.\\nStock, X, and Sunday schools, 726.\\nStowe, Calvin E., extracts from, 35, 49, 537.\\nStow s training system at Glasgow, 661.\\nStrasbourg, normal school at, 413.\\nStudy room in boarding-school, 460.\\ntable. See Time Table.\\nStudy out of school, 143.\\nSt. Vincent de Paul, agricultural brothers of, 495.\\nSubjects of study in primary schools, Austria, 326.\\nBaden, 194.\\nPrussia, 92.\\nFrance, 395.\\nHolland, 305.\\nSaxony, 258.\\nSwitzerland, 346.\\nSuggestive methods, 110.\\nSunday schools, 268, 438, 726.\\nSuperior schools or colleges, statistics of, 260, 293,\\n301, 315, 318, 339, 392.\\nSupervision. See Inspection.\\nSupport of schools, mode of, in Holland, 596.\\nAustria, 325.\\nPrussia, 176.\\nScotland, 658.\\nSweden. 621.\\nSyllabus of lectures on education, 668, 877.\\nSwitzerland, 341.\\nOutline of educational institutions, 341.\\nReconcilement of difference of relig. belief, 341.\\nSchool attendance made compulsory, 342.\\nEducation of teachers, 344.\\nManual labor in normal schools, 344.\\nVehrli s opinions on the habits of teachers, 345.\\nCourse of instruction in primary schools, 346.\\nReligious exercises, 347.\\nLocal inspection of schools, 347.\\nResults of the education of the people, 348.\\nEducation of girls in catholic seminaries, 348.\\nCondition of the peasantry, 349.\\nPauperism and ignorance, 3,10.\\nEducational establishment at Hofwyl, 351.\\nEmanuel Fellenberg, 351.\\nFellenberg s principles of education, 354.\\nKorma! course for teachers at Hofywl, 357.\\nBerne cantonal society for teachers, 364.\\nNormal school at Kruitzlingen, 367.\\nEducational views of Vehrli,369.\\nProgramme course of study, 372.\\nNormal school at Kussnacht, Zurich, 373.\\nProgramme of studies, 376.\\nNormal school at Lausanne 378.\\nNormal school at Ijucerne, 380.\\nTarn, report on schools in department of, 401.\\nTaxation for schools, 100.\\nTeacher, estimate of, 33, 37, 42, 46, 167, 169, 599,\\n809.\\nlegal provision for, 33, 176, 432.\\nqualifications, 36, 112, 141, 263, 259, 423.\\npecuniary condition of, 37, 23, 176, 433.\\ncivil state of, 33, 174, 401.\\nemployment out of school, 431.\\nsaving s box, or bank for, 434.\\nassociations, 33 425.\\nconferences, 298, 418, 592.\\nretiring, pensions of, 33, 434.\\ndwelling and garden for, 177, 265.\\nfixed salaries ot, 177, 265.\\nsocial position, 170.\\nseminaries for, 190.\\nsuperannuated and disabled, 182.\\nwidow and children of, 181.\\nTeacher, sympathies with people, 184.\\nprofessional training of, 36, 388.\\nauthority of 37.\\nappointment of, 100.\\nTeaching, science of 800, 877.\\nart of 800, 878.\\nTechnical schools, 335, 637.\\nTechnology, how taught, 136.\\nTemple, R., description of KnellerHall, by, 885.\\nTerm, length of school, 274, 294.\\nText-books in Prussia, 109, 110.\\nIreland, 689.\\nTheological students must qualify themselves to\\ninspect schools, 2.55, 327.\\nThinking exercises for little children, 70, 113.\\nTime table in primary schools, 115, 268, 614.\\nburgher, 126, 133, 135, 136, 275.\\ngymnasia, 142.\\nSunday schools, 269.\\nnormal schools, 134, 214, 220, 234,\\n262, 272, 300, 312, 447, 449.\\nagricultural schools, 308, 470, 478.\\npolytechnic schools, 459.\\nschool of arts, 162.\\nreform schools, 517, 531.\\nsecondary schools, 142, 149, 287.\\nreal schools, 153, 158, 277.\\nschool of mines, 289.\\nTopics, or themes for composition, 775,\\nTown, or higher grade of burgher schools, 93.\\nTrade schools, 1.55.\\nTraining schools for teachers. See JVormal Schools.\\nTrivial schools in Austria, 325.\\nTrotzendorf monitorial system of, 20,\\nTurner, E on reform schools, 578.\\nTuscany, 643.\\nUnion workhouse schools, 733.\\nUniversities, 588, 639, 638, 641, 713.\\nUniversity of France, 391.\\nUpper schools in Austria, 326.\\nVehrli, pupil of Pestalozzi, 367.\\nVenetian States, educational statistics, 339, 636.\\nVersailles, normal school at, 447.\\na^ifonomic institute at, 470.\\nVienna, polytechnic institute at, 335,\\nVincent de Paul, philanthropy, 420.\\nVon Tiirk, 532.\\nWages of teachers, 265, 302, 394\\nWarwick county asylum, 515.\\nWatson, VV., founder of industrial school, 731.\\nWeaving, practical school for, 410, 412.\\nWeights and measures, taught, 395, 615.\\nWeissenfels, seminary for teachers at, 219.\\nschool of practice, 133.\\nWhipping in prison, ,503.\\nWhitbread, author of first school bill for Eng. 727.\\nWichern, F. H., teacher of reform school, 517.\\nWidows of teachers, 181, 395.\\nWillm, extracts from, 425, 427.\\nWimmer, S., account of Blockman college, 280.\\nWiRTEMBERO, 301.\\nEducational statistics, 301.\\nSystem of primary schools, 301.\\nDenzel s introduction to the art of teaching, 303.\\nNormal seminary at Esslingen, 310.\\nNormal seminary at Nurtingen, 306.\\nInstitute of agriculture at Hohenheim, 307.\\nWoodbridge, W. C, extracts from, 25.\\nWorkhouse schools, 685.\\nWriting, bow taught, 52, 66, 114, 119, 613.\\nYoung children, exercises for, 50.\\nin factories, 96, 297, 726.\\nYverdun, 29.\\nZeller, C. B., labors of, 29, 83,253.\\nZinzendorf, 24.\\nZurich, normal school at, 376.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "GERMANY.\\nTo Germany,* as a whole, as one people, and not to any particular\\nstate of Germany, as now recognized on the map of Europe, belongs the\\ncredit of first thoroughly organizing a system of public education under\\nthe administration of the civil power. Here, too. education first assumed\\nthe form and name of a science, and the art of teaching and training\\nchildren was first taught systematically in seminaries established for tliis\\nspecial purpose.\\nBut not to Germany, or to any one people or any civil authority any\\nwhere, but to the Christian Church, belongs the higher credit of first in-\\nstituting the public school, or rather the parochial school, for the elemen-\\ntary education of the poor, which was the earliest form which this mighty\\nelement of modern society assumed. After the third century of the\\nChristian era, whenever a Christian church was planted, or religious in-\\nstitutions established, there it was the aim of the higher ecclesiastical\\nauthorities to found, in some form, a school for the nurture of children and\\nyouth for the service of religion and duties of society. Passing by the\\necclesiastical am^ catechetical schools, we find, as early as 529, the council\\nof Vaison strongly recommending the establishment of village schools.\\nIn 800 a synod at Mayence ordered that th^e parochial priests should have\\nMr. W. E. Hickson, in his valuable pamphlet, entitled \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Dutch and German Schools,\\npubli^hpii in London in 1840, well says\\nWe must bear in mind that the German states, although under different governments, are\\nnot nations as distinct from, and independent of each other, as France and Spain, or as Russia\\nand Great Britain. Each of the German states is influenced more or less by every other the\\nwhole lying in close juxtaposition, and being linked together by the bond of a common lan-\\nguage and literature. The boundary line that separates Prussia from Hesse on one side, or\\nfrom Saxony on another, is not more defined than thnt of a county or parish in England. A\\nstone in a lield, or a post painted with stripes, in a public road, informs the traveler that he is\\npassing from one state into another, that these territorial divisions make no change in the great\\ncharacteristics of the people whatever the name of the state, or the color of the stripes, the\\npeople, with merely provincial differences, are the same from the Baltic to the Adriatic, they\\nare still Germans. The national spirit may always be gathered from the national songs, and in\\nGermany the most popular are those which speak of all Germans as brothers, and all German\\nstates as belonging to one common country, as may be gathered from the following passage of\\na Bong of M. Arndt\\nWhat country does a German claim 1 Adorn the landscape of the Rhine 1\\nHis Fatherland know st thou its name Oh no. oh no. not there, alone,\\nIs it Bavaria. Saxony The land, with pride, we call our own.\\nAn inland state, or on the seal Not there. A German s heart or mind\\nThere, on the Baltic s plains of sand 1 Is to no narrow realm confined.\\nOr mid the Alps of Switzerland 7 Where er he hears his native tongue,\\nAustria, the Adriatic shores When hymns of praise to God are suog,\\nOr where the Pru^sian eagle soars There is his Fatherland, and he\\nOr where hills covered by the vine, Has but one country\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Germany", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "18 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\nschools in the towns and villages, that the little children of all the faith-\\nful might learn letters from them let them receive and teach these\\nwith the utmost charity, that they themselves may shine as the stars for\\never. Let them receive no remuneration from their scholars, unless what\\nthe parents through charity may voluntarily offer. A council at Rome,\\nin 836, under Eugene II., ordained that there should be three kinds of\\nschools established throughout Christendom episcopal, parochial in\\ntowns and villages, and others wherever there could be found place and\\nopportunity. In 836, Lothaire I. promulgated a decree to establish eight\\npublic schools in some of the principal cities of Italy, in order that oppor-\\ntunity may be given to all, and that there may be no excuse drawn from\\npoverty and the difficulty of repairing to remote places, The third\\ncouncil of Lateran, in 1179, says: Since the Church of God, as a pious\\nmother, is bound to provide that opportunity for learning should not be\\nwithdrawn from the poor, who are without help from patrimonial riches,\\nbe it ordained, that in every cathedral there shouJd be a master to teach\\nboth clerks and poor scholars gratis. This decree was enlarged and\\nagain enforced by Innocent III. in the year 1215. Hence, in all colleges\\nof canons, one bore the title of the scholastic canon. The council of\\nLyons, in 1215, decreed that in all cathedral churches, and others pro-\\nvided with adequate revenues, there should be established a school and a\\nteacher by the bishop and chapter, who should teach the clerks and\\nother poor scholars gratis in grammar, and for this purpose a stipend\\nshould be assigned him.\\nSuch was the origin of the popular school, as now generally under-\\nstood every where the offspring, and companion of the Church sliaring\\nwith her, in large measure, the imperfections which attach to all new\\ninstitutions and ail human instrumentalities; encountering peculiar diffi-\\nculties from the barbarism of the age and people through whicli it passed,\\nand which it was its mission to enlighten and every where crippled by\\ninsufficient endowments, unqualified teachers, and the absence of all text\\nbooks, and necessary aids to instruction and illustration. The discovery\\nof the art of printing, in 1440, and the consequent multiplication of books at\\nprices which brought tliem more within reach of the great mass of the\\npeople the study and use of the vernacular language by scholars and\\ndivines, and particularly its employment in the printing of the Bible,\\nhymns, popular songs, school books, and in religious instruction gener-\\nally; the recognition by the municipal authorities of cities, and at a later\\nperiod by the higher civil power, of the right, duty and interest of the\\nstate, in connection with, or independent of the church, to provide liberally\\nand efficiently for the education of all children and youth; and above all\\nthe intense activity given to the human mind by the religious movement\\nof Luther, in the early part of the sixteenth century the assertion of the\\nright of private judgment in the interpretation of the scriptures; the break-\\ning up of^existing ecclesiastical foundations, and the diversion of funds\\nDigby s MoreK Catholici.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. jg\\nfrom religioas to educational purposes. all these causes, combined with\\nthe general progress of society, co-operated to introduce an advantageous\\nchange in the organization, administration, instruction and discipline ot\\nthe popular school. But the progress actually made from year to year,\\nand century even to century, was slow, and after three hundred years of\\neffort, there is much yet to be done even in those states and communities\\nwhich have accomplished the most toward improving the outward or-\\nganization and instrumentalities of the schools, and above all its internal\\nlife m the improved qualification and position of the teachers for as is\\nthe teacher, so is the school. A brief reference to a few of the more\\nprominent names in the history of popular education in Germany, and\\nthrough Gerijiany, of Modern Europe, is all that can be attempted at\\nthis time and in this connection. Among these names stands prominent\\nthat of Martin Luther.\\nIn a letter to the Elector of Saxony, in the year 1526, Luther says:*\\nSince we are all required, and especially the magistrates, above all other\\nthings, to educlate the youth who are born and are growing up among us, and\\nto train them up in the fear of God and in the ways of vii^ue, it is needful that\\nwe have schools and preachers and pastors. If the parents will not reform,\\nthey must go their way to ruin, but if the young are neglected, and left without\\neducation, it is the fault of the state; and the effect will be that the country\\nwill swarm with vile and lawless people, so that our safely, no less than the\\ncommand of God requireth us to foresee and ward otf the evil. He maintains\\nin that letter that the government, as the natural guardian of all the voung,\\nhas the right to compel the people to support schools. What is necessary to\\nthe well-being of a state, that should be supplied by those who enjoy the privi-\\nlege of such state Now nothing is more necessary than the training of those\\nwho are to come after us and bear rule. If the people are too poor to pay the\\nexpense, and are already burdened with taxes, then the monastic funds, which\\nwere originally given for such purposes, are to be employed in that way to re^\\nlieve the people. The cloisters were abandoned in many cases, and the diffi-\\ncult question, what was to be done with their funds, Luther settled in this judi-\\ncious manner. How nearly did he approach to the policy now so extensively\\nadopted in this country, of supporting schools partly by taxation and partly by\\nfunds appropriated for that purpose.\\nIn 1524 he wrote a remarkable production, entitled An Address to the\\nCommon Councils of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools,\\nfrom which a few passages may here be extracted. After some introductory\\nremarks, he comes directly to his point, and says to his countrymen collec-\\ntively\\nI entreat you, in God s behalf and that of the poor youth, not to think so\\nlightly of this matter as many do. It is a grave and serious thing, affecting\\nthe interest of the kingdom of Christ, and of all the world, that we apply our-\\nselves to the work of aiding and instructing the young If so\\nmuch be expended every year in weapons of war, roads, dams, and countless\\nother things of the sort for the safety and prosperity of a city; why should not\\nwe expend as much lor the benefit of the poor, ignorant youth, to provide them\\nwith skillful teachers God hath verily visited us Germans in mercy and\\ngiven us a truly golden year. For we now have accomplished and learned\\nyoung men, adorned with a knowledge of literature and art, who could be of\\ngreat service if employed to teach the young.\\nEven if the parents were qualified, and were also inclined to teach, they have\\nso much else to do in their business and household affairs that they can not find\\nthe time to educate their children. Thus there is a necessity that public teach-\\nThe followine extracts are taken /rom Dr. Sears Life of Martin Luther, published br\\nthe American Sunday School Union.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "20 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\ners be provided. Otherwise each one would have to teach his own children,\\nwhich would be for the common people too great a burden. Many a fine boy\\nWiiukI be neglected on account of poverty; and many an orphan would suffer\\nfrom the negligence of guaidians. i\\\\nd those who have no children would\\nnot trouble themselves at all about the whole matter. Therefore it becometh\\nrulers and magistrates to use the greatest care and diligence in respect to the\\neducation of the young.\\nThe diligent and pious teacher who properly instructeth and traineth the\\nyoung, can never be fully rewarded with money. If I were to leave my office\\nas preacher, I would next chose that of schoolmaster, or teacher of boys; for I\\nknow that, next to preaching, this is the greatest, best, and most useful voca-\\ntion and I am not quite sure which of the two is the better; for it is hard to\\nreform old sinners, with whom the preacher has to do, while the young tree\\ncan be made to bend without breaking.\\nIn 1527, a visitation was made of the churches and schools of the elec-\\ntorate of Saxony, in which more than tliirty men were employed a whole\\nyear. The result in respect tew education was, that tlte Saxon school\\nsystem, as it was called, was drawn up by tlie joint labors of Luther and\\nMelancthon and thus the foundation was laid for the magnificent organ-\\nization of schools to which Germany ov/es so much of her present fame.\\nIn a letter to Margrave George, of Bradenburg, July 18, 1529:\\nI will tell you what Melancthon and myself, upon mature consideration,\\nthink best to be done. First, we think the cloisters and foundations may con-\\ntinue to stand till their inmates die out Secondly, it would be\\nexceedingly well to establish in one or two places in the principality a learned\\nschool, in which shall be taught, not only the Holy Scriptures, but law, and all\\nthe arts, from whence preachers, pastors, clerks, counselors, c., may be\\ntaken for the whole principality. To this object should the income of the\\ncloisters and other religious foundations be applied, so as to give an honorable\\nsupport to learned men; two in theology, two in law, one in medicine, one in\\nmathematics, and four or five for grammar, logic, rhetoric, cVc\\nThirdly, in all the towns and villages, good schools for children should be es-\\ntablished, from which those who are adapted to higher studies might be taken\\nand trained up for the public.\\nUnder these instructions and appeals a school law was adopted in\\nWirtemberg in 1559, and modified in 1565; in Saxony in 1560, and\\nimproved in 1580; in Hesse in 1565; and in Brandenberg, still earlier;\\nwhich recognized and provided for the classification, inspection, and sup-\\nport of public schools on substantially the same plan which prevails to\\nthis day throughout .Germany.\\nThe pedagogical work of Luther his labors to improve the method of\\ninstruction were continued by Trotzendorf,* in Goldberg, from 1530 to\\n1556; by Sturm, in Strasbourg, from 1550 to 15S9; by Neander. in Ile-\\nfeld, fiom 1570 to 1595, whose schools were all Normal Schools, in the\\noriginal acceptation of the term, pattern or model schools, of their time.\\nThey were succeeded by Wolfgang Ratich, born at Wiister, in Holstein,\\nin 1571 by Christopher Helwig, born near Frankfort, in 1581 and by\\nAmos Comenius, born at Comna, in Moravia, in 1592; who all labored,\\nby their writings, and by organizing schools and courses of instruction, to\\ndisseminate improved methods of teaching. Comenius was invited by\\nan act of parliament in 1631, to visit England for the purpose of intro-\\nTrotzendorf practicpd the monitorial system of instruction two hundred and fifty years be-\\nfore Dr. Bell or Joseph Lancaster set up tlieir claims for its discovery.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "inSTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 21\\nducing his method into the public institutions of that country. But in-\\nternal commotions interrupted and ultimately defeated his plans.\\nIn 1618, the religious war known as the Thirty Years war broke out\\nin Germany, and for an entire generation swept over the land, wasting\\nharvest fields, destroying cities, tearing fathers from the protection ot\\ntheir families, scattering teachers and schools, and arresting the progress\\nof all spiritual and educational improvement. At the close of the war, and\\nin some of the smaller states during its progress, the civil government be-\\ngan to take effectual steps to secure the attendance of children at school,\\nby making it compulsory on parents, on penalty of fine and imprisonment\\nfor neglect, to send them during a certain age. This was first attempted\\nin Golha, in 1643 in Heildesheim, in 1663; and in Prussia, in 1669 and\\nCalemberg, in 1681. About this period, two men appeared, Philip J.\\nSpener. born in the Alsace in 1635, and Augustus Herman Franke, born\\nat Liibeck in 1663 who, the first by the invention of the catechetic\\nmethod, and tlie last, a pupil of the former, by the foundation of the\\norphan-house at Halle in 1606, were destined to introduce a new era in\\nthe history of education in Germany.\\nThe history of the orphan-house at Halle, is a beautiful illustration of\\npractical Christian charily, and the ever-extending results of educational\\nlabor. While pastor of Glaucha, a suburb of Halle, he was in the habit\\nof distributing bread to the poor, with whose poverty and ignorance he\\nwas equally distressed. To relieve at once their physical and spiritual\\ndestitution, he invited old and young into his house, and while he distributed\\nalms, he at the same time gave oral and catechetical instruction in the\\nprinciples of the Christian faith. To benefit the orphan children still\\nmore, he took a few into his family in 1694, and to avail himself of the\\ngifts of the charitable, he resorted to the following expedient, according\\nto his biographer. Dr. Guerike\\nHe caused a box to be fastened up in the parlor of the parsonage-house,\\nand wrote over it, Whoso hath this world s goods, and seeth his brother have\\nneed, and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from him, how dwelleth the\\nlove of God in him V (1 John iii. 17,) and underneath, Every one according as\\nhe purposeth in his heart, so let him give; not grudgingly or of necessity; for\\nGod loveth a cheerful giver, (2 Cor. ix. 17.) This box, which was destined\\nfor the reception of the casual gifts of those who visited Franke, was fixed up\\nat the commencement of ltJ95; and not in vain. The passage (2 Cor. ix. 8,)\\nhad fallen in his way, a shoit time before this circumstance, and now occurred\\nthe incident related in his letter to Schade. This, says he, served to show\\nme, how God is able to make us abound in every good work.\\nAfter the poor s-hox had been fixed up in my dwelling about a quarter of a\\nyear, relates Franke, a certain person put, at one time, four dollars and six-\\nteen groschen into it. On taking this sum into my h^nd, I exclaimed with\\ngreat liberty of faith, This is a considerable sum, with which something really\\ngood must be accomplished; I will commence a school with it for the poor.\\nWithout conferring, therefore, with flesh and blood, and acting under the im-\\npulse of faith, I made arrangement for the purchase of books to the amount of\\ntwo dollars, and engaged a poorstudent to instruct the poor children fora couple\\nof hours daily, promising to give him six groschen weekly for so doing, in the\\nhope that God would meanwhile grant more; since in this manner a ceuple of\\ndollars would be spent in eight weeks.\\nFranke, who was ready to oft er up whatever he had to the service of his\\nneighbbr, fixed upon the ante-chamber of his study, for the school-room o{ the", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "22 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\npoor children, who began regularly to receive instruction at Easter, 1695. In\\nthis school-room, he caused a second box to be fixed up, with the inscription,\\nFor the expenses of ihe instruction of the children, needful books. ;c., and un-\\nderneath, He that hath pity upon the poor, lendeth to the Lord; and that which\\nhe hath given, will he pay him again, (Prov. xix. 17.)\\nAt Whitsuntide, Franke was visited by some friends, who were much pleased\\nat his eiforts in behalf of the poor, to which they contributed a few dollars.\\nOthers also gave small donations, from time to time, to the school-box. Soon\\nafter Whitsuntide, when some of the townspeople saw how regularly the\\nchildren of the poor received instruction, they became desirous of sending their\\nchildren likewise to the same teacher, and offered to pay him weekly a gros-\\nchen for each child so that the teacher now received sixteen groschen weekly\\nfor a five-hours daily instruction. The number of his scholars, that summer,\\namounted to between fifty and sixty, of which the poor, besides gratuitous in-\\nstruction, also received alms, twice or thrice a-week, to incite them to attend\\nschool the more willingly. Donations in money, and linen, for shirts for the\\npoor children, began now to arrive from other places.\\nAbout Whitsuntide of the same year, Franke laid also the first foundation\\nlor what was subsequently called the royal school. The widow of a nobleman\\ndesired him to send her a domestic tutor for her own, and one of her friend s\\nchildren. He found no one who was sufficiently far advanced in his studies,\\nand therefore proposed to the parents, to send their children lo Halle, and that\\nhe would then provide for their education, by able teachers and guardians.\\nThe parents agreed to this plan and a few months afterward, an additional\\nnumber of 3^ouths were sent, and thus originated the seminary above mentioned,\\nwhich, in 1709, coVisisted of an inspector, twenty-three teachers, and seventy-\\ntwo scholars and in 1711, by means of Franke s exertions, had a building ap-\\npropriated exclusively to it.\\nIn the summer of the same year, 1695, Franke unexpectedly and unsolicit-\\nedly received a very considerable contribution for a person of rank wrote to\\nhim with the offer of five hundred dollars, for the purpose of distribution among\\nthe poor, and especially among the indigent students. This money was shortly\\nafterward paid over to him. He then selected twenty poor students, whom he\\nassisted with a weekly donation of four, eight, or twelve groschen; and this,\\nsays he, was in reality the origin of the poor students participating to the pres-\\nent hour, in the benefits of the orphan-house.\\nIn the autumn there was no longer suflrcient room in the parsonage for the\\nincreasing number of scholars he therefore hired a school-room of one of his\\nneighbors, and a second in the beginning of the winter. He then divided the\\nscholars into two classes, and provided a separate teacher for the children of\\nthe townspeople, and another for the children of the poor. Each teacher gave\\nfour hours instruction daily, and received a guilder weekly, besides lodging\\nand firing gratis.\\nBut Franke was soon made to see, that many a hopeful child was deprived,\\nwhen out of school, of all the benefit he received in it. The idea therefore\\noccurred to him, in the autumn of 1695, to undertake the entire charge and edu-\\ncation of a limited number of children and this, says he, was the first in-\\ncitement I felt, and the first idea of the erection of an orphan-house, even before\\nI possessed the smallest funds for the purpose. On mentioning this plan to\\nsome of my friends, a pious individual felt induced to fund the sum of five\\nhundred dollars for that purpose, twenty-five dollars for the interest on which\\nwere to be paid over every Christmas, which has also been regularly received.\\nOn reflecting upon this instance of the divine bounty, I wished to seek out some\\npoor orphan child, who might be supported by the yearly interest. On this,\\nfour fatherless and motherless children, all of the same family, were brought to\\nme. I ventured, in confidence upon God, to receive the whole four; hut as one\\nof them was takenrby some other good people, only three were left but a fourth\\nsoon appeared in the place of the one that had been taken. I took therefore\\n*these four; placed them with religious people, and gave them weekly half a\\ndollar for the bringing up of each. On this, it happened to me, as is generally\\nthe case^ that when we venture to give a groschen to the poor in faith, we feel\\nafterward no hesitation in venturing a dollar upon the same principle. For\\nafter having once begun in God s name, to i;eceive a few poor orphans without\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2tny human prOspect of certain assistance, (for the interest Of the fiv e hundred", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY 23\\ndollars was not sufficient to feed and clothe a single one I boldly left it to the\\nLord to make up for whatever might be deficient. Hence the orphan-house was\\nb) no means commenced and founded upon any certain sum in hand, or on the\\nassurances of persons of rank to take upon themselves the cost and charges, or\\nupon any thing of a similar nature, as was subsequently reported, and as some\\nwere inclined to suppose; but solely and simply in reliance on the living God\\nin heaven.\\nThe day after I had undertaken the charge of the four orphans above-men-\\ntioned, two more were added; the next day, another; two days afterward, a\\nfourth, and one more after the lapse of a week. So that, on the i6th November,\\n161)5, there were already nine, who were placed with pious people. He fixed\\nupon George Henry Neubauer, a student of divinity, to have the oversight of\\ntheir education and their bringing up. Meanwhile, continues he, the faithful\\nGod and Father of the fatherless, who is able to do abundantly above what we\\ncan ask or think, came so powerfully to my aid, that foolish reason could never\\nhave expected it. For he moved the heans of those persons of rank, who had\\ngiven me the five hundred dollars already mentioned, to present me with an\\nadditional sum of a thousand dollais in the beginning of the winter. And in\\nthe middle of the winter, another person of rank was incited to send me three\\nhundred dollars to enable me to continue my attention to the poor. Another\\nindividual gave a hundred dollars, and others gave donations of smaller sums.\\nFranke had hitherto distributed the money destined for the poor students\\nweekly but in 1093, the idea occurred to him, instead of a weekly allowance,\\nto give them dinner giatuitoiTsly in the firm confidence in God, that he would\\nfrom time to time send such supplies, as to enable this arrangement to be con-\\ntinued. By this he expected to be of greater service to the poor studefits; he\\ncould also, in this manner, become better acquainted with them, and possess a\\nbelter insight into their life and conduct and lastly, restrain the applications\\nof the less needy, who would gladly have been more delicately fed. Two\\nopen tables were therefore provided\u00e2\u0080\u0094 each for twelve poor students; and that\\none thing might assist the other, he selected the teachers of the charity-school\\nfrom them. This was the origin of the teachers seminary, which afterward\\ngradually arose out of it.\\nThe schools of the children of the townspeople who paid a certain sum for\\ntheir instruction, though inadequate to the expense, were separated from the\\nschool for the poor, at the request of the townspeople themselves; and in Sep-\\ntember 1697, another school was added for those tradesmen s children who\\nwere instructed in the elements of superior science. About this time also, more\\nclasses were required in the orphan school, on account of the increased number\\nof the pupils. The boys and girls received separate instruction, and when any\\nof the former manifested abilities, they were again separated from the rest, and\\ninstructed in languages and the sciences by particular teachers. In May, 1699,\\nFranke united this class of the orphan children with the class of the trades-\\nmen s children, who likewise received superior instruction. These arrange-\\nments for imparting a more learned education, show us the rudiments from\\nwhence the Latin school or Gymnasium afterward developed itself in Franke s\\ninstitutions, which in 1709 was attended by two hundred and fifty-six children,\\nof whom sixty-four were orphans, divided into seven classes and in 1730,\\nby more than five hundred pupils.\\nAt the time of his death, the Orphan House, or Hallische Waisen-\\nhaus, embraced all the institutions which now belong to it.\\n1. The Orphan Asybtm, established in 1694. in Avhich over 5.000 or-\\nphans had been educated, up to 1838, gratuitously. Such of the boys as\\nmanifest peculiar talent, are prepared for the university, and supported\\nthere.\\n2. The Royal Pcsdagogium, founded in 1696, for the education of\\nchildren of rich and noble families. Up to 1839, 2,850 individuals had\\nbeen educated in this boarding institution. The profits of this* school are\\npaid crver to the or{rfian asylum.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "24 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\n3. The Latin School, established in 1697, for pupils from abroad, of\\nless wealthy condition than the former, and for boys of the city of Halle.\\n4. The German School, for boys and girls whose parents do not wish\\nto give them a classic education.\\nThese several schools number from 3,000 to 4,000 pupils,*of every age,\\nand in every study. Besides these schools there are other features in the\\ninstitution.\\n5. The Canstein Bible Press, established in 1712, to furnish the Bible\\nat a cheap rate. The profits on the sale of an edition are applied to\\ndiminish the expense of the next edition.\\n6. A Library, commenced by Franke by setting apart his own books\\nfor the use of his schools, and which now number 20,000 volumes.\\n7. An Apothecary s Shop, commenced by Franke as a medicine chest\\nfor the poor, and the profit of which, after furnishing the wants of the\\norphan-house, are applied to the support of the institution.\\n8. A Book Establishment, in which the classics, and school books, are\\npublished at a low price, not only for the institution, but for the trade\\ngenerally.\\n9. A house for widows.\\nWe have dwelt on the labors of Franke, because he proved his faith in\\nGod by his works, and because he was an educator in the largest and\\nbest sense of that designation.\\nAccording to his biographer, the first teachers class was founded by\\nFranke in 1697, by providing a table or free board for such poor students\\nas stood in need of assistance, and selecting, a few yeafs later, out of the\\nwhole number, twelve who exhibited the right basis of piety, knowledge,\\nskill and desire for teaching, and constituting them his Seminarium\\nPrseceptorum, Teachers Seminary. These pupil teachers received\\nseparate instruction for two years, and obtained a practical knowledge of\\nmethods, in the classes of the several schools. For the assistance thus\\nrendered they bound themselves to teach for three years in the institution\\nafter the close of their course. In 1704, according to Raumer, this plan\\nwas matured, and the supply of teachers for all the lower classes were\\ndrawn from this seminary. But besides the teachers trained in this\\nbranch of Franke s great establishment, hundreds of others, attracted by\\nthe success of his experiment, resorted to Halle, from all parts of Europe,\\nto profit by the organization, spirit, and method of his various schools.\\nAmong the most distinguished of his pupils and disciples, may be named,\\nCount Zinzendorf the founder of the communities of United Brethren,\\nor Moravians, in Herrnhut, in 1722 Steinmetz, who erected a Normal\\nSchool in Klosterbergen, in 1730 Hecker, the founder of the first Real\\nIt is interesting to a visitor to remark in the chief cities of Germany, during certain hours\\nthe silence of the streets, with their entire desertion by children, and the contrast of the change\\nproduced by the clock striking twelve. The road and footway then suddenly swarm with\\nchildren, carrying books and slates, and returning from the studies of the morning. The most\\nstriking sight of the kind we ever witnessed was at Halle, where, as we approached a large\\neducational establishment, called the Ilallische Waisenliaus, the whole of its juvenile in.\\nmates, 3,000 in number, burst forth into the street, and filling up the entire roadway, formed\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0A unbroken stream of a quarter of a mile in length. Hic/eson s Dutch and German Schoala,", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 25\\nSchool in Berlin, to which a seminary for teachers was attached in 174S\\nRambalt, who lectured in theUniversiriesin Jena andGiessenin pedagogic,\\na.nd reformed the schools in Hesse-Uarmstadt Felbiger, who reorgan-\\nized the schools of Silesia, and afterward those of Austria; these, and\\nothers scarcely less distinguislied, were among the most eminent and suc-\\ncessful teachers of the day, and were known as the school of Pietists.\\nThe eduQational school of Franke was followed by Basedow, (born at\\nHamburg, in 1723,) Campe, and Saizman, who acquired for themselves\\na European reputation by the Philanthropinum. founded by the former at\\nDessau, in 17S1.\\nThis institution gave its name to the school of educationists, known\\nas Philanthropinic. and which prevails at this day in some sections of Ger-\\nmany. Its earliest development on the continent was made by Rous-\\nseau, in his Emile, and by John Locke, in England, in his Thoughts\\non Edacation. Its great aim was the formation of a practical charac-\\nter, and this was to be accomplished by following the indications of na-\\nture. The body, as well as the mind, was to be hardened and invigora-\\nted, and prepared to execute with energy the designs of the mind. The\\ndiscipline of the family and school was softened by constant appeals to\\nthe best principles in the child s nature. Particular attention was paid to\\ninstruction in language, music, and the laws and objects of nature. Many\\nof these principles became engrafted on to the teachers of Normal Schools,\\nand through their pupils were introduced into the common schools.\\nAbout this time appeared Henry Pestalozzi, who followed in the\\ntrack of the Philanthropinic School, and by his example and writings, dif-\\nfused a new spirit among the schools of primary instruction, all over Eu-\\nrope. Although born in Switzerland, at Zurich, in 1746, and although\\nhis personal labors were confined to his native country, and their immedi-\\nate influence was weakened by many defects of character, still his gen-\\neral views of education were so sound and just, that they are now adopted\\nby teachers who never read a word of his life or writings, and by many\\nwho never heard of his name. They have become the common property\\nof teachers and educators all over the world. A brief notice* of the lead-\\ning principles of the system, which now bears his name, and which has\\nmoulded the entire character of the schools of Germany, during the last-\\nhalf century, can not be deemed irrelevant.\\nThe father of Pestalozzi, who was a ptiysician, died when he was quite\\nyoung, and his early education was left to his mother, and an old domes;ic of\\nthe family, until he was of an age to pass into the grammar school of Zurich.\\nIn consequence of such an education, oorresponding entirely to his natural dis-\\nposition, he retained a remarkable gentleness andsimplicitv of manners, which\\ncontinued through his long life, and produced that agreeable mi.xture of manly\\nand female excellence, which rendered him peculiarly interesting to children,\\nto whom his person was unattractive. Oppressive treatment at school, and\\nmisapprehension of his views in riper years, gave him, however, a keen sense\\nof justice, which roused him to vindicate the cause of the oppressed among the\\nlower classes of the people, and often made his language as a writer, bitter and\\nsarcastic.\\nAbriilged from an arlicle by William C. WooUbridge, in the Annals of Education, for Janu-\\nary, 1847.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "26 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY\\nPestalozzi first liv^ed in the miMst of the people, in order that he might under-\\nstand their misery, and endeavor to discover its source. He believed that he\\nfound it in the want of an observation of nature ami mankind in the absence\\nof spiritual elevation and religious sentiment in the prejudice, thouglitless-\\nness, levity and disorderly conduct which were the natural re^ults, and the\\ndistrust, and obstinate and revengeful disposition which necessarily followed\\ntoward tho e who profiled by their weaknesses, or punished their offenses.\\nHe believed that a good education for the children of the people was the only\\nmeans of remedying this evil. The ravages of war had left a multitude of des-\\ntitute orphans in the small cantons of Switzerland. His first attempt to carry\\nhis benevolent plan into e.Neciition, was in collecting a number of these poor\\nchildren at Stanz, devoting himself to their instruction and care in the sacri-\\nfice of most of the comforts of life, and providing for their sup) oit fiom his own\\nresources, or from the charity which he solicited from others. Here, he la-\\nbored to discover the Irus and simple means of education. He treated his pu-\\npils with uniform sympathy and tenderness and thus attempted to awaken love\\nand confidence in their hearts, and to sow the seed of eveiy good feeling. He\\ntherefore assumed /\u00c2\u00abi7A \u00c2\u00ab/t./ /in as the only true foundation of a system of edu-\\ncation.\\nHe subsequently established a school in more regular form in Btirgdorf, in\\nthe canton of Beine, to which his benevolence and talents attracted a number\\nof fellow-laborers. Here he endeavored to ascertain the principles which\\nshould govern the developm.ent of the ii .fant faculties, and the proper peiiod\\nfor the commencement and completion of each course of instruction in this\\nview.\\nAs the result of his investigations, Pestalozzi assumed as a fundamental prin-\\nciple, that education, in order to fit man for his destination must proceed ac-\\ncording to the laws of nature. To adopt the language of his followers\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that it\\nmust not act as an arbitrarj mediator between the child and nature, between\\nman and God, pursuing its own artificial arrangements, instead of the intiica-\\ntionsof P -ovidence that it should assist the cour.se of natuial development, in-\\nstead of doing it violence that it should watch, and folloM its progress, instead\\nof attempting to mark out a path agreeably to a preconceived system.\\nI. In view of this principle, he did not choose, like Ba.sedow, to cultivate the\\nmind in a material way, meielv by inculcating and engrafting every thing rela-\\nting to external objects, and giving mechanical skill. He sought, on the con-\\ntrary, to develope, and exercise, and strengthen the faculties of the child by a\\nsteady couise of excitement to sclt-activity, with a limited degree of assistance\\nto his efforts.\\nII. In opposition to the haste, and blind groping of many teachers without\\nsystem, he endeavored lo find the proper point for commencing, and to proceed\\nin a slow and gradual, but uninterrupted- course, from one point to another\\nalways wailing until the first should have a certain degiee of distinctness in the\\nmind of the child, before enteiing uj on the exhibition of the second. To pur-\\nsue any other course would only give superficial knowledge, which would\\nneither afford pleasure to the child, nor promote its real progress.\\nIII. He opposed the undue cultivation of the memoiy and understanding, as\\nlios.ile to true education. He j laced the essence of education in the harmoni-\\nous and uniform development of every faculty, so that the body should not be\\nin advance of the mind, and that in the development of the mind, neither the\\nphysical powers, nor the aflfections, should be neglected; and that skill in ac-\\ntion should be acquired at the same lime with knowledge. When this point is\\nsecured, we may know thai education has really begun, and thai it is not\\nmerely supe:ficial.\\nIV. He required close attention and constant reference to the peculiarities of\\nevery child, and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people\\namong whom he lived, in order that he might acquire the development and\\nqualificaiion.s necessary for the situation to which the Creator destined him,\\nwhen he gave him these active faculties, and be prepared to labor successfully\\nfor those among whom he was placed by his birth.\\nV. While Basedow introduced a multitude of subjects of instruction into the\\nschools, without special regard to the development of the intellectual powers,\\nPestalozzi considered tiiis plan as superficial. He limited the elementary sub-\\njects of instruction to Form, Number and Language, as the essfential c. ..ditibn", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 27\\nof definite and distinct knowledge; and believed that these elements should be\\ntau ^hl wilh the inmost possible simplicity, comprehensiveness and mutual con-\\nnec.ion. u\\nVI. Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, desired ihat mstruction should com-\\nmence with the intuition or simple perception of external objects and their rein-\\nti jns He was not, however, sati-ficd with this alone, but wished that the art of\\no j^ rviwr should also be acquired. He th,)ught the things perceived o( less con-\\nsequence than the cultivation of the perceptive powers, which should enable\\nthe child to observe completely,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 to exhaust the subjects which should be\\nbrought before his mind.\\nVii While the Philanihropinists attached great importance to special exer-\\ncises of rellection, Pestalozzi would not make this a subject of separate study.\\nHe maintained that every subject of instiuction should be properly treated, and\\nthus becom- an exercise of thought; and believed, that lessons on Number, and\\nProportion and Size, would give ihe best occasion for it.\\nVIII Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, attached great importance to Arithme-\\ntic particularly to Mental Arithmetic He valued it, however, not merely in\\nthe limited view of its practical usefulness, hat as an excellent means ot\\nstrengihening the mind. He also introduced Geometry into the eleniensary\\nschools, andlhe art connected with it, of modeling and drawing beautiful ob-\\njects. He wished, in this way. to train the eye^ the hand, and t le touch, lor\\nthat more advanced species of drawing which had not been thought ol helore.\\nProceeding from the simple and intuitive, to the more complicated and dilR-\\ncult formsjie arranged a series of exercises so gradual and com;, le:e that the\\nmethod of leaching this subject was soon brought to a good degree ol perlection.\\nIX The Philanihropinists introduced the insiructioa of language into the\\ncommon schools, but limited it chiefly to the writing of letters and preparation\\nof essays. But Pestalozzi was not satisfied with a lifeless repctiliori oi the\\nrules of grammar, nor yet with mere exetcises for common life. He aimed at\\na development of the laws of language from within\u00e2\u0080\u0094 an introduction into its iri-\\nternal nature and construction and peculiar spirit\u00e2\u0080\u0094 which would not only culti-\\nvate the intellect, but also improve the affections. It is impossible to do justice\\nto his method of instruction on this subject, in a brief sketch like the present-\\nbut those who have witnessed its progress and results, are fully aware of us\\npractical character and value.\\nX. Like Basedow, Rochow and others, Pestalozzi introduced vocal music\\ninto the circle of school studies, on account of its powerful influence on the\\nheart. But he was not satisfied that the children should learn to sing a few melo-\\ndies by note or by ear. Hewi.-^hed ihem to know the rules of melody and rhythm,\\nand dynamics- to pursue a regular course of instruction, descending to its very\\nelements, and rendering the musical notes as familiar as the sounds of the let-\\nters. The extensive work of Nageli and Pfeiffer has contributed very much lo\\ngive this branch of instruction a better form.\\nXI. He opposed the abuse which was made of the Socratic method in many\\nof the Philanthropinic and other schools, by attempting to draw something out\\nof children before they had received any knowledge. He recommends, on the\\ncontrary, in the early periods of instruction, the established method of dictation\\nby the teacher and repetilion by the scholar, with a proper legard to rhythm,\\nand at a later period, especially in the mathematical and other subjects which\\ninvolve reasoning, the modern method, in which the teacher merely gives out\\nthe problems in a proper order, and leaves them lo be solved by the pupils, by\\nthe exertion of their own powers.\\nXII. Pestalozzi opposes strenuously the opinion that religious instruction\\nshould be addressed exclusively to the understanding; and shoAvs that religion\\nlies deep in the hearts of men, and that it should not be enstamped from with-\\nout, but developed from within; that the basis of religious feeling is to be\\nfound in the childish disposition to love, to thankfulness, to veneration, obedi-\\nence and confidence toward its parents; that these should be cultivated and\\nstrengthened and directed toward God; and that religion should be formally\\ntreated of at a later period in connection with the feelings thus excited. As he\\nrequires the mother to direct the first development of all the faculties of her child,\\nhe assigns to her especially the task of first cultivating the religious feelings.\\nXILI. Pestalozzi agreed wilh Basedow, that mutual affection ought to reign\\nbetwtfen the educator and the pupil, both in the house and in the school, in dr-", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "2S inSTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\nder to render education effectual and useful. He was, therefore, as little dis-\\nposed as Basedow, to sustain school despotism but he did not rely on artificial\\nexcitements, such as those addressed to emulation. He preferred that the chil-\\ndien should find their best reward in the consciousness ol increased inielleciual\\nvigor and expected the teacher tu render the instruction .so attractive, that the\\ndelightful ieeling of progress should be the strongest excitement to industry and\\nto morality.\\nXIV. Peslalozzi attached as much importance to the cultivation of the\\nbodily powers, and the exercise of the sen.ses, as the Philanthropinists, and in\\nhis publications; pointed out a graduated course for this purpose. But as Guts-\\nmuths, Vieth, Jahn. and Clias treated this subject very fully, nothing further\\nwas v\\\\ritlen concerning it by his immediate followers.\\nSuch are the great principles which eiititle Pestalozzi to the high praise of\\nhaving given a more natural, a more comprehensive and deeper foundation /or\\neducation and instruction, and of having called into being a method which is\\nfar superior to any that preceded it.\\nBut with all the excellencies of the system of education adopted by Pesta-\\nlozzi, truth requires us to state that it also involves serious defects.\\n1. in his zeal for the improv^ement of the mind it.self, and lor those modes of\\ninstruction which were calculated to develop and invigorate its Jaculties, Pes-\\ntalozzi forgot too much the necessity of general positive knowledge, as the ma-\\nterial for thought aijd for practical use in future life. 1 he pupils of his estab-\\nlishment, instructed on his plan, were too ofien dismissed with inielleciual\\npoweis which weie vigorous and acute, but without the stores of knowledge\\nimportant for immediate use well qualified lor mathematical and abstract\\nreasoning, but not prepared to apply it to the business of common lile.\\n2. He commenced with intuitive, mathematical studies loo early, attached\\nloo much importance to them, and devoted a portion of time to Ihem, which\\ndid not allow a reasonable attention to other studies, and which prevented the\\nregular and harmonious cultivation of other poweis.\\n3. The wrfAw/of instruciion was also defective in one important point. Sim-\\nplification was carried too far, and continued too long. The mind became so ac-\\ncustomed to receive knowledge divided into its most simple elements and small-\\nest portions, that it was not piepared to embrace complicated ideas, or to make\\nthose rapid strides in investigation and conclusion v\\\\hich is one of the most im-\\nportant results of a sound education, and which imiicates the most valuable\\nkind of mental vigor both for scientific purposes and for practical lile.\\n4. He attached loo little importance to testimony as one of the sources of our\\nknowledge, and devoted too little attention to histoiical truth. He was accus-\\ntomed to observe that history was but a tissue of lies; and forgot that it was\\nnecessary to occupy the pupil with man, and with moral events, as w ell as with\\nnature and matter, if we wish to cultivate properly his moral powers, and ele-\\nvate him above the material world.\\n5. But above all, it is to be regretted, that in reference to religious education,\\nhe fell into an impoitant error of his predecessors. His too exclusive attention\\nto mathematical and scientific subjects, tended, like the system of Basedow, to\\ngive his pu[)ils the habit of undervaluing historical evidence and of demanding\\nrational demonstration for every truth, or of requiring the evidence of iheir\\nsenses, or something analogous to it, to which they were constantly called to\\nappeal in their studies of Natural Histoiy.\\nit is precisely in this way, that many men of profound scientific attainments\\nhave been led to reject the evidence of revelaiion, and some, even strange as it\\nmay seem, to deny the existence of Him, whose works and laws they study.\\nIn some of the early Pestalozzian schools, feelings of this nature weie paiticu-\\nlarly cherished by the habit of asserting a falsehood in the lessons on Mathe-\\nmalics or Natural history, and calling upon the pupils to contradict it or dis-\\nprove it if they did not admit its irulh. No improvement of the inielleciual\\npowers, can, in our view, compensate for ihe injury to the moral sense and the\\ndiminished respect for truth, which will naturally result from such a course.\\n6. While Pestalozzi disapproved of the attempts of the Philanthropinists to\\ndraw forth from the minds of children, befoie they had stoies of knowledge, he\\nseemed to forget the application of his principle to moral subjects, or to imagine\\nthat this most elevated species of knowledge was innate. He attempted too\\nmuch to draw from the minds of his punils those great truths of religion and the", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "fflSTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 29\\nspiritual world which can only be acquired from revelation and thus led them\\nto imagine they were competent to judge on this subject without external aid.\\nIt is obvious iluU such a course would fall in most unhappily M ith the tenden-\\ncies produced by other parts of the plan, and that we could not hope to educate\\nin such a mode, a truly Christian community.\\nThe personal character of Pestalozzi also influenced his views and methods of\\neducation on religious subjects. He was remarkably the creature of power-\\nful impulses, which were usually of the most mild and benevolent kind; and\\nhe preserved a child-like character in this respect even to old age. It was\\nprobably this temperament, which led him to estimate at a low rate the import-\\nance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and to maintain\\nthat the mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated toward earthly friends and\\nbenefactors, would, of course, be transferred to our Heavenly Father, whenever\\nhis character should be exhibited to the mind of the child. The fundamental\\nerror of this view was established by the unhappy experience of his own insti-\\ntution. His own example afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest\\nimpulses, not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and\\nruin, and thus defeat their own ends. As an illustration of this, it may be men-\\ntioned that, on one of those occasions, frequently occurring, on which he was\\nreduced to extremity for want of the means of supplying his large family, he\\nborrowed four hundred dollars from a friend for the purpose. In going home,\\nhe met a peasant, wringing his hands in despair for the loss of his cow. Pes-\\ntalozzi put the entire bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape his\\nthanks. These circumstances, combined with the M ant of tact in reference to\\nthe affairs of common life, materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a\\npractical instructor of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed\\nhim 10 execute his own plans; and, in accordance with his own system, too\\nmuch time was employed in the profound development of principles, to admit\\nof much attention to their practical application.\\nBut, as one of his admirers observed, it was his province to educate ideas and\\nnot children. He combated, with unshrinking boldness and untiring perse-\\nverance, throu2;h a long life, the prejudices and abuses of the age in reference to\\neducation, both by his example and by his numerous publications. He attacked\\nwith great vigor and no small degree of success, that favorite maxim of bigotry\\nand tyranny, that obedience and devotion are the legitimate offspring of igno-\\nrance. He denounced that degrading system, which considers it enough to\\nenable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring and in this\\nmanner, merely to place him on a level with the beast of the forest; and which\\ndeems every thing lost whose value can not be estimated in money. He urged\\nupon the consciences of parents and rulers, with an energy approaching that of\\nthe ancient prophets, the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed\\nupon them, in committing to their charge the present and future destinies of\\ntheir fellow-beings. In this way. he produced an impulse, which pervaded the\\ncontinent of Europe, and which, b) means of his popular and theoretical works,\\nreached the cottages of the poor and the palaces of the great. His institution\\nat Yverdun was crowded with men of every nation; not merely those who\\nwere led by the same impulse which inspired him, but by the agents of kings\\nand noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make themselves ac-\\nquainted with his principles, in order to become his fellow-laborers in other\\ncountries.\\nWhen the Prussian Government, in 1809, undertook systematically the\\nwork of improving the elementary schools, as a means of creating and\\ndiffusing a patriotic spirit among the people, the fame of Pestalozzi was\\nat its height. To him and to his school, to his method and to his disci-\\nples, the attention of the hest teachers in the kingdom was turned for\\nguidance and aid. Several enthusiastic young teachers were sent to his\\ninstitution at Yverdun, (Iferten.) to study his methods and imbibe his\\nspirit of devotion to the children of the poor. One of his favorite pupils,\\nC, B. Zeller, of Wirteraberg, and who shared with him in certain weak", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "30 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\niiesses of character, which prevented his attaining the highest success as\\na practical educator in carrying out the details of an extensive plan, was\\ninvited to organize a Normal School at Rcnigsberg, in the orphan-\\nhouse (orphanotrophy) established by Frederick III., on the 13th of\\nJanuary, 1701, the day on which he declared his dukedom a kingdom,\\nand caused himself to be crowned king, under the name of Frederick the\\nFirst. To this seminary, during the first year of its existence, upward of\\none hundred clergymen, and eighty teachers, resorted, at the expense of\\nthe government, to acquire the principles and methods of the Pestaloz-\\nzian system. Through them, and the teachers who went directly to Pes-\\ntalozzi, these principles and methods were transplanted not only into\\nvarious parts of Prussia, but also into the schools and seminaries of other\\nstates in Germany. Not even in Switzerland is the name of this philan-\\nthropist and educator so warmly cherished as in Prussia.\\nHis centennial birthday was celebrated throughout Germany, and par-\\nticularly in Prussia, on the 12t.h of January, 1846, with an enthusiasm\\nusually awarded only to the successful soldier. In more than one hundred\\ncities and villages, in upward of one thousand schools, by more than\\nfifty thousand teachers, it is estimated in a German school journal, was\\nthe anniversary marked by some public demonstration. The following\\nnotice of the appropriate manner in which it was celebrated in Leipsic, by\\nfounding a charity for the orphans of teachers, and for poor and neglected\\nchildren generally, is abridged from an extended notice in Reden s\\nSchool Gazette.\\nAt the tirst .school hour, the elder pupils of the city school at Leipsic, were\\ninformed by a public address of the eminent merits of Pe.stalozzi as an eminent\\nteacher, and a program, with his portrait, handed to them; this program\\ncontained an address to the citizens of Leipsic. by the Rev. Dr. Naumann the\\nplan of a public charity, to be called the Pestalozzi Foundation, (Hiftung,) by\\nDirector Vogel and a biographical sketch, by Professor Plato. At ten o clock,\\nthe elder pupils of the burgher school, and delegates from all the schools, with\\ntheir teachers, and the friends of education, assembled in the great hall of one\\nof the public schools; on the walls were portraits of Pestalozzi, adorned with\\ngarlands. Addresses were made by the Kev. Dr. Naumann, who had visited\\nPestalozzi in Iferten, and by other gentlemen, while the intervals were enliv-\\nened by songs and music composed for the occasion. In the evening a general\\nassociation of all the teachers in Leipsic was formed, for the purpose of estab-\\nlishing the Pestalozzi foundation, designed for the education of poor and\\nneglected children.\\nIn Dresden a similar charity was commenced for the benefit of all orphans\\nof teachers from any part of Saxony. The same thing was done in nearly\\nall the large cities of Germany. In Berlin a Pestalozzi foundation was com-\\nmenced for an orphan-house, to which contributions had been made from\\nall provinces of Prussia, and from other states of Germany to the direction\\nof this institution Dr. Dieslerweg has been appointed.\\nThe schools of most of the teachers and educators, whose names have\\nbeen introduced, were in reality Teachers Seminaries, although not\\nso designated by themselves or others. Their establishments were not\\nsimply schools for children, but were conducted to test and exemplify", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\n31\\nprinciples and methods of education, and these were perpetuated and\\ndisseminated by means of books in which they were embodied, or of pupils\\nand disciples who transplanted ihem into other places.\\nAs has been already stated, on the authority of Franke s biographer,\\nand of Schwartz, Raumer, and other writers on the history of education\\nin Germany, the first regularly-organized Teachers Seminary, or Normal\\nSchool, (not normal in the sense in which the word was originally used,\\nas a school of children so conducted as to be a model or pattern for teach-\\ners to imitate, but a school of young men, who had already passed through\\nan elementary, or even a superior school, and who were preparing to be\\nteachers, by making additional attainments, and acquiring a knowledge\\nof the human mind, and the principles of education as a science, and of its\\nmethods as an art,) was established in Halle, in a part of Hanover, prior\\nto 1704. About the same period, Steinmetz opened a class for teachers\\nin the Abbey of Klosterberge, near Magdeburg, and which was continued\\nby Resewitz, by whom the spirit and method of f^ranke and the pietists\\nwere transplanted into the north of Germany. In 1730, lectures on\\nphilology and the best methods of teaching the Latin, Greek and German\\nlanguages, were common in the principal universities and higher schools.\\nThe first regularly-organized seminary for this purpose, was established\\nat Gottingen, in 1738. and by its success led to the institution of a similar\\ncourse of study and practice in Jena, Helle, Helmstadt, Heidelberg, Ber-\\nlin, Munich, c.\\nIn 1735, the first seminary for primary school teachers was established\\nin Prussia, at Stettin, in Pomerania. In 1748, Hecker, apupil of Fratike,\\nand the founder of burgher, or what we should call high schools, estab-\\nlished an institution for teachers of elementary schools, in Berlin, in which\\nthe king testified an interest, and enjoined, by an ordinance in 1752, that\\nthe country schools on the crown lands in New Mark and Pomerania\\nshould be supplied by pupil teachers from this institution who had learned\\nthe culture of silk and mulberries in Hecker s institution, with a view of\\ncarrying forward industrial instruction into that section of his kino-dom.\\nIn 1757, Baron von Fiirstenbecg established a seminary for teachers at\\nMunster, in Hanover. In 1767, the Canan von Rochow opened a school\\non his estate in Rekane, in Bradenburg, where, by lectures and practice,\\nhe prepared schoolmasters for country schools on his own and neio-liborino-\\nproperties. To these schools teachers were sent from all parts of Ger-\\nmany, to be trained in the principles and practice of primary instruction.\\nIn 1770, Bishop Febinger, organized a Normal (model) School in Vienna,\\nwith a course of lectures and practice for teachers, extending through\\nfour months and about the same time the deacon Ferdinand Kinder-\\nmann,.or von Schulstein, as he was called by Maria Theresa, converted\\na school in Kaplitz. in Bohemia, into a Normal Institution. Between\\n1770 and 1800. as will be seen by the following Table, teachers semina-\\nries were introduced into nearly every German state, which, in all but\\nthree instances, were supported in whole or in part by the government,", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "32 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY\\nAs the demand for good teachers exceeded the supply furnished by these\\nseminaries, private institutions have sprung up, some of which have at-\\ntained a popularity equal to the public institutions. But in no state have\\nBuch private schools been able to sustain themselves, until the gov-\\nernment seminaries and the public school system had created a demand\\nfor well-qualified teachers. And in no state in Europe has the experi-\\nment of making seminaries for primary school teachers an appendage to\\na university, or a gymnasium, or any other school of an academic char-\\nacter, proved successful for any considerable period of time, or on an ex-\\ntensive scale.\\nAt the beginning of the present century, there were about thirty\\nteachers seminaries in operation. The wars growing out of the French\\nRevolution suspended for a time the movements in behalf of popular ed-\\nucation, until the success of the new organization of schools in Prussia,\\ncommencing in 1809, arrested the attention of governments and individ-\\nuals all over the continent, and has led, within the last quarter of a\\ncentury, not only to the establishment of seminaries nearly sufficient to\\nsupply the annual demand for teachers, but to the more perfect organiza-\\ntion of the whole system of public instruction.\\nThe cardinal principles of the system of Primary Public Instruction as\\nnow organized in the German states, are.\\nFirst. The recognition on the part of the government of the right, duty\\nand interest of every community, not only to co-operate with parents in\\nthe education of children, but to provide, as far as practicable, by efficient\\ninducement and penalties, against the neglect of this first of parental\\nobligations, in a single instance. The school obligation, the duty of pa-\\nrents to send their children to school, or provide tor their instruction at\\nhome, was enforced by law in Saxe-Gotha, in 1643 in Saxony and\\nWirtemberg. in 1659; in Hildesheim in 1663; in Calemberg, in 1681; in\\nCelle, in 1689 in Prussia, in 1717 and in every state of Germany, before\\nthe beginning of the present century. But it is only within the last thirty\\nyears, that government enactments have been made truly efficient by en-\\nlisting the habits and good will of the people on the side of duly. We\\nmust look to the generation of men now coming into active life for the\\nfruits of this principle, universally recognized, and in most cases wisely\\nenforced in every state, large and small, Catholic and Protestant, and\\nhaving more or less of constitutional guaranties and forms.\\nSecond. The establishment of a sufficient number of permanent schools\\nof different grades, according to the population, in every neighborhood,\\nwith a suitable outfit of buildings, furniture, appendages and apparatus.\\nThird. The specific preparation of teachers, as far as practicable, for\\nthe particular grade of schools for which they are destined, with oppor-\\ntunities for professional eniploynient and promotion through life.\\nFourth. Provision on the part of the government to make the schools\\naccessible to the poorest, not, except in comparatively a few instances,", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.\\n33\\nV\\nand those in the most despotic governments, by making them free to the\\npoor, but cheap to all.\\nFifth. A system of inspection, variously organized, but constant, gen-\\neral, and responsible reaching every locality, every school, every\\nteacher, and pervading the whole state from the central government to\\nthe remotest district.\\nThe success of the school systems of Germany is universally attributed\\nby her own educators to the above features of her school law especially\\nthose which relate to the teacher. These provisions respecting teachers\\nmay be summed up as follows\\n1. The recognition of the true dignity and importance of the office of\\nteacher in a system of public instruction.\\n2. The e.ctablishment of a sufficient number of Teachers Seminaries, or\\nNormal Schools, to educate, in a special course of instruction and practice,\\nall persons who apply or propose to teach in any public primary school,\\nwith aids to self and professional improvement through life.\\n3. A system of examination and inspection, by which incompetent per-\\nsons are prevented from obtaining situations as teachers, or are excluded\\nand degraded from the ranks of the profession, by unworthy or criminal\\nconduct.\\n4. A system of promotion, by which faithful teachers can rise in a scale\\nof lucrative and desirable situations.\\n5. Permanent employment through the year, and for life, with a social\\nposition and a compensation which compare favorably with the watres\\npaid to educated labor in other departments of business.\\ny 6. Preparatory schools, in which those who wish eventually to become\\nteachers, may test their natural quaUties and adaptation for school teach-\\ning before applying for admission to a Normal School.\\n7. Frequent conferences and associations for mutual improvement, by an\\ninterchange of opinion and sharing the benefit of each others experience.\\n8. Exemption from militaty service in time of peace, and recognition,\\nin social and civil life, as public functionaries.\\n9. A pecuniary allowance when sick, and provision for years of infirmity\\nand old age, and for their famihes in case of death.\\n10. Books and periodicals, by which the obscure teacher is made par-\\ntaker in all the improvements of the most experienced and distinguished\\nmembers of the profession in his own and other countries.\\nWith this brief and rapid survey of the history and condition of Popu-\\nlar Education in Germany, we will now pass to a more particular desc,rip-\\ntion of primary schools in several states, with special reference to the or-\\nganization and course of instruction of Normal Seminaries, and other\\nmeans and agencies for the professional training of teachers. Before\\ndoing this, we publish a table, prepared from a variety of school docu-\\nments, exhibiting the number and location of Normal Schools in Germany,\\nwith the testimony of some of our best educators as to the result of this\\nNormal School system.\\n3", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "34\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY.\\nTABLE.\\nNUMBER AND LOCATION OP NORMAL SEMINARIES IN THE DIFFERENT STATES OP GERMANY.\\nThe following Table has been compiled from recent official documents\\nand school journals, and without being complete, is accurate as far as it\\ngoes. Cahnich, in an article in Reden s Magazine, estimates the whole\\nnumber of public and private seminaries in Germany, at one hundred and\\nfifty-six, and the preparatory schools at two hundred and six.\\nHANOVER 7\\nAlfeld. t; 1750; Hanover, Hildes-\\nheim, Osnabriick, Siade one for\\nJewish teachers in Hanover.\\nPRUSSIA, 45\\nSUPERIOR SEMINARIES.\\nStettin, founded 1735; Potsrlam, foun,\\n1748; Breslou, foun. 1765; Hal-\\nberstadt, f. 1778; Magdeburg, f.\\n1790; Weissenfels, f, 1794; Kara-\\nlene, f. 1811; Braunsherg, f. 1810;\\nMarienburg. f. 1814; Grandenz, i.\\n1816; Neuzelle, f. 1817; Berlin, f,\\n1830; Coslin. f. 1806; Bnnzlau, f.\\n1816; Bromberg, f 1819; Paradies,\\nf. 1838; Erfurt, f. 1820; Biiren, f.\\n1825; Meurs. f. 1820; Neuwied, f.\\n1816; Briihl, f. 1823; Kempen, f.\\n1840; K6nissberg, re-organized,\\n1809; Ober-Glogau, re-or., 1815;\\nPosen, C 1804 Soest, f, 1818 Low-\\nen, f. 1849. I\\nBMALL, OR SECONDARY SEMINARIES.\\nAngerburg, f, 1829; Muhlhausen,\\nGreifswald, f. 1791; Kammin, f.\\n1840 Pyritz, f. 1827 Trzemesseo. f,\\n1829; Gardelegen,f. 1821 Ei.sleben,\\nf 18.36; Petershagen, f. 1831 Lan-;\\ngenhorst, f. 1830; Heiligenstadt,\\nEylau, Alt-Dobern, Stralsund. I\\nFOR FEMALE TEACHERS.\\nMiinster; Paderborn private semi-\\nnaries in Berlin, (Bormann) Ma-\\nrienwerder, (Alberti Kaisers-\\nwerth, (Fleidner.)\\nAUSTRIA. 11\\nVienna, f. 1771 Prague, Trieste, Salz-\\nburg, Inspruck, Graz, Gorz, Kiag-\\nenfurt, Laibach, Linz, Briinn.\\nSAXONY, lO;\\nDresden, f. 1785 Fletcher s seminarv,\\nf. 1825; Freiberg, f. 1797; Zittau,!\\nBudissin, Plauen, Grimma, Anna-\\nberg, Pirna, Waldenl^urg.\\nBAVARIA, 9\\nBamberg, f. 1777; Eichstudt, Speyer,\\nKaiserslautern, Lauingen, Altdorf,\\nSchwabach.\\nV^IRTEMBERG, 8\\nEsslingen, Oehringen, Gm^nd, Niir-\\ntingen, Stuttgart, Weingarten, Tu-\\nbingen.\\nBADEN, 4\\nCarlsruhe, f. 1768; Ettlingen, Meers-\\nburg, MuUheim.\\nHes.se-Cassel, 3\\nFulda, Homberg, Schlichtern.\\nHesse-Darmstadt, .3\\nFriedbeig, Bensheim.\\nAnhalt 3\\nBernburg, Cothen, Dessau.\\nReuss, 3\\nGreiz, Gera, Schleiz.\\nSaxe Coburg-Gotha, 2\\nCoburg; Go/ha, f, 1779.\\nSaxe Meiningen, 1\\nHildburghausen.\\nSaxe Weimar, 2\\nWeimar, Eisenach.\\nOldenburg, 2\\nOldenburg, Birkenfeld.\\nHolstein,\\nSegeberg, f 1780.\\nSaxe-Altrnburg,\\nAltenburg.\\nNassau,\\nIdsiein.\\nBrunswick,\\nWolfenbuttel.\\nLuxemburg,\\nLuxemburg.\\nLlPPE,\\nDetmold.\\nMecklenburg Schwerin,\\nLudwigslust.\\nMecklenburg Strelitz,\\nMirow.\\nSchwarzburg,\\nlludolstadt.\\nLubeck,\\nBremen,\\nHamburg,\\nFrankfort", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "RESULTS\\nOF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM IN GERMANY.\\nThe following testimony as to tlie results of the system of training teach-\\ners in institutions organized and conducted with special reference to com-\\nmunicating a knowledge of the science and art of education, is gathered from\\nAmerican documents.\\nRev. Calvin E. Stowe, D. D\u00e2\u0080\u009e Professor of Biblical Literature in Lane\\nSeminary, Cincinnati, Ohio, in a Report on Elementarij Public Instruction\\nin Europe,^ submitted to the General Assembly of Ohio, December, 1839,\\nafter describing the course of instruction pursued in the common schools of\\nPrussia and Wirteniberg, thus sums up the character of the system in refer-\\nence particularly to the wants of Ohio\\nThe strikini^ features of this system, even in the hasty and imperfect sketch\\nwliich my limits allow me to give, are obvious even to superficial observation.\\nNo one can fail to observe its great completeness, both as to the number and\\nkind of subjects embraced in it, and as to its adaptedness to develop every\\npower of every kind, and give it a useful direction. What topic, in all that is\\nnecessary for a sound business education, is here omitted I can think of noth\\ning, unless it be one or two of the modern languages, and these are introduced\\nwherever it is necessary. I have not taken the course precisely as it exists in\\nany one school, but have combined, from an investigation of many institutions,\\nthe features which I suppose would most fairly represent the whole system. In\\nthe Rhenish provinces of Prussia, in a considerable part of Bavaria, Baden, and\\nWirtemberg, Freucli is tauglit as well as German and in the schools of Prussian\\nPoland, German and -Polish are taught. Two languages can be taught in a school\\nquite as easily as one, provitled the teacher be perfectly familiar with both, as\\nany one may see by visiting Mr. Solomon s school in Cincinnati, where all the\\ninstruction is given botli in German and English.\\nWliat faculty of mind is there that is not developed in the .scheme of instruc-\\ntion sketcheil above I know of none. Tlie perceptive and reflective faculties,\\nthe memory and the jiulgment, the imagination and tlio taste, tlie moral and re^\\nligious faculty, antl oven tlie various kinds of physical antl manual dexterity, all\\nhave opportunity for development and exercise, buloed, I think the system, in\\nits great outlines, as nearly complete as human ingenuity and skill can make it\\nthough undoubtedly some of its arrangements aiul iletails atlmit of improvement\\nand some cliaiiges will of course be necessary in adapting it to the circumstances\\nof (lirterent coiuitries.\\nThe entirely practical cliaracter of the system is obvious throughout. It\\nviews every subject on the practical side, and in reference to its adaptedness to\\nuse. The dry, technical, abstract parts of science are not those first presented\\nbut tlie system i)roceeds, in tlie only way which nature ever pointed out, from\\npractice to theory, from facts to demonstrations. It has often been a complaint\\nill respect to some .systems of education, that the more a man studied, the less he\\nknew of the actual business of life. Such a complaint cannot be made in refer-\\nence to tliis system, for, being intended to educate for the actual business of life,\\nthis object is never for a moment lost sight of.\\nAnotlier striking feature of the system is its moral and religious character.\\nIts morality is pure and elevated, its religion entirely removed from the narrow-\\nness of sectarian bigotry. What parent is there, loving his children, and wishing\\nto have them respected and happy, who would not desire that they should be", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "36 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\neducated under such a kind of moral and religious influence as has been described\\nWliether a believer in revelation or not, does he not know that without sound\\nmorals there can be no happiness, and that there is no morality like the morality\\nof the New Testament Does he not know that Avithout religion the human\\nheart can never be at rest, and that there is no religion like the religion of the\\nBible Every well-informed man knows that, as a general fact, it is impossible\\nto impress the obligations of morality with any efficiency on the heart of a child,\\nor even on that of an adult, without an appeal to some code which is sustained\\nby the authority of God and for wliat code will it be possible to claim this\\nauthority, if not for the code of the Bible\\nBut perhaps some will be ready to say, The scheme is indeed an excellent\\none, provided only it were practicable but the ideii of introducing so extensive\\nand complete a course of study into our common schools is entirely visionary, and\\ncan never be realized. I answer, that it is no theory which I have been exliib-\\niting, but a matter of fact, a copy of actual practice. The above system is no\\nvisionary scheme, emanating from the closet of a recluse, but a sketch of the\\ncourse of instruction now actually pursued by thousands of schoolmasters, in tiie\\nbest district schools that have ever been organized. It can be done for it has\\nbeen done it is now done and it ought to be done. If it can be done in\\nEurope, I believe it can be done in the United States if it can be done in Prus-\\nsia, I know it can be done in Ohio. The people have but to say the word and\\nprovide the means, and tlie thing is accomplished for the word of the people\\nhere is even more powerful than the word of the king there and the means of\\nthe people here are altogether more abundant for such an object than the means\\nof the sovereign there. Shall this object, then, so desirable in itself, so entirely\\npracticable, so easily within our reach, fail of accomplishment For the honor\\nand welfare of our state, for the safety of our whole nation, I trust it will not\\nfail but that we shall soon witness, in this commonwealth, the introduction of a\\nsystem of common-school instruction, fully adequate to all the wants of our pop-\\nulation.\\nBut the question occurs. How can this be done I will sive a few brief hints\\nas to some things which I suppose to be essential to the attainment of so desira-\\nble an end.\\n1. Teachers must be skillful, and trained to their business. It will at once be\\nperceived, that tiie plan above sketched out proceeds on the supposition that the\\nteacher has fully and distinctly in his mind the whole course of instruction, not\\nonly as it respects the matters to be taught, but also as to all tlie best modes of\\nteaching, that he may be able readily and decidedly to vary his method accord-\\ning to the peculiarities of each individual mind which may come under his care.\\nThis is the only true secret of successful teaching. The old mechanical method,\\nin which the teacher reUes enthely on his text-book, and drags every mind along\\nthrough the same dull routine of creeping recitation, is utterly insufficient to\\nmeet the wants of our people. It may do in Asiatic Turkey, where the whole\\nobject of tlie school is to learn to pronounce the words of the Koran in one dull,\\nmonotonous series of sounds or it may do in China, where men must never speak\\nor think out of tlie old beaten track of Chinese imbecility but it will never do\\nin the United States, where the object of education ought to be to make imme-\\ndiately available, for tlie highest and best purposes, every particle of real talent\\nthat exists in the nation. To effect such a purpose, the teacher must possess a\\nstrong and independent mind, well disciplined, and well stored witli every thing\\npertaining to his profession, and ready to adapt his instructions to every degree\\nof intellectual capacity, and every kind of acquired habit. But how can we\\nexpect to find such teachers, unless they are trained to their business A very\\nfew of extraordinary powers may occur, as we sometimes find able mechanics,\\nand great mathematicians, who had no early training in their favorite pursuits\\nbut these few exceptions to a general rule will never multiply fast enough to\\nsupply our schools Avith able teachers. The management of the human mind,\\nparticularly youtliful mind, is the most delicate task ever committed to the hand\\nof man and shall it be left to mere instinct, or shall our schoolmasters have at\\nleast as careful a training as our lawyers and physicians\\n2. Teachers, then, must have the means of acquiring the necessary qualifica-\\ntions in other words, there must be institutions in which the business of teachino-", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 3I7\\nis made a systematic object of attention. I am not an advocate for multiplying\\nour institutions. We already have more in number than we support, and it\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0would be wise to give power and efficiency to those we now possess before we\\nproject new ones. But the science and art of teaching ouglit to be a regular\\nbranch of study in some of our academies and high schools, that those who are\\nlooking forward to this profession may have an opportunity of studying its prin-\\nciples. In addition to tl)is, in our populous towns, where tliere is opportunity\\nfor it, there should be large model schools, under the care of the most able and\\nexperienced teachers that can be obtained and the candidates fur the profession\\nwho have already completed the theoretic course of the academy, should be em-\\nployed in this school as monitors, or assistants thus testing all their theories by\\npractice, and acquiring skill and dexterity under the guidance of their head\\nmaster. Thus, while learning, they would be teaching, and no time or effort\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0would be lost. To give efficiency to the whole system, to present a general\\nstandard and a prominent point of union, there should be at least one model\\nteachers seminary, at some central point as at Columbus which shall be amply\\nprovided with all the means of study and instruction, and have connected with it\\nschools of every grade, for the practice of the students, under the immediate\\nsuperintendence of their teachers.\\n3. The teachers must be competently supported, and devoted to their busi-\\nness. Few men attain any great degree of excellence in a profession unless they\\nlove it, and place all their hopes in life upon it. A man cannot, consistently\\nwith liis dutv to himself, engage in a business which does not afford him a com-\\npetent support, unless he has other means of living, wdiich is not the case with\\nmany who engage in teaching. In this country especially, where there are such\\nvast fields of profitable employment open to every enterprising man, it is not\\npossible that the best of teachers can be obtained, to any considerable extent, for\\nour district schools, at the present rate of wages. We have already seen what\\nencouragement is lield out to teachers in Russia, Prussia, and other European\\nnations, and what pledges are given of competent support to their families, not\\nonly wliile engaged in the work, but when, having been worn out in the public\\nservice, they are no longer able to labor. In those countries, where every pro-\\nfession and walk of life is crowded, and where one of the most common and\\noppressive evils is want of employment, men of high talents and qualifications\\nare often glad to become teachers even of district schools men who in this coun-\\ntry would aspire to the highest places in our colleges, or even our halls of legis\\nlation and courts of justice. How much more necessary, then, here, that the\\nprofession of teaching should afford a competent support\\nIndeed, such is the state of tilings in this country, that we cannot expect to\\nfind male teachers for all our schools. The business of educating, especially\\nyoung chiUlren, must fall, to a great extent, on female teachers. There is not\\nthe same variety of tempting employment for females as for men they can be\\nsupported cheaper, and the Creator has given them peculiar qualifications for\\nthe education of the young. Females, then, ought to be employed extensively\\nin all our elementary schools, and tliey should be encouraged and aided in ob-\\ntaining the qualifications necessary for tliis work. There is no country in the\\nworld where woman iiolds so high a rank, or exerts so great an influence, as\\nhere wherefore, her responsibilities are tlie greater, and she is under obliga-\\ntions to render herself the more actively useful.\\n4. The children must be made comfortable in their school they must bo\\npunctual, and attend the whole course. There can be no profitable study with-\\nout personal comfort and the inconvenience and miserable arrangements of\\nsome of our school-iiouses are enough to annihilate all that can be done by the\\nbest of teachers. No instructor can teach unless the pupils are present to be\\ntaught, and no plan of systematic instruction can be carried steadily through\\nunless the pupils attend punctually and through the whole course.\\n5. Tiie cliil Iren must be given up implicitly to the disciplj^ie of the schooL\\nNotlung can be done unless the teacher has the entire control of his pupils in\\nschool-hours, and out of school too, so far as the rules of the school are concerned.\\nIf the parent in any way interferes with, or overrules, the arrangements of the\\nteacher, he may attribute it to himself if the school is not successful. No teacher\\nevw dught tt be emjAoyW to whbku tine fentirb management of the children cat", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "38 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\nnot be safely intrusted and better at any time dismiss the teacher than coun-\\nteract his discipline. Let parents but take the pains and spend the money\\nnecessary to provide a comfortable school-house and a competent teacher for\\ntheir children, and they never need apprehend that the disciplitie of the school\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2will be unreasonably severe. No inconsiderable part of the corporal punishment\\nthat has been inflicted in schools, has been made necessary by the discomfort of\\nschool-houses and the unskillfulness of teachers. A lively, sensitive boy is stuck\\nupon a bench full of knot-holes and sharp ridges, without a support for his feet\\nor his back, with a scorching fire on one side of him and a freezing wind on the\\nother and a stiff Orbilius of a master, with wooden brains and iron hands, orders\\nhim to sit perfectly still, with nothing to employ his mind or his body, till it is\\nhis turn to read. Thus confined for hours, what can the poor little fellow do but\\nbegin to wriggle like a fish out of water, or an eel in a frying-pan For this\\nirrepressible eifort at relief he receives a box on the ear this provokes and ren-\\nders him still more uneasy, and next comes the merciless ferule and the pool\\nchild is finally burnt and frozen, cuffed and beaten, into hardened roguery or\\nincurable stupidity, just because the avarice of liis parents denied him a comfort-\\nable school-house and a competent teacher.\\n6. A beginning must be made at certain points, and the advance toward\\ncompleteness must be gradual. Every thing cannot be done at once, and such a\\nsystem as is needed cannot be generally introduced till its benefits are first de-\\nmonstrated by actual experiment. Certain great points, then, where the people\\nare ready to co-operate, and to make the most liberal advances, in proportion to\\ntheir means, to maintain the schools, should be selected, and no pains or expense\\nspared, till the full benefits of the best system are realized and as the good\\neffects are seen, other places will very readily follow tiie example. All experi-\\nence has shown that governmental patronage is most profitably employed, not to\\ndo the entire work, but simply as an incitement to the people to help themselves.\\nTo follow up this great object, the Legislature has wisely made choice of a\\nSuperintendent, whose untiring labors and disinterested zeal are worthy of all\\npraise. But no great plan can be carried through in a single year and if the\\nSuperintendent is to have opportunity to do what is necessary, and to preserve\\nthat independence and energy of official character which are requisite to the\\nsuccessful discharge of his duties, he should hold his office for the same term, and\\non the same conditions, as the Judges of the Supreme Court.\\nEvery officer engaged in this, or in any other public work, should receive a\\nsuitable compensation for his services. This, justice requires and it is the only\\nway to secure fidelity and efficiency.\\nThere is one class of our population for whom some special provision seems\\nnecessary. The children of foreign emigrants are now very numerous among us,\\nand it is essential that they receive a good English education. But they are\\nnot prepared to avail themselves of the advantages of our common English\\nschools, their imperfect acquaintance with the language being an insuperable bar\\nto their entering on the course of study. It is necessary, therefore, that there be\\nsome preparatory schools, in which instruction shall be communicated both in\\nEnglish and their native tongue. The EngUsh is, and must be, the language of\\nthis country, and the highest interests of our state demand it of the Legislature\\nto require that the English language be thoroughly taught in every school wliich\\nthey patronize. Still, the exigencies of the case make it necessary that there\\nshould be some schools expressly fitted to the condition of our foreign emigrants,\\nto introduce them to a knowledge of our language and institutions. A school of\\nthis kind has been established in Cincinnati, by benevolent individuals. It has\\nbeen in operation about a year, and already nearly three hundred children have\\nreceived its advantages. Mr. Solomon, the head teacher, was educated for his\\nprofession in one of the best institutions of Prussia, and in this school he has\\ndemonstrated the excellences of the system. The instructions are all given both\\nin German and English, and this use of two languages does not at all interrupt\\nthe progress of the children in their respective studies. I cannot but recommend\\nthis philanthropic institution to the notice and patronage of the Legislature.*\\nIn neighborhoods where there is a mixed population, it is desirable, if possible,\\nGerman schools now form a part of the system of public scbools in Cincinnati.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "RESULT!? OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 39\\nto employ teachers wlio understand both languages, and that the exercises of the\\nschool be conducted in both, with the rule, however, that all the reviews and\\nexaminations be in English only.\\nAlexander Dallas Bache, LL. D., Superintendent of the United States\\nCoast Survey, in a Report on Educalion in Europe to the Trustees of the\\nGirard College of Orphans, Philadelphia, in 1838, remarks as follows:\\nWhen education is to be rapidly advanced, Seminaries for Teachers offer the\\nmeans of securing this result. An eminent teaclier is selected as Director of the\\nSeminary and by the aid of competent assistants, and while benefiting the com-\\nmunity by the instruction given in the schools attaclied to the Seminary, trains,\\nyearly, from thirty to forty youths in the enlightened practice of his methods\\nthese, in their turn, become teachers of schools, which they are fit at once to\\nconduct, without the failures and mistakes usual with novices for though begin-\\nners in name, they have acquired, in the course of the two or three years spent at\\nthe Seminary, an exj)erience equivalent to many years of unguided efforts. This\\nresult has been fully realized in the success of the attempts to spread the meth-\\nods of Pestalozzi and others through Prussia. The plan has been adopted, and is\\nyielding its appropriate fruits in Holland, Switzerland, France, and Saxony while\\nin Austria, where the method of preparing teachers by their attendance on the\\nprimary scliools is still adhered to, the schools are stationary, and behind those of\\nNorthern and Middle Germany.\\nThese Seminaries produce a strong esprit de corps among teachers, which\\ntends powerfully to interest them in their profession, to attach them to it, to ele-\\nvate it in tlieir eyes, and to stimulate them to improve constantly upon tlie at-\\ntainments with wJiich they may have commenced its exercise. By their aid a\\nstandard of examination in the theory and practice of instruction is furnished,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0which may be fairly exacted of candidates who have chosen a different way to\\nobtain access to the profession.\\nHon. Horace Mann, in his Seventh Annual Report as Secretary of the\\nBoard of Educalion in Massachusetts in which he gives an account of an\\neducational tour through the principal countries of Europe in the summer\\nof 1843, says:\\nAmong the nations of Europe, Prussia has long enjoyed the most distin-\\nguished reputation for the excellence of its schools. In reviews, in speeclies, in\\ntracts, and even in graver works devoted to the cause of education, its schools\\nhave been exhibited as models for the imitation of the rest of Christendom. For\\nmany years, scarce a suspicion was breathed that the general plan of education\\nin that kingdom was not sound in theory and most beneficial in practice. Re-\\ncently, however, grave charges have been preferred against it by high authority.\\nThe popular traveler, Laing, has devoted several chapters of his large work on\\nPrussia to the disparagement of its school system. An octavo volume, entitled\\nThe Age of Great Cities, has recently appeared in England, in which that sys-\\ntem is strongly condemned and during the pendency of the famous Factories\\nBill before the British House of Commons, in 1843, numerous tracts were issued\\nfrom the Engli-sh press, not merely calling in question, but strongly denouncing,\\nthe whole plan of education in Prussia, as being not only designed to produce,\\nbut as actually producing, a spirit of blind acquiescence to arbitrary power, in\\nthings spiritual as well as temporal as being, in fine, a system of education\\nadapted to enslave, and not to enfrancliise, the human mind. And even in some\\nparts of the United States the very nature and essence of whose institutions\\nconsist in the idea that the people are wise enough to distinguish between what\\nis right and what is wrong even here, some have been illiberal enough to con-\\ndemn, in advance, every thing that savors of the Prussian system, because that\\nsystem is sustained by arbitrary power.\\nBut allowing all these charges against the Prussian system to be true, there\\nwere still two reasons why I was not deterred from examining it.\\nIn the first place, the evils imputed to it were easily and naturally separable", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "40 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\nfrom the good which it was not denied to possess. If the Prussian schoolmaster\\nhas better methods of teaching reading, writing, grammar, geography, arithme-\\ntic, c., so that, in half the time, he produces greater and better results, surely\\nwe may copy his modes of teaching these elements without adopting his notions\\nof passive obedience to government, or of blind adherence to the articles of a\\nchurch. By the ordinance of nature, the human faculties are substantially the\\nsame all over the world, and h^nce the best means for their development and\\ngrowth in one place, must be substantially the best for their development and\\ngrowth everywhere. The spirit which shall control the action of these faculties\\nwhen matured, which shall train them to self-reliSnce or to abject submission,\\nwhich shall lead them to refer all questions to the standard of reason or to that\\nof authority, this spirit is wholly distinct and distinguishable from the manner\\nin which the faculties themselves ought to be trained and we may avail our-\\nselves of all improved methods in the earlier processes, without being contami-\\nnated by the abuses which may be made to follow them. The best style of\\nteaching arithmetic or spelling has no necessary or natural connection with the\\ndoctrine of hereditary right and an accomplished lesson in geography or gram-\\nmar commits the human intellect to no particular dogma in religion.\\nIn the second place, if Prussia can pervert the benign influences of education\\nto the support of arbitrary power, we surely can employ them for the support\\nand perpetuation of republican institutions. A national spirit of liberty can bo\\ncultivated more easily than a national spirit of bondage and if it may be made\\none of the great prerogatives of education to perform the unnatural and unholy\\nwork of making slaves, then surely it must be one of the noblest instrumentali-\\nties for rearing a nation of freemen. If a moral power over the understandings\\nand affections of the people may be turned to evil, may it not also be employed,\\nfor the highest good\\nBesides, a generous and impartial mind does not ask whence a thing comes,\\nbut what it is. Those who, at the present day, would reject an improvement\\nbecause of the place of its origin, belong to the same school of bigotry with those\\nwho inquired if any good could come out of Nazareth and what infinite bless-\\nings would the World have lost had that party been punished by success\\nThroughout my whole tour, no one principle has been more frequently exempli-\\nfied than this, that wherever I have found the best institutions, educational,\\nreformatory, charitable, penal, or otherwise, there I have always found the\\ngreatest desire to know how similar institutions were administered among our-\\nselves and where I have found the worst, there I have found most of the spirit\\nof self-complacency, and even an offensive disinclination to hear of better\\nmethods.\\nAll the subjects I have enumerated were taught in all the schools I visited,\\nwhether in city or country, for the rich or for the poor. In the lowest school in\\nthe smallest and obscurest village, or for the poorest class in overcrowded cities\\nin the schools connected witli pauper establLshments, with houses of correction,\\nor with prisons, in all these, there was a teacher of mature atje, of simple, unaf-\\nfected, and decorous manners, benevolent in his expression, kind and genial in\\nhis intercourse with the young, and of such attainments and resources as qualified\\nhim not only to lay down the abstract principles of the above range of studies,\\nbut, by familiar illustration and apposite example, to commend them to the at-\\ntention of the children.\\nI speak of the teachers whom I saw, and with whom I had more or less of\\npersonal intercourse and, after some opportunity for the observation of public\\nassemblies or bodies of men, I do not hesitate to say, that if those teachers were\\nbrought together, in one body, I believe they would form as dignified, intelligent,\\nbenevolent-looking a company of men as could be collected from the same amount\\nof population in any country. They were alike free from arrogant pretension\\nand from the affectation of humility. It has been often remarked, both in Eng-\\nland and in this country, that the nature of a school-teacher s occupation exposes\\nhim, in some degree, to overbearing manners, and to dogmatism in the statement\\nof his opinions. Accustomed to the exercise of supreme authority, moving\\namong those who are so much his inferiors in point of attainment, perhaps it is\\nproof of a very well-balanced mind, if he keeps himself free from assumption", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "RE?;ULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 41\\nin opinion and haughtiness of demeanor. Especially are such faults or vices apt\\nto spring up in weak or ill-furnished minds. A teacher who cannot rule by love,\\nmust tlo so by fear. A teaclier who cannot supply material for the activity of\\nliis pupils minds by his talent, must put down that activity by force. A teacher\\nwho cannot answer all the questions and solve all tho doubts of a scholar as they\\narise, must assume an awful and mysterious air, and must expound in oracles,\\nwhich themselves need more explanation than the original difficulty. When a\\nteacher knows much, and is master of his whole subject, he can afford to be mod-\\nest and unpretending. Butwhen-the head is the only text-book, and the teacher\\nhas not been previously prepared, he must, of course, have a small library.\\nAmong all the Prussian and Saxon teachers whom I saw, there were not half a\\ndozen instances to remind one of those unpleasant characteristics, Avhat Lord\\nBacon would call the idol of the tribe, or profession, wliich sometimes de-\\ngrade the name and disparage the sacred calling of a teacher. Generally speak-\\ning, there seemed to be a strong love for the employment, always a devotion to\\nduty, and a profound conviction of the importance and sacredness of the office\\nthey filled. The only striking instance of disingenuousness or attempt at decep-\\ntion, which I saw, was that of a teacher who looked over the manuscript books of\\na large class of his scholars, selected the best, and, brhiging it to me, said, In\\nseeing one you see all.\\nWlience came tMs beneficent order of men, s:\\\\Tttered over the whole coun-\\ntry, molding the character of its people, and carrying them forward in a career\\nof civilization more rapidly than any other people in tiie world are now advanc-\\ning This is a question nvhich can be answered only by giving an account of the\\nSeminaries for Teachers.\\nFrom tlie year 18 20 to 1830 or 1835, it was customary, in all accounts of\\nPrussian education, to mention the number of these Seminaries for Teachers.\\nTJiis item of information has now become unimportant, as there are seminaries\\nsufficient to supply the wants of the whole country. The stated term of resi-\\ndence at these seminaries is three years. Lately, and in a few places, a class of\\npreliminary institutions has sprung up, institutions where pupils are received\\nin order to determine whether they are fit to become candidates to be candi-\\ndates. As a pupil of the seminary is liable to be set aside for incompetency,\\neven after a three years course of study; so the pupils of these preliminary in-\\n8titutit)ns, after having gone through witli a shorter course, are liable to bo set\\naside for incompetency to become competent.\\nLet us look for a moment at the guards and securities which, in that country,\\nenviron this sacred calling. In the first place, the teacher s profession holds such\\na high rank in public estimation, that none who have failed in other employments\\nor departments of business, are encouraged to look upon school-keeping as an\\nultimate resource. Those, too, who, from any cause, despair of success in other\\ndepartments of business or walks of life, have very slender prospects in looking\\nforward to this. Tliese considerations exclude at once all that inferior order of\\nmen wlio, in some countries, constitute the main body of the teachers. Then\\ncome, though only in some parts of Prussia, these preliminary schools, wliere\\nthose who wish eventually to become teachers, go, in order to have their natural\\nqualities and adaptation for school-keeping tested for it must be borne in mind\\nthat a man may have the most unexceptionable cliar.acter, may be capable of\\nmastering all the branches of study, may even be able to make most brilliant\\nrecitations from day to day and yet, from some coldness or repulsiveness of\\nmanner, from harshness of voice, from some natural defect in his person or in one\\nof his senses, he may be adjudged an unsuitable model or archetype for children\\nto be conformed to, or to grow by and hence he may be dismissed at the end of\\nhis probationary term of six months. At one of these preparatory schools, which\\nI visited, the list of subjects at the examination, a part of which I saw, was\\ndivided into two classes, as follows 1. Readiness in thinking, German language,\\nincluding orthography and composition, history, description of the earth, knowl-\\nedge of nature, thorough bass, calligrapiiy, drawing. 2. Religion, knowledge of\\nthe Bible, knowledge of nature, mental arithmetic, singing, violin-playing, and\\nreadiness or facility in speaking. The examination in all the brandies of the first\\nclass was conducted in writing. To test a, pupil s readiness in thinking, for in-\\nBtancB, several topics for cblHpbsdtion are given out, and, aftfer the lapse ctf a cer-", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "42 RESULTS OF NORMAL PCIIOOL SYSTEM.\\ntain number of minutes, whatever has been written must be handed in to the\\nexaminers. So questions in arithmetic are given, and the time occupied by the\\npupils in solving them, is a test of their quickness of thouglit, or power of com-\\nmanding their own resources. This facility, or faculty, is considered of great im-\\nportance in a teacher.* In the second class of subjects the pupils were exam-\\nined orallji. Two entire rlayswrre occupied in examining a class of thirty pupils,\\nand only twenty-one were admitted to tlic seminary school that is, only abcjut\\ntwo-thirds were con. ^idere 1 to be eligible to become eligible, as teachers, after\\nthree years further study. Thus, in this first process, the chaff is Avinnowed out,\\nand not a few of the lighter grains of the wheat.\\nIt is to be understood that those who enter the seminary directly, and with-\\nout this preliminary trial, have already studied, under able mastersln the Com-\\nmon Schools, at least all the briiuches I have above described. The first two of\\nthe three years, they ex])end mainly in reviewing and expanding their element-\\nary knowledge. The German language is studied in its relations to rhetoric\\nand logic, and as ajstlietic literature aritlnnetic is carried out into algebra and\\nmixed mathematics geography into commerce and manufactures, and into a\\nknowledge of the various botanical and zoological productions of the different\\nquarters of the globe linear drawing into perspective and machine drawing,\\nand the drawing from models of all kinds, and from objects in nature. c. The\\ntheory and practice, not only of vocal, but of instrumental music, occupy much\\ntime. Every pupil must lay on the violin most of them play on the organ,\\nand some on other instruments. I recollect seeing a Normal class engaged in\\nlearning the principles of Harmony. The teacher first \u00c2\u00abxplained the principles\\non which they were to proceed. He then wrote a bar of music upon the black-\\nboard, and called upon a pupil to write such notes for another part or accompa-\\nniment, as would make harmorn/ with the first. So he would write a bar with\\ncertain intervals, and then require a pupil to write another, with such intervals\\nas, according to the priiicijiles of musical science, would correspond with the first.\\nA thorough course of reading on the subject of education is undertaken, as well\\nas a more general course. Bible history is almost committed to memory. Con-\\nnected with all the seminaries for teachers are large Model or Experimental\\nSchools. During the last part of the course much of the -students time is spent\\nin these scliools. At first they go in and look on in silence, while an accom-\\nplished teacher is instructing a class. Tlien they themselves commence teaching\\nunder the eye of such a teaclier. At last they teach a class alone, being respon-\\nsible for its proficiency, and for its condition as to order, Ac, at the end of a week\\nor other period. During the wdiole course, there are lectures, discussions, com-\\npositions, tfec, on the theory and practice of teaching. The essential qualifications\\nof a candidate for the office. Lis attainments, and the spirit of devotion antl of\\nreligious fidelity in which he should enter upon his work; the modes of teaching\\nthe different branches the motive-powers to be applied to the minds of chil-\\ndren dissertations upon the different natural dispositions of children, and, con-\\nsequently, the different ways of addressing them, of securing their confidence and\\naffection, and of winning them to a love of learning and a sense of duty and es-\\npecially the sacretlness of the teacher s profession, the idea that he stands, for\\nthe time being, in the place of a parent, and therefore that a parent s responsi-\\nbilities rest upon him, that the most precious hopes of society are committed to\\nhis charge, and that on him depends, to a great extent, the temporal and per-\\nhaps the future well-being of hundreds of his fellow-creature.s, these are the\\nconversations, the ideas, the feelings, amid which the candidate for teaching\\nspends his probationary years. This is the daily atmosphere he breathes. Tliese\\nare the sacred, elevating, invigorating influences constantly pouring in upon his\\nsoul. Hence, at the expiration of his course, he leaves the seminary to enter\\nupon his profession, glowing with enthusiasm for the noble cause he has espoused,\\nand strong in his resolves to jierform its manifold and momentous duties.\\nJ Here, then, is the cause of the worth and standing of the teachers, whom I\\n/had the pleasure and the honor to see. As a body of men, their character is\\nI The above described is a very common method of examining in the gymnasia and higlier\\nseminaries ol Prussia. Certain sealed subjects for an exercise are given to the students they are\\nthen loclved up in a room, each by himself, and at the expiration of a given time, they are en-\\nlarged, and it is seen what each one lias been able to make out of his faculties.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "RESULTS or NORMA I. SCHOOL SYSTEM. 4.3\\nmore enviable than that of either of the tln^ee, so-called, professions; They\\nhave more benevolence and self-sacritice than the legal or medical, while they\\nhave less of sanctimoniousness and austerity, less of indisposition to enter into\\nall the innocent amusements and joyous feelings of childhood, than the clerical.\\nThey are not unmindful of what belongs to men while they are serving God nor\\nof the duties they owe to this world while preparing for another.^^\\nOn reviewing a period of six weeks, the greater pai t of which I spent in\\nvisiting schools in tlie north and middle of Prussia and in Saxony (excepting, of\\ncourse, the time occupied in going from jjlace to place), entering the schools to\\nhear the first recitation in the morning, and remaining till the last was completed\\nat nigiit, I call to mind three things about which I cannot be mistaken. In some\\nof my opinions and inferences 1 may have erred, but of the following facts there\\ncan l)e no doubt\\n1. During all this time, I never saw a teacher hearing a les.son of any kind\\n(excepting a reading or spelling lesson), iuUIl a book in liix //and\\n2. I nevjr s;iw a teaclier sittiufi while hjiring a recitation.\\no. Though I saw hundreds of scliools, and thousands, I think I may say,\\nwithin bounds, tens of thousands of pupils, never saw one child undergoing\\npunishment, or arraigned for misconduct. I never mw one child in tears from\\nharing been punished, or from fear of being punished.\\nDuring the above period, 1 witnessed exercises in geography, ancient and\\nmodern in the German language, from the explanation of the simplest words\\nup to belles-lettres tlisquisitions, with rules for speaking and writing in arith-\\nmetic, algebra, geometry, surveying, and trigonometry; in book-keeping; in civil\\nhistory, ancient and modern in natural pliilosopliy in botany and zoology in\\nmineralogy, where there were hundreds of specimens in the endless variety of\\ntlie exercises in thinking, knowledge of nature, of the world, and of society in\\nBible history and in Bible knowledge and, as I before said, in no one of these\\ncases did I see a teacher with a book in his hand. His book, his books, his\\nlibrary, was in his head. Proni itly, without pause, witliout hesitation, from the\\nrich resources of his own mind, he brought forth whatever the occa.sion demand-\\ned. I remember calling one morning at a country school in Saxony, where every\\nthing about the premises, and the appearance, both of teacher and children,\\nindicated very narrow pecuniary circumstances. As I entered, the teacher was\\njust ready to commence a lesson or lecture on French history. He gave not\\nonly the events of a particular period in the history of France, but mentioned, as\\nhe proceeded, all the contemporary sovereigns of neighboring nations. The or-\\ndinary time for a lesson here, as elsewhere, was an hour. This was somewhat\\nlonger, for, toward the close, the teacher entered upon a train of thought from\\nwhich it was difficult to break off, and rose to a strain of eloquence which it was\\ndelightful to hear. The scholars were all absorbed in attention. They had pa-\\nper, pen, and ink before them, and took brief notes of what was said. When the\\nlesson touched upon contemporary events in other nations, which, as I suppose,\\nhad been the subject of previous lessons, the pupils were questioned concern-\\ning them. A small text-book of history was used by the pupils, which they\\nstudied at home.\\nI ought to say further, that I generally visited schools without guide, or let-\\nter of introduction, presenting myself at the door, and asking the favor of ad-\\nmission. Though I had a general order from the Minister of Public Instruction,\\ncommanding all schools, gymnasia, and universities in the kingdom to be opened\\nfor my inspection, yet I seldom exhibited it, or spoke of it, at least not until I\\nwas about departing. I preferred to enter as a private individual, an uncom-\\nmended visitor.\\nI have said that I saw no teacher sitting in his school. Aged or young, all\\nstood. Nor did they stand apart and aloof in sullen dignity. They mingled\\nwith their pupils, passing rapidly from one side of the class to the other, animat-\\ning, encouraging, sympathizing, breathing life into less active natures, assuring\\nthe timid, distributing encouragement and endearment to all. The looks of the\\nPrussian teacher often have the expression and vivacity of an actor in a play.\\nHe gesticulates like an orator. His body assumes all the attitudes, and his face\\nputs on all the variety of expression, which a pubhc speaker would do if ha-\\nranguing a large assembly on a. topic vital to their interests.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "44 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\nIt may seem singular, and pnrhaps to some almost ludicrous, that a teacher\\nin expounding the hrst rudiments of handwriting, in teaching tlie difference be-\\ntween a hair-stroke and a ground-stroke, or how an I may be turned into a 6, or\\na M. into a w, shouhl ba able to w rk himself up into an oratorical fervor should\\nattitudinize, and gesticulate, and stride from one end of the class to the other,\\nand appear in every way to be as intensely engaged as an advocate when argu-\\ning an important cause to a Jury but, strange as it may seem, it is neverthe-\\nless true and before five minutes of such a lesson had elapsed, I have seen the\\nchildren wrought up to an 6xciteinent proportionally intense, hanging upon the\\nteacher s lips, catching every w(jid he says, and evincing great elation or depres-\\nsion of spirits, as they had or had not succeeded in following his instructions. So\\nI have seen the same rhetorical vehemence on the part of the teacher, and the\\nsame interest and animation on the part of the pupils, during a lesson on the\\noriginal sounds of the letters, that is, the difference between the long and the\\nshort sound of a vowel, or the different ways of opening the mouth in sounding\\nthe consonants b and p. TJie zeal of the teacher enkindles the scholars. He\\ncharges them with his own electricity to the point of explosion. Such a teacher\\nhas no idle, mischievous, whispering children around him, nor any occasion for the\\nrod. He does not make desolation of all the active and playful impulses of\\nchildhood, and call it peace nor. to secure stillness among his scholars, does he\\nfind it necessary to ride them with the nightmare of fear. I rarely saw a teacher\\nput questions with his lips alone. He seetns so much interested in his subject\\n(though he might liave been teac hing the same lesson for the hundredth or fiv\u00c2\u00ab\\nhundredth time), that his whole body is in motion; eyes, arms, limbs, all con-\\ntributing to the impression he desires to make and, at the end of an hour, both\\nhe and his pupils come from the work all glowing with excitement.\\nSuppose a lawyer in one of our courts were to plead an important cause be-\\nfore a jury, but instead of standing and extemporizing, and showing by his ges-\\ntures, and by the. energy and ardor of his whole manner, that he felt an interest\\nin his theme, instead of rising with his subject and coruscating with flashes of\\ngenius and wit, he should plant liiniself lazily down in a chair, read from some\\nold book which scarcely a member of the panel could fully understand, and, after\\ndroning away for an hour, should leave them, without having distinctly impressed\\ntheir minds with one fact, or led them to form one logical conclusion would it\\nbe any wonder if he left half of them joking wi h each other, or asleep would\\nit be any wonder, provided he were followed on the other side by an advocate\\nof brilliant parts, of elegant diction and attractive manner, who ishouhl pour\\nsunshine into the darkest recesses of the case, if he lost not only his own repu-\\ntation, but the cause of his chent also\\nThese incitements and endearments of the teacher, this personal ubiquity, as\\nit were, among all the pupils in the class, prevailed much more, as the pupils\\nwere younger. Before the older classes, the teacher s manner became calm and\\ndidactic. The habit of attention being once formed, nothing was left for subse-\\nquent years or teachers, but the easy task of maintaining it. M as there ever\\nsuch a comment as this on the practice of hiring cheap teachers because the school\\nis young, or incompetent ones because it is backward\\nIn Prussia and in Saxony, as well as in Scotland, the power of commanding\\nand retaining the attention of a class is held to be a sine qua non in a teacher s\\nqualifications. If he has not talent, skill, vivacity, or resources of anecdote and\\nwit, sufficient to arouse and retain the attention of liis pupils during the accus-\\ntomed period of recitation, he is deemed to have mistaken his calling, and re-\\nceives a significant hint to change his vocation.\\nTake a group of little children to a toy-shop, and witness their outbursting\\neagerness and delight. They need no stimulus of badges or prizes to arrest or\\nsustain their attention they need no quickening of their faculties by rod or\\nferule. To the exclusion of food and sleep they will push their inquirie.s, until\\nshape, color, quality, use, substance, both external and internal, of the objects\\naround them, are exhausted and each child will want the show-man wholly to\\nhimself. But hi all the boundless variety and beauty of nature s works in that\\nprofusion and prodigality of charms with which the Creator has adorned and en-\\nriclied every part of his creation in the delights of affection in the ecstatic joys\\nof beDevolende in the absorbing interest which an un^phi^ic^t^ donfiteiende", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\n45\\ninstinctively takes in all questions of right and wrung in all these, is there not\\nas much to challenge and command the attention of a little child, as in the curi-\\nosities of a toy-shop When as much of human art and ingenuity shall have\\nbeen expended upon teaching as upon toys, there will be less difference between\\nthe cases.\\nThe third circumstance I mentioned above was the beautiful relation of har-\\nmony and affection which subsisted between teacher and pupils. I cannot say\\nthat the extraordinary fact I have mentioned was not the result of chance or ac-\\ncident. Of the probability of that, others must judge. I can only say that, dur-\\ning all the time mentioned, I never saw a blow struck, I never heard a sharp\\nrebuke given, 1 never saw a child in tears, nor arraigned at the teacher s bar for\\nany alleged mi.sconduct. On the contrary, the relation seemed to be one of duty\\nfirst, and then affection, on the part of the teacher, of affection first, and then\\nduty, on the part of the scholar. The teacher s manner was better than parent-\\nal, for it had a parent s tenderness and vigilance, without the foolish dotings\\nor indulgences to which parental affection is prone. I heard no child ridiculed,\\nsneered at, or scolded, for making a mistake. On the contrary, whenever a mis-\\ntake was ma,de, or there was a want of promptness in giving a reply, the expres-\\nsion of the teacher was that of grief and disappointment, as thdugh there had\\nbeen a failure, not merely to answer the question of a master, but to comply\\nwith the expectations of a friend. No child was disconcerted, disabled, or be-\\nreft of his senses, through fear. Nay, generally, at the ends of the answers, the\\nteacher s practice is to encourage him with tlie exclamation, good, right,\\nwholly right, tfec., or to check him, with his slowly and painfully, articulated\\nno and this is done with a tone of voice tiiat marks every itegree of plus and\\nminus in the scale of approbation and regret. When a difficult question has\\nbeen put to a young child, which tasks all his energies, the teacher approaches\\nhim with a mingled look of concern and encouragement he stands before him,\\nthe light qjid shade of hope and fear alternately crossing his countenance he\\nlifts his arms and turns his body, as a bowler who has given a wrong direction\\nto his bowl will writhe his person to bring the ball back upon its track and\\nfinally, if the little wrestler with difficulty triumphs, the teacher felicitates him\\nupon his success, perhaps seizes and shakes him by the hand, in token of con-\\ngratulation and, when the difficulty has been really formidable, and the effort\\ntriumphant, I have seen the teacher catch up the child in his arms and embrace\\nhim, as though he were not able to contain his joy. At another time, I have\\nseen a teacher actually clap his hands with deligjit at a bright reply and all\\nthis has been done so naturally and so unaffectedly as to excite no other feeling\\nin the residue of the children than a desire, by the same means, to win the same\\ncaresses. What person worthy of being called by the name, or of sustaining the\\nsacred relation of a parent, would not give any, thing, bear any thing, sacrifice\\nany thing, to have his children, during eight or ten years of the period of their\\nchildhood, surrounded by circumstances, and breathed upon by sweet and hu-\\nmanizing influences, like these\\nThe Rev. Egerton Ryerson. D, D.. Chief Superintendent of Schools, in\\na Report on a System of Public Elementary fnstruction for Upper\\nCanada, after quoting the above passages fVom Mr. Mann s report, re-\\nmarks\\nIn the above summary and important statements on this subject, by the\\nable Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, I fully concur, with\\ntwo slight exceptions. In one instance I did see a boy in tears (in Berlin) when\\nremoved to a lower class on account of negligence in his school preparations.\\nI did see one or two old men silting ocrMsionally in school. With these excep-\\ntions, my own similar inquiries and experience of nearly three months in South-\\nern and Western, as well as Northern and Middle Germany, and I might add\\na longer period of like investigations in Switzerland, Holland, Belgium and\\nFrance\u00e2\u0080\u0094 enable me not only to subscribe to the statements of the Hon. Mr.\\nMann, but would enable me, were it necessary, to illustrate them by various\\ndetails of visis to individual schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "46 RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\nProfessor Lemuel Stephens, now of Girard College of Orphans, Phila-\\ndelphia, in a Letter addressed to Hon. F. R. Shunk, Superintendent of\\nCommon Schools in Pennsylvania, from Berlin, in 1843, remarks\\nTo determine absolutely the influence which teachers seminaries have had\\nupon the state of popular education in Germany, would be a matter of great\\ndifiiculty, owing to the gradual growth of these institutions. One thing is cer-\\ntain, that the improvement of the schools has followed, hand in hand, the mul-\\ntiplication and improvement of the seminaries. Perhaps the value of these in-\\nsiilutions can be shown in no light so advantageously, as by comparing the\\nclass of common school teachers in Germany, at the present moment, with the\\nsame class in England and America. In this country one is struck with the\\nzeal and common spirit which a common education has imparled to the whole\\nbody. They have been for three or four years under the instruction of men\\npractically and scientifically acquainted with the best principles of teaching;\\nand what is an indispensable part of their preparation, they have had the op-\\nportunity of testing the value, and of becoming familiar with the application of\\nthese principles in practice. During the latter part of their course they have\\nbeen accustomed, under the eye of their teachers, to instruct a school of child-\\nren by which means the art and the theory have kept pace with each other,\\nt- ome knowledge of the human mind, and some just conception of the great\\nproblem of education which they are engaged in solving, inspires them with\\nself-iespect, with earnestness and love of their profession. Once raised above\\nthe idea that education consists alone in drilling children in a few useful ac-\\ncomplishments, a sense of the dignity of the work of operating on, and forming\\nother minds, causes them to overlook the humble outward conditions of a viU\\nlage school, and fortifies them against the seductions of false ambition.\\nLeaving out of the question the great immediate benefit of these seminaries\\nin fitting teachers better to fill their ottice, I believe that the professional spirit,\\nthe esprit du corps, which they create, is productive of results which-are alone\\nsufficient to recommend these institntion.s. It is this common spirit which se-\\ncures the progress of the young teacher after he has entered into active service,\\nand saves him from the besetting sin of rusting into a mechanical routine, by\\nkeeping up a lively interchange of opinions, and making him acquainted with\\nthe successes and improvements of other teachers. The means for this inter-\\ncourse, are conferences and periodicals of education. In every German city, in\\nwhich I have made the inquiry, I have learned that the teachers from the dif-\\nferent schools are accustomed to come together, at stated times, for the pur-\\npose of mutual improvement: even in the villages of Hes.se, and the mountain-\\nous part of Saxony, I found that the teacheis, from villages miles apart, held\\ntheir monthly conferences for debate and lecture.\\nIn Geiarany there are no less than thirty periodicals devoted exclusively to\\neducation. In these all questions of interest to teachers are discussed; the best\\nmethod of instructing explained, all new school books noticed and criticised\\nthe arrangements and organizations of distinguished schools described, and ac-\\ncounts given from time to time of the progress of education in other states.\\nThe General School Gazette, which has particularly attracted my attention,\\nhas a list of more than one hundred regular contributors. The journals are\\nopen to all teachers to make known their experience, or to ask for informa-\\ntion. The able director of the seminary in this city, who is at the same time\\nthe conductor of one of these periodicals, inlbrms me that one or more of them\\nfinds its way to every common school teacher. They are furnished so low that\\nhe can generally afford to take them, or if not, they are taken by the district for\\nhis benefit. By these means an active spirit of inquiry is kept up the improve-\\nments of individuals become the property of all; the obscure village teacher\\nfeels that he is a member of a large and respectable class, engaged in the great\\nwork of human improvement and love and zeal for his profession are enkindled.\\nThere is union, sympathy, generous emulation and mutual improvement.\\nAmong the members of a profession, there is a common principle of life. It is\\na type of organic lile, which contains within itself the principle of development\\nand growth.\\nA valuable ordinance passed in Prussia, in 1826, and renewed in 1846, re-\\nquires a director of a seminary to travel about once a year, and visit a certain\\npart of the schools within his circuit. He makes himself acquainted with the", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 47\\nState of the school, listens to the instruction given, takes part himself in the\\nsame, and gives to the teacher such hints for improvement as his observation\\nmay suggest. The results of his yearly visits he presents in the form of a re-\\nport to the school authorities of the province. I his occasional visitation is\\nvery useful in clearing up the dark corners of the land, correcting abuses, and\\ngiving an impulse, from time to time, to teachers, who might otherwise sink into\\napathy and neglect. To render the efficacy of the seminaries more complete,\\nit is provided that at the end of three years after leaving the seminary, the\\nyoung teachers shall return to pass a second examination. And further, by an\\nordinance in 1826, it is provided, To the end, that the beneficial influence of\\nthe seminary may extend itself to those teachers already established, who either\\nrequire further instruction, or who in their own cultivation and skill in office\\ndo not advance, perhaps even recede; it is required that such teachers be re-\\ncalled into the seminary for a shorter or longer time, as may be needful for\\nthem, ill order, either to pass through a whole methodical course, or to prac-\\ntice themselves in particular departments of instruction. By this organization\\nit is very easy to see that the whole system of popular instruction is brought\\nunder the influence of the most able teachers; their skill is made to tell upon\\nthe character of the class; and the assurance is given that the work of educa-\\ntion is advancing surely and consequently toward perfection.\\nIt is only by the distinct division of the objects of human industry and knowl-\\nedge, into separate arts and sciences, that their advancement can be insured.\\nThe necessity for the division of labor in the mechanic arts is well enough un-\\nderstood. A necessity for this division, in intellectual pursuits, exists in a by\\nno means less degree. So long as the science of education depends for its de-\\nvelopment upon the casual contributions of men of all professions, without\\nbeing made the business of any, it must grope its way hither and thither by the\\nlight of occasional flashes, instead of being guided on by a steady flame.\\nThe views of certain men on education are known among us, but so far is\\npedagogics from being cultivated as a science, we feel ourselves as yet hardly\\nauthorized to use the word. I am far from denying that we have many very\\ngood teachers but they stand separate and alone. Their influence rarely ex-\\ntends beyond the sphere of their own schools. Their experience has furnished\\nthem with excellent practical rules for their own j rocedure, but these rules\\nhave perhaps never been expressed in words, much less their truth demon-\\nstrated by a reduction of the same to scientific principles. They are content to\\nbe known as possessing the mysterious talent of a skillful teacher, and their\\nwisdom dies with them. It is owing to the i-solated position in which teachers\\nby profession find themselves, that the didactic skill they may have acquired,\\neven when it rises above the character of a blind faculty, and is founded on\\nthe enlightened conclusions of science, still remains almost without influence\\non the wrong ideas in education which may be in vogue around them. To\\nquote a remark of Dr. Harnisch we have had, now and then, capable teach-\\ners without possessing seminaries: we still find such sinsly in states which yet\\nhave no seminaries, but it can not be denied that seminaries are most eflfectual\\nlevers for elevating the condition of common schools, and such they have suffi-\\nciently proved themselves to be in latter years.\\nHow far may we avail ourselves of the German plan of popular education 1\\nIt will be borne in mind, that the Prussian system is so far voluntary that it is\\nleft entirely to the parent where, and in what manner, his child shall be edu-\\ncated, only requiring that the years, from six till fourteen, shall be devoted to\\ninstruction, and that a certain amount of knowledge shall be obtained. The\\nSwiss republics have placed their public schools on the same basis that the\\nGerman states have done, their laws are essentially the same, and teachers\\nhave therefore, there as well as in Germany, the character of public servants.\\nThe great feature of the Prussian system, which it is both suitable and highly\\ndesirable for us to imitate, is that which I have already described, namely the\\nprovision therein made for the education of common school teachers. This\\nappears to me the only radical reform, and the only means of putting public\\neducation in a steady and consequent train of improvement.\\nTo apply to ourselves the advantages which I have already stated as flowing\\nfrom this measure\u00e2\u0080\u0094 It will raise the employment of teaching among us to a\\nregular profession, and introduce generally consistent and rational methods of", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "48 RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.\\ninstructing. It will create among teachers, devotion to their office, and a de-\\nsire for co-operation. This desire will manifest itself in the organization of\\nunions for conference and m the establishment and support of many periodicals.\\nThe higher character of teachers, and the improved state of the schools will\\nbring them respect, and a better remuneration for their services. The higher\\nvalue set upon education, the immense contrast between the efficacy of a con-\\nstant, and that of a half-yearly school, and I must add, the impossitnlity of gel-\\nting good teaxkersfor the lutter, will gradually do away with this great evil under\\nwhich our school system suffers. The permanent settlement of teachers, ren-\\ndering much less the annual accession to the profession necessary to keep the\\nschools supplied, will, as 1 have shown, obviate all difficulty on the score of\\nnumbers. The science of the human mind and its cultivation, this vitally im-\\nportant branch of a nation s literature, will be developed among us, and its\\nblessings will be richly manifested in the better cultivation of all the sciences\\nand arts of life.\\nSuch is a scanty outline of the benefits which the experience of other coun-\\ntries, and reason, show us will follow the proper education of our teachers. I do\\nnot mean to say that Germany has already realized all these benetits. It is\\nimportant to observe that the reform in education in this country, goes out from\\nthe government not from the people themselves, who rather passively submit\\nto its operation, than actively co-operate in giving it efficacy. This, with other\\ngrounds belbre stated, necessarily make popular education in Germany produc-\\ntive of less results than in our own country.\\nIn the establishment of teachers seminaries their utility and success will de-\\npend entirely upon their appropriate and perfect organization. False economy\\nhas often attempted to provide for the education of primary teachers, by\\nmaking the seminary an appendage to a high school, or an academy. Thirty\\nyears ago this arrangement was not uncommon in Germany and later the experi-\\nment has been tried in the State of New York. If it were needed, to\\nstrengthen the evidence of the inefficiency of this system, I might easily quote\\nthe testimony of the most able teachers of Germany to this effect. Perhaps no\\ndepartment of education requires a more peculiar treatment, and more calls for\\nthe undivided zeal and energy of those who have the conduct of it, than the\\npreparation of teachers.\\nEvery thing depends on making the seminaries for teachers, separate and\\nindependent establishments, with a careful provision for a thorough, theoretical\\nand practical preparation for all the duties of the common school. In the ex-\\nperiment of introducing teachers seminaries into our country, there is a dan-\\nger that we shall be too sparing in the number of teachers employed in con-\\nducting them. Seminaries conducted by one or two teachers can not be other-\\nwise than imperfect; and while but little good would come from them, there is\\ngreat danger that their failure would .serve to bring the cause into disrepute.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "COURSE OF INSTRUCTION\\nIN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS\\nOP GERMANY.\\nRev. Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., in 1839, while Professor of Biblical\\nLiterature in Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio, visited Europe, and on\\nhis return submitted to the General Assembly of Ohio, in December,\\n1839, a Report on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe, in which\\nhe thus describes the course of instruction pursued in the Primary\\nSchools of Germany, particularly of Prussia and Wirtemburg.\\nThe whole course comprises eight years, and includes children from the ages\\nof six to fourteen and It is divided into four parts, of two years each. It is a\\nfirst principle, that the children be well accommodated as to liouse and furniture.\\nThe school-room must be well constructed, the seats convenient, and the scholars\\nmade comfortable, and kept interested. The younger pupils are kept at school\\nbut four hours in the day two in the morning and two in the evening, with a\\nrecess at the close of each hour. The older, six hours, broken by recesses as\\noften as is necessary. Most of the school-houses have a bathing-place, a garden,\\nand a mechanic s shop attached to them, to promote the cleanliness and health of\\nthe children, and to aid in mechanical and agricultural instruction. It will be\\nseen by the schedule which follows, that a vast amount of instruction is given\\nduring these eight years and lest it should seem that so many branches must\\nconfuse the young mind, and that they must necessarily be but partially taught, I\\nwill say, in the outset, that the industrj skill, and energy of teachers regularly\\ntrained to their business, and depending entirely upon it the modes of teaching\\nthe habit of always finishing whatever is begun the perfect method which isprc\\nserved the entire punctuality and regularity of attendance on the part of the\\nscholars and other things of this kind, facilitate a rapidity and exactness of ac-\\nquisition and discipline, which may well seem incredible to those who have never\\nwitnessed it.\\nThe greatest care is taken that acquisition do not go beyond discipline and\\nthat the taxation of mind be kept entirely and clearly within the constitutional\\ncapacity of mental and physical endurance. The studies must never weary, but\\nalways interest the appetite for knowledge must never be cloyed, but be kept\\nalways sharp and eager. These purposes are gradually aided by the frequent\\ninterchange of topics, and by lively conversational exercises. Before the child is\\neven permitted to learn his letters, he is under conversational instruction, fre-\\nquently for six months or a year and then a single week is sufficient to intro-\\nduce him into intelligible and accurate plain reading.\\nEvery week is systematically divided, and every hour appropriated. The\\nscheme for the week is written on a large sheet of paper, and fixed in a promi-\\nnent part of the school-room, so that every scholar knows what his business will\\nbe for every hour in the week and the plan thus marked out is rigidly followed.\\nThrough all the parts of the course there are frequent reviews and repetitions,\\nthat the impressions left on the mind may be distinct, lively, and permanent.\\nThe exercises of the day are always commenced and closed with a short prayer\\nand the Bible and hymn-book are the first volumes put into the pupils hands\\nand these books they always retain and keep in constant use during the whole\\nprogress of their education.\\nThe general outline of the eight years course is nearly as follows\\nI. First part, of two years, including children from six to eight years old;\\nfour principal branches, namely\\n1. Logical exercises, or oral teaching in the exercise of the powers of observa-\\ntion and expression, including religious instruction and the singing of hymos.\\n2. Elements of reading.\\n3. Elements of writing.\\n4. Elements of number, or arithmetic. 4", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "5Q PRIMARY StilOOl.S OF GT.RMANY.\\nII. Second fart, of two years, including children from eight to ten years\\nold sevien principal branches, namely\\n1. Exercises in reading.\\n2. Exercises in writing.\\n3. Religious and moral instruction, in select Bible narratives.\\n4. Language, or grammar.\\n5. Numbers, or arithmetiic.\\n6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry.\\n7. Singing by note, or elements of music.\\nIII. Third part, of two years, including children from ten to ttoelve years\\nold eight principal branches, namely\\n1. Exercises in reading and elocution.\\n2. Exercises in ornamental writing, preparatory to drawing.\\n3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history.\\n4. Language, or granimar, with parsing.\\n5. Keal instruction, or knowledge of iSature and the external world, including\\nthe first elements of the sciences and the arts of life of geography and history.\\n6. Arithmetic continued through fractions and the rules of proportion.\\n7. Geometry doctrine of magnitudes and measures.\\n8. Singing and science of vocal and instrumental music.\\nIV. Fourth part, of two years, including children from ten to twelve years\\nold six principal branches, namely\\n1. Religious instruction in the religious observation of Nature the life and\\ndiscourses of Jesus Christ; the history of the Christian religion, in connection\\nwith the contemporary civil history and the doctrines of Christianity.\\n2. Knowledge of the world, and of mankind, including civil society, elements\\nof law, agriculture, mechanic arts, manufactures, c.\\n3. Language, and exercises in composition.\\n4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to the business of life,\\nincluding surveying and civil engineering.\\n5. Elements of drawing.\\n6. Exercises in singing, and the science of music.\\nWe subjoin a few specimens of the mode of teaching under several of the above\\ndivisions.\\nI. First part children from six to eight years of age.\\n1. Conversations between the teacher and pupils, intended to exercise the\\npowers of observation and expression.\\nThe teacher brmgs the children around him, and engages them in a familiar\\nconversation with himself. He generally addresses them all together, and tliey\\nall reply simultaneously but, whenever necessary, he addresses an individual,\\nand requires the individual to answer alone. He first directs their attention tp\\nthe dittir;rent objects in the school-room, their position, form, color, size, materials\\nof which they are made. c., and requires precise and accurate descriptions. He\\nthen requires them to notice the various objects that meet their eye in the way to\\ntfteir respective homes and a description of these objects, and the circumstances\\nunder which they saw them, will form the subject of the next morning s lesson.\\nThen the house in which they live, the shop in which their father works, the\\ngarden in which they walk, c., will be the subject of the successive lessons;\\nand in this way for six months or a year, the childi-en are taught to study things,\\nto use their own powers of observation, and speak with readiness and accuracy,\\nbefore books are put into their hands at all. A few speeunens will make the\\nnature and utility of this mode of teaching perfectly obvious.\\nIn a school in Berlin, a boy has assigned him for a lesson, a description of the\\nremarkable objects in certain directions from the school-house, which is situated in\\nLittle Cathedral street. He proceeds as follows ^Ahen I come out of the\\nschool-house into Little Cathedral street, and turn to the right, I soon pass on my\\nleft hand the Maria Place, the Gymnasium, and the Anklam Gate. When I\\ncome out of Little Cathedral street, I see on my left hand the White Parade\\nPlace, and within that, at a little distance, the beautiful statue of Frederick the\\nGreat, King of Prussia. It is made of white marble, and stands on a pedestal of\\nvai iegated marble, and is fenced in with an iron railing. From here, I have on", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 5J\\nmy right a small place, which is a continuation of the Parade Place and at the\\nend of this, near the wall, see St. Peter s Church, or the Wall-street Church,\\nas it is sometimes called This church has a green yard before it, planted with\\ntrees, which is called the Wall Church Yard. St. Peter s Churteh is the oldest\\nchurch in the city; it has a little round tower, which looks green, because it is\\nmostly covered with copper, which is made green by exposure to the weather.\\nWhen I go out of the school-house to the lower part of Little Cathedral street,\\nby the Coal-market, through Shoe street and Carriage street, I come to the\\nCastle. The Castle is a large building, with two small towers, and is built around a\\nsquare yard, which is called the Castle-yard. In the Castle there are two churches,\\nand the King and his Ministers of State, and the Judges of the Supreme\\nCourt, and the Cons story of the Church, hold their meetings there. From the\\nCoal-market, I go through Shoe street to the Hay-market, and adjoining this is\\nthe New-market, which was formed after St. Nicholas s Church was burnt, which\\nformerly stood in that place. Between the Hay-market and the New-market is\\nthe City Hall, where the officers and magistrates of the city hold theis meetings.\\nIf a garden is given to a class for a lesson, they are asked the size of the garden\\nits shape, which they may draw on a slate with a pencil whether there are\\ntrees in it wliat the dift erent parts of a tree are what parts grow in the spring,\\nand what parts decay in autumn, and what parts remain the same throughout the\\nwinter whether any of the trees are fruit trees what fruits they bear when\\nthey ripen how they look and taste whether the fruit be wholesome or other-\\nwise whether it is prudent to eat much of it what plants and roots there are in\\nthe garden, and whatlise is made of them what flowers there are, and how they\\nlook, i%c. The teacher may then read them the description of the garden of\\nEden in the second chapter of Genesis sing a hymn with them, the imagery of\\nwhich is taken from the fruits and blossoms of a garden, and explain to them how\\nkind and bountiful God is, who gives us such wholesome plants and fruits, and\\nsuch beautiful flowers for our nourishment and gratification.\\nThe external heavens also make an interesting lesson. The sky its appear-\\nance and color at dilFerent times the clouds their color, their varying form and\\nmovements the sun its rising and setting, its concealment by clouds, its warm-\\ning the earth and giving it life and fertility, its great heat in summer, and the\\ndanger of being exposed to it unprotected the moon its appearance by night,\\nfull, gibbous, horned its occasional absence from the heavens the stars their\\nshining, difference among them, their number, distance from us, o. In this\\nconnection the teacher may read to them the eighteenth and nineteenth Psalms,\\nand other passages of Scripture of that kind, sing with them a hymn celebrating\\nthe glory of God in the creation, and enforce the moral bearing of such contem-\\nplations by appropriate remarks. A very common lesson is, the family and family\\nduties, love to parents, love to brothers and sisters, concluding with appropriate\\npassages from Scripture, and singing a family hymn.\\n2. Elements of reading.\\nAfter a suitable time spent in the exercises above described, the children pro-\\nceed to learn the elements of reading. The first step is to exercise the organs of\\nsound till they have perfect command of their vocfel powers and this, after the\\nprevious discipline in conversation and singing, is a task soon accomplished. They\\nare then taught to utter distinctly all the vowel sounds. The characters or letters\\nrepresenting these sounds are then shown and described to them, till the form\\nand power of each are distinctly impressed upon their memories. The same\\nprocess is then gone through in respect to dipthongs and consonants. Last of all,\\nafter having acquired a definite and distinct view of the diff erent sounds, and of\\nthe forms of the letters which respectively represent these sounds, they are taught\\nthe names of these letters, with the distinct understanding that the name of a let-\\nter and the power of a letter are two very dift erent things.\\nThey are now prepared to commence reading. The letters are printed in large\\nform, on square cards the class stands up before a sort of rack the teacher\\nholds the cards in his hand, places one upon the rack, and a conversation of this\\nkind passes between him and his pupils What letter is that H. He places\\nanother on the rack. What letter is that A. I now put these two letters to-\\ngether, thus, (moving the cards close together,) HA. What sound do these two\\nletters signify Ha. There is another letter. What letter is that (putting it on", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "52 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nthe rack.) R. I now put this tliinl letter to the other two, thus, HAR. WTiat\\nsound do the three letti rs niaki- liar. Tlicre anothor letter. What is; it\\nI). I join this letter to the other three, thus, llAKl). What do they all make\\nHard. Then he proceeds in the same way with the letters b -I-S-T joins these\\nfour letters to the preceding lour, 11ARI -K1ST, and the pupils pronounce, Hard-\\nfist. Then with the letters K and I), and joins these two to the proceeding eight,\\nand the pupils ronounce. Hard-fisted. In this way they are taught to read\\nwords of any length, (for you may easily add to the above, N-E-S-S^ and make\\nHard-fistedne. is) the longest as easily as the slKjrtest and in laet they learn\\ntheir letters they leai n to read words of one syllable and of sevei al syllables, and\\nto read in plain reading, by the same process, at the same moment, .\\\\fter having\\ncompleted a sentence, or several sentences, with the cards and rack, they then\\nproceed to read the same words and sentences in their spelling-books.\\n3. Elements of writing.\\nThe pupils are tirst taught the right position of the arms and body in writing,\\nthe proper methi)d of holding the pen. Arc. and are exercised on these points till\\ntheir habits are formed correctly. The ditferent marks used in writing are then\\nexhibited to them, from the simple point or straight line, to the most complex\\nfigure. The variations of t orm and position which they are capable of assuming,\\nand the ditterent parts of which the complex figures are composed, are carefully\\ndescribed, and the student is taught to imitate them, beginning with the most\\nsimple; then the separate parts of the complex, then the joining of tne several\\nparts to a whole, with his pencil and slate. After having acquired facility in this\\nexercise, he is prepared to write with his ink and paper. The copy is written\\nupon the blackboard the [taper is laid before each member of the class, and\\neach has his pen ready in his hand, awaiting the word of liis teacher. If the\\ncopy be the simple point, or line the teacher repeats the syllable one, one, slow-\\nly at first, and with gradually increasing speed, and at each repetition of the sound\\nthe pupils write, in this way they learn to make the mark both correctly and\\nrapidly. If the figure to bo copied consists of two strokes, (thus, the teacher\\npronounces one, Inw one, two, slowly at first, and then rapidly, as before and\\nthe ])upils make the (h-st n\\\\ark, and then llie second, at the sound of each syllable,\\nas before. If the figure consist of three strokes, (thus, t,) the teaelier pronounces\\none, two, three, and the pupils write as before. So when they come to make let-\\nters, the letter o has five strokes, thus, a. When that is the copy, the teacher\\nsays, deliberately, one, two, three, four, five, and at the sound of each syllable the\\ndifferent strokes composing the letter are made the speed of utterance is grad-\\nually accelerated, till finally the a is made very quickly, and at the same time\\nneatly. By this method of teaching, a plain, neat, and quick hand, is easily\\nacquired.\\n4. Elements of number, or arithmetic.\\nIn this branch of instruction I saw no improvements in the mode of teaching\\nnot already substantially introduced into the best schools of our own country. I\\nneed not, therefore, enter into any details respecting them, excepting so far as to\\nsay that the student is taught demonstrate, and perfectly to understand, the\\nreason and nature of every rule before he uses it.\\nII. Second part children from eight to ten years of age.\\n1, ExercLses in reading.\\nThe object of these exercises, in this part of the course, is to acquire the habit\\nof reading with accuracy and readiness, with due regard to punctuation, and with\\nreference to orthogr;iphy. Sometimes the whole class read together, and some-\\ntimes an individual by himself, in order to accustom them to both modes of read-\\ning, and to secure the advantages of both. The sentence is first gone through\\nwith in the class, by distinctly spelling each word as it occurs then by pronounc-\\ning each word distinctly without spelling it a third time by pronouncing the\\nwords and mentioning the punctuation points as they occur. ^V fourth time, the\\nsentence is read with the jn-oper pauses indicated by the punctuation jtoints, with-\\nout mentioning them. Finally, the same sentence is read with particular attention\\nto the intonations of the voice. Thus one thing is taken at a time, and pujiils\\nnuist become tluirough in eaeli as it occurs, before they proceed to the next.\\nOne great benefit of the class reading together is, that each individual has the\\nsame amount of exercise as if he were the only one under instruction, his attention", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 53\\ncan never falter, and no part of the lesson escapes him. A skillful teacher, once\\naccustomed to this mode of reading, can as easily detect any fault, mispronuncia-\\ntion, or negligence, in any individual, as if that individual were reading alone.\\nThe process is sometiiues shortened, and the sentence read only three times,\\nnamely according to the words, according to the punctuation, according to the\\nlife.\\n2. Exercises in writing.\\nThe pupils proceed to write copies in joining-hand, both large and small, the\\nprinciples of teaching being essentially as described in the first part of the course.\\nThe great object here is, to obtain a neat, swift, business hand. ISometimes, with-\\nout a copy, they write from the dictation of the teacher and in most cases in-\\nstruction in orthography and jjunctuation is combined with that in penmanship.\\nThey are also taught to make and mend their own pens, and in doing this to be\\neconomical of their quills.\\nReligious and moral instruction in select Bible narratives.\\nIn this branch of teaching the methods are various, and the teacher adopts the\\nmethod best adapted, in his judgement, to the particular circumstances of his own\\nschool, or to the special objects which he may have in view with a particular class.\\nSometimes he calls the class around him, and relates to them in his own language,\\n.some of the simple narratives of the Bible, or reads it to them in the words of\\nthe Bible itself, or directs one of the children to read it aloud and then follows a\\nfriendly, familiar conversation between him and the class respecting the narrative\\ntheir little doubts are pniposcd and resolved, their questions put and answered, and\\nthe teacher unfolds the moral and religious instruction to be derived from the les-\\nson, and illustrates it by appropriate quotations from the didactic and preceptive\\npart.s of the Scripture. Sometimes he explains to the class a particular virtue or\\nvice, a truth or a duty and after having clearly shown what it is, he takes some\\nBible narrative which strongly illustrates the point in discussion, reads it to them,\\nand directs their attention to it, with special reference to the preceding narrative.\\nA specimen or two of these different methods will best show what they are.\\n(a) llead the narrative of the birth of Christ, as given by Luke, ii. l- 2(). Ob-\\nserve, Christ was born for the salvation of men, so also for thi salvation of chil-\\ndren. Christ is the children s friend. Heaven rejoices in the good of men.\\nJesus, though so great and glorious, makes his aiipearanco in a most humble con-\\ndition. He is the teacher of the poor, as well as of the rich.\\nWith these remarks compare other texts of the Bible.\\nJno iii 16. For God so lovpd the world that he pave his only begotten Son, that whoso-\\never believelti in liim should not perish, but have everlasting life.\\n1. Jan. iv. 9 In this was manifested the love of God toward us; because that God sent\\nhis only befrotten Son into the world, that we mif;ht live througti him.\\nMark .V. 14, 1. But when .lesussawit he was much displeased, and said nnto them,\\nSuffer little children to come unio me. for of such is the kingdom of God. Verily I say unto\\nyou. whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not enter\\ntherein.\\nAnd the lesson is concluded with singing a Christmas hymn.\\nJesus feeds five thousand men Jno. vi. 1-14.\\nGod can bless a little so that it will do great good.\\nEconomy suffers nothing to be lost other texts: Ps. cxlv. 15, 16.\\nThe eyes of all wait upon thee and thou givest them their me.at in due season.\\nThou openest thy hand, and satisfies! the desire of every living thing.\\nMatt. vi. 31-33. -Therefore fake no thought, saying, what shall we eat? or, What shall\\nwe drink 7 or. Wherewith il shall we be clothed? (for after all these things do the Gentiles\\nseek for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things. But seek ye\\nfirst the kingdom of God, and his righteousness and all these things shall be added unto\\nyou.\\nStory of Cain and Abel. Gen. iv. 1-16.\\nRemarks. Two men may do the same thing externally, and yet the merit of\\ntheir acts be very different. God looks at the heart. Be careful not to cherish\\nenvy or ill will in the heart. You know not to what crimes they may lead you.\\nRemorse and misery of the fratricide other texts. Matt. xv. 10. Heb. xi. 4.\\n1 Jno. iii. 12. ,Iob. xxxiv. 32.\\nFor out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts* false\\nwitness, blasphemies.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "54 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nBy faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain, by which he obtained\\nwitness that he was righteous, God testifying of his gifts: and by it he, being dead, yet\\nEjieaketh.\\nNot as Cain, who was of that wicked one, and slew his brother. And wherefore slew he\\nhim t Because his own works were evil, and his brother s righteous.\\nStory of Jesus in the temple. Luke ii. 41-52.\\nJesus in his childhood was very fond of learning, (he heard and asked ques-\\ntions.) God s word was his delight, he understood what he heard and read,\\n(men were astonished at his understanding and answers.) He carefully obeyed\\nhis parents, (he went with them and was subject to them.) And as he grew up,\\nhis good conduct endeared him to God and man. Other texts. Eph. vi. 1-4.\\nProv. iii. 1-4.\\nChildren! obey your parents in the Lord; for this is right. Honor thy father and\\nmother, (which is the first commandment with promise.) that it may be well with thee, and\\nthou mayest live long on Ihe earth. And ye fathers provoke not your children to wrath,\\nbut bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord\\nMy son, forget not my law but let thine heart keep my commandments: For length of\\ndays, and long life, and peace, shall they add to thee. Let not mercy and truth forsake thee\\nbind them about thy neck write them upon the table of thine heart: So shall thou find\\nfavor and good understanding in the sight of God and man.\\nOn the other mode of teaching, the teacher, for example, states the general\\ntruth, that God protects and rewards the good, and punishes the bad. In illustra-\\ntion of this he reads to them the narrative of Daniel in the lions den, and the\\ndeath which overtook his wicked accusers. Dan. vi. In illustration of the same\\ntruth, the escape of I eter, and the miserable death of his persecutor, Herod, may\\nbe read. Acts xii.\\nThe teacher may impress upon the mind of his class, that diligence, scrupulous\\nfidelity, and conscientious self-control, are the surest guarantees of success in life\\nand, in illustration of the statement, read the narrative of Joseph s conduct in his\\nmaster s house in Egypt, and in the prison, and the results of it. Gen. xxxix.\\nSo, also, various incidents in the life of Jesus may be used to great advantage in\\nillustrating different virtues.\\nIt is reeommenied that the teacher employ, in his instructions, the translation\\nof the Scriptures in general use among the people but that he occasionally take\\nthe original Scriptures and read to the children, in his own translation, and some-\\ntimes use simple translations from different authors, that children may early learn\\nto notice the diversities in different faithful translations, and see what they really\\namount to.\\nIt is scarcely necessary to observe, that a teacher who understands his business,\\nand is faithful to his trust, will scrupulously abstain from sectarian peculiarities, or\\nfrom casting odium on the tenets of any of the Christian denominations. A man\\nwho has not magnanimity or enlargement of mind enough for this, is not fit to be\\nemployed as a teacher, even in the humblest branches of knowledge.\\n4. Language, or grammar.\\nThe knowledge of the native tongue, the ability to use it with correctness, facility,\\nand power, is justly regarded as one of the most important branches of com-\\nmon school instruction. It is the principal object of the logical exercises, or, as\\nthey may be justly termed, the exercises in thinking and speaking^ already des-\\ncribed as the first subject of study in the first part of the course, before the child\\nhas begun to use his book at all.\\nIn this second part of the course, grammar is taught directly and scientifically,\\nyet by no means in a dry and technical manner. On the contrary, technical\\nterms are carefully avoided, till the child has become familiar with the nature and\\nuse of the things designated by them, and he is able to use them as the names of\\nideas which have a definite existence in his mind, and not as awful sounds, dimly\\nshadowing forth some mysteries of science into which he has no power to\\npenetrate.\\nThe first object is to illustrate the different parts of speech, such as the noun,\\nthe verb, the adjective, the adverb and this is done by engaging the pupil in\\nconversation, and leading him to form sentences in which the particular parts of\\nspeech to be Varned shall be the most important word, and directing his attention\\nto the nature and use of the word in the place where he uses it. For example,\\nlet us suppose the nature and use of the adverb are tn be taught. The teacLer", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\n65\\nwrites upon the blackboard the words here, there, near, c. He then says,\\nChildren, we are all together in this room by which of the words on the black-\\nboard can you express this Children. We are all Aere. Teacher. Now\\nlook out of the window and see the church what can you say of the church\\nwith the second word on the blackbuard Children. The church is there.\\nTeacher. The distance between us and the church is not great how will you\\nexpress this by a word on the blackboard Children. The church is near,\\nThe fact that these diftereiit words express the same sort of relations is then ex-\\nplained, and, accordingly, that they belong to the same class, or are the same part\\nof speech. The variations of these words are next explained. hildren, you\\nsay the church is near, but there is a shop between us and the church wliat will\\nyou say of the shop Children. The shop is nearer. Teacher. But there\\nis a fence between us and the shop. Is ow when you think of the distance\\nbetween us, the shop and the fence, wliat will you say of the fence Children.\\nThe fence is nearest. So of other adverbs. The lark sings well. Compare\\nthe singing of the lark with that of the canary bird. Compare the singing of the\\nnightingale with that of the canary bird. After all the different sorts of adverbs\\nand their variations have in this way been illustrated, and the pupils understand\\nthat all words of this kind are called adverbs, the definition of the adverb is given\\nas it stands in the granmiar, and the book is put into their hands to study the\\nchapter on this topic. In this way the pupil understands what he is doing at\\nevery step of his progress, and his memory is never burdened with mere names,\\nto which he can attach no definite meaning.\\nThe mode of teaching the i;ubsequent branches is founded on the same general\\nprinciples, and it may not be necessary to give particular examples.\\n5. Numbers, or arithmetic.\\n6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry.\\n7. Singing by note, or elements of music.\\nThe method of teaching music has already been successfully introduced into our\\nown State, and whoever visits the schools of Messrs. Mason or Solomon, in Cincin-\\nnati, will have a much better idea of what it is than any description can give\\nnor will any one who visits these schools entertain a doubt that all children from\\nsix to ten years of age, vvho are capable of learning to read, are capable of learn-\\ning to sing, and that this branch of instruction can be introduced into all our\\ncommon schools with the greatest advantage, not only to the comfort and disci-\\npline of the pupils, but also to their progress in their other studies.\\nThe students are taught from the blackboard. The different sounds are repre\u00c2\u00bb\\nsented by lines of different lengths, by letters, by figures, and by musical notes\\nand the pupils are thoroughly drilled on each successive principle before proceed-\\ning to the next.\\nIII. Third part, of two years children from ten to twelve.\\n1. Exercises in reading and elocution.\\nThe objects of these exercises, in this part of the course, is to accustom the\\npupils to read in a natural and impressive manner, so as to bring the full force of\\nthe sentiment on those to whom they read. They are examined in modulation,\\nemphasis, and the various intonations, and they often read sentences from the\\nblackboard in which the various modulations are expressed by musical notes or\\ncurved lines.\\nThe evils of drawling and monotone are prevented in the outset by the method\\nof teaching, particularly the practice of the whole class reading together and\\nkeeping time. Short and pithy sentences, particularly the Book of Proverbs, are\\nrecommended as admirably adapted to exercises of this kind.\\n2. Ornamental writing, introductoiy to drawing.\\nThe various kinds of ornamental letters are here practiced upon, giving accuracy\\nto the ej e and steadiness to the hand, preparatory to skill in drawing, which comes\\ninto the next part of the course. The pupils also practice writing sentences and\\nletters, with neatness, rapidity, and correctness.\\n3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history.\\nThe design here is to give to the student a full and connected view of the whole\\nBible history. For this purpose large tables are made out and hung before the\\nstudents. These tables are generally arranged in four columns, the first contain-\\ning the names of the distinguiched men during a particular period of Bible history", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "gg PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nthe second, the dates the third, a chronological register of events and the\\nfourth, the particular passages of the Bible where the history of these persons\\nand events may be found. With these tables before the pupils, the teacher him-\\nself, in his own words, gives a brief conversational outline of the principal char-\\nacters and events within a certain period, and then gives directions that the scrip-\\ntural passages referred to be carefully read. After this is done, the usual recita-\\ntion and examination takes place. Some of the more striking narratives, such as\\nthe finding of Moses on the banks of tlie Jsile Abraham offering his son the\\njourney of the wise men to do homage to Christ the crucifixion the conversion\\nof Paul, c., are committed to memory in the words of the Bible, and the recita-\\ntion accompanied with the singing of a hymn alluding to these events. The\\nmoral instruction to be derived from each historical event is carefully impressed\\nby the teacher. The teacher also gives them a brief view of the history between\\nthe termination of the Old and the commencement of the New Testament, that\\nnothing may be wanting to a complete and systematic view of the whole ground.\\nThus the whole of the historical part of the Bible is studied thoroughly, and sys-\\ntematically, and practically, without the least sectarian bias, and without a moment\\nbeing spent on a single idea that will not be of the highest use to the scholar\\nduring all his future life.\\n4. Language and grammar.\\nThere is here a continuation of the exercises in the preceding parts of the\\ncourse, in a more scientific form, together with parsing of connected sentences,\\nand writing from the dictation of the teacher, w^ith reference to grammar, orthog-\\nraphy, and punctuation. The same principal alluded to before, of avoiding tech-\\nnical terms till the things represented by those terms are clearly perceived, is here\\ncarefully adhered to. A single specimen of the manner in which the modes and\\ntenses of the verb are taught may be sufficient to illustrate my meaning. The\\nteacher writes on the blackboard a simple sentence, as, Tlie scholars learn well\\nand asks the class what sort of a sentence it is. They reply that it is a direct\\nstatement of a fact. (Teach.) Put it in the form of a command. (Class.) Schol-\\nars, learn well (Teach.) Put it in a question form. (Class.) Do the scholars\\nlearn well (Teach.) Of a wish. (Cla.ss.) May the scholars learn well\\n(Teach Of an exclamation. (Class.) How well the scholars learn (Teach.)\\nThe conditional form. (Class.) If the scholars learn well or, should the scholars\\nlearn well. (Teacl^) Of necessity. (Class.) The scholars must learn well.\\n(Teach.) Of ability. (Class.) The scholars can learn well, c., c. They are\\nthen taught that the direct statement is called the indicative mode of the verb\\nthe command, the imperative mode the conditional, the subjunctive mode the\\nwish, the potential mode, c., c. and after this, the book is put into their\\nhands, and they study their lesson as it stands. After this the different tenses of\\nthe several modes are taught in the same way.\\n5. Real instruction, or knowledge of Nature and the external world, including\\nthe first elements of the natural sciences, the arts of life, geography, and history,\\ninstruction on this head is directed to the answering of the following questions,\\nnamely\\n(a) What is man, as it respects his corporeal and intellectual nature\\nHere come anatomy and physiology, so far as the structure of the human body\\nis concerned, and the functions of its several parts.\\nAlso the simple elements of mental philosophy. In this connection appropriate\\ntexts of Scripture are quoted, as Gen. ii. 7. Ps. cxxxix. 14-16. An appropriate\\nhymn is also sung.\\nAnd the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils\\nthe breath of life and man became a living soul.\\nI will praise thee for I am fearfully and wonderfully made marvellous are thy works\\nand that my soul knoweth right well. My substance was not hid from thee, when I was\\nmade in secret, and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see\\nmy substance, yet being imperfect and in thy book all my members were written, which in\\neontinuance were fashioned, when as yet there Was none of them.\\n(b) What does man need for the preservation and cheerful enjoyment of life,\\nas it respects his body and mind For his body he needs food the different\\nkinds of foid, and the mode of preparing them, are here brought to view the\\nunwholesomeness of some kinds of food injuriousness of improper food cooking;", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. g^\\nevils of gluttony. The different kinds of clothing and modes of preparing them\\nwhat sort of dress is necessary to health folly and wickedness of vanity and\\nextravagance. Dwellings^ materials of which houses are constructed mode of\\nconstructing them different trades employed in their construction.\\nFor the mind, man needs society, the family and its duties the neighborhood\\nand its duties. Intellectual, moral, and religious cultivation the school and its\\nduties the church and its duties. For the body and mind both, he needs security\\nof person and property the government the legislature the courts, c.\\n(c) Where and how do men find the means to supply their wants, and make\\nthemselves comfortable and happy in this life\\nThe vegetable, the mineral, and the animal kingdoms are here brought to view,\\nfor materials together with agriculture and manufactures, as the means of con-\\nverting these materials to our use. Geography, with special reference to the pro-\\nductions of countries, and their civil, literary, and religious institutions towns,\\ntheir organization and employments. Geography is sometimes taught by blank\\ncharts, to which the students are required to affix the names of the several coun-\\ntries, rivers, mountains, principal towns, c., and then state the productions and\\ninstitutions for which they are remarkable. Sometimes the names of countries,\\nrivers, c., are given, and the pupil is required to construct an outline chart of\\ntheir localities.\\nIn respect to all the above points, the native country is particularly studied its\\ncapabilities, its productions, its laws, its institutions, its history, c., are investigated,\\nwith especial reference to its ability of supplying the physical, social, and moral\\nwants of its inhabitants. Under this head the pupils are taught to appreciate\\ntheir native country, to venerate and love its institutions, to understand what is\\nnecessary to their perfection, and to imbibe a spirit of pure and generous patriot-\\nism. It is scarcely necessary to add, that all the instruction under this fifth head\\nis confined to the fundamental and simplest principles of the several branches re-\\nferred to.\\n6. Arithmetic, continued through fractions and the rules of proportion.\\n7. Geometry, doctrine of magnitudes and measures.\\n8. Singing, and science of vocal and instrumental music.\\nIV. Fourth part, of two years -children from twelve to fourteen.\\n1. Religious instruction, in the religious observation of Nature, the life and dis-\\ncourses of Jesus Christ, the history of the Christian religion, in connection with\\nthe eotemporary civil history, and the principal doctrines of the Christian\\nsystem.\\nThe first topic of instruction mentioned under this head is one of peculiar\\ninterest and utility. The pupils are taught to observe, with care and system, the\\nvarious powers and operations of Nature, and to consider them as so many illus-\\ntrations of the wisdom, power, and goodness of the Creator and at each lesson\\nthey are directed to some appropriate passage of the Bible, which they read and\\ncommit to memory and thus the idea is continually impressed on them, that the\\nGod of Nature and the God of the Bible are one and the same Being.\\nFor example, as introductory to the whole study, the first chapter of Genesis,\\ntogether with some other appropriate passage of Scripture, as the 147th Psalm, or\\nthe 38th chapter of Job, may be read and committed to memory. The surface\\nof the earth, as illustrating the power and wisdom of God, may be taken as a\\nlesson. Then the varieties of surface, as mountains, valleys, oceans and rivers,\\ncontinents and islands, the height of mountains, the breadth of oceans, the length\\nof rivers, remarkable cataracts, extended caverns, volcanoes, tides, c., may be\\ntaken into view, and the teacher may impress upon the class the greatness,\\npower, and intelligence necessary for such a creation. The whole is fortified by\\nthe application of such a passage as Psalm civ. 1-13.\\nBless the Lord, O my soul O Lord my God thou art very ?reat tnou art clothed with\\nhonor and majesty. Who coverest thy.self with light as with a garment who stretchest out\\nthe heavens like a curtain who layetli the beams of his chambers in the wafers who mak-\\neth the clouds his chariot who walkelh upon the wings of the wind who maketh his\\nangels spirits his ministers a Uaminr fire. Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it\\nshould not be removed forever. Thou coverest it with the deep as with a garment: the\\nwaters stood above the mountains. At thy rebnke they fled at the voice of tliy thunder\\nthey halted away They go up by the mountains they go down by the valleys unto the\\nplace which thoii hast founded for them. Tiiuu hnst set a bound that they may not pass\\nover that they turn not again to cover the earth. He eendeth the springs into the valleys,", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "58 PRrMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nwhich run anionsr the hills. They pive drink to every beast of the field the wild asses\\nquench their thirst. By them shall the (owls of the heaven have their hab.tatioii, which sing\\namong the brandies. He watereth the hills from his chambers the earth is satisfied with\\nthe truit of thy works.\\nO Lord, how manifold are thy works in wisdom hast thou made them all the earth is\\nfull of thy riches. So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things ci-eeping innumerable,\\nboth small and great beasts. There go the ships there is that leviathan, whom thou hast\\nmade to play therein.\\nThe fruitfulness and beauty of the earth, as illustrating the wisdom and good-\\nness of God, may serve as another lesson. Here may be exhibited the beauty\\nand variety of the plants and flowers with which the earth is adorned the man-\\nner of their growth and self-propagation, their iitility to man and beast, their\\nimmense number and variety, their relations to each other as genera and species\\ntrees and their varieties, their beauty and utility, their timber and their fruit and,\\nin connection with this lesson. Psalm civ. 14-34 may be committed to memory.\\nHe causeth the grass tn grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man that he may\\nbring forth lood out of the earth and wine that niaketh glad the heart ol man. and oil to\\nmake h.s face to shine, and bread wli.ch strengtheiieth man s heart. The trees of the Lord\\nare full of sap the cedars of l,ebanoii. wli,ch he halh planted where the birds make their\\nnests as for the stork, the lir trees are her house. The high hills are a refuge fur the wild\\ngoats and the rocks for the conies. He appointeth the moon for seasons the sun knowelh\\nhsgoing down. Thou maketh darkness, and it is night wherein all the beasts of the forest\\ndo creep forth. The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meal from God. The\\nsun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens. Man goeth\\nIbrth unto h s work and to his lalior until the evening\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2These wait all upon thee that thou mayest give them their meat in due season. That\\nthou givest them they gather; thou openest thine hand, they are filled with good. Thou\\nhidest thy f;ice. they are troubled: thou takest away their breath, they die. and return to\\ntheir dust. Thou sendest forth thy .Spirit, they are created and thou renewest the face of\\nthe earth. The glory of the Lord shall endure forever the Lord shall rejoice in his works.\\nHe looketh on the earth, and it trembleth he toucheth tlie hills, and they smoke. I will\\nsing unto the Lord as lung as I live 1 will sing praise to my God while I haye my being. My\\nmeditation of him shall be sweet I will be glad in the Lord.\\nIn like manner, the creation and nourishment, the habits and instincts of vari-\\nous animals may be contemplated, in connection with Proverbs vi. 6-8 Psalm\\nciv. ir-22 Proverbs x.xx. 24-31 Gen. i. 2U-24 Psalm cxlv. 15-16.\\nGo to the ant, thou sluggard consider her ways, and be wise Wh ch having no guide,\\nover.-eer, or ruler, providelh her meat in the summer, and ^rathereth her food in the harvest.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u00a2There he four things which are liltleon the earth, but they are excee hng wise the ants\\nare a people not strong, yet they prepare their meat in the summer the conies are but a\\nfeeble folk, yet make they their houses in the rocks; the locusts have no king, yet go they\\nforth all of them by bands; the spider takelh hold with her hands, and is in kings palaces.\\nThere be three things which go well, Vea, four are comely in going: a lion, wliich is strong-\\ne.st among beasts, and turnelh not away for any a grayhound a he-goat also and a king,\\nagainst whom there is no rising up.\\nAnd God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and\\ncreepiUL thing, and beasts of the earth after his kind and it was so. And God made the\\nbeast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon\\nthe earth after his kind and God saw that it was good\\nThe eyes of all wait upon thee and thou givest them their meat in due season. Thou\\nopenest thine hind, and satisfiest the desire of every living thing. The Lord is righteous in\\nall his ways, and holy in all his works.\\nThe phenomena of light and color, the nature of the rainbow, c., may make\\nanother interesting lesson, illustrating the unknown forins of beauty and glory\\nwhich exist in the Divine Mind, and which He may yet develope in other and\\nstill more glorious worlds in connection with Geu. i. 3, 5, 9, 13, 14, and other\\npassages of like kind.\\nSo the properties of the air, wind, and storm. Job xxviii. 25 xxxviii. 33, 34, 35.\\nPsalm cxlviii. 8.\\nKnowest thou the ordinance of heaven 7 canst thou set the dominion thereof in the earth\\nCanst thoii lift up thy voice to the clouds, that abundance of waters may cover thee Canst\\nthou send lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee. Here we are 1 Who hath put wis-\\ndom in the Inward parts or who hath given understanding to the heart 1 Who can num-\\nber the clouds in wisdom 7 or who can stay the bottles of heaven V\\nThen the heavens, the sun, moon, planets, fixed stars, and comets, the whole\\nscience of astronoiny, so far as it can be introduced with advantage into common\\nschools, can be conteniplated in llie same way. The enlightening, elevating, and\\npurifying moral influence of isiKh a scheme of instruction, carried through the", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY Sv:ilL/U;.S Or GCKMANV. gj)\\nwhole system of Nature, must be clearly obvious to every thinking mind and\\nits utility, eonsidered merely with reference to worldly good, is no less iiianilest.\\nThe second topic of religious instruction is more exclusively scriptural. The\\nlife of Christ, and the liistory of the apostles, as given in the New Testament, are\\nchronologically arranged, and tables formed as before. (111. 3.) The dis-\\ncourses of Cihrist are examined and explained in their chronological arrangement,\\nand in the same way the discourses and epistles of the apostles. The li;stoiy f\\nChristianity, in connection with the cotemporarji civil history, is taught in a series\\nof conversational lectures. To conclude the whole course of religious insti uciioii,\\na summary of the Christian doctrine is given in the form of some approved\\ncatechism.\\n2. Knowledge of the world and of mankind, including civil society, constitu-\\ntional law, agriculture, mechanic arts, manufactures, c.\\nThis is a continuation and completicm, in a more systematic form, of the instruc-\\ntion commenced in ill. .5. The course begins with the family, and the first object\\nis to construct a habitation, llie ]iupil tells what materials are necessary for this\\npurpose, where they are to be found, how brought together and fitted into the\\nsev(. ral parts of the building. The house must now be furnished. The difFerent\\narticles of furniture and their uses are named in systematic order, the materials of\\nwhich they are made, and the various trades employed in making them are enu-\\nmerated. Then comes the garden, its tools and ])i oducts, and whatever else is\\nnecessary for the subsistence and physical comfort of a family. Then the family\\nduties and virtues parental and filial obligation and affection rights of property\\nduties of neighborhoods the civil relations of society the religious relations of\\nsociety the state, the father-land, c. finally, geography, history, and travels.\\nBooks of travels aie compiled expressly for the use of schools, and are found to\\nbe of the highest interest and utility.\\n3. Language, and exercises in composition.\\nThe object here is to give the pupils a perfect Command of their native tongue,\\nand ability to use it on all occasions with readiness and power. The first exercises\\nare on simple questions, suoh as Why ought children to love and obey their\\nparents? or they are short descriptions of visible objects, such as a house, a\\nroom, a garden, e. There are also exercises on the various forms of expressing\\nthe same idea, as, The sun enlightens the earth. The earth is enlightened\\nby the sun. The sun gives light to the earth. The earth receives light\\nfrom the sun. The sun is the source of light to the earth. 1 he sun sends\\nout its rays to enlighten the earth. The earth is enlightened by rays sent out\\nfrom the sun, c. There are exercises also of the same sort on metaphors and\\nother figures of speech. Familiar letters are then written, and short essays on\\nthemes such as may be furnished by texts from the Book of Proverbs, and other\\nsentences of the kind and thus gradual advancement is made to all tlie higher\\nand graver modes of composition.\\n4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to the business of life,\\nincluding surveying, civil engineering, c.\\nThe utility of this branch of instruction, and the mode of it, after what has\\nalready been said, are probably too obvious to need any further illu.stration.\\n5. Elements of drawing.\\nFor this the pui)ils have already been prepared by the exercises in ornamental\\nwriting, in the previous part of the course. They have already acquired that ac-\\ncuracy of sight and .steadiness of hand which are among the most essential requi-\\nsites to drawing well. The first exercises are in drawing lines, and the most\\nsimple mathematical figures, such as the square, the cube, the triangle, the paral-\\nlelogram generally from wooden models, placed at some little distance on a\\nshelf, before the class. From this they proceed to architectural figures, such as\\ndoors, windows, columns, facades. Then the figures of animals, such as a horse.\\na cow, an elephant first from other pictures, and then from Nature. A plant, a\\nrose, or some flower is placed upon a shelf, and the class inake a picture of it.\\nFrom this they proceed to landscape painting, historical painting, and the higher\\nbranches of the art, according to their time and ca))acity. All learn enough of\\ndrawing to use it in the common business of life, such as plotting a field, laying\\nout a canal, or drawing the plan of a building and many attain to a high degree\\nof excellence.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "QQ PRIMATvV SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\n6. Exercises in singing, and the science of music.\\nThe instructions of the previous parts are extended as far as possible, and\\ninclude singing and playing at sight, and the more abstruse and difficult branches\\nof the science and art of music.\\nThe following extracts from Hon. Horace Mann s Seventh Annual\\nReport to the Board of Education in Massachusetts, will supply some\\ndeficiences in the foregoing sketch, and, at the same time, present the\\nimpressions of another observer.\\nCLASSIFICATION.\\nThe first element of superiority in a Prussian school, and one whose influence ex-\\ntends throughout the whole subsequent course of instruction, consists in the proper\\nclassification of the scholars. In all places where the numbers are sufficiently\\nlarge to allow it, the children are divided according to ages and attainments and\\na single teacher has the charge only of a single class, or of as small a number of\\nclasses as is practicable. I have before adverted to the construction of the school-\\nhouses, by which; as far as possible, a room is assigned to each class. Let us sup-\\npose a teacher to have the charge of but one class, and to have talent and\\nre.sovirces sufficient properly to engage and occupy its attention, and we suppose a\\nperfect school. But how greatly are the teacher s duties increased, and his diffi-\\nculties multiplied, if he have four, five, or half a dozen classes, under his personal\\ninspection. While attending to the recitation of one, his mind is constantly\\ncalled oft to attend to the studies and the conduct of all the others. For this,\\nvery few teachers amongst us have the requisite capacity and hence the idleness\\nand the disorder that reign in so many of our schools, excepting in eases where\\nthe debasing motive of fear puts the children in irons. All these difficulties are at\\nonce avoided by a suitable classification by such a classification as enables the\\nteacher to address his instructions at the same time to all the children who are\\nbefore him, and to accom])any them to the play-ground, at recess or intermission,\\nwithout leaving any behind who might be disposed to take advantage of his\\nabsence. All this will become more and more obvious as I proceed with a descrip-\\ntion of exercises. There is no obstacle whatever, save prescription, and tliat vis\\ninertia of mind which continues in the beaten track because it has not vigor\\nenough to turn aside from it, to the introduction, at once, of this mode of dividing\\nand classifying scholars, in all our large towns.\\nMETHOD OF TEACHING YOUNG CHILDREN ON THEIR FIRST ENTERING SCHOOL.\\nIn regard to this as well as other modes of teaching, I shall endeavor to\\ndescribe some particular lessons that I heard. The Prussian and Saxon schools\\nare all conducted substantially upon the same plan, and taught in the same man-\\nner. Of course, there must be those differences to which different degrees of\\ntalent and experience give rise.\\nAbout twenty years ago, teachers in Prussia made the important discovery that\\nchildren have five senses, together with various muscles and mental faculties, all\\nwhich, almost by a necessity of their nature, must be kept in a state of activity,\\nand which, if not usefully, are liable to be mischievously employed. Subsequent\\nimprovements in the art of teaching have consisted in supplying interesting and\\nuseful, instead of mischievous occupation, for these senses, muscles, and faculties.\\nExperience has now proved that it is much easier to furnish profitable and delight-\\nful employment for all these powers, than it is to stand over them with a rod and\\nstifle their workings, or to assume a thousand shapes of fear to guard the thou-\\nsand avenues through which the salient spirits of the young play outward. Nay,\\nit is much easier to keep the eye, and hand, and mind at work together, than it is\\nto employ any one of them separately from the others. A child is bound to the\\nteacher by so many more cords, the more of his n.atural capacities the teacher can\\ninterest and employ.\\nIn the ease I am now to describe, I entered a class-room of sixty children, of\\nabout six years of age. The children were just taking their seats, all smiles and\\nexpectation. They had been at school but a few weeks, but long enough to have\\noontiaeted a love for it. The teacher took his station before them, and after", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMAiNY. gj\\nmaking a playful remark which excited a light titter around the room, and effec-\\ntually arrested attention, he gave a signal for silence. After wating a moment,\\nduring which every countenance was composed and every noise hushed, he made\\na prayer consisting of a single sentence, asking that as they had come together to\\nlearn, they might be good and diligent. He then spoke to thei7i of the beautiful\\nday, asked what they knew about the seasons, referred to the different kinds of\\nfruit-trees then in bearing, and questioned them upon the uses of trees in con-\\nstructing houses, furniture, c. Frequently he threw in sportive remarks which\\nenlivened the whole school, but without ever producing the slightest symptom of\\ndisorder. During the familiar conversation, which lasted about twenty minutes,\\nthere was nothing frivolous or trifling in the manner of the teacher that manner\\nwas dignified though playful, and the little jets of laughter which he caused the\\nchildren occasionally to throw out, were much m6re favorable to a receptive state\\nof mind than jets of tears.\\nHere I must make a prelimenary remark, in regard to the equipments of the\\nscholars and the furniture of the school-room. Every child has a slate and pencil,\\nand a little reading book of letters, words, and short sentences. Indeed, I never\\nsaw a Prussian or Sa.xon school, above an infant school, in which any child was\\nunprovided with a slate and pencil. By the teacher s desk, and in front of the\\nschool, hung a blackboard. The teacher first drew a house upon the blackboard\\nand here the value of the art of drawing, a power universally possessed by Prus-\\nsian teachers, became manifest. By the side of the drawing and under it, he\\nwrote the word house in the German script hand, and printed it in the German\\nletter. With a long pointing rod, the end being painted white to make it more\\nvisible, he ran over the form of the letters, the children, with their slates before\\nthem and their pencils in their hands, looking at the pointing rod and tracing the\\nforms of the letters in the air. In all our good schools, children are first taughf\\nto imitate the forms of letters on the slate before they write them on paper here\\nthey were first imitated on the air, then on slates, and subsequently, in older\\nclasses, on paper. The next process was to copy the word house, both in\\nscript and in print, on their slates. Then followed the formation of the sounds of\\nthe letters of which the word was composed, and the spelling of the word. Here\\nthe namefi of the letters were not given as with us, but only their powers, or the\\nsounds vshich those letters have in combination. The letter h was first selected\\nand set up in the reading-frame, (the same before described as part of the appa-\\nratus of Prussian schools for young children.) instead of articulating our alphabetic\\nh, (aitch.) merely gave a hard breathing such a sound as the letter really has\\nin the word house. Then the dipthong, au, ithe German word for house\\nis spelled haus, was taken and sounded by itself, in the same way. Then\\nthe blocks containing A, and au, wei-e brought together, and the two sounds were\\ncombined. Lastly,, the letter s was first sounded by itself, then added to the\\nothers, and then the whole word was spoken. Sometimes the last letter in a\\nword was first taken and sounded after that the penultimate and so on imtil the\\nword was completed. The responses of the children were sometimes individual,\\nand sometimes simultaneous, according to a signal given by the master.\\nIn every such school, also, there are printed sheets or cards, containing the\\nletters, dipthongs, and whole words. The children are taught to sound a dip-\\nthong, and then asked in what words that sound occurs. On some of these\\ncards there are words enough to make several short sentences, and when the\\npupils are a little advanced, the teacher points to several isolated words in succes-\\nsion, which when taken together make a familiar sentence, and thus he gives\\nthem an agreeable surprise, and a pleasant initiation into reading.\\nAfter the word house was thus completely impressed upon the minds of the\\nchildren, the teacher drew his pointing rod over the lines which formed the\\nhouse and the children imitated him, first in the air, while they were looking at\\nhis motions, then on their slates. In their drawings there was of cours(j a great\\nvariety as to taste and accuracy but each seemed pleased with his own, for their\\nfirst attempts had never been so criticised as to produce discouragement. .Several\\nchildren were then called to the blackboard to draw a house with chalk. After\\nthis, the teacher entered into a conversation about houses. The first question was,\\nwhat kind of a house was th.-.i i the blaekboarJ Tlien the names of other", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "Q2 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nkinds of houses were given. The materials of which houses are built were men-\\ntioned stone, brick, wood the different kinds of wood nails, and where they\\nwere made lime, and whence it came, c. c. hen the teacher touched\\nupon points with which tlie children were supposed to be acquainted, he asked\\nquestions; when he passed to subjects beyond their sphere, he gave information,\\nintermingling the whole with lively remarks and pleasant anecdotes.\\nAnd here one important particular should not be omitted. In this, as well as\\nin all other schools, a complete answer was always required. For instance, if a\\nteacher asks, What are houses made of? he does not accept the answer, of\\nwood or of stone but he requires a full, complete, (vollstandig) answer as,\\na house may be made of wood. The answer nmst always contain an intelli-\\ngible proposition without reference to the words of the question to complete it.\\nAnd here also the greatest care is taken that the answer shall always be gram-\\nmatically correct, have the right terminations of all articles, adjectives and nouns,\\nand the right grammatical transpositions according to the idioms and structure of\\ntlie language. This secures from the beginning, precision in the expression of\\nideas and if, as many philosophers suppose, the intellect could never carry for-\\nward its processes of argument or investigation to any great extent, without using\\nlanguage as its instrument, then these children, in their primary lessons, are not\\nonly led to e.vercise the intellect, but the instrument is put into their hands by\\nwh.ch its operations are facilitated.\\nWhen the hour had expired, I do not believe there was a child in the room\\nwho knew or thought that his play-time had come, isu observing person can be\\nat a loss to understand how such a teacher can arrest and retain the attention of\\nhis scholars. It must have happened to almost every one, at some time in his\\nlife, to be present as a member of a large assembly, when some speaker, in the\\nmidst of great uproar and confusion, has arisen to address it. If, in the veiy\\nconuneneement of his exordium, he makes what is called a happy hit, which is\\nanswered by a response of laughter or applause from those who are near enough\\nto hear it, the attention of the next circle will be aroused. If. then, the speaker\\nmakes another felicitous sally of wit or imagination, this circle too becomes the\\nwilling subject of his power until, by a succession of flashes whether of genius or\\nof wit, he soons brings the whole audience under his command, and sways it as\\nthe sun and moon sway the tide. This is the result of talent, of attainment, and\\nof the successful study both of men and of things and whoever has a suffi-\\nciency of these requisites will be able to command the attention of children, just\\nas a powerful orator commands the attention of men. But the one no more than\\nthe other is the unbought gift of nature. They are the rewards of application\\nand toil superadded to talent.\\nNow it is obvious that in the single exercise above described, there were the\\nelements of reading, spelling, writing, grammar, and di-awing, interspersed with\\nanecdotes and not a little general information and yet there was no excessive\\nvariety, nor were any incongruous subjects forcibly brought together. There was\\nnothing to violate the rule of one thing at a time.\\nCompare the above method with that of calling up a class of abecedarians; or,\\nwhat is more connnon, a single child, and while the teacher holds a book or a card\\nbefore him, and, with a pointer in his hand, says a, he echoes a; then b, and he\\nechoes h and so on until the vertical row of lifeless and ill-favored characters is\\ncompleted, and then of remanding him to his seat, to sit still and look at vacancy.\\nIf the child is bright, the time which passes during this lesson is the only part of the\\nday when he does not think. Not a single faculty of the mind is ooccupied\\nexcept that of imitating sounds and even the number of these imitations amounts\\nonly to twenty-six. A parrot or an idiot could do the same thing. And so of\\nthe organs and members of tlie body. They are condemned to inactivity for\\nthe child who stands mo.st like a post is most approved nay, he is rebuked\\nif he does not stand like a post. A head that does not turn to the right or\\nleft, an eye that lies moveless in its socket, hands hanging motionless at the side,\\nand feet immovable as those of a statue, are the points of excellence, while the\\nchild is echoing the senseless table of a, b, c. Asa general rule, six months are\\nspent before the twenty-six letters are mastered, though the same child would\\nlearn the i:amesof twenty-six playmates or twenty-six playthings in one or two days.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. gg\\nAll children are pleased with the idea of a house, a hat, a top, a ball, a bird, an\\negg, a nest, a flower, fec. and when their minds are led to see new relations or\\nqualities in these objects, or when their former notions respecting them are\\nbrought out more vividly, or are more distinctly defined, their delight is even\\nkeener than that of an adult would be in obtaining a new fact in science, or in\\nhaving the mist of some old doubt dispelled by a new discovery. Lessons on\\nfamiliar objects, given by a competent teacher, never fail to command attention,\\nand thus a habit of mind is induced of inestimable value in regard to all future\\nstudy.\\nAgain, the method I have described necessarily leads to conversation, and con-\\nversation with an intelligent teacher secures several important objects. It com-\\nmunicates information. It brightens ideas befire only dimly apprehended. It\\naddresses itself to the various faculties of the mind, so that no one of them ever\\ntires or is cloyed. It teaches the child to use language, to frame sentences, to\\nselect Words which convey his whole meaning, Vi avoid those which convey either\\nmore or less than he intends to express in fine, it teaches him to seek for\\nthoughts upon a subject, and then to find appropriate language in v^hich to\\nclothe thein. A child trained in this way will never commit those absurd and\\nludicrous mistakes into which uneducated men of some sense not unfrequently\\nfall, viz., that of mismatching their words and ideas of hanging as it were, the\\ngarments of a giant upon the body of a pigmy, or of forcing a pigmys s dress\\nupon the huge limbs of a giant. Appropriate diction should clothe just ideas, as\\na tasteful and substantial garb fits a graceful and vigorous form.\\nThe abuve described exercise occupies the eye and the hand as well as the\\nmind. The eye is employed in tracing visible difterences between different forms,\\nand the hand in copying whatever is presented, with as little difterenee as pos-\\nsible. And who ever saw a child that was not pleased with pictures, and an\\nattempt to imitate them? Thus, the two grand objects so strenuously insisted\\nupon by writers, in regard to the later periods of education and the maturer pro-\\ncesses of thought, are attained, viz., the power of recognizing analogies and dis-\\nsimilarities.\\nHaving given an account of the reading lesson of a primary class, just after\\nthey had commenced going to school, I will follow it with a brief account of a\\nlesson given to a more advanced class. The subject was a short piece of poetry\\ndescribing a hunter s life in Missouri. It was first read, the reading being accom-\\npanied with appropriate criticisms as to pronunciation, tone, c. It was then\\ntaken up verse by verse, and the pupils were required to give equivalent expres-\\nsions in prose. The teacher then entered into an explanation of every part of it,\\nin a sort of oral lecture, accompanied with occasional questions. This was done\\nwith the greatest minuteness. Where there was a geographical reference, he\\nentered at large into geography where a reference to a foreign custom, he com-\\npared it with their customs at home and thus he explained every part, and illus-\\ntrated the illustrations themselves, until, after an entire hour spent upon six four\\nline verses, he left them to write out the sentiment and the story in prose, to be\\nproduced in school the next morning. All this was done without the .slightest\\nbreak or hesitation, and evidently proceeded from a mind full of the subject, and\\nhaving a ready command of all its resources.\\nAn account of one more lesson will close what I have to say on the subject of\\nreading. The class consisted of young lads, belonging to a burgher school,\\nwhich they were just about leaving. They had been reading a poem of Schiller\\na sort of philosophical allegory and when it was completed, the teacher called\\nupon one of them to give a popular exposition of the meaning of the piece. Tlie\\nlad left his seat, stepped to the teacher s desk, and, standing in front of the school,\\noccupied about fifteen or twenty minutes in an extemporaneous account of the\\npoem, and what he supposed to be its meaning and moral.\\nARITH.METIO AND MATHEMATICS.\\nChildren are taught to cipher, or, if need be. to count, soon after entering\\nschool. I will attempt to describe a lesson wliich I saw given to a very young\\nclass. Blocks of one cube, two cubes, three cubes, c., up to a block of ten\\ncubes, lay upon the teacher s desk. The cubes on each block were distinotly", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "64\\nPRIMARY SCHOOI,S OF GERMANY.\\nmarked off, and differently colored, that is, if the first inch or cube was white, the\\nnext would be black. The teacher stood by his desk, and in front of the class.\\nHe set up a block of one cube, and the class simultaneously said one. A block of\\ntwo cubes was then placed by the side of the first, and the class said two. This\\nwas done until the ten blocks stood by the side of each other in a row. They\\nwere then counted backward, the teacher placing his finger upon them, as a sig-\\nnal that their respective numbers were to be called. The next exercise was, two\\ncomes after one, three comes after two, and so on to ten and then backward,\\nnine comes before ten, eight comes before nine, and so of the rest. The teacher\\nthen asked. What is three composed of? A. Three is composed of one and two.\\nQ. Of what else is three composed A. Three is composed of three ones. Q.\\nWhat is four composed of? A. Four is composed of four ones, of two and two,\\nof three and one. Q. What is five composed of A. Five is composed of five\\nones, of two and three, of two twos and one, of four and one. Q. What num-\\nbers compose six seven? eight? nine? To the latter the pupil would answer,\\nThree threes make nine two, three, and four make nine two, two, and five\\nmake nine three, four, and two make nine three, five, and one make nine,\\nc., c. The teacher then placed similar blocks side by side, while the children\\nadded their respective numbers together two twos make four three twos\\nmake six, c. The blocks were then turned down horizontally to show that\\nthree blocks of two cubes each were equal to one of six cubes. Such questions\\nwere then asked as, how many are six less than eight five less than seven c.\\nThen, how many are seven and eight? The answer was given thus eight are\\none more than seven, seven and seven make fourteen, and one added makes fifteen\\ntherefore eight and seven make fifteen. Q. How many are six and eight A.\\nEight are two more than six, six and six make twelve, and two added make fourteen.\\nOr it might be thus six are two less than eight, eight and eight are sixteen, two\\ntaken from sixteen leave fourteen, therefore eight and six are fourteen. They\\nthen counted up to a hundred on the blocks. Toward the close of the lesson,\\nsuch questions as these were put, and readily answered Of what is thirty-eight\\ncomposed? A. Thirty-eight is composed of thirty and eight ones; of seven fives\\nand three ones or sometimes thus of thirty-seven and one of thirty-six and\\ntwo ones of thirty-five and three ones, :c. Q. Of what is ninety composed?\\nA. Ninety is composed of nine tens, of fifty and forty, e., c.\\nThus, with a frequent reference to the blocks, to keep up attention by present-\\ning an object to the eye, the simple numbers were handled and transposed in a\\ngreat variety of ways. In this lesson, it is obvious that counting, numeration,\\naddition, substraction, multiplication, and division were all included, yet there was\\nno abstract rule, or unintelligible form of words given out to be committed to\\nmemory. Nay, these little children took the first steps in the mensuration of\\nsupei-ficies and solids, by comparing the length and contents of one block with\\nthose of others.\\nWTien the pupils were a little further advanced, I usually heard lessons recited\\nin this way Suppose 4321 are to be multiplied by 25. The pupil says, five times\\none are five ones, and he sets down 5 in the unit s place five times two tens, or\\ntwenty ones, are a hundred, and sets down a cipher in the ten s place five times\\nthree hundred are one thousand and five hundred, and one hundred to be carried\\nmake one thousand six hundred, and sets down a 6 in the hundred s place five\\ntimes four thousand are twenty thousand, and one thousand to be carried make\\ntwenty-one thousand. The next figure in the multiplier is then taken, twenty\\ntimes one are twenty, and a 2 is set down in the ten s place twenty times two\\ntens are four hundred, and a 4 is set down in the hundred s place twenty times\\nthree hundred are six thousand, and a 6 is set down in the thousand s place\\ntwenty times four thousand are eighty thousand, and an 8 is set down in the ten\\nthousand s place. Then come the additions to get the product. Five ones are\\nfive, two tens are twenty, and these figures are respectively set down four\\nhundred and .six hundred make a thousand, and a cipher is set down in the hun-\\ndred s place; one thousand to be carried to six thousand makes seven thousand,\\nand one thousand more makes eight thousand, and an 8 is set down in the thou-\\nsand s place eighty thousand and twenty thousand make one hundred thousand,\\nand a cipher is set down in the ten thousand s place, and a 1 in the hundred", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "PRIMiVfiY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. g5\\nthousand s place. It is easy to see that where the multiplier and multiplicand are\\nlarge, this process soon passes beyond mere child s play.\\nSo in division. If 32r56 are to be divided by 75, the pupil says, how many\\nhundred times are seventy-five, or seventy-five ones, contained in thirty-two\\nthousand and seven hundred, or in thirty-two thousand and seven hundred ones\\nfour hundred times, and he sets down a 4 in the hundred s place in the quotient\\nthen the divisor seventy-five is multiplied (as before; by the four hundred, and\\nthe product is set down under the first three figures of the dividend, and there\\nare two thousand and seven hundred remaining. This remainder is set down in\\nthe next line, because seventy-five is not contained in two thousand seven hundred\\nany number of hundred times. And so of the residue of the process.\\nWhen there is danger that an advanced class will forget the value of the de-\\nnominations they are handling, they are, required to express the value of each\\nfigure in full, throughout the whole process, in the manner above described.\\nI shall never forget the impression which a recitation by a higher class of girls\\nproduced upon my mind. It lasted an hour. Neither teacher nor pupil had book\\nor slate. (.Questions and answers were extemporaneous. They consisted of prob-\\nlems in Vulgar Fractions, simple and compound in the Rule of Three, Practice,\\nInterest, Discount, c., c. A few of the first were simple, but they soon\\nincrease in complication and difficulty, and in the amount of the sums managed,\\nuntil I could hardly credit the report of my own senses, so difficult were the ques-\\ntions, and so prompt and accurate the replies.\\nA great many of the exercises in arithmetic consisted in reducing the coins of\\none State to those of another. In Germany, there are almost as many diflferent\\ncurrencies as there are States and the expression of the value of one coin in\\nother denominations, is a very common exercise.\\nIt struck me that the main dift erences between their mode of teaching arith-\\nmetic and ours, consists in their beginning earlier, continuing the practice in the\\nelements much longer, requiring a more thorough analysis of all questions, and in\\nnot separating the processes, or rules, so much as we do from each other. The\\npupils proceed less by rule, more by an understanding of the subject. It often\\nhappens to our children that while engaged in one rule, they forget a preceding.\\nHence, many of our best teachers have frequent reviews. But there, as I stated\\nabove, the youngest classes of children were taught addition, substraction, multi-\\nplication, and division, promiscuously, in the same lesson. And so it was in the\\nlater stages. The mind was constantly carried along, and the practice enlarged\\nin more than one direction. It is a difference which results from teaching, in the\\none case, from a book and in the other from the head. In the latter case the\\nteacher sees what each pupil most needs and, if he finds any one halting or fail-\\ning on a particular class of questions, plies him with questions of that kind until\\nhis deficiencies are supplied.\\nIn algebra, trigonometry, surveying, geometry, c., I invariably saw the teacher\\nstanding before the blackboard, drawing the diagrams and explaining all the rela-\\ntions between their several parts, while the pupils, in their seats, having a pen\\nand a small manuscript book, copied the figures, and took down brief heads of the\\nsolution and at the next recitation they were required to go to the blackboard,\\ndraw the figures and solve the problems themselves. How different this mode of\\nhearing a lesson from that of holding the text-book in the left hand, while the\\nfore-finger of the right carefully follows the printed demonstration, under penalty,\\nshould the place be lost, of being obliged to recommence the solution.\\nGRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.\\nGreat attention is paid to Grammar, or, as it is usually called in the Plan of\\nStudies, the German language. But I heard very little of the ding-dong and\\nrecitative of gender, number and case, of government and agreement, which\\nmake up so great a portion of the grammatical exercises in our schools and\\nwhich the pupils are often required to repeat until they really lose all sense of the\\noriginal meaning of the terms they use. Of what service is it for children to re-\\niterate and reassert, fifty times in a single recitation, the gender and number of\\nnouns, about which they never made a mistake even before a grammar book was\\nput into their hands? If the object of gi-ammar is to teach children to speak and\\n5", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "gg PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF (JER^ANY.\\nwrite their native language with propriety, then they should be practiced upon\\nexpressing their own ideas with elegance, distinctness, and force. For this pur-\\npose, their common every day phraseology is first to be attended to. As their\\nspeech becomes more copious, they should be led to recognize those slight shades\\nof distinction which exist between words almost synonymous to descriminate\\nbetween the literal and the figurative and to frame sentences in which the main\\nidea shall be brought out conspicuously and prominently, while all subordinate\\nones, mere matters of circumstance or qualification, shall occupy humbler or more\\nretired positions. The sentences of some public speakers are so arranged, that\\nwhat is collateral or incidental stands out boldly in the foreground, while the prin-\\ncipal thought is almost lost in the shade an arrangement as preposterous as if, in\\nthe senate chamber, the forum or the parade-ground, the president, the judge or\\nthe commanding officer, were thrust into the rear, while a nameless throng of\\nnon-officials and incognitos should occupy the places of dignity and authority.\\nGrammar should be taught in such a way as to lead out into rhetoric as it regards\\nthe form of the expression, and into logic as it regards the sequence and coherency\\nof the thoughts. If this is so, then no person is competent to teach grammar\\nwho is not familiar at least with all the leading principles of rhetoric and logic.\\nThe Prussian teachers, by their constant habit of conversing with the pupils\\nby requiring a complete answer to be given to every question by never allowing\\na mistake in ternfination, or in the collocation of words or clauses, to pass uncor-\\nrected, nor the sentence as corrected to pass unrepealed by requiring the poetry\\nof the reading lesson to be changed into oral or written prose, and the prose to be\\nparaphrased, or expressed in difttirent words and by exacting a general account\\nor summary of the reading lessons, are, as we may almost literally say, constantly\\nteaching grammar or, as they more coinprehensivelj call it, the German lan-\\nguage. It is easy to see that Composition is included under this head, the writing\\nof regular essays or themes being only a later exercise.\\nWRITING AND DRAWING.\\nSuch excellent handwriting as I saw in the Prussian schools, I never saw\\nbefore. I can hardly express myself too strongly on this point. In Great Britian,\\nFrance, or in our own country, I have never seen any schools worthy to be com-\\npared with theirs in this respect. I have before said that I found all children pro-\\nvided with a slate and pen\u00c2\u00abil. They write or print letters, and begin with the\\nelements of drawing, either immediately, or very soon after they enter school.\\nThis furnishes the greater part of the explanation of their excellent handwriting.\\nA part of it, I think, should be referred to the peculiarity of the German script,\\nwhich seems to me to be easier than our own. But after all due allowance is\\nmade for this advantage, a high degree of superiority over the schools of other\\ncountries remain to be accounted for. This superiority can not be attributed in\\nany degree to a better manner of holding the pen, for I never saw so great a pro-\\nportion of cases in any schools where the pen was so awkwardly held. This\\nexcellence must be referred in a great degree to the universal practice of learning\\nto draw, contemporaneously with learning to write. I believe a child will learn\\nboth to draw and to write sooner and with more ease, than he will learn writing\\nalone; and for this reason: the figures or objects contemplated and copied in\\nlearning to draw, are larger, more marked, more distinctive one from another,\\nand more sharply defined with projection, angle or curve, than the letters copied\\nin writing. In drawing there is more variety, in writing more sameness. Now\\nthe objects contemplated in drawing, from their nature, attract attention more\\nreadily, impress the mind more deeply, and of course will be more accurately\\ncopied than those in writing. And when the eye has been trained to observe, to\\ndistinguish, and to imitate, in the first exercise, it applies its habits with great\\nadvantage to the second.\\nAnother reason is, that the child is taught in draw things with which he is\\nfamiliar, which have some significance and give him pleasing ideas. But a child\\nwho is made to fill page after page with rows of straight marks, that look so blank\\nand cheerless though done ever so well, has and can have no pleasing associations\\nwith his work. The practice of beginning with making inexpressive marks, or\\nwith v/ritting unintelligible words, bears some resemblanee, in its lifelessness, to", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\n67\\nthat of learning the alphabet. Each exhales torpor and stupidity to deaden the\\nvivacity of the worker.\\nAgain, I have found it an almost universal opinion with teachers of the art of\\nwriting, that children should commence with large hand rather than with fine.\\nThe reason for this I suppose to be, that where the letters themselves are larger,\\ntheir ditierences and peculiarities are proportionally large hence they can be\\nmore casijj discriminated, and discrimination must necessarily precede exact copy-\\ning. So to speak, the child becomes acquainted with the physiognomy of the large\\nletters more easily than with that of the small. Besides, the formation of the larger\\ngives more freedom of motion to the hand. Now, in these respects, there is\\nmore difference between the objects u.sed in drawing and the letters of a large\\nhand, than between the latter and fine hand and therefore the argument in favor\\nof a large hand, applies with still more force in favor of drawing.\\nIn tlie course of my tour, I passed from countries where almost every pupil in\\nevery school could draw with ease, and most of them with no inconsiderable\\ndegree of beauty and e.\\\\pression, to those where less and less attention was paid\\nto the subject; and, at last, to schools where drawing was not practiced at all;\\nand, after many trials, I came to the conclusion, that, with no other guide than a\\nmere inspection of the copy bcjoks of tlie pupils, I could tell whether drawing\\nwere taught in the school or not so uniformly superior was the handwriting in\\nthose schools where drawing was taught in connection with it. On seeing this, I\\nwas reminded of that saying of Pestalozzi, somewhat too strong, that without\\ndrawing there can be no writing.\\nBut suppose it were otherwise, and that learning to draw retarded the acquisi-\\ntion of good penmanship, how richly would the learner be compensated for the\\nsacrifice. Drawing, of itself, is an expressive and beautiful language. A few\\nstrokes of the pen or pencil will often represent to the eye what no amount of\\nwords, however well chosen, can communicate. For the master architect, for the\\nengraver, the engineer, the pattern designer, the draughtsman, moulder, machine\\nbuilder, or head mechanic of any kind, all acknowledge that this art is essential\\nand indispensable. But there is no department of business or condition in life,\\nwhere the accomplishment would not be of utility. Every man should be able to\\nplot a field, to sketch a road or a river, to draw the outlines of a simple machine,\\na piece of household furniture, or a farming utensil, and to delineate the internal\\narrangement or construction of a house.\\nBut to be able to represent by lines and shadows what no words can depict, is only\\na minor part of the benefit of learning to draw. The study of this art develops the\\ntalent of observing, even more than that of delineating. Although a man may\\nhas but comparatively few occasions to picture forth what he has observed, yet\\nthe power of observation should be cultivated by every rational being. The skillful\\ndelineator is not only able to describe far better what he has seen, but he sees\\ntwice as many things in the world as he would otherwise do. To one whose eyes\\nhave never been accustomed to mark the form, color or peculiarities of objects, all\\nexternal nature is enveloped in a haze, which no sunshine, however bright, will\\never dissipate. The light which dispels this obscurity must come from within.\\nTeaching a child to draw, then, is the development in him of a new talent the\\nconferring upon him, as it were, of a new sense by means of which he is not only\\nbetter enabled to attend to the common duties of life, and to be more serviceable\\nto his fellow-men, but he is more likely to appreciate the beauties and magnificence\\nof nature, which every where reflect the glories of the Creator into his soul.\\nWhen accompanied by appropriate instruction of a moral and religious character,\\nthis accomplishment becomes a quickener to devotion.\\nWith the inventive genius of our people, the art of drawing would be eminently\\nuseful. They would turn it to better account than any other people in the world.\\nWe now perform far the greater part of our labor by machinery. With the high\\nwages prevalent amongst us, if such were not the case, our whole community\\nwould be impoverished. Whatever will advance the mechanic and manufacturing\\narts, therefore, is especially important here and whatever is important for men to\\nknow, as men, should be learned by children in the schools.\\nBut whatever may be said of the importance of this art, as it regards the comi-\\nraunity at large, its value to a school-teacher can hardly be estimated.", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "68\\nPRIMARV SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nIf the first exercises in reading were taught as they should be if the\\nsquares of the multiplication table were first to be drawn on the blackboard,\\nand then to be filled- up by the pupils, as they should see on what i-eason the pro-\\ngressive increase of the numbers is founded if geography were taught from the\\nbeginning, as it should be, by constant delineations upon the blackboard then\\nevery teacher, even of the humblest school, ought to be acquainted with the art of\\nhnear drawing, and be able to form all the necessary figures and diagrams not only\\nwith correctness but with rapidity. Eut in teaching navigation, surveying., trigo-\\nnometry, geometry, c. in describing the mechanical powers, in optics, in as-\\ntronomy, in the various branches of natural philosophy, and especially in physiol-\\nogy, the teacher who has a command of this art, will teach incomparably better,\\nand incomparably faster than if he were ignorant of it. I never saw a teacher in\\na German school make use of a ruler or any other mechanical aid, in drawing the\\nmost nice or complicated figures. I recollect no instance in which he was obliged\\nto efface a part of a line because it was too long, or to extend it because it was too\\nshort. If squares or triangles vi ere to be formed, they came out squares or tri-\\nangles without any overlapping or deficiency. Here was not only much time\\ngained, or saved, but the pupils had constantly before their eyes these examples of\\ncelerity and perfectness, as models for imitation. No one can doubt how much\\nmore correctly, as well as more rapidly, a child s mind will grow in view of such\\nmodels of ease and accuracy, than if only slow, awkward, and clumsy movements\\nare the patterns constantly held before it.\\nI saw handwi iting taught in various ways. The most common mode for\\nyoung children was that of writing on the blackboard for their imitation. In\\nsuch cases, the copy was always beautifully written, and the lesson preceded by\\ninstructions and followed by corrections.\\nAnother method which has had some currency in Germany, is this: If the\\nmark to be copied is a simple straight line, thus, the teacher says one, one, as\\nwords of/command; and at each enunciation of the word, the pupils make a\\nmark simultaneously. The teacher accelerates or retards his utterance according\\nto the degree of facility the class has acquired. If the figure to be copied consists\\nof an upward and downward stroke, thus, /,the teacher says, one, two; one,\\ntwo, (one for the upward, the other for the downward motion of the hand at\\nfirst slowly, afterwards more rapidly. When the figure consists of three strokes,\\nthus 7, he pronounces one, two, three, as before. Letters are formed in the\\nsame way.\\nA supposed advantage of this method consists in its retarding the motions of\\nthose who would otherwise write too fast, and hastening those who would write too\\nslow. But for these purposes, the teacher must see that all keep time, otherwise\\nthe advantage is lost. And, on the whole, there is so much difference between\\nthe natural quickness of perception and of motion in different pupils, that there\\ncan be no such thing as a universal standard. Some scholars, whose thoughts\\nand muscles are of electric speed, would be embarrassed by being obliged to\\nwrite slowly and others could not keep step, though the music played only com-\\nmon time. Neither in their physical nor in their spiritual natures, does the speed\\nof children seem to have been graduated by any one clock.\\nIn the schools I saw, orthography, punctuation, and the use of capitals, wrere\\nearly connected with the exercise of writing.\\nGEOGRAPHY.\\nThe practice seemed to be uniform, however, of beginning with objects per-\\nfectly familiar to the child the school-house with the grounds around it, the home\\nwith its yards or gardens, and the street leading from the one to the other.\\nFirst of all, the children were initiated into the idea of space, without which we\\ncan know no more of geography than we can of history without ideas of time.\\nMr. Carl Ritter, of Berlin, probably the greatest geographer now living, expressed\\na decided opinion to me, that this was the true mode of beginning.\\nChildren, too, commence this study very early soon after entering school but\\nno notions are given them which they are not perfectly able to comprehend, repro-\\nduce, and express.\\nI found geography taught almost wholly from large maps suspended against the", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY\\n6P\\nwalls, and by delineations on the blackboard. And here, the skill of teachers and\\npupils in drawing did admirable service. The teacher traced the outlines of a\\ncountry on the suspended map, or drew one upon the blackboard, accompanying\\nthe exhibition by an oral lecture and, at the next recitation, the pupils were\\nexpected to repeat what they had seen and heard. And, in regard to the natural\\ndivisions of the earth, or the political boundaries of countries, a pupil was not\\nconsidered as having giving any proof that he had a correct image in his mind,\\nuntil he could go to the blackboard, and reproduce it from the ends of his fingers.\\nI witnessed no lesson unaccompanied by these tests.\\nI will describe, as exactly as I am able, a lesson which I heard given to a class\\na little advanced beyond the elements remarking that, though 1 heard many les-\\nsons giving on the same plan, none of them were signalized by the rapidity and\\neffect of the one 1 am about to describe.\\nThe teacher stood by the blackboard, with the chalk in his hand. After cast--\\ning his eye over the class to see that all were ready, he struck at the middle of the\\nboard. With a rapidity ofliaiid which my eye could hardly follow, he made a\\nseries of those short, divergent lines, or shadings, employed by map-engravers to\\nrepresent a chain of mountains, lie had scarcely turned an angle, or shot off a\\nspur, when the scholars began to cry out, Carpathian mountains, Hungary;\\nlilack Forest mountains, Wurtembcrg; Giant s mountains, (Riesen-Gebirge,)\\nSilesia Metallic mountains, (Erz-Gebirge,) Pine mountains, (Fichtel-Gebirge,_\\nCentral mountains, (Mittel-Gebirge,) Bohemia, c., c.\\nIn less than half a miimte, the ridge of that grand central elevation which sep-\\narates the waters that flow north-west into the German ocean, from those that\\nflow north into the Baltic, and south-east into the Black Sea, was presented to\\nview executed almost as beautifully as an engraving. A dozen crinkling strokes,\\nmade in the twinkling of an eye, represented the head-waters of the great rivers\\nwhich flow in different directions from that mountainous range while the children,\\nalmost as eager and excited as though they had actually seen the torrents dashing\\ndown the mountain sides, cried out, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, Oder, e. The ne.\\\\t\\nmoment I heard a succession of small strokes or taps, so rapid as to be almost\\nindistinguishable, and hardly had my eye time to discern a large number of dots\\nmade along the margins of the rivers, when the shout of Lintz, Vienna, Prague,\\nDresden, Berlin, c struck my ear. At this point in the exercise, the spot\\nwhich had been occupied on the blackboard was nearly a circle, of which the\\nstarting point, or place where the teacher first began, was the center but now a\\nfew additional strokes around the circumference of the incipient continent,\\nextended the mountain ranges outwards toward the plains; the children respond-\\ning the names of the countries in which they respectively lay. With a few more\\nflourishes the rivers flowed onwards toward their several terminations, and by\\nanother succession of dots, new cities sprang up along their banks. By this time\\nthe children had become as much excited as though they had been present at a\\nworld-making. They rose in their seats, they flung out both hands, their eyes\\nkindled, and their voices became almost vociferous as they cried out the names of\\nthe different places, which, under the magic of the teacher s crayon, rose into\\nview. Within ten minutes from the commencement of the lesson, there stood\\nupon the blackboard a beautiful map of Germany, with its mountains, principal\\nrivers and cities, the coast of the German ocean, of the Baltic and the Black\\nseas: and all so accurately proportioned, that I think only slight errors would\\nhave been found had it been subjected to the test of a scale of miles. A part of\\nthis time was taken up in correcting a few mistakes of the pupils for the\\nteacher s mind seemed to be in his car as well as in his hand, and notwithstand-\\ning the astonishing celerity of his movements, he detected erroneous answers and\\nturned round to correct them. The rest of the recitation consisted in questions\\nand answers respecting productions, climate, soil, animals, c., c.\\nMany of the eosmogonists suppose that after the creation of the world, and\\nwhen its whole surface was as yet fluid, the solid continents rose gradually from\\nbeneath the sea: first the loftiest peak of the Andes, for instance, emerged from\\nthe deep, and as they reached a higher and a higher point of elevation, the rivers\\nbegan to flow dLiwn their sides, until at last the lofty mountains having attained\\ntheir height, the mighty rivers their extent and volume, and the continent ite", "height": "3285", "width": "2003", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "70 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\namplitude cultivation began, and cities and towns were built. The lesson I have\\ndescribed was a beautiful illustration of that idea, with one advantage over the\\noriginal scene itself, that the spectator had no need of waiting through all the\\ngeological epochs to see the work completed.\\nCompare the eflfect of such a lesson as this, both as to the amount of the knowl-\\nedge communicated, and the vividness and of course the permanence of the ideas\\nobtained, with a lesson where the scholars look out a few names of places on a\\nlifeless atlas, but never send their imaginations abroad over the earth and where\\nthe teacher sits listlessly down before them to interrogate them from a book, in\\nwhich all the questions are printed at full length, to supersede on his part all\\nnecessity of knowledge.\\nfiXERCISE8 IN THINKING. KNOWLEDGE OF NATURE. KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD.\\nKNOWLEDGE OF SOCIETY.\\nIn the Study-Plans of all the schools in the north of Prussia, I found most,\\nand in some of them all of the above subjects of lessons. To each was assigned\\nits separate hour and place in the routine of exercises. For brevity s sake,\\nhowever, and because the topics naturally run into each other, I shall attempt to\\ndescribe them together.\\nThese lessons consisted of familiar conversations between teacher and pupils, on\\nsubjects adapted to the age, capacities, and proficiency of the latter. With the\\nyoungest classes, things immediately around them the school-room and the mate-\\nrials of which it had been built its different parts, as foundation, floor, walls,\\nceiling, roof, windows, doors, fireplace its furniture and apparatus its books,\\nslates, paper 5 the clothes of the pupils, and the materials from which they were\\nmade their food and play-things the duties of children to animals, to each\\nother, to their parents, neighbors, to the old, to their Maker these are specimens\\nof a vast variety of subjects embraced under one or another of the above heads.\\nAs the children advanced in age and attainments, and had acquired full and defi-\\nnite notions of the visible and tangible existences around them, and also of time\\nand space, so that they could understand descriptions of the unseen and the\\nremote, the scope of these lessons was enlarged, so as to take in the different\\nkingdoms of nature, the arts, trades and occupations of men, and the more com-\\nplicated affairs of society.\\nWhen visiting the schools in Leipsic, I remarked to the superintendent, that\\nmost accomplished educationist. Dr. Vogel, that I did not see on the Study-\\nPlan of his schools, the title, Exercises in Thinking. His reply was, No\\nfor I consider it a sin in any teacher not to lead his pupil to think, in regard to\\nall the subjects he teaches. He did not call it an omission or even a disqualifica-\\ntion in a teacher, if he did not awaken thought in the minds of his pupils, but he\\nperemptorily denounced it as a sin. Alas thought I, what expiation will\\nbe sufficient for many of us who have had charge of the young\\nIt is obvious from the account I have given of these primary lessons, that there\\nis no restriction as to the choice of subjects, and no limits to the extent of informa-\\ntion that may be engrafted upon them. What more natural than that a kind\\nteacher should attempt to gain the attention and win the good will of a brisk,\\neager-minded boy just entering his school, by speaking to him about the domestic\\nanimals which he plays with, or tends at home the dog, the cat, the sheep, the\\nhorse, the cow Yet, without any interruption or overleaping of natural bounda-\\nries, this simple lesson may be expanded into a knowledge of all quadrupeds, their\\ncharacteristics and habits of life, the uses of their flesh, skins, fur, bones, horns,\\nor ivory, the parts of the world where they live, c., c. So if a teacher begins\\nto converse with a boy about domestic fowls, there is no limit, save in his own\\nknowledge, until he has exausted the whole subject of ornithology the varieties\\nof birds, their plumage, their uses, their migratory habits, c., c. What more\\nnatural than that a benevolent teacher should ask a blushing little girl about the\\nflowers in her vases, or garden at home and yet, this having been done, the\\ndoor is opened that leads to all botanical knowledge, to the flowers of all the\\nseasons, and all the zones, to the trees cultivated by the hand of man, or the\\nprimeval forests that darken the face of continents. Few children go to school\\nwho have not seen a fish at least, a minnow in a pool. Begin with this, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. ^j\\nnature opposes no barrier until the wonders of the deep are exhausted. Let the\\nschool-house, as I have said, be the first lesson, and to a mind replenished with\\nknowledge, not only all the dift erent kinds of edifices the dwelling-house, the\\nchurch, the court-house, the palace, the temple are at once associated but all\\nthe different orders of architecture, Corinthian, Ionic, Doric, Egyptian, Gothic,\\ne., rise to the view. How many different materials have been brought together\\nfor the construction of tlie school-house stone, wood, nails, glass, bricks, mortar,\\npaints, materials used in glazing, t^c, etc. Each one of these belongs to a dif-\\nferent department of nature and when an accomplished teacher has once set\\nfoot in any one of these provinces, he sees a thousand interesting objects around\\nhim, as it were soliciting his attention. Then each one of these materials has its\\nartificer and thus all the mechanical trades may be brought under consideration\\nthe house builder s, the mason s, the plumber s, the glazier s, the locksmith s c.\\nA single article may be viewed under different aspects as, in speaking of a lock,\\none may consider the nature and properties of iron its cohesiveness, malleability,\\n\u00c2\u00abfcc., its utility, or the variety of utensils into which it may be wrought or the\\nconversation may be turned to the particular object and uses of the lock, and\\nupon these a lesson on ihe rights of property, the duty of honesty, the guilt of\\ntheft and robbery, Arc., be engrafted. So in speaking of the beauties and riches\\nand wonders of nature of the revolution of the seasons, the glory of spring, the\\nexuberance of autumn, the grandeur of the mountain, the magnificence of the\\nfirmament the child s mind may be turned to a contemplation of the power and\\ngoodness of God. I found these religious aspects of nature to be most frequently\\nadverted to and was daily delighted with the reverent and loving manner in\\nwhich the name of the Deity was always spoken, Der liehe Goit, the dear God,\\nwas the universal form of expression and the name of the Creator of heaven and\\nearth was hardly ever spoken, without this epithet of endearment.\\nIt is easy also to see that a description of the grounds about the school-house or\\nthe paternal mansion, and of the road leading from one of these places to the\\nother, is the true starting point of all geographical knowledge and, this once\\nbegun, there is no terminus, until all modern and ancient geography, and all travels\\nand explorations by sea and land, are exhausted. So the boy s nest of marbles\\nmay be the nucleus of all mineralogy his top, his kite, his little wind-wheel or\\nwater-wheel, the salient point of all mechanics and technology and the stories he\\nhas heard about the last king or the aged king, the first chapter in universal\\nhistory.\\nI know full well that the extent and variety of subjects said to be taught to\\nyoung children in the Prussian schools, have been often sneered at.\\nIn a late speech, made on a public occasion, by one of the distinguished politi-\\ncians in our country, the idea of teaching the natural sciences in our common\\nschools was made a theme for ridicule. Let it be understood in what manner an\\naccomplished teacher may impart a great amount of useful knowledge on these\\nsubjects, and perhaps awaken minds whicli may hereafter adorn the age, and\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0benefit mankind by their discoveries, and it will be easily seen to which party\\nthe ridicule most justly attaches. What, says the objectors, teach children\\nbotany, and the unintelligible and almost unspeakable names, Monandria, Dian-\\ndria, Triandria, c. or zoology, with such technical terms as Mollusca, Crusta-\\ncea, Vertebrata, Mammalia, c., the thing is impossible The Prussian children\\nare not thus taught. For years, their lessons are free from all the technicalifies\\nof science. The knowledge they already possess about common things is made\\nthe nucleus around which to collect more and the language with which they are\\nalready familiar becomes the medium through which to communicate new ideas,\\nand by which, whenever necessary, to explain new terms. There is no difficulty\\nin explaining to a child, seven years of age. the distinctive marks by which nature\\nintimates to us, at first sight, whether a plant is healthful or poisonous; or those\\nby which, on inspecting the skeleton of an animal that lived thousands of years\\nago, we know whether it lived upon grass, or grain, or flesh. It is in this way\\nthat the pupil s mind is carried forward by an actual knowledge of things, until the\\ntime arrives for giving him classifications and nomenclatures. When a child knows\\na great many particular or individual things, he begins to perceive resemblances\\nbetween some of them and they then naturally assort themselves, as it were, in", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "72 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nbis mind, and arrange themselves into different groups. Then, by the aid of a\\nteacher, he perfects a scientific classification among them, bringing into each group\\nalt that belong to it. But soon the number of individuals in each group becomes\\nso numerous, that he wants a cord to tie them together, or a vessel in which to\\nhold them. Then, from the nomenclature of science, he receives a name which\\nbinds all the individuals of that group into one, ever afterwards. It is now that\\nhe perceives the truth and the beauty of classification and nomenclature. An\\ninfant that has more red and white beads than it can hold in its hands, and to pre-\\nvent them from rolling about the door and being lost, collects them together, put-\\nting the white in one cup and the red in another, and sits and smiles at its work,\\nhas gone through with precisely the same description of mental process that Cul-\\nver and Linneus did, when they summoned the vast varieties of the animal and\\nvegetable kingdoms into their spiritual presence, and commanded the countless\\nhosts to arrange themselves into their respective genera, orders, and species.\\nOur notions respecting the expediency or propriety of introducing the higher\\nbranches, as they are called, into our common schools, are formed from a knowl-\\nedge of our own school teachers, and of the habits that prevail in most of the\\nschools themselves. With us, it too often happens that if a higher branch, geom-\\netry, natural philosophy, zoology, botany, is to be taught, both teacher and class\\nmust have text-books. At the beginning of these text-books, all the technical\\nnames and de initions belonging to the subject are set down. These, before the\\npupil has ai practical idea of their meaning, must be committed to memory.\\nThe book is then studied chapter by chapter. At the bottom of each page, or at\\nthe ends of the sections, are questions printed at full length. At the recitations,\\nthe teachoi- holds on by these leading-strings. He introduces no collateral knowl-\\nedge. He exhibits no relation between what is contained in the book, and other\\nkindred subjects, or the actual business of men and the affairs of life. At length\\nthe day of examination comes. The pupils rehearse from memory with a suspi-\\ncious fluency or, being asked for some useful application of their knowledge,\\nsome practical connection between that knowledge and the concerns of life, they\\nare silent, or give some ridiculous answer, which at once disparages science and\\ngratifies the ill-humor of some ignorant satirist. Of course, the teaching of the\\nhigher branches falls into disrepute in the minds of all sensible men, as, under\\nsuch circumstances, it ought to do. But the Prussian teacher has no book. He\\nneeds none. He teaches from a full mind. He cumbers and darkens the sub-\\nject with no technical phraseology. He observes what proficiency the child has\\nmade, and then adapts his instructions, both in quality and amount, to the necessity\\nof the case. He answers all questions. He solves all doubts. It is one of his\\nobjects, at every recitation, so to present ideas, that they shall start doubts and\\nprovoke questions. He connects the subject of each lesson with all kindred and\\ncollateral ones and shows its relations to the every-day duties and business of\\nlife and should the most ignorant man, or the most destitute vagrant in society,\\nask him of what use such knowledge can be he will prove to him, in a word,\\nthat some of his own pleasures or means of subsistence are dependent upon it, or\\nhave been created or improved by it.\\nIn the meantime, the children are delighted. Their preceptive powers are\\nexercised. Their reflecting faculties are developed. Their moral sentiments are\\ncultivated. All the attributes of the mind within, find answering qualities in the\\nworld without. Instead of any longer regarding the earth as a huge mass of dead\\nmatter, without variety and without life, its beautiful and boundless diversities of\\nsubstance, its latent vitality and energies, gradually drawn forth, until, at length,\\nthey illuminate the whole soul, challenging its admiration for their utility, and its\\nhomage for the bounty of their Creator.\\nThere are other points pertaining to the qualification of teachers, which would\\nperhaps strike a visitor or spectator more strongly than the power of giving the\\nkind of lessons I have described but probably there is nothing which, at the dis-\\ntance of four thousand miles, would give to a reader or hearer so adequate an\\nidea of intelligence and capacity, as a full understanding of the scope and charac-\\nter of this class of exercises. Suppose, on the one hand, a teacher to be intro-\\nduced into a school, who is competent to address children on this great range and\\nvariety of subjects, and to address them in such a manner as to arouse their curi-", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOI S OF GERMANY. Y3\\nosity, command their attention, and su] [)ly them not only with knowledge, but\\nwith an inexiinguit-hable love lor it suppose such a teacher to be able to fjivt.- one.\\nand sometimes two such lessons a day, that is, trom two hundred to I our hundred\\nlessons in a year, to the same class, and to carry his classes, in this way, through\\ntheir eight years schooling. On the other hand, suppose a young njan coming\\nfresh from the plow, the workshop, or the anvil or, w hat is no better, from (Jreek\\nand Latin classics, and suppose his knowledge on the above enumerated subjects to\\nbe divided into four hundred, or even intt) two hundred parts, and that only one\\ntwo-hundredth portion of that stock of knowledge should be administered to the\\nchildren in a day. Let us suppose all this, and we shall have some more adequate\\nidea of the different advantages of children, at the present time, in ditierent |jarts\\nof the world. In Prussia, the theory, and the practice under it, are, n(jt that three\\nyears study under the best masters qualifies a talented and devoted man to become\\na teacher, but that three years of such general preparation may qualify one for\\nthat particular and daily preparation which is to be made before meeting a class\\nin school. And a good I russian teacher no more thinks of meeting his classes\\nwithout this daily preparation, than a distinguished lawyer or clergyman amongst\\nourselves would think of managing a cause before court and jury, or preaching a\\nsermon, without special reading and forethought.\\nIt is easy to see, from the above account, how such a variety of subjects can be\\ntaught simuitaoeously in school, without any interfei^nce with each other nay,\\nthat the common bond, which, as Cicero says, binds all sciences together,\\nshould only increase their unity as it enlarges their number.\\nBIBLE HISTORY AND BIBLE KNOWLEDGE.\\nNothing receives more attenticm in the Prussian schools than the Bible. It is\\ntaken up early and studied systematically. The great events recorded in the\\nScriptures of the Old and New Testament; the character and lives of those\\nwonderful men, who, from age to age, were brought upon the stage of action,\\nand through whose agency the future history and destiny of the race were to be\\nso much modified and especially, those sublime views of duty and of morality\\nwhich are brought to light in the Gospel, these are topics of daily and earnest\\ninculcation, in every school. To these, in some schools, is added the history of\\nthe Christian religion, in connection with cotemporary civil history. So far as the\\nBible lessons are concerned, I can ratify the strong statements made by Professor\\nStowe, in regard to the absence of sectarian instruction, or endeavors at proselyt-\\nism. The teacher being amply possessed of a knowledge of the whole chain of\\nevents, and of all biographical incidents and bringing to the exercise a heart\\nglowing with love to man, and with devotion to his duty as a former of the char-\\nacter of children, has no necessity or occasion to fall back upon the formulas of a\\ncreed. It is when a teacher has no knowledge of the wonderful works of God,\\nand of the benevolence of the design in which they were created when he has\\nno power of explaining and applying the beautiful incidents in the lives of prophets\\nand apostles, and especially, the perfect example which is given to men in the\\nlife of Jesus Christ it is then, that, in attempting to give religious instruction, he\\nis, as it were, constrained to recur again and again to the few words or sentences\\nof his form of faith, whatever that faith may be and, therefore, when giving the\\nsecond lesson, it will be little more than a repetition of the first, and the two-hun-\\ndredth lesson, at the end of the year, will diif er from that at the beginning only in\\naccumulated wearisomeness and monotony.\\nThere are one or two facts, however, which Professor Stowe has omitted to\\nmention, and without a knowledge of which, one would form very erroneous idea.s\\nrespecting the character of some of the religious instruction in the Prussian\\nschools. In all the Protestant schools, Luther s Catechism is regularly taught\\nand in all the Roman Catholic schools, the Catechism of that communion. When\\nthe schools are mixed, they have combined literary with seperate religious instruc-\\ntion and here all the doctrines of the respective denominations are taught early\\nand most assiduously. I well remember hearing a Roman Catholic priest incul-\\ncating upon a class of very voung children the doctrine of transubstantiation. He\\nillustrated it with the miracle of the water changed to wine, at the marriage feast\\nin Cana and said that ho who could turn water into wine, cbuld turn hiB own", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "74 PRIiMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nblood into the same element, and also his body into bread to be eaten with it.\\nContrary, then, to the principles of our own law, sectarianism is taught in all\\nPrussian schools but it is nevertheless true, as Professor Stowe says, that the\\nBible can be taught, and is taught, without it.\\nAll Prussian teachers are masters not only of vocal, but of instrumental music,\\nOne is as certain to see a violin as a blackboard, in every school-room. Generally\\nspeaking, the teachers whom I saw, played upon the organ also, and some of them\\nupon the piano and other instruments. Music was not only taught in school as an\\naccomplishment, but used as a recreation. It is a moral means of great efficacy.\\nIts practice promotes health it disarms anger, softens rough and turbulent natures,\\nsocializes, and brings the whole mind, as it were, into a state of fusion, from which\\ncondition the teacher can mould it into what forms he will, as it codls and\\nhardens.\\nAll these subjects I have enumerated, were taught in all the schools I visited,\\nwhether in city or country, for the rich or for the poor. In the lowest school in\\nthe smallest and obscurest village, or for the poorest class in over-crowded cities\\nin the schools connected with pauper establishments, with houses of correction or\\nwith prisons, in all these, there was a teacher of mature age, of simple unaffected\\nand decorous manners, benefolent in his expression, kind and genial in his inter-\\ncourse with the young, and of such attainments and resources as qualified him\\nnot only to lay down the abstract principles of the above range of studies, but, by\\nfamiliar illustration and apposite example, to commend them to the attention of\\nthe children.\\nAlthough the foregoing acc6unt of primary instruction in Germany,\\nwas drawn from observations mainly in the schools of Prussia and Sax-\\nony, it is, in its main features, appUcable to primary schools in the other\\nGerman States. On this point, Mr. Kay bears the following emphatic\\ntestimony in his valuable contribution to our knowledge of the social\\nand educational condition of Europe* a work, from which we shall\\nhave occasion to quote largely in giving an account of the school sys-\\ntems of Switzerland and the several German States.\\nIn Bavaria, Wirtemburg, the Duchy of Baden, and Nassau, as much, and in\\nWirtemberg and Baden perhaps even more, has been done to promote the intel-\\nligence, morality, and civilization of the lower orders of society, than in Prussia.\\nIn each of these countries, every village has a good school-house, and at least one\\nlearned and practically efficient teacher, who has been educated for several years\\nat a college every town has several well-organized schools, sufficiently large to\\nreceive all the children of the town, who are between the ages of six and fourteen\\neach of these schools contains from four to ten class-rooms, and each class-room is\\nunder the direction of a highly educated teacher.\\nIn each of these countries, every parent is obliged to educate his children,\\neither at home or at some school, the choice of means being left to himself. In\\nnone of these countries are children left to grow up in vicious ignorance or with\\ndebasing habits.\\nIn none of these countries, is there any class of children analogous to that,\\nwhich swarms in the back streets, alleys, and gutters of our great cities and towns,\\nand from which our paupers, our disaffected, and our criminals grow up, and\\nfrom which our ragged schools are filled. All the children are intelligent,\\npolite, clean, and neatly dressed, and grow up from their sixth to their fourteenth\\nyear under the teaching and influence of educated men.\\nThe Social Condition and Education of the People in England and Europe showing\\nthe results of the primary schools nnd of the division of landed property in foreign countries,\\nby Joseph Kay. Esq., M. A., of Trinity ollese, Cambridge Barrister at-law and late Travel-\\ning Bacbelor of the University of Cambridge. London Longman, Brown, Green, and Long-\\nmans. 1S50.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\n15\\nIn each of these countries a suflicient number of normal colleges has been\\nfounded, to enable it to educate a sufficient supply of teachers for the parisiies and\\ntowns.\\nIn each of these countries, all the schools of every sect and party, private as well\\nas public, are open to public inspection, and are visited several times every year by\\nlearned men, whose business it is to examine bolli teachers and scholai s, and to\\ngive the government, the chambers, and the country, a full and detailed account\\nof the state, condition, character, and progress of every school, so that parents\\nmay know where to send their children with safety; tliat good teachers may be\\nencouraged, rewarded, and promoted and that unworthy teachers may not be\\nsutFered to continue long in their situations.\\nIn each of these countries, the laws prohibit any person being a teacher of any\\nschool, until he has proved his elticiency to the committee of professors, appointed\\nby the state to e.\\\\ai7iine candidates, and until he has laid before such committee\\ntestimonials of character from his religious minister, his neighbors, and the pro-\\nfessors of the college at which he was educated.\\nI can give a traveler, who is desirous of comprehending at one short view the\\nworkings of the German and Swiss systems of popular education, no better advice\\nthan to direct Jiim to notice the state of the str(^ets in any German or Swiss town,\\nwhich he happens to visit no matter where it be, whether on the plains of Prus-\\nsia or Bavaria, on the banks of the Rhine, in the small towns of the I3lack Forrest,\\nor in the mountainous cantons of Alpine Switzerland, no matter where, let him\\nonly walk through the streets of such a town in the morning or the afternoon, and\\ncount the number of children to be found there above the age of four or five, or\\nlet him stand in the same streets, when the children are going to or returning from\\nthe schools, and let him examine their cleanly appearance, the good quality, the\\nexcellent condition, and the cleanliness of their clothing, the condition of the les-\\nson books they are carrying, the happiness and cheerfulness, and, at the same\\ntime, the politeness and ease of their manners he will think he sees the children\\nof the rich; but let him follow them home, and he will find that many of them\\nare the oftspriiig of the poorest artizans and laborers of the town. If that one\\nspectacle does not convince him of the magnitude of the educational efforts of Ger-\\nmany, and of the happy results which they are producing, let him go no further,\\nfor nothing he can further see will teach him. Let him then come home, and\\nrejoice in the condition of our poor; but, should he start at this extraordinary\\nspectacle, as I have seen English travelers do, to whom 1 have pointed out this\\nsign of advanced and advancing civilization, let him reflect, that this has been\\neffected, spite of all the obstac es which impede ourselves. Bigotry and ignorance\\nhave cried their loudest Romanists have refused co-operation with Protestants,\\nProtestants with Romanists, and yet th ^y have co-operated. There has been the\\nsame strong jealousy of all government interference, the same undefined and ill-\\ndigested love of liberty, and there has been the same selfish fear of retarding the\\ndevelopment of physical resources. In Bavaria, the war has been waged be-\\ntween Romanists and Protestants in Argovie, opposition has been raised by the\\nmanufacturers; in Lucerne, by the religious parties, and by the political oppo-\\nnents of the government and in Baden, the difficulties have been aggravated by\\nthe numbers of Jews, whom both Romanists and Protestants hated to receive into\\nalliance, even more than they disliked to co-operate among themselves. But in\\nall these countries the great principle has finally triumphed and all parties have\\nyielded some little of their claims, in the full conviction, that a day is dawning\\nupon Europe, fraught with the most overwhelming evils for that country which\\nhas not prepared for its approach.\\nWhether the methods by which any of these different countries are carrying\\nout their great design, are in any way applicable to this country or not, I shall not\\nstop to consider, my desire being merely to show how different countries, with dif-\\nferent degrees of political freedom, with dlft erent political constitutions, whose\\npeople profess different religious tenets, where Protestants of different sects,\\nRoman Catholics, and Jews, are mingled up in every kind of proportion, have all\\nmanaged to overcome difficulties precisely similar to those which stand in our\\nway, and have all agreed to lalior together to educate their poor. For it is a\\ngreat fact, however much we ni.iy be inclined t.) doubt it, that throughout Prussia.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "76 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nSaxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, Wirtemburg, Baden, Ilesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel,\\nGotlia, Nassau, Hanover, Denmark, Switzerland, Norway, and the Austrian\\nEmpire, all the children are actually, at this present time, attending school, and\\nare receiving a careful, religious, moral, and intellectual education, from highly\\neducated and efficient teachers. Over the vast tract of country, which I have\\nmentioned, as well as in Holland and the greater part of France, all the children\\nabove six years of age are daily acquiring useful knowledge and good habits under\\nthe injluence of moral, religious, and learned teachers. All the youth of the\\ngreater part of these countries, below the age of twenty-one years, can read,\\nwrite, and cipher, and know the Bible history, and the history oi their own coun-\\ntry. No chddren are left idle and dirty in the streets of the towns there is no\\nclass of children to be compared, in any respect, to the children who frequent our\\nragged schools all the children, even of the poorest parents, are, in a great\\npart of these countries, in dress, appearance, cleanliness, and manners, as polished\\nand civilized as the children of om middle classes the children of the poor in\\nGermany are so civilized tliat the rich often ^end their children to the schools\\nintended for the poor and, lastly, in a great part of Germany and Switzerland,\\nthe children of the poor are receiving a better education than that given in Eng-\\nland to the children of the greater part of our middle classes These facts de-\\nserve to be well considered.\\nAnd let it be remembered that these great results have been attained, notwith-\\nstanding obstacles at least as great as those which make it so difficult for us to act.\\nAre they religious differences which hinder us? Look at Austria, Bavaria, and\\nthe Prussian Rhine provinces, and the Swiss cantons of Lucerne and Soleure.\\nWill any one say, that the rehgious difficulties in those countries are less than\\nthose which exist in our own 1 Is the sectarianism of the Jesuits of Lucerne, or\\nof the priests of Bavaria, of a more yielding character toward the Protestant\\nheretics, than that of one Protestant party in England toward another And\\nyet, in each of these countries, the difficulties arising from religious differences\\nhave been overcome, and all their children are brought under the influence of a\\nreligious education, without any religious party having been oft euded. But are\\nthey political causes, which prevent us proceeding in this great work, in which\\nnearly all Europe has so long preceded us, notwithstanding that we need it more\\nthan all the European nations put together Are they political causes, I ask I\\nanswer by again referring my readers to the countries I have enumerated. Under\\nthe democratic governments of the Swiss cantons, where it is the people who rule\\nand legislate under the constitutional governments of Saxony, Wirtemburg, and\\nBaden, which were framed more or less upon the English model, and vvhere the\\npeople have long had a direct influence upon the government under the consti-\\ntutional governments of France and Holland, and under all the difierent grades\\nof absolute rule which existed but a few months since in Prussia, the German\\ndukedoms, and the Austrian states, the difficulties of the question have long been\\novercome, and with such entire satisfaction to all parties, that among the present\\nrepresentatives of the people, no member has ever been heard to express a desire\\nfor the change of the laws which relate to primarj^ education.\\nBut once again perhaps there are some who say, but there is no country\\nwhich is troubled, as we are, by the union of both religious and political difficul-\\nties. I again refer my readers to the cases of Hollancl and Switzerland. They\\nwill find in these countries the same strong love of independence of action, which\\nwe boast so proudly and so justly. They will find also, not only strong religious\\nfeuds existing among the Protestants themselves, and pushed to the most shame-\\nful extremities, as in the case of the canton of Vaud, from which one religious\\nparty has lately been driven as exiles, but they will find the still more formidable\\ndifferences of the Protestants and Catholics arrayed against each other, and seem-\\ningly preventing all union on any subject whatsoever and yet, in all these vari-\\nous countries, differing as they do in the state of their religious parties, and of\\ntheir political regulations, in all of them, I say, have all parties consented to join\\non this one great and important question, the educatioiN of the people.\\nBut there are some who say, that if our means of direct education are worse,\\nyet that our means of indirect education are better than those of other countries,\\nand that if our p-aople have not sbh^ls and gotid tea^^hers, they have long had a", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SUHUULfi Ul oEK.MA.W. 77\\nfree press, the right of assembling together for political discussion, plenty of cheap\\nand very liberal journals, good reports of all the debates of our Houses of Legis-\\nlature, and a literature free in its spirit, suggestive in its writings, and any thing\\nbut one-sided in its views of political and social questions, and that all this serves\\nto stimulate the intellectual energies of the people. As far as regards the middle\\nclasses, this is all very true but, as regards the poor, it is ridiculously false.\\nMost of our poor are either wholly without education, or else possess so little as\\nto be entirely out of the sphere of such influences, as those I have enumerated.\\nWhat good can one of our boorish peasants gain from cheap literature, free par-\\nliamentary debates, free discussion, and liberal journals? What advantage is it\\nto a starving man that there is bread in the bakei- s shop; if he has not wherewith\\nto buy What good is cheap literature and free discussion to a poor peasant who\\ncan neither read nor think He starves in the mid.st of plenty, and starves too\\nwith a curse upon his lips.\\nIt is utterly false to argue that the peasants would provide themselves with\\nschools and education, if education would improve their condition in society. We\\ncan never hope to see the peasants supply themselves with schools. They never\\nhave done so in any country, they never will do so in our own. Such a step im-\\nplies in them a great prior development of the intellectual and moral faculties a\\ndevelopment which can only be obtained by means of education. The peasants\\nare neither wise enough, nor rich enough, to erect or support schools for them-\\nselves, and should government refuse either to do it for them, or to oblige all\\nclasses to assist the poor to accomplish this great work, we may rest assured that\\nanother century will see no further advances than we have made at present our\\nschools are for the most part totally unfitted for their purpose, and our teachers the\\nmost ignorant, ill-paid, and least respected set of men in the community. Other\\ncountries have long since recognized these truths, and acted upon them.\\nWhilst iu England we have been devoting most of our energies to the increase\\nof our national wealth, the Germans and Swiss have been engaged in the noble\\nundertaking of attempting to raise the character and social position of their poorer\\nclasses. To effect this, they have not vainly imagined that schools alone were\\nsufficient, but to the accomplishment of this great end, every social institution and\\nevery social regulation has been rendered subservient. They began, it is true, by\\nraising schools, and educating teachers but they have continued this great work\\nby reforming their prisons and criminal codes by facilitating the transfer and\\ndivision of their lands by simplifying their legal processes by reforming their\\necclesiastical establishments by entirely changing the mediaeval and illiberal con-\\nstitutions of their universities and public schools by improving the facilities of\\ninternal communication and, lastly, by opening the highest and most honorable\\noffices of the state to all worthy aspirants, no matter of how low an origin.\\nNor have their labors in the cause of social reform diminished, as there was\\nseemingly less immediate need for them. On the contrary, to a traveler in these\\ncountries, who has not acquainted himself whh all that has been going on there\\nfor the last thirty years, they would seem to be only now commencing, so vigorous\\nand universal are the efforts which are at this moment being made.\\nIt is doubtless true, that the social polity of a country should be so ordered, that\\nthe whole life of any of its members should be a progressive and continued I elig-\\nious, moral, and intellectual education but it is no less certain that this great work,\\nif it is ever to have a commencement, must begin at home, and be continued, in\\nthe case of the peasant, in the village school, under the superintendence of the\\nreligious minister and village teacher, or it can never be accomplished at all. True\\nit is, that at first the evil influence of the home will be stronger than the good one\\nof the teacher and the school. But still, if he understand the conduct of his im-\\nportant work, he will know how to awaken those principles which, it may be, lie\\ndormant, but which nevertheless exist in every child s mind, and which, if once\\naroused, would be certain in some degree to mitigate the evil influences of home.\\nThus might we hope, that the cottage firesides of the next generation would prove\\nless injurious than those of the present to the children, who will cluster around\\nthem, and that the school would have an auxiliary, and not an antagonist, in the\\npowerful, though now, alas! too often misdirected influences of home. It is only\\nwhen we have attained this happy result, that we can hope to realize the full bene-", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "^J^ PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nfits which education is capable of conferring, and which, in other lands, it is at this\\nday conferring upon the people.\\n!So long as the early domestic training is in direct opposition to the education\\nof the schools, so long must the improvement in education be very slow but,\\nhowever slow, it is the only sure means we have of counteracting the effects of\\na vicious domestic training, and of cleansing the very fount of immorality. The\\nlaborer is occupied from twilight on to twilight, and the religious ministers have\\nbut few opportunities of bringing higher iutluences to bear upon him. Those,\\ntoo, who most need improvement, are generally the most unwilling to receive it;\\nand those whose liomes act most injuriously on the younger inmates, are precisely\\nthose, who oppose most strenuously the entry of the religious minister, and who\\nare most rarely brought under any ennobling influence whatever. Thus it often\\nhappens, that the only way by which we can introduce reform into a home, is\\nthrough the children for. most happily, there is among the poor such a great idea\\nof the benefits to be derived from education, that it very rarely happens that the\\nparent can not be persuaded to send his child to school, when he is enabled lo\\ndo so.\\nIt is delightful to see how thoroughly this truth has been recognized in estern\\nEurope, i^ roin the shores of the Baltic and the North Sea to the foot of the\\ngreat Alpine range, and from the Rhine to the Danube, all the children of both\\nrich and poor are receiving daily instruction, under the surveillance of their relig-\\nious ministers, from long and most carefully educated teachers. Throughout the\\nplains of Prussia, Bohemia, and Bavaria, among the hills and woods of Saxony\\nand central Germany, in the forests and rich undulating lands of Wirtemburg and\\nBaden, in the deep and secluded Alpine valleys of Switzerland and the Tyrol, in\\nmost of the provinces of the iVustrian empire, throughout Holland, Denmai k, and\\nalmost the whole of France, and even in the plains of Italian Lombardy, there is\\nscarcely a single parish, which does not possess its school-house and its one or\\ntwo teachers. The school buildings are often built in really an extravagant man-\\nner and in Switzerland and South Germany, the village school is generally the\\nfinest erection of the neighborhood. In the towns the expenditure on these mon-\\numents of a nation s progress is still more remarkable. Here the municipal author-\\nities generally prefer to unite several schools for the sake of forming one complete\\none. This is generally erected on the following plan A large house is built of\\nthree or four stories in height, with commodious play yai ds behind. The one or\\ntwo upper stories are used as apartments for the teachers the lower rooms ai e\\nset apart for the different classes. A town school has generally from eight to ten,\\nand sometimes twelve or fourteen, of these cliiss-rooins, each of which is capably\\nof containing from 80 to 100 children. An educated teacher is appointed to man-\\nage each class, so that there is generally a staff of at least eight teachers connected\\nwith each town school of Germany, and I have seen schools with as many as\\ntwelve and fourteen teachers. The rooms are filled with desks, maps, and all tlie\\napparatus which the teachers can require for the purposes of instruction. I gener-\\nally noticed, on entering a small German or Swiss town, that next to the church,\\nthe finest building was the one set apart for the education of the children.\\nIt is impossible to estimate the enormous outlay which Germany has devoted to\\nthe erection and improvement of school-houses alone, during the last fifteen\\nyears. In the towns, hardly any of the old and inefficient buildings now remain,\\nexcept where they have been improved and enlarged. In Munich, I directed my\\nconductor to lead me to the worst school buildings in the city, and I found all the\\nclass-rooms measViring fourteen feet high by about twenty-five square, and ten of\\nsuch class-rooms in each school-house, each of wliich rooms was under the con-\\nstant direction of an educated teacher. In whatever town I happened to be stay-\\ning, I always sought out the worst, in preference to the best schools. In Berlin,\\nthe worst I could find contained four class-rooms, each eight feet in height, and\\nabout fifteen feet square and in the Grand Duchy of Baden I found that the\\nChambers had passed a law prohibiting any school-house being built, the rooms of\\nwhich were not fourteen feet high.\\nThroughout Germany no expense seems to have been spared to improve the\\nmaterials of popular instruction.\\nThis could never have been efft-cted had not the expenses of such an immense", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. tjg\\nundertaking been equally distributed over all the parishes of the different states.\\nThe burden being thus divided amongst all, is not ftlt by any but had the gov-\\nernment started in the vain hope of being able to bear even a third of the expense,\\npopular education would have been no further advanced in Germany than in Eng-\\nland. But wiser, or more interested in the real success of the undertaking than\\nourselves, the governments of the different states have obliged each province to\\nprovide for the expenses necessary for its own primary education.\\nThe systems, so far from having been systems of uxeessive centralization, leav-\\ning no freedom of action to the parishes, have been alfrays and still are essentially\\nparochial systems, merely under the surveillance, and subject to the check of the\\ncentral authority. It is the parishes and towns, which tfix themselves for educa-\\ntional purposes it is the parishioners and citizens, who elect their own teachers\\nit is the parishioners and citizens, who pay their own teachers, and provide all the\\nmaterials for the education of their own poor it is the parishioners and citizens,\\nwho determine whether they will have separate schools for their different religious\\nsects, or common schools for them all it is the parishioners, who choose the sites\\nof their school-houses, and the outlay they will make on their erection and\\nalthough they have not the power of dismissing a teacher after they have once\\nelected him, without first showing to government a sufficient ground for such a\\nstep, yet they are afforded every tiieility of forwarding any complaints they may\\nhave to make of any teacher they have elected, to the educational authorities ap-\\npointed to judge such matters, and to protect the teachers from the effects of mere\\npersonal animosities or ignorance.\\nGermany will one day be lauded by all Europe, as the inventor of a system\\nsecuring, in the best possible manner, guidance by the greatest intelligence of the\\ncountry, the cheapest manner of working, the fostering of local activity and of\\nlocal sympathies, and the cordial assistance of the religious ministers.\\nDisputes about separate or mixed schools are unheard of in Prussia, because\\nevery parish is left to please itself which kind it will adopt. One of the leading\\nRoman Catholic Counsellors of the Educational Bureau in Berlin assured me, that\\nthey never experienced any difficulty on this point. We always, he said, en-\\ncourage separate schools when possible, as we think religious instruction can be\\npromoted better in separate than in mixed schools; but, of course, we all think it\\nbetter to have mixed schools, than to have no schools at all and when we can not\\nhave separate schools we are rejoiced to see the religious sects uniting in the sup-\\nport of a mixed one. Wlien mixed schools are decided on by the parochial com-\\nmittees, the teacher is elected by the most numerous of the two sects or, if two\\nteachers are required, one is elected by one sect, and the other by the other and\\nin this case each conducts the religious education of the children of his own sect.\\nBut when only one teacher is elected, the children of those parents, who differ\\nfrom him in religious belief, are permitted to be taken from the school during the\\nreligious lessons, on condition that their parents make arrangements for their relig-\\nious instruction by their own ministers.\\nI went to Prussia with the firm expectation, that I should hear nothing but\\ncomplaints from the peasants, and that I should find the school nothing but a wor-\\nthy offshoot of an absolute government. To test whether this really was the case\\nor not, as well as to see something of the actual working of the system in the\\ncountry districts, I traveled alone through different parts of the Rhine provinces\\nfor four weeks before proceeding to the capital. During the whole of my solitary\\nrambles, I put myself as much as possible into communioatitm with the peasants\\nand with the teachers, for the purpose of testing the actual state of feeling on this\\nquestion. Judge, then, of my surprise, when I assure my readers that, although\\nI conversed with many of the very poorest of the people, and with both Romanists\\nand Protestants, and although I always endeavored to elicit expressions of discon-\\ntent, I never once heard, in any part of Prussia, one word spoken by any of the\\npeasants against the educational regulations. But on the contrary, I every where\\nreceived daily and hourly proofs, of the most unequivocal character, of the satisfac-\\ntion and real pride with which a Prussian, however poor he may be, looks upon\\nthe schools of his locality.\\nOften and often have been ansv\\\\ ered by the poor laborers, when asking them\\nwhether they did not dislike being obliged to educate their children, Why should", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "80 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY.\\nI The schools are excellent the teachers are very learned and good men and\\nthen think how much good our children are gaining; tlu-y behave better at home,\\nthey make our families all the happier, and they are much better able in after-life\\nto earn their own livelihood. No, no; we do not dislike the schools. We know\\ntoo well how much good our children are gaining from them. I have heard this\\nsaid over aud over again in different parts of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Wirtem-\\nburg, and Kaden aud, indeed, I may add, that throughout Germany, I never\\nheard one single wo-d of discontent uttered against these truly liberal and Chris-\\ntian establishments.\\nEvei-y one of the richer classes, with whom I conversed, corroborated the truth\\nof all that the peasants had told me. I particularly remember a very intelligent\\nteacher at Etberfeld saying to me, 1 am quite convinced that, if we had a politi-\\ncal revolution to-morrow, none of the peasants would think of wishing to have\\nany great alteration made in the laws which relate to the schools. Recent facts\\nhave proved the truth of the assertion.*\\nSeveral travelers have fallen into the strangest errors in their investigations on\\nthis subject, from having confined their attention to the schools of the capitals, or\\nof one or two other large towns. Very few have seen the working of the system\\nin the villages and remote provinces. But it is there only that a fair idea can be\\nformed of the effects it is producing, and of the manner in which it is regarded by\\nthe people themselves.\\nA remarkable proof of the truth of these remarks is, that since the commencement of\\nthe German revolutions of 1848, tlie only change in the educational regulations, which has\\nbeen flemandtd by the people, is, thai Itiey shonid be allowed to send their children to the\\nparochial schools free of all expense, and that the present small weekly pence required from\\nthe parents for the education ol each child should be paid out of the regular parochial school\\nrates. This has been conceded, and the peasant.? themselves will now as rigorously en-\\nforce the compulsory educational regulations, as the Swiss peasants enforce lawsai least as\\nstringent.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIA.\\nThe system of Public Instruction in Prussia embraces three degrees,\\nprovided for in three classes of institutions. 1. Primary or Elementary\\nInstruction, conveyed in schools correspondino: to our common schools.\\n2. Secondary Instruction, provided for in Gymnasia, Real Schools and\\nTrade Schools. 3. Superior instruction, communicated in the Universi-\\nties. We shall confine oui- attention to Primary Instruction, and shall\\npresent a general idea of the system from various authorities.*\\nAs early as the reign of the Elector Joachim the Second, before the\\nkingdom of Prussia existed, except as the Mark of Brandenburg, (1540,)\\nvisitors were appointed to inspect the town schools of the Electorate with\\nexpress directions to report in relation to the measures deemed necessary\\nfor their improvement. In 1545, the same elector appointed a permanent\\ncouncil or board, on church and school matters. In a decree of some\\nlength, by the elector John George, (1573,) special sections are devoted\\nto the schools, to teachers and their assistants, and to pupils. It is re-\\nmarkable as containing a provision for committees of superintendence,\\nconsisting of the parish clergyman, the magistrates and two notables,\\nexactly similar in constitution to the present school committees.\\nIn 1777, a decree of Frederick William the First, king of Prussia en-\\njoins upon parents to send their children to school, provides for the pay-\\nment of teachers, for the education of poor children, and for catechetical\\ninstruction by the parochial clergymen. In 1735, the first regular semi-\\nnary for teachers in Prussia was established at Stettin, in Pomerania.\\nTo induce a better attendance at school, a decree of 1736 requires that\\nthe parent of every child between five and twelve years of age, shall pay\\na certain fee, whether his child goes to school or not; this rule beino as\\nit were, preliminary to the present one of forced attendance. The same\\ndecree refers to school-houses erected by associated parishes, showing,\\nthat such associations existed previously to the decree for providing pub-\\nlic schools similar associations may even now exist, but they are not\\nnumerous, forming exceptions to the general rule requiring each parish\\nto have its public school. The decree provides further for the amount of\\nfees to be paid to the teacher by the pupils, the church, or the state, and\\nfor aid to peasants who have more than two children above five years of\\nage, by the payment of the fees of all over this number from a school fund.\\nA rescript of 1738, constitutes the clergy the inspectors of schools.\\nBache s Report on Education in Europe. Cousin s Report on Primary Instruction in\\nsome of the Sales of Germany, and particularly in Prussia. Prof. Stephens s Letter to the\\nSuperintendent of Common Schools in Pennsylvania in 1843. Recent School Docu-\\nments from Germany, by Harnisch, Calinich, Jacobi and others.\\n6", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "g2 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nAn attempt to provide more precisely, by law, for the regulation of the\\nschools in Berlin, was made by a decree of 1738. This decree requires\\nthat teachers shall be regularly examined by the inspectors of schools\\nbefore being allowed to teach, and prescribes their acquirements in detail.\\nIt directs the opening and closing of the schools with prayers fixes the\\nhours of daily attendance at from eight to eleven, or seven to ten in the\\nmorning, and one to three in the afternoon prescribes instruction in\\nspelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing, and regulates the\\nemoluments and perquisites of the master.\\nA new impulse was given to public instruction under the reign of\\nFrederick the Great. The regulations drawn up by Hecker, and approved\\nby the king, (1763,) are very precise, and though they have been in part\\nsuperseded by later decrees, many of their provisions ai-e still in force.\\nThey provide for the selection of school books by the consistory that\\nchildren shall be sent to school at five years of age, and be kept there un-\\ntil thirteen or fourteen, or until they have made satislactory attainments\\nin reading and writing, in the knowledge of Christian doctrine, and of\\nsuch matters as are to be found in their text-books fix the school-hours,\\nrequiring six liours a day for instruction in winter, and three in summer,\\nand one hour of catechetical instruction, besides the Sunday teacliing\\nrequire that all unmarried persons of the parish shall attend the hour of\\ninstruction in the catechism, and besides, receive lessons in reading and\\nwriting ti-om the Bible. The regulations provide anew for the school-\\nmasters fees, and for the instruction of poor children require that the\\nschoolmaster shall be furnished from the church-register with a list of all\\nthe children of the age to attend school, and that he shall prepare a list of\\nthose who are actually in attendance, and submit boih to the clergyman,\\nin his periodical visits; direct anew the examination of candidates for the\\nsituation of schoolmaJler, and refer particularly to the advantages of the\\nseminary opened at Berlhi for preparing teachers for the Mark of Bran-\\ndenburg; lay down minutely the scheme of elementary instruction, and\\nactually specify the time to be devoted to the different branches, with\\neach of the two classes composing the school require the parochial\\nclergy to visit the schools twice a week, and inspectors of circles to per-\\nform the same service at least once a year.\\nThe decree of Frederick regulating the Catholic schools of Silesia,\\n(1765,) is even more particular than the foregoing, It shows the settled\\npolicy in regard to educating teachers in special seminaries, now so im-\\nportant a part of the Prussian system, by setting apart certain schools by\\nname for this purpose, requiring the appointment of a director to each,\\nand assigning his duties.\\nIn 1787, Frederick William the Second created a council of instruction,\\nunder the title of an -Upper School Board, fOber-Schul Collegium.) of\\nwhich the minister of state was president. 1 he council was directed to\\nexamine text-books, and to pass upon the licenses of masters, on the re-\\nports of the provincial school-boards. They were authorized to erect\\nseminaries for teachers at the government expense, and to frame their\\nregulations; to send out an inspector from their body to examine any part\\nof public instruction, and to rectify all wrongs by a direct order, or through\\nthe school-boards of the provinces, the school committees or patrons.\\nThis organization remained substantially in force until the separation of\\nthe departments of state and instruction in 1817. with the creation of a\\nministry of public instruction. The attributes of tliis upper school board,\\nit will be seen, now belong to that council.\\nThe school plan of 1763 was modified by an ordinance of 1794, which in-\\ntroduces geography and natural history in the elementary schools, and\\nrefers to vocal music as one of their most important exercises it also at-\\ntempts, by minute prescriptions, to introduce uniformity in the methods of", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\n83\\ninstruction and discipline. The regulation for the catholic schools of\\nSilesia was also revised in 1801.\\nBut the most important era in the history of public instruction in Prus-\\nsia, as well as in other parts of Germany, opens with the etforts put forth\\nby the king and people, to rescue the kingdom from the yoke of Napo^\\nleon in 1809. In that year the army was remodeled and every citizen\\nconverted into a soldier; landed property was declared free of feudal\\nservice restrictions on fVeedom of trade were abolished, and the whole\\nstate was reorganized. Great reliance was placed on infusing a German\\nspirit into the people by giving them freer access to improved institutions\\nof education, from the common school to the university. Under the\\ncouncils of Hardenberg. Humbolt, Stein, AUenstein, these reforms and\\nimprovements were projected, carried on, and perfected in less than a\\nsingle generation.\\nThe movement in behalf of popular schools commenced by inviting C,\\nA. Zeller, of Wirtemberg, to Prussia. Zeller was a young theologian,\\nwho had Btudied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and was thoroughly\\nimbued with the method and spirit of his master. On his return he had\\nconvened the school teachers of Wirtemberg in barns, for want of better\\naccommodations being allowed him, and inspired them with a zeal for\\nPestalozzi s methods, and for a better education of the whole people. On\\nremoving to Prussia, he first took charge of the seminary at Koenigsberg,\\nsoon after founded the seminary at Karalene. and went about into differ-\\nent provinces meeting with teachers, holding conferences, visiting\\nschools, and inspiring school officers with the right spirit.\\nThe next step taken was to send a number of yoijng men, mostly theo^\\nlogians, to Pestalozzi s institution at Itferten, to acquire his method, and\\non their return to place them in new, or reorganized teachers seminaries.\\nTo these new agents in school improvement were joined a large body ot\\nzealous teachers, and patriotic and enlightened citizens, who, in ways\\nand methods of their own, labored incessantly to confirm the Prussian\\nstate, by forming new organs for its internal life, and new means of pro^\\ntection from tbreign foes. They proved themselves truly educators of the\\npeople. Although the government thus not only encouraged, but directly\\naided in the introduction of the methods of Pestalozzi into the public\\nschools of Prussia, still the school board in the different provinces sus-\\nUiined and encouraged those who approved and taught on different sys-\\ntems, such as Dinter, Zerrenner, Salzman. and Niemeyer\u00e2\u0080\u0094 all, in fine,\\nwho labored with a patriotic purpose, thus allowing intellectual freedom,\\nand appropriating whatever was good from all quarters toward the accom-\\nplishment of the great purpose.\\nTo infuse a German spirit into teachers and scholars, particular attenr\\ntion was paid to the German language, as the treasury house of Ger-\\nman ideas, and to the geography and history of the father land. Music,\\nwhich was one of Pestalozzi s great instruments of culture, was made the\\nvehicle of patriotic songs, and through them the heart of all Germany", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "o PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\n84\\nwas moved to bitter hatred of the conqueror who had desolated her fields\\nand homes, and humbled tiie pride of her monarchy. All these efforts\\nfor the improvement of elementary education, accompanied by expensive\\nmodifications in the establishments of secondary and superior education,\\nwere made when the treasury was impoverished, an\u00c2\u00abl taxes, the most\\nexorbitant in amount, were levied on every province and commune of\\nthe kingdom. Prof Stephens, now of Girard College, in a letter to the\\nSuperintendent of Common Schools of Pennsylvania, written from Berlin,\\nat a time when there was at least a talk of the repudiation of state debts,\\nand especially when a distinguished citizen of that state had proposed to\\ndivert the money appropriated for the support of common schools to the\\npayment of interest on the state debts, makes the following remarks on\\nthis period of the educational history of Prussia.\\nPrussia, who furnishes us with a pattern of excellence in the present\\nstale of her public schools, atfords us a still more brilliant example in the\\nnoble policy by which she su.stained them in times of great public distress.\\nOf all the nations of Europe, Prussia was reduced to the greatest extrem-\\nity by the wars of Napoleon. In 1806, at the battle of Jena, her whole\\nmilitary force was annihilated. Within a week after the main overthrow,\\nevery scattered division of the army fell into the hands of the enemy.\\nNapoleon took up his quarters in Berlin, emptied the arsenal, and stripped\\nthe capital of all the works of art which he thought worthy to be trans-\\nported to Paris. By the treaty of Tilsit, in 1SU7, the king of Prussia was\\ndeprived of one-half of his dominions. A French army of 200,000 men\\nwere q^uartered upon the Prussians till the end of the year 1808. Prussia\\nmust pay to France the sum of 120,000,000 francs, after her principal\\nsources of income had been appropriated by Napoleon, either to himself\\nor his allies. The system of confiscation went so far that even the revenue\\nfrom the endowments of schools, of poor houses, and the fund for widows,\\nwas diverted into the treasury of France. These last were given back\\nin 1811. Foreign loans were made, to meet the exorbitant claims of the\\nconqueror An army must be created, bridges rebuilt, ruined fortifications\\nin every quarter repaired, and so great was the public extremity that the\\nPrussian ladies, with noble generosity, sent their ornaments and jewels to\\nsupply the royal treasury. Rings, crosses, and other ornaments of cast-\\niron were given in return to all tTiose who had made this sacrifice. They\\nbore the inscription, Ich gab gold vm eisen,^ (1 gave gold for iron.) and\\nsuch Spartan jewels are much treasured at this day by the possessors\\nand their families. This state of things lasted till after the War of\\nLiberation, in 1812. But it is the pride of Prussia, that at the time of\\nher greatest humiliation and distress, she never for a moment lost sight of\\nthe work she had begun in the improvement of her sciiools.\\nIn 1809, the minister at the head of the section of instruction, writes as\\nfollows, to some teachers who had been sent to the in^itution of Pesta-\\nlozzi to learn his method and principles of instructing:\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The section of\\npublic instruction begs you to believe, and to assure Mr. Pestalozzi, that\\nthe cause is the interest of the government, and of his majesty^ the king,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2personally, who are convinced that liberation from extraordinary calami-\\nties is fruitless, and only to be effected by a thorough improvement of the\\npeople s education. In 1809, was established the teachers seminary in\\nKoenigsberg. In 1810. the seminary at Braunsburff. In 1811, the semi-\\nnary at Karalene. In 1812, was established at Breslau. the first seminary,\\ncompletely organized according to the new ideas, in 1809, the most am-\\nply endowed and completely organized of all the German universities", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "Primary instruction in prdssia gg\\nwas founded in Berlin. Professors were called from all parts, and in ISIO\\nthe university was in full operation. In ISll, the old university of Bres-\\nlau was reorcranized, and large grants were received from the government\\nfor new buildings and new professorships. Is not this noble policy, on the\\npart of an absolute government, at a time when the nation was struggling\\nfor existence, a severe rebuke upon the narrow and short-sighted expedi-\\nents of those republican politicians, who can invent no better way to pay\\na public debt than by converting into money that institution on which the\\nvirtue and intelligence of the people, and the special safety of a republican\\nstate, mainly depend 1\\nThe school system of Prussia, is not the growth of any one period, and is\\nrot found in one law, but is made up of an aggregation of laws and general\\nregulaiions. enacted at different times for different provinces, differing in\\nthe condition, habits, and religion of the people, and to meet particular\\nwants, as these have been developed in the progress of the system. An\\nattempt was made in 1819 to prepare a general school law for Prussia,\\nbut without success. This is considered by Harnisch and other German\\neducators, a great defect, as it leads to great inequalities of education,\\nand great irregularities of administration in different provinces. The or-\\ndinance of 1819, however, embraces much of the regulations which are\\napplicable to the whole kingdom, while the peculiarities and details of\\nthe system must be looked for in the provincial ordinances and special\\nregulations.\\nThe authorities which administer public instruction in Prussia are the\\nfollowing: The chief authority is the minister, who joins to this super-\\nvision that of ecclesiastical and medical affairs. He is assisted by a coun-\\ncil, consisting of a variable number of members, and divided into three\\nsections corresponding to the three charges of the minister. The section\\nfor public instruction has its president and secretary, and meets usually\\ntwice a week ibr the transaction of business. One of this body is crene-\\nraily deputed as extraordinary inspector in cases requiring examination,\\nand reports to the minister. The kingdom of Prussia is divided into ten\\nprovinces, each of which has its governor, styled Superior President,\\n(Ober-Presiderit.) who is assisted by a council called a Copsistory, (Con-\\nsistoriura.) This council has functions in the province similar to those in\\nthe ministerial council in the kingdom at large, and has direct control of\\nsecondary public instruction, and of the schools lor the education oi pri-\\nmary teachers. It is subdivided into two sections of which one has charge\\nof the primary instruction in the province, under the title of the School\\nBoard, (Provincial Schul Collegium.) The school board, in addition to\\nexercising the general supervision oi education in the province, examines\\nthe statutes and regulations of the schools, insures the execution of exist-\\ning laws and regulations, examines text-books, and gives permission for\\ntheir introduction, after having obtained the approbation of the ministry.\\nThis board communicates with the higher authorities, through their pre-\\nsident, to whom the reports from the next lower authority, to be presently\\nspoken of, are addressed, and by whom, when these relate to school\\nmatters, they are referred to the board tor examination.\\nThe next smaller political division to a province, is called a Regency,\\n(Regierungs-Bezirk.) which is again subdivided into Circles, (^Kreisin,)\\nand those into parishes, (Gemeinden.) The chief civil authority in the\\nRegency, is a president, who is assisted by a council called also a regency.\\nThis Do dy is divided into three sfections, having charge respectively of", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "gg PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nthe internal afi airs, of direct taxes, and of church and school matters.\\nThe last named committee examines and appoints all the teachers ot\\nelementary and burgher schools within the regency, superintends the\\nschools, ascertains that the school-houses and churches are duly kept in\\norder, administers the funds of schools and churches, or superintends the\\nadministration, when vested in corporations, and collects the church and\\nschool fees. This committee is presided over by a member of the re-\\ngency called the School Councilor, (Schul-rath.) As councilor, he has\\na seat and voice in the provincial consistory, where he is required to ap-\\npear at least once a year, and to report upon their aiTairs in his regency,\\nof which the provincial consistory has the superintendence. It is also his\\nduty to visit the schools, and to satisfy himself that they are in good con-\\ndition.\\nThe next school authority is the in.spector of a circle, who has charge\\noC several parishes. These insTpedtors are generally clergymen, while\\nthe councilors are laymen. Ne.\\\\t below the special superintendents is the\\nimmediate authority, namely, the school committee, (Schul-Vorstand.)\\nEach parish (Gemeinde) must, by law, have its school, except in special\\ncases, and each school its committee of superintendence, (Schul-Vorstand,)\\nConsisting of the curate, the local magistrate, and from two to four nota-\\nbles the constitution of the committee varying somewhat with the char-\\nacter of the school, whetiier endowed, entirely supported by the parish, in\\npart by the province or state, or by subscription. The committee ap-\\npoints a school inspector, who is usually the clergyman of the parish. In\\ncities, the magistrates form the school committee, or school deputation, as\\nit is there called, the curates still acting as local inspectors.\\nThus, there is a regular series of authorities, from the master of the\\nschool up to the minister, and every part of primary instruction is entirely\\nwithin the control of an impulse from the central government, and takes\\nits direction according to the will of the highest authorities. With such a\\nsystem, under a despotic government, it is obvious that the provisions of\\nany law may be successfully enforced.\\nThe cardinal provisions of the school system of Prussia, are\\nFirst, That all children between the ages of seven and fourteen years\\nshall ga regularly to school. This is enforced by the school committee,\\nwho are furnished with lists of the children who should attend, and of\\nthose actually in the schools under their charge, and who are required to\\nenforce the penalties of the law.\\nSecond, That each parish shall, in general, have an elementary school.\\nWhen the inhabitants are of ditierent religious persuasions, each denom-\\nination has its school, and if not, provision is made for the religious in-\\nstruction of the children by their own pastors. The erection of the school-\\nhouse, its furniture, the income of the master, and aid to poor scholars, are\\nall provided for. The requisite sum comes, in part, from parochial funds,\\nand in part from a tax upon householders. When the parish is poor, it is\\nassisted by the circle, by the province, and even by the state. Besides\\nthese elementary schools, most of the towns in Prussia have one or more\\nupper primary or burgher schools.\\nThird, The education of teachers in seminaries, adapted to the grade\\nof instruction to which they intend devoting themselves. Their exemp-\\ntion during their term of study from active military service required of\\nother citizens. A provision for their support during their term of study.\\nA preference given to them over schoolmasters not similarly educated.\\nTheir examination previous to receiving a certificate of capacity, which\\nentitles them to become candidates for any vacant post in the province\\nwhere they have been examined. Their subsequent exemption from ac-\\ntive military service, and even from the annual drill of the militia, if they", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "PRLMARV INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. \u00c2\u00a77\\ncan not, in the opinion of the school inspector, be spared from their duties.\\nProvision for the removal of the incompetent or immoral. A provision\\nfor the support of decayed teachers.\\nFourth, The authorities which regulate the schools, and render them\\na branch of the general government, and the teachers in fact, its officers.\\nIn a country likePrussia. this connection secures to the teacher the respect\\ndue to his station, and thus facihtates the discharge of his important\\nduties.\\nUnder this system of organization and administration, and especially\\nwith these arrangements to secure the employment of only properly quali-\\nfied teachers, the public schools of Prussia have been multiplied to an ex-\\ntent, and have attained within the last quarter of a century a degree of\\nexcellence, wliich has attracted the attention of statesmen, and commanded\\nthe admiration of intelligent educators in every part of Christendom. In\\nthe provinces, where the improved system has gone into operation with\\nthe habits of the people in its favor, it has already reached every human\\nbeing; and in even the outer provinces, it is. as fast as time sweeps along\\nnew generations, replacing the adult population with a race of men and\\nwomen who have been subjected to a course of school instruction far more\\nthorough and comprehensive than has ever been attempted in any other\\ncountry. As an evidence of the universality of the system it may be\\nmentioned, that out of 122,897 men of the standing army, in 1846, only\\ntwo soldiers were found who could not both read and write. But the\\nsystem aims at much higher results with nothing short of developing\\nevery faculty both of mind and body, of converting creatures of impulse,\\nprejudice, and passion, into thinking and reasoning beings, and of giving\\nthem objects of pursuit, and habits of conduct, favorable to their own hap-\\npiness and that of the community in which they live. The result which\\nmay be reasonably anticipated from this system when the entire adult\\npopulation have been subjected to its operation, and when the influencea\\nof the home and street, of the business and the recreations of society, all\\nunite with those of the school have not as yet been realized in any sec-\\ntion of the kingdom. Every where the lessons of the school-room are\\nweakened, and in a measure destroyed, by degrading national customs,\\nand the inevitable results of a government which represses liberty of\\nthought, speech, occupation, and political action. But the school, if left\\nas good and thorough as it now is, must inevitably change the govern-\\nment, or the government must change the school. And even if the school\\nshould be made less thorough than it now is, no governmental interfer-\\nence can turn back the intelligence which has already gone out among\\nthe people. It would be easier to return the rain to tlie clouds, from\\nwhich it has parted, and which has already mingled with the waters of\\nevery rising spring, or reached the roots of every growing plant.\\nThe following Table exhibits the state of the Public Schools of Prussia,\\naccording to the latest official returns published by the government.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "88\\nPKIMARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA.\\n73\\no\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sndn,! JO -oij\\ni-H T-l r-l tH rH i-H r-l i-( r- i-H r-l\\n00\\nof\\ni^m\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2siooqog JO \u00e2\u0080\u00a2OfJ\\nCI M,-(rHCO( 5rHr-l(MeOi-( Mr-lrHr-ICO(MCOrH05i-lr-l(Mi-l\\n1\\nm\\na\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\ns\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2s.reioqog\\nGOOOOO^-^M OcO^-(MOO^t:-C^^-002CN-*t-5DOr-lOOOT!S\\nr-T r-T cf r-T i-T\\nCO\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjffuisissv\\n^(NiOcCiO \u00e2\u0080\u00a2Oir-lSliO Oi CO X X CO Ol .lO-^J^-Or-il;-\\n,-1 O i-H rH i-H r-l 1-1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjaqoBax\\ni-H100 \u00c2\u00abr t^rH000300t*0\u00c2\u00bb-(\u00c2\u00abd :OOiOOOOCOCOOOCOCO-x i- aO\\nCO r-l (M I-H !N j N r-l rH N r-l rH rH lO r-l i-H\\no\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Biooqog\\nlO(M-*-*lCl-10rHtO NrHOOrHrHCO-*rHCNrH(MOOSO) m-*-*\\nrH rH\\no\\no\\n2\\nc\\n1\\nc\\na\\ns\\n.9\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nS\\n.c\\nSB\\n!a\\n3\\no\\n1\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0C 1 XI\\n5 1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjBioqog\\n1,828\\n1,965\\n574\\n519\\n984\\n444\\n5,157\\n5,598\\n2,623\\n4,375\\n2,579\\n460\\n2,937\\n345\\n2,511\\n3,194\\n6,811\\n1,549\\n52\\n632\\n243\\n623\\n854\\n527\\n350\\n568\\nCM\\nO\\nC0_^\\nCO\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sassanstn\\nOCOCM50CX OOOOt-^ :005 ac0001 .lAOSOSTJl MMrHQOCDlO=5\\nrH rH K C6 rH OS rH N rH CO rH\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjgqoBSJ,\\nc^^10 ^^^~^^oOr^O\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^coococ\u00c2\u00bbl^-(^^rH ooo^o ^503cOcocclOO\\nOS CO rH rH rH 00 CO W rH rH rH 05 CO rH rH Itt rH\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S[ooqog\\nOOOi \u00c2\u00abiilOtr-^\u00c2\u00bbOTjl\u00c2\u00abOCOW^O^t^ ^rH 3^rHCOC It--a3t\u00e2\u0080\u0094 OrH-H4 :0\\nrH rH CO rH CO rH (M rH 05 M rH\\no\\nCO\\nCO\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Sit![OqDg\\n1,402\\n2,040\\n700\\n395\\n674\\n357\\n1,797\\n6,809\\n1,963\\n3,955\\n2,835\\n766\\n3,595\\n294\\n2,025\\n3,847\\n6,844\\n1,139\\n433\\n377\\n548\\n52\\n4i)5\\n202\\n51\\n11\\nCO\\nco\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sincismsv\\nt~ .(M M .^Tjl .00TJ4(M05 MOt0(Ma\u00c2\u00abl-* .rH-*(MrHTjl\\nto rH rH CO rH rH\\nC5\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjaqoBax\\n(M to 00 CO O) t^ O Oi M 1^ CO 1^ CO rH CO OJ CO CO -5ll rH .r-l\\nTt rH rH rH rH N OJ CO 00 lO C\u00c2\u00ab lO rH CO 00 C^ rH rH M (y) rH\\n00\\n00\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sjooqog\\ni^00O3\u00c2\u00bbOi \u00c2\u00bb;^l?lt\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ttl00-^rH05t-i*OC0-*(NC0e00^ NU^C IrH\\nrH rH rH CO rH (N rH rH 0^ rH tJI rH rl r-l rl\\nCO\\ni\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0g\\na\\n1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2SWO\\nQO^ \u00c2\u00bbCO^cOOlOCOira CCOCO-!ile5C\u00c2\u00a3.C01^C0 1CCOCOCOira- 5\\nu-r 1 O 3 rH i7^ f^ iC 1^ r^ CO \u00c2\u00bbC -^1 CO lO 03 Oi CO CO r^ O M o\\n00_0^-*^O^rH_cj^J -_i.-^0_iO_ C_^(N_CO_0 ?a (N l ;^t- CO r-. CO lO O t-\\nco~C5 lo oo co t^ \u00c2\u00bbo co~ oT oT r-T oT crcrric~o crr r-T cTt^j^^Cco^aT r-T\\nlOCO MCOCO(HrH\u00c2\u00abOc\u00c2\u00a3 CO(MrHQOI^OlOCD MCO\u00c2\u00ab -*C 3CO- JlCOCO\\nCO\\noo_\\n02\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0sfog\\n892\\n198\\n03;3\\n210\\n982\\n325\\n096\\n224\\n476\\n588\\n855\\n421\\n585\\n871\\n905\\n332\\n807\\n756\\n399\\n603\\n370\\n561\\n627\\n419\\n684\\n229\\n00\\nCO\\nt-0*^OJ--\u00c2\u00ab -*COt-.rHO MC50iCOlOrH 3iCMrHOrHrHU5C5T)\\nlO^(M-*eoO lrHCOC\u00c2\u00a3iT41K)rHOOt-CO\u00c2\u00ab3CO(MCOTlllO- llt--*COCO\\n2\\n1\\n^1\\n00U5mt-05- j r)lC00i0H0Sc6Tjl-*lClrHrHI^-*C0OC0c0C0C0O\\nCO 00 \u00c2\u00bbOr-ICOCOi-lCO COiQ WSrHCM-^OlQOiCOCOOSCO\\nCO\\nLI\\nCO\\n_2\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0sjOBisissy\\nC0rH^U:jrHC0CM-*rHQOOC0C0l0C003-*0iC01:-C Irt 01rHrH\\nl^TtltMrHC0 MJ^-*C0C0t-rH-*r-lt~C0lOrH Nt-00 NC0t-t-O\\nrH N CO CO M IM CO rH\\n(?f\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2paxiJ\\nOrH01:-Ot-l\u00e2\u0080\u0094 OCO-JlCCerHM^rHOt-.h-a2CO-*^inOrH\\nlOCOQOC^^CO-^COr^COO^rHOOiOh-fMt^rH l--00I^OOQ0C010\\ni ^rH_co o^co^t- oq oo^io^a^o_co lo o (M co^^ co- oqoioct ojgoio\\nOi\\nLO~\\nCO\\no\\n^1\\nOOCOOl\u00e2\u0096\u00a0*\u00e2\u0096\u00a0 ^^rHOO^- Cl^-COC5lOOi00000030(NrHrHOOCOrHM\\nosoocO-rtiaiaso-^cOt^cMt^CicococOiCrHcOt^rHCOCiOooco\\nlO^O_CO 0_rH^CD rH lC^I l_O_O_c0 -i ^Oi CO_ 0^05^0 O O 00 lO t- O_00 O\\nr-Trn r-TrH r-T rn rT r-T r^ r-T r-T rn r^\\n1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23\\no\\nKoni /sberg.\\nGumbinnen.\\nDanzig\\nMarienwerde\\nPosen\\nBromberg\\nHurl Berlin.\\nPotsdam\\nFrankfurt\\nStettin\\n(!oslin\\nStralsund.\\nBreslau\\nOppeln\\nLugiTiitz\\nMagdeburg\\nMerseberg\\nRrfiirt\\nMunster\\nMinden\\nArnsberg\\n(Join\\np5^\\n3\\n1\\nrH(jqCO-*10COJ^QOC20rH(NCO-*L COt-OOC10rHiq\\nCO LI CO\\n^MM\\nz:", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. 89\\nIn 1848. the population of Prussia was about 16,000,000. According\\nto the foregoing table, there were 24.030 elementary schools, with\\n2.433.333 children, between the ages of 6 and 14, in average daily-\\nattendance 1,202 middle or burgher schools with 91.888 pupils, and lUO\\nhigher, or town schools, with 15.624 pupils, making an aggregate of\\n25,332 public primary schools, and 2,540.775 pupils. To these schools\\nshould be added 117 gymnasia for classical education, with 29,474\\npupils, and 1,664 professors; 7 universities with 4,000 students and 471\\nprofessors, an4 libraries with over 1.000.000 volumes 382 institutions,\\nin the nature of infant schools, with 25.000 children, and a large number\\nof schools for special instruction, as for the blind, deaf mutes, commerce,\\ntrades, arts, c.; and Prussia can present an array of institutions, teach-\\ners, professors, and educational facilities, for all classes of her population,\\nnot surpassed by any other country.\\nIf to the number of children at school, public or private, we add those\\nwho are receiving instruction at home, or who have left school after\\nobtaining the certificate of school attendance up to the age of twelve\\nyears, and of their being able to read, write, and cipher, and those who\\nare detained from school temporarily by sickness, we can easily acquiesce\\nin the claim of the director of the Statistical Bureau, by whom the\\nannual, school returns are collected, and published every three years,\\nthat every child under fourteen years of age has already attended school\\npublic or private, or has acquired that degree of instruction which\\nmakes self-education in almost any direction practicable. From an\\ninvestigation made by the government in 1845, there were, in the whole\\nof Prussia, only two young men in every one hundred between the ages\\nof twenty and twenty-two, who could not read, write, and cipher, and\\nhad not a knowledge of Scripture history.\\nAccording to the foregoing table, there were 34.030 primary school\\nteachers employed in, viz.\\nElementary schools. Head teachers, 25,914\\nAssistants, 2,749\\nSchoolmistresses, 1,856\\nMiddle or Burgher schools for boys. Head teachers, 898\\nAssistants, 197\\ngirls. Head teachers, 1,094\\nSchoolmistresses, 640\\nHigher Burgher. Head teachers, 505\\nAssistants, 197\\nTotal, 34,030\\nThese thirty-four thousand teachers had all been thoroughly edu-\\ncated in the studies they were called on to teach, and the best methods\\nof teaching the same in seminaries established for thispurpose, of which\\nthere were forty-six, supported by th^ government, in 1848. By means\\nof educational periodicals, and frequent meetings for professional im-", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "90 STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA.\\nproveinent, these teachers are bound together into a great association,\\nstimulating each other to higher attainments, and marching forward a\\nnoble army ibr the improvement, and not the destruction of the people.\\nThe following statistics will show how steadily the primary schools\\nhave advanced in numbers, attendance, and teachers, since 1819:\\n1. In 1819, the number of schools in Prussia was 20,085\\nIn 1825, 21,625\\nIn 1831, u u 22^612\\nIn 1843, 23,646\\nIn 1846, u 25,332\\n2. In 1819, the number of teachers in Prussia was 21,895\\nIn 1825, u a _ 22,965\\nIn 1831, 27,749\\nIn 1843, _ 29^631\\nIn 1846, 32^313\\n3. In 1825, the number of children between seven and four-\\nteen years of age, was 1,923,200\\nAnd the number of these who were attending the\\nschools, was 1,664,218\\nIn 1831, the number of children between seven and four-\\nteen years of age, was 2,043,030\\nAnd the number of these who were attending the\\nschools, was 2,021,421\\nIn 1843, the number of children between seven and four-\\nteen years of age, was 2,992,124\\nAnd the number of these who were attending the\\nschools, was 2,328,146\\nIn 1846, the number of children in public schools, 2,540,775\\nThese great results have been obtained by the united efforts of the\\ngovernment and the people; but eveij these statistics can not show the\\nimprovement which has been made in school-houses, school instruction,\\nand the whole internal economy of the school-room.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION\\nThe primary schools of Prussia.\\nBefore presenting an outline of the coilrse of instruction pursued In\\nthe common schools of Prussia, gathered from the observations ot distin-\\nguished educators in their visits to a large number of schools of different\\ngrades, as well as from published accounts of the organization and\\nstudies of particular schools, we will introduce a brief view* of the gen^\\neral objects and different degrees of primary education, and of the man-\\nner in which the schools are established and conducted.\\nTwo degrees of primary instruction are disiinguished by the law; the\\nelementary schools and the burgher schools. The elementary schools\\npropose the development of the human facilities, through ah instruction\\nin those common branches of knowledge which are indispensable to\\nevery person, both of town and country. The burgher schools Beur-\\ngerschulen StadtsChulen]) carry on the child until he is capable of man-\\nifesting his inclination for a classical education, or for this or that par-\\nticular profession. The gymnasia continue this education tintil the\\nyouth is prepared, either to commence his practical studies in common\\nlife, or his higher and special scientific studies in the university.\\nThese different gradations coincide in forming, so to speak, a great\\nestablishment of national education, one in system, and of which the\\nparts, though each accoriiplishing a special end, are all mutually cor-\\nrelative. The primary education of which we speak, though divided\\ninto two degrees, has its peculiar unity and general laws it admits of\\naccommodation, however, to the sex, language, religion, and future des-\\ntination of the pupils. 1. Separate establishments for girls should be\\nformed, wherever possible, corresponding to the elementary and larger\\nschools for boys. 2. In those provinces of the monarchy (as the Poli.sh)\\nwhere a foreign language is spoken, besides lessons in the native idiom,\\nthe children shall receive complete instruction in German, which is also\\nto be employed as the ordinary language of the school. 3. Difference\\nof religion in Christian schools necessarily determines differences in\\nreligious instruction. This instruction shall always be accommodated\\nto the spirit and doctrines of the persuasion to which the school belongs.\\nBut, as in every school of a christian state, the dominant spirit (common\\nto all creeds) should be piety, and a profound reverence of the Deity,\\nevery Christian school may receive the children of every sect. The\\nT\\nMainly in the language of the laW and ordinance, as transljited and condensed by Sir\\nWilliam Hamilton, in an article \\\\n the Edinburgh Review\\nt Called likewise A/ V/p/sc/ii ?f I, middle srhnols. and Ifr ahchu/fn, renl schools: the last,\\nbecause they are less occupied With I he study ol lau^-uage C Vcrbalia) than v?ith the knowledge\\nof things, (Realia", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "92 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nmasters and superintendents ought to avoid, with scrupulous care, every\\nshadow of religious constraint or annoyance. No schools should be\\nabused to any purposes of proselytism; and the children of a worship\\ndifferent from that of the school, shall not be obliged, contrary to the\\nwish of their parents or their own, to attend iis religious instruction and\\nexercises. Special masters of their own persuasion shall have the care\\nof their religious education and should it be impossible to have as\\nmany masters as confessions, the parents should endeavor, with so much\\nthe greater solicitude, to discharge this duty themselves, if disinclined\\nto allow their children to attend the religious lessons of the school. The\\nprimitive destination of every school, says the law, is so to train youth\\nthat, with a knowledge of the relations of man to God. it may foster in\\nthem the desire of ruling their life by the spirit and principles of Chris-\\ntianity. The school shall, therefore, betimes second and complete the\\nfirst domestic training of the child to piety. Prayer and edifying reflec-\\ntions shall commence and terminate the day and the master must be-\\nware that this moral exercise do never degenerate into a matter of\\nroutine. Obedience to the laws, loj^alty, and patriotism, to be inculca-\\nted. No humiliating or indecent castigation allowed; and corporal pun-\\nishment, in general, to be applied only in cases of necessity. Scholars\\nfound wholly incorrigible, in order to obviate bad example, to be at\\nlength dismissed. The pupils, as they advance in age, to be employed\\nin the maintenance of good order in the school, and thus betimes habit-\\nuated to regard themselves as active and useful members of society.\\nThe primary education has for its scope the development of the dif-\\nferent faculties, intellectual and moral, mental and bodily. Every com-\\nplete elementary school necessarily embraces the nine following branches:\\n1. Religion morality established on the positive truths of Christianity\\n2. The German tongue, and in the Polish provinces, the vernacular\\nlanguage; 3. The elements of geometry and general principles of draw-\\ning; 4. Calculation and applied arithmetic; 5. The elements of physics,\\nof general history, and of the history of Prussia; 6. Singing; 7. Writing;\\n8. Gymnastic exercises 9. The more simple manual labors, and some\\ninstruction in the relative country occupations.\\nEvery burgher school must teach the ten following branches: 1.\\nReligion and morals. 2. The German language, and the vernacular\\nidiom of the province, reading, composition, exercises of style, exercises\\nof talent, and the study of the national classics In the countries of the\\nGerman tongue, the modern foreign languages are the objects of an ac-\\ncessory study. 3. Latin to a certain extent. (This, we believe, is not\\nuniversally enforced.) 4. The elements of mathematics, and in partic-\\nular a thorough knowledge of practical arithmetic. 5. Physics, and\\nnatural history to explain the more important phenomena of nature. 6.\\nGeography, and general history combined Prussia, its history, laws,\\nand constitution, form the object of a particular study. 7. The princi-\\nples of design; to be taught with the instruction given in physics, nat-\\nural history, and geometry. 8. The penmanship should be watched,", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PKUSSIA. 93\\nand the hand exercised to write with neatness and ease. 9. Singing,\\nin order to develop the voice, to afford a knowledge of the an, and to\\nenable the scholars to assist in the solemnities of the church. 10. Gym-\\nnastic exercises accommodated to the age and strength of the scholar.\\nSuch is the minimum of education 1o be afforded by a burgher school.\\nIf its means enable it to attempt a higher instruction, so as to prepare\\nthe scholar, destined to a learned profession, for an immediate entrance\\ninto the gymnasia, the school then takes the name of Higher Town\\nSchool.\\nEvery pupil, on leaving school, should receive from his masters and\\nthe committee of superintendence, a certificate of his capacity, and of his\\nmoral and religious dispositions. These certificates to be always pro-\\nduced on approaching the communion, and on entering into apprentice-\\nship or service. They are given only at the period of departure and\\nin the burgher schools, as in the gymnasia, they form the occasion of a\\ngreat solemnity.\\nEvery half year pupils are admitted promoted from class to class;\\nand absolved at the conclusion of their studies.\\nBooks of study to be carefully chosen by the committees, with con-\\ncurrence of the superior authorities, the ecclesiastical being specially\\nconsulted in regard to those of a religious nature. For the Catholic\\nschools, the bishops, in concert with the provincial consistories, to select\\nthe devotional books and, in case of any difference of opinion, the Min-\\nister of Public Instruction shall decide.\\nSchoolmasters are to adopt the methods best accommodated to the\\nnatural development of the human mind methods which keep the intel-\\nlectual powers in constant, general, and spontaneous exercise, and are\\nnot limited to the infusion of a mechanical knowledge. The committees\\nare to watch over the methods of the master, and to aid him by their\\ncouncil never to tolerate a vicious method, and to report to the higher\\nauthorities should their admonition be neglected. Parents and guardians\\nhave a right to scrutinize the system of education by which their chil-\\ndren are taught and to address their complaints to the higher author-\\nities, who are bound to have them carefully investigated. On the other\\nhand, they are bound to cooperate with their private influence in aid of\\nthe public discipline nor is it permitted them to witlidraw a scholar\\nfrom any branch of education taught in the school as necessary.\\nAs a national establishment, every school should court the greatest\\npublicity. In those for boys, besides the special half yearly examina-\\ntions, for the promotion from one class to another, there shall annually\\ntake place public examinations, in order to exhibit the spirit of the in-\\nstruction, and the proficiency of the scholars. On this solemnity, the\\ndirector, or one of the masters, in an official programme, is to render an\\naccount of the condition and progress of the school. In fine, from time\\nto time, there shall be published a general report of the state of educa-\\ntion in each province. In schools for females, the examinations take", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "94 SUBJECTS AM) METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PUUSSIA.\\nplace in presence of the parents and masters, without any general\\ninvitation.\\nBui if the public instructors are bound to a Hiithfnl performance of\\ntheir duties, they have a right, in return, to the gratitude and respect\\ndue to the zealous laborer in the sacred work of education. The school\\nis entitled to claim universal countenance and aid, even from those who\\ndo not confide to it their children. All public authorities, each in its\\nsphere, are enjoined to promote the public schools and to lend support\\nto the masters in the exercise of their office, as to any other functiona-\\nries of the state. In all the communes of the monarchy, the clergy of\\nall Christians persuasions, whether in the church, in their school visita-\\ntion, or in their sermons on the opening of the classes, shall omit no\\nopportunity of recalling to the schools their high mission, and to the\\npeople their duties to these establishments. The civil authorities, the\\nclergy, and the masters, shall every where cooperate in tightening the\\nbonds of respect and attachment between the people and the school; so\\nthat the nation may be more habituated to consider education as a\\nprimary condition of civil existence, and daily take a deeper interest in\\nIts advancement.\\nThe following extracts from Kay s Social Condition arid Educa-\\ntion of the People,^ will show how these provisions of the law, and\\ngovernmental instructions are carried into practice.\\nThe three great results, which the Prussian government has labored to ensure\\nby this system of education are\\n1. To interest the dilYerent parishes and towns in the progress of the education\\nof the people, by committing the management of the parochial schools to them,\\nunder certain very simple restrictions.\\n2. To assist the parochial school committees in each county witli the advice of\\nthe most able inhabitants of the county and-^\\n3. To gain the cordial cooperation of the mini.sters of religion.\\nThese results the government has gained, to the entire and perfect satisfaction of\\nall parties. The provincial and county councils act as advisers of the parochial\\ncommittees. These latter are the actual directors of parochial education and the\\nclergy not only occupy places in these parochial committees, but are also the ex-\\nofficio inspectors of all the schools.\\nThe system is liberally devised and I am persuaded that it is solely owing to\\nits impartial, popular, and religious oharacier, that it has enlisted so strongly on its\\nside the feelings of the Prussian people.\\nI know there are many in our land who say, But why have any system at all\\nIs it not better to leave the education of the people to the exertions of public\\ncharity and private benevolence Let the contrast between the state of the edu-\\ncation and social condition of the poor in England and Germany be the answer.\\nIn England it is well known that not ove half of the country is properly supplied\\nwith good schools, and that many of those, which do exist, arc under the di-\\nrection of very inefficient and sometimes of actually immoral teachers. la\\nGermany and Switzerland, every parish is supplied with its school buildings, and\\neach school is directed by a teacher of high principles, and superior education and\\nintelligence. Such a splendid social institution has not existed without effecting\\nmagnificent results, and the Germans and Swiss may now proudly point to the\\ncharacter and condition of their peasantry.\\nSo great have been the results of this system, that it is now a well known fact,\\nthat, except in cases of sickness, every child between the ages of six and ten in\\nthe whole of Prussia, is receiving instruction from highly educated teachers, under", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 95\\nthe surveillance of the parochial ministers. And, if I except the manufacturing\\ndistricts, I may go still farther, and say, that every child in I rus-sia, between\\nthe ages of six and fourteen, is receiving daily instruction in its parochial\\nschool. But even this assertion does not give any adequate idea of the vastness\\nof the educational machinery, which is at work for the Prussian government is\\nencouraging all the towns throughout the countiy to establish infant schools for the\\nchildren of parents who are forced, from the peculiar nature of their labor, to\\nabsent themselves from home during the greater part of the day, and who would\\nbe otherwise obliged to leave their infants without proper superintendence; and,\\nas all the children in the manufacturing districts, who are engaged in the weaving-\\nrooms, are also obliged to attend evening classes to the age of fourteen years. I\\nmay say. with great truth, that nearly ail the Prussian children between the ages\\nof four and fourteen are under the influence of a religious education. And\\nlet it not be supposed that an arbitrary government has forced this result from an\\nunwilling people. On the contrary, as 1 have said before, the peasants themselves\\nhave always been at least as anxious to obtain this education for their children, as\\nthe government has been desirous of granting it.\\nA proof of the satisfaction, with which the Prussian people regard the educa-\\ntional regulations, is the undeniable fact, that all the materials and machinery for\\ninstruction are being so constantly and so rapidly improved over the whole coun-\\ntry, and by the people themselves. Wherever I traveled, I was astonished to see\\nthe great improvement in all these several matters that was going on. Every\\nwhere I found new and handsome school-houses springing up, old ones being re-\\npaired, a most liberal supply of teachers and of apparatus for the schools provided\\nby the municipal authorities, the greatest cleanliness, lofty and spacious school-\\nrooms, and excellent houses for the teachers all showing, that the importance of\\nthe work is fully appreciated by the people^ and that there is every desire on their\\npart to aid the government in carrying out this vast undertaking.\\nThe children generally remain in school, until the completiun of their fourteenth\\nyear and a law has been issued, for one or two of the provinces, appointing this\\nas the time, after which the parents may remove their children. But if the pa-\\nrents are very poor, and their children have learnt the doctrines of their religion,\\nas well as to read, write, and cipher, their religious minister can, in conjunction\\nwith the teacher, permit them to discontinue their attendance at the completion of\\ntheir twelfth year.\\nNo child, without the permission both of the civil magistrate of the town or\\nvillage of which its parents are inhabitants, and also of their religious minister, can\\nbe kept from school beyond the completion of its fifth year, or afterward discon-\\ntinue its attendance on the school classes for any length of time.\\nIf a parent neither provides at home for the education of his children, nor sends\\nthem to the school, the teacher is bound to inform the religious minister of the\\nparent the minister then remon.strates with him and if he still neglects to send\\nhis children, the minister is bound by law to report him to the village committee,\\nwhich has power to punish him by a fine, of from one halfpenny to sixpence a\\nday, for neglecting the first and greatest duty of every parent. If the village\\ncommittee can not induce him to educate his children, he is reported to the union\\nmagistrates, who are empowered to punish him with imprisonment. But it is\\nhardly ever necessary to resort to such harsh measures, for the parents are even\\nmore anxious to send their children to these admirably conducted .schools, than\\nthe civil magistrate to obtain their attendance. In order, however, to ensure\\nsuch a regular attendance, and as an assistance to the parents themselves, each\\nteacher is furnished by the local magistrate, every year, with a list of all the chil-\\ndren of his district, who have attained the age, at which they ought to attend his\\nclasses. This list is called over every morning and every afternoon, and all absen-\\ntees are marked down, so that the school committees, magistrates, and inspectors\\nmay instantly discover if the attendance of any child has been irregular. If a child\\nrequires leave of absence for more than a week, the parent must apply to the civil\\nmagistrate for it but the clergj-man can grant it, if it be only for six or seven\\ndays, and the teacher alone can allow it, if for only one or two days.\\nAt the German revolutions of 1848, one of the great popular cries was for\\ngratuitous education. The governments of Germany were obliged to yield to this", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "96 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\ncry, and to make it the law of nearly the whole of Germany, that all parents\\nshould be able to get their children educated at the primary schools without hav-\\ning to pay any thing for this education.\\nThere are now, therefore, no school fees in the greatest part of Germany. Edu-\\ncation is perfectly gratuitous. The poorest man can send his child free of all ex-\\npense to the best of the public schools of his district. And, besides this, the au-\\nthorities of the parish or town, in which a parent lives, who is too poor to clothe\\nhis children decently enough for school attendance, are obliged to clothe them for\\nhim, and to provide them with books, pencils, pens, and every thing necessary for\\nschool attendance, so that a poor man, instead of being obliged to pay something\\nout of his small earnings for the education of his children, is, on the contrary, ac-\\ntually paid for sending them to school. This latter is an old regulation, and is one\\nwhich has aided very greatly to make the educational regulations very popular\\namong the poor of Germany.\\nI made very careful inquiries about the education of children in the principal\\nmanufacturing district of Prussia. I remained several days in Elberfeld, their\\nlargest manuiiicturing town, on purpose to visit the factory schools. I put myself\\nthere, as elsewhere, in direct communication with the teachers, from whom I ob-\\ntained a great deal of information and I also had several interviews on the sub-\\nject with the educational councillors at Berlin, who put into my hand the latest\\nregulations on this subject issued by the government.\\nThe laws relating to the factory children date only from 1839. They are as\\nfollows\\nNo child may be employed in any manufactory, or in any mining or building\\noperations, before it has attained ihe age of nine years.\\nNo child, which has not received three years regular instruction in a school,\\nand has not obtained the certificate of a school committee, that it can read its\\nmother tongue fluently, and also write it tolerably well, may be employed in any\\nof the above-mentioned ways, before it has completed its sixteenth year.\\nAn exception to this latter rule is only allowed in those cases, where the man-\\nufacturers provide for the education of the factory children, by erecting and main-\\ntaining factory schools.\\nIf a manufacturer will establish a school in connection with his manufactory, and\\nengage a properly educated teacher, he is then allowed to employ any children of\\nnine years of age, whether they have obtained a certificate or not, on condition,\\nhowever, that tliese children attend the school four evenings in every week, as well\\nas two hours every Sunday morning, until they have obtained a certificate of pro-\\nficiency in their studies.\\nThe schulrath, or educational minister in the county court, decides whether\\nthe factory school is so satisfactorily managed, as to entitle the manufacturer to this\\nprivilege. This minister also regulates the hours which must be devoted weekly\\nto the instruction of the factory children.\\nYoung people, under sixteen years of age, may not be employed in manufac-\\nturing establishments more than ten hours a day.\\nThe civil magistrates are, however, empowered, in some cases, to allow young\\npeople to work eleven hours a day, when an accident has happened, which obliges\\nthe manufacturer to make up for lost time, in order to accomplish a certain quan-\\ntity of work before a given day. But these licenses can not be granted for more,\\nat the most, than four weeks at a time.\\nAfter the hours of labor have been regulated by the schulrath and the man-\\nufacturer, the latter is obliged by law to take care that the factory children have,\\nboth in the mornings and in the afternoons, a quarter of an hour s exercise in the\\nopen air, and that at noon, they always have a good hour s relaxation from labor.\\nNo young person, under sixteen years of age, may, in any case, or in\\nany emergency, work more than eleven hours a day. The children of Chris-\\ntian parents, who have not been confirmed, may not work in the mills during the\\nhours set apart by the religious minister, for the religious instruction, which he\\nwishes to give them preparatory to their confirmation.\\nThe manufacturers, who employ children in the mills, are obliged to lay /before\\nthe magistrate a list, containing the names of all the children they employ, their\\nrespective ages, their places of abode, and the names of their parents. If any in-", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. j\\nspector or teacher reports to the civi] magistrate, that any child under the legal\\nage is being employed in the mills instead of being sent to school, or if the police\\nreport the infringement of any other of the above-mentioned regulations, the\\nmag strate is empowered and obliged to punish the manufacturer by fines, which\\nare increased in amount on every repetition of the offense.\\nI examined the actual state of things in Elberfeld, one of the most important of\\nthe manufacturing districts of Prussia, and I found these regulations most satisfac-\\ntorily .put in force. No children w^ere allowed to work in the mills, before they\\nhad attained the age of nine years, and after this time, they were required to\\nattend classes four evenings every week, conducted by the teachers of the day-\\nschools or, if their work was of such a nature as to prevent such attendance, then\\nthey were obliged to attend classes every Sunday morning for two hours and this\\nattendance was required to be continued, until the children could obtain a certifi-\\ncate from their teacher and religious minister, that they could read and write well,\\nthat they were well versed in Scripture history, and that they knew arithmetic\\nsufficiently well to perform all the ordinary calculations, which would be required\\nof them. As a cheek upon the parents and manufacturers, no child was allowed to\\nlabor in the mills, without having obtained a certificate, signed by its religious minister\\nand its teacher, that it was attending one of these classes regularly. If the attend-\\nance was irregular, this certificate was immediately withdrawn, and the child was\\nno longer allowed to continue working in the mills. But, from all I saw of these\\nschools, and from what the teachers told me, I should say, they had no difficulty\\nin enforcing attendance and, so far from it being evident, that the parents were\\nanxious to send their children into the mills, as soon as possible, I was astonished\\nto find even the daily schools filled to overflowing, and that with children, many\\nof whom were thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen years of age.\\nIt is very easy for the traveler, who is merely passing through the manvfactur-\\ning towns of the Rhine Provinces, to prove to himself, how anxious both the peo-\\nple and the government are to carry all these regulations into effect. Let him\\nonly take the trouble of wandering into the streets of such a town, at a quarter to\\neight in the morning, or at a quarter to one in the afternoon, and he will find\\nthem alive with children of remarkably courteous and gentle appearance, all very\\nneatly and cleanly dressed, each carrying a little bag containing a slate and school\\nbooks, and all hurrying along to school. Let him visit the same streets at any\\ntime during the school hours, and he will find an absence of young children, which,\\naccustomed as he is to the alleys of our towns, swarming with poor little creatures\\ngrowing up in filth, and coarseness, and immorality, will be even more astonisliing\\nand delightful.\\nBefore Prussia began in good earnest to promote the education of the people, it\\nwas thought there, as it is in England at the present day, that private charity and\\nvoluntary exertions would suffice, to supply the country with all the materials of\\neducation. In the early part of the eighteenth century the government enunciated,\\nin formal edicts, that it was the first duty of a parish to educate its young. For\\nnearly one hundred years, it trusted to the voluntary principle, and left the work\\nin the hands of generous individuals the result was what might have been ex-\\npected, and what may be observed in England the supply of the materials of\\neducation did not keep pace with the growth of the population. Prussia was little\\nor no better provided with schools in 1815, than it had been in 1715 as to the\\nteachers, they were poor, neglected, ignorant persons. Educated persons would\\nnot become teachers of the poor and the poor were neither able nor willing to\\npay for the education of teachers for their children. A sufficient number of\\nbenevolent individuals could not be found to bear the whole expense of educating\\nthe nation and even in those parishes, in which the benevolent part of the\\nricher classes had managed to collect funds, sufficient for carrying on such a work\\nfor a year or two, it was found, that they were unable or unwilling, for any\\nlength of time, to bear alone such a great and ever-increasing burden.\\nAfter a long trial of this unfair voluntary system, which taxed charitable indi-\\nviduals in order to make up for the default of th(j selfish or careless, it was found,\\nin 1815, as in England at the present day, that great numbers of parishes had no\\nschools at all that of the schools which were built, scarcely any were properly\\nsupplied with the necessary bookstand apparatus that there were no good teachr\\n7", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "98 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\ners in the country, and no means of educating any and that the science of peda-\\ngogy had been totally neglected, and was universally misunderstood.\\nIf then, the people were to be educated, and the French revolution of 1789\\nhad taught the Prussian government the necessity of enlightening the poor and\\nof improving their social condition, it became but too evident, that the govern-\\nment must act as well as preach. In a word, the experience of one hundred years\\ntaught the Prussians, that it was necessary to compel the ignorant, slothful, and\\nselfish members of the political body to assist the benevolent and patriotic, or that\\nsufficient funds would never be found foi- educating the whole of the laboring\\nclasses. The following regulations, therefore, were put into and are still in force\\nthroughout Prussia.\\nThe inhabitants of each parish are obliged, either alone, or in company with\\none or more neighboring parishes, to provide sufficient school-room, a sufficient\\nnumber of teachers, and all the necessary school apparatus for the instruction of\\nall their children, who are between the ages of six and fourteen. I shall show by\\nwhat parochial organization this is effected.\\nI. Where all the mhahitants of a village are members of the same religious\\ndenomination.\\nIn these cases, whenever more school-room, or a greater number of teachers, or\\nmore apparatus, or any repairs of the existing school-buildings is required, the\\nvillage magistrate, having been informed of these deficiencies by the district school-\\ninspector, immediately summons a committee of the villagers, called the Schul-\\nvorstand,\\nThis Schulvorstand consists\\n1. Of the religious minister of the parish. He is the president of the commit-\\ntee or Schulvorstand. In some parts of Prussia, however, there are still some few\\nremnants of the old aristocracy, who possess great estates and where the village\\nis situated on one of these estates, there the landlord is the president of the school\\ncommittee. This, however, is so rare an exception, that it is notnecessary further\\nto notice it.\\n2. Of the village magistrate, who is selected by the county magistrates, from the\\nmost intelligent men in the parish.\\n3. Of from two to four of the heads of families in the parish. These members\\nof the committee are elected by the parishioners, and their election is confirmed or\\nannulled by the union magistrates. If the union magistrate annuls the election,\\nbecause of the unfitness of the persons chosen, the parish can proceed to a second\\nelection but, if they again select men, who are not fit to be entrusted with the\\nduties of the school committee, the election is again annulled, and the union mag-\\nistrate himself selects two or four of the parishioners, to act as members of the\\ncommittee. When the village is situate on the estate of a great landed proprietor,\\nhe also can annul the choice of the parishioners but these cases, as I have before\\nsaid, are very rare, and are confined almost entirely to the eastern provinces of\\nPrussia, where the Polish nobles still retain some of their former possessions for\\nin the other provinces of Prussia, the land is now almost as much subdivided as in\\nFrance, and is generally the property of the peasants.\\nThe members of these committees are chosen for six years, at the end of which\\ntime a new election takes place.\\nIf several parishes join in supporting one school, each of them must be repre-\\nsented in the school committee, by at least one head of a family. The county\\ncourt, however, has the power of preventing this union of parishes, for the sup-\\nport of one joint school,\\n1. When the number of children is so great, as to make it difficult to instruct\\nthem all in two classes.\\n2. When the parishes are separated too far apart, or when the roads between\\nthem are bad, dangerous, or at times impassable.\\nIn such cases tliere must be separate schools or else the great law of the land,\\nthat all the children must be educated.^ would often be infringed.\\nII. Where the inhabitants of a village are members of different religious\\ndenominations.\\nSometimes it happens, that a parish contains persons of different religious opin-\\nions and then arises the question, which has been a stumbling-block to the", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 99\\nprogress of primary education In England, how shall the rival claims of these\\nparties be satisfied, so that the great law of Germany, that all the children must\\nbe educated, may be carried into effect\\nIn these cases, the governments of Germany leave the parishes at perfect liberty\\nto select their own course of proceeding, and to establish separate or mixed schools,\\naccording as they judge best for themselves. The only thing the government\\nrequires is, that schools of one kind or another shall be established.\\nif the inhabitants of such a parish in Prussia determine on having separate\\nschools, then separate school committees are elected by the different sects. The\\ncommittee of each sect consist of, the village magistrate, the minister, and two\\nor three heads of families, of the religious party for which the committee is con-\\nstituted.\\nIf the inhabitants, however, decide on having one mixed school for all the re-\\nligious parties, the committee consists of, the village magistrate, the religious min-\\nisters of the different parties, and several of the parishioners, elected from among\\nthe members of the different sects, for which the school is intended.\\nIn tliese cases, the teacher is chosen from the most numerous religious party\\nor, if the school is large enough to require two teachers, the head one is elected\\nfrom the members of the most numerous party, and the second from those of the\\nnext largest party. If there is only one teacher, children of those parents who do\\nnot belong to the same religious sect as the teacher, are always allowed to absent\\nthemselves during the hour in which the teacher gives the religious lessons, on\\ncondition that the children receive religious instruction from their own religious\\nministers.\\nOne of the educational councillors at Berlin informed me, that the government\\ndid not edcourage the establishment of mixed schools, as they think, that in such\\ncases, the religious education of both parties, or at least of one of them, often suf^\\nfers but, he continued, of course we think a mixed school infinitely better than\\nnone at all and, when a district is too poor to support separate schools, we gladly\\nsee mixed ones established. The gentleman who said this was a Roman\\nCatholic. In the towns, there are not often mixed schools containing Romanists\\nand Protestants, as there generally are sufficient numbers of each of these sects\\nin every town, to enable the citizens to establish separate schools. The children\\nof Jews, however, are often to be found, even in the towns, in the schools of the\\nother sects but, owing to the entire and uncontrolled liberty of decision that the\\npeople themselves possess on this point, there seems to be little difficulty in ar-\\nranging matters, and no jealousy whatever exists between the different parties.\\nIf a mixed school is established in any parish, and the teacher is chosen from the\\nmost numerous sect, and if the minor party becomes discontented or suspicious of\\nthe education given in the school, it is always at liberty to establish another school\\nfor itself; and it is this liberty of action, which preserves the parishes, where the\\nmixed schools exist, from all intestine troubles and religious quarrels, which are\\never the most ungodly of disputes. In leaving the settlement of this matter to\\nthe parishes, the government appears to have acted most wisely; for, in these\\nreligious questions, any interference from without is sure to create alarm, sus-\\npicion, and jealousy, and cause the different parties to fly asunder, instead of co-\\nalescing. All that the government does, is to say, You must provide sufficient\\nschool-room, and a sufficient number of good teachers, but decide yourselves how\\nyou will do this. The consequence is, that the people say, We can try a mixed\\nschool first and, if we see reason to fear its effects, we will then amicably decide\\non erecting another separate one. So that the great difficulty arising from re-^\\nligious difference has been easily overcome.\\nThe duties of the school committees, when once formed, are\\n1st. To take care that the parish is supplied with sufficient school-room for all\\nthe children, who are between the ages of five and fourteen.\\n2d. To supply the school-room with all the books, writing materials, slates,\\nblackboards, maps, and apparatus necessary for instruction.\\n3d. To provide the teachers with comfortable houses for themselves and\\nfamilies.\\n4th. To keep all the school-buildings, and the houses of the teachers, in goo4\\nrepair, often whitewashed, and well warmed.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "100\\nSUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\n5th. To take care that the salary of the teachers is paid to them regularly.\\n6th. To assist those parents who are too poor to provide their children with\\nclothes sufficiently decent for their school attendance.\\n7th. To assist, protect, and encourage the teachers.\\n8th. To be present at all the public exarninations of the school, at the induc-\\ntion of the teachers, which is a public ceremony performed in church before all the\\nparishioners, and at all the school fete days.\\nIf the school is not endowed, the committee is empowered to impose a tax on\\nthe householders for its support, and for the payment of the schoolmaster and it\\nis held responsible by the higher authorities for his regular payment, according to\\nthe agreement, which was made with him on his introduction. The school com-\\nmittee, however, can not discharge the teacher, it can only report him to the higher\\nauthorities for in Prussia none of the local authorities, who are in immediate\\ncontact with the teacher, and who might, consequently, imbibe personal prejudices\\nagainst him, are allowed to exercise the power of dismissing him. This is re-\\nserved for those, who are never brought into personal connection with him. and\\nwho are not, therefore, so likely to imbibe such prejudices. Neither can the\\ncommittee interfere with the interior discipline of the school it can only inspect\\nthe condition of the school, and report to the county authorities. ^A hen the com-\\nmittee has once elected the teacher, he is entirely free to follow his own plans of\\ninstruction, unfettered by the interference of local authorities, as he is presumed\\nto understand his own business, better than any of those about him. If the\\nschool-committee neglects its duties, or refuses to furnish the teacher with the\\nnecessary apparatus, or to keep the schocil-house in proper repair, or to pay the\\nteacher regularly, he has always the power of appealing to the inspectors, or\\nto the county courts, who instantly compel the local authorities to perform their\\nappointed duties.\\nWhen a new school is required, the school committee selects the site and plan\\nof the buildings, and sends them for confirmation to the county magistrate. If\\nthis magistrate sees any objection to the plans, he returns them to the committee,\\nwith his suggestions the plans are then reconsidered by the committee, and re-\\nturned with the necessary emendations to the magistrate, who then gives his\\nsanction to them. Before this sanction has been obtained, the plans can not be\\nfinally adopted by the committee.\\nIt is already very evident, by what I have said, how very much liberty of action\\nis left to the people themselves. True it is, that in the election of members of the\\ncommittees, as well as in the choice of plans and sites for school-houses, and in the\\ndetermination of the amount of the school-rate, the county magistrates have a\\nnegative but this is only a necessary precaution against the possibility of a really\\nvicious selection of members, or of unhealthy or otherwise unsuitable sites for the\\nschool-houses, or of a niggardly and insufficient provision for the support of the\\nschool. Such a limited interference is always necessarj where the interests of\\nthe acting parties might otherwise tempt them to disregard the spirit of the law,\\nand to sacrifice some great public good to the selfishness or ignorance of private\\nindividuals.\\nEvery landed proprietor is obliged by law, to provide for the education of the\\nchildren of all laborers living on his estates, who are too poor themselves to do so.\\nEvery such proprietor is also obliged by law, to keep the schools situated upon his\\nestates in perfect repair, and in a perfect state of cleanliness to conform to all\\nthe regulations, of which I shall speak hereafter, and vv hich relate to the election\\nand support of the teachers and to furnish all the wood necessary for the re-\\npairs and warming of the school-buildings, and aU the apparatus, books, c.,\\nnecessary for instruction.\\nThis is what ought to be done in England. If it is right, that the law should\\ngrant to the proprietors such full powei s over then* property even after death, and\\nshould enable them to tie up their land in their own family for so long a time, and\\nthus prevent the land dividing and getting into the hands of the poor, as it does\\nabroad, it is but just, that the landlords should be Compelled by law to do, at\\nleast, as much for their tenants in this country, as they are compelled to do in\\ncountries where the poor are much more favored than they are here, and where\\nthe interests of landlords are much less protected by law, than they are with us.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. JQl\\nIt sometimes happens, that a parish is so poor, as not to be able to build the new\\nschool-house, of which it stands in need. In these cases, in order that the great\\nlaw of the land that every child must he educated should be carried into exe-\\ncution, it is necessary that the poor parish should receive assistance from without.\\nThis is provided for by a law, which requires that each county court shall assist,\\nwithin its district, every parish, which is not able to provide alone for the expenses\\nof the education of its children. If a county court should, from the number of\\ncalls upon its treasury, find itself unable to supply enough to assist all the parishes\\nof the county which need assistance, the government at Berlin grants assistance\\nto the county court for, whatever else is neglected for want of funds, great care\\nis taken that all necessary means for the education of the people shall be every\\nwhere provided.\\nThe school organization of the Prussian towns differs somewhat from that of the\\nPrussian villages. I have already mentioned, that the superior village magistrates\\nare appointed by the sUite, and that in each village there is one of these civil\\nmagistrates, who is a member of the village school committee, and is held respons-\\nible, if sufficient means are not provided for the education of the people of his dis-\\ntrict. But, in the towns, the magistrates are elected by the citizens and, strange\\nas it may seem, the municipal corporations have long been, on the whole, liberally\\nconstituted. The privilege of citizenship in any town is acquired, by good character\\nand honest repute. The magistrates, who have been themselves elected by the\\ncitizens, can admit such inhabitants of the town, as they think worthy of the\\nposition, to the rank of citizens. But all citizens, who possess any ground of the\\nvalue, in small towns, of 50Z., or in large towns, of about 250Z. in Prussian money,\\nand all citizens who, without possessing any ground, have incomes of at least 35Z.\\nper annum, in Prussian money, are by law entitled to a yote in the election of the\\ntown magistrates. The citizens, who are entitled to a vote, elect, every three\\nyears, a number of representatives, or, as they are called, town councillors. No\\nperson can be elected to the office of town councillpr, unless he possess land of the\\nvalue, in small towns, of at least 150Z., and in large towns of at least 20i or\\nwhose income does not amount to at least 35Z per annum. The number of these\\ncouncillors depends on the size of the towns no town can elect fewer than nine,\\nor more than sixty. The manner in which they are elected, differs in different\\ntowns, but I believe the ordinary custom is, for each division of a town to elect\\none or more to represent it in the general council. These councillors, when\\nelected, proceed to the election of a certain number of magistrates, whose offices\\nlast from six to twelve years, and these magistrates appoint from among themselves\\na mayor, who is chosen also for twelve years. The county court, under which\\nthe town finds itself ranged, has the power of annulling the election of the mayor,\\nand of any of the magistrates, whom it may judge unfit for their office and, in\\nsuch a case, the magistrates or the town councillors, as the case may be, are\\nobliged to proceed to another election. Such is a bare outline of the Prussian\\nmunicipal system. With the various civic and political duties of the different\\nauthorities, I have no concern -here, further than they relate to the education of\\nthe people.\\nIn each town a committee is chosen, which is called the schuldeputation,^\\nor, as I shall translate it, the school committee. It consists of from one to three,\\nbut of never more than three, of the town magistrates, of an equal number of\\ndeputies from the town councillors, an equal number of citizens, having the repu-\\ntation of being interested and skilled in school matters, (these are commonly se-\\nlected from among the religious ministers,) and also of the several representatives\\nof those privately endowed schools in the town, which are not supported by the\\ntown, but yet fall under the surveillance and direction of its municipal authorities.\\nThe number of these representatives varies, according to the size of the tovi n.\\nWith the exception of the representatives of the private schools, the members of\\nthis committee are chosen by the magistrates, who are themselves, as I have be-\\nfore said, elected by the citizens but the representatives of the private schools,\\nwhich are not supported by the town funds, are nominated by the county courts.\\nTo these members, thus elected, is joined one member from each of the com-\\nmittees, which are elected from the magistrates and town councillors for tlie differ-\\nent uiuflicipal affaire, if the former election should not have admitted any such", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "102 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nmembers into the school committee. The first ecclesiastical authority of the town\\nis also, ex-officio, a member of the committee and if the town contains both\\nRomanists and Protestants, the committee must be composed of equal proportions\\nof members of the different parties. The county courts have the power of annul-\\nling the election of any member, if they see reason to deem him unfit for the exer-\\ncise of the duties of his office, and in such a case, the town authorities are obliged\\nto proceed to make a new election.\\nThe duties of the town school committees are to provide sufficient school-room\\nfor all the children in the town to elect a sufficient number of teachers to pay\\nthem their salaries regularly to provide all needful apparatus for the schools to\\nkeep the class-rooms and the teachers houses in good repair, well whitewashed,\\nand well warmed to take care that all the children of the town attend school\\nregularly to inspect the schools at stated intervals to provide each school with\\na play-ground and to take care that the teachers exercise the children there\\nevery morning and afternoon. The funds required for the maintenance of the\\ntown schools, are provided from the treasury of the corporation.\\nThe town councillors are responsible to the county magistrate and to the central\\ngovernment for the due performance of these several duties. If they neglect any\\nof them, the teachers and inspectors complain to the higher authorities, who oblige\\nthem to conform immediately to the general law of the land.\\nBesides these nmnicipal authorities, for the superintendence of the education of\\nthe whole town, it often happens, that each school in the town has its peculiar\\nschulvorstand, corresponding to the village committees, which I have already\\ndescribed. These committees, where they do exist in the towns, elect their own\\nteachers, and collect, in their several districts, the necessary school funds from the\\nheads of families dwelling there but if any one of the district school committees\\nis not able to provide for the expenditure required to supply the wants of its dis-\\ntrict, the town school committee is obliged to come forward and assist it, from the\\ngeneral town funds. The latter committee is the general superintendent and\\nassistant, but the former little district societies, where they exist, are the actual\\nlaborers. Difference of religion creates no greater difficulty in the towns than in\\nthe country parishes, since the Romanists, Protestants, and Jews can, if they\\nprefer, manage their own schools separately, by means of the little school socie-\\nties, and are never forced into any sort of connection, unless, where it is agree-\\nable to themselves.\\nThe Prussian government seems to have considered the education of the chil-\\ndren of the towns, of even higher importance, than that of the children of the vil-\\nlages and to have required the formation of these superior committees in the\\ntowns, as a sort of additional security, that all the districts of a town should be\\namply provided with every thing necessary for the careful education of their\\nchildren.\\nThese committees assemble every fortnight, and oftener when necessary, at the\\ntown halls they have the power of inviting any number of the clergy and\\nteachers of the towns to assist at their conferences, and to aid them with their\\nexperience and counsels.\\nIn many parts of Prussia these central town committees are superseding the\\nsmaller district school societies, so that the funds of all the town schools, and the\\nchoice and induction of all the teachers rest entirely with the one central town\\nschool committee and in the case of towns containing different religious sects, as\\nfar as I could gather from what I heard in Berlin for on this point I could find\\nno express regulation the Protestant members of the town committee appoint\\nthe teachers of the Protestant schools, and the Romanist members the teachers of\\nthe Romanist scrhools.\\nBut in every town every religious party is at liberty, if it pleases, to separate\\nitself from the central town committee, and to form its own separate school com-\\nmittee, for the management of its own educational affairs. And where ever the\\nunion of the diflTerent religious parties occasions any strife and disputes, the small\\ndistrict committees are sure to be formed. Where these smaller committees do\\nexist, they elect the teachers for the schools under their management.\\nGreat advantages are, however, insured, when the management of all the\\nschools in any tdwn can be put under the direction of one cdmmittefe, instead of", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 103\\neach being placed under the direction of its separate committee or when all the\\nRomanist schools can be put under the direction of one committee, and all the\\nProtestant schools under the diix ction of another. For, in these cases, instead of\\ncreating a great number of small schools in different parts of the town, each con-\\ntaining only one or two classes, in which children of very different ages and very\\ndifi erent degrees of proficiency must be necessarily mingled and taught together,\\nto the manifest retarding of the progress of the more forward as well as of the\\nmore backward, several schools are generally combined, so as to form one large\\none, containing five boys classes and five girls classes. In these classes, the\\nteachers are able to classify the children in such a manner, that one teacher may\\ntake the youngest and most deficient, anotlier the more advanced, and so on. In\\nthis manner, as each teacher has a class of children, who have made about the\\nsame progress in their studies, he is enabled to concentrate his whole enei-gies\\nupon the instruction and education of all his scholars at the same time, and for\\nthe whole time they are in school, instead of being obliged to neglect one part of\\nhis class whilst he attends to another, which is necessarily the case, where children\\nof different degrees of proficiency are assembled in one class-room, and which is\\nalways necessarily the cause of considerable noise and confusion, tending to dis-\\ntract the attention of both teachers and children.\\nBut, besides the good classification, a further advantage, which results from this\\ncombination of schools, is the greater economy of the plan. AVhen each school\\ncontains only two class-rooms, four times as many schools are required, as when\\neach school contains eight rooms. And it is by no means true, that a school-\\nbuilding containing eight class-rooms costs as much as four school-buildings, each\\nof which contains two class-rooms. Not only is a great expenditure saved, in\\nthe mere erection of the exterior walls and roofs of the buildings themselves, but\\na still greater saving is effected, in the pui chase of land, as, instead of increasing\\nthe area on which the school is erected, it is always possible to increase its height.\\nNothing can be more liberal, than the manner in which the Prussian towns\\nhave provided for their educational wants. The buildings are excellent, and are\\nkept in most admirable order.\\nThe town authorities are held responsible for all this and, wherever I went,\\nI found large, commodious, and beautifully clean school-rooms, furnished with all\\nthat the teachers could possibly require. Along the length of the rooms, parallel\\ndesks are ranged, facing the teacher s desk, which is raised on a small platform,\\nso that he may see all his scholars. On either side of him are large blackboards,\\non which he illustrates the subjects of his lessons. On his right hand, there is\\ngenerally a cabinet, for the reception of all the books and objects of instruction\\nwhich belongs to the school and all around, on the walls of the room, hang\\nmaps of different countries, and, generally, several of Germany, delineating, in a\\nstrong and clear manner, all the physical features of the different provinces and\\nkingdoms which compose the Fatherland.\\nTlie school-rooms are continually whitewashed and should there be any\\nneglect on the part of the town or village authorities to keep the school -buildings\\nin proper order, or to provide all the necessary apparatus, the teachers have\\nalways the power of complaining to the inspectors, or to the country magistrates,\\nwho immediately compel the authorities to attend to these important duties.\\nBesides the schools, which are managed by school committees in the villages\\nand towns, and which might be denominated public schools, there is another class,\\nwhich would fall more properly under the designation of private schools.\\nIf a private individual is desirous of establishing a school, as a means of earn-\\ning his livelihood, or from a desire to offer to the poor of his neighborhood a better\\neducation, than they could obtain in the public schools, he is at liberty to do so, on\\nthe following conditions\\n1st, That the school be opened to public inspection, on the ground, that as the\\nnation is dii ectly interested in the moral education of its citizens, so it ought to\\nbe assured, that none of the children are subjected to immoral and corrupting\\ninfluences, during the time when their minds are most susceptible of impressions\\nof any kind, and moet tenacious of them when received.\\n2dly, That no p/^n^f I^k^ employed as teacher in such school, who has not ob\u00c2\u00bb", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "104 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\ntained a teacher s diploma, certifying his character and attainments to be such, aa\\nto fit him for the office of teacher.\\n3dly, That the school be supplied with a play-ground, and that the children be\\nallowed to lake exercise there in the middle of the morning and afternoon school\\nhours.\\n4thly, That at least a certain fixed amount of instruction in reading, writing,\\narithmetic, geography, history, singing, and science be given in the school.\\n5thly, That a sufticient number of teachers be provided for the children and,\\n6thly, That the rooms are kept clean, well warmed, lighted and ventilated.\\nThe profuse expenditure on all the material of education in the Prussian towns\\nastonished me greatly, accustomed as I had been to the dame schools of Eng-\\nland, and to the empty and repulsive interiors of many of our national school-\\nrooms, with their bare floors and uncovered walls.\\nI took the greatest pains not to be deceived on this point and hearing that,\\nowing to some municipal disputes, education had made less progress in Berlin\\nthan elsewhere, I requested Professor Hintze of Berlin, to direct me to the worst\\nschool in the city, and, having visited several of the more perfect ones, I started\\none morning to see what was considered a poor school in Prussia.\\nIt was managed by a teacher, who had established a school for the poor at\\nhis own expense, as a private speculation, and unconnected with the town\\ncommittees.\\nI found a good house contain ing/owr class-rooms, each of which was fitted up\\nwith parallel desks, and was under the direction of a teacher, who had been care-\\nfully educated, and had obtained his diploma.\\n1 found a good, dry, and roomy play-ground attached to the school, a very\\nagreeable and seemingly intelligent head master, who was owner of the school,\\nand manager of one of the classes and the only cause of complaint 1 could dis-\\ncover, were, that the rooms were lower than the generality of school-rooms in\\nPrussia, not measuring more than nine feet in height that there was a paucity of\\nmaps, blackboards, c. that the desks were placed too closely together and that\\nthe walls were not so white and clean as in the town schools. But I could not\\nhelp thinking, while walking through the rooms of this building, if these people\\ncould only see some of our dame, and some of our dirty and unfurnished national\\nschools, what a palace would they not consider this to be I\\nThe regulations which I have been describing, by means of which the enormous\\nexpenses of such a vast educational scheme are divided betvs een all the different\\ndistricts of the kingdom, and by means of which each parish is held responsible\\nfor the education of its children, have been followed by this splendid result that,\\nnotwithstanding that most of their town schools contain five or six times as many\\nclass-rooms as those of our counti-y, the Prussian people have established 23,646\\nschools, which, in 1844. were attended daily by 2,328,146 children, and were\\ndirected by 29,639 highly educated teachers, of whom nearly 28,000 were young\\nprofessors, who had obtained diplomas and certificates of character at the normal\\ncolleges Now, could this magnificent result have been attained if the people,\\nthe clergy, and the government had not been at unity on this great question\\nCould it have been attained, if there had been no organization of the parishes and\\ntowns, by which the duties of the different educational authorities were clearly\\nand distinctly defined Could the government alone have borne the enormous\\nexpenses of establishing such a system Could the government have even afforded\\nto carry it on And, above all, could private charity alone have effected so vast\\nand splendid a result These are questions for my readers to answer for them-\\nselves.-\\nThe central committees of each town are required by law to establish, in addi-\\ntion to the primary institutions, which I have described, one or more superior pri-\\nmary schools, the number of which varies according to the population of the town.\\nThe education given in them is superior to that given m the primary schools\\nthemselves, but is inferior to that given in the gymnasia It is of a more prac-\\ntical character than the latter, and is quite as good as the education of the chil-\\ndren of our middle classes. These superior primary institutions are intended for\\nall those children, who have passed through the primary schools, and whose\\nparents wish them to receive a better education than that given in the latter", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. jqS\\nestablishments, without their having to go through the classical course of the\\ngymnasia.\\nThe education given in these superior schocils, as in all the public schools of\\nPrussia, is gratuitous, and open to all classes of society. All the children of the\\nsmall shopkeepers and artizans, many of the boys, who afterward enter the\\nteachers colleges, as well as many others, whose parents are to be fuund in the\\nvery humblest walks of life, and even children of the nobles, and of the richest\\nclasses of society, are to be found pursuing their studies there together, in\\nthe same class-rooms, and on the same benches. I have inyself seen sons of\\ncounts, physicians, clergymen, merchant*, shopkeepers, and poor laborers work-\\ning together in one of these classes in Berlin.\\nAbove these SM/Jerioj- schools are the real schools and gymnasia, ov coWe^es,\\nwhere a classical and very superior course of education is pursued, and wheie\\nthe children of the more wealthy classes are instructed. They are under an\\nentirely different direction; and all I have to do with them here, is to mention,\\nthat even these institutions are open gratuitously to all, who wish to avail them-\\nselves of the education which they offer. Even in these classical colleges chil-\\ndren of poor laborers are sometimes to be found studying on the same benches on\\nwhich sit the sons of the rich. It is very instructive to observe, that in Prussia,\\nwhere one would imagine, according to the doctrines preached in England, that\\nthe government should, until the late revolution, have feared to advance the\\nintelligence of the people, no one has seemed to have an idea, that too much\\ninstruction could be imparted to the children of the poor. On the contrary, every\\none has acted as if the public order and public morality depended entirely upon\\nthe people being able to think. A theoretically arbitrary government h;us been\\ndoing every thing in its power to stimulate and enable the people to educate their\\nchildren as highly as possible, and has been for years telling them, that the pros-\\nperity and happiness of the country depend greatly on the training of the chil-\\ndren while here, in our free country, we still find people speaking and acting, as\\nif they feared, that education was the inevitable harbinger of immoralitj and\\ndisaffection\\nThere are also in Prussia a great number of endowed schools, which derive\\ntheir incomes from the rents of lands, or from the mtere.st of money bequeathed\\nto them by charitable individuals, or which have been founded and endowed at\\ndifferent times by the government. For each of these cases, there is an excep-\\ntion made in the operation of the municipal regulations, which I have described\\nneither of these clcusses of schools are directed by Schulvorstande, or by the town\\ncommittees. The teachers for the former class are chosen by the trustees,\\nappointed by the will of the devisor the county courts being enabled to annul\\nthe elections, if a bad selection is made. The trustees, however, are unable to\\nappoint any person, as teacher, who has not obtained a diploma* of competency\\nfrom the provmcial committee, appointed to examine all candidates for the teachers\\nprofession. In fact, no person can officiate as teacher, in any Prussian school,\\nunless he has obtained such a diploma. This is the parents guarantee, that he is\\na person, to whom they may safely intrust their children. The teachers of the\\nclass of schools, which have been founded and endowed by government, are\\nappointed by the county courts. The town committees have, however, the sur-\\nveillance and inspection of all these schools, and are obliged by law to assi-st them\\nfrom the town funds, if their own do not suffice for their efficient maintainance.\\nThe municipal authorities are also obliged to assist all the parents, who are too\\npoor to do it themselves, to purchase the books, slates, pencils. c., required for\\nthe class instruction and they are also obliged to provide decent clothing for\\nsuch children, as are too poor, to obtain a dress sufficiently respectable for school\\nattendance. And here, I can not help remarking, on the general appearance of\\nthe children throughout the provinces of Prussia, which I have visited. They\\nwere generally very clean, well dressed, polite, and easy in their manners, and\\nvery healthy and active in their appearance. In whatever town of Prussia the\\ntraveler finds himself, he may always satisfy himself on this point, if he will take\\nthe trouble to walk out into the streets, between twelve and two o clock in the morn-\\nFor aa account of diploma;, see page 1S8.", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "log SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\ning, i. e., between tlie houi s of the morning and afternoon classes. In some\\ntowns, a stranger would imagine, either that the poor had no children, or that\\nthey never let them go out of doors. All the children he would see in the streets\\nwould appear to him to be those of respectable shopkeepers. This is a very sat-\\nisfactory proof of the good effects of the school system, as cleanliness and neat-\\nness among the poor are invariable symptoms of a satisfactory moral and physical\\ncondition.\\nThe law requires that every school, both in town and country, shall have an\\nopen space of ground adjacent to it, where the children may take a little exercise\\nin the mornings and afternoons. This is a very important I egulation, and is well\\nworthy our imitation. The children, in Germany, are never detained more than\\nan hour and a half in the school-room at one time, except when the weather is\\ntoo bad, to allow of their taking exercise in the open air. Every hour and a half,\\nthroughout the day, they are taken into the play-ground for ten minutes exercise\\nby one of the teachers the a r of the school-room is then changed, and the chil\\ndren return refreshed to their work. In the towns this regulation insures other\\nand greater advantages, as it kee])s the children out of the filth and immorality of\\nthe streets. In most cases, our town-schools have no yard attached to them, so\\nthat, if the children do change the bad and noxious air of the school-room, it is\\nonly for the dirt and depravity of the streets, where they are brought under evil\\ninfluences, much more powerful for injury, than those of the schools are for good.\\nIn some provinces of Pruss a, there are still some few of the old class of great\\nlandowners, between who:n, in former days, the whole of Prussia was divided,\\nuntil Stein and Ilardenburg put the laws in force, which destroyed the old feudal\\nsystem, and gave the peairants an interest in the soil. It is, therefore, an interest-\\ning question to examine, what the law requires these landlords to do for the edu-\\ncation of the people on their estates. I have already mentioned, that the selection\\nof the teacher is left to them, but that the government reserves the right of a\\nveto upon their choice, in all cases where an injudicious election is made. Tlie\\nlandlords are required to keep in good repair the schools upon their estates, and\\nto pay the school-fees for the children of all the poor laborers living upon them,\\nand not able to pay it themselves. They are also obliged to furnish the materials,\\nrequired for the erection or repair of all necessary school-buildings the fuel\\nrequired for the school-rooms and teachers houses through the winter and,\\nwhere the school is not endowed, the sum which is necessary for the teachers\\nsalaries. The children of the landed proprietors themselves, often attend the vil-\\nlage schools, and work at the same desks, with the sons and daughters of the\\npoorest peasants a proof of the excellent character of the education given in the\\nprimary schools, and of the high estimation, m which the teachers are generally\\nheld by all classes of society.\\nAbout eight or ten years since all the German schools were conducted on the\\nBell and Lancasterian methods, the children being left almost entirely in the hands\\nof young and half-educated nmnitors, as in our own parochial schools nt the\\npresent day. The results t f this system Vi ere so unsatisfactory that they soon\\noccasioned a powerful reaction in the contrary direction. The German govern-\\nments, perceiving how grievously the mental education and mental development\\nof the children were retarded by subjecting them to the imperfect care of half-\\neducated monitors, prohibited all employment of monitors in the parochial schools.\\nHence, it became necessary to considerably increase the staff of teachers, as well\\nas the expenditure required for their support. In the towns this has been produc-\\ntive of beneficial results, as the towns can always raise sufficient funds for the\\nsupport of a sufficient number of teachers. I generally found that each of these\\nschools throughout Germany had a staff of from six to twelve teachers attached\\nto it. each of whom had attained the age of twenty years, liad been specially edu-\\ncated in the classes of the primary, secondary, and normal schools, from his sixth\\nto his twentieth year, and had obtained a diploma certifying his fitness for the pro-\\nfession to which he had devoted himself\\nBut in the village schools the results of this rejection of all monitorial assist-\\nane has been less satisfactory. The villages are not generally rich enough to\\nsupport more than two teachers, and often not more than one, and this, too, in\\nmany caeee, where there are 150 children who attfend the sfchool. In thee\u00c2\u00a9 cases,", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 107\\ntherefore, monitors are greatly needed to assist in maintaining order among one\\npart of the children, while the teacher is instructing another part, and to relieve\\nthe teacher fro.ii the mure mechanical part of class instruction, so that he may\\napply h.s undiv.ded attention to those branches of instructions, in wh.ch h.s supe-\\nrior skill, knowledge, and experience are most needed.\\nBut the prejudices which the Germans have imbibed against the monotorial\\nsystem, are, as yet, too strong to allow them to perce ve the necessity of employ-\\ninc monitors in the village schools. Whenever 1 addressed a German teacher on\\nth s subject, he immediately answered, Oh we have had enough of your Lan-\\ncasterian methods depend upon it, we .shall never try them again. It was very\\nsurprising to me to see, how Universal and how strong this antipathy to monitors WA-i\\nthroughout Germany but it served to show me, how deep an interest all classes\\ntook in the prosperity of the schools, as it was evident that they only rejected this\\nmeans of lessening the parochial outlay in the support of teachers, because they\\nbelieved it to be essentially injurious to the sound mental progress of the children.\\nNo doubt that the old monitorial system was deserving of all their mah d C\\ntions but it would well become the Prussian educational authorities to consider,\\nwhether the means between the old system and the present, such, viz., as the\\nmonotorial system pursued in Holland and France, is not the true state of things\\nto which they ought to aspire. In these countries, the teachers train the most\\npromising of their oldest and most advanced scholars as monitors. They give\\nthem instruction in the evenings when the day s work in the school-room is over.\\nThese monitors are paid by the parochial authorities just enough, to make it worih\\ntheir whle to remain at their posts as assistants to the schonlmasters until about\\nseventeen years of age, after which time they are removed to the normal colleges\\nto be trained as teachers, whilst other children take their places in the village\\nschools. To these trained and paid monitors nothing is intrusted, but the mere\\nmechanical parts of school teaching, such as the elements of readings writing,\\nand arithmetic. All the higher and more intellectual parts of school education,\\nsuch as religious instruction, history, geography, and mental arithmetic, are con-\\nducted by the schoolmaster himself. But the principal service which the moni-\\ntors render to the teachers is, in preserving order and silence in the school, and in\\nwatching over those classes, which are not for the time being receiving instruc-\\ntion from the schoolmaster. By this means, one able master, with the aid of two\\nintelligent monitors, may conduct a school of 100 children whenevei the number,\\nhowever, exceeds 10(1, there should in all cases be, at the least, twfi superior teachers.\\nAs I have already said, the want of monitors is felt most in the village schools\\nfor the town schools are conducted in a totally different manner. Tn a town a greater\\nnumber of children are found assembled together, and greater funds are always\\nfound at the disposal of the school authorities, who, it will be remembered, are\\nelected by the people. In each of the Prussian towns, several great school-houses\\nai e generally built, each containing from four to sixteen class-rooms. The num-\\nber does not, I believe, generally exceed eight in one school-house, and some have\\nnot more, but hardly any fewer than four. In Germany, except in the pooi-est\\nvillages, different classes are never instructed in the same room. Even in the\\nvillages, there are generally two or three class-rooms in the village sclvwl-house,\\nfor each of which a separate teacher is maintained. This plan of teaching\\nthe different classes in different rooms, adds incalculably to the efficiency of the\\neducation given. In each room, only one voice is heard at a time the voice of\\nthe teacher or one of the children. The attention of the children is not disturbed\\nor diverted from the teacher by what is going on in another class. Each roi m is\\nperfectly quiet. The teacher can be heard distinctly, and can hear every noise in\\nhis class. Besides all this, for equal numbers of children four or five times as\\nmany teachers are employed in Germany as in England. Each child receives,\\ntherefore, four or five times as much assistance and attention from a learned man\\nas a child does in England. The individual progress, therefore, of the children in\\nthe German schools (and the same may be said of the Swiss schools.) is very\\nmuch greater than that of the English children. Over each school-house one head\\nteacher is appointed, who is an elderly and experienced man, and who himself\\ntakes the management of the highest class. Under him are appointed a number\\nof younger teachers, coVresponding to the number of class-rooms in the school*", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "1 08 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nhouse. These younger masters board with the head teacher in his house, which\\nis generally constructed large enough to afford loggings for the staff of masters\\nrequired for all the classes. If the class-rooms do not e.\\\\ceed four, the boys and\\ngirls are mi.xed together in the different rooms, and are divided into four classes,\\naccording to their proficiency. If. however, the school contains more than four\\nclass-rooms, then the girls and boys are separated into two distinct divisions, each\\nof which is divided into three or four classes according to the proficiency of the\\nchildren. In the town schools, therefore, it is much easier to dispense with moni-\\ntors, as no teacher is perplexed with having to direct different classes in the same\\nroom. Each teacher has only to instruct a small number of children of about\\nthe same proficiency in the same subject, at onetime and in a separate room. He\\ncan, therefore, at all moments engage all his children in the same occupations, keep\\nthem all under his constant inspection, and direct their operations much better\\nthan where these operations themselves are necessarily of three or four different\\nkinds at the same time. But even in such case, the teachers require the assist-\\nance of monitors, in the writing, drawing, and ciphering exercises or else, as I\\nhave often observed, when the teacher s attention is withdrawn from the class, or\\nwhen he is attending to some individual pupil in one part of the school, the\\njuvenile spirit is sure to begin to effervesce in another, and to produce noise, dis-\\norder, and interruption. This want of assistance for the principal teachers was\\nalmost the only fault I could find with the Prussian schools.\\nThe school-buildings were generally excellent, and often handsome; the class-\\nrooms numerous, lofty, capacious, and always clean for the inspectors take great\\ncare that the parochial authoi ities do not neglect the whitewashing and repairs.\\nThe scholars themselves were always exquisitely clean. The rooms were con-\\nstantly whitewashed and scoured. The law obliges the school committees to do\\nthis. If any neglect in these particulars is evident, the inspectors and county\\nmagistrates are empowered and required to act for the parochial committee, and\\nto raise the funds necessary for the purpose by a parochial rate levied upon the\\nhouseholders. But from the beautiful neatness and cleanliness and from the\\nexcellent repair of the school-rooms which I saw in different provinces of Prussia\\nand Germany, it appeared to me, that the people fully understood and appreciated\\nthe importance and utility of these regulations.\\nThe class-rooms were always well fitted up with parallel desks and forms, and\\nalmost always with excellent maps of Germany, on which all the leadmg phys-\\nical characteristics of the country vi ere delineated in a strong and forcible manner,\\nand on a large scale and also with smaller but excellent maps of other parts of\\nthe world.\\nAt one end of each class-room is the teacher s desk, raised a little above the\\nothers. Behind, and on each side of him hang great blackboards, fastened to the\\nwall by moveable hinges. On these he writes copies of the writing exercises, and\\ndraws all his figures, e.. for the illustration of his lessons: and on all these also\\neach child is called upon in turn to explain arithmetical operations, or to fill up or\\ndraw the outlines of a map of some part of Europe, or of one of the principal\\ncountries of the world. The space between the teacher s desk and the other end\\nof the room is filled with parallel rows of desks and forms, at which the children\\nwork for the Prussians are too anxious to make the children interested in their\\nschool duties, to think of making education more disagreeable to them than it\\nnecessarily is, by forcing them to stand through nearly the whole of their lessons,\\nas they do in many of our national schools to this day. Each school has also a\\nyard, where the children take exercise in the middle of the morning and after-\\nnoon school hours, to refresh themselves, and to awaken their faculties, while\\nthe windows of the class-rooms are thrown open, and the air of the rooms is\\nthoroughly purified.\\nSome persons seem to imagine th^t, if a school-room is built and children\\nattend it, the results must needs be good but it behooves them to examine\\nwhether they have left any influence at work upon the children s minds, stronger\\nthan the influence for good which the school afl )rds. If it is so, it seems a little\\nsanguine, to say the least of it, to hope for happy results. The whole system of\\nthings in Germany is so entirely different to that in England, that any one who\\nattempts to describ^ it to Englishmen must neoessarily appear to exaggerate. I", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 109\\ncan only say, let doubters go and inspect for themselves, and I am convinced they\\nwill own, that I have not said nearly so much as I might have done, in favor of\\nthe wonderful efforts the people and the governments are making to advance the\\ngreat cause of popular instruction.\\nEach child buys its own books and slate. Those children, however, who are\\ntoo poor to pay the small school-fees, and who are consequently sent to school at\\nthe expense of the town or parish in which they dwell, are provided with books,\\nc., by the town or parochial authorities. The children generally carry their\\nbooks home with them and every morning at a quarter to eight o clock, a trav-\\neler may see the streets of a German town or village filled with boys and girls,\\nneatly dressed and very clean, hurrying to school each of the boys carrying his\\nschool-books in a small goat-skin knapsack on his back, and each of the girls\\ncarrying hers in a small bag, which she holds in her hand. The cleanliness and\\nneatness of dress which I generally observed among the children very much\\nsurprised me, and always served to convince me how the educational regulations\\nwere tending to civilize and elevate the tastes of the lower classes throughout\\nGermany. At first, I was often disposed to doubt the veracity of my com-\\npanions, when they assured me that the children I saw were the sons and\\ndaughters of poor laborers.\\nThe very way in which children of different ranks of society are to be found\\nmingled in the same school, serves to show how superior the civilization of the\\nlower orders in Germany is to that of the English peasants. With us it would be\\nimpossible to associate, in the same school, the children of peasants with those of\\neven the lowest of our middle classes. JBut in Germany, I constantly found the\\nchildren of the highest and of the lowest ranks sitting at the same desk, and in\\nalmost every school I saw the children of the lowest and of the middle classes\\nmingled together.\\nIn Berlin, one of the teachers, on my asking him whose sons the boys at one\\nof his forms were, requested them to tell me in what occupations their fathers\\nwere engaged. From these boys I learned, that one was the son of a clergyman,\\nanother of a ph5 sician that others were the sons of small shopkeepers, and\\nothers the sons of errand-men and porters. Now, were not the children of the\\nerrand-men and porters very much more civilized, polished, and, if I may use that\\nthat much abused word, more gentlemanly than the same class of children in\\nEngland, such an association would be totally impossible. And yet this to us\\nincredible state of things, exists with infinitely less discontentment and social dis-\\nturbance than we find among our laboring classes in England.\\nBut it must not be imagined that the educational system is in a stationary state,\\nthat the people and the government are resting upon their oars, or that Ihey now\\nthink that they have done enough, and that they can let the stream bear\\nthem on without further exertion. Far, far othervfise on every hand extensive\\nimprovements are going on, as if they had only commenced last year, to take any\\ninterest in the question, and as if they were only now beginning the work, like\\nfresh laborers. Here I found a new and handsome school-house just finished\\nthere, another one in building and here, again, old houses being altered and\\nenlarged. In one town I found them preparing a great building for a normal\\ncollege in another, I found them preparing to remove one of these noble institu-\\ntions to a more commodious and larger set of buildings and wherever I traveled,\\nI found the authorities laboring to establish infant schools, as well as to perfect the\\neducational institutions of their several localities. Itsometimes appeared to me\\nas if all the resources of the government must be devoted to this object; whereas\\nmy readers must recollect that, except in the cases of the normal colleges, this\\ngreat work is effected by the people themselves and that the enormous expend-\\niture, by being divided between all the different towns and parishes in the king-\\ndom, is scarcely felt. Since 1816, every year has witnessed a further progress:\\nold schools have been pulled down, new ones have been erected the old and less\\nefficient teachers have gradually died off, and their places have been supplied by\\nexcellently trained masters who now direct the schools the young men who are\\nabout to enter holy orders have been obliged to study pedagogy, in order to fit\\nthemselves to be inspectors the regulations respecting the factory children,\\nwhich I have given in an earlier part of this work, have been put in force j", "height": "3285", "width": "1973", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "no SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nthe minimum of the teachers salaries has been considerably raised, and the\\nsystem of teachers conferences has been perfected, and put into operation.\\nI shall now show what restrictions exists on the free choice of books by the\\nteachers. The Prussian government lias here had two evils to guard against\\none of these was the retarding of the gradual reform of school-books, ^^hich\\nreform will always take place, when the teachers themselves are learned men,\\nwhen they thoroughly understand the theory and practice of pedagogy, and when\\nthey are not fettered by unwise restrictions and the other was, the admission\\ninto the practical schools, of books of an irreligious or immoral tendency. These\\ntwo evils are guarded against in the following manner\\nNo book can be used in any school of the provinces, until the authorities com-\\nposing the provincial Schulcollegium, which has the direction of the higher\\nschools and gymnasia, as well as of the normal colleges of the province, have\\nlicensed it, or sanctioned its admission. Any book which has been so sanc-\\ntioned, can be employed by any schoolmaster of the province in which it was\\nlicensed. There are, in every province, a great number of works on religion,\\nhistory, science, c., wliicli have been thus licensed, and from which the teachers\\nare at liberty to choose. But, if a schoolmaster writes a book, which he deems\\nbetter qualified for school use than those already published, or if he desires to\\nemploy a work written by some one else and which is not licensed, he forwards a\\ncopy of it, through the inspector, to the provincial authorities, in order to obtain\\ntheir consent, which is only refused, where the book is positively imperfect or\\nunfit for the young. In the schools, which I personally inspected, I generallj^\\nfound the school-books very excellent, and written either by teachers, or by some\\nperson engaged in the educational profession. Coming as they do from men of\\nvery long experience in the practice of pedagogy, they are generally vi ell adapted\\nto answer the wants, which the writers themselves have experienced, in the exer-\\ncise of their professional duties. With the above restrictions, the choice of books\\nis left entirely to the schoolmasters.\\nThe character of the instruction given in all the German schools is suggestive\\nthe teachers labor to teach the children to educate themselves. There is little or\\nno cram about it, if I may use an old university phrase. In most of the\\nbest primary schools of England, the teacher still contents himself with the old\\ncramming system that is, he tries to crowd the memories of his scholars with\\nfacts, and continually exercises their memories, without ever attempting to\\ndevelop and strengthen iiny of their other intellectual faculties. Now, we know\\nbut too well, that a man may have the most retentive memory, and the best stored\\nmind, and yet remain as incapable of reasoning, as improvident, and as irrational\\nas ever. He may be full of facts but may be as unable to make any use of\\nthem, or to turn them to any good account, as one bereft of the faculties of speech,\\nsight, and hearing. If a man can not use his reasoning powers, he is much better\\nwithout knowledge; to impart facts to a fool, is like intrusting fire to a madman.\\nThe great desideratum for the poor, as well as for every one else in this world, is\\na capability of using the reasoning faculties not that this will always save a man\\nfrom false ideas and from irrational conduct, but that a man who possesses it will\\nbe more likely than any other, to take a riglit view of liis position in life, his\\nduties, and his advantages, and will be more likely to understand the best means\\nof improving them.\\nNext, then, to implanting good principles in the child, the first object of every\\nsystem of instruction should be, to teach it how to use the high and important\\nfaculties, which Providence has given it, as the means by which to insure its\\ntemporal happiness and continued self-improvement. Facts are necessary, but\\nfacts alone are not enough to cram a child s mind with facts, without constantly\\nexercising its reflection and its reason, is like feeding it with quantities of rich\\nviands, and denying it all bodily exercise.\\nThe German teachers are, therefore, taught that their duty is to awaken the\\nintelligence of their children, far more than to fill their heads with facts, which\\nthey would not know how to use, unless their reasoning powers had been first cul-\\ntivated. Tlie schoolmasters do not therefore hurry over many facts in one lesson j\\nbut endeavor to make them think and reason about the subject of instruction.\\nThe method of instruction is left to the unfettered choice of the teachers, bo", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. m\\nthat it is impossible to speak with certainty of the methods pursued in the majority\\nof the schools but in all that I visited, I invariably found the simultaneous\\nmethod pursued. By tliis the scholars are divided into different classes, and each\\nclass is instructed separately. This is not done on tlie old shouting plan, where\\none 01 two clever boys give the answer, and all the others follow in the same\\nbreath, and often without having known w hat the question was. Not so the\\nclass under instruction first reads a section or chapter from the school-book,\\nrelating to the subject of instruction the teacher then endeavors to illustrate\\nwhat the children have been reading, to make them clearly understand it, to\\nassure himself that they do understand it, and to impress it more clearly and\\nfirmly upon their memories. All this he does by suggestive questions, which he\\nhimself does not answer, until he has first tried whether any of the children can\\nanswer tliem for themselves. When a question is put, all the children, who ai e\\nprepared to answer it, are told to hold up their hands, and the teacher then\\nselects one child, who stands up and gives what he conceives to be the answer\\nif he is wrong, another is selected to correct him, and so on in like manner;\\nbut until the teacher has called upon some one to answer, not a single word is\\nallowed to be spoken by any member of the class. If no one can answer the\\nquestion, the teacher, before answering it for the children, excites their curiosity\\nabout it by questions and hints, and stories illustrating or partially explaining the\\nsubject under discussion and when he has succeeded in interesting the whole\\nclass in the answer, he then gives it, but not before. By these means, the\\nreflective powers of the children are exercised and trained they are taught to\\nthink, to inquire an J to reason, and their minds acquire strength and activity.\\nDuring every lesson the teacher stands, and the children sit before him at their\\ndesks. The most perfect silence is observed, except when broken by the answer\\nof the scholar fixed on to reply, or by a question made by a scholar seeking\\nexplanation, or by a laugh at some amusing story or joke of the teacher. No\\nlesson is continued long. The subjects of instructions are changed about three\\ntimes in every two hours and, at the end of. every two hours, the children of all\\nthe different classes meet in the play-ground, under the charge of one of the\\nteachers, to get some fresh air and a little exercise.\\nThe great object of all this is to make the lessons as interesting and attractive as\\npossible to the children, to keep up their attention, and to gradually develop all the\\npowers of their minds.\\nThis system enables the German teachers to watch and tend the progi ess of\\neach individual child. No child can screen idleness or ignorance, behind the\\ngeneral shout of the class. The teacher sees instantly, if a scholar fails often to\\nhold up his hand and as he questions those, who do hold up their hands, by\\nturns, he soon finds out if a child is really attending or not.\\nOne thing which greatly surprised me in all the German and Dutch schools\\nwas, the great interest the children evidently took in the subject of instruction.\\nThis is to be explained entirely by the manner, in T\\\\ hich they are treated and\\ninstructed by the teachers. The teachers address them as intelligent, rational\\nbeings, and in a conversational manner, as if they expected them to listen and\\nto understand. The teachers further excite their interest by showing them, in all\\ntheir lessons, the practical use of the knowledge they are acquiring. Con.stant\\nreferences are made to the different pursuits, in which the children will be\\nengaged after leaving school to the commerce of the country, and the way in\\nwhich it is supplied with the various articles of foreign produce which it requires\\nto the duties of citizens to the history of the country to its produce, its phys-\\nical ehacteristies, and its political relations to farming, in its various branches\\nto the great inventions and vast undertakings of the day to the wonders of\\nforeign countries and, in fact, to all the newspaper topics of the day.\\nI have myself been obliged to answer questions in the German and Dutch\\nschools about the navA of England, the wealth of England, our metropolis, our\\ncolonies, and the miseries of Ireland.\\nInstruction, or amusement which will excite the scholars to seek instruction, is\\nsought from all the subjects and allusions started by the lesson. The children are\\nmade to see the end of instruction and the object of schools in every lesson which\\nis given them. The teachers encourage thera by words and looks of approval,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "112\\nBURGHER SCHOOL AT HALLE.\\nA few words, such as that s right, Charles, that s a very good answer,\\nyou have explained it very well, well done indeed, and such like explana-\\ntions, stimulate the children as if they were at a game. Added to this, that the\\nteachers are so admirably drilled in the art of teaching, that they perfectly under-\\nstand how to make every thing clear and comprehensible to the least intelligent\\nscholar of the class, while they are so well educated, that they are able to illus-\\ntrate each lesson by a hundred interesting stories or descriptions.\\nThe subjects of instruction in the primary schools vary in the different classes.\\nIn those for the younger children, who have only just entered the school, they\\nare confined to Scripture history, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing but,\\nin the classes for the elder children, not only are higher and more advanced exercises\\nin the above subjects given, but the scholars learn also German history, geogra-\\nphy, drawing, and mental arithmetic. In this last subject of instruction. 1 some-\\ntimes found astonishing progress made. Besides the above lessons which the\\nschoolmasters are obliged by law to teach in all schools, the children learn to\\nrecite the most beautiful of the Psalms and the finest passages of Scripture, as well\\nas the most celebrated national melodies. In the higher elementary schools, or,\\nas they are called, the higher burgher schools, which are open to all the children\\nwho like to enter them after leaving the elementary schools, and which are\\nattended by the sons of small shopkeepei s and of laborers also, the course of edu-\\ncation is much higher, embracing not only a continued exercise in the difterent\\nsubjects of instruction which I have enumerated, but in addition to these, geome-\\ntry, universal history, and the French language. No child is obliged to attend\\nthese .schools but all are admitted, who wish to continue their education there\\nafter leaving the primary schoQls. These schools are only to be found in towns\\nbut each town is.ohliged by law to support at least one of them. They are gen-\\nerally very well attended by tlje children of small shopkeepers, and contain also\\nmany children from the poorest ranks of society.\\nThe method of teaching these subjects generally, has already been\\ngiven under the head of Primary Schools in Germany, in the lan-\\nguage of Prof. Stowe and Mr. Mann. We will now give from Prof.\\nBache, and other authorities, the organization, study table, and methods\\nof instruction of several schools of different grades.\\nBURGHER SCHOOL AT HALLE.\\nThe series of schools, which now cluster about the Orphan-house of\\nHalle, are called after the name of its founder, the Franke Foundations,\\nand embraces the whole range of pubHc instruction. It begins with\\nthe common or elementary schools, in which the instruction terminates\\nat the age of twelve or fourteen years contains a higher or middle\\nschool, called, also, a burgher school, the courses of which end at\\nfourteen or sixteen years, and where the pupil is prepared to enter life\\nas a tradesman. Also, a real school, its courses ending at sixteen or\\neighteen, and intended to prepare for the higher mechanical occupa-\\ntions and a classical school, or gymnasium, retaining its pupils until\\neighteen or nineteen years of age, and fitting them for admission to the\\nuniversity.\\nThe attendance on these schools varies from year to year, being\\nmade up of pupils from other parts of Prussia, as well as from Halle.\\nThe attendance, at the date of Dr. Bache s visit, was as follows", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "BURGHER SCHOOL AT HALLE. 213\\nFree School for boys 350, in four classes.\\ngirls 350,\\nBurgher School for boys 600, twelve\\ngirls 400, eight\\nSuperior 100, six\\nReal boys 150, five\\nGymnasium or grammar school 300, six\\nPaedagogium 80, five\\nTotal, 2330\\nIn the establishments for education there were at the same time, in the orphan\\nhouse, 114 boys and 16 girls, in the boarding school 230 boys, and in the paeda-\\ngogium 80, total 436.\\nThe school which the boys of the orphan -house in general attend, is that called\\nthe bm gher or citizens school, sometimes also called middle school. Its ob-\\njects are thus defined, lii-st, so to train the sons of citizens by instruction in use-\\nful science, that, at the age of fom-teen years, they may be in a condition to begin\\na handicraft, or other trade second, to prepare the pupils for the lower classes\\nof a gymnasium, or for the classes of a real school, to accompUsh which latter\\npurposes Latin and French are taught.\\nThe lower classes are, in tact, those of an elementary school, and the boys who\\nleave the orphan-house at fom-teen, are instructed exclusively in this establish-\\nment. The few who are selected to remain after fom-teen go to the Latin school\\nLatin and French both are, however, studied in the upper classes of the burgher\\nschool, and the aptitude of the orphan pupils for language, is thus put to the test.\\nThe school is divided into four classes in reference to the progress of the pupils,\\nand each is subdivided for convenience, with a teacher to every subdivision.\\nThus the same teacher gives instruction in all the subjects of study, to a class of\\nboys numbering, on the average, about fifty.\\nThe branches taught are Exercises of speech and thought. Bible history.\\nReligious instruction. Mental and written arithmetic. Elements of geography.\\n(Knowledge of home.) Reading and writing taught together. Readmg. Cal-\\nligraphy. Stories from history. German grammar. Composition. Geography\\nof Germany. German histoiy. French grammar. General history. Higher\\narithmetic. Elements of geometry. Bible lessons. Christian morals. Chris-\\ntian doctrines. Elements of Latin.\\nThere are teachers of singing and drawing, besides the regular class teachers.\\nThe pupils are examined privately once every six months, and publicly at Easter,\\nwhen the change of classes takes place.\\nThe exercises of speech and thought, the fii st subject on the above list, consti-\\ntute the breaking-in, as it were, of the child, and being at the very threshold of\\ninstruction, try the teacher s skill more than many a learned branch. He must\\nteach the pupil to think, taking care that his thoughts are expressed in appropri-\\nate words. Pestalozzi, who first practiced upon this idea, drew the child s atten-\\ntion to the human frame, as the subject of contemplation others have preferred\\nto bring him in contact with nature, in general, by making simple natm-al phe-\\nnomena the basis of the inductive lessons; others, not surrounded by nature,\\nmade man and his dwelling their theme others introduce simple lessons on ob-\\njects of nature and art, which can readily be presented to the child for his exam-\\nination, and on which, as a basis, to rear the superstructure of natural history,\\nphysics, and technology, in his advanced course. All these are good in their\\nway, but such as I saw tried seemed to depend for their efficacy upon the cir-\\ncumstances of the school, and to be better or worse as the child found means to\\napply his newly acquired powers of perception, to observe for himself. Of all the\\nplans, when the school is rightly situated for it, a reference to nature produces\\nthe best training of the heart, as well as the mind of the child. It would be im-\\npossible to present, here, even extracts from the numerous works which contain\\nthe methods employed in these exercises.\\nThe Bible history and religious instruction next referred to, are principally\\ngiven orally, the morals of the Bible and the events which it describes, being put\\ninto such a form that when the sacred book itseK, at a later day, comes into the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "2 14 BURGHER SCHOOL AT. HALLE\\nchild s hands, he is prepared to read it with proper iuterest. This plan is dia-\\nmetrically opposed to that which employs it as the beginner s horn-book, and\\nfrom which, I feel bound to say, I have never seen any good result.\\nI can not enter into details in regard to all the branches, but must be satisfied\\nwith noticing two which are here taught particularly well, namely, reading and\\nwriting, and geography.\\nThe reading and writing are taught at the same time, according to the method\\nof Harnisch, developed by Scholtz. The child makes a letter on his slate, after a\\ncopy upon the blackboard, and is taught to name it. The German language\\nhaving a fixed sound for each letter, when the sound of the letter has been learned,\\nnot its common arbitrary name, but the sound which it has in composition, the\\npupil has made some progress toward knowing how to form combinations, which\\nis the next step, the vowels being placed alternately before and after the consonant.\\nThese combinations are first written on the slate, and then pronounced. The\\nnext exercise consists in placing a vowel between two consonants, which is fol-\\nlowed by other simple combinations. These being classified by careful study, the\\nchild is soon able to compose simple sentences, in which his ideas are developed,\\nBO that the mechanical operation of writing and of reading is interspersed with\\nintellectual exercise. In this the talent of the teacher is strikingly exhibited, and\\na prescribed routine of instruction would fail in its object. The written letters\\nbeing once learned, the next step is with the printed, and a reading book is not\\nintroduced until the child has felt the necessity of it in his further progress. It\\nis then a relief, and not a task.\\nI saw, here, a class which had been under instruction for only nine months,\\nthe pupils of which wrote short sentences very legibly in a hand of medium size,\\nspelled them correctly, and read them distinctly.\\nThis method of learning to read is, in a great degree, inapplicable to our lan-\\nguage, in which the vowel sounds are so numerous but the union of reading and\\nwriting may have its advantages. The characters of the ordinary (j-erman writ-\\ning are composed of very different forms from those of our roimd hand, and which\\nare more simple, and, in general, angular hence no considerable dexterity of\\nhand is required to trace the letters, and only a brief practice in elementary forms\\nis required. I saw classes of children of ten and eleven years old, at Zurich, who,\\nby being constantly practiced in this method from their earliest instruction, had\\nacquired a very striking facility of expressing their ideas clearly and correctly in\\nwriting. The method produces a facility of composition, in writing, as that of\\nJacotot does a fluency in speaking. The orphans entering at ten years of age,\\ndo not, in general, pass through this class.\\nThe geographical instruction, founded upon the method of Pestalozzi, proceeds\\non strictly inductive principles, and is an example of how much may be done by\\nmaking the pupil proceed from the known to the unknown. The following was\\nthe course of a recitation which I attended on the subject. The teacher drew,\\nfirst, from the knowledge of the pupils of different objects or bodies, a definition\\nof the term body, then led them to define extension, dimensions, c., and thus\\nfurnished them ideas of space. Sunrise and sunset were used for establishing the\\nposition of the cardinal points, and that of the class-room was determined in refer-\\nence to these. Then commencing with home, with a map of the city of Halle,\\nthey gave an account of its localities, and the history connected with them.\\nWidening hence in circles, the natural and political features of the surrounding\\ndistrict were described, always indicating the real directions of places, c. The\\npupil thus grasps every step of geographical knowledge begins with his own\\nhouse, rambles through his own town, makes excursions in its neighborhood, sets\\nout on his travels through his fatherland, visits foreign parts, sees what is worth\\nseeing in the natural and artificial state of the country, finally learns the relation\\nof its parts and of the whole to other worlds, and thus the interest is kept up from\\nthe first to the last. The reverse method I compared with this over and over\\nagain some teachers have found this tedious, others have mixed the two systems,\\nbut, judging by the comparative results, I give this method greatly the preference\\nover others, as not only teaching geography, and connecting history with it, but\\nenlarging the general intelligence, while it improves the memory. In the upper\\nclasses, the pupils use maps without names, and draw maps on the board, marking", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "MILITARY OKPilAN-HOUSE AT ANNABURG.\\n115\\nlocalities, o. At other times, the places are imlicated by one pupil, and named\\nby another, with otlier variations of exercise. In the lower classes, the responses\\nwere frequently repeated by the whole class, and in the upper classes the instruc-\\ntion was more addressed to individuals. With all the inherent merits of this\\nmethod, I have seen it wholly marred by a dull teacher.\\nThe inductive method applied to any branch of knowledge requires time,\\npatience, and some skill on the part of the teacher. The routine method, or\\npositive teaching, is much easier to the instructor. The former at every step\\nunfolds the mind, the latter frequently overburthcns it. If the positive knowledge\\nacquired by the fiist is entirely lost, the habit of thinking remains, while, if\\nacquired by the second, there is nothing left unless some improvement of memory,\\nand general development of the reasoning powers.\\nA pupil who has properly improved the advantages of this school, will have\\nacquired a reasonable knowledge of the German language, of reading, writing,\\nand arithmetic, of geography and general history, will be familiar with the his-\\ntory, morals, and doctrines of the Bible, and his general mental and moral devel-\\nopment will be such as befits his age. If especially industrious or apt, he will\\nhave had an oportunity of beginning Latin and French, and if he prove to have\\na facility in language, will be transferred to the Latin school. It would seem\\nthat, if he have a peculiar disposition for mathematical studies, he should be sent\\nto the real school to prepare him for one of the higher mechanical callings. If\\nhe should have had this advantage, on reaching seventeen years of age, he would\\nhave added to his stock of knowledge\\nFurther acquaintance with German and French. Latin and English if re-\\nquired, though not regularly taught. History and geography. Natural history.\\nMathematics. Practical ai itlunetie. Physics and chemistry. Religion. Im-\\nproved writing, and drawing.\\nThe Latin school, into which the more intelligent pupil now actually enters,\\nconforms to the plan of the Prussian gymnasia. This gymnasium has si.x classes,\\ndivided each into two parts, and forming a connected series of instruction, one\\npart being six months behind the other, except that the pupils of the two parts\\nare sometimes assembled to listen to the same lecture.\\nThe branches studied are Religious instruction, Latin, Greek, French, math-\\nematics, elements of physics, history, psychology, and logic. Poetry and rhetoric,\\nand Hebrew or Enghsh, as the student may desire.\\nMILITARY ORPHAN-HOUSE AT ANNABURG.\\nThe following plan of instruction was prepared by Dr. Harnisch, one\\nof the most distinguished teachers of Prussia\\nThe course is divided into two parts, one an elementary course, consisting of\\nreligious instruction, arithmetic, the mother tongue, singing, writing, and exer-\\ncises of induction, taught in four classes, between the ages of ten and fourteen.\\nThe other, a higher course, taught in three classes, and between the fifteenth and\\neighteenth years of age of the pupils. In order to rise to the place of a non-com-\\nmissioned officer, the pupil must have gone through at least the lowest of the\\nclasses of the higher school. The subjects of instruction in this school are relig-\\nious instruction, arithmetic, singing, the German language, calligraphy, geogra-\\nphy and history, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and drawing.\\nThe courses in the different branches are arranged as follows s\\nFirst. Religious Instruction.\\nLOWER SCHOOL.\\nClass VII. Bible stories, psalms and hymns, appropriate to the season. Four hours per\\nweek.\\nClass VI. Histories from the Old and New Testament, portions of the history of the Chris-\\ntian church, catechism. Four hours per week.\\nClass V. Reading and explanation of the Bible, and of its arrangement. The gospel and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "2JQ MILITARY ORPHAN-HOUSE AT ANNABURG.\\nhistorical works are selected, and the history is connected with the geography of the Holy\\nLand. Catechism. Five hours.\\nClass IV. Doctrines of the Lutheran church, taught by Luther s catechism. Five hours.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. Moral instruction, duties to God and man. Three hours.\\nClass II. Reading the Bible with comments, the pupils making abstracts. Three hours.\\nClass I. (Two years.) The first year a repetition of Luther s catechism. The second, a\\nhistory of tlie Christian dispensation. Three hours.\\nEvery class commits verses from the Bible to memory.\\nSecond. Arithmetic. Mental and written arithmetic are taught together, that the readiness\\nafforded by the one, and the accuracy of the other, may both be cultivated.\\nLOWER SCHOOL.\\nClass VII. The four ground rules, with three places of figures mentally. Application to\\nquestions in weights and measures. Three hours.\\nClass VI. The same rules e.vtended. Three hours.\\nClass V. Fractions, with applications to weights and measures. Three hours.\\nClass IV. Proportions. Three hours.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. The applications of proportions to questions of weight, strength, value, time,\\nand general quantity. Two hours.\\nClass II. Exercii-es in practical algebra. Two hours.\\nClass I. Review of the course. First year, practical operations. Second, theory of arith-\\nmetrical processes. Two hours.\\nThird. Vocal Music.\\nLOWER SCHOOL.\\nClasses VII VI. Practice of songs, adapted to youth of a cheerful, serious, military, or\\nreligious cast, with one part. Two hours.\\nClasses V IV. Choral and other songs, with the different parts. Elements of music.\\nTwo hours.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClasses III, II, I. More difBcult choral pieces. Theoretical instruction continued. One\\nhour. There is, besides, instruction given to a select choir, intended to conduct the vocal\\nexercises of the church.\\nFourth. Reading In the lower classes, a readiness in reading, and in the higher, the style\\nof reading, is attended to especially. Pieces learned previously, by heart, are recited.\\nLOWER SCHOOL.\\nClass VII. A good pronunciation, and some facility in reading. Six hours.\\nClass VI. Readiness in reading, and repeating the substance of what has been read. Famil-\\niar illustrations. Five hours.\\nClass V. Reading some work in reference to knowledge useful in common life. Four\\nhours.\\nClass IV. Reading, with attention to emphasis. Four hours.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. Reading the Bible and sacred melodies, with the view to correct reading in this\\nkind of composition. Two hours.\\nClass II. Reading various selected works, in and out of the class.\\nClass I. Reading continued, and recitations from works previously read.\\nFifth. Orthography and Writing. These may be taught together in the same way as\\nmental and w-ritten arithmetic the teacher is, however, at liberty to follow his own method.\\nLOWER SCHOOL.\\nClass VII. Copying on slates from tlie blackboard. Four hours.\\nClass VI. Copying on paper, from the board, and from books. Four hours.\\nClass V. Writing from copy -slips, from books, or from dictation. (Practice in spelling and\\nwriting.) Four hours.\\nClass IV. Similar exercises continued. Four hours.\\nUPPER school.\\nClass III. Copying useful papers, such as registers, accounts, contracts, c. Two hours.\\nClass II. Calligraphy, with Roman as well asy German letters; practice in orthography;\\nreading of letters and documents in various handwritings. Two hours.\\nClass I. Copying papers relating to the management of the institution, as a practical intro-\\nduction to business. One hour.\\nSixth. Useful knowledge taught by induction\\nLOWER school.\\nClass VII. The pupils give their ideas, verbally, of surrounding objects of the most simple\\nkind, of the commonest productions of nature and art. Conversations relating to them.\\nDrawing the most simple mathematical figures on the slate. Three hours\\nClass VI. Descriptions of animals and plants, the former in the winter, the latter in the\\nsummer term. Written remarks on these, serving to afford exercise in the formation of\\nphrases and in orthography. Four hours.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "MILITARY ORPHAN-HOUSE AT ANNABDRG j 17\\nClass V. The most essential parts of physics and natural history, the pupils taking notes of\\nthe lessons, rmii hours.\\nClass IV. Coiiijinsifions on various subjects. Letters relating to civil and military affairs.\\nFour hours.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. History of Prussia, and drawinjr of maps. Four hours.\\nClass II General jreography, particularly that of Europe. Passing from physical to polit-\\nical geography. Civil geography in connection with the former. Five hours.\\nClass I. Universal history. One year is devoted to ancient and one to moderu history.\\nSelections are made of the more important parts of history. Five hours.\\nThe remaining studies only belong to the higher school.\\nSeventh. German grammar and style.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. Logical and grammatical instruction of the German language taught.\\nClass II. Idiom of the language. Compositions on military subjects, with especial refer-\\nence to correctness of grammar.\\nClass i. Acquaintance with the best writers. Exercises of composition on subjects taken\\nfrom history.\\nEighth. Geometry.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. Teaching the names and properties of mathematical figures by induction, in con-\\nnection witli drawing.\\nClass II. Equations, with applicafiou to problems of common life.\\nClass I. Elements of trigonometry.\\nNinth. Drawing.\\nUPPER SCHOOL.\\nClass III. Drawings from common objects, varying the positions, c.\\nClass H. Copying flowers, or drawings of implements.\\nClass I. Architectural drawing with instruments, drawings of furniture, c.\\nDr. Bache makes the following remarks on the above plan:\\nI have allowed myself to present this extended programme, because it conveys,\\nm as brief a compass as possible, e.xcellent ideas of the succession of courses in an\\nelementary school, and in a technical or trade school, for such the higher school\\nmust be considered. It should be remembered that the main purpose is the pre-\\nparation of youth for the military service, and hence that the wants of the service\\nare especially consulted. Another fact must be remembered, namely, that this is\\na Lutheran school, and therefore the religious instruction is adapted to the par-\\nticular views of that church. The course of morals of the third class, 1 must say,\\nhowever, seems to me out of its place, for although our duties to God and our\\nneighbor are of course best learned from his Word, yet their inculcation by pre-\\ncept and example can not commence too early.\\nIn the arithmetical course, the union of mental and wi-itten arithmetic is abso-\\nlutely essential. The gradation appears to me good, and the application to ques-\\ntions of common life gives a zest to such studies, attainable in no other way. The\\ntheory of arithmetical processes, however, should accompany or follow more\\nnearly their practical acquisition. Indeed, if they are taiight as they ought to\\nbe, by induction, the theory goes with the practice.\\nIf the youth at Aimaburg take the same pleasure in the exercises of song, fi om\\nthe elements to the completion of the musical course, as those of the school*\\nactually superintended by the author of this project, the success will be com-\\nplete.\\nThe connection of orthography and writing, especially if combined with early\\nreading, is natural.\\nThe exercises of induction, which In the lower classes are well drawn out,\\ndeviate from the appropriate track in the fourth class, and in the geographical\\nand historical courses do not return to it. The system in both these branches is\\nrather synthetical than inductive. There is a great temptation to break away\\nfrom this method, into that of giving positive instruction, from the apparently\\ngreater rapidity of progress of the pupil some teachers have abandoned it alto-\\ngether, as too slow, thougli ultimately to their cost, as appeared to me in cases\\nwhere I had an opportunity of comparing the results.\\nThe writing is preceded by an introductory course of drawing, which might\\nSeminary for Teachers at Weiesenfels.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "118\\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.\\nwith excellent effect be so extended as to branch out into complete courses of\\ndrawing and writing.\\nAs this plan results from an extended experience, the number of hours of\\ninstruction, per week, necessary to secure the results, is an important datum, and\\nas such I have retained it, whenever it was inserted in the original programme.\\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.\\nThe capital of Prussia is well supplied with public educational insti-\\ntutions of various grades, from the Krippen, (or mere nurseries for\\nchildren whose parents are obliged to labor away from their homes for\\ntheir daily support) and Kleinkinderbewahranstalten, (or institutions\\nfor the care of children between two and four, resembling infant schools,\\nbut not doing much in mere instruction,) to the university, with its\\ndepartments of law, theology, medicine, and philosophy, and schools of\\npreparation for gardening, agriculture, commerce, trades, and the me-\\nchanic, and fine arts. Of these, we have selected for description a few\\nwhich belong to the department of primary education as understood in\\nthis country, as well as two which rank abroad with secondary schools,\\nbut correspond to the grade of public high schools, as now organized in\\nour large cities, as parts of their systems of public instruction.\\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.\\nThe elementary schbols of Berlin are not organized as a part of a\\nsystem of public instruction they are partly private and partly public\\nsome of them are intended exclusively for the poor, and are supported\\nentirely by the city, and others are private establishments, in which the\\ntuition of such poor children as attend, are paid by the city. In the\\nburgher, or higher class of primary schools, as well as in the gymnasia\\nand real schools, there are classes which belong properly to the elemen-\\ntary schools. In 1827, Mr. Reichelen, member of the school council,\\ndevised a plan of organization for a class of schools for poor children in\\nBerlin, differing in some respects from that adopted in the kingdom at\\nlarge. From the document embodying this plan we make a few ex-\\ntracts for the sake of explaining the organization of the schools, and\\nillustrating the difference between these schools for the poor and our\\ncommon schools.\\nAlthough, in the middle class, the co-operation of the parents and the influence\\nof families may be depended on, the contrary holds with children of the lowest,\\nwhom it is often necessary to withdraw as much as possible from the baleful\\ninfluence of the bad example of their parents. In the case of these children, the\\nexertions of the school are wholly unassisted.\\nIn the new organization, the two sexes should be separated which will not\\nincrease the expense, provided the schools be so proportioned, as that one com-\\nplete school shall contain two divisions having seventy-five each, one for boys and\\none for girls these two divisions forming but one parish school for three hundred\\nchildren, in one building.\\nThe speciaLcharaeter of the instruction proper for poor children, is defined in\\nthese two words, prayer and work.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN. Ug\\nThe subjects of instruction for the first class should be\\n1. For religion the Bible, catechism, the positive truths of Christianity.\\n2. For the German language language considered as the expression of\\nthought the most general rules of grammar, clear and intelligible pronunciation,\\nreading and orthography.\\n3. Writing.\\n4. Arithmetic, to fractions and the rule-of-three, inclusive.\\n5. Singing, and particularly exercises in sacred choral music.\\nFor the second class of boys, the most general elements of the natural sciences,\\nof geography, and national history, as well as the elements of geometry and linear\\ndrawing should be added.\\nFor the second class of girls, instruction in needle-work, knitting, c.\\nFor boys of from six to ten years of age, first class, twenty-six lessons of one\\nhour each per week, from eight to eleven, and from two to four, every day\\nthus\\n3 hours for religious instruction, (principally narratives from the Bible.)\\n12 hours fur the German language, pronunciation, reading, orthography, c.\\n5 hours for arithmetic 3 for the slate as far as division, and 2 for mental arithmetic.\\n4 hours for writing.\\n2 hours for singing, (without counting the verses sung at the beginning and end of each\\n_ day.)\\n26 hours.\\nFor the second class of boys, from ten to fourteen years old, thirtj -two hours\\nof lessons per week, from eight to twelve, and from two to four, every day thus\\n6 hours for religion, instruction in the Bible, and catechism.\\n10 hours for the German language, reading, grammar, intellectual exercises.\\n5 hours for arithmetic, on the slate and in the head.\\n4 hours for writing.\\n2 hours for geometry, and linear drawing.\\n3 hours for natural philosophy, geography, and history, c.\\n2 hours for singing, (not including the verses sung morning and evening.)\\n32 hours.\\nGirls school, first class, from six to ten years old, twenty-six hours lessonfl a\\nweek thus\\n3 hours for religion, (narratives from the Bible.)\\n7 hours for the German language.\\n3 hours for arithmetic, on the slate and mentally.\\n3 hours for writing.\\n2 hours for singing.\\n8 hours for needle-work, c.\\n26 hours, from eight to eleven, and from two to four.\\nThe second class of girls, from ten to fourteen, thirty-two hours lessons thus\\n6 hours for religion.\\n8 hours for the German language.\\n4 hours for arithmetic.\\n3 hours for writing.\\n3 hours for singing.\\n8 hours for needlework, c., (in the afternoon.)\\n32 hours, from eight to twelve, and from two to four.\\nA child shall be in a condition to pass from the first class to the second as soon\\nas it can read well.\\nIt may perhaps seem strange, that in this plan of study no mention should be\\nmade of the time devoted to exercises of the memory and the mental powers.\\nBut the committee has considered that these exercises are included in the course\\nof study, which keeps the memory and intellect constantly in action. The lessons\\nin the German langiiage will always furnish exercises of this kind and in charity\\nschools, above all others, it is necessary to avoid whatever is superfluous.\\nThe children of the lowest class have generally received an ill bent from the\\nexample of their parents; the strictest discipline is therefore required. Order,\\nneatness, activity, prompt obedience, are by no means the least important things a\\nchild has to learn. The kind of instruction, the gravity of the ntaster, his devo-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "120 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.\\ntedness to his pupils, are of themselves a solid ground-work for discipline. But\\nrigor is sometimes necessary and in a school for the poor especially, discipline\\nshould be inflexible in cases of disorder or indolence. But let the masters never\\nforget, that the severest measures of discipline should be pervaded by a senti-\\nntient of tenderness and love, which chastises only to improve.\\nThere are seven evening schools in Berlin. It will be sufficient to institute\\nthree more of fifty scholars each, two for boys and one for girls. The three\\nablest and most zealous parish schoolmasters shall be engaged to give from eight\\nto twelve hours lessons a week in the evening, for which they shall be paid a\\nhundred thaler, (15Z.) Reading and writing will be constantly taught there, and\\ntwo hours a week devoted to religious instruction.\\nA greater number of evening schools will be opened, if they are found to be wanted.\\nBefore entering upon a detail of the expenses which the city must bear for the\\nsupport of fourteen parish charity schools, we will mention the very slight revenue\\nwhich these schools can draw from other sources.\\n1. A government order, dated January 30, 1827, directs that in every parish\\ncharity school each pupil shall pay a fee of one silber-grosehen (about five farth-\\nings) a month, in order not to violate the principle, that every father of a family\\nis bound to contribute something to the school, even though he should claim for\\nhis children the favor of a gratuitous education for the exaction of this trifling\\npayment does not take from the instruction its gratuitous character, and this im-\\nperceptible charge produces nevertheless, in a school of three hundred children,\\nthe sum of 120 thaler, (18/.)\\n2. Amongst the poor, many who are unable to pay the terms of private schools,\\ncan nevertheless very well give, besides the groschen per month fixed by the min-\\nister of public instruction, a further sum, varying from five groschen as a minimum,\\nto ten as a maximum. Out of three hundred children, this would apply to at\\nleast a fifth and the minimum five groschen for sixty children, will give a reve-\\nnue of 120 thaler, or 1680 for the fourteen schools, (136/.) This extraordinary\\nfund {Aushulfe-fund) may be appropriated to the maintenance of the evening\\nschools, to the instruction of children of a higher class who have fallen into pov-\\nerty, and to rewards or pensions for schoolmasters in their old age, or to methodo-\\nlogical courses for their improvement; so that the town would have no other\\nexpense to support than that of the fourteen parish charity schools.\\n3. Finally, the donations which the generosity of the citizens may give to the\\nschools, but which can not be calculated on here, will form another resource for\\nimprovement in the education of the poorer classes.\\nThe excellence of a school depends entirely upon the master the choice of the\\nmaster is therefore a matter of the first importance. In a school for the poorest\\nclass especially, where every thing is to be done, and where the master has con-\\nstantly to struggle against the pernicious influence of the family and companions of\\nthe child, he should possess devotedness to his calling, patience, knowledge, an\\naptitude and taste for teaching and with all these qualities, that rare disinterest-\\nedness which induces perseverance in a career at once humble and unaltering,\\nand that enduring serenity of soul, that pious zeal which alone can secure pros-\\nperity to a school.\\nThe masters who are examined and declared capable, shall be appointed for life\\nnevertheless, in case of negligence or misconduct, they shall be dismissed without\\nappeal, by an order from the town authorities, approved by the school board.\\nCare should be taken, that whenever it is possible, the wives of the schoolmas-\\nters shall instruct the little girls in needle-work.\\nThe immediate superintendence of each poor s school shall be specially confided\\nto a committee consisting of one of the clergj men of the parish, named by the\\ntown school committee, and a member of the administration of the poor s fund,\\ncharged specially with the ins])ection of the external business of the school.\\nThe supreme superintendence resides with the poor s administration and the\\ntown school committee, of which the Stadt-Schulrath, or school councillor for\\nthe town, shall always be a member.\\nThe under masters shall be subject to the head masters they may be dismissed\\nat will either for incapacity or misconduct.\\nThe purohass and maintenance of buildincrs tor the schools in the various quar-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN. 121\\nters, the choice and superintendence of the masters, the administration of the\\nschool funds belong to the administration of the poor.\\nThe charity board of each quarter, the clergyman, and the officer charged with\\nthe special superintendence, shall attend to:\\n1. The admission of pupils.\\n2. The control of the attendance at the schools.\\n3. The departure of the pupils.\\n4. The annual reports.\\n1. As there will be fourteen parish charity schools required, the town will be\\ndivided into fourteen school wards, or districts, each having a complete school,\\n(bovs and girls.) All parents living in each district, shall apply to the charity\\nboard, and particularly to the special officer, to obta,iu admission for their children\\nto the school.\\nThis admission shall take place generally at two periods of the year, Easter and\\nMichaelmas, at the commencement of the course.\\nThe officer shall determine whether the child shall be admitted gratuitously,\\n(always paying one groschen per month.) or be made to pay from five to ten silber-\\ngroschen, which will form the extraordinary fund.\\nThis sum shall be paid in advance, from month to month, to an officer of the\\ncharity board chosen for tliis purpose, and shall be added each month to the extra-\\nordinary fund.\\nWhen the number of pupils fixed for each class of boys or girls (seventy-five)\\nshall be complete, no more shall be admitted, and applicants shall be sent to the\\nneighboring schools.\\n2. The regular attendance at the school shall be an object of special control\\nand the most active vigilance for this is the source from which flow all the ad-\\nvantages the school can produce. It would be very fortunate if parents and chil-\\ndren were always willing of themselves to facilitate the measures adopted to secure\\nregular attendance at the schools. Unhappily this is not the case, particularly in\\ngreat cities. Although it is lamentable to be forced to use constraint, it is almost\\nalways necessary to commence with it though in a town so populous as Berlin,\\nits enforcement is attended with much difficulty.\\nIn order to draw to the school all the children of an age to attend, the school-\\nmasters shall keep a register of attendance, and shall send, at the end of each\\nmonth, an extract from this register, pointing out those who are most frequently\\nabsent.\\nThe poor s commission, or one of its members, shall send for the parents, and\\nif the excuses are insufficient, shall warn and threaten them. Every three months\\na list shall be made of the parents who will pay no regard to the repeated remon-\\nstrances of the commission, and the poor s administration shall then have recourse\\nto means of constraint, conformably to section 48, of title XII.,* in the second part\\nof the general code, which adjudges the penalties for this offense. As an exam-\\nple to others, it would be well to publish, from time to time, a list of the parents\\nwho shall have been fined for not sending their children regularly to school.\\nBut it is not enough to insure, as far as possible, this regularity in the children\\nwho come to school other measures are needed to secure that no poor chid\\nwhatever be deprived of elementary instruction. In great cities there are always\\na considerable number of unfortunate persons who have no fixed residence, who\\nare shifting about every quarter, every month, and often every day. We see onlj\\none way of coming at these, which is this to communicate with all the private\\nestablishments of elementary instruction, that are not under the direction of the\\ntown, and to arrange that, at a certain time, all the primary schoolmasters in the\\ntown, without exception, shall deliver to their pupils a certificate of attendance,\\nthe form of which shall be printed and sent to all the schools. The parents shall\\nbe obliged to show these certificates. At the same period, the municipal police,\\nor commissions chosen from among the citizens, shall, by the aid of the census^\\ntables, effect a general and simultaneous inspection of the whole town. The list\\nof the parents who shall not have shown the certificates of attendance at school,\\nshall be made up in each district, and they shall be summoned before the correc-\\nPee pace 95", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "122 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.\\ntional police and fined according to law, and compelled to enter their children in\\nthe schools.\\nrhe execution of such a measure would doubtless depend much on the zeal of\\nthe authorities intrusted with it; but difficulties should not deter us from the per-\\nformance of the sacred duty of remedying so deplorable an evil.\\n3. The law requires that the instruction of the school should be continued, until\\nthe clergyman charged with the examination of the children shall deem them suf-\\nficiently enlightened on the subjects most important to a rational being of their\\nclass. No fixed age will therefore be named at which they shall quit the school.\\nThis will be determined by an order from the miister of the school, and the cler-\\ngyman charged with the special inspection and since nothing superfluous will be\\ntaught in any parish poor s school, this decision will depend upon the child s hav-\\ning profitably gone through the course of instruction of the school, and acquired\\nthose moral qualities which its influence ought to have produced.\\nIt will in general require at least six years fully to accomplish the end of an\\nintellectual and moral education. Thus, the greater part of the children who\\nenter at six or seven, will be sufficiently instructed at thh teen to quit.\\nThe leaving of the school shall take place only at two periods of the year,\\nEaster and iMichaelmas, after a public examination. At the end of this examina-\\ntion, the ecclesiastical inspector and the master of the school shall make a list of\\nthe pupils who may quit. There shall be delivered to each a certificate of depart-\\nure, the form of which s^hall be printed and the most distinguished shall receive,\\nby way of encouragement, books suited to their capacity the expense will be\\ndefrayed by the extraordinary fund.\\nIt would also be vei y useful that the citizens should be bound under a penalty\\nnot to take into their service or apprenticeship any child who had not a certificate\\neither of departure or of attendance.\\n4. The annual reports of the ecclesiastical inspector and the officer of the char-\\nity board will serve to measure the progress of the schools. They shall ti eat of\\nthe internal state of the school of the instruction and discipline, as well as the\\nhousehold expenses and shall point out imperfections, to the remedy of which\\nthe poor s administration and the school board shall direct their efforts.\\nDr. Bache makes the following remarks on this class of schools in 1838\\nThere are at present nine public elementary schools in the city, but if the classes\\nwere confined to seventy-five pupils each, as originally intended, fourteen schools\\nwould be required, according to the calculations of Mr. Reichelen. The number\\nof pupils, however, in charge of a single master, is greater than that just stated,\\nthereby impairing essentially the efficiency of the schools.\\nThe masters receive fixed salaries,* the fees which they collect, being paid over\\nto the school committee. Of the two schools of this kind at Berlin, which 1 vis-\\nited, one came up to the requirements of the law in the branches of instruction,\\nexcept in the omission of linear drawing. In the other, both drawing and natural\\nhi-st iry were omitted. In the first, the branches were 1. Religious instruction.\\n2. Reading. 3. German language. 4. The geography and history of Prussia.\\n5. Arithmetic. 6. Elements of geometry. 7. Weights and measures of the\\ncountry. 8. Natural history. 9. Writing. 10. Singing. In none of these\\nschools is the physical education of the pupils attended to. In each there is a girls\\nschool, separated from that of the boys, and giving similar instruction, except that\\na portion of the time is occupied in works appropriate to the sex.\\nAccording to rule, these schools should have two classes for each sex, the head\\nmaster teaching the first, and the assistant the second in one, however, the two\\nclasses were sub-divided, forming four. The lowest class learns to read and write\\na little, and is then promoted. In the school of two classes, the lower contained\\npupils from six to nine, and even ten years of age, and the upper class pupils from\\nThe salary of the head master of both boys and girls schools, istwo hundred and twenty-\\nfive dollars per annum, besidt-s which he has his lodging and certain allowances, amounting\\nto from seventy-five to a hundred and twelve dollars. The pupils pay at the minimum three,\\nand at the maximum thirty cents per month. In one of the schoolswh ch I visited, the fees\\namounted in all to about nine dollars a ul seventy-five cents per month, the two-fifths of\\nwhich, forming the master s perquisite, amounted tfierelore tn about forty. seven dollars a year.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN. ]23\\neight and nine to twelve and thirteen years. This division requires the union in\\none class of pupils in very different stages of progress, and renders simultaneous\\nteaching almost out of the question. The lower class h;is twenty-six, and the\\nupper thirty-two to thirty-four hours of instruction per week, the former having\\none hour less per day than the latter, which is a good arrangement. Ihere is a\\nshort interval of recess in the morning exercises. 1. The religious instruction con-\\nsists, in all the schools, of Bible history, catechism, and reading the Bible. The\\nschools are for Protestants, and the Lutheran catechism is used. 2. The reading\\nis taught by the phonic method.* In many schools, the reading board and letter\\nblocks are used; in one of those which I visited, writing was taught with reading.\\nExercises of thought and speech are intervvoved with the elements of i-eading.\\nThe reading books are various, and combine progressive instruction in this branch\\nwith incidental information in morals, the history of the country, history of the\\nchurch and of sects, biography, geography, natural history and elementary\\nphysics, grammar, c. This incidental method is however, far from giving suftie-\\nient instruction, unless combined with the direct, tiiough, by keeping it in view,\\nthe exercises in feading are prevented from degenerating into mere lessons of\\nsounds. From the books which are allowed by the highest school authorities to\\nbe used, the committee of any particular school, after consulting the master, adopt\\nsuch as they please, and when the teacher wishes a change, he applies to the same\\nauthority. The list of approved books is always sufficiently large to admit of the\\nexercise of the individual judgments of the master and committee. The analysis\\nof words and sentences is attended to in these schools, and exercises of induction\\nare practiced, especially where younger masters from the teachers seminaries are\\nemployed. As the method of teaching depends principally upon the master, it\\nsometimes varies, even in the same school. If the precise routine were laid down,\\nthe spirit would be different, and thus, at last, it is the kind of education given to\\nthe teacher which determines the character of the school. It may be stated, how-\\never, that the instruction is either simultaneous or individual. 3. The German\\nrequires no special remark it includes instruction in grammar. 4. The geogra-\\nphy is taught by beginning with an outline of general geography, referring to\\nmaps, and learning from books. There is a great deficiency in the implements\\nfor teaching this branch. 5. Both mental and written arithmetic are taught, in\\none of the schools, the ground work is laid according to Pestalozzi s method, and\\nthe extent of the course is to the single rule of three, inclusive. Some of the\\npupils acquire great facility in mental arithmetic. 6. The geometry consists of\\nthe elements of form, according to Pestalozzi. 7. The weights and measures are\\ntaught as in our schools, by committing tables to memory, and not, as in Ilolhmd,\\nby actual reference to the standards themselves. 8. The writing is taught by\\ncopying from ordinary copy boards, first on the slate, and then on paper. The\\nblackboard is used in some cases. Writing from dictation is resorted to for\\northography. The proficiency in this branch is, however, only tolerable. 9. Vocal\\nmusic is taught by note, and particular attention is paid to church music. The\\nschool is begun and ended with a psalm or hymn, as well as with prayer.\\nThe ordinary discipline is conducted without corporeal punishment, though it is\\nallowed in extreme cases. The individuals of the classes retain the same places,\\nunless in cases of gross neglect, or as a kind of punishment. These places are in\\nsome schools, regulated in the upper classes by a writing lesson at the end of the\\nmonth, in which correctness in spelling, as well as neatness of handwriting, are\\ntaken into the account.\\nIn addition to the class of elementary schools above described, there\\nare at Berlin many more, public and private, numbering in 1850. over\\ntwenty thousand pupils under the age of fourteen years. Many chil-\\ndren of this age are also to be found in the burgher schools, as well as\\nin the lower classes of the gymnasia and real schools. The burgher\\nschools embrace a wide range of studies and methods of teaching, from\\nwhich teachers and committees in our own country can derive many\\nSee page 195.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "124 PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN.\\nvaluable hints. Although impressed with some general characteristics\\nby the law, they differ according to the different circumstances of the\\npopulation, whether in a large or a small village, or whether each is\\ncomplete in its own course of study, or made preparatory in some of its\\nclasses, to entrance into a gymnasia or real school. There are upward\\nof eighty schools of this grade, numbering over eight thousand pupils.\\nWe give descriptions of several of the most distinguished.\\nDOROTHEAN HIGHER CITY SCHOOL.\\nThis is a burgher school of tecent establishment, located in the Dorothean quar-\\nter of the town, from which the school takes its name. The pupils are admitted\\nat six years of age, and may remain until sixteen, when they are prepared to\\nenter a business life. If intended for a professional career, they pass from the\\nsecond class to the third of a gymnasium or grammar school at about fourteen.\\nAt present, there is no first class, but this deficiency is to be supplied, and it is\\nintended that a pupil of capacity, who has passed through its studies, shall be\\nprepared for the second class of a gymnasium. In this case, private lessons in\\nGreek must be taken, and 1 should judge that, when established, this class will\\nbo composed only of those who intend to finish their education here, so as to pass\\nto a real school, or to so:ne tccluiical school. Many pupils are actually\\nprepared here for entrance into the third class of a gj mnasium, and the courses\\niiave been in part adapted to this purpose. The certificate of the first class of\\nthis school, as of others of its grade, gives the privilege of claiming but one year\\noi military service, and qualifies for employments in the government bureaux,\\nwhich, however, do not in general require a knowledge of Latin.\\nThe school consists of about 200 pupils, arranged in five classes, of which the\\nsixth and fifth, the lowest two, have courses of one year each, and the others of\\ntwo years. There is a head master and four regular teachers, besides four assist-\\nants or special masters, who are employed during part of the school hours, or in\\nt.aching particular subjects. In the lower classes, each master teaches, in gen-\\neral, the whole round of subjects in which his class is occupied. In the upper\\nclasses, the teachers are confined to a few subjects. The arrangement of this\\nmatter is, however, at the discretion of the director or head master, who varies\\nit as appears best for the interests of the school. In some of the classes, there is\\na special master for religious instruction, which, however, is not usual in\\nPrussia.\\nThe methods of instruction in this school are, in general, most excellent, and\\nI was particularly struck with the small number of text-books employed. This\\nis not peculiar, however, to this establishment, but is a feature in every good\\nschool in Germany. The master is expected to be so fully imbued with his sub-\\nject, and expert in his art, as to be able to impart knowledge principally orally to\\nhis pupds, and in such a way as to adapt it to each individual hence books are\\nchiefiy required for study at home, and individual training is possible to an extent\\nwhich no routine system with books would permit.\\nThe following statements give the course ofmstruction in detail\\nRELICIOTIS INSTRUCTION.\\nClass VI. Stories from the Old Testament.\\nClass V. Stories from the New Testament.\\nClass IV. Bible History.\\nClass HI. Rearling and explanation of selections from the Scripture.\\nClass II. The evidences of Christianity.\\nThe stories alluded to in the course of the sixth and fifth classes, are the most\\nremarkable biographies of the Old and New Testaments. The stories are chiefly\\nnarrated by the teacher, frequently in the words used in the sacred volume and\\nin the fourth class, these same histories are read in the Bible itself The narra-\\ntions in the lower classes admit of various explanatory remarks and illustrafions\\nof the history, the natural history, and geography referred to. The subject of\\nthe narrative being thus familiar to the pupil, he is interested by the beautiful sim-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF BERLIN. 125\\nplicity of the language of the Bible, which otherwise he might fail to perceive,\\nsince his attention would be engaged with the incidents about which he was read-\\ning, rather than with the style. The study of the Evidences of Christianity\\nwould, it seems to me, be more suitable to the age of the fii st than of the second\\nclass.\\nGERMAN LANGUAGE.\\nClass VI. Exercises of speech and thought (inductive exercises.) Preparatory exercises in\\nreading by the phonic (lautir) metliod. Fluent reading of words and sentences.\\nClass V. The most important parts of etymology explained by reading lessons.\\nClass IV. Exercises of etymology. Reading from a text-book Stories narrated for written\\nexercises. Orthographical exercises.\\nClass III. Grammatical analysis of sentences.\\nClass n. The same continued. Original written exercises and descriptions.\\nThe exercises of speech and thought are admirably conducted. In teaching to\\nread, the letter-box and composition-board, are used. The lowest class is divided\\ninto two sections in receiving this instruction, so that each teacher has not more\\nthan twenty-five pupils under his charge. The reading exercises throughout the\\ncourse, will be foimd included imder the title of German. Diesterweg s read-\\ning book for schools is used in the lower classes.\\nLATIN LANGUAGE.\\nClciss IV. Regular verbs and other parts of speech. Translation of Gedicke s reading\\nbook.\\nClass III. Constructions varying from the German. More difficult parts of Gedicke s reading\\nbook. Cornelius Nepos.\\nClass II. Irregular parts of etymology. Syntax. Special reference to the differences from\\nthe German. Ovid.\\nAlthough the Latin is begtm with the fourth class, it will be seen hereafter,\\nthat it occupies but a small portion of the time of each week, and as far as men-\\ntal cultiu e is concerned to those who leave off this study at fourteen, I can not say\\nthat observation indicated its utility. On the contrary, an imperfect knowledge\\nis acquired, which can produce no good effect.\\nFRENCH LANOUAGB.\\nClass V. Exercises in reading and translating small sentences.\\nClass IV. Auxiliary and regular verbs. Exercises on simple sentences.\\nClass III. Irregular verbs and rules on the use of pronouns. Numa Pompilius begun.\\nCiass II. More difficult parts of the French grammar. Numa Pompilius completed.\\nARITHMETIC.\\nClass VI. The four ground rules, with numbers up to one thousand.\\nClass V. Denominate numbers, and preparatory exercises in fractions.\\nClass IV. Fractions.\\nClass III. Proportions, with their applications.\\nClass II. Elements of algebra, involution, and evolution.\\nGEOMETRY.\\nClass V. Regular figures, c., from the elements of geometry.\\nClass IV. Lines, angles, and triangles.\\nClass III. Circles and Polygons. Mensuration of plane figures.\\nClass II. Similarity of figures, c.\\nThe geometry is here introduced earlier than in the seminary school, and, in\\ngeneral, the studies of the filth class appear to me rather too much diversified for\\ntheir age.\\nNATURAL HISTORY.\\nClasis IV. Domestic animals.\\nClass III. Viviparous animals.\\nClass II. Birds and fishes, illustrated by a small collection.\\nPhysics is also taught in the second class, so far as to give a knowledge of the\\ngeneral properties of bodies.\\nGEOGRAPHY.\\nClass V. Knowledge of home. The district. The province. The kingdom.\\nClass IV General geography.\\nClass HI. Principal countries of Europe.\\nClass II. Europe more in particular.\\nThe knowledge of home includes an account of its history, its monuments, dis-\\ntinguished men, c.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "126\\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS Of BERLIN.\\nThe course in geography follows the plan already described in the burgher\\nschool of Halle.\\nHISTORY.\\nClass IV. A general view of the more important historical events, with the study of particu-\\nlar ones in detail.\\nClass IIL Ancient history.\\nClass IL Modern history, to the time of the reformation.\\nTlie general history is rather a series of biographical sketches than a regular\\nnarration of events, and serves well as an introduction to systematic historical\\nstudies.\\nWRITING.\\nClass VL Preparatory exercises in the lower division. Letters and words in the upper.\\nClass V. Single letters and small sentences.\\nClass IV. Writing from copy slips.\\nClass III. Writing witli special reference to orthography.\\nTlie elements of writing are taught according to Pestalozzi s method, the upper\\nand lower limits of the letter s being given by horizontal, and the slope by inclined\\nliULS.\\nDRAWING.*\\nClass VI. Preparatory exercises. Regular figures\\nClass V. Drawing of bodies in elevation.\\nClass IV. Solids bounded by plane figures and straight lines.\\n(Mass III. Solid.*! bounded by plane figures and straight lines, with shadows.\\nClass II. Solids bounded by curved surfaces.\\nThe method of instruction is that devised by Mr. P. Schmidt, which is de-\\nscribed particularly in the accoimt of the royal real school of Berlin, of which he\\nis teacher.\\nSi.NGiNG is taught by ear in the two lower classes, and by note in the upper.\\nThe execution by the second class, which I heard, was excellent. They sing in\\nparts and by note.\\nThe following table shows the time devoted, in school, dm-ing the week by\\neach class to the several subj ects of instruction\\nARRANGEMENT OF THE BRANCHES OF INSTRUCTION AT THE DOROTHEAN HIGHER\\nCITY SCHOOL.\\nHOCKS PER WEEK.\\nSUBJECTS OF STUDY.\\nSecond\\nClass.\\nThinl\\nClass.\\nFourth\\nClass.\\nFifth\\nClass.\\nSixth\\nClass.\\nTotals.il\\nReligious Instruction,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n4\\n18\\nGerman Language,\\n4\\n3\\n5\\n8\\n10+\\n42\\nLatin,\\nb\\nb\\n4\\n30\\nFrench,\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n26\\nArithmetic,\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n4\\n26\\nGeometry,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n14\\nNatural History,\\n4*\\n2\\n2\\n16\\nGeography,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n1^\\n13\\nHistory,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\nH\\n13\\nWriting,\\n2\\n2\\n4\\n4\\n16\\nDrawing,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n16\\nSinging,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n16\\nTotal,\\n32\\n32\\n32\\ni 28\\n26\\nThe book embodying Schmidt s method of drawing, has been translated and published\\nby E. P. Peabody, Boston.\\nt Six hours of the instruction called German, are devoted in the sixth class to learning\\nto read, and four to Exercises of speech and thought.\\nt Two houi s of this instruction is given to physics.\\nIn the fifth class, geography and history are combined under the title of Knowledge of\\nhome.\\nII This column is obtained by doubling the numbers in those classes of which the course is\\nfor two years, and adding the numbers for the other classes.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "SEMINAKY RiCHOOL OF BKKMN. ]27\\nThe three higher classes have, as shown by the table just given, six hours of\\nrecitation every day, except Wednesday and Saturday, which are half-holidays,\\nand on which tliey have but foui- hours. The lowest class has but five hours for four\\ndays in the week, and three the other two. The increase of school houi s m the\\nupper classes, is manifestly a proper arrangement.\\nThis distribution of time assigns to language, including German, Latin, and\\nFrench, ninety-eight hours to sciences and the kindred branches, namely,\\narithmetic, geometry, natural history, geography and history, eighty-two to the\\nbranches which specially educate a part of the senses, while they have important\\napplications in after-life, as writing, drawing, and singing, forty-eight hours, and\\nto morals and religion, eighteen hours.\\nThe burgher school connected with the teachers seminary, recently\\nestablished to educate teachers for the city schools, present several\\nmodifications of the above course, both in the order, and extent to which\\nthe studies are pursued.\\nSEMINARY SCHOOL OF BEKLI.V.\\nThis is a burgher or middle school, founded in 1832, and attached to the\\nTeachers Seminary of Berlin taking its name from this connection. The school\\nis for boys only, and, Uke other higher burgher schools, it serves to prepare for the\\nthird class of a gymnasium, as well as for entrance into active life. The same\\nteachers give instruction in this school and in the seminary, being assisted here\\nby the pupils of the seminary, to whom this serves as a school of practice.\\nThere ai-e foiu- regular teachers, besides the dkector, and also masters for draw-\\ning and singing.\\nThe pupils are admitted as early as five and six years of age. The time of\\nyear for general admission is Easter. There are six classes in the school, the\\nlower four of which each retain the pupil, if industrious and intelligent, a year,\\nand the two upper, each two years. The whole course thus lasts eight years.\\nFifteen is, however, the usual age at which those who do not pass to the gym-\\nnasium leave the school. The average number of pupils in each class is thirty. f\\nEvery month there is a private examination, in presence of all the teachers,\\nat which the parents may attend. Every three months the punil receives a note\\nof progress and conduct, to be handed to liis parents. Formerly a printed circu-\\nlar was sent, containing information in the form of an abstract from the account\\nkept of recitations and conduct. It has been found, however, much more effect-\\nual to give a written statement of the character of the pupil, derived from the\\nschool journal, inasmuch as it insures more certainly the attention of parents. At\\nEaster, a public examination is held, and those who have made a proper pro-\\nficiency in their studies are passed to a higher class.\\nArrangements exist by which those pupils whose parents desire it, may study\\nunder the superintendence of a teacher,:}: during the time considered necessary for\\nthe preparation of the lessons of their class. The following division of the\\nstudies of the school is made by the director.\\n1. Religious Instruction. Bible history. History of the Church and of the Reformatiou.\\nProteslmit Catechism.\\n2. Languaoes.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (n) German. Fhiency in reading, and readiness in answering questions.\\nCapability of writing an exercise upon an oidiiiary subject. Grammar of the lan juage. (6)\\nLatin. Orthography, etymology, and the elements of syntax. Translation of an easy Latin\\nauthor (Cornelius Nepos) into German, or of an easy German author into Latin, (c) French.\\nKnowledge of the Grammar. Facility in the translation of easy authors, and in writing composi-\\ntions.\\n3. SciKNCEs. (a) Arithmetic. Mental and written. Positive and negative quantities. Invo-\\nlution and evolution. (6) Geometry. Plane geometry, with practical applications, (c) Natural\\nHistory. Knowledge of the most important minerals and plants of the neighboi hood. General\\nOf which Dr. Diesterweg is director.\\nt The school lees for the four lower classes are three dollars and seventy-five cents per quarter,\\nand for tlie two higher classes four dollars and fifty cents per quarter, besides a charge of one dol-\\nlar twelve and a half cents for fuel during the winter.\\ni The fee for private study is four dollai s and fifty cents per quarter.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "128 SEMINARY SCHOOL OF BEKLLN.\\noutline of zoology and anthropology. f) Geography, physical and mathematical, (e) History.\\nOutlines of universal history. History of the country.\\n4. Mechanical AcciuiRKMENTs.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (a) Reading. (4) A good handwriting, (c) Draughts of\\nmodels, lurniture, c. (d) Singing.\\nIt will be found, subsequently, that I have taken reading out of this class, and\\nplaced it beside the German language, to which it is subsidiary, and where it is\\nclassed in the preceding school.\\nIn regard to the methods of carrying out this course, the following rules are\\nlaid down, and after carefully visiting the school, I can testify that they are fully\\nobserved. Indeed, this is one of the most interesting estabhshments which I\\nsaw, from the liveliness and activity which prevails in its classes.\\nThe principle of induction is used, as far as practicable, in all branches thus, in\\nthe earlier exercises, an object is presented to the pupil, who is led to notice its\\npeculiarities, and to express his conceptions of them. He passes from objects\\nwhich are known, and even familiar, to tlie unknown. Unknown objects are\\nillustrated, if possible, by models, and the names of the parts are taught, and\\ntheir uses or properties examined. The pupil proceeds first from particulars to\\ngenerals. Subsequently, the order is reversed. He is made to understand\\nwhatever he is required to remember to find out for himself, if possible, rather\\nthan to be taught directly.\\nHistorical and similar subjects are taught by lecture, mingled with questions.\\nThe pupil is led to express himself readily and correctly the teacher speaks no\\nmore, tlierefore, than is absolutely necessary for explanation, or to induce suita-\\nble answers. Self-exertion, on the part of the pupil, is constantly encouraged.\\nHe is taught to observe whatever is interesting. Imitation of what is seen, and\\nrepetition of what is heard, lead to original thought. This, however, is to be\\nexpected only from pupils of talent, and hence the teacher must be satisfied to\\nallow some to learn what others have found out. The common mistakes of over-\\nburdening the mind with positive knowledge, and of too mucli system in teach-\\ning, are to be avoided, as both are injurious to mental development. The teacher\\nmust be able to make his subject interesting, and, therefore, should know how to\\ncommunicate it without a book, and to elicit the knowledge of his pupil by proper\\nquestions. It is the mental activity of the pupil which will determine the meas-\\nure of his success in after life and hence this activity, rather than positive\\nknowledge, should be looked to as the object of the instruction at school.\\nIn regard to thjs last-named principle, although I consider it applicable, in a\\ngreat degree, in elementary education, yet it appears to me that exception must\\nbe made of the cases of pupils who intend to enter active life on leaving the\\nschool, and to whom, therefore, the knowledge which they will have immediate\\noccasion to use, should be imparted, to render their education effective. lu\\ngeneral, where the mind may be cultivated by different studies, choice should be\\nmade of those most likely to be applied by the individual in his future career,\\nespecially if his education is necessarily to terminate before he can have time to\\nmaster the complete circle.\\nRELiGiotis Instruction.\\nClass VI. Four hours per week. Narration by the teacher of stories from the Old Testament, in\\nthe words of the Bible, repeated by the pupils. Easy verses learned by heart.\\nClass v. Four hours. Stories from the gospels, except the latlsr portion of the Life of Christ.\\nChurch songs and Bible verses learned.\\nClass IV. Three hours. The Old Testament in a more connected form. The moral of the history\\nis impressed upon the children. The Ten Commandments and chui ch songs com-\\nmitted to memory.\\nClass III. Two hours. The life and doctrines of Christ, to the period of his imprisonment.\\nChui-ch history. Four weeks are set apart for learning the geography of Palestine.\\nClass II. Two hours. The Protestant catechism committed to memory and explained. Church\\nsongs and verses committed.\\nClass I. Two hours. A compendium of the history of the Christian Church, particularly after the\\napostolic age. Histoiy ol the Reformation. Review of the Bible. Committing to\\nmemory psalms and hymns, continued.\\nGerman Languaqe.\\nClass VI. Four hours. Exercises of speech. Stories narrated to the children and repeated by\\nthem. After learning to write, these stories are written upon the slate.\\nClass V. Four hours. Exercises in orthography. Etymology begun.\\nClaa\u00c2\u00ab IV. Four hours. Exercises in orthography and style. Every week a short composition is\\nwritten on some subject which has been narrated.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 129\\nClass ni. Grammar continued.\\nClass IL Four hours. Original compositions, whicii are corrected during the recitations. Syntax\\ncommenced.\\nClass L Three houis. Compositions on iiistoiical subjects. Essays written at home, and cor-\\nrected in the class-room. Synta.K continued.\\nLatin Language.\\nClass IV. Three hours. Declensions of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns learned. Examples\\nlearned by heart, and otliers written as an exercise at home. Auxiliary verbs con-\\njugated.\\nClass III. Four houi-s. Comparison of adjectives. Regular verbs conjugated.\\nClass II. Four hours. Irretcular verbs. Syntax begun. Translation from Latin into German.\\nClass I. Six hours. Grammar continued. Written exercises at home and in the class. Every\\nfour weeks an extempore exercise is written, which the teachers correct out of school\\nhours. Cornelius Nepos read and construed.\\nFrench Language.\\nClass ni. Three hours. Exercises in reading. Elements of grammar. Words learned by heart.\\nEasy exercises written at home and in school hours.\\nClass II. Four hours. Regular and irregular verbs learned. Syntax. Translations from French\\ninto German. Words learned by rote.\\nChiss I. Four hours. Written exercises of increased difficulty. Tables dictated and learned by\\nheart. Voltaire s Charles XII. read.\\nArithmetic.\\nClass VI. Four hours. Practical arithmetic. The fundamental operations taught with numbers\\nfrom one to one hundred first mentally, then with blocks, and afterward with\\nfigures. Exercises prepared at home twice a week.\\nClass V. Four hours. The four ground rules continued, with numbere as high as one thousand.\\nExercisi S in readini; and wriliug large numbers. .Mental arithmetic especially prac-\\nticed. Addition and subtraction of abstract numbers.\\nClass IV. Four hours. Addition and subtraction revised. Multiplication and division of abstract\\nnumbers. Weights and measures explained.\\nClass III. Four hours. The lour ground rules, with fractions.\\nClass II. Three hours. Revision of the above. Rule of three.\\nClass I. Three hours. In the firet year practical arithmetic finished. Proportions and decimal\\nfractions. Elements ot algebra. WentiU algebra.\\nGeometry.\\nClass IV. Two hours. The essential preparatory exercises in form, in connection with drawing.\\nRudiments explained.\\nClass III. Two hours. Praclice in the position of points, drawing of lines, angles, plane figures,\\nrepresentations of solids.\\nClass II. Two houi?. Elements ol geometry proper, the point, line, angles, triangles, and meas-\\nures of straight lines, surfaces, and contents.\\nClass I. Two hours. Plane geometry completed, with practical exercises. Every alternate si*\\nmonths lessons in physics are given.\\nNatural History.\\nClass II. Two hours. In the summer term, study of certain classes of plants. In the winter term,\\nof animals The subject is iluislraled by drawings.\\nClass I. Two hours. .Systematic botany during the winter term, and zoology and mineralogy\\nduriug the winter.\\nGeography.\\nClass III. Two hours. Knowledge of home. Berlin and its environs. Regency of Potsdam.\\nProvince of Brandenburgh. Necessary technical terms explained, as horizontal, ver-\\ntical, c.\\nClass II. Two hours. Geography of Prussia and Germany.\\nClass I. Two hours. General geography, particularly Europe and America. Asia more generally.\\nAfrica and Australia very briefly.\\nHistory.\\nClass II. Two hours. View of universal his ory, biographical rather than chronological.\\nClass L Two hours. First year universal history completed. Secondyear the history of Germany,\\nand particularly of Prussia. The most important inventions and discoveries ara\\nnoticed in coimection with the history of these countries.\\nReading.\\nClass VI. Seven hours. Reading by the phonic (lautir) method. Analysis of words in regard to\\ndivision into syllables and sounds.\\nClass V. Seven houi-s. Mechanical reading continued, but with reference to the meaning of the\\nwords. The pupils are examined upon words, sentences, and paragraphs.\\nClass IV. Four hours. Explanatory reading continued. Accentuation. No piece is allowed to\\nbe read without its being understood.\\nClass III. Two hours. Rythmical reading befjun. Interesting portions of the matter read, nar-\\nrated by the pupils in their own words.\\nClass II. Two hours. Rythmical reading continued.\\nClass I. Two hours. Reading of some of the German classics. Analysis of the subject read.\\n9", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "130\\nSEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nWriting.\\nClass VI. Five hours. Litroductory exercises of drawiiis; upon the slate. Ckipyin? the small let-\\nters Irom the blackboard. Writing on paper. Capital letters. Written exercises at\\nhome twice a week.\\nClass V. Five hours. Writing of German characters continued. Roman letters begun. Copying\\nJrom a book at home, with special reference to ortliogiaphy.\\nClass IV, Four ii ours. Writing in German and Roman characters continued. Two hours copy-\\ning from copy^sllps. Two hours writing Irom dictation.\\nClass III, Three hours. Exercises of Class IV. continued. Pupils who write well are allowed to\\nwrite without lines. Writing without copies, according to pri gress.\\nClass II, Two hours. Exercises continued. Most of the pupils write without lines, or by direct-\\ning points merely.\\nClass I. The written exercises in other departments are \u00c2\u00ab(amined, to ascertain the character of\\nthe handwriting. No special lessons are given.\\nDrawing.\\nClass IV. Two hours. Drawing straight lines in various directions and of various lengths. Mak-\\ning definite angles. Drawing triangles, squares, and other rectilinear ligui es.\\nClass III. Two hoiirs. Drawing of circles and ovals.\\nClass II. Two hours. Drawing of bodies bounded by planes and straight lines in perspective.\\nDrawing of curves.\\nClass I. Drawing from natmal objects, from plaster casts, and models.\\nSinging.\\nClass IV. Two hours suffice to learn fifteen or twenty songs, of one or two verses, by note, and\\nsome ten choral songs.\\nClass III. Two hours. Songs with two parts continued. Chorals with one voice.\\nClass II. Two hours. Songs with two or three voices continued.\\nClass I. Two hours. Songs and chorals with three or foiu- parts.\\nOnce during the morning there is an interval for recreation in the court-yard\\nof the school, and the pupils are directed in their exercises of marching and\\ncount er-inarclting. and the like, by one of tho teachers.\\nThe course marked out in the foregoing programme, as far as it extends, seems\\nto me well adapted to educate the moral and intellectual faculties, as well as\\nthe senses to give mental vigor^ while it ftu-nislies information useful to the\\npupil ill after life.\\nThere are peculiarities in regard to the religious instruction, even as intended\\nfor Protestants, which may be remarked in the fifth and third classes, the object\\nof which I do not understand. In other respects, wlien sectarian instruction\\nmay be given, as in this school, where all the pupils are of one denomination, the\\ncourse appears to be good. The manner of communicating the instriiction by\\nconversation and lectures, renders it very effective. Tliere are in all the classes,\\ntaken togetlier, twenty-two hours per week devoted to religious instruction\\nhere, and eighteen in the other, but the programme does not show a gain in the\\namount of knowledge communicated.\\nThe course in the motlier tongue is fully explained in the progi-amme, and is\\nwell adapted to produce fluency and accuracy of expression in conversation and\\nwriting. Both this and the foregoing course extend, as they should, through all\\nthe classes.\\nThe Latm language is introduced with a view to preparation for a gymnasium,\\nin the nomenclature of natural history, the business of the chemist and druggist,\\nand perhaps, to use the language of an accomplished teacher in one of the higlier\\ntown schools, because such always has been the custom, I would give the\\npreference to the course of this school over that of the other, considering the\\ntime of twenty seven liours devoted to it more appropriate than of thirty, as in\\nthe other.\\nThe. French, besides, combining with the German and Latin to give the due\\nproportion of intellectual culture from language, is introductory to the courses\\nm the real schools, whicli are parallel with the gymnasia, and prepare for the\\npolytechnic or other special schools, as the latter do for the university. It is\\npractically useful, too, to the shopkeeper and tradesman of the continent of\\nEurope, and was, probably, formerly more so than at present. The Latin language\\nis begun in tlie fourth class, or at about eight years of age, and the French lan-\\nguage in the third class, but neither occupy more than three hours a week, until\\na year afterward. These languages occupy forty -seven hours per week, during\\nthe entire period through which they are taught.\\nNothing can be better than the fomidation laid for arithmetic. The pupils are", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 131\\nengaged a year in practical arithmetic before they are introduced to a knowl-\\nedge of abstract numbers. Habits of thought are given by simple exercises in\\nmental arithmetic. The eye is enlisted to aitl the mind by computing with cubes,\\naccording to the method in the schools of Holland. Written aritlmietic relieves\\nthe mental exertion, aids the memory, and trains the hand. The course is then\\ncarried on, combining mental and written arithmetic, and reachmg algebra, which\\nis also, in part, taught mentally.\\nThe course of geometry begins with ideas of form, in connection with drawing,\\naccording to Pestalozzi s method, which it follows in general. It is thus a pow-\\nerful means of stimulating tlie mind, and, though the time occupied is greater\\nthan if the subject were tuuglit in the ordinary way, the results are mucli more\\nsatisfactory. If there is latent niathematical talent in a pupil, his powers of\\ninvention cannot fail to be drawn out by this method.\\nNatural history is not left to incidental instruction, to be derived from the\\nreading-book, but is directly taught in the last two years. I had not the oppor-\\ntunity of judging of the fruits of this instruction in the seminary school itself, but\\nthe pupils of the seminary were pursuing the subject with zeal. In comparing\\nthis course with that of the other school, I think it preferable, except in the\\nomission, at the beginning, of an accomit of the domestic animals. There will be,\\nI doubt not, great improvements in teaching this branch at a future day. At\\npresent, the plan is hardly formed, and the collections for illustration, where they\\nexist at all, are, in general, quite small. There is, besides, a tendency to make\\nthe course too strictly scientific.\\nThe system of instruction in geography is begun in the third class, or at nine\\nyears of age, with a description of home. History, which in its elements is com-\\nbined with geograpliy, takes a separate place in the second class. The pi-actice\\nof giving biographical sketches instead of mere chronological details, cannot be\\ntt)o much commended. The pupil learns with interest the events of the lives of\\nmen who iiave made an impression upon the age in which they lived these\\nevents form an outline which is easily fixed in the mind, and may subsequently\\nbe tilled up in detail. Agam, the discussions of inventions and discoveries in\\nart or science afford relief from the descriptions of battles and revolutions, and\\nserve to show the influence of genius exerted in civil life.\\nThe phonic method of teaching to read, wants only the use of words having a\\nmeaning, as in Mr. Wood s system, to be nearly perfect. No reading is allowed,\\nhowever, without understanding not only the words, but their connection, and\\nthe ideas conveyed by the sentences. The habit of thus giving paraphrases of\\nsubjects, leads to facility of expression, and by combining this with copying from\\ngood models, a correct .style is formed. The course of reading of the highest\\nclass, includes selections from the German classics. Introductory exercises in\\ndrawing precede the instruction in writing these might, I have no doubt, be\\nmuch further extended with advantage.* A good handwriting is produced by\\nthe succession of exercises described in the progranmie. The course of drawing,\\nwhicli is commenced as a distinct branch in the fourth class, is intended to enable\\nthe pupil to sketch correctly, and with facility, such objects of furniture, ma-\\nchinery, (fee, as he may have occasion to represent in liis occupations in after Ufe.\\nThe addition of two hours of drawing in the fifth class, would seem to me not to\\noverburden the class with work, while it would add materially to their profi-\\nciency in this useful branch.\\nSinging is successfully taught, and b}- note. It is considered an indispensable\\nbranch of mstruction. and all my convictions are in its favor, whether as a means\\nof developing moral sentiment, or of physical education. Singing by ear might,\\nhowever, very well begin in the lower classes, and for this purpose the numlaer\\nof hours of instruction per week might be increased from twenty-four to twenty-\\nsix in the lowest, and twenty-eight in the fifth class.\\nThe time allotted to the different studies will appear better by the annexed\\ntable. In regard to the ages of the pupils, inserted in the heading of the columns,\\nit is to be understood that they are those of intelligent and mdustrious boys\\neutermg at six years, and going regularly through the classes. The subjects of\\nAs has been done for the elements of an English hand, by our countryman, Mr. Rembrandt\\nPeale, in his admirable system of graphics. The forms of the German letters would require a\\ndifferent system.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "132\\nSEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\ninstruction are placed in the first column, the number of hours per week occupied\\nby the several classes in the following ones, and the total number of hours de-\\nvoted to each subject, while in the school, in the lust column. In forming this\\ntotal, the number of hours occupied by the four lower classes, the course in each\\nof which is of one year, is reckoned once and the number of hours of the two\\nupper classes, each course occupying two years, is doubled.\\nTable of distribution of time in the Royal Smninary School of Berlin.\\nSUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION.\\nKeligious Instructiuii\\nGerman Language\\nEeading\\nLatin Language\\nFrench Language.\\nArithmetic\\nGeometry\\nNatural History\\nGeography\\nHistory\\nWriting\\nDrawing\\nSinging\\nNUMBER OF HOURS PER WEEK.\\n2 32 26 24 24\\nFrom this table it appears that language occupies one hundred and five hours,\\nestimating the time devoted to reading with that for German, Latin, and French,\\nscience sixty-four hours, and the mechanical branches, including writing, drawing,\\nand singing, forty-three. It would be erroneous, however, to suppose that the\\nresults are in these proportions. Tlie least consideration will show that the pro-\\ngress in different branches in the same school cannot be estimated by tlje time\\ndevoted to them the intrinsic difficulties of acquisition, the different periods of\\nthe course at which they are introduced, and various otlier causes, prevent com-\\nparisons of this sort. Not only so, but the time occupied in the same subjects in\\ndiflerent schools, which might be thought to aflbrd an accurate test of C(jiupara-\\ntive progress in them, can not, in reality, be employed for this purpose, without at\\nthe same time carefully studying the programmes, to ascertain how the time is\\napplied in each class, and the manner in which it is distributed among the several\\nclasses. The two higher city schools just described, afi ord conclusive evidence\\nof this fact. There can be no doubt, I think, that the Dorothean school is the\\nstronger in language, and the seminary school in science. Such is the general\\nreputation of the two, and such is the tone which the director of eaeh would be\\nlikely to give to the school under his charge. The impression which I derived\\nfrom visiting the two establishnients was to the same effect. The number ol hours\\nper week devoted to language in all the classes of the two schools is, however,\\nninety-eight for the first, and one hundred and five for the second, and to science,\\nejghty-two for the former and si.vty-four for the latter leading, in both eases, to\\ntiie reverse of the conclusion just stated. If differences in the arrangement of\\nstudies, in the power of the teachers, in the metliods and implements of instruc-\\ntion, and even in the pupils themselves, may lead to such results, small differences\\nin the proportion of time allotted to different branches should not, without care-\\nfully checking their results by other comparisons, be assumed to indicate corres-\\nponding differences in the value of the courses.\\nIn following the course of studies of these two schools, it will be seen that those\\nThis includes preparatory geometrical exercises.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY SCIIOOI, AT WEISSENFELS. J33\\nof the lowest class, in each, are almost identical. In the next, the seminary school\\nhas greatly the advantage in the compactness of arrangement, by which the atten-\\ntion of the pupil is confined to fewer subjects. No less than ten branches are\\nintroduced into the prograunne of this class in the Dorothean school, while there\\nare but five in the seminary school. The scientific branches, except those which\\nrun through all the years, are introduced later in the latter school, which is in\\naccordance with the principle of concentrating the attention on a few subjects,\\nwhere it is possible. It appears to me that, in general, it is not proper to introduce\\nthese branches early, except as matters of incidental instruction. The separation\\nof the programmes of the two schools, produced as just stated, renders it difficult\\nbriefly to compare the courses of the same class in each. A general comparison\\nof the subjects shows that the German language is taught according to the same\\nplan in each, and that the highest class attains the same level in each, as far as\\nthe grammar is concerned much more attention, however, is paid in the seminary\\nschool to the reading courses, as well for the acquisition of reading as an art, and\\nto cultivate a taste for it. as for the incidental knowledge to be communicated.\\nNearly one fourth of the pupil s time, in the school just named, is devoted to the\\nvernacular. The Latin is begun in the same class in both schools, but the course\\nin the Dorothean school at once takes the lead of the other, and keeps it through-\\nout. The French begins in the fifth class in one school, and in the third in the\\nother and, though the programmes terminate at about the same point, there is a\\ngreater proficiency made in the Dorothean school. One object, if not the princi-\\npal one, of learning this language being to speak it, the early commencement is\\nan advantage. In a general comparison of progress in language, the Dorothean\\nschool, as already stated, ranks higher than the other.\\nThe courses of arithmetic are different, but terminate at the same level I have\\nalready mentioned my preference for the course of the seminary. Geometry is\\nbegun in the fifth class in the Dorothean, and in the fourth in the seminary school\\nthe courses go on together for three classes, and extend further in the latter insti-\\ntut on. The differences in the courses of natural history have already been the\\nsubject of remark. The course of geography is essentially the same, differing only\\nin the age of the pupil at beginning. History is begun in the fourth class of the\\nDorothean, and in the second in the seminary school it is more systematic in the\\nformer, and assumes more the form of biograpliy in the latter the range of the\\ntwo courses does not differ essentially. Taking these branches, classed as scien-\\ntific, together, the superiority is with the seminary school, and thus, in both this\\nand the former case, the judgment which would have been pronounced by refer-\\nring to the numbers merely, is reversed.\\nSEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEISSENFELS.\\nThe Dorothean and Seminary school are described by Dr. Bache as\\ncharacteristic specimens of the higher burgher school of Prussia. In\\nthe same connection he introduces the two following schools, the Sem-\\ninary school at Weissenfels as representing, not a burgher school as it\\nis denominated, but as covering the ground of a well organized ele-\\nmentary school for a village, and the higher burgher school of Pots-\\ndam, as carrying elementary instruction into the domain of secondary\\neducation.\\nThis is a higher elementary, or lower burgher school, attached to the seminary\\nfor teachers at Weissenfels, and is under the charge of the director of the semin-\\nary. The school is intended not only for the benefit of the citizens of Weissen-\\nfels, but also as a model school, in which the pupils of the seminary may reduce\\nto practice, under the eye of their teachers, the lessons of theory in the art of\\nteaching, which forms an important part of the course of the seminary.\\nThe school has four hundred pupils, male and female. They are divided into\\nfive classes, in the three lower of which the two sexes receive instruction in com-\\nmon, being separated in the highest. Each class averages thus eighty under the\\ncharge of one master, who ie, however, assisted by the pupils of the seminary.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "134\\nSEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEISSENFEL8.\\nTho following table shows the subjects of instruction, and the amount of time\\ndevoted to each. The whole course usually lasts seven years, when the pupil\\nenters at the age of six or seven.\\nTABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME IN THE SEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEIS8ENFEL8.\\nircMBER or Houas psr wkek.\\nStJBJipCTS OF rasTRuenoN.\\nReligious Instruction,\\nGerman Language,\\nReading,\\nInductive Exercises,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeometry,\\nGeography, History, Natural History, c.,.\\nWriting,\\nDrawing,\\nSinging,\\nTotal,\\n34\\n21\\n25\\n1\\n28\\n6\\n17\\n30\\n11\\n17\\n30 26 26 26\\nThe religious instruction consists in the narration of Bible stories, and in\\npointing out the appropriate moral in Bible history in a more connected form\\nin learning Luther s catechism, and committing parts of the Bible to memory.\\nThe pupils are also expected to give an account of the Sunday s sermon. The\\nstudy of German includes the grammar. There are exercises specially of orthog-\\nraphy and syntax in the upper classes. Poetry is also com.mitted to memory.\\nThe elements or reading and writing are taught together according to Dr.\\nHarnisch s method. In the upper classes, the reading lessons are intended not\\nonly to give fluency in the art of reading, but also incidental instruction in gram-\\nmar and general knowledge\\nDirect exercises of induction are in use only in the lowest class.\\nThe instruction in arithmetic, extends through fractions mental arithmetic\\npreceding written through all the rules. That of geometry, consists merely of\\nthe elements of form, according to Pestalozzi.\\nUnder geography and history are included both physical and political geogra-\\nphy and biography. With the physical geography is interwoven an account of\\nthe productions of nature and art of different countries. In the summer, the\\npupils are made acquainted with the botany of the environs, and in winter receive\\nlessons upon animals, c.\\nWriting on paper is a matter of privilege attainable by those who improve suf-\\nficiently. The others write on slates. The first lessons in drawing are introduc-\\ntory to wTiting afterwards it is made a separate branch.\\nThe higher classes learn music by note, and sing twice a week in company\\nwith the pupils of the normal school. The violin is used in leading the class\\nsinging exercises.\\nThe discipline and instruction are admirable. The teachers have little occa-\\nsion to use punishment. The instruction is chiefly given viva voce, and the\\npupils in general appear interested in their studies. A book is kept for the\\nrecord of delinquences, which is examined by one of the superior masters once a\\nweek, and notice taken of the faults recorded. The director examines it once a\\nmonth, and admonishes those who need it. Corporal punishment is resorted to\\nonly in extreme cases.\\nThis column is calculated on the supposition that the pupil remains in the school from\\nsix until thirteen years of age, passing through the lowest class in one year, and each of the\\nothers in two years. x. t i.\\nAs the instruction in writing and reading is combined, 1 have placed half of the numlier\\nof hours under each head.\\nOf these eight hours, three are combined, reading and writing, and two copying.\\nS See page 200.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM.\\n135\\nThe two schools first described, will be found to vary very considerably in\\ntheir arrangements from this one, forming the opposite extreme as it were, of the\\nclass, but a connecting link will be supplied by the burgher school of Potsdam,\\nwhich is intended to cover the ground occupied by both divisions.\\nHIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM.\\nThis school differs from those already described in several particulars, exempli-\\nfying, in its arrangements, the division into lower and higher burgher schools, and\\ncarrying the courses of the latter decidedly into the domain of secondary instruc-\\ntion. Its principal objects are to prepare children of both sexes for occupations\\nconnected with, or corresponding to, the lower trades, and boys for the higher\\nmechanical occupations, as builders, architects, c., or for admission into the trade\\nschool connected with the government, mechanics or trade institute at Berlin,\\nand for the gymnasium. This school thus supplies instruction of different grades\\nfirst, elementary instruction of a higher kind second, that usually given in the\\nreal schools of Prussia, and third, that necessary fur entrance into the higher\\nclasses of a gymnasium, or grammar school. Hence its studies embrace many\\nsubjects and stages of progress which properly belong to secondary instruction,\\nand even to a greater degree than other higher burgher schools.\\nThe pupils pursue a course common to all in the three lower classes, or from\\nabout six to eleven or twelve years of age, when a separation takes place. Those\\nwho are to leave school at thirteen or fourteen, pass into the middle burgher\\nschool class, in which the study of Latin and French is dropped, and the time is\\ndevoted to religious instruction, German, mathematics, geography and history, the\\nelements of natural history, technology and physics, writing, drawing, and vocal\\nmusic. Those pupils who are preparing for a higher class of a gymnasium, or\\nwho intend to pursue the entire course here, pass from the third class to the\\nsecond burgher school class. These arrangements appear to meet the wants\\nof the citizens of Potsdam, for, in 1837, forty-two pupils passed from the third\\nclass to the middle burgher school class, and forty-one to the second class of the\\nhigher school.\\nPupils preparing for the sixth class of a gymnasium leave this school in the\\nsecond elementary class, or at about nine or ten years of age, and those who\\naim at the third class of a gymnasium, usually pass from this at the close of the\\ncourse of the second class in the higher school. The first, or upper class, thus\\ncontain only those pupils who intend to enter into active business life on leaving\\nthe school, or to enter a special school of arts and trades. On this account, the\\nbranches of science which are immediately applicable to such objects, are intro-\\nduced into the course. This class consisted, in 1837, of ten pupils. The complete\\ncourse is usually gone through at or before sixteen years of age, and entitles the\\npupil to claim one year of voluntary military service, instead of the three regular\\nyears, and qualifies him for appointment in the government bureaux.\\nThe six boys and three girls classes have twelve ordinary teachers, besides one\\nassistant, and two female teachers. Each of the lower classes has but one teacher,\\nwho attends to all the subjects as in the other schools already described. The\\ntotal number of pupils was, in 1837, four hundred and fifty-six, of whom three\\nhundred and twenty-three were boys.\\nThe usual system of change of place in the classes is employed to excile emula-\\ntion, and discipline is mainly conducted by means of a black-book in which a\\npupil s name is entered at the end of the week or month, when he has had a cer-\\ntain number of faults per week, or per month, marked against him by the teacher.\\nMarks of merit are allowed to cancel those of demerit. The entry is communi-\\ncated to the pupil s comrades, and also to his parents. As far as I have been able\\nto judge of these and similar systems of discipline in day schools, I have not found\\nany marked good effects from them. If a teacher is competent, he keeps up good\\ndiscipline without them, and if he is not, they are of little or no service to him.\\nIn this remark I do not mean to include communications to parents, which are\\nfrequently of the greatest utility. The following plan, which apparently bears\\nsome analogy to this, but which owes its efficacy to a different principle, is in suc-\\ncessful operation in Dr. Mayo s excellent boarding school at Cheam, in Surrey,\\nEngland. When a pupil proves insensible to the admonitions of the teacher, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "136\\nHIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM.\\nis frequently reported for oifenses or negligence, he is required to show to tho\\nprincipal a written statement of character from each master after every hour, lie\\nis thus subjected to admonition or other punishment from the principal immedi-\\nately after committing an offense. For this very strict supervision, one extending\\nover a day or week is substituted when improvement manifests itself, or when the\\ncase does not require so great severity.\\nI propose now to give a statement of the courses of the burgher school at Pots-\\ndam, and of the time required for their completion, with remarks and comparisons\\nwith the schools already described.\\nThe annexed plan of the distribution of time gives also a list of the subjects of\\ninstruction it is arranged exactly like the similar ones already presented. The\\nfirst two columns of figures on the left hand refer to the number of hours of study\\nper week in the two classes of the higher school. The third contains those of\\nthe middle burgher school class, the pupils in which terminate their course here.\\nThe next three contain the hours of study of the elementary classes, which are\\ncommon to the whole school.\\nTABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME OF THE HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF\\nPOTSDAM.\\nSTTBJrCTS\\nOF\\nDTSTHlreTIOK.\\n1 i\\n2\\n3\\n6\\n4\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n4\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n38\\nlis\\na\\no\\nJ a\\n2\\n3\\n6\\n4\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n34\\na\\n3 a.\\n=5gi\\ns s\\n2\\n6\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n34\\nii\u00c2\u00bb\\no\\n3\\n5*\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n4\\n2\\n2\\n1\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n34\\nb i\\nul\\nW5^\\n1 1\\n3\\n5*\\n4\\n4\\n1\\n4\\n2\u00c2\u00a7\\n2\\n1\\n3\\n2\\n31\\nlis\\nw5 X\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2o t-\\n-TS\\nH 1\\n2\\n6t\\n6\\n4\\n2\\n4\\n2\\n28\\n24\\n44\\n26\\n40\\n22\\n36\\n18\\n16\\n14\\n10\\n4\\n8\\n8\\n28\\n12\\n20\\nReligious Instruction,\\nGerman Language\\nReadmg,\\nLatin,\\nFrench,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeometry,\\nNatural History,\\nGeography\\n_-. o J\\nHistory,\\nTechnology\\nPltysics,\\nChemistry,\\nWriting,\\nDrawing,\\nSinging,\\nBesides the branches taught in the burgher schools already described, we have\\nin this one technology, physics, and chemistry, and the number of hours attached\\nto them in the foregoing table shows that they are actually taught to a considera-\\nble extent. These subjects are introduced, and at the same time the amount of\\nstudy in the languages is increased, requiring an undue degree of labor of the\\nclasses, and dividing their attention among too many subjects. Thirty-eight hours\\nof attendance on school per week is certainly too much to require.\\nIncludes orthography, 2 hours grammar, 2 hours exercises of style, 1 hour.\\nt Includes exercises of memory, 2 hours.\\nt I reparalory exercises.\\nElements of form.\\nH The column of totals refers to the regular progression of five classes, and is obtained by\\ndoubling the numbers here given for the three elementary and two upper burgher school\\nolaEses.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. 13 Y\\nLatin is begun in the second elementarj* class, where the first rudiments of\\ngrammar are learned, and easy sentences translated. This course is oonlinued in\\nthe next class. Those vvlio intend to leave the school in the middle burgher school\\nclass, may be excused from attending the Latin lessons in the first.\\nThe second class of the higher school read Cornelius Nepos, and the first Cassar\\nand Ovid. Their proficiency did not, however, seem to me to correspond at all\\nwith the number of hours devoted to this branch, viz., forty. The object of this\\ninstruction, for those who do not go to the gymnasium, is stated to be to enable\\nthem to pursue the science necessary to their calliiigs, without embarrassment\\nfrom the terms. I am of opinion that, in such a case, the system pursued in Mr.\\nWood s school, applied to learning the etymology of compound Latin words, and\\nof the German words derived from the Latin, would answer the end better, with\\na less consumption of time; and if Latin is to be retained, the number of hours\\ndevoted to it in the Dorothean school, (thirty) or in the seminary school, (twenty-\\nseven) seem much better suited to the object in view. I am induced to what may\\nseetn a tedious discussion of these programmes, because they afford different exam-\\nples of primary instruction, the grade with which our college must begin, and we\\ncan not examine too carefully the subjects which should compose it, nor draw too\\nlargely upon experience in the details of arrangement.\\nFrench. This course does not differ materially from those already given. Tele-\\nmachus is used as a text-book. The time appropriated to the language appears\\nsufficient, without being burthensome. Both the Latin and French being com-\\nmenced in the second elementary class, which contains pupils who intend to leave\\nschool at the end of the middle burgher school class year, it may be supposed\\nthat this time is thrown away, as very little proficiency can be made in so short a\\nperiod the force of this objection is, however, somewhat diminished by the fact,\\nthat tiie arrangement gives an opportunity for the development of a disposition for\\nlanguage whiefi may warrant a change in the destination of the pupil.\\nIn arithmetic, the lovvest chiss is employed mainly in the mental exercises.\\nAfter they have learned to make figures, they prepare written examples at home.\\nIll the next class, written arithmetic is combined with mental. The four ground\\nrules are learned with abstract and concrete numbers. P reparatory exercises in\\nfractions are taught. The first elementary class proceed as far as to include frac-\\ntions, and a part of the class study proportions. The middle burgher school class\\npjvss on to decimal fractions and the square and cube root. The second burgher\\nschool class have their attention in these same parts of arithmetic directed to the\\ntechnical applications, and besides, begin algebra, and proceed as far as simple\\nequations. The first burgher school class extend their course of algebra through\\nequations of the second and third degrees, progressions, and logarithms. Mer-\\ncantile arithmetic also forms part of their course. These latter subjects, however,\\ncan in novvise be considered as belonging to primary instruction.\\nGeometry. Preparatory exercises of form, after the method of Pestalozzi, are\\ntaught in the elementary classes, and the higher ones proceed through the ele-\\nments of geometry, and include mensuration and plane trigonometry. The head\\nmaster has arranged, for the benefit of his pupils, a course containing the most\\nimportant elements, and teaches also by lectures, which the pupils are required\\nto write out. The time allotted to this subject is nearly double that of the semi-\\nnary school, and I saw some reason to doubt the propriety of beginning the ele-\\nmentary exercises so early.\\nKnowledge of nature and art. The introduction to this subject, taught in the\\nlowest two classes, is drawn from natural history, physical geography, and physics,\\nand is made the means of inductive exei cise. The recitations and conversation\\nlectures which I heard, evidently interested the pupils, while they cultivated\\nhabits of reflection and observation. They are parallel with the lessons on\\nobjects of the English schools, being, however, more extended. The more s}-s-\\ntematic course of natural history of the higher classes, is like that of the seminary\\nschool. In summer the pupils make occasional excursions into the country, for\\npractical exercise in this branch, under charge of a teacher these excursions, if\\nrightly improved, may be made also the means of cultivating proper relations\\nbetween the pupil and teacher, but they are liable to abuse, and should be care-\\nfully attended to, in order to prevent such result?. This school possesses a good", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "138 HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM.\\ncollection of plates of natural history,* and has the use of the museum of the trade\\nschool, which is under its roof\\nThe course of technology, intended to give a knowledge of the principal arts\\nand their processes, lies open to the objection already urged, on the score of over-\\nburthening the pupils with work. Such knowledge, as well as that of physics\\nand chemistry, would be of service in after-life, but I do not see the possibility of\\nteaching it, except in a mere outline, in a short course, and the time allotted\\nappears to contemplate something more.\\nGeography. This course is begun with physical geography. The natural and\\nartificial divisions of the world follow. Then the physical and political geography\\nof Europe is taken up. The course of the upper or middle burgher school class\\nterminates with that of Germany, and especially of the Mark of Brandenburgh,\\nand with a review of the whole. The second burgher school class has the same\\ncourse with the middle cl;iss. The first takes up mathematical geography, and\\nreviews physical geography more minutely adding a knowledge of the climate,\\nproductions, commerce, manufactures, e., of the countries studied. Maps are\\ndrawn, as an exercise, at home. This geogi aphical course, which attaches every\\nother part of the information to physical geography, appeared to me next in its\\nsuccess to the inductive plan already described. It is much facilitated by the use\\nof raised maps, on which the natural features of the country strike the eye more\\nforcible than on a common map, where, if the physical details are given, the names\\nand positions of the places, the boundaries, c., are obscured by them.\\nThe course of history, in the lower classes, is like that in the other schools.\\nIn the middle class the subject is reviewed, and the history of Germany, and\\nespecially that of Prussia, and of the Mark of Brandenburgh is studied. The\\nsecond higher burgher school class is taught an outline of ancient history, of that\\nof the middle ages, and of later times, and then proceeds to the history of Ger-\\nmany and of Brandenburgh. In the first class, the history of Germany, and of\\nmodern Europe in general, is continued.\\nIn the mechanical branches, the distribution of time agrees with that in the\\nother schools, except in the number of hours allotted to writing, which is here\\ntwenty-eight, and in the Dorothean school but sixteen. Vocal music is taught\\nby ear in the lower classes, and by note in the upper.\\nPhysical education. There is an interval of a quarter of an hour in the middle\\nof the morning, during which the pupils are free to take exercise, but there is no\\nregular gymnastic or other exercise under the superintendence of the teachers.\\nIt is obvious from what has been presented, that the elementary instruction\\nrequires raising to a higher level than at present, namely, to that of which an\\nexample has been given in the higher elementary school of Weissenfels. That\\nthen all pupils whose circumstances permit them to devote a longer time to edu-\\ncation should pass to other schools, of a kind depending upon their destination in\\nafter-life, as determined by the circumstances of their parents and their own\\ntalents. The tone of these higher schools would, it appears, require to be varied\\naccording to the wants of the population among which they are placed, whether\\nthat of the country, of small towns, or of cities. In the cities, it has been seen\\nthat one class of burgher schools required is provided, and others will be described\\nbelonging more properly to a higher grade of instruction, upon the province\\nof which, however, these latter decidedly trench. An example of a systematic\\narrangement appropriate to a city is afforded by the burgher school of Leipsic,\\npresently to be described. Such a plan would, however, be inappropriate to a\\nsmall town, where, of necessity, several schools must be united in one. In this\\ncase, it would require care to avoid the union of incompatible classes of pupils,\\ncausing mutual losses of time, and giving rise to defective habits of study. The\\nsame teachers should give instruction in the different departments of the school,\\nin the same or kindred subjects, rather than to miite different classes. The pupil\\npreparing for the gj mnasium should not be called upon to study the natural\\nsciences or mathematics which he will pursue there, and of which he does not\\nfeel the want for admission, nor the student who is to enter an architectural,\\ncommercial, or trade school, the classics which the gj^mnasial student requires for\\nhis admission.\\nBv Fisher of BrealaW.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\n139\\nThe subjects and methods of instruction thus far described, belong\\navowedly and appropriately to the department of primary schools.\\nThose, which follow, aim first, to prepare pupils for the university, and\\nsubsequently for the professions of law, medicine, theology, or public\\noffice and second, to engage in commerce, trade, architecture, engineer-\\ning, and other kinds of practical business. The schools, where these\\nsubjects are taught, belong to the departments of secondary and special\\ninstruction. They are introduced here as examples of courses of study\\nwhich should be provided in all our large cities, in independent schools,\\nor as part of our plan of public high schools. We introduce an account\\nof the Frederick William Gymnasium, with the following summary of the\\nsystem of secondary instruction in t russia by Dr. Bache. in his report.\\nThe immediate authority superintending secondary instruction is the\\nschool board (schul-coilegium) of the province in which the gymnasium\\nis situated. This school board is a branch of the provincial consistory,\\nof which the chief magistrate of the province, the higher president\\n(ober-president.) is the head. One of the councillors of the ministry of\\npuplic instruction, at Berlin, is specially charged with the concerns of all\\nthe gymnasia, and is the channel through wliich the provincial autlior-\\nities communicate with the ministry. The school board consists of tlie\\npresident and vice president of the provincial government, and of two\\nschool councillors, and holds its meetings in the chief town of the province.\\nThey regulate the details of instruction and discipline in the gymnasia,\\ncorrespond with the directors, appoint the teachers, except the director,\\nwho is appointed by the minister, make visits of inspection, and attend\\nthe examinations, especially those for passing to the university, and\\nauthorize the books to be used in the school and placed in the library.\\nThe inspection of religious instruction belongs to the ecclesicastical func-\\ntionaries of the Protestant and Ccifholic churches severally. The royal\\ngymnasia are supported from the funds of the state and the payments\\nof their pupils, and their receipts and expenditures are under the\\ncharge of a special officer, or of the director. The funds of those which\\nare otherwise endowed, are usually under the direction of a committee,\\nor of one of the officers. In 1850, there were 117 gymnasia with l,6l34\\nteachers and 29,474 pupils, and more than one hundred real schools\\nand other schools of this grade, for special instruction tor particular\\ndepartments of practical life.\\nThe following abstract of a series of regulations adopted by the cen-\\ntral board in 1837, will give a good idea of the general organization of\\nsecondary instruction.\\nThe regulations embrace the following heads: 1. Admission of\\npupils. 2. Subjects of instruction. 3. Distribution of teachers and of\\nthe subjects of the lessons. 4. The number of hours of teaching. 5.\\nStudies out of school hours. 6. Duration of the courses. 7. Remarks\\non the regulations tor the examinations. 8. Remarks on the supposed\\ndefects of teachers, methods of instruction, c. 9. Physical education.\\n10. Religious instruction. The following is an abstract of the remarks\\nupon these subjects.\\n1. Admission. Experience has fully proved that the admission of\\npupils at a very early age into the gymnasia is prejudicial to the indi-\\nviduals themselves, as well as to the institutions. Neither the mental\\nnor physical development, nor the attainment, at an early age, are ade-\\nquate to the pursuit of the courses appropriate to a gj mnasiura, and\\nhence the admission of very young pupils induces an improper lower-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "140 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\ning of the standard of instruction in these estabhshments. The minis-\\ntry, therefore, recommends that pupils be not admitted at an earlier age\\nthan ten years, and that the following qualifications be required: 1.\\nFacility in logical and rhythmical reading, both in German and Roman\\ntext, and the rudiments of grammar and orthographic writing. 2.\\nWriting from dictation. 3. Practice in the four ground rules of arith-\\nmetic, with abstract numbers, and first principles of fractions. 4. Ele-\\nments of geography, particularly that of Europe. 5. Stories of the Old\\nTestament, and hfe of Christ. 6. Elementary notions of drawing and\\nof form.\\nTwo errors on the part of parents are pointed out by the ministry,\\nthe influence of whose advice is directed against them The first is, that\\nchildren of feeble bodily constitutions should be devoted to literary pur-\\nsuits; the second, that young men who have passed the appropriate\\nage for instruction may be advantageously pushed into one of the\\nlearned protessions, even if they are required to teach in order to obtaiii\\nthe needful education.\\n2. Subjects of instruction. As the ground work of higher instruction,\\nthe following subjects are recommended to be pursued in the gymnasia:\\n1. Religious instruction. 2. German. 3. Latin. 4. Greek. 5. Math-\\nematics. 6. Physics. 7. Natural history. 8. Geography. 9. History.\\n10. Writing. 11. Drawing. 12. Vocal music. Experience has shown\\nthat these subjects are particularly calculated to develop the intellect-\\nual powers, and to give a systematic and practical preparation lor the\\nhigher studies. J he same can not be said of the Hebrew, the study of\\nwhich is specially appropriate only to theologians. A knowledge of the\\nFrench is not considered essential to the true purpose of a gymnasium.\\nThis language has been made a subject of public instruction on account\\nof its uselulness in after-life, and not of its correctness or purity. ith\\nthe exception of these two languages, the subjects enumerated above\\nhave always been taught in the gymnasia, though in variable propor-\\ntions. No one of them could, with propriety, be omitted, and proposi-\\ntions to that effect will receive no countenance. The ministry does not\\nfear that injury will result to the menial or physical development of the\\npupils, by pursumg all the branches in their appropriate degree, bat\\nteachers are cautioned against attempts to push one subject at the\\nexpense of another; being reminded that the course should be viewed\\nas a whole, which must suffer by the unequal forcing of its parts. The\\ndirectors of gymnasia are especially required to attend to this point, and\\nthe school boards are requested to relieve them from teaching, as far as\\nmay be necessary to the insj)ection thus required.\\nIf the subjects of instruction, as here laid down, be compared with\\nthose of the secondary schools of England, it will be found that what is\\nthere regarded as innovation, has been successl ully used as the course\\nof grammar school instruction in Germany. That the efficiency oi the\\ncourse is confirmed by long experience, and that the subjects are recom-\\nmended, anew, as the future course of those institutions. While ancient\\nletters are successfully cultivated, other subjects are not neglected, but\\ntheir equal ia)portance with the former is clearly asserted, and as clearly\\nproved by results. While the Germans have lost nothing in general\\nliterary culture by this system, they have gained much in other depart-\\nments of knowledge.\\nThe scholastic year is divided into two terms, or half years, at the\\nclose of each of which there is an examination. At the end of the\\nsecond half year, the examinations for passing from one class to another\\nare held. The usual vacations are two weeks at Easter, one at Whit-\\nsuntide, three in August, one at Michaelmas, and two at Christmas.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ^4^\\n3. Distribution of the teachers and of the subjects of instruction.\\nThere are, in general, six classes in a gymnasium, of which the lowest\\nis called si.xth, and the highest first. To produce a harmony in ihe\\nmethods and degree of instruction, notwithstanding the variety of sub-\\njects taught, it has, for some time, been the custom in the Prussian\\ngymnasia to assign several subjects of instruction to the same teacher,\\nin the same class. This arrangement is confirmed in the document\\nunder discussion. It is recommended that similar subjects of instruction\\nbe classed together, to constitute a department, as, for example, German\\nand Latin history, geography, and natural history and mathematics,\\nand physics. That then the instruction of one or more classes, in one\\ndepartment, be consigned to one teacher; as the instruction of the lower\\nclasses in German and Latin; of the two middle classes in Latin.\\nGreek, and French; of the two higher in German, Greek, and French;\\nof the lower and middle classes in history and geography; of the higher\\nclasses in mathematics, physics, and mental philosophy. The number\\nof teachers would thus be, in general, in a gymnasium of six classes,\\ntwo for the two lower classes, three for the two middle, and four for the\\ntwo higher classes.\\nThe ministry further recommend that kindred subjects he taught in\\ndifferent parts of the same term, rather than on different days of the\\nsame week, as geography at the beginning of a term, and history at the\\nclose a Latin and Greek prose author at the beginning of a term, and\\na poetical author at the close of the term, c.\\nWith a view to induce teachers to take upon themselves the arduous\\nduties of a department, or class teacher, as just explained, the school\\nboard are recommended to promote teachers according to merit, not cor\\\\-\\nfining their promotion to the institution in which they may be, but taking\\nthe entire range of the province. A promise is made by the ministry\\nto pay strict attention to this rule, in promoting to vacant situations of\\ndirectors of gymnasia. The class teachers are to have the title of\\nupper teachers, (ober-lehrer,) the others being designated simply as\\nteachers.\\nIt is obvious that very varied attainments are thus required of the\\nregular, or class teachers, and that the difficulty of finding persons com-\\npetent to discharge these duties, increases very much as the grade of\\ninstruction becomes more elevated. Hence the practice in the gymna-\\nsia varies very materially from this recommendation. It is so desirable,\\nin the higher classes, that the teacher should devote much time to his\\nown improvement in the knowledge of his branch of instruction, and\\nthat he should have a strong taste for its cultivation, that in general it\\nis found advisable to confine his attention to a single subject, or to sub-\\njects much nearer akin than those which are classed together in the\\nenumeration just made. This is particularly the case in tiie mathe-\\nmatics, beyond the mere elements, the physics and physical geography,\\nthe natural history, the less elementary parts of drawing, and vocal\\nmusic. In the case of the French language, a special teacher, from the\\nvery beginning, is absolutely necessary, if the instruction in it is to be\\nany thing more than a matter of form.\\n4. Number of hours of recitation. This is fixed at thirty-two per\\nweek; a number which experience has shown may with propriety be\\nexacted of students, and which is requisite to complete the course of stu-\\ndies. In the French colleges there are but twenty -four hours of regular\\nobligatory instruction per week. This difference alone would go far to\\nexplain the reason for the fact, that in the gymnasia, the written course\\nof studies is closely followed in all its departments, while in the royal\\ncolleges it is but partially carried out. That in the former, all branches", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "142\\nSECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nare deemed worthy of attention, while in the latter, in practice, some\\nare treated as if they were not appropriate parts of a regular course of\\nstudies. The Prussian minister asserts, very justly, that four hours\\nevery morning, and two hours in the alternoon, four times a week, may\\nbe passed in a well ventilated school room, without injury to health.\\nThe condition in regard to ventilation is, however, essential to the truth\\nof the proposition; it is easily realized in the gymnasia, on account of\\nthe small number constituting each class. I found, in fact, generally,\\nbut little objection to the arrangements, in this respect, in these insti-\\ntutions.\\nI had reason to remark, in the city gymnasia of Prussia, in general,\\nthat the appearance of the upper classes betoken a higher state of\\nhealth than that of the lower, which would not have been the case had\\nthey been over worked. The mental labor, on the part of the student,\\nindicated by thirty-two hours per week spent in school, is less than it\\nwould be from the same time in an English grammar school, or in one\\nof our own establishments of the same grade, from the mode of teach-\\ning. Much of the instruction is communicated by conversation and by\\nlecture, during the school hours, which are thus devoted to acquiring\\nknowledge as well as to reciting what has been learned by study at\\nother times. The school boards are requested not to allow this time of\\nthirty-two hours per week to be exceeded, and a general plan for the\\ndistribution of time, which will be given below, is appended to the\\ninstructions. This plan, however, may be modified according to the\\ncircumstances of the institution to which it is to be adapted, preserving,\\nhowever, the number of hours devoted to religious instruction, to the\\nlanguages and mathematics, as cardinal points in the system. It is\\ndeemed unnecessary to begin the French earlier than in the third class,\\nwhich would postpone it as late as thirteen years of age. Natural his-\\ntory may be substituted for physics in the second class, and a general\\nPLAN OF STUDIES ARRANGED FOR THE GYMNASIA OF PRUSSIA BY THE MINISTRY OF\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OCTOBER 24tH, 1837.\\nSUBJECTS OF STUDY) C.\\nLatin,\\nGreek,\\nGerman,\\nFrench,\\nReligious Instruction,\\nMathematics,\\nArithmetic and Elements of Form,\\nPhysics,\\nPhilosophy,\\nHistory and Geography,\\nNatural History,\\nDrawing,\\nWriting,\\nVpcal Music,\\nHebrew for the future Theologians,\\n30\\nNUMBER OF HOURS PER WII^K.\\n30\\n2 J 2\\n32\\n32\\n32\\n10\\n32", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ^43\\nreview of that branch, as studied in the previous years, is recommended,\\nDrawing and vocal music are intended to be carried so far as that the\\npupil may follow them to advantage ifhis tastes incline that way,\\nThe ministry recommends that where several hours per week are\\ndevoted to a subject, more than one each day should be given to it, so\\nas to concentrate the attention upon a few branches every day.\\n5. Study out of school hours. On this subject the ministry remarks,\\nthat while it is highly important that the pupil should have preparation\\nto make, requiring the exercise of his own resources, it is not less so that\\nthe amount ol private study should not be carried to an injurious extent.\\nThe regulations, therefore, provide that at the beginning of each term\\nthere shall be a conference of the teachers, to determine the due amount\\nof such work in the different classes, in detail. Every teacher should\\nkeep a book, in which the exercises actually given are accurately noted,\\nso that the director may see at any time how far the decisions of the\\nconference have been conformed to. The written exercises of the pupils\\nmust be regularly corrected by the teachers, and at least once a month\\nthey must review the exercise books, to ascertain the progress and the\\npropriety of the exercises. German and Latin compositions are to be\\nespecially attended to. Themes on subjects with which the pupils are\\nnot acquainted, so that they must labor both for the matter and lan-\\nguage, are forbidden. The teacher should not only select subjects\\nknown to the pupils for these exercises, but should also explain the\\nmanner in which he expects them to be treated.\\n6. Duration of the courses. The six classes should, according to rule,\\nbe passed through in nine years: the three lower, each, in one year, and\\nthe three higher, each, in two years; thus a pupil entering at ten would\\nleave the gymnasium at nineteen. The provincial school board may\\ndetermine the period of the year for the examinations for passing from\\nclass to class. In the gymnasia, where the classes are subdivided on\\naccount of numbers, and the pupils pass from one section to another\\nat the end of six months, the arrangement is permitted to be con-\\ntinued.\\nSuperior excellence in a ^evf departments is not to warrant the pro-\\nmotion of the pupil to a higher class he must be reasonably proficient\\nin all.\\n7. Examination for the university. The regulations of 1834, on this\\nsubject, are confirmed by the present; certain erroneous constructions,\\nwhich have been put upon the former, being pointed out. The first of\\nthese is, the supposition that the amount which the pupils are able to\\ngo over, during the time fixed for examination, determines the character\\nof their certificate of capacity, while, on the contrary, this is given for\\nthe general knowledge of the subjects which they show. The fact that\\nthis examination requires a previous attendance of two years in the first\\nclass, is considered as indicating positively that the course of that class\\ncan not be intended to drill for the examination. The next refers to the\\nspecific direction in regard to the extent of examination on the different\\nsubjects, which being intended as a general guide to the examiners, has\\nbeen misconstrued so far as to be supposed to furnish teachers who are\\npreparing pupils the means of imparting the least amount of knowledge\\nconsistent with their passing. The ministry considers that the qualifi-\\ncations for the final examination have stood the test of experience, hav-\\ning been found not too high, and calculated to promote sound instruction\\nand not hasty preparation. As, however, the excitement of these ex-\\naminations appears to act injuriously on certain temperaments, the min-\\nistry authorizes the examining commissions to reduce the viva voce\\nparts of the examination, in cases where they see cause to do so. The", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "J 44 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nministry declines omitting the examination on the course of religious\\ninstruction.\\n8. Supposed defects of teachers, d^c. The ministry states, as the\\nremark of many intelligent persons, that while so much progress has\\nbeen made within the last twenty years in the elementary schools, many\\nof the teachers of the gymnasia, neglecting the progress of the science\\nof teaching, still follow the old routine methods; that the teachers over-\\nrate the importance of their special branches, and thus destroy the har-\\nmony of the system; that they imitate the style of lecturing of the uni-\\nversity professors, which renders their explanations ill adapted to the\\nage and state of progress of their pupils, and when, in consequence,\\ntheir pupils get on slowly, instead of seeing in this fact the necessity for\\na change of method, they charge the fault upon the classes. The min-\\nistry remarks that it has not the means of judging personally whether\\nsuch criticisms are well founded or not, but that the provincial school\\nboards, to whom they have been submitted, are of opinion that, in gen-\\neral, they are too severe. They are made public, however, that the\\nteachers of the gymnasia may reflect upon them.\\nNo specific method of instruction, it is remarked, applicable to all\\nvarieties of age, preparation, and subjects of study, can be pointed out.\\nEvery teacher should observe, closely, the results of his instruction, and\\nadopt I reely the advice or example of teachers of known ability in their\\nart. The directors of gymnasia are especially enjoined to visit the\\nclasses of their teachers frequently, and. to make such suggestions as\\nmay seem to be required; they are further expected to set an example\\nthemselves of thorough teaching. The ministry considers that the\\nsystem of class teachers, already described, facilitates the course of\\nobservation recommended, by giving the teacher a thorough ac-\\nquaintance with all the members of his class. The importance of\\nmaking the science of teaching one of observation is thus directly\\ninculcated.\\nThe probation of a year, required by the decree of September 26th,\\n1836, before the admission of a teacher to full standing, being intended\\nto prevent the admission of incompetent teachers, the provincial school\\nboards are enjoined to give effect to the provision, by promoting to the\\nV situations of ordinary or class teachers (ordinarii,) those only who have\\nshown decided capability in their art. The ministry promises to give\\nsuch an extension to the normal schools for teachers of gymnasia, as\\nshall insure an adequate supply from them.\\nThe provincial boards are enjoined to see that suitable books are pro-\\nvided for the gymnasia, and to attend to regulating the details of the\\nprogrammes of the ditferent classes. This authority obviously leaves\\nthe most essential points of instruction within their power.\\n9. Physical education. On this subject, the document from the min-\\nistry states that representations have been made from many of the\\ndirectors and teachers of gymnasia, that physical education should be\\nintroduced as an essential part of their systems. The necessity for due\\nphysical development is admitted but it is argued, that in the gymna-\\nsia which receive day scholars alone, an attention to it forms no part of\\nthe duty of the teacher, who is merely bound to furnish the requisite\\ntime for recreation, and to take care that the health of the pupils is not\\ninjured during the hours of recitation by causes depending upon the\\nschool. In the boarding gymnasia the case is admitted to be different.\\nA continuance of gymnastic exercises in these establishments, when\\nthey have been tried and found beneficial, is allowed, but the compul-\\nsory attendance of day scholars upon them is not permitted. When\\nregular gymnastic exercises are introduced, it is made the duty of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "SECOXDARY IXSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. j^g\\nschool board to see that a proper teacher is provided, and the exercises\\nmust be conducted under charge of the director of the institution.\\nI conless, that the idea of leaving the physical education of children\\nentirely to their parents, especially in the cities and towns where the\\nday gymnasia are usually established, seems to me very unAvise; par-\\nticularly so in Prussia, where all else is regulated, and where the youth\\nare always glad to engage in gymnastic exercises, when the means are\\nfurnished to them.\\n10. ReUgiuiis education. It is enjoined that this contain the whole\\ndoctrine of Christian faith, and that the instruction be given according\\nto a regular plan.\\nThe provincial authorities are charged with the communication of the\\nforegoing regulations to the directors and teachers of the gymnasia, and\\nwith the superintendence of their execution.\\nEach instructor manages his class in his own way, subject to the\\nadvice of the director, and hence, of course, there is considerable\\nvariety. Harsh punishments, and personal violence, are discounte-\\nnanced in all the classes. Appeals to the moral sentiments and feelings,\\nand admonitions, are the favorite methods of discipline. I nowhere saw\\nthe discipline in better condition than in these schools, the youth of the\\nupper class, especially, going through their duties without the necessity\\nfor more than occasional admonition, and exhibiting the decorum of gen-\\ntlemen in whatever situation I met them. The director is the supreme\\nresort when a teacher fails in being able to produce proper conduct on\\nthe part of a pupil, and he may dismiss from the institution. This, how-\\never, is rarely necessary.\\nThe means of securing attention to study do not differ from those in\\nother countries, and already often alluded to. The system of excite-\\nment is carried to a far less extent, in general, than in the French col-\\nleges. Emulation is encouraged, but not stimulated into ambition. In\\nthe lower classes, the pupils change places during the daily recitations;\\nafterward, they are arranged by monthly trials of composition, and at\\nthe examinations and in the higher classes, from the same composi-\\ntions, and from the results of their marks for daily recitation, and at the\\nhalf yearly examinations. Prizes are not given as a general rule,\\nthough there are some special ones in certain gymnasia,\\nThis outline of the system of the gymnasia, as regulated by the cen-\\ntral authority, requires, to complete it, some account of the regulations\\nfor the final examination prior to passing to the university (abiturienten-\\npriifung,) and oi the means of providing teachers. The regulations for\\nthe final examination occupy fifty sections, and enter into very minute\\ndetails it will be sufficient for the present purpose to present an abstract\\nof the more important of them under the following heads 1. The per-\\nsons to be examined, the object, place, and time of the examination. 2.\\nThe authorities by whom, and under whose direction, the examination\\nis to be conducted. 3. The character and subjects of the examination.\\n4. The kind of certificate obtained on passing the examination satisfac-\\ntorily, and the privileges attached to it.\\n1. The persons to be examined, ^c. Those who intend to embrace\\none of the professions requiring a course of three or four years at a uni-\\nversity, must, before matriculating at the university, pass the ordeal of\\nthis examination; the object being to ascertain whether the candidate\\nhas made himself duly master of the subjects required for successful\\nentrance upon his university career. The examination must be made\\nin a regular gymnasium, and in some part of the last two months of the\\nscholastic year.\\nTo be admitted to the examination, a pupil of a gymnasium must\\n10", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "146 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.\\nhave been in its first class at least three terms of half a year each,\\nexcept in cases where pupils have especially distinguished themselves\\nduring a year in this class. Three mouths notice of their intention to\\nstand this examination is to be given by the pupils to the director of the\\ngymnasium, who advises with tliem on their intention, but has no right\\nto prevent any pupil of three terms standing in the first class from\\ncoming forward.\\nPersons who are educated in private undergo this same examination\\nin any gymnasium which their parents may select. They are required\\nto present beforehand the certificate of their masters as to moral con-\\nduct and proficiency, and are examined at a different time from the reg-\\nular students.\\n2. By whom the examinntion is conducted. There is a committee\\nfor each gymnasium, consisting of the director, the masters who have\\ncharge of the higher classes, a member of the ecclesiastical authority of\\nthe place, and a member of the provincial consistory. This latter mem-\\nber presides, and his appointment must be approved by the ministry of\\npublic instruction. The ecclesiastical member must be approved by the\\nprovincial consistory. Besides these, there is a royal commission ap-\\npointed by the ministry, and consisting of professors of the university\\nand others, who are present as inspectors at the examination. Tlie\\nteachers of the gymnasium and the local authorities of the school are\\nalso present at the oral examinations.\\n3. Character and subjects of examination. The examinations are\\nof two kinds, written and oral. The subjects are, the German, Latin,\\nGreek, and French languages,* for students in general, and in addition,\\nthe Hebrew for those who intend to study theology. Religion, history,\\nand geography, mathematics, physics, natural history, and the elements\\nof mental philosophy. The subjects of the written examination are chosen\\nby the royal commissary present, from a list furnished hy the director of\\nthe gymnasium. These subjects must be such as have never been treated\\nspecially in the class-room, but not yet beyond the sphere of instruction\\nol the pupils. AH the candidates receive the same subjects for compo-\\nsition, which are given out at the beginning of the examination. The*\\ncandidates are assembled in one of the halls of the gymnasium, and\\nremain there during the period allotted for their exercises under the\\ncharge of one or other of the examining teachers, who relieve each\\nother. The only books allowed them are dictionaries and mathematical\\ntables. The written exercises consist, first, in a German prose compo-\\nsition, the object of which is to discern the degree of intellectual devel-\\nopment, and the style of composition of the candidate. Second of a\\nLatin extempore! and a Latin composition on some subject which has\\nbeen treated in the course, the special reference in this exercise being\\nto the correctness of the style. Third a translation from a Greek\\nauthor, which h.as not been read in the course, and from Latin into\\nGreek. Fourth: a translation from the German into the French.\\nFifth: the solution of two questions in geometry, and of two in analysis,\\ntaken from the courses in those subjects. Candidates who desire it,\\nmay be examined further than is required for passing.\\nThose who intend to study theology or philology, translate a portion of\\none of the historical books of the Old Testament, or a psalm, into Latin,\\nadding a grammatical analysis. The time allowed for the several\\nwritten exercises is as follows: For the German, five hours; Latin\\ncomposition, five hours; Latin extempore, one hour; Greek translation,\\nIn the grand duchy of Po.sen, the Polish lang^uage is also one of the subjects,\\nt An exercise in wliich the master speaks iu German to the pupil, who mpst reijder the\\n(Berman into Latin, in writing.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. J4 7\\nthree hours; translation from Latin into Greek, two hours; French\\ncomposition, four hours; mathematical e.x ercises, five hours; Hebrew\\nexercises, wlien required, two hours. Four days are allowed tor the\\nexamination in these subjects, and they must not immediately follow\\neach other. The viva voce examination is conducted by the masters\\nwho have given instruction in the first class on the subjects of examina-\\ntion, unless the royal commissary directs otherwise. The subjects are,\\nfirst; the general grammar and prosody of the German language, the\\nchief epochs of national history and literature, and the national classics.\\nSecond; the translation and analysis of extracts from Cicero, Sallust,\\nLivy. Virgil, and Horace; the ability of the candidates to render the\\nauthor with judgment and taste being put to the test, as well as their\\ngrammatical and archeological acquirements; parts of the examination\\nare conducted in the Latin language. Third the translation and\\nanalysis of Greek prose and of portions of Homer, with questions upon\\nGreek grammar, Grecian history, arts, and mythology. Fourth trans-\\nlations li-om the French cla.ssics during which an opportunity is given\\nto the pupil to show how far he can speak the language. Fitth ques-\\ntions upon the Christian doctrines, dogmas and morals, the principal\\nepochs in the history of the Christian church, and the Bible. Sixth;\\narithmetic, the elements of algebra and geometry, the binomial theo-\\nrem, simple and quadratic equations, logarithms and plane trigonome-\\ntry. Seventh: in history and geography, on ancient history, especially\\nthat of Greece and Rome, and modern history, especially that of the\\nconntry, on physical, mathematical, and political geography. Eighth\\nin natural history, on the general classification of its subjects. Ninth;\\nin such portions of physics as can be treated by elementrry mathe-\\nmatics, and on the laws of heat, light, magnetism, and electricity.\\nTenth; on the elements of moral philosophy, psychology, and logic.\\nThe future theological student must, besides, translate and analyze a\\nportion of one of the historical books of the Old Testament.\\n4. Tke kind of certificate obtained^ and the privileges attached to it.\\nWhen the examination is closed, the board already alluded to as con-\\ntiucting and superintending it, deliberates upon the notes which have\\nbeen taken during its course, each member having a vote. Those\\nstudents who are deemed to have passed a satisfactory examination,\\nreceive a certificate called a certificate of maturity, (maturitats-zeug-\\niiiss.) the others are remanded to their class, and may present them-\\nselves, after an interval of six months, ibr another examination, unless\\nthey are deemed entirely incompetent to continue a literary career.\\nProficiency in all the subjects of examination is, in general, required to\\nentitle a candidate to a certificate, but exception is sometimes made in\\nIkvor of those who show great attainments in the languages or mathe-\\nmatics; and in the case of students of a somewhat advanced age, the\\ndirect bearing of the different subjects upon the profession which they\\nintend to embrace is considered. The daily records of the class-rooms\\nare presented by the director of the gymnasium to the examiners, as\\nshowing the character of the candidates in regard to progress and con-\\nduct, these points being specially noted in the certificate. The certifi-\\ncate of maturity contains, besides, the name and address of the pupil,\\nand of his parent or guardian; the time during which he has been at\\nthe gymnasium, and in its first class the conduct of the pupil toward\\nhis fellows and masters, and his moral deportment in general; his char-\\nacter for industry, and his acquirements, as shown at the examination,\\nspecifying the result in each branch, and adding a statement from the\\nmasters of drawing and music of his proficiency in their respective de-\\npartments the studies which he proposes to prosecute at the university,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "148 FREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OF BERLIN.\\nand to commence which he leaves the gymnasium. These certificates\\nare dehvered in an assemblage of the students of the gymnasium with\\nsuitable remarks. The certificate of maturity is necessary to enable a\\nyouth to be matriculated in either of the faculties of tlieoioiiy, law,\\nmedicine, and philology, in one of the national universities, to be ad-\\nmitted to examination for an academic degree, to be appointed to office\\nin state or church, or to obtain one of the royal bursaries at the universi-\\nties. Special exception in regard to matriculation may be made by\\nauthority of the minister of public instruction. Students wJio have not\\npassed a satisfactory examination, and whose parents demand it, arc\\nentitled to a certificate, stating the branches in which they are deficient;\\nthey may enter the university with this, and are registered accordingly.\\nThis registry enables them, if they subsequently obtain a certificate of\\nmaturity, and the special permission of the minister of public instruction,\\nto have their matriculation dated from the time of inscription. Pupils\\nwho have passed through the third class of a gymnasium are entitled to\\nclaim one year of voluntary military service, provided they report them-\\nselves at a specified time during their twentieth year.\\nThere are two kinds of schools devoted to the preparation of teachers\\nfor the gymnasia, called respectively philological and pedagogical sem-\\ninaries, (philologische seminare, padagogische seminare.) One of the\\nfirst kind is attached to the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Breslaw, Halle,\\nKunigsberg, and Greifswalde, and one of the second is placed at Berlin,\\nStettin, Breslaw, Halle, Konigsberg, and Minister. Besides these,\\nthere is a seminary for teachers of natural philosophy and the natural\\nsciences, at Bonn.\\nFREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OF BERLIN.\\nThis institution dates from 1797, and was at first an appendage to the real\\nschool of Mr. Hecker. It is now a royal institution, and is independent of the\\nreal school, except so far that it has the same director, and that the preparatory\\nclasses are in the real school, in which, or in other equivalent schools, the pupils\\nare taught until ten years of age. The qualifications for admission are those con-\\ntained in the general account of the gymnasia. This gymnasium had, in 1837,\\nfour hundred and thirty-seven pupils, divided into six classes, and instructed by\\nfourteen teachers and six assistants. The second and third classes are subdivided\\ninto two parts, called upper and lower, pursuing different courses, and both divi-\\nsions of the third class are again subdivided into two others, for the convenience\\nof instruction. The course in each class occupies a year, except in the first, which\\nis of two years. Pupils who enter in the lowest class, and go regularly through\\nthe studies, will thus remain nine years in the gymnasium. Tlie numbers of the\\nseveral classes in 18-37 were, in the first, fifty-four; in the upper second, thirty-\\ntwo; lower second, forty-seven; upper third division, first, or A, thirty-six;\\nsecond division, or B, thirty-six lower third, division first, or A, thirty-eight\\ndivision second, or B, thirty-two fourth class, fifty-five fifth, fifty-seven and\\nsixth, fifty. Each division averages, therefore, nearly forty-four pupils, who are\\nat one time under the charge of one teacher. One hundred and eight were\\nadmitted during the year, and the same number left the gymnasium of these,\\ntwenty-one received the certificate of matul-ity to pass to the university, viz., ten\\nwho intend to study law, three medicine, five theologj one theology and philo-\\nlogy, one philosophy, and one pohtical economy, finance, o., (cameralistic.) Of\\nthese all but five were two years in the first class out of this number two were\\ntwo years and a half in the first class, and three more had been in the gj mnasium\\nless than two years, having entered it in the first class. The average age at leav-\\ning the gymnasium was nearly nineteen years, and the greatest and least, respec-\\ntively, twenty-two and between sixteen and seventeen years. It appears, thus,\\nthat on the average, the pupils actually enter at ten, and remain nine years, as\\nrequired by rule.\\nThe subjects of instruction are Latin, Greek, German, French, religious instruc-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "FREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OK BERLIN.\\n149\\ntion, mathematics, (including arithmetic, algebra, and geometry,) natural philoso-\\nphy and natural history, history, geography, writing, drawing, vocal music, and\\nHebrew for theologians.\\nThe numbers attached to the names of the different classes, in the following\\nprogramme, show the number of hours of study per week in the regular branches\\nin which the division of classes takes place. In like manner, the numbers attached\\nto the several subjects of study show how many hours are occupied per week in\\neach of the .subjects by the several classes.\\nSIXTH CLASS, THIRTY HOURS.\\nLatin. Inflections of nouns, c. Comparisons. Conjugation of the indicative moods of\\nregular and of some irregular verbs. Translation from Bluime s elementary book. Exercises\\nfrom Blume. E.xtemporalia. Ten hours.\\nGerman. Etymology and syntax. Exeixises in writing upon subjects previously narrated.\\nExercises in orthography, reading, and declaiming. Four hours.\\nFrench. Etymology, to include the auxiliary verbs, in Herrmann s grammar. Oral and\\nwritten exercjses. Readnig and translation. Exercises on the riMes from the grammar.\\nThree hours.\\nReligion. Bible history of the Old Testament. Committing to memory selected verses.\\nTwo hours.\\nGeography. Delineation of the outlines of Europe, Africa, Asia, and America, from deter-\\nminate points given. Divisions of the countries, with their principal cities, rivers, and moun-\\ntains. I wo hours.\\nArithmetic. The four ground rules, with denominate whole numbers. Their applications.\\nFour hours.\\nWriting. Elements of round and running hand. Dictation. Writing from copy slips.\\nThree hours.\\nDrawing. Exercises in drawing lines. Two hours.\\nFIFTH CLASS, TWENTY-NINE HOURS.\\nLatin. Etymology. L^se of the prepositions. The accusative before an infinitive, prac-\\nticed orally and in writing, and extempore, and in exercises. Ti anslation from Blume s\\nreader. Ten hours.\\nGerman. Parsing, reading, and declamation. Exercises on narrations. Four hours.\\nFrench. Etymology, by oral and written exercises. Easier stories from Herrmann s\\nreader. Three hours.\\nReligion. Explanation of the gospels, according to St. Matthew and St. Luke. Commit-\\nting to memory the principal facts. Two hours.\\nGeography. Review ol the last year s course. Rivers and mountains of Europe, and\\nchief towns, in connection. Two hours.\\nArithmetic. Review of the preceding Fractions Four hours.\\nWriting. Running hand from copy slips. Two hours.\\nDrawing. Drawing from bodies, terminated by planes and straight lines. Two hours.\\nFOURTH CLASS, TWENTY-EIGHT HOURS.\\nLatin. Review of etymology. The principal rules enforced by oral and written exercises\\nand extemporalia Translation from Jacob s reader and Corn. Nepos. Ten hours.\\nGerman. Compositions on subjects previously read. Declamation. Reading from Ka-\\nlisch s reader. Parsing. Three liours.\\nFrench. Review of etymology. Irregular verbs. Reciprocal verbs. Anecdotes and nar-\\nrations from Herrmann s grammar, and committing the principal to memory. Two hours.\\nReligion. Gospel, according to St. Matthew, explained. Verses and psalms committed to\\nmemory. Two hours\\nGeography. Political geography of Germany, and of the rest of Europe. Review of the\\ngeography of the otiier parts of the world. Three hours.\\nArithmetic. Review of fractions. Simple and compound proportion. Partnership.\\nSimple interest. Three hours\\nGeometry. Knowledge of forms, treated inductively. One hour.\\nWriting. Running hand, from copy slips. Two hours.\\nDrawing. From bodies bounded by curved lines. Two hours.\\nLOWER THIRD CLASS, THIRTY HOURS.\\nLatin. Syntax. Rules of cases from Zumpt. Exercises and extemporalia. Inflections\\nformerly learned reviewed. Cornelius Nepos Eight hours.\\nGree.li. Etymology, from Buitmann s grammar to regular verbs, included. Translation\\nfrom Greek into German from Jacob s, from German into Greek from Uess s exercises.\\nSix hours.\\nGerman. Compositions in narration and description. Declamation. Two hours.\\nFrench. Repetition of inlleclions, and exercises by extemporalia and in writing. Trans-\\nlation of the fables from Ht-rrmaiin s reading book, 2d course. Two hours.\\nReligion. Morals, and Christian faith. Two hours.\\nGeography. Physical geography Europe and the other parts of the world. Two hours.\\nHistory. General view of ancient and modern history. Two hours.\\nMathematics. Legeudre sgeometry, book 1. Decimals. Algebra. Square and cube root.\\nFour hours.\\nDrawing. Introduction to landscape drawing. Two hours.\\nUPPER THIRD CLASS, THIRTY HOURS.\\nLatin. Division I. Syntax, from Zumpt. Review of the preceding course. Oral exer-\\ncises in construction of sentences. Written exercises and extemporalia. Caesar Bell. Gall", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "150\\nFREDERICK WILLIAM (JVMNASIU.H Ol fJi;i-lLIN.\\nbooks 1, 2, and 7, in part. Ovid s Metamorphoses, extracts from books 7 and S. Prosody,\\nrules from Zumpt. Ten liours.\\nGreek. JJiDision 1. Etymology, from Buttmann s grammar. Oral and written exercises\\nand extt-mporalia. Jacob s reader. Six hours.\\nGerman. Examination of exercises on historical subjects. Poetical selections for decla-\\nmation. Two hours.\\nFrench. Exercises in translation. Written exercises. Extemporalia. Two hours.\\nReligiun. Principal passages from the gospels gone over. General view of the Old Testa-\\nment writings Two hours.\\nHistory and Geography. Roman history, from the Punic Wars to the destruction of the\\nwestern empire. History of the middle ages, three hours. Review of the live general divis-\\nions of the world, one hour. Four liours.\\nMathematics. Geometry. Ltgendre, books 1 and 2, and part of 3. Algebra, with exer-\\ncists from Meyer Hirsch. Four houx s.\\nLOWER SECOND CLASS, THIRTY-ONK HOURS.\\nLatin. Extracts from Livy and Caesar de Bell. Civ. Review of Bell. Gall., books 2 and\\nA. Synlax. Exercises and extemporalia. Committing to memory exercises from Livy and\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2JiE. ar. Ovid s Metamorphoses, books 11 to 14. Eight hours.\\nGreek. Homer s Odys., 11, 12, 13, and 14. Exercises on the dialects. Xenophon s Anab.\\n1. 2. and part of 3. Excerpts from the grammar reviewed. Exercises and extemporalia.\\ntjynta.ii. S.x hours. g.\\nHebrew. Grammar, ending with irregular. verbs. Easier parts of historical books of\\nScr.j)lure translated. Vocabulary learned by rote. Exercises on regular and irregular verbs\\nout oi tlie recitation room. Two hours.\\nGerman. Correction of written exercises and essays. Exercises on delivery. Two hours.\\nP rench. Voltaire s Charles XII. Exercises and extemporalia. Two hours.\\nReligion Explanation of the princ-pal parts of the Epistles of St. Paul, with historical\\nsketches, and a view of the life of early Christian communities. Two hours.\\nHistory. Roman history, from the Punic Wars. History of the middle ages concluded.\\nGeneral view ol history. Three hours.\\nMathematics. Geometry to proportions and simple figures. Elements of algebra. Loga-\\nrithms; Four hours.\\nNatural History. Mineralogy. Botany, especially of native plants. Two hours.\\nUPPER SECOND CLASS, THIRTY-TWO HOURS.\\nLatin. Cicero s Orations, pro. Rose. Amer., de Amic, de Senectute. Livy, books 22 to\\n25, inclusive. Virgil s jEneid, books 1 and 2. Some eclogues and excerpts Irom Georgics.\\nExercises and extemporalia. Nine hours.\\nGreek. Homer s Iliad, books 4 to 11, inclusive. Arrian Alex, expedition, books 1 and 2.\\nButtmann s grammar, with exercises and extemporalia. Six hours.\\nHebrew. Books of Judges and of Ruth, with exercises of syntax. Easy exercises, and\\ncommitiuig vocabulary to memory out ol the classroom. Two hours.\\nGerman. Essays. Delivery. Two hours.\\nFrench. Excerpts from Herrmann and Briichner s manual of the more recent French\\nliterature. Two hours.\\nReligion. Christian faith and morals. Two hours.\\nHistory. Review of ancient history and geography, using the Latin language. Three hours.\\nMathematics. Arithmetical geometry and plane trigonometry. Algebraic exercises. Poly-\\ngons, Stereometry. Simple and quadratic equations. Four hours.\\nPhysics. General physics. Electricity and magnetism. Two hours.\\nFIRST CLASS, THIRTY-ONE HOURS.\\nLatin. Horace s Odes, books 3 and 4. Cicero against Verres. Tacitus, Annals, books 11\\nand 12, and extracts from 3 to 6. Cicero, Tusc. quest. Extempore translations from Ger-\\nman into Latin. E.xercises. Declamation. Eight hours.\\nGreek. Homer s Iliad, book 16, Odyssey, books 9 to 16, inclusive. Hippias Major, Char-\\nmides, and Gorsias of Plato, (excerpts Sophocles Edip. tyr. and Antigone. Grammatical\\nexercises. Buttmann s grammar. Six hours.\\nHebrew. Second book ol Kings. Genesis. Psalms, 61 to 100. Grammatical criticisms\\nof histor.cal excerpts, or of psalms, as an exercise at home. Two hours.\\nGerman. Criticism of compositions. General grammar, and history of the German gram-\\nmar and literature. One liour.\\nFrench. Selections from Scribe and Uelavigne. Exercises and extemporalia. Two hours.\\nReligiun. History of the Christian church, to the times of Gregory VH. Two hours.\\nHistory. Modern history, and review. Three hours.\\nMathematics. Plane trigonometry and application of algebra to geometry. Algebra.\\nMensuration and conic sections. Binomial theorem. Exponential and trigon. functions.\\nFour hours.\\nPhysics. Physical geography. Mechanics. Two hours\\nPhilosophy. Propajdeutics. Logic. One hour.\\nThere are five classes for vocal music, the fifth receiving two hours of Instruction in musi-\\ncal notation and singing by ear. The lourth, time and cliflfs, c. Exercises in the natural\\nscale, and harmony Songs and chorals with one part. The third, two hours, formation of\\nthe scale of sharps, running the gamut with difficult intervals, combined with the practical\\nexercises of the last class. The second, two hours, repetition of tones; sharps, and flats.\\nFormation of the scale of flats. Exercises of songs and chorals, in two parts. The first class\\nis an appl. cation of what has been learned, as well as a continuation of the science and art,\\nand all the pupils do not, of course, take part in this stage of the instruction. The course is\\nof four hours per week, two for soprano and alto, one for tenor and bass, and one for the\\nunion of the four parts. The proficiency is Indicated by the fact, that the pupils perform\\nvery creditably such compositions as Haydn s Creation and Handel s Messiah.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "FREDERICK WILLIAM GVMNASIUM OF BERLIN. jgj\\nThe extemporalia spoken of in the courses of language, consist of written\\ntranslations made on the spot by the pupils into a foreign language, of sentences\\nspoken in the vernacular bj the teacher. These sentences are, of course, adapted\\nto the progress of the pupil, and are prepai ed bef jrehand by the teacher who\\nrenders them, especially in the early parts of the coui se, the application of the\\nrules of grammar on which the pupil is engaged, or of peculiarities of idiom to\\nwhich his attention is called.\\nIn the classical course, the oral and written exercises are varied in their relative\\nproportions to each other. The translation from Latin or Greek into German,\\nand vice versa, the grammatical exercises, Latin compositions or essays, the ex-\\ntemporalia before explained, the practice in versification, c., are varied in amount\\nin the different classes, according to the views of the instructor.\\nOne characteristic difference between the classical instruction in the higher\\nclasses and in those of similar schools in England and our country, is that, in gen-\\neral, it supposes the grammatical minutiae to have been fully impressed in the\\nlower classes, and discusses philological questions, varieties of reading and collate-\\nral subjects of antiquities, history, biography, and geography. The students\\nreceive much oral instruction, which they are required to record. The same is\\nthe practice to even a greater extent in the other departments of instruction, and\\nthe students thus acquire a facihty in taking notes which they turn to good\\naccount in the university lectures, and which strikes a stranger with surprise on\\nfirst witnessing it.\\nMost of the pupils in this class of schools begin their classical course at nine or\\nten years of age, and yet, judging by the progress shown in the programme of\\nthe first class, and by the scholars which the universities of northern Germany\\nturn out, and which are, in fact, formed in the gymnasia, the proficiency is all\\nthat can be desired. It is what a youth of nineteen issuing from one of our col-\\nleges would be proud of, and clearly proves that the classics are not begun too\\nlate.\\nThe mother tongue and French are both taught in these institutions, in combi-\\nnation with the classical studies. These languages are not merely entered upon\\nthe programme, but are actually more or less thoroughly taught, according to the\\ntime which is allotted and the skill of the teacher. The course of German would\\nseem calculated to make both writers and speakers, and, probably, if the demand\\nfor the latter were equal to that of the former, this would prove true in the latter\\ncase, as it does in the former.\\nThe religious characteristic of these schools is a striking one, and important in\\nits effects. The Bible is taught rather than a particular creed, though from the\\nfact that the pupils are nearly all of one creed, this forbearance is not essential,\\nand is not always exercised. The separation of religious from other instruction\\ncan but have a most injurious tendency, and their connection, as in these schools,\\non the contrary, a happy influence. Religious knowledge is classed with the\\nsciences in the formal division of the subjects of study.\\nTlie courses of physics of the Frederick William gj-mnasium are exceedingly\\nwell calculated to fuUfil their object, to give general ideas of natural phenomena,\\nwithout going into what may be considered technical minutiae in the latter school\\nphysics is connected with an excellent course of physical geography. It seems to\\nine doubtful whether, in the natural history course, more than a general outline\\nof the subject, is necessary, with the prosecution, practically, of such branches as\\nthe locality of the institution may render applicable for improving the habits of\\nobservation and discrimination. The scientific details of the different branches\\nbelong rather to special purposes of study than to general education. The expe-\\nrience of these institutions may, however, be appealed to as proving the entire\\ncompatibility of such instruction with an otherwise sound system, and the entire\\npossibility of accomplishing it without neglecting other more important branches.\\nDrawing and vocal music, which form parts of the I egular courses of all these\\ninstitutions, have not yet found their way into the systems of other nations on the\\nsame footing with the regular studies. As a part of physical training, they are im-\\nportant, and as offering a relief from severer pursuits, further recommend them*\\nselves in this connectior.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "152 ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nThe Frederick William Gymnasium is regarded by Dr. Bache, as a\\nfair specimen of this class of schools in Prussia in the organization and\\ninstruction of which a good degree of liberty is tolerated by the govern-\\nment, to enable them the better to meet the peculiar circumstances of\\neach province, and the peculiar views of each director.\\nThe Royal Real School, and City Trade School of Berlin, furni.sh a\\ncourse of instruction of the same general value for mental discipline, but\\nbetter calculated for that class of pupils who are destined in life, not for\\nwhat are designated as the learned profession, but for tradesmen and me-\\nchanics. There is less of verbal knowledge but more of mathematics\\nand their application to the arts and the whole is so arranged as to fa-\\nciHtate the acquisition of those mental habits which are favorable to\\nthe highest practical success.\\nROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nThe Royal Real School of Berlin was founded as early as 1 747, by Counsellor\\nHecker. At the period in which this school was founded, Latin and Greek were\\ntlie exclusive objects of study in the learned schools, and the avowed purpose of\\ntiiis establishment was that not mere words should be taught to the pupils, but\\nrealities, explanations being made to them from nature, from models and plans,\\nand of subjects calculated to be useful in after-life. Hence the school was called\\na real school, and preserves this name, indicative of the great educational\\nreform which it was intended to promote, and the success of which has been,\\nthough slow, most certain.\\nThe successor of Heeker, in 1769, divided this flourishing school into three de-\\npartments, the pedagogium, or learned school, the school of arts, and the German\\nschool the whole establishment still retaining the title of real school. The first\\nnamed department was subsequently separated from the others, constituting the\\nFrederick William gymnasium the school of arts, and the German, or elemen-\\ntary school, remain combined under the title of the royal real school. The same\\ndirector, however, still presides over the gymnasium and the real school.\\nThe question has been much agitated, whether the modern languages should be\\nconsidered in these schools as the substitutes for the ancient in intellectual educa-\\ntion, br whether mathematics and its kindred branches should be regarded in this\\nlight. Whether the original principle of the realities on which the schools\\nWjere founded, was to be adhered to, or the still older of verbal knowledge, only\\nwith a change of languages, to be substituted for it. In tliis school the languages\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0096\u00a0vvill be found at present to occupy a large share of attention, while in the similar\\ninstitution, a description of which follows this, the sciences have the pre-\\nponderance.\\nIn the royal real school the branches of instruction are religion, Latin, French,\\nEnglish, German, physics, natm-al history, chemistry, history, geography, draw-\\ning, writing, and vocal music. The Latin is retained as practically useful in some\\nbranches of trade, as in phai macy, as aiding in the nomenclature of natural his-\\ntory, and as preventing a separation in the classes of this school and that of the\\ngymnasium, which would debar the pupils from passing from the former to the\\nlatter in the upper classes. It must be admitted that, for all purposes but the last,\\nit occupies an unnecessary degree of attention, especially in the middle classes.\\nThe following table shows the distribution of time among the courses. There\\nare seven classes in numerical order, but ten, in fact, the third, fourth, and fifth\\nbeing divided into two the lower fourth is again, on account of its numbers, sub-\\ndivided into two parallel sections. Of these, the seventh, sixth, and fifth are ele-\\nmentary classes, the pupils entering the seventh at between five and seven years of\\nage. In the annexed table the number of hoiu s of recitation per week of each\\nclass in the several subjects is stated, and the vertical column separating the ele-\\nmentaiy classes from the others, contains the sum of the hours devoted to each\\nbranch in the higher classes, excluding the lower section of the fourth class,\\nwhich has not a distinct course from that of tlie other division.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\n153\\nTABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HOURS OF RECITATION PER WEEK, OF EACH CLASS,\\nIN THE SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE ROVAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nProportion of other\\nstudies to German\\nin th\\n-r\\nJ3\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23\\n|s 1 1\\nK^M\\nM\\n.c\\nv,\\no\\nSDBJKCTS OF STUDY.\\nM\\nmm\\n3 oJ\\nCo\\nto\\nSo\\ni\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nc\\ni\\n55\\n\u00c2\u00a3\u00e2\u0080\u00a25\\na.\\ne- 3\\n5\\n5\\ni\\n5\\n5\\n1^\\n1\\nb\\n11\\n4\\n8\\n2\\n5\\n8\\n3\\n10\\n2\\n10\\nI\u00c2\u00a7\\n*l\u00c2\u00a3\\n0.9\\n1.0\\n0.8\\nLatin,\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n3\\n2\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n3\\n2\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n3\\n2\\n5\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n6\\n3\\n3\\n2\\n5\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n6\\n4\\n4\\n2\\n28\\n22\\n6\\n20\\n12\\n1.4\\n1.1\\n0.3\\n1.0\\n0.6\\n2.9\\n0.7\\n0.8\\n0.6\\nFlench,\\nEnglish\\nGerman,\\nReliorion,\\nMathematics,*\\n6\\n6\\n5\\n6\\n7\\n6\\n4\\n35\\n4\\n3\\n6\\n6\\n1.7\\n1.1\\n1.6\\nNatural History,\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n9\\n0.4\\n0.1 1\\n0.1\\nPhysics,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n8\\n8\\n0.4\\n0.4\\n0.2t\\n0.2\\nChemistry,\\nxeography,\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n9\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n0.4\\n0.5\\n0.5\\nHistory,\\n3\\n2\\n3\\n9\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n15\\n12\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n0.7\\n0.6\\n0.3\\n0.4\\n0.7\\n0.4\\nDrawinsr,\\n\\\\V ritin\u00c2\u00a3i\\n2\\n36\\n4\\n36\\n3\\n35\\n2\\n35\\n2\\n2\\n32\\n2\\n2\\n32\\n2\\n2\\n32\\n4\\n15\\n4\\n1^\\n4\\n26\\n6\\n26\\n8\\n26\\n0.2\\n0.7\\n0.3\\n0.6\\n0.3\\n0.6\\nSinsincf\\nTotal,\\nPupils who enter this school between five and seven years of age, and go regu-\\nlarly through the elementary classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher\\nclasses, or to enter the lowest of the gj mnasium. It is thus after the fifth class\\nthat a comparison of the two institutions must begin. The studies of the real\\nschool proper, and of the gymnasium, have exactly the same elementary basis,\\nand they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil, by taking extra instruc-\\ntion in Greek, may pass from the lower third class of the former to the lower third\\nof the latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real schools must be\\ninstitutions for secondary instruction, since the pupils have yet three classes to pass\\nthrough after reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to separate the\\nreal schools from the higher burgher schools, since the extreme limit of the\\ncourses of the latter, with the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables\\nth.^ pupil to reach the lower third class of the gymnasium. In general, a pupil\\nw 5uld terminate his studies in the real school at between sixteen and eighteen\\nyears of age. The difference between the subjects of instruction in the real\\nschool and the Frederick William gymnasium, consists in the omission in the\\nformer of Greek, Hebrew, and philosophy, and the introduction of English and\\nchemistry. The relative proportions of time occupied in the same subjects in the\\ntwo schools, wiU be seen by comparing the two columns next on the right of the\\nnumbers for the seventh class, in the table just given. The first of these columns\\ncontains the proportion of the number of hours per week devoted to the different\\nsubjects in the six classes of the real school above the elementary, the number of\\nhours devoted to the German being taken as unity and the second, the same\\nproportion for six classes of the gymnasium, beginning with the lowest, the same\\nnumber of hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding column. To bring\\nthe natural history and physics into comparison, I have taken the numbers for the\\nIncluding arithrrxetic, geometry, algebra, and trigonometry.\\nt These numbers include the entire course.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "154 ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nupper classes of the gjTnnasium in which these branches are taught. Of the\\ncourses common to the two schools, those to which nearly equal attention is paid\\nin both institutions, are the religious instruction, the German, geography and\\nhistory, writing, and vocal music. The French, mathematics, physics, and nat-\\nural history, predominate in the real school, the Latin in the gymnasium. The\\neffect of reckoning the first, second, and upper third classes of the gymnasium,\\ndoes not materially change the proportionate numbers of the courses which are\\ncommon to the two schools, except as to Latin and mathematics. To show this,\\nthe column on the extreme right of the table is introduced, containing the pro-\\nportions for all the nine classes of the Frederick illiam gymnasium.\\nTliere were, in 1838, five hundred and ten pupils in this real school, under the\\ncharge of fourteen regular or class masters, teaching several subjects in the lower\\nclasses, and of six other teachers. Each of the eleven class divisions thus aver-\\nages about forty-six, who are under the charge of one teacher at a time.\\nThe elementary course in the real school is similar to that described in the\\nburgher schools, beginning with the phonic method of reading, the explanations\\nof all the words and sentences being required at the same time that the mechani-\\ncal part of reading is learned. Written and mental arithmetic are taught together\\nin the lowest class. The religious instruction consists of Bible stories adapted to\\ntheir age and verses are committed to improve the memory of words. Tlie ex-\\nercises of induction are practiced, but in a way not equal to that with objects,\\nintroduced by Dr. Mayo in England. Some of the pupils are able to enter the\\ngymnasium after going through the two lowest classes;\\nIn regard to the real classes proper, as I propose to enter into the particulars of\\nthe course of study of the trade school, I shall here merely make a few remarks\\nupon two of the branches studied in them, namely, French and drawing. The\\nremarks in regard to the French will serve to show how great a latitude\\na teacher is allowed in the arrangement of his methods, the result of which\\nis, that those who have talent are interested in improving their art by observation\\nand experiment. The French teacher to whom I allude had been able to secure\\nthe speaking, as well as the reading, of French from his pupils. From the very\\nbeginning of the course this had been a point attended to, and translation from\\nFrench into German had been accompanied by that from German into French\\ntlie conversation on the business of the class-room was in French. The pupils\\nwere exercised e.specially in the idioms of the language in short extempore sen-\\ntences, and the diiTerences of structure of the French and their own language\\nwere often brought before them, and the difficulties resulting from them antici-\\npated. Difficult words and sentences were noted by the pupils. Declamation\\nwas practiced to encourage a habit of distinct and deliberate speaking, and to\\nsecure a correct pronunciation. The chief burthen of the instruction was oral.\\nWithout the stimulus of change of places, the classes under this gentleman s in-\\nstruction were entirely aliv\u00c2\u00ab to the instruction, and apparently earnestly engaged\\nin the performance of a duty which interested them. If such methods should\\nfail in communicating a greater amount of knowledge than less lively ones, which\\nI belive can not be the case, they will serve, at least, to break down habits of in-\\ntellectual sloth to promote mental activity, the great aim of intellectual education.\\nThe drawing department of this school is superintended by a teacher who has\\nintroduced a new method of instruction, particularly adapted to the purpose for\\nwhich drawing is to be applied in common life and in the arts a method which\\nis found to enable a much larger proportion of the pupils to make adequate ])ro-\\ngress than the oi dinary one of copying from drawings.* In this method the pupil\\nbegins by di-awing from simple geometrical forms, those selected being obtained\\nfrom models in wood or plaster, of a square pillar ,t a niche, and a low cylinder,\\n(the form of a mill-stone.) The square pillar separates in joints, affording a cube\\nand parallelepipeds of different heights. The hemisphere which caps the niche\\nmay be removed, leaving the concave surface of its cylindrical part. Tlie exer-\\ncises of the pupil ran thus First, to place upon a board, or upon his paper or\\nMr. Peter Schmidt, who now. in his old age. has received from the government a pension\\nin rf turn for the introduction of his method, and the instruction in it of a certain number of\\nteachers.\\nt Seven and a half inches high, and one inch and a half in its \u00c2\u00a3,quare section.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "CITY TRADE SCHOOL. I55\\nslate, a point vertically above another, or so that the lines joining the two shall\\nbe parallel to the right or left hand edge of the board, paper, or slate. Second,\\nto join them. Third, to place a point horizontally from the second, and at a dis-\\nt:mce equal to that between the first and second points. Fourth, to place one\\nvertically over the third, and at a distance equal to that below the first, and to\\njoin the third and fourth. The first and fourth being then joined, a square is\\nformed. After practice in this, the simple elevation of the cube is drawn. Next,\\na perspective, by the use of a small frame and silk threads, such as is common in\\nteaching the elements of this subject, and by means of which the pupil acquires\\nreadily a knowledge of the practice. The drawing of lines in various positions,\\nand with various proportions, termi^iates this division of the subject. The niche\\nand cylinder afford a similarly graduated series of lessons on the drawing of curved\\nlines, and the drawing of lines of diflierent degrees of strength and of shadows is\\nintroduced. This is accompanied with some of the more simple rules of shadow\\nand shade. Moi e difficult exercises of perspective follow from natural objects\\nand from works of art or mechanism, according to the dii-ection to the pupil s at-\\ntainments and the amount of taste which he displays. This method of teaching\\nhas been introduced quite generally in Prussia, and with the best results as to the\\nformation of accuracy of eye and of hand.\\nCITY TRADE SCHOOL.\\nThe City Trade School was founded to give a more appropriate education for\\nthe mechanic arts and higher trades than can be had through the courses of clas-\\nsical schools. It is a great point gained, when the principal is admitted that dif-\\nferent kinds of education are suited to different objects in life and such an ad-\\nmission belongs to an advanced stage of education. As a consequence of a gen-\\neral sentiment of this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruction of\\nthose not intended for the learned professions grow up by the side of the others.\\nThe city of Berlin is the patron of the trade school which I am about to notice,\\nas the king is of the real school already spoken of Its stability is thus secured,\\nbut the means of furnishing it with the necessary materials for instruction are\\nliberally provided.* The trade school is a day school, and consists of five classes,\\nof which the lowest is on the same grade as to age and qualification at admission,\\nas the fourth class of a gymnasium. It is assumed that at twelve years of age it\\nwill have been decided whether a youth is to enter one of the learned professions,\\nor to follow a mechanical employment, or to engage in trade, but the higher classes\\nare not closed against pupils. Of the five classes, four are considered necessary\\nfor certain pursuits and the whole five for others the courses of all but the first\\nclass last one year, that of the first, two years, a youth leaving the school at from\\n16 to 17 or 18 years of age, according to circumstances. During the year 1836-7,\\nthe number of pupils in the several classes were, in the first class, eleven in the\\nsecond, twenty-nine in the upper third, forty-three in the lower third, fifty-\\ntwo in the fourth, fifty total, one hundred and eighty-five from which num-\\nbers it appears that a considerable proportion of the pupils leave the school without\\nentering the first class. The number of teachers is nineteen, five being regular or\\nclass teachers, and fourteen assistants. Tiie director gives instruction.\\nThe following list of the callings to which pupils from this school have gone on\\nleaving it, will show that it is really what it professes to be, a school for the in-\\nstruction of those who intend to follow occupations connected with commerce,\\nthe useful arts, higher trades, building, mining, forestry, agriculture, and military\\nfife and further, that its advantages are appreciated by the class for whom it is\\nintended. The list includes the pUpils who have left the school from the first and\\nsecond classes, in the years 1830, 1833, 1833 and 1837. From the first class, two\\nteachers, five architects, one chemist, twenty-six merchants, one machinest, two\\ncalico-printers, two glass-workers, one cloth manufacturer, one silk manufacturer,\\none miner, thirteen agriculturalists, eight apothecaries, two gardeners, one painter,\\none mason, one carpenter, one tanner, one miller, one baker, one potter, one\\nsaddler, one soap-boiler, one cabinet-maker, two soldiers, one musician, five to\\nThe present director of this school, Mr. Kloden, was formerly director of the hij;her\\nburgher school at Potsdam, and is one of the most distinguished teachers in his line iu Persia", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "156 TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN.\\npublic offices, one to the trade institution, six to gymnasium. From the second\\nclass, forty-one merchants, one teacher, one chemist, one machinest, one ship-car-\\npenter, nine agriculturist, one sugar-refiner, three dyers, one tanner, one brewer,\\ntwo distillers, one miner, two lithographers, one dye-sinker, three apothecaries,\\none dentist, two painters, two gardeners, three masons, five carpenters, one miller,\\nfour bakers, one butcher, one to the trade institution, thi ee to public offices, two\\nto a gynmasium, one musician, one veterinary surgeon, one soldier, being ninety\\nfrom the first class, and ninety-seven from the second, in the period of four years.\\nIn the course of instruction, the sciences and kindred branches are made the\\nbasis, and the modern languages are employed as auxiliaries, the ancient languages\\nbeing entirely omitted. The subjects embraced in it are religious instruction,\\nGerman, French, English, geography, history mathematics, physics, chemistry,\\ntechnology, natural histor} writing, drawing, and vocal music.\\nThe courses are fully laid down in the following list, beginning with the studies\\nof the lowest or fourth class.\\nFOURTH CI.ASS,\\nReligious Instruction* The eospel accnrtiiiiff to SI. l.uke, and the Acts of the Apostles\\nexplained, with a catechetical development of the truths of religion and ethical applications.\\nTvyo hours per week.\\nGfrmim. Grammatical exercises in writing. Recital of poetical pieces.\\nFrench. Grummatical exercises. Regular ami irregular verbs. Reading from Lauren s\\nReader One hour of conversation. Four hours.\\nArithmetic Mental and written, including proportions and fractions, with the theory of\\nthe operations Four hours.\\nGeutnetry Introductory course of forms. Two hours.\\nGejigrnphy. Elementary, mathematical, and phy.sical geography. Two hours.\\nNatural History. In the summer term, elements of botany, with excursions. In the win-\\nter, the external characters of animals. Two hours.\\nPhysics. Introductory instruction. General properties of bodies. Forms of crystals,\\nspec fic gravity SlC. Two hours.\\nWriting. Two hours.\\nDraicivg. Outline drawingand Sbhadows, from models and copy-boards. Two hours.\\nVucal Music. Two hours.\\nLOWER THIRD CLASS.\\nReligious^ Instruction. The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles read and explauied.\\nTwo hours.\\nGerman. Grammar with special reference to orthography and etymology. Written exer-\\ncises upon narrations made by the teacher Delivery of poetical pieces. Four hours.\\nPrench Translation from l rench into German from Gredicke s Chrestomathy Grammar\\nirreg-iilar VI rbs. Extemporalia, and translations from German into French. Fourhnurs.\\nArithmetic Partly abstract, partly practical, from Diesterweg s Instructor. Four hours.\\nGeometry. Delermination of ansles in triangles and polygons Equality of triangles.\\nDepeiidanre of angles and sides of triangles Construrtions. Three hours.\\nGe igrriphy. Physical description of the parts of the earth, except Europe. Two hours.\\nNatural History Mineralogy. In summer, botany, the class making excursions for prac-\\ntical exercise Man. Three hours.\\nPhysics. General properties of bodies and solids in particular. Doctrines of heat and\\ntheir application to natural phenomena and the arts. Two hours.\\nChemistry. Introduction. Atmospheric air. Experimental illustrations of chemistry,\\napplied to the arts. Two hours.\\nWriting. Two hours. Architectural a7id topographical drawing. Two hours. Drawing\\nby hand lor those who do not take part in the other. Two hours.\\nVocal Music. Two hours.\\nUPPER THIRD CLASS.\\nReligious Instruction. Christian morals, from Luther s Catechism. Two hours.\\nGerman. Simple and complex sentences. Compositions on special subjects. Poems ex-\\n))lained and committed. Four hours.\\nFrench. Translation from Gredicke s Chrestomathy, oral and in wr ting. Written trans-\\nlations from Beauvais Introduction, from German into French. Grammar, examples treated\\nextempore. Four hours\\nArithmetic. Properties of numbers. Powers. Roots. Decimal fractions Practical\\nArithmetic from Uiesterweg. Four hours.\\nGeometry. Similar figures. Geometrical proportion. Exercises. Mensuration of rectili-\\nneartigures. Three hours.\\nGeography. Physical geography of Europe, and in particular of Germany and Prussia.\\nTwo hours.\\nNatural History. Continuation of the mineralogy of the lower third class. Review in\\noutline of zoology and the natural history of man in particular. Botany, with excursions in\\nsummer. Three hours.\\nRoman Catholic pupils are not required to take part in this instruction, which is commu-\\nnicated by a Protestant clergj-man", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. 15\\nPhysics. Electricity and magnetism, witn experiments. Two hours.\\nChemistry. Water and non-niefallic bodies, witli e.xperiments. Two hours.\\nWriting- Two liours. Architectural and topngraphiral draicing. Two^ours. Some of\\nthe pupils during lliis time are engaged in ornamental drawing.\\nVocal Music. Two hours.\\nSECOND CLASS.\\nRdigious Instruction. Explanation of the first three gospels. History of the Christia^n\\nreligion and church to the reformation. Two hours.\\nGerman. Correction of exercises written at home, upon subjects assigned by the teacher.\\nOral and written exercises. Introduction to the history of German poetry Three hours.\\nFrench. Grammar; extemporalia for the application of the rules. Written and oral\\ntranslations from German into French, from Beauvais Manual, and vice versa, from Ideler\\nand Nolte s Manual. Four hours.\\nEnglish Exercises in reading and speaking. Translation into German, from Burkhardt.\\nDictation. Verbs. Two hours.\\nArithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to include simple and quadratic equa-\\ntions. Logarithms Three hours.\\nGeometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonometry. Three hours.\\nGeography. The stales of Europe, with special reference to their population, manufac-\\ntures and commerce. Two hours.\\nHistory. Principal events of the history of the middle ages and of later times, as an intro-\\nduction to recent history. One hour.\\nNatural History. Mineralogy. Physiology of plants. Three hours.\\nChemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, with experiments. Three hours.\\nArchitectural, topographical, and plain drawing. Drawing with instruments. Introduc-\\ntion to India ink drawing. Beginning of the science of constructions. Two hours.\\nDrniping. From copies, and from plaster and-other models. Two hours. This kind of\\ndrawing may be learned instead of the above.\\nVocal Music. Two hours.\\nFIRST CLASS.\\nReligious Instruction. History of the Christian religion and church continued. Refer-\\nences to the bible. One nour.\\nGerman. History of German literature to recent times. Essays. Exercises of delivery.\\nThree hours.\\nFrench. Reading from the manual of Buchner and Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic\\nauthors read. Review of Grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free delivery.\\nCorrection of exercises. Four hours.\\nEnglish. Syntax, with written and extempore exercises from Burkhardt. Reading of\\nclassic authors. Writing of letters. Exercises in speaking.\\nArithmetic Alsebra. Simple and quadratic equations. Binomial and polynomial theo-\\nrems Higher equations. Commercial arthmetic continued. Three hours.\\nGeometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications. Conic sections. Descriptive Geome-\\ntry. Three hours.\\nHistory. History of the middle ages. Modern history, with special reference to the prog-\\nress of civilization, of inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry. Three hours.\\nNatural History. In summer, botany, the principal families, according to the natm-al sys-\\ntem. In wiiiter, zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of examining specimens to\\nthe Royal Museum.\\nPhysics. In summer, optics with experiments. In winter the system of the world.\\nThree hours.\\nTechnology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades, described and illustrated by mo-\\ndels. Excursions to visit the principal workshops. Four hours.\\nArchitectural and machine dratcing. Two hours. Those pupils who do not take part in\\nthis, receive lessons in ornamental drawing from plaster models.\\nVocal Music. Two hours.\\nThe pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in manipulating in the laboratory of the insti-\\ntion several hours each week.\\nThe courses require a good collection of apparatus and specimens to carry\\nthem out, and this school is, in fact, better furnished than any other of its grade\\nwhich I saw in Prussia, besides which, its collections are on the increase. The\\nfacilities for the courses are furnished by a collection of mathematical and physical\\napparatus, a labratory, with a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and series of\\ntests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures (or technological col-\\nlection,) a collection of dried plants, and of engravings for the botanical course,\\nand a small garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collection of insects,\\na collection in comparative anatomy, a series of engravings for the drawing course,\\nand of plaster models, a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some as-\\ntronoiTiical instruments, and a library. The pupils are taken from tiriie to time,\\nto the admirable museum attached to the university of Berlin, for the examination\\nof zoological specimens especially.\\nThat this school is as a preparation for the higher occupations, and for profes-\\nsions not ranking among the learned, the equivalent of the gymnasium is clearly\\nshown by the subjects and scope of its courses, and by the age of its pupils.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "158\\nCITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN\\nSome of these occupations require no higher instruction, others that the pupils\\nshall pass to the special schools introductory to them. So also, many of the pupils\\nof the gymnasia pass at once into active life, others enter the university.\\nThe class of schools to which the two last described belong, are most important\\nin their influence. In many countries, an elementary education isthe limit beyond\\nwhich those intending to enter the lower grades of the occupations enumerated in\\nconnection with the City Ti ade School of Berlin, do not pass and if they are in-\\nclined to have a better education, or if intending to embrace a higher occupation,\\nthey desire to be better instructed, they must seek instruction in the classical\\nschools. The training of these schools is, however, essentially different from that\\nrequired by the tradesman and mechanic, the verbal character of the instruction\\nis not calculated to produce the habits of mind in which he should be brought up,\\nand the knowledge which is made the basis of mental training is not that which\\nhe has chiefly occasion to use. Besides, were the course ever so well adapted to\\nhis object, the time at which he must leave school only permits him to follow a\\npart of it, and he is exposed to the serious evils which must flow from being, as it\\nwere, but half taught.\\nIn fact, however, he requires a very different school, one in which the subjects\\nof instruction are adapted to his destination, while they give him an adequate in-\\ntellectual culture where the character of the instruction will train him to the\\nhabits which must, in a very considerable degree, determine his future usefulness;\\nand where the course which he pursues will be thorough, as far as it goes, and\\nwill have reached before he leaves the school the standard at which it aims. Such\\nestablishments are furnished by the real schools of Germany, and as the wants\\nwhich gave rise to them there, are strongly felt every where, this class of institu-\\ntioiTs must spread extensively. In Germany they are, as has been seen, no new\\nexperiment, but have stood the test of experience, and with various modifications\\nto adapt them to differences of circumstances or of views in education, they are\\nspreading in that country. As they become more diffused, and have employed a\\ngreater number of minds in their organization, their plans will no doubt be more\\nfully developed.\\nIt is certainly highly creditable to Germany that its gymnasia. on the one\\nhand, and its real schools on the other, offer such excellent models of secondary\\ninstruction in its two departments. The toleration which allows these dissimilar\\nestablishments to grow up side by side, admitting that each, though good for its\\nobject, is not a substitute for the other, belongs to an enlightened state of senti-\\nment in regard to education, and is worthy of the highest commendation.\\nDISTRIBUTION OF STUDIES IN THE CITY TRADE SCHOOL OF BERLIN.\\nOF HOURS PER\\nSUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION.\\nReligion,\\nGerman,\\nFrench,\\nEnglish,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeometry,.\\nGeography,\\nHistory,\\nNatural History,\\nPhysics,\\nChemistry,\\nTechnology,\\nWriting,\\nDrawing,\\nVocal Music,\\nTotal,\\nUpper\\nTTiird\\nClass.\\n34 82 32 32 28\\n9\\n18\\n20\\n4\\n18\\n14\\n8\\n4\\n13\\n9\\n7\\n4\\n6\\n14\\n10", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "INSTITUTE Of ARTS OF liERLIN. jgg\\nIn Prussia, every trade in which a want of skill may jeopard human\\nlife, is regulated by law; and before its exercise can be commenced, a\\nlicense is required, to obtain which an examination must be passed.\\nThis requisition of the law is considered to involve a reciprocal obliga-\\ntion on the part of the government to afford the opportunity of obtain-\\ning the necessary knowledge, and schools have accordingly been estab-\\nlished for the purpose. Twenty of the regencies of the kingdom already\\nhave technical schools established in them, where instruction is. ip gen-\\neral, given at the expense of the state, or province, or for a very trifling\\nremuneration; and it is the intention that each regency shall haw at\\nleast one such school within its limits. When there is a burgher school\\nin the place intended as the locality for one of these technical schools,\\nthe two schools are connected as already described: at Potsdam, the\\nspecial technical course alone being given in a separate department.\\nIn all cases the government supplies the apparatus for the courses of\\nmechfCnics, physics, and chemistry; furnishes the requisite engravings\\nfor the courses of drawing; and supplies works for the library and for\\ninstruction.\\nThe most promising pupils from the provincial schools usually find\\nplaces at the central Institute at Berlin, which is in fact the university\\nof artg. There is a special school for ship-builders at Stettin, in\\nPomerania.\\nINSTITUTE OF ARTS OF BERLIN,\\nThis institution is intended to impart the theoretical knowledge essential to im\\nprovement in the arts, and such practical knowledge as can be acquired to advan-\\ntage in a school. It is supported by the government, and has also a legacy, to be\\nexpended in bursaries at the school, from Baron Von Seydlitz. The institution is\\nunder the charge of a director,* who has the entire control of the funds, of the\\nadmissions and dismissions, and the superintendence of the instruction. The pro-\\nfessors and pupils do not reside in the establishment, so that the superintendence\\nis confined to study hours. There are assistant professors, who prepare the lec-\\ntures, and conduct a part of the exercises, in some eases reviewing the lessons of\\nthe professors with the pupils. Besides these officers there are others, who have\\ncharge of the admirable collections of the institution, and of the workshops,\\noffices, c. The number of professors is eight, and of repeaters, two. The dis-\\ncipline is of the most simple character, for no pupil is allowed to remain in con-\\nnection with the institution unless his conduct and progress are satisfactory. There\\nis but one punishment recognized, namely, dismission and even a want of punc-\\ntuality is visited thas severely.\\nIn the spring of every year the regencies advertise that applications will be re-\\nceived for admission into the institute, and the testimonials of the candidates who\\npresent the best claims are forwarded to the director at Berlin, who decides finally\\nupon the several nominations. The pupils from the provincial schools have, in\\ngeneral, the preference over other applicants. At the same time notice is given\\nby the president of the Society for the Promotion of National Industry, in rela-\\ntion to the bursaries vacant upon the Seydlitz foundation. The qualifications es-\\nsential to admission are to read and write the German language with correctness\\nand facility, and to be thoroughly acquainted with arithmetic in all its branches.\\nThe candidate must, besides, be at least seventeen years of age. Certain of tho\\nThedirecior, M. Beuth, is also president of the Royal Technical Commission of Prussia,\\nand has the distribution of the funds for the encouragement of industry, amounting to about\\nseventy-five thousand dollars annually. M. Beuth is also a privy counsellor, and is president\\nof the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry in Prussia.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "I go INSTITUTE OF ARTS OF BERLIN.\\npupils, as will be hereafter more fully stated, require to have served an appren-\\nticeship to a trade. The Seydlitz bursar must, in addition, show 1st. That their\\nparents were not artizans,* relatives of the founder ha\\\\ ing the preference over\\nother applicants. 2d. That they have been apprenticed to a trade, if they intend\\nto follow one not taught in the institution. 3d. They must enter into an engage-\\nment that if they leave the mechanical career they will pay back the amount of\\ntheir bursaries. There are sixty or seventy gratuitous pupils in the school of\\nwhom eighteen are upon the Seydlitz foundation. Forty arc admitted annually,\\nthis number having been adopted because it is found that, in the course of the\\nfirst month, about a fourth of the newly admitted pupils fall away from the insti-\\ntution. Each bursar receives two hundred and twenty-five dollars per annum\\nfor maintenance. The education is gratuitous. The regular pupils enter on the\\nfirst of October, but the director is authorized to admit, at his pleasure, applicants\\nwho do not desire to become bursars, but who support themselves, receiving gra-\\ntuitously, however, the instruction aflbrded by the institution.\\nThe education of the pupils is either solely theoretical, or combines theory and\\npractice, according to the calling which they intend to follo\\\\\\\\-. The first division\\nis composed of students, who receive theoretical instruction only, and who are\\npreparing to become masons, carpenters, and joiners. They are supposed to have\\nbecome acquainted with the practice of their trade before entering the institution,\\nbeing required to have served, previously, a part of their apprenticeship. An ex-\\ncellent reason is assigned for this rule, namely, that on leaving the school such\\npupils are too old to begin their apprenticeship to these callings, and would, if they\\nattempted to do so, find the first beginnings so irksome as to induce them to seek\\nother employments, and thus their special education would be lost-, and the object\\nof the school defeated. The second division embraces both theoretical and prac-\\ntical instruction, and consists of three classes. First, the stone-cutters, engravei s,\\nlapidaries, glass-cutters, carvers in wood and ivory, and brass-founders. Second,\\ndyers and manufacturers of chemical products. Third, machine-makers and me-\\nchanicians. The practical instruction is different for each of these three elas.ses.\\nThe general course of studies last two years, and the pupils are divided into\\ntwo corresponding classes. The first class is, besides, subdivided into two sections.\\nThe lower or second class is taught first mechanical drawing, subdivided into\\ndecorative drawing, including designs for architectural ornaments, utensils, vases,\\npatterns for weaving, c., and linear drawing, applied to civil works, to handicrafts,\\nand to machines. Second, modelling in clay, plaster, and wax. Third, practical\\narithmetic. Fourth, geometry. Fifth, natural philosophy. Sixth, chemistry.\\nSeventh, technology, or a knowledge of the materials, processes, and products of\\nthe arts. The studies of the lower section of the first class are general, while\\nthose of the first section turn more particularly upon the applications of science to\\nthe arts. In the lower section, the drawing, modelling, natural philosophy, and\\nchemistry, of the first year, are continued and, in addition, descriptive geometry,\\ntrigonometry, stereometry, mixed mathematics, )nineralogy, and the art of con-\\nstruction are studied. In the upper or first section, perspective, stone-cutting,\\ncarpentry, and mechanics applied to the arts, are taught, and the making of plans\\nand estimates for buildings, workshops, manufactories, machines, c. These\\nare common to all pupils, whatever may be their future destination but beside\\nthem, the machinists study, during the latter part of their stay at the institution,\\na continuation of the course of mechanics and mathematical analysis. The ex-\\namples accompanying the instruction in regard to plans and estimates are adapted\\nto the intended pursuits of the pupils.\\nThe courses of practice are begun by the pupils already enumerated as taking\\npart in them, at different periods of their stay in the institution. The future\\nchemists and mechanics must have completed the whole range of studies above\\nmentioned, as common to all the pupils, while the others begin their practice after\\nhaving completed the first year s course. There are workshops for each class of\\npupils, where they are taught the practice of their proposed calling, under com-\\npetent workmen. There are two foimdries for bronze castings, one for small, the\\nThe object of M. Von Seydlitz appears to have been to counteract, to the extent of his\\npower, the tendency to the increase of the learnecl professions, at the expense of the mechanic\\narts, by an inducement to a course exactly contrary to the usual one.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "INSTITUTE OF ARTS OF BERLIN. Jgj\\nother for large castings, and tTie work turned out of both bears a high character.\\nA specimen of this work is retained by the institution in a beautiful fountain,\\nwhich ornaments one of the coui ts of the building. The models for castings are\\nmade in the establishment. In the first division of pupils, in reference to their\\ncallings, there are usually some whose art is connected with the fine arts in some\\nof its branches, and these have an opportunity during part of the week to attend\\nthe courses of the Berlin Academy. The future chemists work for half the yeaK\\nin the laboratory. They are chiefly employed in chemical analysis, being furnished\\nwith the requisite materials for practice by the institution. In the shops for the\\ninsti uetion of mechanics are machines for working in wood and the metals, a steam-\\nengine of four horses power, a forge, tools in great variety, lathes, c. The pupils\\nhave the use of all necessary implements, according to their progress, and are\\ngradually taught, as if serving a regular apprenticeship. When capable, they are\\nenable to construct machines which may be useful to them subsequently, as a\\nlathe, or machine for cutting screws, or the teeth of wheels, c., and are furnished\\nwith all the materials for the purpose, the machine becoming their own property.\\nIn these workshops, also, the models for the cabinet of the school are made.\\nThis is by far the most complete establishment for practice which I met with in\\nany institution, and I believe the practice is both real and efl:ectual. It involves,\\nhowever, an expenditure which in other cases it has not been practicable to com-\\nmand. The scale of the whole institution is, in the particular of expenditure,\\nmost generous.\\nThis is one specimen of the various plans which have been devised to give\\npractical knowledge of an art in connection with theory in a school. It is first\\nmost judiciously laid down that certain trades can not be taught to advantage in a\\nsimilar connection, but that the practical knowledge must be acquired by an ap-\\nprenticeship antecedent to the theoretical studies. There are besides, however, a\\nlarge number of trades, the practice of which is to be taught in the institu-\\ntion, and requiring a very considerable expenditure to carry out the design pro-\\nperly. This could not be attempted in a school less munificently endowed,\\nand requires very strict regulations to carry it through even here. The habits of\\na school workshop are, in general, not those of a real manufactory, where the\\nsame articles are made to be sold as a source of profit hence, though the practi-\\ncal knowledge may be acquired, the habits of work are not, and the mechanic\\nmay be well taught but not well trained. At the private school of Charonne,\\nworkshops were established, giving a variety of occupation to the pupils but the\\ndisposition to play rather than to work, rendered these establishments too costly to\\nbe supported by a private institution, and the plan adopted instead of this, was to\\nmake the pupils enter a regular workshop for a stated number of hours, to work\\nfor the proprietor or lessee. This plan remedies one evil, but introduces another,\\nthat as the machinist takes orders, with a view to profit, the work may have so\\nlittle variety as only to benefit a small class of the pupils. The pupils at Charonne\\nare, however, under different circumstances fi-om those at Berlin they are gen-\\nerally younger, and, being independent of the school, where they paj for their\\neducation, are not under the same restraint as in the other institution hence the\\nexperience of the one school does not apply in full force to the other. At Dres-\\nden, in a school somewhat similar to that of Berlin, a different mode from either\\nof those just mentioned has been adopted. An arrangement is made with a num-\\nber of mechanics, of different occupations, to receive pupils from the schools as\\napprentices, allowing them the privilege of attending, during certain specified\\nhours of the day, upon the theoretical exercises of the institution. Where such\\nan arrangement can be made, the results are unexceptionable, and the advantages\\nhkely to accrue to the mechanic arts, from the union of theory with practice, will\\noffer a strong inducement to liberally disposed mechanics to take apprentices upon\\nthese terms. Small workshops, connected with an institution, must necessarily\\noffer inferior advantages, even if closely regulated, so as to procure the greatest\\npossible amount of work from the pupils this should not be done for the sake of\\nthe profit, but to give him genuinely good habits.\\nThe difficulties in giving practical instruction in the chemical arts are not to be\\ncompared with those under di.scussion, and will be found to have been satisfactorily\\nobviated in several schools. This subject will receive its more appropriate discus-\\nsion in connection with the polytechnic institution of Vienna, where the chemioal\\n11", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "IQ2 INSTITUTE OF ARTS OF BERLIN.\\ndepartment, at least as far as manufacturing chemistry is concerned, is generally\\nrecognized as having produced the best results of any yet established.\\nReturning to the subject of the theoretical instruction in the Berlin institute of\\narts, the following statement will serve to show the succession of the course, with\\nthe time devoted to each\\nWINTER COURSE,\\nMONDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 drawing and sketching machines, eight A. M. to twelve o clock.\\nDiscussion of machines, estimates of power, tc two P. M. to five P. M. Second division\\nmachine drawing, eight to ten. Modelling in clay, ten to twelve. Physics, two to five.\\nStcond C/ass. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Modelling, ten to twelve. Elements of\\ngeometry, two to four. Repetition of the lecture, four to five.\\nTUESDAY.\\nFirst C/ass. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 architectural plans and estimates, eight to twelve. Practical\\ninstruction in machinery, two to five. Second division ornamental and architectural draw-\\ning, eight to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five.\\nSecund Class. Ornamental and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Physics, two to\\nfour. Repetition of the lecture, four to five.\\nWEDNESDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 original designs, eight to twelve. Discussion of machinery.\\nSecond division mineralogy, eight to nine. Machine drawing, nine to twelve. Trigonome-\\ntry, two to five.\\nSecond Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to five.\\nTHURSDAY.\\nFirst Class. First divisions-drawing and sketching machines, eight to twelve. Architec-\\ntural instruction, estimates, two to five. Second division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 decorative and architectural\\ndrawing, eight to ten. Modelling in clay, ten to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five.\\nSecond Class. Decorative and archiltclural drawing, eight to ten. Modelling in clay, ten\\nto twelve. Physics, two to four. Repetition of the lecture, four to five.\\nFRIDAY.\\nFirst Class, First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 architectural plans, eight to twelve. Practical instruction in\\nmacliinery, two to five. Stcond division machine drawing, eight to twelve. Physics, two\\nto five.\\nSecond Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. Elementary mathematics, two to four.\\nRepetition of the lessons, four to five.\\nSATURDAY.\\nFirst Class First division perspective and stone-cutting, eight to twelve. Original de-\\nsigns. Iwo to five. Second division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 mineralogy, eight to nine. Decorative and architectu-\\nral drawing, nine to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five.\\nSecond Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Practical arithme-\\ntic, two to five.\\nThe suimiier term, which follows this, embraces the practical instruction.\\nSUMMER TERM.\\nMONDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in the workshops from seven A. M. to twelve, and from one\\nuntil seven P. M. Second division machine drawing, eight to twelve. Applied mathemat-\\nics, two to five.\\nSecond Cass. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Modelling, ten to twelve. Chemistry, two\\nto four. Repetition, lour to five.\\nTUESDAY.\\nFirst Class First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 analytical dynamics, eight to nine. Drawing of machines from\\noriginal designs, nine to twelve. Machinery, two to five. StCond division decorative and\\narchitectural drawing, eight to twelve. Chemistry, two to five.\\nSeco7id C/ass. Decorative and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Elementary mathe-\\nmatics, two to four. Repetition, four to five.\\nWEDNESDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in the workshops from seven to twelve, and from one to seven.\\nSecond division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 machine drawing, eight to ten. Modelling, ten to twelve. Applied mathe-\\nmatics, two to five.\\nSecond Class Machine drawing, eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to four. Ma-\\nterials used in the arts, four to five.\\nTHURSDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in the workshops from seven to twelve, and from one to\\nseven. Second division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 machine drawing, eight to ten. Modelling, ten to twelve. Applied\\nmathematics, two to five.\\nSecond Class. Decorative and architectural drawing, eight to ten. Modelling, ten to\\ntwelve. Chemistry, two to four. Repetition of the lesson, four to five.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "INSTITUTE OK ARTS OF BERLIN.\\n163\\nFRIDAY.\\nFirst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 analytical dynamics, eight to nine. Drawing of a machine for\\nan original design, nine to twelvfe. Mjclnnery, two to five. Second division chemistry,\\neight 10 nine. Applied mathematics, nine to twelve. Chemistry, two to five.\\nSecu7id C/ass. Machine drawing, eight to twelve. Elementary mathematics, two to four.\\nRepetition of the lesson, four to five.\\nSATURDAY.\\nI\\\\rst Class. First division\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in the workshops, from seven to twelve, and from one to\\nseven. Second division decorative and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Applied\\nmalhematics. two to five.\\nSecund C/ass. Decorative and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Practical arithme-\\ntic, two to four. Materials used in the arts, four to five\\nThe chemical division of the practical classes is engaged every day in the laboratory. On\\nTuesday and Wednesday, the library is open for reading from five to eight, P. M.\\nThe collections for carrying out the various branches of instruction are upon\\nthe same liberal scale with the other parts of the institution. There is a library\\nof works on architecture, mechanics, technology, the various arts, archeology, c.,\\nin German, French and English. This library is open twice a week, from five to\\neight in the evening, to the pupils of the first class of the school, and to such me-\\nchanics as apply for the use of it.\\nThere is a rich collection of drawings of new and useful machines, and of illus-\\ntrations of the different courses, belonging to the institution. Among them is a\\nsplendid work, published under the direction of Mr. Beuth, entitled Models for\\nManufactures and Artisans, (Vorlegeblatter for Fabricanten and Handwerker,)\\ncontaining engravings by the best artists of Germany, ai^d some even from France\\nand England, applicable to the different arts and to architecture and engineering.\\nAmong the drawings are many from original designs by Shenckel, of Berlin.\\nThere is a second useful but more ordinary series of engravings, on similar sub-\\njects, also executed for the use of the school. These works are distributed to the\\nprovincial trade schools, and presented to such of the mechanics of Prussia as\\nhave especially distinguished themselves in their vocations. The collection of\\nmodels of machinery belonging to the school probably ranks next in extent and\\nvalue to .that at the Conservatory of Arts of Paris. It contains models of such\\nmachines as are not readily comprehended by drawings. Most of them are\\nworking models, and many were made in the workshops of the school. They\\nare constructed, as far as possible, to a uniform scale, and the parts of the models\\nare of the same materials as in the actual machine. There is an extensive col-\\nlection of casts, consisting of copies of statues, basso-relievos, utensils, bronzes,\\nand vases of the museums of Naples, Rome, and Florence, and of the British\\nMuseum, and of the models of architectural monuments of Greece, Rome, Pom-\\npeii, c., and copies of models, cameos, and similar objects those specimens only\\nhave been selected which are not in the collection of the Academy of Fine Arts\\nof Berlin, to which the pupils of the Institute of Arts have access. There are\\ngood collections of physical and chemical apparatus, of minerals, of geological and\\ntechnological specimens.\\nThe instruction is afforded in part by the lectures of the professors, aided by\\ntext-books specially intended for the school, and in part by the interrogations of\\nthe professors and of the assistants and repeaters. At the close of the first year\\nthere is an examination to determine which of the pupils shall be permitted to go\\nforward, and at the close of the second year to determine which shall receive the\\ncertificate of the institute. Although the pupils who come from the provinces are\\nadmitted to the first class of the institute, upon their presenting a testimonial that\\nthey have gone through the course of the provincial schools satisfactorily, it fre-\\nquently happens that they are obliged to retire to the second, especially from de-\\nfective knowledge of chemistry.\\nThe cost of this school to the government is about twelve thou.sand dollars an-\\nnually, exclusive of the amount expended upon the practical courses and upon the\\ncollections -a very trifling stun, if the good which it is calculated to do through-\\nout the country is considered.\\nThe schools and institutions above described, are only specimens of\\nthe care of the government to provide facilities for special instruction in\\nevery department of labor which ministers to the physical wants of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "164 INSTITUTE OF ARTS OF BERLIN.\\nsociety, and to the improvement of decorative art in the workshop and\\nthe factory. Schools for civil engineering, architecture, gardening, agri-\\nculture, commerce, c., are established indifferent provinces, and aided\\nby llie government. The practical skill in drawing, made universal by its\\nintroduction as a regular exercise in all primary schools as well as per-\\nfected in the higher class of public schools, has given increased value to\\nthe productions of the loom, and the hand, and enabled the Prussian\\nmanufacturer not only to supply the home demand for articles of taste\\nand beauty, but to compete successfully with those of other nations, in\\nthe markets of the world.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "LEGAL PROVISION\\nRESPECTING THE\\nEDUCATION, IMPROVEMENT, AND SUPPORT OF TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA.\\nThe following are the provisions of the law of 1819 respecting Normal\\nSchools and teachers. It is difficult to describe the well-qualified teacher\\nin more appropriate language\\nIn order that a master may be enabled to fulfill the duties of his sta-\\ntion, he ought to be religious, wise, and alive to the high importance of\\nhis profession. He ought thorougiily to understand the duties of his\\nstation, to have acquired the art of teaching and managing youth, to be\\nfirm in his fidelify to the state, conscientious in the discharge of his duties,\\nfriendly and prudent in his relations with the parents of his children, and\\nwith his fellow-citizens in general finally, he ought to inspire all around\\nhim with a lively interest in the progress of the school, and to render\\nthem favorably inclined to second hia own wishes and endeavors.\\nIn order to insure the education of such schoolmasters, the following\\nregulations are laid down\\nEach department is required to have a number of young men well\\nprepared for their duties, who may supply the yearly vacancies in the\\nranks of the schoolmasters of the department, and therefore each depart-\\nment shall be required to support a Normal School. These establish-\\nments shall be formed on the basis of the following regulations\\n1. No Normal School for teachers in the primary schools shall admit\\nmore than seventy pupil teachers.\\n2. In every department where the numbers of Catholics and Protest-\\nants are about equal, there shall be, as often as circumstances will per-\\nmit, a Normal School for the members of each sect. But wliere there is\\na very marked inequality in the numbers of the two sects, the masters of\\nthe least numerous sect shall be obtained from the Normal Schools be-\\nlonging to that sect in a neighboring department, or by smaller establish-\\nments in the same department annexed to an elementarj primary school.\\nNormal Schools for simultaneous education of two sects shall be permitted\\nwhen the pupil teachers can obtain close at hand suitable religious in-\\nstruction, each in the doctrines of his own church.\\n3. The Normal Schools shall be established whenever it is possible in\\nsmall towns, so as to preserve the pupil teachers from the dissipations,\\ntemptations, and habits of life which are not suitable to their future pro-\\nfession, without subjecting them to a monastic seclusion but the town\\nought not to be too small, in order that they may profit by the vicinity of\\nseveral elementary and superior primary schools.\\n6. No young man can be received into a Normal School who has not\\npassed through a course of instruction in an elementary primary school\\nnor can any young man be received, of the excellence of whose moral\\ncharacter there is the least ground of suspicion. The age of admission\\ninto the Normal Schools shall be from sixteen to eighteen years.\\n7. As to the methods of instruction, directors of the Normal Schools\\nshall rather seek to conduct the pupil teachers by their own experience\\nto simple and clear principles, than to give them theories lor their guid-\\nance and with this end in view, primary schools shall be jomed to all the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "166\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA\\nNormal Schools, where the pupil teachers may be practised in the art of\\nteaching.\\n8. In each Normal School the course of wstructinn shall last three\\nyears, of which tlie first sliall be devoted to the continuation of the course\\nol instruction vvliich the pupils commenced in the primary schools the\\nsecond to an instruction of a still higher character, and the third to prac-\\ntice in the primary school attached to the establishment. For those who\\nare sutficiently advanced when they enter not to require the first year s\\ninstruction, the course may be reduced to one of two years.\\n10. In each Norma! School particular funds, set apart for that purpose,\\nshall be devoted to the support of young men of good character not able\\nto pay for themselves, but in such a manner as not to habituate them to\\ntoo many comforts, and not to render them unfit for the worst paid situa-\\ntions in the primary schools.\\n11. Every pupil who receives such assistance from a Normal School, is\\nobliged at the end of his educational course to accept the place which the\\nprovincial consistories assign him a prospect of advancement, however,\\nmust always be held out to him in case of perseverance and good conduct.\\n12. The provincial consistories have the immediate surveillance of all\\nthe Normal Schools in the ditierent departments of their respective\\nprovinces and the provincial ecclesiastical authorities have the especial\\nsurveillance of the religious instruction of tlieir respective sects.\\nThe following provisions, gathered from the law of 1819, and from the\\ngeneral regulations, have an important bearing on the social and pecuniary\\ncondition of the teacher,\\nNo young man is allowed to conduct a primary school until he has\\nobtained a certificate of his capacity to fulfill the important duties of a\\nschoolmaster. The examinations of the candidates for these certificates\\nis conducted by commissions, composed of two laymen aixl two clergy-\\nmen, or two priests. The provincial consistories nominate the lay mem-\\nbers, the ecclesiastical authorities of the respective provinces nominate\\nthe clerical members for the examination of the religious education of the\\nProtestant candidates; and the Roman Catholic bishop nominates the\\ntwo priests who examine the Roman Catholic candidates.\\nThe members of these commissions are nominated for three years, and\\nthey can afterward be continued in their office if advisable.\\nI he lay examiners and the clerical examiners join in granting the cer-\\ntificates, but the religious and secular examinations are conducted sepa-\\nrately. The certificates are signed also by the director of the Normal\\nSchool in which the young man has been educated, and describe his\\nmoral character and his intellectual capability.\\nThese certificates are not valid until they have been ratified by the\\nsuperior authorities, that is, by the provincial consistories; and in the case\\nof the certificates granted to the Roman Catholics, the further ratification\\nof the bishop is necessary. If the provincial consistories and the bishops\\ncan not agree about the granting of any certificate, the matter is relerred\\nto the minister of public instruction, who decides between them. The\\nprovincial authorities can re-examine the candidates, if they think there is\\nany reason to doubt what is specified on the certificate granted by the\\ncommittee of examination, and can declare them incapable, and can re-\\nquire the local authorities to proceed to another examination if they are\\nnot satisfied with the character of any of the candidates.\\nThe young women who are candidates for the situations of school-\\nmistresses are obliged to .submit to the same kind of examination before\\nthey can obtain the certificate enabling Ihem to teike the charge of a\\ngirls Bchool.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 1 g^\\nThe election and nomination of masters for the communal schools, is\\nthe duty of the local committees, on the presentation of the communal\\ninspectors.\\nThe masters can not be installed and begin to receive their salaries,\\nuntil their certificates have been ratified by the provincial authorities.\\nThe provincial consistories are required to choose able and zealous\\nclerical inspectors, and to engage them to form and direct great associa-\\ntions between the masters of the town and rural schools, for the purpose\\nof fostering among them a feeling of interest in their profession, of further-\\ning the further development of their education by regular reunions, by\\nconsultations, conversations, practical treatises, study of particular branciies\\nof instruction, and discussions on treatises read aloud in their public as-\\nsemblies.\\nThese teachers conferences are very useful. They not only promote\\na spirit of generous emulation among the schoolmasters, and so stinuilate\\nthem to, further exertions, but they encourage the masters, by reminding\\nthem that they form part of a great and honorable body. And nothing\\nencourages man more than a feeling of association. Man alone is weak\\nand timid but let him only feel that his feelings and aims are those of a\\nnumber who regard him as their fellow, and he then is a giant in his\\naims and etlbrts.\\nThe provincial consistories have the power of sending the master of a\\nprimary school, who appears to be in need of further instruction, to a\\nNormal School, for the time that may appear requisite to give him the\\nnece.\u00c2\u00absary additional instruction during his absence his place is supplied\\nby a young man from the Normal School, who receives a temporary cer-\\ntificate.\\nThe expenses of the conferences and of the masters who frequent for a\\nsecond time the Normal Schools, are generally defrayed by the provincial\\neducational authorities.\\nThe schoolmasters are encouraged to continue their own education by\\nhopes of prelerment to better situations, or to superior schools but befijre\\nthey can attain this preferment, they must pass a second examination,\\nconducted by the same authorities who conducted the tbrmer.\\nIf a schoolmaster is negligent or conducts himself improperly in his\\nstation, the inspector of the school first remonstrates with him, and if this\\nfails to convince him, the inspector of the canton reproves him and if he\\nstill prove refractory, they report him to the provincial authorities, who\\nhave the power of fining him, or of removing him Irom the school.\\nIf he commits any flagrant crime, he is reported at once to the pro-\\nvincial authorities, who remove him immediately, after having carefully\\nverified the accusations brought against him by the inspectors.\\nEvery school in a village or town must have a garden suitable to the\\nnature of the country and habits of the people, for a kitchen-garden, nur-\\nsery-orchard, or the raising of bees. This is provided as an additional\\nresource for the teacher, as well as an available means of instruction of\\nthe scholars.\\nEvery school-house must not only embrace what we regard as essen-\\ntial features in such structures, such as size, location. Ventilation, warmth,\\nseats and desks, c.. but apparatus for illustrating every study, and -a\\nsufficient collection of books for the use of the master, as well as a resi-\\ndence for him.\\nWhenever a new fund, legacy, or donation, accrues to the schools of a\\nprovince or commune, the same must be appropriated to the improvement\\nof the school, or of the master s income, and not to the diminution ol any\\ntax or rate before collected.\\nThe practice of boarding round, or the right of the teacher to a\\nplace at the table of every family in the commune or district in rotation", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "168\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA\\n(called, in German, Wandeltisch, movable table,) formerly prevailed in\\nPrussia, but it was first arrested by an ordinance in 1811, directing that\\nthis movable table should not be reckoned in payment of the teacher s\\ncompensation, and should be given up at the option of the teacher. It is\\nnow abandoned in every commune which makes any prelensioti to civili-\\nzation. It never included any thing beyond an itinerating table. The\\nteacher always had a fixed residence provided, and usually under the\\nsame roof with his school.\\nScholars are encouraged to form among themselves a fund, by voluti-\\ntary contributions, for the assistance of their necessitous schoolfellows.\\nThe fund is managed by themselves under the direction of their teacher.\\nThis is done to cultivate good feeling in the school, and save the teacher\\nfrom a constant tax for articles for such pupils.\\nAll school fees, all contributions or assessments in money, fuel. c.,\\nmust be collected by the regular school authorities, and not by the\\nteacher. And no service can be required of the teacher in or about the\\nschool, and he can engage in no employment, which will lower his dignity,\\nor weaken his influence.\\nAll public teachers are regarded as public functionaries, and are ex-\\nempt from liability to military .service in time of peace, and from all local\\nand capitation taxes, or if taxed, an equivalent, is allowed in an increase\\nof salary.\\nWhenever any division of land belonging to a parish, or town, is made,\\na sufficient quantity shall be allotted to the schoolmaster for a vegetable\\ngarden, and for the feed of a cow. Wherever the right of common exists,\\nthe teacher shall share in its benefits.\\nSchoolmasters who become temporarily infirm, are entitled to an allow-\\nance l om the school moneys provided for the support of their schools. And\\nwhen permanently di-sabled, are entitled to an annual allowance from the\\nincome of funds provided in each province for this purpose, and for the\\nsupport of the widows and children of teachers, who entitle themselves to\\nsuch provision for their families, by a small annual contribution from their\\nsalaries.\\nTeachers, who show themselves entitled to promotion to the direction\\nof Normal Schools, are enabled to travel both in Prussia, and other\\ncountries, for the purpose of extending their knowledge of the organiza-\\ntion, instruction and discipline of schools.\\nA valuable ordinance passed in 1826, and renewed in 1846, requires\\nthe director of a seminary to travel about, once a year, and visit a certain\\npart of the schools within his circuit. He makes himself acquainted with\\nthe stale of the school, listens to the instruction given, takes part himselt\\nin the same, and gives to the teacher such hints for improvement as his\\nobservation may suggest. The results of his yearly visits he presents, in\\nthe form of a report, to the school authorities of the province. This occa-\\nsional visitation is very useful in clearing up the dark corners of the land,\\ncorrecting abuses, and giving an impulse, from time to time, to teachers,\\nwho might otherwise sink into apathy and neglect. To render the effi-\\ncacy of the seminaries more complete, it is provided that at the end of\\nthree years after leaving the seminary, the young teachers shall return\\nto pass a second examination.\\nBy an ordinance in J 826, it is provided To the end, that the benefi-\\ncial influence of the seminary may extend itself to those teachers already\\nestablished, who either require further instruction, or who in their own\\ncultivation and skill in office do not advance, perhaps even recede it is\\nrequired that such teachers be recalled into the seminary for a shorter or\\nlonger time, as may be needful for them, in order, either to pass through\\na whole methodical course, or to practice themselves in particular da*\\npartments of instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS Jgg\\nThat the foregoing excellent and thorough regulations have not\\nremained a dead letter in the ordinances of the government, but are\\nsubstantially followed in the practical operations of the system, will be\\nmade evident from the testimony of Mr. Kay, an intelligent English\\ntraveler, as to the education, social position, and professional standing\\nof the primary school teachers of Prussia, as well as from the accounts\\nwhich follow of several of the best normal schools in different depart-\\nments of the kingdom\\nDuring my travels in different provinces of Prussia, I was in daily communica-\\ntion with the teachers. I had every opportunity of observing the spirit, which\\nanimated the whole body, and of hearing the opinions of the poor respecting\\nthem. I found a great body of educated, courteous, refined, moral, and learned\\nprofessors, laboring with real enthusiasm among the poorest classes of their coun-\\ntrymen. I found them wholly devoted to their duties, proud of their profession,\\nunited together by a strong feeling of brotherhood, and holding continual con-\\nferences together, for the purposes of debating all kinds of questions, relating to\\nthe management of their schools. But what gave me greater pleasure than all\\nelse was, to observe in what esteem and respect they were held by the peasants.\\nIf you tempt a Prussian peasant to find fault with the schools, he will tell you, in\\nanswer, how good the school is, and how learned the teachers are. I often heard\\nthe warmest panegyrics bestowed upon them by the peasants, shovi ing in the\\nclearest manner how well their merits and their labors were appreciated.*\\nI could not but feel, how grand an institution this great body of more than\\n28,000 teachers was, and how much it was capable of effecting and, when I\\nregarded the happy condition of the Prussian peasantry, I could not but believe, I\\nsaw some of the fruits of the daily labors of this enlightened, respected, and\\nunited brotherhood.\\nUpon the parochial ministers and parochial teachers depend, far more than we\\nare willing to allow the intelligence, the morality, and the religion of the people.\\nThe cordial co-operation of these two important and honorable professions is nec-\\nessary to the moral progress of a nation. The religious minister acts upon the\\nadults, the teacher on the young. The co-operation of the religious ministers is nec-\\nessary to secure the success of the teacher s efforts and, on the other hand, with-\\nout the earnest aid of the teacher, the fairest hopes of the religious minister are\\noften blighted in the bud.\\nWe must educate the child, if we would reform the man. But, alas this\\neducation is a labor, requiring a long, persevering, careful, intelligent, and most\\ntender handling. It were much better left alone, than to be attempted, so as to\\ncreate disgust, or to embitter early associations, or to render virtuous and ennobling\\npursuits disgusting throughout after-life. On the teacher depends the training of\\nthe poor man s child, for poor parents have, unhappily, too little spare time to\\nallow them to perform the greatest duty of a parent. And thus, as the character\\nof every nation mainly depends upon the training of the children, we may safely\\naffirm, that, such as our teachers are, such also will be our peasantry.\\nHow essential is it, then, to the moral welfare, and therefore to the political\\ngreatness of a nation, that the profession of the teachers should be one, insuring\\nthe perfect satisfaction of its members, and commanding the respect of the country\\nThe teacher s station in society ought to be an honorable one, or few learned\\nand able men will be found willing to remain long in the profession, even if any\\nsuch men can be induced to enter it and it is much better to be without teachers\\naltogether, than to leave the training of our children to men of narrow minds,\\nunrestrained passions, or meagre intelligence. The Prussian government has fully\\nSince these remarks were written, the course of public events in Prussia has given a very\\nremarkable proof of their correctness. To the National Assembly, which met in Berlin in\\nMay, 184S, the people of the provinces elected no fewer than eight teachers as representa-\\ntives giving this striking proof of the people s respect for the ability and high character of\\nthe profession.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "jYO PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nrecognized these truths, and has, therefore, done all within its power, to raise the\\ncharacter and social position of the teachers as much as possible. As these\\nefforts have been heartily seconded by the provincial governments and4.he people,\\nthe result has been most remarkable and satisfactory.\\nThe first exertions of the government were wholly devoted to the improvement\\nof the intellectual and moral character of the profession, and to the increase of its\\nnumbers. They determined to make the name of teacher an honor, and in\\nitself a guarantee to every parent of the character and attainments of the man\\nwho bore it. To attain this end, they denied all access to the ranks of the pro-\\nfession to any but those who proved themselves worthy of admittance. No\\nperson can be a teacher in Prussia, or in any part of Germany, France Austria,\\nSwitzerland, or Holland, until he has passed a very severe and searching examina-\\ntion, and. until he has produced testimonials from those well acquainted with him,\\nof the irreproachable nature of his moral life and character. This examination,\\nwhich includes both intellectual and moral qualifications, is conducted by able and\\nimpartial men, among whom are to be found the candidate s religious minister, the\\nprofessors of the normal college at which he was brought up, and at least one of\\nthe educational magistrates of the county of which he is a native. He who\\npasses the ordeal is allowed to be a teacher, whether he was educated at a normal\\ncollege or not. The ranks of the profession are open to all educated and moral\\nmen, wherever or however they were educated but educated and moral they\\nmust prove themselves. It is not, then, to be wondered at, that the men, who are\\nknown to have satisfactorily passed this scrutiny, are regarded by all their fellow-\\ncountrymen with respect and consideration, and as men of great learning and\\nof high character.\\nThis once attained, the next great efforts of the government were directed to\\nthe improvement of the social position of the teachers. The government placed\\nthem under the immediate protection of the county courts. They also made a\\nlaw that no teacher, who had been once elected, whether by a parochial commitee,\\nor by trustees, or by private patrons, should be dismissed, except by permission of\\nthe county magistrates. This protected the teachers from the effects of the mere\\npersonal prejudices of those in immediate connection with them. They then\\ndefined the minimum of the teachers salaries, and this minimum, they have ever\\nsince been steadily increasing.\\nIt is absolutely necessary, that my readers should not connect their preconceived\\nideas of an English village schoolmaster with the learned and refined teacher of\\nPrussia. They might just as well think of comparing the position and attainments\\nof the vast majority of our teachers with those of the scholars of our universities,\\nas of comparing those of our schoolmasters with those of the Prussian teachers.\\nI felt, whenever I was in the company of a Prussian teacher, that I was with a\\ngentleman, whose courteous bearing and intelligent manner of speaking must\\nexert a most beneficial influence upon the peasantry, among whom whom he\\nlived. It was, as if I saw one of the best of our English curates performing the\\nduties of a schoolmaster. I never saw any vulgarity or coarseness, and still less\\nany stupidity or incapacity for their duties, displayed by any of them.\\nThe Protestant teachers of Germany occupy situations of importance in connec-\\ntion with the religious ministers and religious congregations. They fulfill several\\nof the duties of our curates, clerks, and organists. In both Romanist and\\nProtestant congregations, they lead the choir and play the organ. They act, too,\\nas clerk and when a Protestant minister is indisposed, and unable to conduct\\npublic worship, the parochial teacher officiates in his stead, reads the church ser-\\nvice, and sometimes also preaches. The musical part of public worship, in both\\nRomanist and Protestant churches and chapels, is always directed by the parochial\\nteacher. The small salary, which they receive for the performance of these\\nduties, serves to increase their incomes but what is of much more importance is,\\nthat this connection of the teachers with the religious congregations and ministera\\nserves to bind the religious ministers and teachers together, to lesson the labors of\\neach by mutual assistance, and, above all, to raise the teacher in the estimation of\\nthe poor, by whom he is surrounded, and thereby materially to increase the effect\\nof his advice and instructions.\\nIt was very curious, and pleasing, to observe the effects of the intercourse of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. ji^j\\nthis enlightened and excellent body of men with the peasantry during the last\\ntwenty years. I do not hesitate to say, that, at the period of my visit to Prussia, I\\nhad never before seen so polite and civilized, and seemingly intelligent, a peas-\\nantry as that of Prussia. ^Vere a stranger introduced into some of the lowest\\nschools. I am quite convinced he would not believe he saw peasants children before\\nhim. They were generally so clean and neatly dressed, and their manners were\\nalways so good, that 1 was several times obliged to ask the teachers, if I really\\nsaw the children of the poor before me. The appearance of the girls was particu-\\nlarly gratifying their dress was so respectable, their manners was so good, their\\nway of dressing their hair showed so much taste, and their cleanliness was so\\ngreat, that no one, who had not been informed beforehand to what class they\\nbelonged, would have believed them to be the children of the poorest of the people.\\nThe lowest orders of Germany are so nmch more refined than our poor, tiiat the\\nchildren of the rich very often attend the primary schools, while the chil-\\ndren of the trades peojile and middle classes almost invariably do so. The\\nricher parents know that their children will not come into contact with any coarse-\\nness, and tliat the teacher is certain to be an educated and refined gentleman.\\nThis mingling of the children of the higher and lower orders tends to civilize the\\npeasantry still more, and to produce a kindly feeling between the different ranks\\nof society. Eut the primary cause of the great and ever-increasing civilization\\nof the Prussian peasantry is, undeniably, their contact with their refined and intel-\\nligent teachers. For, whilst the clergy are laboring among the adults, the teachers\\nare daily bringing under the influences of their own high characters and intelli-\\ngence ALL the younger portions of the community.\\nThe teachers in Prussia are men respected by the whole community, men to\\nwhom all classes owe the first rudiments of their education, and men in whose\\nwelfare, good character, and high respectability, both the government and the peo-\\nple feel themselves deeply interested. In birth, early recollections, and associa-\\ntions, they are often peasants but in education and position they are gentlemen\\nin every sense of that term, and acknowledged officers of the county govern-\\nments. There are more than 28,000 such teachers in Prussia. This great pro-\\nfession offers, as I shall presently show, a means, by which an intelligent peasant\\nmay hope to raise himself into the higher ranks of society, as the expenses of\\npreparing for admission into the profession are borne by government. But, as the\\nnumber of candidates for admission is consequently always large, the government\\ntakes every passible precaution, that only such shall be chosen, as are in every\\nrespect qualified to reflect honor upon the profession, and carry out its objects in\\nthe most effective manner. And so well satisfied are the teachers with their\\nposition, that, although their pay is often but poor, yet it rarely happens that any\\none quits his profession to seek another situation. They are contented with their\\nprofession, even when it affords only a bare living, as it always confers a station of\\nrespectability and honor, in direct communication with the provincial govern-\\nments. I made the most careful inquiries upon this subject, and can speak with\\ngreat confidence upon it. 1 was in daily communication with the teachers from\\nthe day I entered Prussia, and I tested the truth of what they told me, not only\\nby comparing their statements together, but also by many inquiries, which 1 made\\nof the educational counsellors and government oflScers in Berlin. Next to Dr.\\nBfuggeman, one of the head counsellors of the Minister of Education, the gen-\\ntlemen to whom I am most indebted for information on this subject are Counsellor\\nStiehl, the Chief Inspector of Prussia, who is employed by the Minister on partic-\\nular missions of inspection in ftll the provinces of Prussia Professor Hintz, one\\nof the young professors in Dr. Diesterweg s normal college Dr. Hennieke, the\\ndirector of the normal college at Weissenfels Herr Peters, a teacher at Bonn\\none of the teachers at Cologne several of the teachers at Berlin and sevei-al of\\nthe teachers at Elberfeld. From these gentlemen, and many others, I gathered\\nthe following information When a boy is intended for the teachers profession,\\nhe remains in the primary school, until he has completed the whole course of\\nprimary instruction, i. e. until he has learned to write and read well, and until\\nhe knows the principal rules of arithmetic, the outlines of the geography and\\nhistory of his native country, a little natural history, and the Scripture history.\\nThis knowledge he does not generally acquire before he ie fifteen years of age.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "jY2 PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nFrom the age of fifteen to the age of eighteen, before which latter age a young\\nman can not be admitted into any normal college, the education of young candi-\\ndates, who are the sons of towns-people, is different to the education of those, who\\nare the sons of country people.\\nThe young candidates for admission into tne teachers profession, who are the\\nsons of towns-people, enter at fifteen into the classes of the superior public schools\\nof the town, in which schools a number of endowed places are always reserved\\nfor poor boys, who have distinguished themselves in the primary schools. The\\neducation given in these schools is of a higher character, than that given in the\\nprimary schools. It comprehends mathematics, and the rudiments at least of the\\nclassics, besides lectures in history, physical geography, and drawing. They\\nremain in these superior public schools until their eighteenth year, when they\\ncan seek admission into a normal college. The young candidates for admission\\ninto the teachers profession, who are the sons of poor country people, do not en-\\njoy all the advantages which the children of towns-people possess, as there is sel-\\ndom a superior primary school in their neighborhood, in which they can continue\\ntheir studies, after leaving the primary school. If the son of a peasant aspires to\\nenter the teachers profession after leaving the primary school, he engages the\\nparochial teacher to give him instruction in the evenings, attends the teachers\\nclasses in the mornings and afternoons, and assists him in the management of the\\nyounger children. He continues to improve himself in this manner, until he has\\nattained the age, at which he can apply for admission into a normal college.\\nThere are, however, a great many schools in Prussia, established for the purpose\\nof preparing the sons of the peasants for admission into the normal colleges. These\\npreparatory schools generally belong to private persons. Every young person\\nadmitted into them is obliged to pay a small fee for his education there. This fee\\nis generally very trifling, but is still sufficient to prevent the sons of the poorest\\npeasants entering them and, consequently, these latter, if they live in a country\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0tillage, are obliged to content themselves with the evening lessons given by the\\nvillage teacher, and with the practical knowledge gained by attending his classes\\nin the mornings and afternoons. But it is always possible for the peasants chil-\\ndren, with industry, to prepare themselves, by the aid of the village teacher, for\\nadmission into a normal college. Of these latter admirable institutions for the\\neducation of teachers I shall hereafter speak at length suffice it here to say, that\\nthere are between forty and fifty of them in Prussia, supported entirely by the\\nstate, and under the direction and surveillance of the provincial committees called\\nSchulooUegium. There are five or six normal colleges in each province, some of\\nwhich are set apart for the education of the Romanist, and the others for that of\\nthe Protestant teachers. Each of them is generally put under the direction of a\\npriest or of a protestant minister, according as it is intended for the education of\\nRomanist or Protestant teachers, and is provided in the most liberal manner, with\\nevery thing necessary for the education of the young students. The education\\ngiven in them is nearly gratuitous no young man being called upon to pay for\\nany thing, but his clothes and his breakfast, whilst, in many cases, even this\\ntrifling charge is paid for the poor student out of the college funds.\\nAll young men who aspire to the office of teacher in Prussia, and who aspire to\\nenter a normal college, when the yearly vacancies take place, are obliged to submit\\nto an examination, conducted by the professors of these colleges, in presence of\\nthe educational counsellors from the county court. No young man can enter the\\nexamination lists, who has not produced certificates of health, and freedom from\\nall chronic complaints, or who has a weak voice or any physical defect or infirmity.\\nNone but picked men are selected as teachei-s in Prussia. The examination is\\nvery severe and searching. For, as there are always a great number of candi-\\ndates for admission into each college, and as the favored candidates are only\\nchosen, on account of their superior abilities, the competition at the entrance\\nexaminations is very great.\\nThe subjects of this examination are, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography,\\nhistory, singing, chanting, and the Scripture history.\\nThe young man, who has just obtained admission into a normal college in\\nPrussia, and whose education as a teacher has only just begun, is much better\\neducated, even at the commencement of his three years education in the college,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. 173\\nthan almost any of our teachers are, when they enter upon the performance of\\ntheir duties in the schools, and when their education is considered to be completed\\nHow much superior, therefore, in intellectual acquirements, the Prussian teacher\\nis, when he has completed his collegiate course, 1 need not observe. When the\\nexamination is concluded, as many of the most promising of the candidates\\nare selected as there are vacancies in the college and, after a sti ict exam-\\nination has been made into their characters and previous life, each successful\\ncandidate is required to sign an agreement, promising to officiate as a teacher, after\\nleaving the college, for a number of years, equal to those during which the gov-\\nernment educates him gratuitously in the college. They are then admitted, and\\nare only required to pnjvide themselves with clothes, and to pay about 3/. per\\nannum. All the other expenses of their education, maintenance, c., are, as I\\nhave said before, borne by the state. They remain in these colleges two or three\\nyears, never less than two, or more than three. Here they continue the studies\\nwhich they had previously followed in the primary and superior schools. They\\nperfect themselves in writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and Scripture his-\\ntory, and receive a careful education in the physical sciences, and particularly in\\nmathematics and botany. In some of the normal colleges, the young men also\\nstudy Latin and the modern languages. Besides this, they all learn the violin,\\nthe organ, and piano-forte. I have seen as many as a hundred violins, three\\norgans, and three piano-fortes in one normal college. They also continue the prac-\\ntice of chanting and singing, which they had commenced in the village schools;\\nand when the college is situated in the country, and intended for village teachers,\\nthe students learn gardening and agriculture. I became acquainted in Bonn, with\\nthe teacher of the poorest school in the town. He could speak French very tol-\\nerably, as well as a little English he was acquainted with many of our first wri-\\nters, and knew the rudiments of the Latin language, in addition to the necessary\\nattainments of a teacher.\\nBut the government and the people are not satisfied that, because a teacher has\\npassed through one of these training establishments, he is therefore fit to under-\\ntake the management of a village school. Far from it. When the normal\\ncollege course is finished, the young aspirants are obliged to submit to another\\nexamination, which is conducted by the professors of the college in the presence\\nof a counsellor from the provincial schulcollegium, the educational counsellor of\\nthe county court, and a delegate from the Roman Catholic bishop, or Protestent\\nsuperintendent of the county, according as the school is for Romanist or for Prot-\\nestant students. These different .personages ought to be present, but I was assured\\nthat, in general, only the educational counsellor of the county court assisted at the\\nexamination At its conclusion, if the directors and professors have been satisfied\\nwith the conduct of the young men, during their residence in the college, and\\nhave no reason to doubt the excellence of their moral character, and the ortho-\\ndoxy of their religious belief, the young candidates receive diplomas marked\\naccording to the manner in which they acquitted themselves in the examination,\\n1, 2, or 3, and signed by the director and professors, and by the mem-\\nbers of the provincial schulcollegium.\\nThose who obtain the diplomas marked 1, are legally authorized to officiate\\nas teachers, without futher scrutiny, but those who only obtain those marked 2\\nor 3, are only appointed to schools for two or three years on trial, and at the end\\nof that time, are obliged to return to the normal college and undergo another\\nexamination.\\nIt is not, however, necessary that a young man should pass through a normal\\ncollege, in order to obtain a diploma enabling him to officiate as teacher. Any\\nperson, who has received so good an education as to enable him to pass the exam-\\nination at a normal college, can obtain one, if his character is unimpeachable. By\\nfar the greatest proportion, however, of the teachers of Prussia are educated in\\nthe normal colleges. When they have obtained these diplomas, the county courts\\npresent them to such school committees as require teachers and if these parochial\\ncommittees are satisfied with them, they are elected. In such a numerous body\\nas that of the Prussian teachers, there are always numerous vacancies. The\\nnumber of colleges and students are so arranged, as to regularly supply that,\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2which is found to be the average number of yearly vacancies.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "^fjA PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nThe candidates who have obtained only the diplomas marked 2, or 3,\\nhold their offices, as I have said, only provisionally and, in order to be definitely\\nappointed, are obliged, at the termination of their specified period of trial, either\\nto obtain the approval of the local inspector, or to undergo another examination\\nand I was assured, that they are sometimes obliged to return three or four times\\nto be examined, ere they can obtain a definite appointment such care does the\\ncountry take, that none but fit persons shall occupy this responsible position.\\nWhen he is once appointed, however, the teacher is thenceforward a county and\\nnot a parochial officer. No person or set of persons in immediate connection with\\nhim can turn him out of his situation, without having first obtained the sanction\\nof the county magistrates, After the parochial ministers and householders have\\nonce elected him, they have no power to deprive him of his salary or his situation.\\nNo one but the county magistrates of the union inspector, who, by living at a dis-\\ntance, are not likely to be atieeted by personal prejudices or parochial disputes, can\\ninterfere directly with the teacher, and should the latter deem the interference of\\neven the inspector uncalled for, he can always appeal to the superior authorities, or\\neven to the minister of education himself. The parochial committees have, how-\\never, the power of complaining of the teacher to the county magistrates, if they\\nthink he is acting unwisely or immorally and such complaints always receive\\nimmediate and special attention. When any such complaints are made, the county\\ncourt dispatches an inspector to examine into the matter, and empowers him, if he\\nthinks the teacher worthy of censure, fine, or expulsion, to act accordingly. If,\\nhowever, the teacher is not blameable, the inspector explains the matter to the\\nparochial authorifies, and effects a reconciliation between the parties. If the\\ninspector should deern the teacher worthy of punishment, and this latter should be\\ndissatisfied with the sentence, he can carry the matter before a justice of the\\npeace and if he is not satisfied with his decision, he can appeal to the provincial\\nschulcollegium, thence to the minister of instruction, and thence, if he desires, to\\ntjie king himself; of so much importance docs the Prussian government deem it,\\nto protect the teachers, and to raise their office in public opinion. I have men-\\ntioned that a Prussian teacher seldom leaves his profession but that many change\\ntheir positions. hen a good and well paid situation falls vacant in any parish,\\nan experienced teacher, vv ho already occupies some worse paid situation in another\\nparish, and who has obtained credit for his excellent school-management, is pre-\\nferred by the school committee to the young adepts fresh from the normal colleges.\\nOn this account, the young men generally commence with an inferior position,\\nand earn better ones, according as they manage the first they entered. It is evi-\\ndent, how important a regulation this is, as the teachers of the poorest schools are\\nsaved from becoming listless and dispirited, and are rendered earnest and indus-\\ntrious, in the hopes of bettering their situation, The country is, however, gradually\\nimproving the salaries of all the teachers. No village or town is ever allow-ed to\\nlessen the amount it has once given to a teacher. What it has once given, it is\\nobliged to continue to give in future. It may increase it as much as it likes, and\\nthe county courts have the power of interfering, and saying, You have hitherto\\npaid your teachers too little; you must augment the teacher s salary. This is\\nonly done, however, when it is known, that the parish or town is capable of\\nincreasing the school salaries and is unwilling to do so.\\nThe importance of enabling the teachers to conunand the respect of the people,\\nof rendering them independent of those in immediate connection with them, and\\nof protecting them from ignorant interference and mere personal animosity, is so\\nfully recognized in Prussia, that even when the school is endowed, and managed by\\ntrustees, these trustees, after havins: once elected a teacher, are not permitted to\\ndismiss him, unless they can prove to the county court that they have sufficient\\ncause for complaint. The teacher, elected by trustees, has the privilege of appeal-\\ning to the minister of education in Berlin, against the act of the trustees and\\ncounty magistrates, just as well as all the other teachers of Prussia.\\nThe reasons which have induced the Prussian government to render the\\nteachers, after their election, so independent of those in immediate connection with\\nthem appear to have been\\n1st, Because the teachers of Prussia are a very learned body, and, from their\\nlong study of pedagogy, have acquired greater ability than any persons in the art", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "of teaching. They are, therefore, better qualified than any other persons to con-\\nduct the instruction of their children but, if those persons who have never\\nstudied pedagogy could interfere with them, and say, You shall teach it in this\\nway or in that, or else leave the parish, the teachers would often be obliged to\\npursue some ridiculous, inefficient method, merely to please the whims of per-\\nsons not experienced in school management, and the enlightenment of the people\\nwould thus be often considerably retarded.\\n2d. Because, if the parishioners or the pai ochial ministers had a right to turn\\naway a teacher, whenever he olianced to displease them, the teachers would\\nalways be liable to, and would often suffer from, foolish personal dislikes, founded\\non no good ground. They would thus lose their independence of character, by\\nbeing Lrced to suit their oonduct to the whims of those around them, instead of\\nbeing able to act faithfully and conscientiously to all or by being exposed to the\\ninsults or impertinence of ignorant per.sons, who did not understand and appre-\\nciate the value and importance of their labors; or by being prevented from acting\\nfaithfully toward the children, from fear of offending the parents or by being\\nforced to cringe to and flatter the ignorance, and even the vices, of those around\\nthem, instead of being able to combat them and they would thus generally, by\\none or other of tliese ways, forfeit at least some part of the respect of the parents\\nof their children, and would, consequently, find their lessons and advice robbed of\\none-half their weight, and their labors of a great part of their efiiciency.\\nFor these reasons, the Prussian government endeavors to give as much liberty\\nas possible to the teachers, and to fetter their hands as little as possible. In the\\nnormal colleges they receive instruction in the different methods of teaching and,\\nout of these, each teacher is at liberty to follow whichever seems to him the best\\ncalculated to promote the growth of the intelligence of his scholars. It is felt, that\\nwithout this liberty, a teacher would often work unwillingly, and that a discon-\\ntented or unwilling teacher is worse than none at all. In the choice of their books\\nand apparatus, the teachers are allowed an almost equal freedom. If a teacher\\nfinds a book, which he thinks better calculated for instruction, than the one he has\\nbeen in the habit of using, he sends it through the inspector to the educational\\ncounsellor of the county court, who forward it to the schulcollegium for approval;\\nand, .as soon as this is obtained, the teacher can introduce it into his school. There\\nare, already, a great many books in each province, which have been thus sanc-\\ntioned and out of these, every teacher in the province can choose whichever\\npleases him most. These school-books are, generally, written by teachers and,\\nfrom what I saw of them, they seemed to evince a profound knowledge of the\\nscience of pedagogy. Until a book has been thus sanctioned by the schulcolle-\\ngium, which has the management of the normal colleges and gymnasia of its\\nprovince, it can not be introduced into a parochial school.\\nThe teachers are not assisted by monitors in Germany, as in Switzerland,\\nFrance, and England and this I think a very great error. I have often been in\\nschools in Prussia, where the teacher had about one hundred children of different\\ndegrees of proficiency to instruct in the same class-room, without any assistance\\nwhatever the consequence was, that while he was teaching one class, the others\\nwere in disorder, and making noise enough to distract the attention of the chil-\\ndren, who were receiving instruction, as well as that of the teacher, who was\\ngiving it while the teacher, instead of being able to devote his time to the higher\\nbranches of instruction, and to the children, who more particularly needed his\\ncare, was obliged to divide it among all, and to superintend himself the verj\\nlowest branches of instruction and this, too, at the sacrifice of the order and\\nquiet of his school. When I represented this to the teachers, I w^s always\\nanswered, Yes, that is true but then we think, that a young monitor is unable\\nto educate the minds of the children under his care, and is consequently likely to\\ndo them much injury. This is, no doubt, the result, if the teachers leave the\\neducation of any of his children entirely to monitors but he has no need to do\\nthis; he ought to employ liis monitors merely in superintending the more mechan-\\nical parts of instruction, such as writing, and learning the alphabet, and also in\\npreserving order he might then himself conduct the mental education of all the\\nchildren. But this they will not do in Prussia they are so afraid of injuring the\\nmental culture of the children, that they positively throw away a very important", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "176\\nPRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nmeans for the attainment of this end. In Switzerland, a very different course is\\npursued the teachers are assisted in keeping order, and in teaching the more\\nmechanical parts of instruction, by tnonitors. chosen from among their most\\nadvanced pupils. These monitors remain with the teacher, until they are of suf-\\nficient age to go to a normal college they are paid, 1 believe, by the parishes, and\\nare instructed by the teachers in the evenings. From among them, the young\\ncandidates for the vacant places in the normal colleges are chosen so that the\\nSwiss teachers have often been engaged in schools, and in school management,\\nfrom their earliest years. Besides this advantage, the country is spared a great\\nexpense for in Prussia, where they have no monitors, they are obliged to aug-\\nment the number of their teachers very considerably and I have found in a small\\nschool, which could have been very easily managed by one teacher and some\\nwell trained monitors, as many as three teachers, for each of whom good salaries\\nhad to be provided, as well as houses and gardens. Doubtless, it is much better\\nto have experienced teachers, than young monitors and hence it is that the town\\nschools in Prussia are very much better than those of other countries, as the town\\ncommittees can afford to engage a sufficient number of teachers but in the poor\\ncountry parishes this is not the case, and there it is, where -the want of monitors\\nis most severely felt, as a large school is often left entirely to the unaided care of a\\nsingle teacher. But this very defect in the Prussian system arises from the great\\nanxiety of the educational authorities, that the religious and moral education of\\nthe young should not suffer. Still I think it is a very great mistake and I am\\nBure that many schools I saw in Prussia suffer grievously from this regulation.\\nBut it will be asked, how are the salaries of the teacheiis provided, and what is\\ntheir amount? The regulations on this subject are particularly deserving of\\nattention. The Prussian government clearly saw, that nothing could tend more\\nstrongly to nullify their efforts to raise the teachers profession in the eyes of the\\npeople, than to leave the salaries of the teachers dependent, either on uncertain\\npayments, or on private benevolence. To have done so would have been to destroy\\nthe independence of the profession.\\nThe Prussian government, therefore, decreed that, however small and from\\nwhatever source the teacher s salary should be derived, its amount should\\nalways be fixed before his appointment, and that the payment should be certain\\nand regular.\\nAs 1 mentioned before, each succeeding teacher must be paid, at least, as much\\nhis predecessor received. The county magistrates have the power of obliging\\neach town or parish to increase the amount of the salaries of their teachers, when-\\never they think the town or parish is paying too little, and can afford to pay more.\\nThese salaries are now wholly paid by the school or town committees, from the\\nfunds raised by local taxation. Before the late law, which made education gratui-\\ntous, they were derived, in part, from the school fees. But the amount of the\\nsalary did not, in any case, depend on that of the fees, nor was the teacher ever\\nplaced in the invidious position of being obliged himself to collect these monthly\\npayments. They were always collected by a tax-gatherer, appointed by the village\\nor town magistrate and when they did not amount to the fixed salary, which the\\nschool conmiittee had agreed to pay to the teacher, they were increased by a paro-\\nchial rate, levied on the householders. In many cases, however, the schools are\\nendowed, and for admission into these, no school fees were ever required. But\\nwhere fees were required, and where a parent was too poor to pay them, the parochial\\nor town authorities were always obliged, by law, to pay them for him. The following\\nare the regulations, which define the minimum of the salaries of the Prussians.\\nSome of_ the country schools have each as many as three teachers but the\\nnumber of teachers in a country school in Prussia does not, generally, exceed\\ntwo and in many of these school, there is only one teacher. Where there are\\nseveral, one is the head master, and the others are his assistants. The laws\\nrelating to their payment are as follows\\nThe first teacher in a country school, or, if there be only one, then the single\\nteacher shall receive, as his yearly salary and the perquisites of his office, at least\\n1st. Free lodging.\\n2d. The necessary fuel for the warming of the school-room, and of hii own\\ndweUing-house and for his household economy.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\n177\\nSd. A piece of land, as near as possible to the school, of from one to three\\nPrussian acres large the tillage and manui ing of which are to be done at the\\nexpense of the parish.\\n4th. A kitchen garden behind his house, of not less than half a Prussian acre.\\n5th. The necessary building for his little farming operations.\\n6th. Free summer pastm-e for at least two cows.\\n7th. Twelve bushels of rye meal, two cart-loads of hay, and two cart-loads (rf\\nstraw.\\n8th. 71. 10s. in money. [It must be remembered that 11. lOs. in Prusssia, is\\nworth about as much as 121., ($60,) in England, and that this is only the sum which\\nhas been fixed by law as the legal minimum, and by no means gives an idea of\\nthe amount of salaries paid to the Prussian teachers.]\\nIf the field, garden, or summer pasture for his cows can not be provided by the\\nparish, the county com-t must determine what equivalent in money must be given\\nhinf\\nThe second, third, c., teacher in a country school must receive\\n1st. Free lodging.\\n2d. The fuel necessaiy for warming his house.\\n3d. 91. in money, (or about 151. in English value.)\\nThe teachers of the towns must receive\\n1st. Free lodging and fuel.\\n2d. The first teacher should receive at least 40Z. per annum, and the other\\nteachers at least 30Z. per annum, in English values.\\nI found these regulations among some educational laws issued by the govern-\\nment in 1845, for one of the provinces; but Dr. Bruggeman assured me, that\\nsimilar laws were in opei-ation for the whole of Prussia. The above emoluments\\nare the lowest the teachers can receive according to law. The government is\\nabout to raise this minifn urn considerably, and to increase the salaries throughout\\nPrussia. Hitherto many have been paid but poorly veiy few, however, have\\ndeserted their profession, or engaged in other occupations, as they are generally\\nproud of their position, and satisfied with it.\\nHerr Peters, a teacher of a primary school in Bonn, with whom I spent some\\ntime, said to me, one day, The Prussian teachers do not receive high salaries\\nbut, he added, with emphasis, however little the salary of a teacher may be above\\nthe legal minimum, it is certain, and collected for him by the parochial authorities,\\nwithout his having to trouble himself about it. The law, as I have mentioned,\\nis very strict in requiring the payments of the salaries to be made with the utmost\\nregularity.\\nIt is easy to see how invaluable, for any country, a great privileged class, like\\nthat of the Prussian teachers, must be, especially when many of its members are,\\nas in Prussia, chosen by the state from amongst the most highly gifted of the\\npeasant class, and educated at the expense of the country. It is, in fact, for\\nmodern Prussia, just what the Roman Catholic Church was, for Europe in the\\nmiddle ages it is a ladder, by which all the genius of the lowest orders may\\nascend into a suitable field of action. A young peasant boy of promising abili-\\nties pashed on by the restless spirit, which so often characterizes youth of real\\ngenius, and anxious to better his position in the world, or to gain some sphere of\\naction more congenial to his taste, than the farm-j^ard, or the workshop, finds in\\nPrussia, the teacher s career open to him. If he can only distinguish himself in\\nhis village school, and pass the entrance examination of a normal college, he*\\ngains a high education at no expense, and is then sm-e (if he conducts himself\\nwell, and distinguishes himself in the normal college) to obtain a teacher s place,\\nto put himself in immediate connection with the government, and to gain a very\\nhonorable situation, affording him the amplest field for the development and\\nexercise of his talents. A clever peasant in Prussia, instead of becoming a\\nChartist, enters a normal college, and becomes a teacher. There is no need for\\na young peasant to despond in Prussia, and say, Here 1 am, endowed with\\ntalents fitting me for another sphere, but shut out by doors, which can only be\\nopened with a golden key. Far otherwise. Free places are retained in the\\ngymnasia for poor boys, who wish to continue their studies and from these\\ncolleges they can enter either into the ranks of the Protestant or Romanist clergy,\\n12", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "1Y8 pnUrisiAN TL:A(n;.iiS\\nor into those of the teachers and, in the last case, without having any thing to\\npay for their education. It is easy to comprehend, how tliis tends to allay political\\nstrife and discontent. In our country, this is often occasioned, or, at least, in-\\ncreased, by some one or two clever individuals, who find themselves confined within\\na sphere, too narrow for their talents and energies, and who, by their own rest-\\nless murmui s, arouse the dormant passions of their neighbors, The German\\ngovernments have been wiser in their day than our freer countries. They have\\nseparated the fiery spirits from the easily excited masses, and converted them into\\nearnest, active, and indefatigable fosterers of the public morality, and into guar-\\ndians of the common weal.\\nIn considering the salaries and privileges of the teachers, it must also be borne\\nin mind, that they are exempt from taxation, and that they are free from all obli-\\ngation to serve in the army, and to attend the yearly military exercises.\\nOn the installation of a new teacher, the parochial or school authorities are\\nobliged, either to send conveyances for the transport of his family and goods, or\\nto pay the expenses of such transport, for any distance less than fifty English\\nmiles. But, if the teacher leaves his situation before the expiration of five years,\\nlie is obliged to repay to the local authorities the expenses of this conveyance.\\nWhenever a new teacher is introduced into a parochial school, his installation\\nis a public ceremony, at which all the parochial authorities assist, in order to\\nimpress the people with a sense of the importance of his office and his duties,\\nand to encourage among them a respect for him, without which his hopes of suc-\\ncess in his labors must be necessarily very small.\\nThe ceremony of installation generally takes place in the parochial church,\\nwhere the new teacher is presented, by the religious minister, to the civil authori-\\nties, and to the inhabitants of the parish. The children, whose education he has\\nto conduct, are always present at the ceremony.\\nTlie Prussian government feels that, unless it can render the profession\\nhonoi able and worthy of men of high characters and attainments, all its attempts\\nto raise the religious and moral tone of the education of the people will be ever\\nunavailing.\\nI have not hitherto mentioned Prussian schoolmistresses, because there are\\nbut few and because the regulations, with respect to their education, examina-\\ntion, and appointment, are precisely similar to those relating to schoolmasters.\\nAmong the Protestants of Prussia there are scarcely any schoolmistresses 5 the\\ngreatest part of the Prussian female teachers are Romanists, and for their educa-\\ntion there are several normal colleges established in the Romanist provinces of\\nPrussia. I inquired of the Romanist counsellor in the Bureau of Public Instruc-\\ntion in Berlin, whether it was not foimd difficult to retain the female teachers\\nlong at their posts, on account of their making such eligible wives, even for the\\nfarmers. But he assured me, that this was not the case, as far as their female\\nteachers were concerned, as they form among themselves a body like the order\\nof the Sisters of Charity, with this distinction, that instead of actually taking a\\nsolemn public vow of celibacy, it is generally understood among them, that they\\nshall not marry, but shall devote themselves, during the remainder of their lives,\\nto the duties of school management and instruction. In this respect the Roman-\\nists have a great advantage over the Piotestants for I found, in the Protestant\\ncantons of Switzerland, just the same objection to the employment of female\\nteachers, as that wliich is experienced among the Protestants of Prussia and of\\nEngland, viz., that a young woman, who has been carefully trained in a good\\nnormal college, until she is twenty years of age, makes so good a wife for men,\\neven in the middle classes of society, that she always married, soon after leaving\\nthe college and, consequently, that a much greater supply of students and col-\\nleges are required, in order to supply the constant vacancies, which occur in\\nthe ranks, and that the expenses of educating a sufficient number of female\\nteachers are, therefore, too great in general to be supported, imless the students\\npay for their own education, which very few of the young women, who are desir-\\nous of being teachers, are able to do.\\nIn the Romanist cantons of Switzerland, the Sisters of Charity conduct the\\neducation of the girls and their schools are the best and most pleasing female\\nBQhools I have ever seen. Ilerr Stiehl, one of the Protestant educational coun-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. I79\\nsetlors and chief inspector of Prussia, confirmed all that the Catholic minister had\\ntold me, and stated that, for the reasons above mentioned, the Prussian Pro-\\ntestants found it impossible to keep the female teachers long in their situations\\nand that the expense of constantly educating ft esh female teachers, to supply the\\nplaces of those who married, was too great to be borne. Tlie Prussians, how-\\never, in general, prefer male teachers for the girls, even where they can obtain\\nfemale so that in nearly all the schools I visited, I found schoolmasters, and not\\nschoolmistresses, instructing the girls classes.\\nThe Prussians would ridicule the idea of confiding the education of the girls to\\nuneducated mistresses, such as those in our dame, and in most of our female\\nschools. They can not conceive the case of a parent, who wTjuld be willing to\\ncommit his child to the care of a person, who had not been educated, most care-\\nfully and religiously, in that most difficult of all arts, the art of teaching. They\\nthink, that a teacher must either improve and elevate the minds of his children,\\nor else injure and debase them. They believe, that there is no such thing as\\nbeing able to come into daily contact with a child, without doing him either good\\nor harm. Tlie Prussians know, that the minds of the yomig are never stationary,\\nbut always in progress 5 and that this progress is always either a moral or an\\nimmoral one, either forward or backward and hence the extraordinary expen-\\nditure the country is bearing, and the extraordinary pains it is taking, to support\\nand improve its training establishments for teachers.\\nIn order to increase the feeling of union and brotherhood, which already\\nexists in a high degree among the Prussian teachers, and in order to encourage\\nthem to renewed exertions, and to diminish as much as possible, the feeling of\\nisolation which must always exist, in some degree, where an educated man finds\\nhimself placed in a solitary country parish, surrounded by peasantry less culti-\\nvated than himself, and cut ofi: from the literary society, to which he had been\\naccustomed at the normal college, the govermnent promotes the frequent holding\\nof teachers conferences, for the purpose of mutual improvement and encourage-\\nment. These conferences are held very often, over the whole of Germany,\\nSwitzerland, France, and Holland, and the benefits resulting from them are very\\ngreat indeed. In Prussia, there are three kinds of such conferences, of which I\\nshall now give a short account. The fii st is that of the province. In several of\\nthe provinces of Prussia, all the teachers, both Catholic and Protesttmt, assemble\\nonce a year, in some town, which has been agreed upon at their last meeting,\\nand on a predetermined day. The duration of the meeting is different in dif-\\nferent parts sometirnes only for one, and sometimes for several days. Tlieir\\nobjects, too, are different. Sometimes it is for mutual instruction, whilst at\\nothers it is for pleasure. But, whatever be the nominal pm pose of their\\nassembling, the real end of it is, to produce the feeling of association and brother-\\nhood, which is one of the strongest encouragements to isolated and single efforts.\\nBesides these yearly provincial assemblies, there is also another meeting of\\nteachers held monthly in every kreis or union. The principal ecclesiastical\\nauthority or school-inspector of the union summons and presides over it. This\\nmeeting is more especially intended for the pm poses of instruction, than that of\\nthe province. It lasts only one day the teachers meet early in the morning,\\nand disperse again in the evening. They dine together at noon, and spend the\\nmorning and afternoon in conferences and mutual improvement. They assemble\\nat some town or village in the union on an appointed day, of which the union\\ninspector gives them each notice some weeks beforehand. In the morning, they\\nall meet in one of the schools, or in some great room of the town. A class of\\nchildren, taken from one of the schools of the t jwn, is assembled there. One of\\nthe teachers, generally one of the younger ones, is chosen by his companions to\\ngive these children a lesson, on some subject of instruction in the primary schools.\\nThe teacher who is selected, gives the lesson before all the others assembled at\\nthe conference. When the lesson is ended, the children are dismissed, and the\\nremaining teachers then begin to criticise the manner, in which the instruction was\\ngiven, and each shows, how he thinks it might have been improved and then a\\ndebate ensues on the merits of different methods of teaching and of different\\nplans of school management.\\nThis plan of debating at the conferences, on methods of instruction, makes the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "180\\nPRUSSIAN TKACHER8.\\nteachers think, and stimulates them to inquire, how they can impart instruction in\\nthe most efficient manner. It makes them also eager to improve their manner of\\nteaching, as each one fears to exhibit any ignorance of his profession, or any un-\\nskillfulness before his professional brethren, and desires to win their applause by\\nhis ability and it makes them properly attentive to all the minutia; of their pro-\\nfession, as vvell as to the more interesting studies connected with it.\\nI was present at one of these teachers conferences. It was attended not only\\nby the teachers from the primary schools, but also by professors from the superior\\nschools and colleges, and was presided over by the director of a normal college.\\nI do not think the importance of these meetings can be exaggerated. They are\\nnot only, as I have before said, a great encouragement to the isolated teachers;\\nbut they are a continual source of instruction and improvement to all in their\\nmost important duties. The teachers continue at these meetings the instruction\\nthey commenced at the normal colleges; they discuss all the new school-books\\nthai have appeared, all the new regulations that have been issued, all the new\\nplans that have been tried and they inform one another of the progress of their\\ndifferent districts. In France and South Germany, they have so strongly felt the\\nimportance of these meetings, that the expenses of the teachers in traveling to\\nthem are borne by the government and in Holland and the Duchy of Baden,\\nthe government inspectors assist at them, and join in the debates. In some parts\\nof Switzerland, also, they are very well organized and in the canton of Keuf-\\nchatel, I remember to have read a number of a very interesting periodical, which\\nwas published after each conference, and which contained several most instructive\\nand very able papers, which had been read at the previous meeting of the village\\nschool professors.\\nBesides those conferences, which I have already mentioned, there is still another\\nkind, which is held in Prussia. This is when a parish is very large, and contains\\nseveral schools and many teachei^. In such cases, the chief ecclesiastical author-\\nity summons a meeting of all the parochial teachers once a month, for purposes of\\nmutual instruction, similar to the meetings in the unions. Sometimes the clergy-\\nman himself gives them a lecture on religious instruction, and, at other times, they\\ndebate among themselves on questions of pedagogy, or criticise one anolher s\\nmethods of teaching; but in all cases the object of the meetings is the same, viz.,\\nmutual encouragement and improvement. As the religious ministers preside at\\nthese parochial and union conferences, they have an opportunity of addressing\\nthe teachers on their religious duties, and of giving them advice and instruction\\nrespecting the true end they ought to keep in view in their school lessons, and on\\nthe care they ought to take to keep this end constantly in sight.\\nThe ministers also give the teachers advice and counsel respecting the manner,\\nin which their religious lesson ought to be given, in order the more strongly to im-\\npress the minds of their scholars with the serious import of the truths of the\\nScriptures and they have the opportunity of reminding the younger teachers of\\nthe particular parts of the Scripture, which they ought more particularly to lay\\nbefore the different classes of their children, and of the method of religious\\ninstruction which they ought io pursue. But it is impossible to detail all^ the\\ngreat and obvious advantages, which result from these meetings of the clergy and\\nthe school professors, or to enumerate the different subjects of reflection, debate,\\nand conversation, which are started and discussed at them. They are the sup-\\nplements, so to speak, of the normal colleges, and serve, in an admirable manner,\\nto carry forward the education, which the young aspirants to the teachers profes-\\nsion commenced at these institutions, and to continually revive through after-life\\nthe knowledge imparted in them.\\nI have now shown how the government provides for the education, appoint-\\nment, payment, protection, encouragement, and continual improvement of the\\nteachers.\\nIt remains for me to show, how the Prussian government secures the teacher\\nfrom all fear of being disabled, by sickness or old age, from pursuing his labors\\nor providing for his family. It would be a great disgrace for a profession, such\\nas that of the Prussian teachers, were the fate of a superannuated teacher to be\\nthe same as in our country where there is in general no other refuge for such a\\nperson, than the workhouse or the hosp tai. Doubtless, if Prussia did not feel", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nmore interested than we do, in the protection of this most important class of pub-\\nlic servants, it would not care what became of them, when they were too old or\\ntoo weak to attend the schools. But Prussia fully appreciates the value of the\\nlabors of her teachers, and has a sincere respect for them, and a lively concern\\nin thsir welfare. The government has felt, that to cast off and forsake all the\\nold and faithful teachers, when they could work no longer, would be to disgust\\nthe whole body, to break off the sympathies which unite them to their profes-\\nsion, and to shut out of it many noble spirits. It has, therefore, most carefully\\nguarded against these results, by the regulations, which I shall now proceed to\\ndescribe.\\nIf a teacher, who has been definitely appointed, becomes unable to fulfill the\\nduties of his station, either through the utter breaking up of his health, or by old\\nage, the authorities who appointed him, whether they were the county court, the\\ntown school commission, or the parochial school committee, are obliged to pension\\nhim for the remainder of his life.\\nThis pension must, according to law, amount to at least one-third of his former\\nincome. Whether the committee settles more than this upon a teacher or not,\\ndepends upon the manner in which he has labored, whilst he was yet able to do\\nso, and upon the resources which the committee finds at its disposal. Wlien,\\nhowever, the teacher is not so far incapacitated for exertion as to be unable to do\\nany thing, but only so far as to require assistance, the local committee or county\\ncourt is not allowed to dismiss him on a pension, but is required to provide him\\nan assistant, who must be chosen from among the young men, who have been\\neducated in the normal colleges, and who have obtained certificates of qualifica-\\ntion for their duties.\\nIf the school, to which a teacher has been appointed, is supported by or belongs\\nto a landed proprietor, this latter is obliged to pension the teacher, when incapac-\\nitated for his duties by illness or old age and if the school is one of royal found-\\nation, the court of the county, in which it is situated, must pension him. The\\nPrussian government, although professedly a military state, has shown itself at\\nleast as deeply interested in the welfare of its teachers, as in that of its soldiers,\\nwhilst we, who disown the appellation of a military people, take greater care of\\nour soldiers than of our teachers.\\nBesides the provisions for the pensioning of the superannuated teachers, there\\nis another law in force in Prussia, which relates to the future provision of the\\nwidows and orphans of deceased schoolmasters, and which is deserving of equal\\npraise.\\nIn each union a society is formed, of which the principal ecclesiastical author-\\nity in the union is the president, the object of which is to provide for the support\\nof the widows and orphans of deceased teachers. The regulations of these soci-\\neties differ a little, I believe, in the different provinces but it will not be neces-\\nsary here to examine them so minutely, as to show what is peculiar to each. I\\nshall only attempt to give a brief sketch of them, as I have collected it from the\\nlaws, which have been framed for some of the eastern counties of Prussia, and\\nwhich I have now before me.\\nEvery definitely appointed teacher, whether in town or country, must become\\na member of the society established in his union, for the assistance of the widows\\nand orphans of deceased teachers.\\nEvery teacher must pay a small entrance fee on his becoming a member, and\\nafterward a small yearly sum. The amounts of these sums are in all cases con-\\nfined within certain limits, and can neither fall below nor rise above them. On\\nthe amount of the yearly subscription paid by the teacher depends the value of\\nthe pension, which his widow or children will be entitled to receive, after his\\ndeath, from the director of the union society. There are generally three different\\npensions, varying in value, for either of which the teacher may subscribe at his\\nown discretion, but for one of which he must pay his annual subscription. If he\\npay to the first and best, his widow or children will receive the greatest pension\\ngiven by the society, and this is always very much more than the interest of his\\nmoney, calculated on life averages, would have entitled him to receive, as the\\nsocieties are not commercial enterprises, but charitable institutions. To enable\\nthe dddeties, therefore, to meet the calls upSoti their tfeaeuries, it is oiftbn neoatf-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "^2 PRUSSIAN TEACHERS\\nsary, that they should be assisted in some extraordinary manner, and this is done\\nby collections made in the union churches by the ecclesiastical superintendent,\\nand by assistance granted by the county courts. When a teacher dies, however\\nsoon it may be after his having commenced his subscription, leaving a wife or\\nchildren to young to support themselves, they receive the pension for which their\\nfather had subscribed. The wife continues to receive it for life, and the children\\nuntil they are old enough to earn their own subsistence, or until they attain the\\nage of fourteen years for before this time they are not generally able to leave\\nthe parochial schools and commence labor. If he leaves several children, the\\npension is paid, until the youngest attains this age. But if the widow marries\\nagain, she loses her pension, as it is supposed, that her second husband is able to\\nsupport her.\\nBy these means, the Prussian teacher is freed from all anxiety, about the fate\\nof his family after his death, and is less tempted than he would be, if their after\\nmaintenance depended upon his own small savings, to divert his mind from his\\nimportant duties, by the desire of making a provision, sufficient to support them,\\nif he were to die before they were able to support themselves. Besides these\\ngreat advantages, the regulations, which I have described, tend to raise the pro-\\nfession in the estimation of the poor, who thus see, that the government considers\\nnot only the teachers themselves, but that their wives and families also, are de-\\nserving of its especial protection. They also render the situation of a teacher\\nmore desirable for literary and clever young men, who find it an honorable station\\nsuited to their tiistes, and freed from those anxieties, against which a literary man\\nis often the least fitted to contend.\\nThere is still another cause, which contributes, in a very powerftd manner, to\\nfoster the feeling of brotherhood between the Prussian teachers. I refer to the\\nteachers journals.\\nThese journals are periodicals, which appear weekly or monthly, and contain\\nall the latest news and statistics, of the progress of education in all the countries\\nof the world original articles on different questions relating to the general man-\\nagement of schools, and the different methods of instruction accounts of par-\\nticular schools distinguished by some particular excellence or other biographies\\nof distinguished teachers and professors and reviews of all the latest works on\\npedagogy.\\nThey are published for the whole of Germany and Switzerland and their\\narticles are contributed by inspectors, teachers, and professors fi-om all parts of\\nGermany. The stimulus they give to education is almost incalculable. By their\\nmeans, all the most recent improvements in pedagogy are rapidly disseminated\\nthe efforts of the most able teachers are published the labors, the plans, and the\\nsuccess of particular teachers are described the character of all the new lawa\\nand regulations is discussed and explained the honors and rewards bestowed on\\neminent and successful teachers and friends of education are made known and\\nin this way, a feeling of generous emulation is excited among all the members of\\nthis great body, spread as it is over the Austrian empire, Bavaria, Wirtemberg,\\nBaden, the German dukedoms. Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, and the German can-\\ntons of Switzerland, which an Englishman would find it difficult to conceive.\\nEach teacher, who takes in one of these journals, is reminded of the greatness of\\nthe brotherhood, of which he is a member he is told by its pages, that over the\\nvast and well-loved Germany, all the members of this brotherhood are laboring\\nas himself, each in his respective locality that their efforts are not without suc-\\ncess, and not without the sympathy of their country that he himself participates\\nin this sympathy, and is an object of interest to the whole of Germany and\\nwhen he lays his paper down, after its perusal, it is with a feeling of pride in his\\nprofession, of exultation in the thought of his labors, and of confidence in his\\nultimate success.\\nThat the teachers are deeply interested in their profession, no one can doubt,\\nwho has had an opportunity of observing how the German press is teeming with\\nworks on pedagogy, published by and intended expressly for the teachers.\\nI happened to be in Leipsic, during the great fair of 1846, at which time all\\nthe new books, which had appeared in Germany within the past year were\\nexhibited and I was very much astonished, at the great number of works on", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHEUS\\n183\\npedagogy, which had appeared in that year. There were treatises on different\\nquestions relating to the management of schools and the instruction of the young\\naccounts of particular schools in different parts of Germany obituaries of\\neminent teachers and professors, who had ceased their labors in this world biog-\\nraphies of others still engaged in their important avocations and all kinds of\\nschool books properly so called. The tables of the publishers were literally\\ncovered with books issued expressly for the schools and teachers, and generally\\nwritten by members of the profession.\\nThis shows, also, how much is being done at the present time in Germany to\\nimprove the science of pedagogy.\\nHaving thus described the character and social position of the great profession\\nof Prussian teachers, I shall now show what education the law requires each of\\nthem to have received, before it allows him to Engage in the work of instruction\\nfor it must be remembered, that no person, whether he be a foreigner or a native,\\ni.s allowed to act as a teacher of any public or private school in the kingdom of\\nPrussia, until he has passed a very rigid examination in all the subjects of school\\ninstruction, and has obtained a diploma from his e.\\\\aminers, stating that he is fit\\nto be a teacher.\\nIn each of the different provinces of Prussia the government has established five\\nor six great colleges, intended expressly for the education of the teachers. Each\\ncounty possesses at least one, nearly all have two of them. They are all endow-\\ned, partly by the state and pai tly by private benefactors. The education given in\\nf hem is perfectly gratuitous at least one-half of the cost of boarding each\\nstudent is borne by the state, or defrayed out of the ftmds of the college, on the\\nmost liberal scale and every thing is provided, which can possibly contribute to\\nthe perfection of the training and education of the students.\\nNo attempt has been made to give the education of the teachers any political\\nbias. The normal colleges are widely dispersed throughout the country. They\\nare situated close to the homes of the students, and at gi eat distances from the\\nc ntor of government so that the patriotic sentiments naturally resulting from\\nthe humble origin of the young teachers are not weakened nor are their local\\nsympathies eVer interrupted by the young men being removed, during the period of\\ntheir education, into a distant and uncongenial political atmosphere. Neither\\ndocs the government undertake the actual direction of these great and important\\nestablishments. Each of them, with only two or three exceptions, is put under\\nthe care of a religious minister of the sect, for the education of whose teachers it\\nis destined.\\nIn each province, there are, as I have before stated, five or six of these insti-\\ntutions. In each coimty, there are generally two. If the inhabitants of a county\\nare composed of Romanists and Protestants in pretty equal proportions, one of\\nthese colleges is devoted to the education of the Romanist teachers, the other to\\nthat of the Protestant. If nearly all the inhabitants of a county are of one faith,\\nboth of the normal colleges are devoted to the education of the teachers of this\\nfaith and the teachers of the minority are educated in one of the colleges of a\\nneighboring county. There are only two normal colleges in Prussia, where\\nRomanist and Protestant teachers are professedly educated together. The direc-\\ntors of these great institutions are chosen from among the clergy. The director\\nof a Romanist college is chosen by the Romanist bishop of the province, in which\\nthe college is situated 5 and the director of a Pi otestant college is chosen by the\\necclesiastical authorities of the province, in which the college is situated subject,\\nhowever, in both cases, to the approbation of the Minister of Education in Berlin,\\nwho has the power of objecting, if an unsuitable or injudicious choice is made.\\nThe normal colleges are thus put under the supervision of the religious bodies.\\nThe government itself directs their management. It recognizes the importance\\nof these colleges having a decidedly religious character and, at the same time,\\nof the education given in them being of the most liberal kind. On the one hand,\\ntherefore, it intrusts the direction of them to the clergy and, on the other hand,\\nit reserves the right of examining them, so as to have the power of inteifering,\\nin case the secular education of the students should be .injudiciously curtailed.\\nThe director of each C()ll ;e appoints all the professors and teachers. The relig-\\nious ministers have, thcr^ lore. 1. eon i-leribl. share of the direction of thefle", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "184\\nPRUSSIA?*- ti:achers.\\ninstitutions. Their eharacter is decidedly religious, and a union between the\\nclergy and the teachers is effected, which is productive of the best possible\\nresults.\\nThe students remain in these colleges about three years. They live in the\\ninstitution. Almost the whole of the expenses of their education, and of their\\nboard, are paid out of the funds of the college.\\nIf a young man wishes to enter into one of these normal colleges, he need not\\ntravel far from home. Within a day s journey of his own village, is to be found\\none of the normalco lieges of his country. If he is able to pass the preparatory\\nexamination, and to procui-e carefully attested certificates of character, he is\\nreceived as an inmate of the college on a vacancy occurring. During the time\\nof his sojourn there, and during the continuance of his arduous studies, he is in\\nconstant communication with alLhis old associates and friends, and constantly\\nrevisits the scenes of his boyhood His sympathies with his people are thus pre-\\nserved intact. None of his old connections with his village are broken he\\nremains the son, the brother, and the companion of the peasants. His life in the\\nnormal college is very simple and laborious the change from its arduous disci-\\npline and duties, to those of a village teacher, is a change for the better. The\\nteacher is not rendered discontented with his simple village Hfe, by being pam-\\npered in the college the laborious and self-denying discipline of the college\\nteaches him, how to combine the simplicity of the peasant, with the learning of\\nthe scholar. It is the design of these Prussian colleges to send forth simple-\\nminded, industrious, religious, and highly educated peasant teachers and not\\naffected pedagogues, or mere conceited and discontented gentlemen. Nobly,\\nmost nobly, have they fulfilled their mission Prussia may well be proud of her\\n30,000 teachers.\\nEach one in his village, and in his district, is laboring among the poor, not so\\nmuch to teach them their A, B, C, and mere school-room learning, as to enable\\nthem to think to show them the present, as well as the future advantages of\\nmanly virtue, and to explain to them, how much their own prosperity in life\\ndepends upon their own exertions. This is education.\\nOh if we could once be taught to recognize the vast benefits, which education\\nmust confer upon the people, if we could once be taught to understand, the\\nmeaning of the term, and the nature of the undertaking, it would not be long,\\nere each one of our counties would possess its two normal colleges, and each one\\nof our villages its educated teachers and its school. We have the power, but not\\nthe will. We do not understand the vast importance of education to the people.\\nIt has been said, by persons desirous of screening our own shameful neglect of\\nthe people s education, by the abuse of the great efforts of our neighbors, that the\\nteachers of Prussia have been, in reality, nothing more than the paid servants of\\nan absolute power, intended to prepare the minds of the people to passivfti^ sub-\\nmission to a despotic government. Nothing can be more shamefully and igno-\\nrantly false than this assertion.\\nI have a right to speak on this subject, as I have seen more, perhaps, of the\\nPrussian teachers, than any of my countrymen and of this I am certain, that\\nthe sympathies of the Prussian teachers have always been notoriously with the\\npeople, and not with the government. The Prussian government has always, in\\nfact, bitterly complained of the too liberal spirit which actuates the teacher s pro-\\nfession, but without effect the body is popular in its origin, its position, its educa-\\ntion, and its sympathies. Many of the warmest friends of constitutional progress\\nin Prussia have always been found among the teachers and, it is a fact, well\\nworthy of consideration, that liberal and constitutional ideas never made so rapid\\na progress in Prussia, at any period of its history, as they have done since the\\nestablishment of the present system of education. I believe, that the teachers\\nand the schools of Prussia have been the means of awakening in that country\\nthat spirit of inquiry and that love of freedom, which forced the government tc\\ngrant a bona fide constitution to the country.\\nAn evidence of the free spirit, which has pervaded the Prussian teachers, may\\nbe derived fi-om the fiict, that the Prussian government found itself compelled, in\\n1831, to address a circular order to the teachers, in which, after reciting that the\\ngovernment had been inf rm d, that somo of the teuchers had converted their", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHER?\\n185\\nclass-rooms into political lecture rooms, and had selected the political topics of the\\nday as the subject of remark, if not of instruction, it prohibitL^d such subjects\\nbeing introduced into the lessons by the teachers, and ordered the inspectors to\\nprevent the teachers perverting their schools to such objects as these.\\nThe very fact, that such a prohibition was found necessaiy, proves that my\\nown observations were correct. If further proof were needed, it might be told,\\nthat the people have elected many teachers as their representcitives in the difl er-\\nent Diets thus proving their esteem and respect for the able instructors of their\\nchildren.\\nAs nearly all the expenses of the young teacher s education in the normal\\ncolleges, are borne by the country at large, and not by himself, it has been thought\\nadvisable to require some kind of guarantee, that those, who are educated in the\\ncolleges, will really, when their education is completed, labor as teachers in the\\nvillage schools, ami not merely use their college education as a preparation for\\nother more lucrative situations.\\nIn order, therefore, to secure an adequate return for the expenditure of the_\\ncountry, it has been decreed by the government\\n1st. That every young man, who is received into a normal college, ghall bind\\nhimself, by an agreement, to remain for three years, after leaving the college, at\\nthe d.sposition of the government and during such three years, to take any\\nsituation, which the authorities of the district, in which the normal college is\\nsituated, should offer him, or to which they should wish to translate him.\\n2d. That if he does not comply with this condition as soon as required to do\\nso, he shall repay to the normal college the cost of the education and mainte-\\nnance, which had been gratuitously given to him.\\nEvery year, at a fixed perioil, of which public notice has been previously given\\nin the local papers, the directors and pi ofessors of each of the normal colleg(, s\\nhold a public meeting, at which the magistrates of the county and the religious\\nmin sters are present, for the purpo.se of examining all young men, who are desir-\\nous of obtaining admission into the normal college for the purpose of being I\\netiucated as teachers.\\nThese examinations are open to all young men, even of the poorest classes, many\\nof whom enter the lists, as almost all the expenses of the collegiate course are, as\\nI have said, borne by the state, or defrayed out of the funds of the college.\\nEvery competitor at one of these examinations must forward to the director of\\nthe college, a fortnight before the examination takes place\\n1. A certificate signed by his religious minister, and certifying that his charac-\\nter and past life have been moral and blameless.\\n2. A certificate from a physician, cei tifying his freedom from chi onic com-\\nplaints, and the soundness of his constitution and health.\\n3. A certificate of his having been vaccinated within the last two years.\\n4. A certificate of his baptism, (if a Christian.)\\n5. A certificate, signed by two or more teachers, of his previous industrious\\nand moral habits, and sufficient abihties for the teacher s profession.\\nOn the day appointed, all the young candidates, who have complied with the\\npreceding regulations, and who have attained the age of seventeen, are examined\\nat the college, in the presence of the county magistrates, and of the religious\\nministers, by the directors and professors of the college, in all the subjects of\\ninstruction given in the highest classes of the primary schools i. e.,\\nGeography,\\nGerman history,\\nNatural history.\\nThe fir.st principles of the physical sciences,\\nSinjjing,\\nThe violin.\\nBiblical history.\\nThe history of Christianity,\\nLuther s catechism,\\nWriting,\\nReading,\\nArithmetic, (mental and common,)\\nGrammar, I\\nWlien the examination is concluded, a list is made out, in which the names of\\nthe young men are inscribed in order, according to the profieiency and ability\\nthey have displayed in their examination. As many of the highest in the list are\\nthen elected, as -students of the college, as there are vacancies that year, occasioned\\nby the departure of those who have left the college to take the chai ge of village\\nschools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "186 I llDSSIAN TEACHERS\\nThose who are elected, as well as their parents or guardians, are then required\\nto subscribe the agreements I have before mentioned and the successful candi-\\ndates are then admitted as residents of the college for two or three years,\\naccording to the length of residence required by the rules of the college.\\nThe time of residence in Prussia is generally three, and never less than two\\nyears. The time of residence in the normal colleges in the neighboring kingdom\\nof Saxony is always four years. When the young men have been once admitted\\ninto the normal college, their education as teachers commences. It must how-\\never, be borne in mind, that the Prussian teacher, when he first enters a normal\\ncollege, has generally before that period enjoyed a much better education, and\\nknows much more then, than an English teacher does when he undertakes the\\nmanagement of a school. Unless he did, he would not be able to obtain ad-\\nmission into a normal college. When he leaves the normal college, he has\\nhad a better general education, than nine out of every ten men who leave our\\nUniversities.\\nThe education of a good teacher is a very difficult matter, and, principally, for\\nthis reason Nothing, but a very high education can fit an individual for the\\nproper pciformance of that most delicate, difficult, and important duty, the educa-\\ntion of a child. Great learning, even when accompanied with good principles, is\\noften apt to unfit its possessor for the himible duties of a teacher s life the\\nmingling, living, and conversing with, and the advising the peasants; the labori-\\nous and often unnoticed and unrequited labors of the school-room the constant\\nami wearying struggle with sloth, ignorance, filth, bad habits, and immorality\\nwith the opposition of the prejudiced, and the ignorance of the uneducated\\nparents with the misrepresentations of his scholars and with the neglect of the\\ncommunity. The learned teacher has all this, and more than this, to contend\\nwith. lie finds himself in such a situation, having received an education fitting\\nhim for a very different sphere of action, deserving much higher emolument, and\\ninclining him to seek a very ditYerent kind of employment. Such a man, if he\\nhas received only an intellectual training, is sure, sooner or later, to fly fi-om his\\nprofession, and seek out an employment more congenial to his newly acquired\\ntjistes, or, if he remains at his post, he remains discontented, and, by discontent,\\ntotally unfitted to perform his duties aright.\\nNow the Prussian and the German normal colleges have avoided this difficulty\\nin the following manner They give the teachers a very high intellectual educa-\\ntion, but they give them something more they educate their habits also they\\naccustom the yoUng men, whilst they are in the colleges, to the most laborious\\nand most menial duties to combine high intellectual endowments with the per-\\nformance of the humblest duties of a peasant s life and to acquire high literary\\nattainments whilst living on a peasant s diet, wearing a peasant s dress, and labor-\\ning harder than any peasant is ever called upon to do. When, therefore, the\\nstudents leave the colleges, they find their positions, as village teachers, situations\\nof less labor, of less real drudgery, and of more comfort, than those which they\\nformerly occupied in the colleges. By these means, their sympathies for the labors\\nand simplicity of the class, from which they sprung are cherished, whilst the\\nlabors of the class-room are rendered light and easy by comparison with the\\nlabors and daily duties of the normal college. Thus, the college does not engen-\\nder discontent, but braces the young teacher to his work, and prepares him to\\nencounter it with pleasure.\\nThe education given in the normal colleges of Germany and Switzerland may\\nthen be said to consist of two distinct parts\\n1st. The intellectual training.\\n2d. The industrial training.\\n1st. The Intellectual Training. This, I have before said, is of a very high\\ncharacter. I have shown what knowledge a young man must have acquired,\\nbefore he can gain admittance into a normal college. This is only the ground-\\nwork of his education in the college. During his three year s residence he con-\\ntinues his studies in\\nBiblical history, I Luther s catechism,\\nThe history of Christianity, RcaiJiug, writing, aritlimetic, and grammar.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. |gY\\nlie furthei enters upon a new and regular course of study in\\nPedagogy,\\nSinging and chanting,\\nDrawing,\\nThe violin, piano-forte, and organ.\\nGeography,\\nHistory,\\nNatural history,\\nBotany,\\nThe physical sciences,\\nBesides these subjects of study, the young men generally learn the Latin and\\nFrench languages, and very often the English also. I met several teachers who\\nknew all three. These latter acquirements are not, howevei required but with-\\nout the former, a yoimg man could not obtain a teachers diploma, or officiate in\\nany school as a teacher, nor would he be accepted by the inhabitants of a parish.\\nThe first two years of a teacher s residence in the normal college are devoted\\nalmost exclusively to these studies-, the third year is divided between them and\\nthe daily practice of teaching in the model schools, connected with the college.\\nHere they first practice as teachers, under the eye and direction of an experi-\\nenced professor, who is able to sliow them how to impart knowledge in the best\\nmanner, an.l how to manage and direct all the minutite of school discipline. Those\\nwlio imagine, that any one is fit for the performance of these duties without any\\npreparation, show themselves as ignorant of the duties of a teacher, as they are\\ncareless about the improvement and happiness of the people.\\nBesides the subjects of instruction I have noticed, the law requires, that each\\nstudent shall be taught how to distinguish poisonous herbs what are, and how\\nto use, the antitodes of different poisons how to treat the more common acci-\\ndents which laborers are liable to meet with au l what remedies and treatment\\nto make use of in cases of scalds, burns, and bites of mad dogs. The teachers\\nare required to impart this instruction to the scholars of the primary schools, so\\nthat every person n)ay be capable of acting for himself and without delay, in\\ncases of such daily occurrence, and where a short delay in administering a simple\\nand necessary remedy often proves fatal.\\nThe teacher is thus qualified in simple cases to act as the village doctor and in\\ncountry villages, where no surgeon or medical adviser lives wi#iin many miles,\\nthe teacher s medical knowledge proves invaluable, both to himself and to the\\npeople, among whom he dwells. As the uneducated always esteem a man much\\nmore if he exhibits a knowledge of the practical arts and appliances of life, the\\nbenefit and use of which they can understiind, than for any reputation he may\\nhave of learning, of the use of which they have generally but a vague idea so\\nthis practical knowledge of the teachers tends greatly to raise them in the estima-\\ntion and respect of their poorer neighbors, and by this means to give greater\\ninfiuence and effect to their advice and teachings.\\n2d. The Industrial Training.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This consists, generally, of the performance\\nof all the ordinary household work, preparing the meals, taking care of the\\nsleeping apartments, pruning the fruit-trees, and cultivating, in the lands always\\nattached to the colleges, the vegetables necessary for the use of the household.\\nThe students are required to rise at five o clock, and to retire to rest by ten at\\nthe latest and in turn to wait upon the professors and on one another to ring\\nthe bell for classes, c. to puinp the water required for the daily use of the\\nestablishment to go to the post-office for letters and to teach in the class-rooms\\nof the village school attached to the college.\\nThe whole of every day is occupied by the regular routine of these duties, and\\nby attendance at the lectures of the principal and the professors. There is no\\nunoccupied time, and therefore, no time for the formation of idle or immoral\\nhabits. The college course is a laborious, severe, but healthy course of life\\nbracing up the mind, the body, and the habits, to the exertions of the future\\ncareer. It is a more than Spartan discipline.\\nEvery year, during its continuance, the young men are rigorously examined, to\\nsee whether they are making such progress in their studies, as to afford satisfac-\\ntory reason for hoping that, at the end of their course of study, they will be able\\nto succeed in gaining a diploma or certificate of competence. AVhen it is found\\nthat a young man is incapable, or idle, and that his progress is not such as to insure\\nhis probable success in the iiiial examination fur diplomas, he is removed from the\\ncollege, to make room for some more worthy recipient of the national bounty,\\nand of some more worthy candidate for the teacher* pvofeesion.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "IQQ PRUSSIAN TEACHERS.\\nThis training continues, as I have said before, for three years in most of the\\nPrussian colleges. During the whole of this time the young men are urged and\\nstimulated to the greatest exertion, by the knowledge that, at the end of it, they\\nwill have to submit to a severe and searching public examination, conducted in\\nthe presence of the educational magistrates of the county, of the religious min-\\nisters, and of the professors of the college and that on the results of that exam-\\nination, and on the manner in which they succeed in it, their admission into the\\nteachers profession, and their future course of life, entirely depend.\\nUnless they can pass this final examination creditably, they can not become\\nteachers and even if they do pass it, the value of the situation, to which they\\nmay be afterward appointed, depends entirely on the degree of efficiency and\\ndiligence which they display at the examination.\\nEvery year at a certain period, fixed and publicly announced beforehand, a meet-\\ning is held in each normal college, by the director and professors of the college,\\nand by the religious ministers and the educational magistrates of the country, at\\nwhich all the young men, who have been three years in the college, are sum-\\nmoned to attend, for the purpose of being e.xamined in all the subjects, in which\\nthey have received instruction, during their residence in the college. This exam-\\nination generally lasts two days.\\nThe young men who have completed their third years residence in the college\\nare then examined in\\n1. Biblical history, I 8. Natural history,\\n2. The history of Christianity, 9. IJolany,\\n3. Luther s Catechism, j 10. The physical sciences,\\n4. Rt^arlins, writing, and arithmetic, 11. Pedajiogy, and class management,\\n5. Grammar, 12. Siiifring and chanting,\\n6. Geography, local and physical, 13. Drawing,\\n7. History, 14. The organ, the piano-forte, and the violin.\\nAccording to the manner, in which each student acquits himself in this examin-^\\nation, he I eceives, as I have before shown, a diploma marked 1, 2, or 3,\\nor else is rejeoted, i. e. refused admittance into the teachers profession, on the\\nground of incompetency.\\nJf a student has succeeded so well in his examination, as to gain a diploma\\nmarked 1, he is qualified to take a situation in any school as principal teacher,\\nand to enter at once into the highest and most lucrative situations in the country.\\nThis diploma is a guarantee to all to whom he shows it, that he is a young man of\\ngood ability, high character and great attainments, and fit to be intrusted with the\\neducation of any children of any class in the comnmnity.\\nIf a student obtains a diploma marked 2, or 3, he can not, as I have before\\nshown, for the first two or three years, take any situation as principal teacher in a\\nschool, but can only officiate as assistant teacher until, by further study and\\ndiligent application, he has qualified himself to attend another of the general\\nannual examinations, and has there succeeded in obtaining one of the first diplo-\\nmas. Those students who obtain the diplomas marked 3, are obliged to return\\nthe following year, to the college examination, and, if they do not give proofs of\\nhaving improved themselves, in the interim, in the branches of education in which\\nthey were deficient, they are generally, deprived of tlieii; diplomas altogether.\\nAny person, whether he has been educated at a normal college or not, may pre-\\nsent himself at one of them, at the time when the great annual examinaticm is held,\\nand may demand to be examined for a diploma. If he shows a requisite amount\\nof knowledge, and can produce all the certificates of character, health, c., which are\\nrequired of the other students at their entrance into the normal college, he may,\\nequally with the rest, obtain his diploma, and afterward officiate as a teacher.\\nBut no person without a diploma, i. e., without having given to the country un-\\ndeniable proofs of high character, well regulated temper, high attainments, and a\\nthorough knowledge of the science of pedagogy, is permitted to officiate as teacher\\nin Prussia.\\nThe connecfion of a German teacher with the normal college does not, however,\\nclose when he has obtained a diploma marked 1, and when he has entered\\nupon his duties as a parochial teacher.\\nThe principal of the normal college is commanded by the laws, to pay at least,\\none yearly visit of inspfection to each of the teachers, who have been educated in", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. gg\\nhis colleges. The expense of these journeys of inspection, advice and encourage-\\nment is borne by the state, or rather, as indet-d a great part of the expenses of\\nthe normal college itself, by the provincial magis^trates. If on these tours of in-\\nspection, he perceives that any one or more of the teachers requires some further\\ninstruction or practice in any department of school instruction if he perceives,\\nthat a teacher, has allowed his knowledffe of any branch of instruction to lag\\nbehind the progress of the science of pedagogy, or to grow dull from want of\\nexercise or if the teacher should himself require it, the principal is empowered\\nto remove the teacher for a few months to the normal college, and during the\\ninterim, to fill up his place with a young student, or with some young teacher, who\\nhas not yet obtained a situation. All the extra expenses, attendant upon this re-\\nmoval, as, for instance, the payment of the young substitute, as well as the keeping\\nof the teacher himself during his renewed sojourn in the college, are defrayed by\\nthe provincial government. The teacher s salary continues to be paid by the\\nschool committee, and serves to support his family during his absence.\\nThe normal college in Prussia is, so to speak, the home of all the teachers of\\nthe district, in which it is situated. They know they can always apply there for\\nadvice that they will always find friends there, ready to sympathi7.e with them\\nand to render them assistance and that the director and professors understand\\nall their difficulties, and are always able and willing to aid them in obtaining a\\nremedy from the superior authorities. The college is thus the protector and the\\nadviser of the teachers it is their refuge in all troubles it is the central point\\nfor their meetings and reunions and it is the place, from which they can, at all\\ntimes, gain every kind of necessary information, respecting the various objects\\nconnected with their profession. They can see there all the best and newest\\nworks on the different branches of pedagogy all the lately improved apparatus\\nand materials for school instruction and all the more recently adopted methods\\nof teaching. They can obtain information there about the general progress of\\neducation in general, and of the different arts and sciences in particular about\\ntheir old friends and associates and about the character and efliciency of partic-\\nular books, schools, and methods of instruction.\\nI can not speak too highly of these great and liberal institutions. Tlie spirit in\\nwhich they have been conceived, is so liberal the way in which they have been\\nendowed, is so munificent their tone and teaching are so truly healthy and patri-\\notic they are so free fi-om the ignorant cant of dogmatism and from the narrow\\nminded feeling of pedantry their discipline is so severely moral and so invigor-\\nating their domestic life is so simple, laborious, and happy in its arrangements\\nand they are so entirely in unison with the religious institutions of the country,\\nthat no one can visit them without profound satisfaction.\\nNormal schools or teachers seminaries in Prussia, are divided into\\npubhc or private, superior or chief seminaries, {Hanpt Seminaire,) and\\nsecondary, or small seminaries, (Neber, ornebeusen Seminaire.) By a\\nchief seminary was originally understood such seminaries as were com-\\npletely organized according to the requirements of the laws. After-\\nwards they were distinguished by the fact, that a special commission of\\nexamination was appointed for them, to which commission the director\\nand head teacher belonged. But by recent regulation, a commission for\\nthis purpose is appointed to the small, and even the private, as well as\\nto the superior seminaries. They differ pow only by the number of\\npupils and in a few instances, the smaller seminaries require a shorter\\nresidence, and train teachers exclusively for country schools. Private\\nseminaries are encouraged, because the annual graduates of the public\\ninstitutions can not yet supply the annual vacancies in the schools created\\nby deaths, withdrawal, and dismission. In addition to the seminaries in-\\ncluded in the following table, there are five institutions for female teachers,\\nviz. at Berlin, Kaieersworth, Munster, Paderborn and Marienweider.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "190 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA.\\nTable n. location and number of pcpils of normal schools, in 1846.\\nProvince.\\nRegency District,\\nPlace where located.\\nE\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a05,\\nCM\\nd\\nZ\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23\\n-a\\nJ\\n1\\n1\\n13\\n1\\nc\\nd\\nPrussia,\\nKonigsberg,\\nK.6nigsbeig,\\nBraunsberg,\\nEylau.\\n28\\n53\\n70\\n4\\n5\\nP.\\nc.\\n1809\\n1810\\n30\\n20\\n10\\nGumbinnen,\\nAngetberg,\\nKaralene,\\n38\\n70\\n3\\np.\\np.\\n1829\\n1811\\n25\\nDanzig,\\nMarienwerder,\\nMarienburg,\\nGraudenz,\\n53\\n96\\n6\\nC.6\u00c2\u00a3F.\\nC, P.\\n1814\\n1816\\n46\\n59\\nPosen,\\nPosen,\\nPosen,\\nParadies,\\n100\\n78\\n10\\nC.\\n1804\\n1838\\n18\\n70\\nBromberg,\\nBromberg,\\nTrzemessno,\\n30\\n15\\n4\\n2\\nP,\\nP.\\n1819\\n1829\\n30\\nBrandenburg,\\nPotsdam,\\nBerlin,\\nPotsdam,\\n34\\n98\\n3\\n1\\nP,\\nP,\\n1830\\n1748\\nFrankfort,\\nNeuzelle,\\nAlt-Dobern,\\n120\\n104\\n10\\n8\\nP.\\nP.\\n1817\\n10\\n22\\n88\\n24\\nPomerania,\\nStettin,\\nStettin.\\nKammin,\\nPyritz,\\n50\\n18\\n15\\n4\\n2\\n2\\nP.\\nC,\\nP,\\n1735\\n1840\\n1827\\n50\\nCoslin,\\nStralsund,\\nCoslin,\\nStralsund,\\n60\\n31\\n5\\nP,\\n1806\\n60\\nSilesia,\\nBreslau,\\nBreslau,\\n195\\nC,\\n1765\\n58\\nOppeln,\\nLiegnitz,\\nOber-Glogau,\\nBuntzlau,\\n150\\n135\\n10\\n8\\nC.\\nP.\\n1815\\n1816\\nSaxony,\\nMagdeburg,\\nMagdeburg,\\nHalberstadt,\\nGardelegen,\\n65\\n49\\n27\\n5\\n4\\nP.\\nP,\\n1790\\n1778\\n1821\\n24\\n12\\nMerseburg,\\nEisleben,\\nWeissenfels,\\nZeitz,\\n20\\n68\\n8\\n3\\n4\\nC.\\nP,\\n1836\\n1794\\n23\\nErfurt,\\nErfurt,\\nMtxhlhausen,\\nHeiligenstadt,\\n103\\n6\\n32\\nC. P,\\n1820\\nWestphalia,\\nMunster,\\nMinden,\\nLangenhorst.\\nPetershagen,\\nBtiren,\\n36\\n34\\n80\\n3\\n3\\n5\\nP,\\nP.\\nC.\\n1830\\n1831\\n1825\\nRhine,\\nAmsberg,\\nCologne,\\nSoest,\\nBriihl,\\n42\\n100\\n4\\n7\\nP.\\nC.\\n1818\\n1823\\n36\\n87\\nDiisseldort,\\nKempen,\\nMeurs,\\n101\\n96\\n7\\n8\\nP.\\nP.\\n1840\\n1820\\n30\\ni\\nCoblentz,\\nTrier,\\nAix-la-Chapelle,\\nNeuwied,\\nTreves,\\n36\\n4\\nP.\\nC.\\n1816\\n30\\nPrior to 1846 there were two seminaries at Breslau in that year the Protes-\\ntant seminary, with 130 pupils, was closed, and the pupils were provided for\\nin two new institutions, one at Lowen, and the other at Heinau. The Small\\nSeminary at Zeitz, was abolished in 1846, and those at Stettin, Pyritz and Kam-\\nmin, were consolidated into a Chief Seminary at Stettin. The Seminary at\\nPotsdam, is to be transferred (in 1849) to Kopnick, in the neighborhood of\\nBerlin,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "REGULATIONS\\nOF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF LASTADtE AND PYRITZ,\\nIN PRUSSIA.\\nThe following Regulations of two of the best small (nebeusen) Normal\\nSchools are taken from M, Cousin s Report on the State of Public Instruc-\\ntion in some of the Stales of Germany, and especially of Prussia. The author\\nintroduces them with some remarks on this class of Normal Schools in\\nPrussia. It is no longer true that all of the smaller seminaries are private\\nestablishments.\\nThe small Normal Schools are almost all private establishments, but the\\ngovernment aids and watches over them, without subjecting them to the\\nsame publicity it requires of its great schools.\\nThe small Normal Schools differ, generally, from the large, not only in\\nthe number of pupils, which is much smaller, but above all as being nurser-\\nies of village schoolmasters for the very poorest parishes. This is their\\nproper object this it is wiiich gives them so peculiar a character, so pro-\\nfound a utility. The great schools, it is true, furnish masters for the coun-\\ntry as well as for the towns and their pupils, those at least who receive\\nthe stipendia, or exhibitions, are for many years at the disposal of the gov-\\nernment, which sends them where it likes a right whicli, from the well-\\nknown rigor of the Prussian government in making all public servants work,\\nwe may be sure it exercises. But in every country there are parishes so\\npoor, that one would hesitate to send a schoolmaster of any eminence to\\nlive in them and yet it is precisely these miserable villages which stand in\\nthe greatest need of instruction to improve their condition. This need,\\nthen, the small Normal Schools are destined to supply. They labor for\\nthese poor and backward villages. To this their whole organization, their\\nstudies, their discipline, are to be directed. Unquestionably, the great Nor-\\nmal Schools of Prussia are entitled to the highest respect but never can\\nthere be veneration enough for these humble laborers in the field of public\\ninstruction, whof as I have said, seek obscurity rather than fome; who de-\\nvote themselves to the service of poverty with as much zeal as others to the\\npursuit of riches, since they toil for the poor alone and who impose re-\\nstraints on every personal desire and feeling, while others are excited by all\\nthe stimulants of competition. They cost scarcely any thing, and they do\\ninfinite good. Nothing is easier to establish, but on one condition, that we\\nfind directors and pupils capable of the most disinterested, and, what is more,\\nthe most obscure devotion to the cause. Such devotion, however, can be\\ninspired and kept alive by religion alone. Those who can consent to live\\nfor the service of men who neither know nor can appreciate them, must keep\\ntheir eyes steadfastly fixed on Heaven that witness is necessary to those\\nwho have no other. And, accordingly, we find that the authors and direct-\\nors of these small schools are almost all ministers of religion, inspired by\\nthe spirit of Christian love, or men of singular virtue, fervent in the cause\\nof popular education. In these humble institutions, every thing breathes\\nChristian charity, ardor for the good of the people, and poverty. I shall lay\\nbefore you a description of two one hidden in a suburb of Stettin, and\\nthe other in the village of Pyritz in Pomeraiiia.\\nStettin has a large Normal School, instituted for the training of raasteri", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "jr.j SMALL NoU.MAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA.\\nfor the burgher schools. An excellent man, Mr. Bernhardt, school-councilor\\n(Schulralh) in the council of the department, was the more powerfully struck\\nby ihe necessity of providing for the wants of the country schools. He\\nfounded a small Normal School for this sole purpose, and placed it not in\\nthe town, but in a suburb called Lastadie; he laid down regulations for its\\ngovernment, which I annex nearly entire.\\nSmall Primary Normal School of Lastadie, near Stettin.\\n1. This school is specially designed for poor young men who intend to become\\ncountry schoolmasters, and who may, in case of need, gain a part of their subsist-\\nence by the labor of their hands.\\n2. Nothing is taught here but those tilings necessary for small and poor country\\nparishes, whicli require schoolmasters who are Christians and useful men, and can\\nafford them but a very slender recompense for their toils.\\n3. This school is mtended to be a Christian school, founded in the spirit of the\\ngospel. It aspires only to resemble a village househdid of the simplest kind, and\\nto unite all its members into one family. To this end, all the pupils iiaiabit the\\nsame house, and eat at the same table with the masters.\\n4. The young men who will be admitted in preference, are such as are born\\nand bred in the country who know the elements of what ought to be taught in\\na good country school who have\u00c2\u00bba sound, straightforward understanding, and\\na kindly, cheerful temper. If, withal, they know any handcraft, or imderstand\\ngardening, they will find opportunities for practice and improvement in it in odd\\nhours.\\n5. The school of Lastadie neither can nor will enter into any competition with\\nthe great Normal Schools completely organized on the contrary, it will strive\\nalways to keep itself within the narrow limits assigned to it.\\nt). Tile utmost simplicity ought to prevail in all the habits of the school, and,\\nif possible, manual labor should be combined with those studies which are the\\nmain object, and which ought to occupy the greater portion of the time.\\n7. Tlie course of instruction is designed to teach young people to reflect, and\\nby exercising them in reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing, to put it in their\\npower to instruct themselves, and to form their own minds. For the humblest\\npeasant ought to be taught to think but to enlighten him, to make bim a ra-\\nti iullI and intelligent being, does not mean to make him learned. God willeth\\ntha t all men be enlightened, and that they come to the knowledge of the truth.\\n8. The instruction ought to have a direct connection with the vocation of the\\nstudents, and to include only the most essential part of the instruction given in\\ntlie great Normal Schools.\\n9. The objects of instruction are religion, the German language, reading,\\nwriting, arithmetic, and singing. To these are joined the first elements of geom-\\netry, easy lessons in natural history, narratives drawn from national history (par-\\nticularly that of Pomerania), and geographical descriptions. The principal object,\\nand the foundation of all education, is religion, as learned from history and the\\nBible. The principal books are the Bible, the psalter, and the catechism. The\\nschool of Lastadie will also strive to excite and cherish in its pupils a love of\\nnature, and to that end will cultivate a taste for gardening and planting.\\nlU. In treating of all these subjects, the pupils must be trained to speak in\\npure and accurate language for after the knowledge of religion and of nature,\\nthere is nothing of which the children of peasants stand so much in need, as to\\nlearn to express what they know with simplicity, truth, and accuracy.\\nIL The students know enough, when they speak, read, and write well; when\\nthey can produce a good composition in the German tongue when they can cal-\\nculate with facility and with reflection, and when they sing well they know\\nenough when they are thoroughly versed in the Bible, when they possess the\\nmost essential notions of the system of that universe which they have constantly\\nbefore their eyes, of that nature in the midst of which they live they have at-\\ntained much, when they are Christian, rational, and virtuous men.\\n12. The period of study is fixed at two years. The first year the pupils learn\\nwhat they are hereafter to teach to others besides which, they assist at the les-\\nsons the masters give to the children of the school annexed to this small Normal", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OP LASTADIE. 293\\nSchooL In the second year the future teacher appears more distinctly, and from\\nthat time every thing is more and more appUed to practice. They continue the\\nwhole year to practice teaching, and at the end they receive a set of rules, short\\nand easy to understand, for the management of a school of poor country children.\\n13. To the school of Lastadie is joined a school of poor children, in which the\\nyoung men have an opportunity of going over what they have learned, by teach-\\ning it to others, and of exercising themselves in tuition according to a fixed plan.\\nThis school consists of a single class, in order that the students may see how a\\ngood school for poor childi-en should be composed and conducted, and how aU the\\nchildren may be kept employed at once.\\n14. The number of pupils is fixed at twelve. The pecuniary assistance they\\nreceive will depend on circumstances. The instruction is gratuitous. Six pupils\\ninhabit each room. The master lives on the same floor. They take their simple\\nbut wholesome meals together. Servants are not wanted. The pupils do the\\nwork of the house.\\n15. The daily lessons begin and end with prayers and psalmody. It rests with\\nthe master to fix the hours of devotion (founded chiefly on the Bible and the book\\nof Psalms), as well as their number. So long as the true spirit of Christianity\\nfaith quickened by charity shall pervade the establishment, and fill the hearts\\nof masters and of pupils, the school wiU be Christian, and will form Christian\\nteachers and this spkit of faith and of charity will be productive of blessings to\\nthe poor and to the mass of the nation.\\n16. It will not, therefore, be necessary to lay down minute regulations but\\npractical moral training must be combined asftnuch ha possible with instruction.\\nThe letter kiUeth, the spirit quickeneth. But what wiU it not require to im-\\nbue the whole establishment with the true spirit of Christianity, so that masters\\nand pupils may devote themselves with their whole hearts, and for the love of\\nGod, to the cliildren of the poor\\n17. \\\\Yhoever wishes to be admitted into this estabUshment must not be un-\\nder eighteen nor above twenty years of age. He must bring the certificates of\\nhis pastor, of the authorities of his parish, and of the physician of the circle, as\\nto his previous conduct and the state of his health. He must, moreover, have\\nsuch preUminary knowledge as is to be acquired in a well-conducted country school,\\non Biblical history, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing. Those who join to\\nthese acquirements the principles of piano-forte or viohn playing, wiU be pre-\\nferred. The candidates for admission give notice to the director, and are exam-\\nined by the members of the departmental authorities who have the care of the\\npeople s schools.\\n18. There is no public examination. The examination on quitting is likewise\\ncoi^ducted by the school-councilors of the department, and the certificates of\\ncapacity are founded on tliis examination, according to the gradations 1, 2, 3, and\\nare delivered by the departmental authorities.\\n19. As to the placing of the pupils, it is desirable that they should work some\\nyears as assistant masters, in order that they may gradually acquire the neces-\\nsary experience and confidence, and may become well acquainted with children,\\nand with the inhabitants of villages. tJnder this supposition, the age of admis-\\nsion might be conveniently fixed at sixteen and this arrangement would be a\\ngreat relief to aged schoolmasters who are become burdensome to themselves\\nand to their parishes.\\n20. Particular attention is paid to singing and to horticulture as means of\\nennobling and animating the public worsliip of God, and the general course of a\\ncountry life of providing the pupils with an agreeable recreation, and, at the\\nsame time, a useful occupation and, further, of combating the grossness of mind\\nand the obstinate prejudices to which uneducated husbandmen are prone.\\n21. All the students attend divine service in the church of Lastadie on Sun-\\ndays.\\n22. The vacations must not exceed four weeks for the whole year: they are,\\nat Easter, in the autumn, and at Christmas.\\n23. The establishment has no other revenues than what it owes to the bounty\\nof the minister of public instruction. Tliese funds are employed,\\n1. In maintaining the poorest students.\\n2. In indemnifying the assistant masters of singing and gardening.\\n13", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "194 SMALL NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA.\\n3. In paying for the school tuition.\\n4. In paying the expenses of lodging the students.\\n5. In lighting and warming the school-room and the two lodging-rooms.\\n6. In extraordinary expenses.\\nThe expense of the meals taken at noon and evening, in common, is also chief-\\nly defrayed from these grants the students, however, contribute a Uttle from\\ntheir own means.\\nThe school of Lastadie pays the head master from its own resources.\\nMay this establishment (concludes Mr. Bernliardt), which owes its existence to\\nsuch fervent charity, not be deprived of that blessing, without which it can do\\nnothing\\nAssuredly there is not a virtuous heart which does not unite its prayers\\nwith those of the worthy and benevolent councilor.\\nThe second small Normal School of this description was founded in 1824,\\nin honor of Otto, bishop of Bamberg, who introduced Christianity into Pom-\\nerania, having baptized 4000 Pomeranians in 1124, near the fountain of Py-\\nritz. When the minister of public instruction granted the license for its\\nestablishment, he made it a condition that the students should be instructed\\nin agriculture, not merely as a recreation, but as essential to their destina-\\ntion that they should be bound to study gardening, the cultivation of fruit-\\ntrees, and of silk-worms. Th e special superintendence of this house is\\nintrusted to the pastor of the place. The regulations are as follows they\\nresemble those of Lastadie in m^y respects, but go into great detail, and\\nare perhaps still more austere as to discipline.\\nRules of the small Normal School of Pyritz, in Pomerania,\\nI.\\n1. The purpose of this endowment is to give to every pupil the training and\\ninstruction suitable for a good and useful country schoolmaster this, however,\\ncan only be done by the union of Christian piety with a fundamental knowledge\\nof his vocation, and with good conduct in the household and in the schooL\\n2. Piety is known\\nBy purity of manners\\nBy sincerity in word and deed\\nBy love of God and of his word\\nBy love of our neighbor\\nBy wilHng obedience to superiors and masters\\nBy brotherly harmony among the pupils\\nBy active participation in the pious exercises of the house, and of public wor-\\nship;\\nBy respect for the king, our sovereign, by unshaken fidelity to our country, by\\nuprightness of heart and of conduct.\\n3. A thorough knowledge of the duties of a teacher are acquired\\nBy long study of the principles and elements\\nBy learning what is necessary and really useful in that vocation\\nBy habits of reflection and of voluntary labor\\nBy constant application to lessons\\nBy incessant repetition and practice\\nBy regular industry and well-ordered activity according to this command-\\nment, Pray and work\\n4. Good conduct in the house and the school requires\\nA good distribution and employment of time\\nInflexible order, even in what appears petty and insignificant\\nSilence in hours of study and work\\nQuietness in the general demeanor\\nCare and punctuahty in the completion of aU works commanded\\nDecent manners toward every person and in every place decorum at meals\\nRespect for the property of the school, and for all property of others\\nThe utmost caution with regard to fire and light", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF PYRITZ.\\n195\\nCleanliness of person and of clothing\\nSimplicity in dress, and in the manner of living according to the golden rule,\\nEvery thing in its time and place. Let things have their com-se. Provide\\nthings honest in the sight of all men. Rom. xii. 16, 17.*\\nII.\\n1. All the pupils inhabit one house and one room for they must hve in unioD,\\nand form one family of brothers, loving one another.\\n2. The whole order of the house rests on the master of the school he lives in\\nthe midst of the pupils he has the immediate superintendence of them, of their\\nconduct, and of their labors. He ought to be to those under his care what a\\nfather of a Christian family is in liis household.\\nHe is responsible for the accounts of the establishment, the registers, the re-\\nsult of the quarterly examinations, and for the formation of the necessary lists.\\nHe has the special care of the provisions, the rooms, the library, the furniture.\\nHe is responsible to the school-administration for good order in every department,\\n3. The oldest and most intelligent of the students assists the master. He is\\ncalled the master s assistant. He must take care\\nThat every one in the room under his care rises and goes to bed at the ap-\\npointed moment\\nThat nobody, without the master s permission, leave the house, smoke, or carry\\ncandles into the passages or the loft\\nThat no one wantonly injure the windows, doors, or furniture, or thi-ow any\\nthing out of the windows\\nThat the utmost cleanhness be observed in the sitting-room, the passage, and\\nthe sleeping-room\\nThat all clothes, linen, books, c., be in their places\\nThat no noise be made in going up and down stairs, or in going to the chil-\\ndren s school.\\nIt is his especial business to help his companions in the preparation of their\\nlessons, to liear them repeat, to prepare the exercises for the master, and to as-\\nsist him as far as he can in all his business. He ought to be to his fellow-students\\nwhat a good elder brother is to his younger brothers and sisters. He is chosen,\\non the master s recommendation, by the school-committee.\\n4. The humbler sort of household work, such as cleaning and putting in order\\nthe rooms, dusting the furniture, fetching water, cleaving wood, c., is done by\\nthe pupils, who serve a week in rotation. The time of service is prolonged by\\norder of the master, in case of negligence.\\n5. The order of the day is as follows\\nIn winter at five, in summer at half past four in the morning, at a given signal,\\nall the pupils must rise, make their beds, and dress.\\nHalf an hour after rising, that is, at half past five in winter, and five in summer,\\nall the pupils must be assembled in the school-room. The assistant first pro-\\nnounces the morning benediction, and each pupil then occupies himself in silence\\ntill six. If any repetitious stand over from the preceding day, they must be\\nheard now. After this, breakfast.\\nIn whiter, as well as in summer, the lessons begin at six o clock, and last till a\\nquarter before eight. Then the students go with their master to the children s\\nschool, attached to the Normal School, where they remain till ten, either listen-\\ning, or assisting in teaching some small classes or they may be employed in their\\nown studies at home.\\nTo these employments succeeds an hour of recreation, and then an hour s les-\\nson in the estabUshment.\\nAt noon, the students assemble in the master s room, where they find a frugal\\nbut wholesome meal, consisting of vegetables, meat, and fish, at the rate of two\\nthalers (six shillings) a month.\\nThe time which remains, till one o clock, may be passed in music, gardening,\\nand walking.\\nI do not happen to have the French version of the Bible. The texts as quoted by M. Cousin\\ndo not agree with those in our version. Ver. 11, is rendered by Luther, Schichet euch in die Zeit,\\nAdapt yourselves to the time which is not given in our version. The next clause above, I find\\nneither in his version nor in ours.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "196 SMALL NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA.\\nIn the afternoon, from one till three, while the master is teaching in the to-mn\\nschool, the pupils accompany liim, as in the morning. From three till five, lessons.\\nThe succeeding hours, from five till seven, are, according to the seasons, em-\\nployed in bodily exercises, or in the school-room in quiet occupations. At seven\\nthey assemble at a simple cold supper.\\nFrom seven to eight they practice singing and the viohn then repetitions or\\nsilent study till ten, when all go to bed.\\nTwo afternoons of each week are free, and are usually spent in long walks.\\nThe time from four to six, or from five to seven, is devoted to the practice of\\nmusic.\\nOn Sundays or holidays all the pupils must attend divine service in the church\\nof the town, and assist in the choir. The remainder of these days may be passed\\nby every one as he pleases in the course of the morning, however, the students\\nmust write down the heads of the sermon (the text, the main subject, the distri-\\nbution), and in the evening must give an account of the manner in which they\\nhave spent the day.\\nEvery evening, as well as on the mornings of Sundays and holidays, a portion\\nof time is spent in meditation in common.\\nA few Sundays after the setting in of winter, and after the festival of St. John\\n(May 6th), the students partake of the Lord s Supper, in company with their\\nmasters.\\nEvery student, from the time of his admission, must solemnly engage (in token\\nof wliich he gives liis hand to the master and signs his name) to follow the rules\\nof the house, which may be summed up in these three principal maxims\\n1. Order in behavior and in work, combined with the utmost simplicity in all\\nthings to the end that the students who belong to the poorer classes, and whose\\ndestiny it is to be teachers of the poor, may willingly continue in tliat condition,\\nand may not learn to know wants and wishes whicli they will not, and ought not\\nto have the power of satisfying. For this reason, they must be their own servants.\\n2. As to the course of instruction, the repetitions must always be heard by the\\nforwardest pupUs. Tlie pupils must be made, as much as possible, to teach each\\nother what they have learned of the master, in order that they may perfect them-\\nselves in the art of teacliing.\\n3. Piety and the fear of God should be the soul of their little commimity, but\\na true Christian piety, a fear of God according to knowledge and Ught, so that\\nthe pupils may do all to the glory of God, and may lead a simple, humble, and\\nserene Ufe, resigned and contented in labor and travail, according to the exhorta-\\ntion of the Apostle\\nFulfill ye my joy, that ye be like-minded, having the same love, being of one\\naccord, of one mind. Let nothuig be done through strife or vain-glory but in\\nlowliness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves. Philip, ii. 2, 3.\\nAnd as many as walk according to this rule, peace be on them, and mercyj\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Oalat. vi. 16.\\nI abstain from all comment on these two sets of regulations, which seem\\nto have been dictated by the spirit of St. Vincent de Paule. The greater\\nnumber of the small Normal Schools of Prussia are founded and governed\\nin the same spirit. All rest on the sacred basis of Christianity. But be-\\nneath their simple lowly exterior we trace a taste for instruction, a feeling\\nfor nature, a love of music, which take away every vestige of coarseness, and\\ngive these modest institutions a character of liberality. Undoubtedly all this\\nis the offspring of the national manners, and of the genius of Germany\\nyet Christian charity might transplant a good deal of it into our France\\nand I should esteem myself happy, if the regulations of the little schools\\nof Lastadie and of Pyritz were to fall into the hands of some worthy eccle-\\nsiastic, some good curate or village pastor, who would undertake such an\\napostolic mission as this.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL\\nAT POTSDAM.\\nThe following account of one of the best primary Normal Schools of\\nPrussia is abridged from the report of M. Stintz, the director of the\\nestablishment.\\n1. DIRECTION AND INSPECTION.\\nThe Normal School and its annexed school are placed under a director\\nor principal, subordinate to the royal school board of the province of Bran-\\ndenburg, at Berlin, and to the minister of public instruction and ecclesias-\\ntical and medical affairs.\\nThe last named authority lays down the principles to be followed in\\nthis school, as in all other public schools exacts an account of all impor-\\ntant matters, such as the examination of the masters, and any change in\\nthe fundamental plan of the studies and receives every year, through\\nthe medium of the royal school board, a detailed report, prepared by the\\ndirector of the school.\\nThe school board is charged with the special inspection of the Normal\\nSchool it must watch its progress, and from time to time send commis-\\nsioners to make inquiries on the spot. It examines also and approves the\\nplan of studies presented every half year, and decides on all questions\\nsubmitted to the consistory.\\nThe director should superintend the whole establishment, observe and\\ndirect the master and servants, make reports to the superior authorities,\\ncarry on the correspondence, c.\\n2. BDILDING.\\nThe Normal School, situated near the canal and the Berlin gate, is a\\nlarge edifice two stories high, with a frontage of 127 feet, and considera-\\nble back buildings, which, joined to the main building, form a square\\nwithin which is a tolerably spacious court. The whole comprehends\\n1. A family residence for the director or principal, and another for a\\nmaster\\n2. Three apartments for three unmarried masters\\n3. An apartment for the steward and his servants, and sufficient con-\\nvenience for household business and stowage\\n4. A dining-room for the pupils, which serves also for the writing and\\ndrawing class\\n5. An organ-room, in which the music lessons are given, the examina-\\ntions take place, and the morning and evening prayers are said\\n6. Two rooms for the scientific instruction of the pupils\\n7. Four rooms for the classes of the annexed school;\\n8. Five rooms of different sizes, and two dormitories for the pupils\\n9. Two infirmaries;\\n10. A wash-house\\n11. Two cabinets of natural history\\n13. Granaries, cellars, wood-houses, c.\\n3. REVEN0ES.\\nThe annual income of this establishment amounts to $6000, which is", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "198\\nPRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM\\nderived from the state fund and the tuition of the pupils, both of the Nor-\\nmal School, and the annexed primary model school.\\n4. INVENTORY.\\nThe establishment contains the following articles\\n1. Things required in the economy of the house, kitchen utensils,\\ntables, forms, c.\\n2. Sufficient and suitable furniture, consisting of chests of drawers,\\ntables, forms, chairs and boxes, for the class of the Normal School, and\\nthe school for practice, and for the masters rooms, c. There is also for\\nthe poorer pupils, a certain number of bedsteads with bedding\\n3. A considerable library for the masters and pupils, as well as a good\\ncollection of maps and globes for the teaching of geography;\\n4. A tolerably complete collection of philosophical instruments\\n5. A collection of minerals, presented to the establishment by Council-\\nlor Von Turck\\n6. A collection of stuffed birds, and other objects in natural history 3\\n7. The instruments most required in mathematical instruction;\\n8. Complete drawing apparatus\\n9. A very considerable collection of music;\\n10. A very good organ, a piano forte, seven harpsichords, and many\\nwind and string instruments.\\n5. DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND MAINTENAN yE OF THE PUPILS.\\nTo support about eighty pupils, and to preserve cleanliness in the\\nhouse, a steward has been appointed, whose duties are specified in a con-\\ntract renewable every year.\\nThe food of the pupils is good and wholesome, which is proved by the\\nstate of their health. Some parents think it needful to send their chil-\\ndren eatables, or money to purchase them. They are wrong, for the\\nchildren have no such want on the contrary, so far from being advan-\\ntageous, these presents only serve to take away their appetite at meals,\\nand to make them dainty and gluttonous. The orphans, and those whose\\nparents are too poor to send them any thing, are exactly those who are\\nthe strongest and healthiest.\\nThe director is almost always present at meals, to be sure of the good-\\nness of the food, and to prevent any irregularity in the serving up.\\nSick pupils are sent to the infirmary, and are attended by the physician\\nor surgeon of the establishment.\\n6. MASTERS.\\nThere are six masters attached to this establishment in which they\\nlive, besides the director, who instructs in religion, in the principles of edu-\\ncation, of training, of the art of teaching, and of the methods of study.\\n7. NUMBER OF PUPILS.\\nThe number of pupils is fixed by the regulation at from seventy to\\neighty, and is now seventy-eight, of whom seventy-two live in the estab-\\nlishment; the other six have obtained a license to remain with their\\nparents in order to lessen the expense of their maintenance.\\nThis number is determined not only by the building, but also by the\\nwants of the province. Brandenburg contains about 1300 masterships of\\nprimary schools, in town and country. Supposing that out of a hundred\\nplaces, two become vacant every year, there will be at least thirty mas-\\nters required for this province but these places for the most part pay so\\nbadly, that they are compelled to be content with but moderately qualified\\nmasters, who, perhaps, have not been educated at a Normal School, and\\nwho sometimes follow some trade or handicraft. If then, the Normal\\nSchool contains seventy-eight pupils who form three classes, one of which", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. jgg\\nquits annually, it will furnish each year twenty-six candidates, which\\nabout meets the wants of tlie country.\\n8. WHAT IS REQ0IRED OF APPLICANTS FOR ADMISSION.\\n/Once a year, at Michaelmas, twenty-six pupils are admitted. Of these\\nare required\\n1. Good health and freedom from all bodily infirmity. (Obstacles to\\nadmission would be, exceeding smallness of stature, short-sightedness, or\\na delicate chest\\n2. The age of seventeen complete\\n3. The evangelical religion;\\n4. A moral and religious .spirit, and a conduct hitherto blameless\\n5. A good disposition and talents, among which are a good voice and a\\nmusical ear\\n6. To be prepared for the studies of the Normal School by the culture\\nof the heart and mind; to have received a good religious education\\n(which shall include a knowledge of the Bible and biblical history to be\\nable to read to know the grammar of the German language, of compo-\\nsition, arithmetic, the principles of singing, the piano forte and violin.\\nA written request for admission must be sent to the director, by June at\\nthe latest, accompanied with\\n1. A certificate of birth and baptism\\n2. A school certificate, and one of good conduct;\\n3. A police certificate, stating the condition of the young man or his\\nfather, or else a written declaration from the father or guardian, stating\\nthe time within which he can and will pay the annual sum fixed by law\\ni.e. 48 thaler (61. 16s.)\\nThe director enters the petitioners on a list, and in the month of June\\nor July invites them, by letter, to present themselves at the examination\\nwhich takes place in July or August.\\nThe examination is conducted partly in writing, and partly viva voce J\\nAs a means of ascertaining the acquirements of the candidates, and of\\njudging of their memory, their style, and their moral dispositions, an an-\\necdote or parable is related in a clear and detailed manner, summing up\\nand repeating the principal points, after which they produce it in writing,\\nwith observations and reflections.\\nThe oral examination usually includes only rehgion, reading, grammar,\\nlogical exercises, and arithmetic.\\nThey are also examined in singing, the piano forte and the violin.\\nAfter the examination, the talents and merits of the respective candid-\\nates are conscientiously weighed and compared, in a conference of the\\nmasters. The choice being made, it is submitted to the sanction of the\\nroyal school board, with a detailed report of the result of the examination.\\nAt the end of some weeks the candidates are informed of the decision\\ntheir admission is announced, or the reasons which prevent it stated with\\neither advice to give up their project entirely, or suggestions relative to\\ntheir further preparation.\\nThe admitted candidate is bound to bring, besides his clothes and\\nbooks, among which must be the Bible and the prayer-book used in the\\nestablishment, half a dozen shirts, six pair of stockings, a knife and fork,\\nand, generally, a bedstead with all requisite bedding.\\nHe is also bound to sign, on his entrance, the following engagement to\\nthe director, with the consent of his father or guardian.\\nCOPY OP THE ENGAGEMENT WITH THE DIRECTOR TO BE SIGNED BY THE\\nPUPIL ON HIS ENTRANCE.\\nI, the undersigned, N of N by these presents, Wnd my-\\nself, conformably with the ordinance of the royal minister ol public in-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "200\\nPRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\nBtruction, and ecclesiastical and medical affairs, dated February 28th,\\n1825, with the consent of my father (or guardian) who signs this witli\\nme, to place myself during three years after my\\nleaving the Normal School, at the disposal of the king s government\\nand consequently not to subscribe any thing contrary to this engagement;\\nor, in such case, to refund to the Normal School the expenses incurred by\\nthe state for my instruction, namely\\n1. Ten thaler for each half y^ar passed in the Normal School, and for\\nthe instruction received in this period of time\\n2. The whole amount of the grants and exhibitions I may have re-\\nceived\\nPotsdam, the c.\\nThe applicant rejected, but not advise d to choose another course, is\\nsummoned to a fresh examination the following year.\\nThe number of applicants having been lor some time past very great,\\nthe author of this report thinks it his duty to warn parents, (especially\\nschoolmasters,) whose children do not evince talent and have not a deci-\\nded taste for teaching, not to suffer them to lose the precious time which\\nthey might employ with much more success in some other career.\\nThis respects chiefly the poor youths who can have no claim to the ex-\\nhibitions, unless they give proofs of an extraordinary capacity, from which\\nthe state and society may derive a real advantage.\\nThe Normal School is by no means designed for those who are unfit for\\nany business, and think, if they can read and write, they are capable of\\nbecoming schoolmasters. This notion is so deeply rooted, that you hear\\nfathers declare with all the simplicity in the world My son is too deli-\\ncate to learn a business, or I don t know what to make of my son, but I\\nthink of getting him into the Normal School. We reply to such, that\\nthe pupils of the Normal School must, on the contrary, be sound both in\\nbody and mind, and able to brave the toils and troubles of a career as\\nlaborious as it is honorable.\\nMuch neglect unfortunately still exists on a subject which is of the\\nhighest importance, the methodical preparation of these young men for\\nthe calling it is desired they should embrace.\\nA false direction is often given to their preliminary studies. A young\\nman is believed to be well prepared for the Normal School, if he have\\npassed the limits of elementary instruction, and if he have acquired a\\ngreater mass of knowledge than other pupils. It frequently happens,\\nhowever, that candidates who come strongly recommended from school,\\npass the examination without credit, or are even rejected.\\nThe most immediate and the most important aim of all instruction, is\\nto train up and complete the Man to ennoble his heart and character\\nto awaken the energies of his soul, and to render him not only disposed,\\nbut able, to fulfil his duties. In this view alone can knowledge and\\ntalents profit a man otherwise, instruction, working upon sterile memory\\nand talents purely mechanical, can be of no high utility. In order that\\nthe teacher, and particularly the master of the primary school, may make\\nhis pupils virtuous and enlightened men, it is necessary he should be so\\nhimself Thus, that the education of a Normal School, essentially practi-\\ncal, may completely succeed, the young candidate must possess nobleness\\nand purity of character in the highest possible degree, the love of the true\\nand the beautiful, an active and penetrating mind, the utmost precision\\nand clearness in narration and style.\\nSuch above all things are the qualities we require of young men. If\\nthey have reached this state of moral and intellectual advancement by\\nthe study of history, geography, mathematics, c., and if they have ac-\\nquired additional knowledge on these various branches, we can not but\\ngive them applause but, we frankly repeat, we dispense with all these", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORiMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\n201\\nacquirements, provided they possess that formal instruction of which we\\nhave just spoken, since it is very easy for them to obtain in the Normal\\nSchool that material instruction in which they are deficient.\\nIt is nevertheless necessary to have some preliminary notions, seeing\\nthat the courses at the Normal School are often a continuation of foregone\\nstudies, and that certain branches could not be there treated in their whole\\nextent, if ihey were wholly unknown to the young men when they enter-\\ned. We have already mentioned the branches they should be most par-\\nticularly prepared in; but this subject being of the greatest interest, we\\nshall conclude this chapter with some suggestions on the plan to be fol-\\nlowed.\\nI. Religion. To awaken and fortify the religious spirit and the moral\\nsentiments. For this purpose the histories and parables of the Bible are\\nvery useful. Frequent reading and accurate explanation of the Bible are\\nnecessary. The pupils should be able to explain the articles of faith, and\\nthe most important duties, as laid dowfi in the catechism. Many sen-\\ntences, whole chapters and parables from the Holy Scriptures, hymns and\\nverses, should be known by heart they should be able to give answers\\non the most interesting points of the history of the church and the Reform-\\nation.\\nII. As to general history, there ia no need of its being circumstantially\\nor profoundly known but the young men should be able to refer with\\nexactness to those historical facts wiiich may be profitably used to form\\nthe heart, to exercise and rectify the judgment, to infuse a taste for all\\nthat is grand and noble, true and beautiful.\\nIII. Geometry (the study of forms) combined with elementary drawing.,\\nthe one as a basis for instruction in writing and drawing, and as a pre-\\nparation for the mathematics the other to exercise the hand, the eye and\\nthe taste.\\nIV. Writing. The copies by Henrich and Henning only ought to be\\nused, which, after long practice, give and preserve abeautitul hand, even\\nwhen writing fast and much.\\nV. Logical Exercises. These ought to tend to produce in young\\nminds clearness and accuracy of ideas, justness of judgment, and, by con-\\nsequence, precision and lacility in oral and written explanations.\\nVI. Reading. When once the pupil can read fluently, he must be\\ntaught to give emphasis to his reading, and to feel what he reads. He\\nshould be habituated to recite, and even gradually to analyze the phrases\\nand periods he has just read, to change the order, and express the same\\nidea in different words, to put, for example, poetry into prose, c. Thus\\nthese exercises serve at the same time to teach him to think, and to speak.\\nWe advise also that he be made to declaim pieces he has learnt by heart.\\nVII. German language and composition. Language should be re-\\ngarded and treated on the one hand as a means o? formal instruction.\\nas practical logic and on the other as an indispensable object of material\\ninstruction.\\nVIII. Arithmetic. This does not include either methods of abstruse\\ncalculation or practical arithmetic. Nothing more is required of the pupil\\nthan to use figures without difficulty, and to calculate in his head.\\nIX. Singing, pianoforte, violin. The formation of the voice and ear.\\nSkill and firmness in producing sounds. Exercises in elementary sing-\\ning. Psalmody.\\nFor the piano forte and violin, as much dexterity as can be expected,\\nand a good fingering for the former instrument.\\nIf these suggestions have the effect of inducing a conscientious master\\nto train well even a few young candidates, they will have attained their\\nobject.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "202\\nPRIMARY NORiMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\nThe enumeration of a great number of works from which assistance\\nmay be derived, at least facilitates the choice.\\n9. OUTWARD CONDITION OF THE PUPILS; AND THE NATURE OF THEIR CON-\\nNECTION WITH THE NORMAL SCHOOL,\\nIf the young men have no relations at Potsdam who can answer for their\\ngood conduct and application, they are all, without exception, bound to\\nlive in the Normal School, and to take their food there, paying to the\\ndirector the sum of twelve thaler (1/. 16s.) per quarter.\\nEach pupil costs the establishment 100 thaler a year. In paying,\\ntherefore, the yearly sum of forty-eight thaler, required by law, he defrays\\nonly halt his expenses. A bursar is entitled to lodging, firing, board,\\ncandles, and instruction. A half bursar pays only twenty-four thaler a\\nyear. He has then only to buy his clothes, to pay for his washing, his\\nbooks, paper, pens, ink, and whatever is wanted for music and drawing.\\nWith respect to lodging, they are distributed into five large rooms, with\\nstoves, appropriated to the pupils and they live and work, to the number\\nof eight, twelve, or sixteen, in one of these rooms, which is furnished with\\ntables, chairs, drawers, book-cases, bureaus, and piano fortes. Their\\nbeds and chests are put in two dormitories. Each sitting-room, each\\nbed-room, has its inspector, chosen from among the pupils, who is respon-\\nsible for its order. It is the duty of one of the pupils belonging to the\\nchamber to arrange and dust the furniture every day. Neglect in the\\nfulfilment of liis otfice is punished by the continuance of it.\\nSo long as the pupils remain at the Normal School, and behave with\\npropriety, they are exempt from military service.\\nAH the pupils are bound to pursue the course of the Normal School for\\nthree years their acquirements and instruction would be incomplete if\\nthey did not conform to this regulation.\\n10. EDUCATION OF THE PUPILS BY MEANS OF DISCIPLINE AND OF IN-\\nSTRUCTION.\\nIn the education of the masters of primary schools the wants of the\\npeople must be consulted.\\nA religious and moral education is the first want of a people. Without\\nthis, every other education is not only without real utility, but in some\\nrespects dangerous. If, on the contrary, religious education has taken\\nfirm root, intellectual education will have complete success, and ought on\\nno account to be withheld from the people, since God has endowed them\\nwith all the faculties for acquiring it, and since the cultivation of all the\\npowers of man, secures to him the means of reaching perfection, and,\\nthrough that, supreme happiness.\\nTo sustain and confirm the religious and moral spirit of our pupils, we\\nadopt various means. We take particular care that they go to church\\nevery Sunday: they are not compelled to attend exclusively the parish\\nchurch of the Normal School but on the Monday they are required to\\nname the church they went to, and to give an account of the sermon.\\nEvery Sunday, at six o clock in the morning, one of the oldest pupils\\nreads, in turn, a sermon, in the presence of all the pupils and one master.\\nAt the beginning and end they sing a verse of a psalm, accompanied on\\nthe organ. A prayer, about ten or fifteen minutes long, is offered up\\nevery morning and night, by one of the masters. They begin with sing-\\ning one or two verses then follows a religious address, or the reading of\\na chapter from the Bible, and, in conclusion, another verse.\\nTo obtain amoral influence over the pupils, we consider their individual\\nposition, their wants, and their conduct. Much aid in this respect is de-\\nrived from the weekly conferences of the masters, and particularly trom\\nthe quarterly report Censur) of the pupils, or judgment on the applica-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. 203\\ntion, progress, and conduct of each. This is written in a particular book,\\ncalled the report-book Cerisurbuch,) and forms the basis of the certificates\\ndelivered to the pupils on their leaving the establishment as well as of\\nprivate advice given at the time.\\nThe means of correction adopted, are, warnings, exhortations, repri-\\nmands at first privately, then at the conference of the masters lastly,\\nbefore all the pupils. If these means do not suffice, recourse is had to\\nconfinement, to withdrawing the stipendia or exhibitions, and in the last\\nresort, to expulsion. But we endeavor, as much as possible, to prevent\\nthese punishments, by keeping up a friendly intercourse with the pupils,\\nby distinguishing the meritorious, by striving to arouse a noble emula-\\ntion, and to stir up in their hearts the desire of gaining esteem and respect\\nby irreproachable conduct.\\nIt is on the interest given to the lessons that especially depends the\\napplication of study out of class. Certain hours of the day are consecra-\\nted to private study, and each master by turns takes upon himself to see\\nthat quiet is maintained in the rooms, and that all are properly occupied.\\nAt the end of each month, the last lesson, whatever the branch of in-\\nstruction, is a recapitulation, in the form of an examination, on the sub-\\njects treated of in the course of the month.\\nAs to the branches of knowledge taught, and the course of study, the\\nfollowing is the fundamental plan\\nIn the first year for inal instruction predominates in the second, mate-\\nrial instruction in the third, practical instruction* The pupils iiaving\\nthen about ten lessons a week to give in the annexed school, (lessons for\\nwhich they must be well prepared,) follow fewer courses in the school.\\nOur principal aim, in each kind of instruction, is to induce the young\\nmen to think and judge for themselves. We are opposed to all mechani-\\ncal study and servile transcripts. The masters of our primary- schools\\nmust po.ssess intelligence themselves, in order to be able to awaken it in\\ntheir pupils; otherwise, the state would doubtless prefer the less expen-\\nsive schools of Bell and Lancaster.\\nWe always begin with the elements, because we are compelled to ad-\\nmit, at least at present, pupils whose studies have been neglected and\\nbecause we wish to organize the instruction in every branch, so as to\\nafford the pupils a model and guide in the lessons wliich they will one\\nday be called upon to give.\\nWith respect to material instruction, we regard much more the solidity,\\nthan the extent, of the acquirements. This not only accords with the in-\\ntentions of the higher authorities, but reason itself declares that solidity of\\nknowledge alone can enable a master to teach with efficacy, and carry\\nforward his own studies with success. Thus, young men of delicate\\nhealth are sometimes exempted from certain branches of study, such as\\nthe mathematics, thorough bass, and natural philosophy.\\nGardening is taught in a piece of ground before the Nauen gate; and\\nswimming, in the swimming-school established before the Berlin gate,\\nduring the proper season, from seven to nine in the evening.\\nPractical instruction we consider of the greatest importance.\\nAll the studies and all the knowledge of our pupils would be fruitless,\\nand the Normal School would not fulfil the design of its institution, if the\\nyoung teachers were to quit the establishment without having already\\nmethodically applied what they had learned, and without knowing by\\nexperience what they have to do, and how to set about it.\\nFormal instruction consists of studies calculated to open the mind, and to inculcate on the pu-\\npils good methods in every branch, and the feeling of what is the true vocation of a primary teacher.\\nMaterial instruction, or more positive instruction, occupies the second year, in which the pupils go\\nthrough the special studies of every solid kind, much of which they may never he called upou to\\nteach. Practical instruction, or instruction in the art of teaching, occupies the third year.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "204 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\nTo obtain this result, it is not sufficient that the younger men should\\nsee the course gone through under skillful masters, or that they should\\nthemselves occasionally give lessons to their school-fellows; they must\\nhave taught the cliildren in the annexed school for a long time, under the\\ndirection of the masters of the Normal School. It is only by familiarizing\\nthemselves with the plan of instruction for each particular branch, and by\\nteaching each for a certain time themselves, that they can acquire the\\nhabit of treating it with method.\\n11. ANNEXED SCHOOL.\\nThe annexed school was founded in 1825, and received gratuitously\\nfrom 160 to 170 boys. The higher authorities, in granting considerable\\nfunds for the establishment of this school, have been especially impelled\\nby the benevolent desire of securing to the great mass ot poor children in\\nthis town the means of instruction, and of relieving the town from the\\ncharge of their education.\\nThe town authorities agreed, on their part, to pay the establishment\\none thaler and five silber-groschen (3s. 6c/.) a year for each child. On\\nthis condition we supply the children gratuitously with the books, slates,\\nc. which they want.\\nThe annexed school is a primary school, which is divided into four\\nclasses, but reckons only three degrees: the second and third classes are\\nseparated from each other only tor the good of the pupils, and for the\\npurpose of affording more practice to the young masters.\\nThe first class, with the two above it, forms a good and complete ele-\\nmentary school while the highest presents a class of a burgher school,\\nwhere the most advanced pupils of the Normal School, who will probably\\nbe one day employed in the town schools, give instruction to the cleverest\\nboys of the annexed school.\\nThe most advanced class of the students of the Normal School to be\\nemployed in the school for practice, is divided into five cxBtus, or divisions,\\neach composed of five or six pupils. Each division teaches two subjects\\nonly during two months and a half, and then passes on to two other sub-\\njects so that each has practical exercise in all the matters taught, in\\nsuccession.\\nAs far as possible, all the classes of the school for practice attend to the\\nsame subject at the same hour. The master of the Normal School, who\\nhas prepared the young masters beforehand, is present during the lesson.\\nHe listens, observes, and guides them during the lessons, and afterward\\ncommunicates his observations and his opinion of the manner in which\\nthe lesson was given. Each class has a journal for each branch of in-\\nstruction, in which what has been taught is entered after the lesson. As\\nfar as possible, the young master who is to give the next lesson, witnesses\\nthat of his predecessor. By this means, and particularly through the\\nspecial direction of the whole practical instruction by a master of the\\nNormal School, the connection and gradation of the lessons is completely\\nsecured.\\nIt is requisite that every pupil of the Normal School should teach all the\\nbranches in the lowest class in succession for the master of a primary\\nschool, however learned he may be, is ignorant of the most indispensable\\npart of his calling, if he can not teach the elements.\\n12. DEPARTURE FROM THE NORMAL SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS CERTIFI-\\nCATE AND APPOINTMENT.\\nThe pupils quit the Normal School after having pursued the course for\\nthree years for the lengthening of their stay would be an obstacle to the\\nreception of new pupils.\\nBut they must first go through an examination in writing and viva voce,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\n205\\nas decreed by the ordinance of the minister of public instruction and ec-\\nclesiastical and medical affairs, of which we give an abstract:\\n1. All the pupils of the primary Normal Schools in the kingdom shall\\ngo through an examination on leaving.\\n2. The examinations shall be conducted by all the masters of the\\nNormal School, on all the subjects taught in the house, i-n the presence\\nand under the direction of one or more commissioners delegated by the\\nprovincial school board.\\n3. Every pupil, before leaving, shall give a probationary lesson, to\\nshow to what degree he possesses the art of teaching.\\n4. After the examination Is over, and exact accounts of the pupils\\nleaving are given by the director and all the masters, a certificate shall\\nbe delivered to each pupil, signed by the director, the masters and the\\ncommissioners.\\n5. This certificate shall specify the knowledge and talents of the pupil\\nit shall state whether he possesses the art of teaching, and whether his\\nmoral character renders him fit for the office of primary schoolmaster. It\\nshall include, besides, a general opinion of his character and attainments,\\nexpressed by one of the terms, excellent, good, passable, and answer-\\ning to the numbers 1, 2, 3.\\n6. This certificate only gives the pupil a provisional power of receiv-\\ning an appointment for three years. After that time he must undergo a\\nnew examination at the Normal School. But any pupil who, on leaving\\nthe establishment, obtained number 1, and has, in the course of the three\\nfirst years, been teacher in a public school, shall not have to pass another\\nexamination. No others can take a situation, except provisionally.\\n7. These new examinations shall not take place at the same time as\\nthose of the pupils who are leaving but, like those, always in the pres-\\nence and under the direction of the commissioners of the school board.\\n8. In the first examinations the principal object is, to ascertain if the\\npupils have well understood the lessons of the Normal School, and learn-\\ned to apply them in the last, the only object of inquiry is the practical\\nskill of the candidate.\\n9. .The result of this new examination shall likewise be expressed in\\na certificate, appended to the first, and care shall be taken to specify\\ntherein the fitness of the candidate for the profession of schoolmaster.\\nFor which reason, the pupils on their departure receive a certificate, the\\nfirst page of which describes their talents, character and morality, and the\\ntwo following contain an exact account of the result of the examination\\non all branches of study.\\nThose who have not obtained appointments in the interval between the\\ntwo examinations, shall present this certificate to the superintendents and\\nschool-inspectors of the places where they live, and, on leaving that place,\\nshall demand a certificate of conduct, which_they shall produce at the\\ntime of the second examination. Those who have been in situations\\nduring the three first years, shall produce certificates from their immedi-\\nate superiors.\\nAll the pupils can not be appointed immediately on their leaving the\\nschool but a great number of them are proposed by the director for va-\\ncant places, and are sought after by the royal government, by superin-\\ntendents, magistrates, c. so that at the end of a year we may calculate\\nthat they are all established.\\nM. Cousin, in his \u00e2\u0096\u00a0^Report on Public Instruction in Prussia after\\npublishing the foregoing account, remarks\\nI can answer for the perfect fidelity of this description of the Normal\\nSchool of Potsdam.\\nI saw this scheme in action. The spirit which dictated the arrange-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "206 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM.\\nment and distribution of the tuition is excellent, and equally pervades all\\nthe details. The Normal course, which occupies three years, is compos-\\ned, for the first year, of studies calculated to open the mind, and to incul-\\ncate on the pupils good methods in every branch, and the (eehng of what\\nis the true vocation of a primary teacher. This is what is called the\\nformal instruction, in opposition to the material or more positive instruc-\\ntion of the second year, in which the pupils go through special studies of\\na very solid kind, and learn considerably more than they will generally be\\ncalled upon to teach. The third year is entirely practical, and is devoted\\nto learning the art ofteaching. This is precisely the plan which I take\\ncredit to myself for having followed in the organization of the studies of\\nthe great central Normal School of Paris, for the training of masters for\\nthe royal and communal colleges. At Potsdam, likewise, the third year\\ncomprises the sum of the two preceding, and the pupils are already re-\\ngarded as masters. In this view there is a primary school annexed to\\nthe Normal School, in whicll the students in their third year give lessons,\\nunder the superintendence of the masters of the Normal School. The\\nchildrer^who attend this primary school pay, or rather the town pays for\\nthem, only four thaler (12s.) a year; there are 170. They are divided,\\naccording to their progress, into four classes, which are taught by the\\ntwenty or five and twenty students, or apprentice masters, in their third\\nyear, with all the ardor of youth and of a new vocation. I was present\\nat several of these lessons, which were extremely well given. A master\\nof the Normal School frequently attends one of the classes, and, when\\nthe lesson is finished, makes observations to the young masters, and gives\\nthem practical lessons, by whjch they can immediately profit.\\nAs appears from the prospectus, the musical instruction is carried to a\\nvery high point. There are few students who have not a violin, and\\nmany of them leave the school very good organists and piano forte play-\\ners. Singing is particularly cultivated. The course of instruction em-\\nbraces not only a little botany, mineralogy, physical science, natural his-\\ntory, and zoology, but exercises in psychology and logic, which tend to\\ngive the young men the philosophy of that portion of popular education\\nintrusted to their care. I was present at several lessons among others,\\none on history and chronology, in which, out of courtesy to me, the pupils\\nwere interrogated on the history of France, particularly during the reigns\\nof Charles IX., and Henry III., and Henry IV., a period of which Prot-\\nestantism is so important a feature. The young men answered extremely\\nwell, and seemed perfectly familiar with the dates and leading facts. I\\nsay nothing of the gymnastic courses, as Prussia is the classic land of\\nthose exercises.\\nWhat struck me the most was the courses, called in Germany courses\\nof Methodik and Didaktik, as also those designated by the name of Pa-\\ndagogik: the two former intended to teach the art of tuition, the latter\\nthe more difficult art of moral education. These courses are more partic-\\nularly calculated for the acting masters, who come back to perfect them-\\nselves at the Normal School for which reason they are not entered in\\nthe table, or prospectus, which exhibits only the regular studies of the\\nschool. These courses are almost always given by the director, who also\\ngenerally gives the religious instruction, which here comes in its proper\\nplace, that is, first,\\nI ought to add that all the students of the school at Potsdam had a\\ncheerful happy air, and that their manners were very good. If they\\nbrought any rusticity to the school, they had entirely lost it. I quitted\\nthe establishment highly satisfied with the students, full of esteem for the\\ndirector, and of respect for a country in which the education of the people\\nhas reached such a pitch of prosperity.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "P.RIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL,\\nAT BRUHL.\\nThe Normal School at Bruhl may be regarded as a type of the establish-\\nment for teachers of the Catholic faith, as that at Potsdam is of the Prot-\\nestant institutions. The following account is abridged from an annual Re-\\nport of its principal, Mr. Schweitzer, a Catholic clergyman.\\nThe town of Bruhl stands in a beautiful plain on the left bank of the\\nRhine, two leagues from Koln, three from Bonn, and a short league from\\nthe river. It is surrounded by fertile fields and picturesque villages. Di-\\nrectly before it majestically rises the ancient Colonia, with its numerous\\ntowers and steeples, and its colossal cathedral. It bounds the view on that\\nside on the right, the Siebengebirge* traces its gigantic outlines on the\\nblue distance, and on that side presents to the eye a picture of grandeur and\\nrepose. From some neighboring hights the lover of natural beauty looks\\ndown with admiration on the plains which lie outspread before him, and the\\nsilvery luster of the majestic Rhine, which, in its ample windings, rolls peace-\\nfully along, as if it delighted to linger in these smiling regions, while two\\nlong chains of hills seem to hold this magnificent plain in their embrace.\\nOne of these chains stretches along the left bank of the Rhine, to the Eifel\\nMountains, and is for that reason called the Vorgebirge (fore or introduc-\\ntory range) at the foot of this chain is Bruhl. The summit is clothed with\\nthe forest of Vill, and the undulating sides are dotted with country-houses\\nand pretty villages, the houses of which are half hidden among fruit-trees.\\nAt the blossoming season these villages present the most delightful aspect,\\nand help to compose a picture of enchanting variety. It is not without rea-\\nson, then, that Bruhl was the favorite residence of the Electoral Archbishops\\nof Koln, and in former times this little town was far more important than it\\nnow is. At the present day Bruhl consists of only 278 houses, among\\nwhich are many poor mud cottages, and contains only from fourteen to\\nfifteen hundred inhabitants. Since it ceased to be the residence of the Elect-\\nors, its inhabitants nearly all live by agriculture, and by a small trade.\\nThere are only two remarkable buildings, the palace, which is abandoned,\\nand the monastery. This latter building is occupied by the establishment\\nunder my care.\\nThe monastery was formerly the nursery of the order of Franciscan\\nfcmonks for the whole province of Koln. After the suppression of the order\\non the left bank of the Rhine, in 1807, Napoleon gave the monastery and\\nits dependencies to the town of Bruhl, which, in 1812, granted them to\\nMessrs. Schug and Schumacher for the establishment of a secondary and\\ncommercial school, whose existence closed in 1822. At the end of that\\nyear, the town ceded these buildings to the government, for the establish-\\nment of the primary normal school which now occupies them.\\n1. BUILDINGS.\\nThe house is built in a grand style, with three stories, and in a quadran-\\ngular form. The entrance is to the north, and leads by a small fore court,\\nThe cluster of seven mountains nearly opposite to Bonn.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "208 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL.\\non the one side into the convent, on the other into the church, which is\\nhandsome, light, and lofty. The high altar, of artificial marble, and the\\norgan, are much admired. On the south side are two wings, which give the\\nbuildings a handsome and palace-like appearance. From the very entrance,\\nthe cloisters are wide, with lofty vaulted roofs, cheerful and well lighted.\\nThey run quite round the building, as do the corridors over them on the\\nfirst and second stories. On the ground floor we have four rooms or halls\\nfor study, and a large and very light dining-hall, which serves also for our\\npublic meetings, for study and for prayer. Beside it, are two school-rooms,\\nand two rooms for the steward, with kitchen, offices and servants hall in the\\nbasement story, where the porter has also his kitchen and two rooms. The\\nestablishment has a pump, abundantly supplied with fine water, near the\\nkitchen a rivulet which runs under the two wings is of great importance\\nfor purposes of cleanliness.\\nThe director occupies the eastern side of the building on the first floor\\nthe inspector, the left wing and a part of the southern side the steward has\\nthe rest of that side the right wing and the western side are inhabited by\\nan ancient father and brother of the Franciscan order, regarded as the last\\nremnant of a once flourishing body, now extinct and by the master of the\\nschool for practice. There are no rooms to the north, only corridors adjoin-\\ning the church.\\nThe assistant masters inhabit the upper story, in which are also five hos-\\npital rooms to the south, and two large dormitories for the students to the\\neast and west of the main building. A granary or loft, in good repair, runs\\nover the whole of the building, and affords both steward and masters conve-\\nnient stowage for their stock of grain of all kinds.\\nBoth masters and pupils have ample reason to be satisfied with the\\nrooms for study and for dwelling. The masters apartments are not hand-\\nsome, it is true other schools have better with a little cleaning and dec-\\noration they might, however, be made very comfortable. The students dor-\\nmitories are cheerful, and better fitted up than any I have seen in any nor-\\nmal school their appearance is very neat and agreeable, with the clean beds\\nall covered alike, which can be done only where they are furnished by the\\nestablishment. This house has only one inconvenience, violent currents\\nof air but these might, I think, be remedied.\\nThe outside of the building is as agreeable as the inside is convenient;\\nit is situated on the prettiest side of the town, and has no communication\\nwith any other building except the ^lalace, with which it is connected by a\\ncovered way, and by the old orangery. It has a magnificent view over a de-\\nlightful country, a large kitchen-garden, a commodious court, and two flow-\\ner-gardens.\\nThe building is of stone, and consequently very substantial its aspect\\nis indeed a little hoary now, but a new coat of plaster would soon give it a\\ncheerful appearance. The roof is in good condition, and if once the build-\\ning underwent a thorough repair, the whole might be kept up at a very\\nsmall expense. During the past year no great repairs have been done.\\n2. NUMBER OF STUDENTS.\\nThe number of students is fixed at a hundred at this moment there are\\nninety-two. The object of the establishment is to train schoolmasters for\\nthe Catholic parishes of the four regencies of Coblentz, Koln, Aachen, and\\nDusseldorf. Its position with relation to the government is, in principle, to\\nreceive the pupils from its hands, and to render them back accomplished for\\ntheir task. In the other normal schools the rule is, that the candidates for\\nadmission be examined by the schoolmasters, and by them declared fit or\\nunfit to be either entered or immediately admitted; but here it is the cu\u00c2\u00bb-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 209\\ntorn for them to be examined in the department they come from, without\\nany intervention of the school, and afterward admitted by the director on\\nthe nomination of the government. On the other hand, the parting exam-\\nination rests with the school, under the condition of a special commissioner\\nbeing present. The pupil declared fit for nomination is not subject to be\\nre-examined by the government authorities. According to its regulations,\\nthe school is not only authorized, but obliged, at the end of the first year, to\\nsend away the pupils who are judged incapable of attaining the requisite\\nexcellence. At the tim? of the last parting examination, the school had\\nbeen obliged to exerci^ this power in the case of eight pupils, which re-\\nduced their number to ninety-two.\\n3. HEALTH.\\nThe health of the students was not so good in 1824 as in the preceding\\nyear as sufliciently appears from the bill for medical attendance for the two\\nyears.\\nIn 1823 this amounted to 66 thaler (91. 18s.), in 1824 to 177 thaler (26Z.\\nlis.) But we m^st not forget that the number of pupils in the latter year,\\nas compared with the former, was as three to two. Tliere have indeed been\\nno contagious diseases, and few of a serious character, but frequent inflam-\\nmatory and catarrhal fevers, some intermittent and one nervous fever. In-\\nflammatory ophthalmia, attacks on the chest, and palpitations of the heart\\nhave not been rare. The physician has paid the pupils great attention, in-\\ndeed I might almost say too much and I have agreed with him that he shall\\nnot order them medicines, except in cases where diet, rest, perspiration, and\\ndomestic remedies are insufficient. In order to prevent the young men from\\nabusing the facility of applying to a physician, I have ordered that no one\\nshall, for the future, consult him without my permission. Infectious cutane-\\nous diseases are avoided by having the pupils examined by the physician on\\ntheir entrance, and again a week after. If any well-founded suspicions arise,\\nseparation takes place as a measure of precaution if the appearances of a\\ncontagious disease are certain, the pupil is sent home till perfectly cured.\\n4. ORDER, DISCIPLINE, AND MORALITY.\\nWithout rigid attention to order, we could not hope for the smallest\\nsuccess. In an establishment composed \u00c2\u00a7f various elements, like this nor-\\nmal school, where young men who differ in language (dialect), manners,\\nand education are gathered together, there must be rigorous obedience to\\nrule. In domestic life, the head of the family is the rule and in a large es-\\ntablishment, unquestionably those who govern are strictly bound to furnish\\nan example to all under them. They are that spring of the great machine\\nwhich cannot cease to move without stopping the whole. But it is also ne-\\ncessary that the establishment should have its precise rules, its written code\\nof laws. The govcrnor.s, it is true, fill the place of the law whenever it is\\nsilent but all, without distinction, ought to know accurately what they must\\ndo, and what they may do. For this reason, the undersigned cannot share\\nthe opinion of some very estimable teachers who think it not necessary, nor\\neven expedient, that there be written laws for an establishment like the pri-\\nmary normal school nay, that their promulgation may operate only as an\\nincitement to break them. Laws seem to me to grow out of the very na-\\nture of the institution. Gather together a number of young men without\\nlaying down any rule for them they themselves will soon feel the neces-\\nsity of making laws for tlie government of their intercourse with each other,\\nand will choose one of their body as guardian of these laws. It is, then,\\nnatural, useful, and fitting that the managers and masters should make laws\\n14", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "210 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL.\\nfor the school confided to them. If it be true that laws create the tempta-\\ntion to break them, that is a reason why laws for all human society ought\\nto be abolished. Fixed laws -give to an institution a steady course, protect\\nthe weaker against caprice and tyranny, prevent mistakes and precipitation,\\nand, what is more important for the future, they show in a clear and striking\\nmanner the necessity of laws for the commonwealth, and train youth to a\\nreasonable and willing obedier.ce to them. The opinion I offer here springs\\nfrom my general conviction of the utility of positive w^ritten laws, which my\\nown experience has greatly strengthened. For in those infractions of order\\nand discipline which have occasionally happened, I have contented myself\\nwith punishing the f;udt by reading the infringed law to the culprit, in a\\ncalm but severe manner, either in private or before all the pupils assembled\\nand this punishment has never fluled of its effect.\\nAfter this digression, which I have thought it expedient to insert here, I\\nreturn to the order of the house. It is our duty to make the utmost possi-\\nble use of the daylight, as being more healthful, more cheerful, and more\\nperfect than lamp-light, and costing nothing. In our situation, it would be\\nunpardonable to turn night into day. I make it a great point, too, that the\\nyoung men should get the habit of rising early, so that in the evening they\\nmay lay aside all anxiety and all labor, and give themselves up to the enjoy-\\nment of tranquil and refreshing sleep. In summer, therefore, we rise at\\nfour, and even earlier when the days are at the longest in winter at six, in\\nspring and autumn at five. In summer, I and my pupils go to bed at nine\\nor half past, in spring and winter at ten. The pupils ring the rexeille by turns\\na quarter of an hour after, the bell rings again, and all assemble in the din-\\ning-hall, where the morning prayer is said then they all follow me to the\\nchurch, where I perform the service of the holy mass. One of the students\\nassists in the service the others sing the responses this religious act, for\\nwhich we use the prayer-book and psalter of Bishop Von Hommer, is some-\\ntimes mingled with singing, but rarely, because singing very early in the\\nmorning is said to be injurious to the voice and chest. All is terminated in\\nan hour and the pupils, after having thus sanctified the first hour of morn-\\ning, return to the house, make their beds, breakfast, and then prepare for\\nlessons, which begin at seven or at eight, according to the season. In es-\\ntablishing this rule, I had some fears, at first, that rising so earlv and going\\ndirectly into a cold church in the depth of winter, might be injurious to their\\nhealth but I am always there before them, and I have never suffered. It\\nmay be said that I am more warmly clothed than the young men but then\\nthey are young, their blood is warmer than mine, and that restores the bal-\\nance. Moreover, it cannot but be advantageous to them to hnrden them-\\nselves, while habits of indulgence and delicacy would be extremely unfavor-\\nable to them in their profession. On the Sundays and festivals of the church,\\nI say mass to the students at half past eight in the morning. They sing a\\nGerman mass for four voices, or simple chants and hymns and, on high\\nfestivals, Latin mass. During the last year, the pupils of the first class have\\nseveral times executed some easy masses extremely well. But, generally\\nspeaking, I am not perfectly satisfied with our church music not that our\\nmasters and pupils do not do their best, but we have not a suitable supply\\nof church music. The singing in Catholic churches is subject to a particular\\ncondition it must be connected with the acts of the mass it must form a\\nwhole, distinct, and yet in harmony with the mass, and moreover, must be\\nadapted to each of the epochs of the ecclesiastical year. Now we have very\\nlittle church music fit for the people. What there is, is in the hands of a\\nfew individuals, who do not choose to part with it. There is doubtless an\\nabundance of sacred music suited to every occasion, but it is all in the most\\nelevated style and to what good end should the studies of the pupils be\\npushed so far beyond what can be of use to them in their future sphere of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 211\\naction Music of the highest order never can nor ought to become the\\nproperty of the people. Music ought not to be cultivated as a mere grati-\\nfication of a sense it ought to help to ennoble and refine the heart, and to\\nform the moral taste.\\nIt does not signify so much how they sing, as what they sing. In pri-\\nmary normal schools music ought not, any more than reading, to be the\\nprincipal object; it must be regarded and treated as a means toward a\\nhigher end, which is, education and moral culture. It is therefore with rea-\\nson that the primary normal schools are required to diffuse a nobler and\\nmore worthy kind of popular sacred music this is, as regards music, their\\nproper office. A good composer, who would devote himself to this object,\\nmight acquire immortal honor. It is to be wished that the higher authori-\\nties, particularly of the church, would encourage composers who show a\\ngenius for sacred music, to fill this chasm. In these remarks I have in view,\\nit is true, only the Catholic church. It is quite otherwise with the Protest-\\nant, which possesses a great store of psalms there is only to choose what\\nare appropriate to the sermon. This greatly f{icilitates the task of the Prot-\\nestant normal schools. In the Catholic worship, on the contrary, the sermon\\nis only a subordinate part of a higher whole, with which the singing must\\nharmonize, adapting itself to the different important moments, and hence\\nthe scarcity of simple counterpoint fit for the purpose. To attain the pro-\\nposed end, we ought to have, not only a good organist, but also an able\\ncomposer, which it is not easy to find. I return to the order of the day.\\nAs the day begins with prayer, so it ends with it. A quarter of an hour\\nor half an hour before going to bed, all the pupils assemble, at the sound of\\nthe bell, for evening devotions. A short portion of the holy scripture is\\nread, and after enlarging more or less on a text, and recommending it to im-\\nitation, I conclude by a prayer. During the past year I preached a homilet-\\nIcal discourse on the lesson of the day, before mass every Sunday morning;\\nbut as it becomes difficult for me to speak fasting, I now reserve it till even-\\ning. It has also been decided, that as a means of keeping alive religious\\nand moral feelings, the pupils should confess and communicate once a month,\\nunless particular reasons render it expedient to prolong the interval to six\\nweeks, or, at furthest, two months. The rest -of the day is employed ac-\\ncording to the scheme of lessons and the order enjoined by the minister.\\nThe pupils are not allowed to go out, except on the weekly afternoon holi-\\nday and this is sufficient for their health, because in all their hours of rec-\\nreation they can take exercise in a garden of two acres which belongs to the\\nestablishment. Nevertheless, on fine days I occasionally give them leave to\\nmake expeditions into the country, when I think their health will be bene-\\nfited by it making it an express condition that they shall take no pipes.\\nIt is good to correct faults better still to prevent them. Abundance\\nof arguments have been adduced in support of the principle that we must\\nlet children have their will, in order that their will may become vigor-\\nous, and wait till the time when the reason expands to give it a lofty direc-\\ntion. But this is letting the tares overtop the wheat before we attempt to\\nroot them out. Experience proves that the good seed springs up more vig-\\norously and thrives better when the soil has been cleared of weeds. Dis-\\ncipline ought, therefore, to precede and to accompany the instruction of\\nyoung men, as docility and modesty that of children. Doubtless external\\nreverence and reserve are but the beginnmg of wisdom man must be\\nbrought to think spontaneously and without external impulse, of the duties\\nhe lies under, so that it may become his inclination to fulfill whatever he has\\nclearly recognized as a duty, to consult nothing but conscience, and to set\\nhimself above the praise and the blame of men. This is true and uncon-\\ntested nevertheless, the flesh is always weak, even though the spirit be\\nwilling and there are few of those elect for whom approbation and cen-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "212 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL,\\nsure, remonstrances and encouragements, liope and fear, are noi, ..\u00e2\u0080\u009eces\\nhelps and for that reason, such helps are used for great and small, in pri-\\nvate houses as well as m schools, m church as well as in state, and will\\nnever iail, if wisely used, to have a salutary effect. A hard ascetical con-\\nstraint and discipline are as far from my taste as from my principles but\\nexperience demands rigorous order in great schools, especially at their out-\\nset. When order has once been thoroughly established, when the will of\\neach has learned to bend to the unity of the collective body, the early se-\\nverity may be relaxed, and give place to kindness and indulgence. As long\\nas I can recollect, I have observed that the education of children is best in\\nhouses where this principle is observed. To let children grow perverse and\\nwayward in their infancy through weak tenderness and indulgence, and then\\nto reprove and chastise them with harshness when their habits are formed,\\ncannot be other than a false system. For these reasons we always begin\\nby reading the rules and disciplinary laws of the house, so that the pupils\\nmay distinctly know what they have to do we then take care that these\\nlaws are strictly enforced. The masters, on their side, are careful to show\\nthe most punctual obedience to all their duties. We afterward read por-\\ntions of the rules, according to circumstances, and to the demand for any\\nparticular part; thus the discipline is strengthened and facilitated. The\\nhighest punishment is expulsion and last year we were obliged to resort\\nto this twice. In all cases we try to proportion the punishment to the fault,\\nBO as to conduce to the amendment of the culprit and the good of all. For\\ninstance, if one of the pupils lies in bed from indolence, he is deprived of his\\nportion of meat at dinner, and for four days, a week, or a fortnight, as it\\nmay be, is obliged to declare his presence when we meet in the morning.\\nBeing kept at home on holidays, ringing the bell, fetching water, c., are\\nthe only corporal punishments for faults of indolence and infractions of\\norder. Faults of impatience or carelessness, of insincerity or raischievous-\\nness, of coarseness or any sort of incivility, oifenses against decency or good\\nmanners, are punished by notes in the inspection-book, which the culprits\\nthemselves are obliged to sign. As to the conduct of the students when\\nout of the house, the authorities and mhabitants of the whole neighborhood\\nunanimously bear witness that the presence of these young men is in no\\nway perceived. It is not difficult to speak to their hearts, and by expostu-\\nlation suited to their age and station, to touch them even to tears.\\nOf this I could cite several instances, did I not fear prolonging this Re-\\nport. I will, however, give one. Last year the students of the highest\\nclass were dissatisfied with the steward, and presented a petition very nu-\\nmerously signed, in which they enumerated their causes of complaint, and\\nasked to have him removed. I gave the petition to him, that he might an-\\nswer the charges and after he had made his defense, I suffered accusers\\nand accused to plead their cause, at the time of one of the religious lessons.\\nThe steward was not irreproachable his fiiult was, indeed, evident enough\\non the other hand, the complaint was exaggerated, invidious, inexact, and in-\\nconsiderate for several had signed without reading others had signed be-\\ncause such or such a point seemed to them just others again had shown\\nthemselves extremely active in collecting signatures, and had reproached\\nthose who refused to sign. The aftlur being clearly and circumstantially\\nstated, the steward had his share of the reprimand, and was deeply affected\\nby it others were moved to tears and the offenders, when the unbecom-\\ning, inconsiderate, and even criminal points of their conduct were distinctly\\nexplained to them, acknowledged their injustice, and promised never to act\\nin the like manner again.\\nOrder and discipline, instruction and prayer, are thus regarded and em-\\nployed as so many means, general and particular, for cultivating the moral-\\nity of the pupils and the undersigned, during the short time he has had the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 213\\ncare of the institulion, has had the satisfoction of seeing many vvlio entered\\nit with bad and distressing habits, leave it metamorphosed and renewed.\\nSedateness and modesty have been substituted for giddiness the spu-it of\\ntemperance for cr viiig .ifrer sensual enjoyments: and tliose who came to\\nseek but ordinary bread, have acquired a taste for purer and higher food.\\nIt is hardly possible that among so many, a vicious one should not occa-\\nsionally creep in and last year, among the new-comers, was a cunning and\\naccomplished thief, whose depredations filled the establishment with dissat-\\nisfaction and alarm. It was difficult to find him out, but falsehood and per-\\nversity betray themselves in the end. Heavy suspicions were accumulated\\nduring the year on the head of the criminal and though there were not pos-\\nitive proofs, he could not so escape our vigilance as not to leave us in pos-\\nsession of a moral certainty against him. He was expelled at the examina-\\ntion of last year. Nevertheless, as there was no legal proof, his name was\\nnot stigmatized by publicity, and the higher authorities will readily excuse\\nmy not mentioning it here, and will be satisfied with the assurance that no\\nmisfortune of the kind has since occurred.\\n6. INSTRUCTION.\\nThe business of the primary normal school is to form schoolmasters.\\nIt must therefore furnish its pupils with the sum of knowledge which the\\nstate has declared indispensably necessary to the intellectual wants of the\\nlower classes of the people, of whom they are to be the teachers, and must\\nafterward fit them to fulfill their important vocation with zeal and vdth a\\nreligious will and earnestness.\\nNo more than grapes can be gathered from thorns, or figs from thistles,\\ncan any thing good be hoped from schoolmasters who are regardless of re-\\nligion and of morality. For this reason, religious instruction is placed at the\\nhead of all other parts of education its object is to implant in the normal\\nschools such a moral and religious spirit as ought to pervade the popular\\nschools. The course of religious instruction has undergone no change from\\nthat stated in the report of last year, except that the several classes have\\nbeen united for the Biblical part. During the present year we propose to\\ntreat the concordance of the Gospels, the history of the Apostles, and some\\nof the Epistles. The course adopted is this The series of the concord-\\nance is established and dictated by the master the passages and discourses\\nare explained, and, if thought expedient, learnt by heart by the pupils. For\\nthe catechising, or religious and moral instruction, properly so called, the\\nclasses are separated. The great catechism of Overberg is taken as a\\nground-work and we treat first of faith, then of morals, so that the latter\\nmay be intimately connected with the former, or to speak better, that moral-\\nity may flow from f;iith as from its source. I regard religion as a disposi-\\ntion or affection of the soul, which unites man, in all his actions, with God\\nand he alone is truly religious who possesses this disposition, and strives by\\nevery means to cherish it. In this view of the subject all morality is reli-\\ngious, because it raises man to God, and teaches him to live in God. I\\nmust confess, that in religious instruction I do not confine myself to any\\nparticular method I try by meditation to bring the thing clearly before my\\nown mind, and then to expound it intelligibly, in fitting language, with grav-\\nity and calmness, with unction and earnestness, because I am convinced that\\na clear exposition obliges the pupils to meditate, and excites interest and\\nanimation.\\nAs for the historical part, I have made choice of a short exposition of\\nthe history of the Christian church, with an introduction on the constitution\\nof the Jewish church. I think it impossible to learn any thing of universal\\nhistory, that can be useful or instructive to the students, in less than a hundr", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "214 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL.\\nred lessons. It signifies little whether a illage schoolmaster know^ the\\nhistory of India, China, or Greece but he ought to know something of the\\nhistory of the church, because it is, in many points, nearly connected with\\nthat of religion. I must confess that, in the measure of time allowed us, I\\ncannot make universal history very interesting or profitable to the pupils\\nbut it is otherwise with ecclesiastical history.\\nI introduce the theory of education and tuition by experimental psychol-\\nogy. This course of study is of infinite use, in teaching the science of edu-\\ncation, and of tuition, as likewise in teaching morals and religion but I re-\\ngard the school for practice, and the method there pursued, as the best\\ncourse of pedagogical instruction. I have come to the conviction that,\\ngenerally speaking, it is necessary to recommend to the pupils of the nor-\\nmal schools, and to all young schoolmasters, a firm and decided plan, leav-\\ning it to them to modify it as time and experience dictate. It is with them\\nas with a traveler going to a place he has never been at before it is best\\nto show him the high road, that he may not lose himself; when he is famil-\\niar with that, he may try cross-roads, if he thinks they will abridge his jour-\\nney. The masters of the school agree in my views on this point, and en-\\ndeavor to act up to them. The following are theu- courses of instruction in\\ntheir several departments, furnished by themselves.\\nLanguage First class, or class of the first year. In the first half year we\\nbegin with the simplest elements, and gradually go through all the parts of\\nspeech, but without their subdivisions. In the second half year we go\\nthrough the subdivisions in like manner so that, in the first year, a thorough\\nknowledge is acquired of the simple and compound elements, as well as of\\nthe divisions and subiiivisions of speech. The course of instruction is partly\\nsynthetic, and partly analytic that is to say, what has been learned in the\\nfirst manner, is made thoroughly clear in the second, by the analysis of a\\npassage from some author. Second class, or class of the second year. This\\nclass, proceeding in a similar way, goes through the most complicated peri-\\nods. In the second half year the pupils are familiarized with the most im-\\nportant principles of Iqgic and of etymology.\\nArithmetic Second class.f In the first half year are studied the rule of\\nthree, single and compound interest, and discount in the second, the ex-\\ntraction of the square and cube roots, as far as equations of the first and\\nsecond degree. The result of this course is a complete familiarity with all\\nthe branches of common arithmetic. These two departments of instruction,\\nlanguage and arithmetic, are taught according to the views of the inspector.\\nGeometry Second class. In the first half year they get through what re-\\nlates to rectilinear figures and the circle in the second, the theory of the\\ntransmutation of figures is added and after that, the most important prin-\\nciples of geometry and the measurement of solids. The books of instruc-\\ntion are those of F. Schmid and Von Turck.\\nDrawing First class. In the first half year dravdng is carried as far as\\nthe knowledge of the most important laws of perspective, so as to place ob-\\njects, not too complex, according to the laws of perspective. In the second\\nhalf year they study light and shade. Second class. During the first half\\nyear the attention is directed to the relief and shading of works of art, such\\nas houses, churches, vases, c. In the second half, the pupils copy good\\ndrawings of landscapes, flowers, c., vdth a view to familiarize them wiih.\\nthe style of the best masters. The method adopted is that of F. Schmid.\\nReading First class. Begins by the enunciation of some simple propo-\\nsitions, which are decomposed into words the words are reduced to sylla^\\nbles, and these to their simple sound. This course has been adopted with\\nthe pupils, that they may themselves use it with the younger children, and\\nthus acquire a familiar acquaintance with it. It is taught according to the\\nM. Wagner. t Auother master takes the arithmetic for the first class or first year.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BEUHL. 215\\nviews of the inspector. Second class. In the tirst class the principal object\\nis reading- with ease in the second, reading with expression. The chief\\nmeans of instruction consist in the master s reading aloud frequently, be-\\ncause it is considcrc.l ili.it this plan is more nnfiilin r nnd more easy than\\nany rules. Since, however great the application on the part of both master\\nand pupil, the art of reading is at all times difficult to acquire, this branch\\nof instruction occupies a whole year.\\nSinging First class. In the first half year they begin with easy exer-\\ncises in time and melody the next step is to easy pieces for four voices.\\nThe second half year is devoted to more difficult exercises of the same kind\\nso that, by the end of the year, the pupils have acquired a tolerable facility\\nin reading.\\nNatural Philosophy Second class. During the first half year the atten-\\ntion is directed to the general and particular properties of bodies to those\\nof the elements, water, air, and fire then to the theory of sounds, the velo-\\ncity of winds, the equilibrium of fluids, and aqueous meteors. In the second\\nhalf year comes the theory of light, electricity, the lever, the inclined plane,\\nluminous meteors, optics, c. The principal object is to render the pupils\\nattentive to the most striking phenomena of nature, and to accustom them to\\nreflect upon her laws and secrets. The method adopted here is that of the\\ninspector.\\nDuring half of last year my* lessons embraced the following points\\nMenial Arithmetic. 1, The knowledge of numbers with reference to their\\nvalue and form 2, addition 3, subtraction 4, subtraction and addition\\ncombined 5, multiplication 6, multiplication combined with the preceding\\nrule 7, division 8, varied combinations of the four fundamental rules.\\nEach rule was accompanied by its application, and by examples drawn from\\ncommon life. My principal aim was to exercise the pupils in applying the\\nrules to practice. I have endeavored also to draw their attention to the the-\\nory, and especially to the mode of using different rules in the solution of the\\nsame problem \\\\\\\\ith this view, I have always alternated the oral and written\\nexercises.\\nArithmetic on the Slate. Calculation on the slate is based upon mental\\narithmetic, insomuch that the latter may be considered as a preparation for\\nthe former. When the four first exercises in mental arithmetic are gone\\nthrough, the pupils begin to use the slate. I have labored not only to give\\nthem practical dexterity, but also solid knowledge, and mth this aim have\\naccustomed them to try various ways of working the questions.\\nElements of Geometry. I have followed the work of Harnisch, and his\\ntheory of space drawn from the theory of crystals, and employed by him as\\na basis to the mathematics.\\nNatural History Botany. The principal parts of a plant are first\\npointed out and named then each of these parts are examined separately\\n1, the root, its form and direction; 2, the stem, its internal construction,\\nits figure and its covering 3, the buds, their place upon the stalk 4, the\\nleaves, their variety according to their situation, their mode of insertion,\\ntheir figure, their place 5, the flower-stalks 6, the flowers according to\\ntheir species, the manner in which they are fixed, theii* composition the ca-\\nlyx, corolla, stamina, pistil, the fruit, seed-vessel, and sex of the plants. All\\nthis has been shown to the pupils, either in the plants themselves, or in\\ndrawings which I have traced on the slate. I interrupted the botany till we\\ncould take it up again after Easter, and began\\nMineralogy. I have pursued the same course here. The pupils have first\\nbeen familiarized with the propertie^which distinguish minerals one from\\nanother, as their colors, the arrangement of parts, the external form, regular\\nand irregular, or crystalline form the polish, texture, transparency, vein,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "216 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL.\\nhardness, alteration of color, effervescence in acids all these properties have\\nbeen observed by the pupils in the minerals of our collection. To this suc-\\nceeded the classification of minerals, from which the pupils have learned the\\nnames and uses of the most important.\\nSinging. Having devoted last year, with my singing pupils, to timo, tune,\\nand acoustics, I have, during the past six months, combined the three\\nbranches of the art of singing which I had before taught separately, and\\nhave practiced them chiefly on sacred vocal music, such as a psalm of Schna-\\nbel s, a chorus from Handel s Messiah, a mass of Hasslinger, and another\\nof Schiedermeyer, a chorus from Haydn s Creation, two songs by Von Web-\\ner, c.\\nThorough- Base* The lessons I have given in this science have been ac-\\ncording to Hering s practical introduction, or to my own ideas. The follow-\\ning course has been adopted: 1, the theory of intervals; 2, the theory of\\nharmonic thirds, a. if they comprise a scale, b. if they belong to the whole\\nsystem 3, the theory of the chord of the seventh, a. if it belongs to a scale,\\nb. if it belongs to the whole system of chords 4, modulation, a. in a free\\nstyle, b. in a free style, with particular reference to the organ 6, written\\nexercises in parts for four voices.\\nGeography. We have finished Germany and begun Europe: the follow-\\ning course has been adopted. P irst we made the pupils acquainted, as ex-\\nactly as possible, with the Rhenish provinces our own peculiar country\\nthen with Prussia, then with the rest of Germany. This was done in the\\nfollowing manner: 1, the boundaries; 2, the mountains; 3, the rivers; 4,\\nthe natural divisions according to the rivers 5, the towns. We then con-\\nsidered Germany in its political divisions, paying attention to the position\\nand natural limits of the countries. All the exercises on this subject were\\ndone with skeleton map^ If time permit (though only one year with two\\nlessons a week are allotted to this department), Europe will be followed by\\na general review of the earth.\\nWriting. In the writing I have followed exactly the system of Hennig\\nby giving, 1, the easiest and simplest letters of the running alphabet to be\\ncopied, each letter separately, till the pupil can make them with ease 2,\\nwords composed of such letters as they have practiced 3, at the opening of\\nthe course, after Easter, will come the capital letters, in the same way 4,\\nEnglish handwriting.f In practicing single letters, I have especially pointed\\nout how one was formed out of another, and the letter they were practicing\\nas making part of that which followed. Afterward copies, written, not en-\\ngraved, are placed before the pupils, because these last, according to the\\nopinion of good penmen, discourage the pupils.\\nOrthography. 1, The object and utility of orthography 2, general rules\\nof German orthography 3, the use of capital letters 4, the regular use of\\nisolated letters 5, the division, composition, and abbreviation of words.\\nThese rules are alternately put in practice in the dictations. The director,\\nwith the assistance of the masters, examines in each department every three\\nmonths. Instrumental music, on the violin, piano-forte, and organ, is taught\\nby Mr. Richter and Mr. Rudisch, with the assistance of two pupils.\\n6. SCHOOL FOR PRACTICE.\\nIt is difficult, in a written description, to convey a just idea of a school, or\\nof any large establishment for instruction. Nevertheless, I will endeavor to\\ngive a brief sketch of this institution, and of the manner in which the pupils\\nare there occupied. The regulations fij from one to three in the afternoon\\nfor the lessons of practice. The children of the school for practice are di-\\nMr. Rudisch.\\nt t, The Italian handwriting, as distinguished from the current German hand. Tra.nsi..", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 217\\nvided into eight classes, and one of the pupils from the normal school pre-\\nsides over each of these divisions alternately, so that twenty-four are occu-\\npied from one to two, and twenty-four from two to three; and while the\\nfirst twenty-four are teaching-, the others listen, that they may be ready at\\nany moment to take it up and continue the lesson. Tiiis can be done only\\nwhere a fixed and complete mode of instruction is laid down.\\nThe branches taught by the pupils are grammar, reading, composition,\\nwriting, drawing, arithmetic, mental exercises, singing, religion. Language\\nis taught partly after Krause, and partly on the plan of the inspector, Mr.\\nWagner. Reading is closely connected with writing, according to the\\nmethod of the inspector. The pupils of the higher classes have subjects of\\nfamiliar compositions given them at the same time, tliey are made to learn\\nby heart short letters, narrations and descriptions, because this is deemed\\nthe best method of fixmiliarizing children with the language, and enabling\\nthem to express themselves with ease in writing. When they have learned\\na piece by heart, they endeavor to write it without a fiiult, and with the\\nproper punctuation the comparison with the original and the correction are\\nleft to themselves, that the thing may be more deeply impressed upon their\\nmind. Arithmetic is taught on the system of Schumacher and Jos. Schmid.\\nIn the lower classes great care is taken that the numbers are always correct,\\nin order to avoid the inefficient and too artificiMl mental arithmetic of Pesta-\\nlozzi, and to make arithmetic itself an exercise of language. Singing is\\ntaught by the two forwardest pupils of the school, who give two lessons in\\nthe morning, and drawing by the two most skillful draughtsmen. For exer-\\ncises in hinguage and mental activity, use is occasionally made of Krause s\\nExercises for the Mind, and Pestalozzi s Mother^s Book. On religion the\\npupils give but one lesson a week, under the particular guidance of the di-\\nrector. The specifil superintendence of this school is confided to the inspect-\\nor, Mr. Wagner, who, besides a daily visit during the lessons, subjects them\\nto a slight examination every week, to keep up a persevering activity in the\\nyoung men, and to know exactly what progress is made. The satisfaction\\nof the parents at the pupils mode of teaching is proved by the regular at-\\ntendance at the school. I am well satisfied with the practical ability hith-\\nerto sho wn by the pupils.\\n7 MASTERS OF THE ESTABLISHMENT.\\nTwo masters, besi.ies the director, were last year annexed to the estab-\\nlishment the inspector, Mr. Wagner, and Mr. Richter. The assistant mas-\\nter, Mr. Rudisch, was added at the beginning of this year. These masters\\ngive their entire and undivided attention to the school yet they are not suf-\\nficient for this great establishment two pupils and the organist of the town\\nassist in the department of instrumental music.\\nAlthough the general superintendence rests upon the director, yet, to re-\\nlieve him, one of the masters in rotation has hitherto conducted the special\\ninspection each week. But I see every day more clearly, that the whole\\ninspection ought to devolve upon the director alone in a well-regulated\\nhouse there should be but one head. The other masters also recognize this\\nprinciple and in the end the director will have the whole superintendence,\\nand, in case ofuieed, will transfer it to the inspector. But as the director\\nand the inspector cannot be always with the pupils, and as it is nevertheless\\nnecessary that there should be some fixed person to refer to when disturb-\\nances or complaints occur, the established custom will be continued of ap-\\npointing the student wh is deemed the best fitted as superintendent of\\nliis fellow-students. Tb plan may, besides, have a very useful effect in\\nthe education both of th\u00c2\u00bb young superintendent and of his school-fellows.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "218\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT EISI.EBEN\\ni\\n-3\\no IS\\n13\\n-a\\nO\\na\\nC8\\n.5\\n\u00c2\u00bb3\\no\\nbl 1\\no o o\\ni) CD\\nArithmetic.\\nThorough b\\norgan.\\nOrgan.\\nWriting.\\nc\u00c2\u00bb\\nOS .J\\nO O\\n_S\\ni\\no\\n2\\n3\\no\\nla\\nb\\ntx\\n2 b\\n3\\nf\\n1\\no\\ns\\nC\\nE\\nOS\\nQ\\n-C\\nm V-\\nIS\\n^jS\\nu\\nI\\nb.\\nis\\nn\\ng .2\\ni;\u00c2\u00ab g\\nReading,\\nReligiou\\ntion,\\nGramma\\nSinging,\\nbo\\nca c\\nbo\\nC g\\nb5\\nc\\ng\\nbb\\nTS\\nc\\n_3\\ns\\no o\\nn\\nCl.\\n_\\nD\\nEd\\nQ\\nS 2\\nb\\no\\n.2\\n1\\nO\\n.215\\no\\nIS\\na\\noJ\\ny:\\n..5 C\\ncd .x;\\nO S rt\\nbS\\nQ\\nz\\nH\\n3 3\\n.2 .2\\nTo M\\nS 3\\n^2\\nArt of te\\nWriting,\\nArithmel\\nThoroug\\nc\\nis-\\n01 o\\n.5 c\\na\\nO bjt)\\n5\\nca\\nCS W\\nPL, O\\nw:^;\\nOO\\n6\\nbO\\n3\\no\\n_\\nJ\\na\\nH\\nz\\nbD\\nn\\na\\nD\\nW\\nz\\na\\nC\\nO\\nZ\\n1\\no .2\\nb\\n6D S\\na\\nCJJ bB ho\\n1 i\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0e\\nca\\na\\nH4\\nbe\\nO\\nQ a ta\\nt; o\\n0) CJ\\njS t. .-1.\\nc\\nN^\\nC3 O\\nE-Q t Q\\nc\\nK\\nO!\\nZ\\n5\\nc\\no\\n.2\\no\\ns\\nH\\ns\\ng\\nE\\n8\\nE\\na\\nto\\nu\\nP\\nH\\nm O\\nm IS\\nCO\\nIS\\nb-ni\\n01\\no\\nO\\nz\\n.2 i\\n_- bo\\nbO-S,\\n1\\nbo\\nC\\na\\nf\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S-\\nS\u00c2\u00b0 J\\no \u00c2\u00a3f-S- S c\\n+j ca\\nca a)\\n\u00c2\u00a3g\\na o\\nPi pL,\\nJ t-\\n0\u00c2\u00ab om\\nZtf\\nQO\\n(5\\no\\n5\\nT3\\nSt.\\nTJ\\nc\\n.a\\nu\\no o\\nd\\nQ\\nca\\no\\no\\n5\\nQ\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2z.\\nO\\nS\\n1 i\\nc\u00c2\u00bb\\nca\\n-j3 -J^ 1-\\nbog\\n5^S\\nc\\no\\nto\\nbo\\nc\\n~0\\nc\\nH\\nX\\n3 3\\n0) lU\\nhc bo (1; ca\\n(U _\\ni^ M\\nbO\\n7\\n2^-2\\n3 o\\neadin\\nhorou\\norgai\\nrithm\\nramm\\nCI\\nO s\\no\\no S\\n3\\nP c\\n1 S)\\nZ\\nQi\\nfiii- eo\\n\u00c2\u00ab;z\\nOO\\nH O\\n3\\nO\\nc\\nm\\nCD\\nH\\nEr]\\nb\\nm\\nen\\n-c\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0n\\nt3 .T3\\nT3\\nO\\n-o\\nP\\nbs\\nc\\na\\nS C3\\nC\\nc\\nfi\\ns\\nJ\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S o\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S o\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S o\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0si o\\n1\\n0.\\no\\ng\\no\\nc o\\nM o\\nCJ\\n1\\n.3 m\\n._ ID ._ (U\\n.t:: D\\nEc^E\\no\\nk- CO\\nfc-tn [x\\nfccc\\nfe.Cft\\n-v~\\n~-v-\\n03\\nHi\\n3\\nO\\nO -H\\ns\\n00\\nOi\\nCN\\nrt\\nm\\no\\no\\nO O\\nO\\no\\no o\\nr~\\n00\\nC5 C\\nn", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS*\\nAT WEISSENFELS,\\nIN PRUSSIA.\\nThis seminary, for the education of teachers for the elementary schools,\\nis one of four belonging to the province of Saxony,f and was last organized\\nin 1822. It combines within its premises, or in the neighborhood, so as to\\nbe subject to the control of the same director, the following establishments\\n1. The normal school, or seminary for teachers, a government institution,\\n2. A preparatory school, subsidiary to the former, and established by the\\nenterprise of its teachers. 3. A seminary school, or burgher school, of four\\nhundred pupils, already described. 4. An elementary school for poor chil-\\ndren, of two hundred pupils. 5. A school for the deaf and dumb, of twenty-\\nfive pupils, established in 1828, and supported by the government. The last\\nthree mentioned schools afford practice to the students of the seminary.\\nThe government of these establishments is confided to a director,! who is\\nresponsible immediately to the provincial school-board in IMagdeburg. He\\nhas the personal charge of the seminary in which he gives instruction, and of\\nwhich he superintends the domestic economy, discipline, and police. He is\\nassisted in the seminary by three teachers, who meet him once a week in\\nconference, to discuss the progress and conduct of the pupils, the plans of\\ninstruction, and other matters relating to the school. There are also seven\\nassistant teachers, five for the seminary school, and two for the deaf and\\ndumb institution, who also assist in the seminary itself. Once a month\\nthere is a general meeting of the teachers of all the schools just enumerated,\\nfor similar purposes.\\nApplicants for admission are required to produce certificates of baptism,\\nof moral conduct, and of health, J besides an engagement on the part of their\\nparents or guardians to pay an annual sum of fifty thalers (thirty-seven dol-\\nlars) for maintenance. These papers must be forwarded to the director a\\nfortnight before the day of examination. The candidates are examined at a\\nstated time of the year (after Easter), in presence of all the teachers of the\\nschool, and their attainments must prove satisfixctory in Bible and church\\nhistory, the Lutheran Catechism, reading, writing, German grammar, espe-\\ncially the orthography of the language, the ground-rules of arithmetic (mental\\nand written), geography and history, and natural history and philosophy, of\\nthe grade of the highest class of a burgher school. They must also be able\\nto play, at sight, easy pieces of music upon the violin. The usual age of\\nadmission is eighteen and the lowest at which they are admissible, seven-\\nteen. On entrance, they are entitled to free lodging and instruction, and, if\\ntheir conduct and progress are satisfactory, in general, receive a yearly allow-\\nance of twenty-five dollars, which is equivalent, nearly, to the cost of their\\nmaintenance. Tlieir clothing and school-books are provided by the pupils.\\nThe modes of preparation judged most appropriate by the authorities of the\\nseminary are, the attendance on a burgher school, with private lessons from\\na competent teacher, or entrance into the preparatory establishment at Weis-\\nsenfels. A gymnasium is considered by no means a proper place for the\\nFrom Bache s Education in Europe.\\nt At Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Krfuit, and Weissenfels.\\ni The Rev. Dr. Hiiniisch, to whom I am indebted for a kind welcome to his institution, and a\\nMS. account of its different schools.\\nJ Tlie directions issued by the provincial authorities are, that they shall have a strong chest\\nand sound lungs, not to be too near-sighted, nor deaf, nor iotirm. The physician s certiticalo must\\nstate whether they have had the measles, c.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "220\\nSEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\npreparation of pupils, itn courses, discipline, and mode of life having a dif-\\nferent tendency from that required by the future teacher of a common\\nschool.\\nThe admission of new pupils takes place with some ceremony, in^resence\\nof the teachers and pupils. The director gives a charge, in which he makes\\nthem acquainted with the rules of the school, chiefly those relating to moral\\nconduct, to obedience to the authorities, punctuality, regular attendance at\\nstudy, school, church, and, in general, on the appointed exercises, due exer-\\ntion, neatness in their habits, and exactness in the payment of dues to the\\ntradesmen with whom they may deal. They bind themselves to serve for\\nthree years after leaving the school, in whatever situation may be assigned\\nthem by the regency of Merseburg, or to pay the cost of their education and\\nmaintenance. During their stay at the seminary, they are exempted from\\nmilitary service, except for six weeks. In fiict, this service usually takes\\nplace at leaving the school, and before entering upon their new career. The\\nnumber of pupils, on the average, is sixty.\\nThe courses of instruction are, morals and religion, German, arithmetic\\nand geometry, cosmology, pedagogy, terraculture, hygiene, theory and prac-\\ntice of music, drawing, and writing. Cosmology is a comprehensive term\\nfor geography, an outline of history and biography, the elements of natural\\nhistory and natural philosophy, all that relates to the world (earth) and its\\ninhabitants. Pedagogy includes both the science and art of teaching. The\\ncourses just enumerated are divided among the masters, according to the\\nsupposed ability of each in the particular branches, the whole instruction\\nbeing given by the four teachers. The director, as is customary in these\\nschools, takes the religious instruction, and the science and art of teaching,\\nas his especial province, and adds lectures on the theory of farming and gar-\\ndening (terraculture), and of health.\\nThe duration of the course of studies has been reduced from three years\\nto two, on account, as is alleged, of the necessity for a more abundant sup-\\nply of teachers. There are, probably, other reasons, such as the expense,\\nand the fear of over-educating the pupils for their station, which have been\\ninfluential in bringing about this reduction. There are two classes corre-\\nsponding to the two years of study. The first year is devoted entirely to re-\\nceiving instruction; and in the second, practice in teaching is combined with-\\nit. In the preparatory school there is likewise a course of two years, and\\nthe pupils are divided into two classes. This establishment is in a building\\nnear the seminary, which can accommodate forty pupils, and is under the\\nspecial charge of one of the teachers.*\\nThe outline of the studies in the two schools is as follows\\nRELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION.\\nPREPAEATORY SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Bible stories, which the pupils must be able to narrate with propriety.\\nCliristian doctriue. Portions of Scripture committed to memory. Four hours\\nweekly.\\nI Class. Eeading the Bible, especially the historical parts. Krummacher s Bible\\nCatecliism. Christian doctrine. Parables of the New Testament. Seven hours.\\nIn the lectures on Christian doctrine, which the two classes of the normal\\nschool attend together, the director gives a portion of Scripture to be com-\\nmitted to memory, explains and illustrates it, and interrogates the pupils,\\nwho take notes of the lecture, which they subsequently write out.\\nNORMAL SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Eeading tlie Bible, particularly tlie Mstoriciil parts writing catechet-\\nical exercises, adapted to children. Two hours.\\nThe payments made by the pupils are, per aunimi, for instruction, nine dollars for dinner,\\nbread not included, tliirtcen dollars and fifty cents; lodginsr, three dollars; waiting and nuraiugia\\ntime of sickness, one dollar and bevenly-Uve cents use of library, fifty cents.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS. 221\\nI Class. Continuation of the second class course. Two hours.\\nI and II Class. Christian doctrine, -from Luther s Catechism. Three hours.\\nHistory of the different dispensations. Two hours. A coui se of two years.\\nThe course of church history is taught, also, by the mixed method of lec-\\ntui-e and interrogation, to both classes united.\\nGERMAN LANGUAGE.\\nPEEPABATORY SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Exercises of speech in reading and delivery. Descriptions and essays\\non subjects drawn from common life. Grammar. Writing, as an exercise in cal-\\nligraphy and orthography. Nine hours.\\nI Class. Eeading, with explanations. Composition. Grammar revised. Writ-\\ning, as in the second class. Nine hours.\\nNORMAl SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Eeading, with explanations. Writing, as an exercise of calligraphy and\\northography. Exercises of style. A compoMtion once every month. Essays from\\nhistory, geography, or natural history. Granmiar revised. Eight hours.\\nI Class. Poetrv, with readings. Calligraphy. Exercises of style. Grammar re-\\nvised. National literature. Seven hours.\\nThe first and second classes are united for a portion of instruction in this depart-\\nment, intended to rid them of provincialisms oi speech, and to improve their hand-\\nwriting. Three hours.\\nMATHEMATICS.\\nPREPARATORY SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Arithmetic, including the Eule of Three. Three hours.\\nI Class. Arithmetic, revised and extendedf Use of compass and ruler. Four\\nhours.\\nNORMAL SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Geometry^ commenced. Four hours.\\nI Class. Eevision ot previous studies. Geometry, continued. Two hours.\\nThe method of teaching mathematics is that of Pestalozzi and director\\nHarnisch has himself prepared a work on geometry for his pupils. The ap-\\nplications are made to follow the principles closely. As in the other course.s,\\nthe greater part of the learning is done in the school-room, the books being\\nused rather for reference than for preparation. In the lessons which I at-\\ntended in this department, much skill was displayed by the instructors, and\\na very considerable degree of intelligence by the pupils. Considering it as\\nthe means of developing the reasoning powers, this method is very far supe\\nrior to that in which the propositions are learned from books. To exem-\\nplify the method of Dr. Harnisch, I may state the following case of a recita-\\ntion in geometry by the second class. The equality of two triangles, when\\nthe two sides and the angle contained between them in one are equal re-\\nspectively to the two sides and the contained angle in the other, had been\\nshown by the teacher, and the demonstration repeated by the pupils, who\\nwere interrogated closely upon it. An application of the theorem was at\\nonce required, to determining the distance between two points, one of which\\nis inaccessible. Two of the class found the solution immediately, and all\\nwere able to take part in the subsequent discussion of the problem.\\nCOSMOLOGY (WELTKUNDE).\\nPREPARATORY SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Elements of botany and zoology. Excursions for practical instruction\\nin the former. Four hours.\\nI Class. Geography and the drawing of maps. Elements of physics and tech-\\nnology. Biography. Three hours.\\nNORMAL SCHOOL.\\nII Class. Eevision of the above studies. Three liours.\\nI and II Classes united. General views of the earth and its productions and in-\\nhabitants. One hour weekly for one year. Gardening and hygiene (Gesundheita-\\ntunde). Two hours weekly for two years.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "222 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\nThe lectures in the normal school on these subjects are by the director.\\nThe means of illustration in physics are small, and the whole course is\\nchiefly intended to show the future teachers how wide a range of knowledge\\nmay be opened to them by study. The natural history is illustrated, for the\\nmost part, by drawings. To render the seminarists more useful in their\\nsituation of country schoolmasters, which a large proportion of the pupils\\nbecome^ they have lectures on the principles of agriculture and gardening,\\nand also practical lessons from the gardener, who has charge of the grounds.\\nThe pupils work during the appropriate season every day in turn, under the\\ndirection of the gardener. Good manuals, conveying correct but elementary\\ninstruction on these matters, are much wanted. They should, perhaps, be\\nprepared by a teacher, but by no means allowed to go into use without re-\\nvision by persons specially acquainted with the different branches of science\\nthus grouped together. This revision would insure the accuracy which,\\nthough difficult to attain, is so necessary the more so in conveying such\\nelements, as there is no collateral knowledge to correct or modify error as to\\nfact or theory.\\nSCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.\\nPREPAEATOEY SCHOOL.\\nThe first class receive simple directions for keeping school, and lessons on teach-\\ning. They attend in turn the classes of the seminary. schools two hours weekly, hut\\ntake no part in teaching.\\nNOKMAl SCHOOL.\\nn Class. Lessons on teaching, three hours. Visits to the schools, three hours.\\nI Class. Lessons on the art of teaching, three hours. Visits to the schools, five\\nhours. Lessons on the instruction of tlie deaf and dumb, by the dh-ector of that\\ndepartment, one hour.\\n1 and II Classes united. Science of teaching, two houi s.\\nThe director delivers the course on the science of teaching, which in these\\nschools is considered of the highest importance, and also gives a portion of\\nthe lessons in the art of teaching to the first class.\\nThe theoretical instruction in the science and art of teaching embraces\\ntwo courses, each of a year the first being devoted chiefly to education in\\ngeneral, the second to instruction and the arrangements of the school.* The\\ndirector remarks of this course, that the pupils learn by it to say a good deal\\nupon these subjects, and sometimes believe that they can easily execute\\nwhat they can so readily describe an opinion of which practice can alone\\nshow the error, and which it is essential should be removed. The general\\ntheory of education is founded upon the constitution of man, and, under the\\nhead of instruction, the methods of teaching the various branches are de-\\nscribed. The practice which must render this theory of real use is had in\\npart in the schools. The pupils attend the free school, the burgher school,\\nand the deaf and dumb school, at stated times. They go at first as listen-\\ners, next take part in the instruction, under direction of the assistant teach-\\ners, and lastly instruct the classes. In order that they may have models of\\nteaching, not only in the assistants, but in the teachers of the seminary\\nthemsefves, the latter give lessons occasionally in the different schools.\\nThus the director teaches one hour per week in the seminary school, the\\nsecond teacher two hours, and the third and fourth teachers four hours.\\nThe lower class attend the several classes of the burgher school, except the\\nhighest girls class, remaining, in general, one-fifth of the time in each class\\nexcept the lowest, where they remain double this time, and visiting each\\nHarnisch s Manual of Common School Matters (Handbuch des Volks-schulwesens) is used as\\ntext-book.\\nA more common division of the coui-se is into pedagogics, or the principles of education and\\ninstruction. Methodics, or the art of leaching the system or methods of education, to which a\\nthird division is sometimes added, called didactics, which relates to the subjects of educatioUi\\n(Scbwarz Erzichung uad Unteftichts lebre).", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS. 223\\nclass twice at intervals. The upper class attend also the girls class, the\\ndeaf and dumb school, and the free school, remaining one-eighth of their\\ntime in each of the classes. Each member of the lower class keeps a jour-\\nnal of his visits to the schools, which is inspected by the second teacher.\\nEach of the first class draws up a report of his occupation and observations\\nin the schools, which is reviewed by the assistant teacher of the class to\\nwhich it refers, and is then examined by the second teacher and by the di-\\nrector. The several assistant teachers make reports upon the qualifications\\nof the seminarists who have given instruction in their classes. By these ar-\\nrangements, a pupil who has the mental qualities essential to a teacher can-\\nnot fail to become well versed in the practice of liis profession. Habits of\\nobservation are inculcated, which must be of great service to him in his prac-\\ntice, enabling him to adapt iiimself to the circumstances in which he is\\nplaced, and to profit by the experience of every day.\\nTo exemplify the principles and methods, a small number of the children\\nfrom the seminary school are brought into the class-room of the seminary,\\nand are examined upon a given subject b} some of the pupils. The class\\npresent and the director make their notes on these examinations, and the\\nexercise terminates by an examination of the children by the director him-\\nself, as an exerapliticatioo of his views, and that they may not receive injury\\nfrom being left in a half or ill-informed state on the subjects of the lesson.\\nThe children having retired, the different members of the class make their\\ncriticisms, which are accepted or shown to be erroneous by the director, a\\nconference or discussion being kept up until the subject is exhausted. The\\ncharacter of each exercise is marked by the director, who is thus enabled to\\njudge of the progress made by every member of the class, and to encourage\\nor admonish privately, according to circumstances.\\nThe lectures given by the head master of the school for the deaf and dumb\\nare also accompanied by practice, a certain number of pupils being detained\\nevery day for that purpose. The basis of the method is the idea that it is\\npossible to restore the deaf mute to society, by enabling him to understand\\nspoken language from the motion of the lips, and to speak intelligibly by\\nmechanical rules. It is hoped ultimately, by training every schoolmaster in\\nthis method, that the mute may be instructed in schools with other children,\\nand thus not be required to sunder ties of kindred during a long absence\\nfrom home. The pupils of the deaf and dumb institution do not live in the\\nestablishment, but are boarded with tradesmen of the town of Weissenfels.\\nThe object is to induce the practice of the lessons out of school, the pupils\\nbeing enjoined to avoid the use of signs. The first lesson is one in articula-\\ntion. The principle of this instruction is now dominant in Germany, but up\\nto this time the system has not been fairly tried by its results. The indomi-\\ntable perseverance of the masters of the principal schools which I visited\\nstruck me with admiration but I was not convinced that what they aimed\\nat was practicable, at least to the extent which their principle asserts. The\\nattempt deserves, however, the best encouragement.\\nDRAWING.\\nPREPARATORY SCHOOL.\\nThe two classes united for geometrical and perspective drawing,\\nNOKMAL SCHOOL,\\nThe same course continued.\\nMUSIC.\\nPEEPARATORT SCHOOL.\\nThe two classes united for instruction in the elements of music. Choral singing.\\nInstruction is given on the piano and organ to the pupils, divided into four sec-\\ntions. They are also taught the violin.\\nNORMAL SCHOOL.\\nThe instruction, as just stated, is continued. Theory of music. Composition.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "224 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\nThe violin is taught, as the means of leading the exercises in singing in\\nthe elementary schools. The piano serves as an introduction to the organ,\\na knowledge of which is important to the Prussian schoolmaster, as enabling\\nhim to act as organist in the church of the parish where his school may be\\nsituated. So high a value is placed upon an elementary knowledge in vocal\\nmusic, that an ability to give instruction in it is indispensable to admission\\ninto the class ot^ teachers. It is not, therefore, surprising that the pupils of\\nthe seminaries, in general, are proficients in music. I confess, however, that\\nI was not prepared for the advance in the theory and practice to which many\\nof the first class in this school had attained. In regard to the former, I was\\npresent at one of the exercises in composition, in which the teacher* read,\\nand the pupils transcribed, three stanzas of poetry. This done, they were\\nrequired to compose an air adapted to the words. In less than ten minutes^\\na fifth of the class were ready. The teacher took his station at a black-\\nboard, on which the ledger lines were drawn, ^d one of the pupils whom he\\ndesignated began to sing the words to the air which he had composed, the\\nteacher writing the music meanwhile. This air was pronounced not to be\\noriginal. A second was tried, which the teacher thought an imitation. A\\nthird and fourth he accepted, and wrote upon the board. They were criti-\\ncised by both the class and teacher, set to parts by the former, and sung.\\nTlie two classes were in the next hour united for choral singing, in which\\nmany are proficient, the teacher leading at the organ.\\nThe course of drawing is limited in extent, the object being chiefly to give\\nopportunities to those pupils who have a taste for drawing to cultivate it.\\nIn fact, as it tends to divert attention from more important matters, which\\nthe short time spent at the seminary requires entire devotion to, it is not\\nmuch encouraged.\\nThe four teachers attached to the normal school have charge of specific\\ndepartments of labor, as well as of particular implements of instruction.\\nThe director has the general superintendence of the instruction, discipline,\\nhousehold arrangements, and finance, and is librarian of their small collec-\\ntion. The second teacher has charge of one of the schools, of the musical\\nexercises, books, and instruments a third, of the students when assembled,\\nespecially in the school-house, and of the drawings, copy-slips for writing,\\nand maps. The fourth superintends the pupils while in the dwelling-house,\\nand also at meals. These teachers are aided in their duties by younger ones\\nattached to the seminary, under the title of assistant teachers. The dining-\\nhall, or the recitation-rooms, serve as places of study, according as the pupils\\nare in the school-house or in the dwelling, the two buildings being separated\\nby a portion of the grounds. The chapel, which is a neat room connected\\nwith the school-house, serves for the music-room, as well as for the religious\\nexercises.\\nThe order of the day in the normal school will serve to show how con-\\nstantly these young men are employed in preparing for the duties of their\\narduous profession, and yet they appeared to me always cheerful in the per-\\nformance of then- self-imposed task. In winter, the pupils rise at five, and,\\nafter washing and dressing, have a brief religious exercise, and study until\\nbreakfast, which is at seven o clock. Until eight there is recreation. From\\neight until twelve they are in school, engaged in recitation, listening to lec-\\ntures, or teaching. From twelve until one they have dinner and recreation.\\nFrom one until five they are again in school. From five until seven or half\\npast seven, in summer, there is recreation, or excursions are made with a\\nteacher, and then study until nine. In winter, there is recreation until sLx, from\\nsix to eight study, and from eight to nine musical exercises, one-third playing\\non the violin, another on the organ or piano, and another singing. At half\\npast nine in winter, and ten in summer, the pupils retire. There are prayerg\\nMr, Henscbel.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "SEMINARy FOR TEACUEUS AT WEIr SKNTELS. 225\\nmorning and evening. On Wednesday and Saturday they have half of the\\nday for recreation, and in summer make excursions to collect plants or min-\\nerals. A place for gymnastic exercises is provided, and used during the\\nhours of recreation.\\nThe moral education of these young men is closely attended to. They\\nnot only receive direct religious instruction, but the best examples are con-\\nstantly before them. The chief reward for proficiency or good conduct is\\nthe approbation of the teachers; the principal punishment, short of dismis-\\nsion, their disapprobation. The director has, also, the influence, resulting\\nfrom his power, to give pecuniary assistance to the meritorious while in the\\nschool, and to secure them good places at leaving it. The greatest harmony\\nreigns throughout the establishment. On the evenings of Saturday, there\\nare frequently parties in turn among the teachers, to which the pupils are in-\\nvited, and where there is usually music. Those who have acquaintances in\\nthe town are encouraged to visit their families, but the places of visitmg\\nmust be known to the director.\\nPhysical education is most essential where young men, at the time of life\\nof these seminarists, are sedulously engaged in intellectual pursuits, and\\nnecessarily so much confined to the house. They, therefore, have gymnas-\\ntic exercises or work in the fields or garden, or walk during those periods\\nof the day and parts of the week allowed for recreation. Care is taken that,\\nunless indisposed, they do not remain in the house at those times, when the\\nweather permits them to be in the open air. There is an infirmary for the\\nsick, in which one of the pupils in turn acts as nurse, and a physician is\\ncalled in when necessary.\\nThe school year is divided into three terms, the first from the beginning of\\nJune until August, the second from September to Christmas, and the third\\nfrom January to May. The holidays are four weeks in August, two at\\nChristmas, and one at Easter. During the first two named, the pupils go\\nhome to their friends. Christmas is celebrated in the school, and at the\\nclose of the first and second terms there are jirivate examinations, the results\\nof which are communicated to the students. At the close of the third term,\\nthe examination for passing from the second to the first class is held, and\\nnone are promoted from one class to another unless fully proficient in the\\ncourses of the past year. At the end of the second year, they are examined\\nupon the whole range of study, and in composition and orthography. Those\\nwho pass satisftictorily receive a diploma, and find no difficulty in obtaining\\nemployment as teachers. Some of the most promising are frequently re-\\ntained in the schools of the institution as assistant teachers, under the ap-\\npointment of the director. The additional experience thus gained is of im-\\nportance in a professional, and ultimately in a pecuniary point of view.\\nEvery pupil, on leaving the school with a diploma, makes a drawing, or\\ncopies a piece of music or of writing, which he leaves as a memento.\\nThe pupils of all the normal schools are bound by law to serve in such\\nsituations as may be assigned to them for three years, or to pay certain sums\\nin lieu of this service.\\nThe domestic economy is superintended by the director, who has a house-\\nkeeper under his orders. Dinner is provided at a common table, but each\\nperson furnishes himself with breakt^ist and supper. The diet is of the\\nplainest kind, but there is meat for dinner every day in the week except\\ntwo.* The police of the establishment is attended to by the pupils them-\\nselves. The members of the second class, in turn, have charge of the police\\nof the school-rooms, dormitories, of the lamps, of ringing the bell, c. or\\nthese duties are executed by those who have fallen under censure. The\\nfirst class superintend the fires and out-of-door work, have charge of the\\nThe dinner costs seven dollars and fifty cents per annum, or about two cents and a\\nhalf per day. If a pupil receives no stipend from the institution, he is charged but half this\\n8um.\\n15", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "226 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\ncellar, store-room, lavatory, \u00c2\u00abfcc. There are three dormitories, under the general\\nsuperintendence of one of the teachers, aided by pupils selected for the purpose.\\nThe bed and bedding are furnished by the pupils at entrance. The lodging of\\nthese youths is, like thoir fare and clothing, of the plainest sort a plainness\\nwhich puts in strong relief the richness of the moral and intellectual culture\\nafforded by the institution.*\\nThe following additional particulars respecting this celebrated semi-\\nnary, are gathered -from a full description by Mr. Kay, in his Social\\nCondition and Education of the People of Europe. Mr. Kay s visit\\nto the institution was made in 1846. He gives prominence to some fea-\\ntures briefly alluded to by Dr. Bache.\\nAll candidates for admission present themselves at the institution, at the\\nannual candidates examinations, which are conducted by the director and pro-\\nfessors, in the presence of the educational magistrate for the county. The most\\nable aud forward of the candidates are then, after a careful examination, elected\\nand admitted. There are generally, in each of the Prussian provinces, some\\nspecial regulations, limiting this choice of students for the normal colleges. Thus,\\nthe regulations of the province, in which the normal college of Weissenfels is\\nsituated, prescribe, that no short-sighted, deaf, or feeble candidates shall be\\nadmitted. The same regulations also direct the examiners to give a preference\\nto those candidates who have a broad chest and a good voice. They also forbid\\nany young man being admitted before he has completed his seventeenth year,\\nor, unless he is a young man of a good character, moral habits, and imimpeach-\\nable conduct.\\nA part of the young students educated in the Weissenfels institution are pre-\\npared for admission in a preparatory normal college, situated not far from the\\nprincipal establishment. This preparatory institution contains about sixtj boys,\\nmost of whom are destined for reception into the principal college. Some of\\nthem, however, make such satisfactory progress in their studies during their resi-\\ndence in the preparatory institution, as to be able to present themselves at the\\nannual examination for diplomas, without going through the normal college at\\nall. The course of study at this preparatory school is of two years duration.\\nTlie boys, who are destined to be teachers, and whose parents can afford to pay\\nfor their education, enter it about the end of their fifteenth year, after leaving the\\nprimary parochial schools. There are two classes in this school. The first class\\nis intended for the boys during their first year s residence in the establishment,\\nthe second contains all those who have spent more than one year in the estab-\\nlishment.\\nThe subjects of instruction iu the first class of this preparatory school are:\\nreligious instruction, Scripture history composition a clear pronunciation in\\nreading and speaking 5 arithmetic, wTiting, the German language agriculture\\nand farming drawing singing, the violin, and piano-forte.\\nThe subjects of instruction in the second class are religious instruction. Scrip-\\nture history. Scriptural interpretation the German language writing, arithme-\\ntic, geometry, natural philosophy, geography, history, drawing choral singing,\\nthe violin, the piano-forte and exercises in teaching.\\nIt often happened, that many young men who had presented themselves at\\nthese entrance examinations have been rejected, as not having made sufficient\\nprogress in their studies, even when there still remained several unoccupied\\nvacancies in the establishment, which the director was desirous of filling up. But\\nthe maxim in Prussia is, that it is better to have no teacher, than to have an\\nincapable or an immoral one.\\nAs soon as a candidate has been admitted into the Weissenfels College, he is\\nrequired, with the approbation of his parent, or guardiau, to bind himself by\\nWTiting.\\nTlie yearly cost, of this institution is but about Iwenty-eight hundred and forty dollars.\\nThe directof receives a salary of six hundred dollars, which enables him to live very com-\\nfortably, and to maintain his proper station, on a par with the burgher authorities, the cler-\\ngyman, district judge, c.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT \\\\VEISSENFELS. 227\\n1st. During the first three years after leaving the normal college, to accept\\nany situation in the county in which the college is situated, to which he should\\nbe presented by the county magistrates and during these three years, to avoid\\nall engagements which would prevent him fulfilling this condition..\\n2d. If he should not, during the first three jears, aecept any situation which\\nthe county magistrates offer him as soon as it is offered, to repay to the college\\nall the outlay which was made by the institution, while he remained there, upon\\nhis maintenance and education.\\nThe Prussian government has, however, enacted, that as long as any candi-\\ndate, who has been educated at one of the normal colleges of a county, is unpro-\\nvided with a situation, neither the county magistrates nor any parochial commit-\\ntee, nor any patron of a private school, shall elect any other person as a teaclier,\\neven although such person shall have obtained a diploma certifying his fitness to\\nbe a teacher.\\nThe above-mentioned regulations are intended to prevent unprincipled men\\nmaking use of the gratuitous education of the college, merely for their own\\nadvancement in life, without any intention of ever acting as teachers in the paro-\\nchial schools of the county to prevent the young men commencing to teach,\\nbefore they have satisfied the magistrates of their fitness and capability and to\\noblige the young and unpraeticed teachers to begin their labors in the worse paid\\nand poorer situations, from which they are afterward advanced to the more im-\\nportant and lucrative posts, if they prove themselves deserving of such advance-\\nment. Were it not for the former of these two regulations, the poorer situations\\nwould never be filled, while the worse paid teachers would seldom liave any\\nhopes of any advancement; and were it not for the latter, unprincipled men\\nwould be able to avail themselves of the gi-atuitous education of the college in\\norder to prepare for more lucrative situations than those which the teachers gener-\\nally occupy during the first thi-ee years after obtaining their diplomas.\\nAt the time of my visit the students paid nothing for their lodgings or dinners\\nbut they provided their own bread and milk for breakfasts and suppers, and for\\ndinner, if they wished to eat bread with their meat. I inquired, if they could\\nhave what they liked for breakfasts and suppers, but the answer was, No we\\nonly allow milk and bread, as we wish to accustom them to the plainest fare, that\\nthey may never find the change from the normal college to the village school a\\nchange for the worse but always one for the better. The young men furnished\\nthemselves with all the necessary class-books but their instruction was entirely\\ngratuitous and, I believe, that the sum total, which a young student had to pay\\nannually, exclusive of the cost of bread and milk for breakfasts and suppers, and\\nof his clothes, did not exceed three pounds, so that there was nothing to hinder\\nyoung men, of the humblest ranks of society, entering the college, and being\\neducated there for the teachers profession.\\nAll the household duties (except preparing meals, making fires, and cleaning\\nthe house) were performed in turn by the young students themselves. Each\\nyoung man had his appointed days, when he was expected to ring the bell for the\\ndifferent lectures and meals, to bring the letters from the post, to attend the sick,\\nto carry the director s dinner to his room, to light the lamps, c., c. By the\\nperformance of these humble duties, and by their labor in the gardens, where\\nthey cultivate the vegetables for the use of the household, they learn to combine\\nsimplicity and humility with high mental attainments and are taught to sympa-\\nthize with the peasant class, with whom they are afterward called upon to min-\\ngle, and to whom, it is the principal dutj of their lives, to render them good\\ncounsellors, instructors, and friends.\\nIn summer, the first and second class of the students, attended each by a pro-\\nfessor, make long walks into the country to botanize, for botany is studied care-\\nfully by all the teachers in Prussia, as they are required to teach at least the\\nelements of this science to the children in the country parishes, in order to give\\nthem a greater interest in the cultivation of plants, and to open their eyes to some\\nof those wonders of creation, by which they are more immediately surrounded.\\nA great deal of time is devoted to the musical part of the education of Prus-\\nsian teachers, and the proficiency attained is perfectly astonishing. I was present\\nat an exercise in musical composition in the Weissenfels College. It was the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "228 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\neecond class that was examined, so that I did not see what the most proficient\\nstudents were capable of performing. The musical professor wrote upon a black-\\nboard a couplet from an old German song, which he requested the students to\\nBet to music. In ten minutes this was done, and though every composition was\\nnot equally good, yet, out of a class of twenty, I have six different pieces of\\nmusic, the compositions of six of the students, which deserve no little praise for\\ntheir harmony and beauty. The director afterward assembled all the professors\\nand students of the college, in the hall, that I might hear them sing some of their\\nnational songs together. The performance was most admirable the expression,\\ntime, and precision, with which they managed the great body of sound, which\\nthey created, was quite wonderful. My readers must remember, that every Ger-\\nman child commences to learn singing as soon as it enters a school, or, in other\\nwords, when it is five or six years of age that the young students continue the\\npractice of singing and chanting from six years of age, until the time when\\nthey enter the normal colleges and that during their residence there they daily\\npractice the most difficult musical exercises, besides learning three musical instru-\\nments. It is not, therefore, surprising that they attain very remarkable profic-\\niency. I have mentioned several times that every teacher in the normal colleges\\nin Prussia (and the same is the case throughout Germany) is obliged to learn the\\nviolin and the organ. They are required to know how to play the violin, in order\\nwith it to lead the singing of the children in the parochial schools, as the Ger-\\nmans think the children can not be taught properly how to modulate their voices,\\nwithout the aid of a musical instrument. They are required to learn the organ\\nfor a reason vv hich I will now explain.\\nThe German teachers, as I have before shown, have almost always some duties\\nto perform, in connection with their respective places of religious worship. If the\\nteacher is a Romanist, he is expected to attend upon the priests, to play the\\norgan, and to lead the chanting and singing. If he is a Protestant, he has to\\ngive out the hymns, to play the organ, to lead the chanting and singing, and if\\nthe clergyman should be prevented officiating by illness, or any other cause, the\\nteacher is expected to read the prayers, and in some cases also to read a sermon.\\nThis connection of the teachers and of the religious ministers is very important,\\nas it raises the teachers profession in the eyes of the poor, and creates a union\\nand a sympathy between the clergy and the schoolmasters.\\nIn order, therefore, to fit the teachers for these parochial duties, it becomes\\nnecessary for them to pay a double attention to their musical education, and par-\\nticularly to render themselves proficient upon the organ.\\nHence a traveler will find, in each of the German teachers colleges, two or\\nthree organs, and three, four, and sometimes six piano-fortes, for they commence\\nwith practicing on this latter instrument, and afterward proceed to practice on\\nthe organ.\\nThey had two organs in the Weissenfels Institution one in the great lecture\\nhall, and another in one of the largest of their lecture rooms.\\nAs I have already mentioned, time-tables were hung up in different parts of\\nthe establishment, showing how the different hours of the day are to be employed.\\nBefore visiting any of the classes, the director took me to one of these tables, and\\nsaid, You will see from that table, how all the classes are employed at the pre-\\nsent moment, so you can choose which you will visit. In this manner, I chose\\nseveral classes one after the other, by referring to the table and I invariably\\nfound them pursuing their allotted work with dilligence, order, and quiet.\\nThe education of the young students, during their three years residence in the\\ntraining college, is, as I have said, gratuitous. The young men are only required\\nto pay part of the expenses of the board. Even this small expenditure is, in\\nmany cases, defrayed for them, so as to enable the poorest young men to enter\\nthe teachers profession for the Prussians think, that a teacher of the poor ought\\nto be a man, who can thoroughly sympathize with the peasants, and who can\\nassociate with them as a friend and a brother and that no one is so well able to\\ndo so as he, who has known what it is to be a peasant, and who has personally\\nexperienced all the wants, troubles and difficulties, as well as all the simple pleas-\\nures of a peasant s life. For these reasons, they have endeavored in many\\nways, to facilitate the admission of peasants into the teachers profession. They", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSEM ELS. \u00c2\u00a329\\nhave founded, in the superior schools, a great number of free places, which are\\nreserved expressly for boys of the poorest classes, who are unable to pay any thing\\nfor continuing their education, beyond the course of the primary schools. These\\nplaces are generally awarded to the most advanced of the poorer scholars, who\\nhave creditably passed through all the classes of a primary school, and who are\\ndesirous of pursuing their education still further. This liberal and excellent plan\\nenables a young man, however poor, to prepare himself for the admission exam-\\ninations of the normal colleges.\\nBut even if a young peasant is enabled to enter a normal college, there is still\\nthe expense of maintaining himself there and this, unless provided for, would,\\nin the case of most peasants, be an effectual bar to his entering the teachers pro-\\nfession. To obviate this difficulty, the Prussians have founded, in each of their\\nforty-two normal colleges, a certain number of what are called stipendia. These\\nstipendia correspond with the foundations at our public schools. They are en-\\ndowed places, intended for poor and deserving young men, who would not, with-\\nout them, be able to bear the small expenses of residence in these institutions.\\nThese foundations or endowments are created, sometimes by charitable individu-\\nals, sometimes by municipal corporations, and sometimes by the government, but\\nthe object of them is always the same, viz.; the assistance of very poor young\\nmen of promising abilities, who are desirous of entering the teachers profession,\\nbut who would not be able to aspire to it without such assistance. There are ten\\nof these fomidations in the Weissenfels Institution, varying in amount, and created,\\nsome by the mimicipal authorities of Weissenfels and other towns in the province,\\nand others by private individuals.\\nThe principal part of their instruction in pedagogy is reserved for their third\\nyear s residence in the normal college. They then begin to practice teaching at\\nregular hoiu s. One or two of the students, who have passed two years in the\\nestablishment, are sent daily into each of the five classes of the model school,\\neach of which classes has a separate class-room assigned to it, where one of the\\nfive trained teachers of the model school is always engaged in instruction. Under\\nthe superintendence, and subject to the criticism and advice of these able teach-\\ners, the yoimg students make their first attempts in class teaching. After they\\nhave attended these classes for some months and have gained a certain profic-\\niency in class management and direction, they are allowed by turns to take the\\ndirection of the classes of the other school for children, which is attached to the\\ninstitution. Here they are left more at liberty, and are subjected to no other sur-\\nveillance than that of the casual visits of the director, or one of the superior pro-\\nfessors, who pay occasional visits to the school, to see how the students manage\\ntheir classes, and what progress they make in the art of teaching. They also\\nattend, during their third year s residence, regular lectures given by the director\\non pedagogy indeed, their principal employment during their last year s resi-\\ndence in the college is to gain an intimate acquaintance with both the theory and\\npractice of this difficult art. With what success these labors are attended, all\\nwill bear witness who have had the pleasure of hearing the intelligent and simple\\nmanner, in which the Prussian teachers convey instruction to the children in the\\nparochial schools. There are none of the loud, and illogical discourses, or of the\\nvmconnected and meaningless questions, which may be heard in many of our\\nschools but the teacher s quiet and pleasant manner, the logical sequency of his\\nquestions, the clearness and simplicity with which he expoimds difficulties, the\\nquickness of his eye in detecting a pupil who does not understand him, or who is\\ninattentive, and the obedience of the children, never accompanied with any symp-\\ntom of fear, show at once, that the Prussian teacher is a man thoroughly ac-\\nquainted with his profession, and who knows how to instruct without creating\\ndisgust, and how to command respect without exciting fear.\\nThere are three vacations every year in the Weissenfels College one in\\nAugust of three weeks, one at Christmas of two weeks, and one at Easter of\\nthree days duration. Previous to each vacation, the young men are called to-\\ngether, when the director reads aloud a paper, containing the opinions of himself\\nand the professors of the abilities, industiy, and character of each student. Each\\nyoung man is then required to write out the judgment, which has been passed\\nupon himself. These copies are signed by the director, and are carried home by", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "230\\nSEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\nthe young men to be shown to their relatives. The students are required to pre-\\nsent these copies to their religious ministers and to their parents, and to obtain\\ntheir signatures, as a proof that they have seen tliem. They are then brought\\nback, at the end of the vacation, to the normal college, and are delivered up to\\nthe director, that he may be satisfied, by the signatures, that their friends and\\nreligious minister have seen and examined them. It is not necessary to show\\nhow great a stimulus to exertion these written characters afford.\\nThe following regulations are a literal translation of some, which are contained\\nin a published description of the Weissenfels Institution, which was put into my\\nhands by the director.\\nSince the state considers the education of good teachers a matter of such\\ngreat importance, it requires that all young students shall be removed from the\\nestablishment, concerning whom there is reason to fear that they will no* become\\nefficient schoolmasters. The following regulations are therefore made on this\\npoint\\nIf at the close of the first year s course of study, it is the opinion of all the\\nprofessors of the normal college, that any one of the students does not possess\\nsufficient ability, or a proper disposition, for the profession of a teacher, he must\\nbe dismissed from the establishment. But if only three of the professors are of\\nthis opinion, and the fourth differs from them, they must inform the provisional\\nauthorities of their disagreement, and these higher authorities must decide.\\nShould the unfitness of any student for the profession of a teacher be evident,\\nbefore the end of his first year s residence in the normal college, the director\\nmust inform the young man s friends of this fact, in order that they may be ena-\\nbled to remove him at once.\\nIf any student leaves the institution without permission before the end of his\\nthree years course of study, and yet desires to become a teacher, he can not be\\nadmitted to the examination for diplomas sooner than the young men who entered\\nthe normal college when he did.\\nIn cases of theft, open opposition to the rules and regulations of the establish-\\nment, and, in general, in all eases of offenses which merit expulsion from the col-\\nlege, the superior authorities, or provincial committee, must carry such expulsion\\ninto execution.\\nWhen the young men have completed their three years course of study in the\\nWeissenfels College, they can present themselves for examination for a diploma.\\nUntil a student has gained a diploma, he can not instruct in any school, or in any\\nprivate family. The knowledge that he has procured one, serves to assure every\\none that he is fitted for the right performance of his duties. If he can show this\\ncertificate, granted by impartial and learned men, after rigid inquiry into the\\nmerits of the claimant, every one feels that he is a man to be trusted and to be\\nhonored. It assures them that he entered the Weissenfels College with a high\\ncharacter, that he maintained it while there, and that he has attained that amount\\nof knowledge which is required of all elementary school teachers.\\nA young man who has not been educated in the Weissenfels College may\\nobtain a diploma if he can pass the examination, and can fm-nish the county\\nmagistrates with the following certificates\\n1st. A certificate of a physician that he is in perfect health, and has a sound\\nconstitution.\\n2d. An account of his past life composed by himself.\\n3d. Certificates from the civil magistrate of his native town or village, and\\nfrom the religious minister imder whose care he has grown up, of the blameless\\ncharacter of his past life, and of his fitness, in a moral and religious point of view,\\nto take a teacher s situation.\\nThe committee of examiners at the Weissenfels Institution consists of Dr. Zer-\\nrener, the educational councillor (schulrath) of the provincial school committee\\nunder which the normal college is ranged of Dr. Weiss, the educational coun-\\ncillor (schulrath) of the court of the county in which Weissenfels is situated and\\nof the director and professors of the normal college.\\nThe examination is conducted by the professors in the presence of these two\\neducational councillors and when it is over, the young men receive their diplo-\\nmas, marked 1, 2, or 3, according to their merits. Only those who", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS. 231\\nobtain the first kind, or those marked 1, are capable of being definitely ap-\\npointed to a school those who obtain either of the other kind of diplomas, can\\nonly take a situation on trial for one or two years at the end of which time they\\nare obliged to return again to the normal college, and to be re-examined, when\\nthey again receive diplomas, marked according to their merits, as before. Until\\na young man has obtained a diploma 1, he can not obtain an independent situ-\\nation, and it sometimes happens that a young man returns three or four times to\\nthe normal college ere he can obtain a permanent appointment as a teacher.\\nThe examinations at the Weissenfels College are very strict, and last for two\\ndays. The young men are examined both viva voce and also by writing in all\\nthe subjects of instruction in the college and the examinations are rendered all\\nthe more imposing by the presence of the two representatives of the Minister of\\nPublic Instruction. Religious instruction, history, (both sacred and profane,)\\nmusic, (both theoretical and practical,) geography, (both topographical and phys-\\nical,) grammar, arithmetic, mental calculation, mathematics, botany, natural his-\\ntory, and particularly pedagogy, are the subjects of this searching investigation.\\n[f the young candidate passes it creditably, his diploma is signed by the two\\nrepresentatives of the Minister, and by the professors of the establishment and\\nfi om that time forward he is a member of the profession of teachers. His long\\ncourse of study is then at an end the continual examinations to which he had\\nbeen previously subjected are passed. He is, from that moment, the recognized\\nservant of his country, which protects him and encourages his efforts.\\nBut even after a teacher has obtained his diploma marked 1, and after he\\nhas been appointed to a permanent situation, the directors and professors of the\\ncollege do not lose sight of him.\\nIf they, or the inspectors of the county court, perceive that a teacher, after\\nleaving the college, neglects to continue his education, or that he has forgotten\\nany of the knowledge or skill he had acquired when there, they require him to\\nreturn to the college for a few months or weeks, where he is made to attend the\\nlectures and to submit to the discipline intended for the regular students. The\\ncounty magistrates are empowered to provide for the support of his family, and\\nfor the management of his schools, dui ing the time of his residence in the\\ncollege. I\\nThe director of the college is directed to make at least one tour of inspection\\nevery year through the whole of the district, for which his normal college edu-\\ncates teachers, at the expense of the county magistrates, for the purpose of\\ninspecting the progress and attainments, and of making inquiries about the charac-\\nter of the teacher, who have been educated in his college.\\nIt is not necessary for me to point out how these different regulations tend to\\nraise the character of the teachers profession in Prussia, and to gain for them\\nthe estimation and respect of society. As it is laid down in one of the circular\\nrescripts of the Prussian government, the chief end of calling the teachers back\\nto the normal colleges at intervals, is to increase the earnestness, zeal, and enthu-\\nsiasm of the teachers in their duties to regulate and perfect the character of the\\nteaching in the village schools to produce more and more conformity and\\nagreement in the methods of instruction used in the schools to make the teach-\\ners look upon the normal college as their common home, and the place to which\\nthey may all apply for advice, assistance, and encouragement to make the pro-\\nfessors of the college better acquainted with those parts of the education of teach-\\ners which particularly require their attention, and which are necessary to form\\nefficient village school teachers to inspire the professors of the normal college\\nwith a constant zeal in the improvement of the district in which their college is\\nsituated and to impress upon the young students of the normal college, from\\ntheir first entrance into it, a full sense of the importance of the work in which\\nthey are about to engage. Every one knows that any person, who is officiating\\nas teacher, must necessarily be a learned and moral man. Every one knows that\\nhe has passed through a long course of education in religious and secular instruc-\\ntion, continuing from his sixth to his twentieth year that he has passed two or\\nthree different severe examinations with honor that he is well versed in Scrip-\\nture history, in the leading doctrines of his religion, in the history of Germany,\\nin the outlines of universal history, in geography, and in arithmetic that he is a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "232 SEMINARY FOR TEACHERS AT WEISSENFELS.\\ngood singer and chanter that he can play the organ, piano-forte, and violin that\\nhe is acquainted with the elements of the physical sciences, with natural history,\\nand botany and that he is profoundly versed in the science which is more\\npeculiarly his own, viz., that of pedagogy. I have already said, that it is no\\nuncommon thing for a Prussian teacher to be acquainted with the Latin language,\\nthat very many speak and read French fluently, and that not a few can also, at\\nleast, read English. Now, I do not ask whether we have a class of village\\nteachers who can be compared to these men, for it would be ridiculous to put\\nsuch a question but, I ask, have we any set of teachers in the country, who, in\\ngeneral attainments, can bear comparison with them Very few of the masters\\nof our private schools are gentlemen who have been educated at our universities\\nbut of even those who have been brought up at our great seats of learning, I\\nwould ask any university man, whether one man in ten receives any thing like so\\ngeneral an education as the Prussian schoolmasters must have obtained, in order\\nto enable them to pass the examination for diplomas Do the students at our\\nuniversities generally learn any thing of church history, of music, or of physical\\ngeography Do they learn even the outlines of universal history Are they\\nacquainted with botany or natural history Do many study carefully the history\\nof their own country or its geography? Do any of them know any thing of\\npedagogy If not, where shall we fmd a class of teachers of even the children\\nof our gentry nearly so highly educated as the Prussian parochial schoolmasters", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "SEMINARY\\nFOR\\nTEACHERS OF THE CITY SCHOOLS*\\nAT BERUN, IN PRUSSIA.\\nThis is one of the more recently erected seminaries, and its objects are\\ndeclared to be first, to educate teachers for the city schools second, to\\nenable teachers to advance in their vocation, by providing them vi^ith lec-\\ntures, and with a library and third, to enable candidates for the ministry to\\nbecome somewhat acquainted with the art of teaching, as they are required,\\nsubsequently, to act as inspectors of the schools. The first of these is the\\nmain object of the institution. The teachers to be furnished are, in general, o(\\nthe grade required for the burgher schools. This, with its location in the\\ncity, renders the general plan of this school difterent from that already de-\\nBcribed. The care taken in the selection of the du-ectors of the normal\\nschools prevents the necessity for minute regulations, and does what no\\nregulation can namely, infuses the proper spiiit. Hence, there will always\\nbe found differences in the minute details of these institutions, which may\\nnot, however, be essential.\\nThe director of this seminaryf is also the head of the school of practice\\nattached to it, and already described. There are, besides him, eight teachers\\nfor both the school and seminary. The pupils of the latter are about fifty\\nin number.\\nThe pupils generally live out of the seminary, there being accommoda\u00c2\u00bb\\ntions but for sixteen or eighteen within the buildings. It is an important\\nquestion whether the method of boarding the pupils in or out of the house\\nshall be adopted in these institutions, and I believe that it has been rightly\\nsolved, both at Weissenfels and here, adopting in the former school the\\nmethod of collecting the pupils, and in the latter, of allowing them to dwell\\napart.\\nThe conditions for admission are nearly those, as to certificates, age, and\\nqualification, of the Weissenfels school, taking as the standard of qualifica-\\ntion the attainments of pupils from the preparatory department. Thus,\\neighteen years is the general age of admission, and the applicants must pre-\\nsent to the school-board of the province certificates of baptism, of having\\nattended the first communion, of having attended school, of moral conduct,\\nof good health, and that their parents or guardians will support them while\\nat the seminary. The candidates are expected to be prepared for examina-\\ntion on the principal parts of the Bible and the chief truths of Christianity,\\nand to be acquainted with some of the principal church songs to express\\nthemselves correctly in words and in writing, and to have a good knowledge\\nof the etymology of the German language to understand the ground rules\\nof arithmetic, proportions, and fractions, and the elements of form in geom-\\netry to possess a competent knowledge of geography and history to know\\nthe use of mathematical instruments, and to have an elementary knowledge\\nof music. The school does not professedly maintain any pupil while receiv-\\ning instruction, but assists some of those of the second year who are meri-\\ntorious, and makes a further advance to those of the third year who have\\nshown themselves worthy of their calling.J\\nFrom Bache s Education in Europe.\\nt Dr. Diesterweg.\\nX TIlis may amount to sixty dollars yearly. The boarders at the school pay but three dollara\\nand thirty-seven cents per quarter for their lodging. An entrance fee of twelve dollars is paid,\\nwhich exempts the pupil from further charges for instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "234\\nSEMINARY FOR CITV TEACHERS AT BERLIN.\\nThe courses are of tliree years duration, of which the first is entirely oc-\\ncupied with revising and extending the attainments of the pupil the second\\nis, in part, devoted lo teaching, but under the inspection of the director and\\nthe third is mainly tilled up with teaching in the school attached to the semi-\\nnary, or others of the city. This arrangement is intended, first, to secure a\\ndue amount of scholarship on the part of the pupils and next, to make\\npractical teachers of them. The first essays in their art are made under\\nclose supervision and subsequently, the independent teaching affords them\\nopportunities for comparing the theoretical principles which are inculcated\\nin the lectures at the seminary with their daily observation and the com-\\nmunication of their remarks in meetings with the director gives them the\\nadvantage of his experience in guiding their observation.\\nThe scope of the instruction here does not differ essentially from that at\\nWeissenfels, the subjects being reproduced in a different form. The follow-\\ning table gives th6 names of the branches, with the time occupied in each of\\ntlie classes, the third class being the lowest. The course of each class is a\\nyear in duration.\\nThe hours of duty are from seven in the morning until noon, and from\\ntwo in the afternoon until four for the second and third classes, with few ex-\\nceptions. The first class receive their instruction from half past five until\\nhalf past seven in the evening, except on Wednesday and Saturday. Wed-\\nnesday is a half-holiday for the lower classes, as well as Saturday.\\nThe religious instruction is given by a clergyman. The physical educa-\\ntion is left much to the discretion of the young men, at least in case of those\\nwho live out of the seminary. The school is deficient, as the one already\\ndescribed, in the means of illustrating the courses of natural philosophy and\\nnatural history, but the pupils may have access to the natural history collec-\\ntions of the university.\\nTABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME AMONG THE DIFFERENT EMPLOTMENTS\\nAT THE BERLIN SEMINARY.\\nSubjects of study, c.\\nPedagogy\\nPractice\\nReligious Instruction\\nTheory of Music\\nVocal Music\\nGerman Language...\\nReading\\nArithmetic\\nGeometry\\nGeography\\nHistory\\nZoology\\nMineralogy\\nPhysics\\nDrawing\\nWriting\\nPlaying the Violin...\\nHOURS PER WEEK.\\nFirst\\nSecond\\nThird\\nClass.\\nCliiss.\\nClass.\\n2\\n1\\n4\\n1\\n2\\n3\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n3\\n5\\n2\\n6\\n2\\n2.\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n3\\n8\\nThe method of instruction, as in the other school, is mainly by lecture,\\nwith interrogations. The inductive system is followed in the mathematical\\nbranches. The works of the director on these subjects enjoy a high reputa-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS\\nFOR\\nFEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA\\nThe school system of Prussia, as well as the European system of public\\ninstruction generally, is defective in its provision for female education be-\\nyond the lowest grades of schools. While boys are highly instructed in\\nlanguage, the elements of science, and Ihe principles of the useful arts, in\\npublic schools of a higher grade, the girls, except those of the wealthy\\nand aristocratic classes, are entirely neglected. This has had the effect\\nto open a chasm, broad and deep, between the intelligence and intellec-\\ntual capabilities of the two sexes has weakened the power and influence\\nof woman on society has narrowed the circle of a mother s teaching at\\nhome, and shut her out from the wide and appropriate field of employ-\\nment as a teacher in every grade of public and private schools. The\\nmost valuable contribution now making by our American, and especially\\nour New England experience, to the advancement of public education, is\\nthe demonstration of the wisdom of giving to every girl, rich or poor, and\\nwhatever may be her destination in life, an education which shall corres-\\npond, in amount and adaptation, to that given to boys in the same school\\nand particularly, to such as show the requisite tact, taste, and character,\\nan appropriate training for the employment of teaching. Our experience\\nhas shown not only the capacity of woman, but her superiority to the\\nmale sex, in the whole work of domestic and primary instruction, not only\\nas principal teachers of infant and the lowest class of elementary schools,\\nbut as assistants in schools of every grade in which girls are taught, and\\nas principal teachers, with special assistance in certain studies, in country\\nschools generally. Their more gentle and refined manners, purer morals,\\nstronger instinctive love for the society of children, and greater tact in\\ntheir management, their talent for conversational teaching, and quickness\\nin apprehending the difficulties which embarrass a young mind, and their\\npowers, when properly developed, and sustained by enlightened public\\nsentiment, of governing even the most wild and stubborn dispositions by\\nmild and moral influences are now generally acknowledged by our most\\nexperienced educators. Let this great fact be once practically and gen-\\nerally recognized in the administration of public schools in Europe, and\\nlet provision be made for the training of female teachers on a thorough\\nand liberal scale, as is now dorie for young men, and a change will pass\\nover the whole face of society.\\nUntil within ten years no attempt was made to train females for the\\nemployment of teacbinn- except in certain convents of the Catholic\\nchurch, where the self-i enying life which the rules of their establishment", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "236\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA.\\nreauire, and the excellent education there given, are an admirable pre-\\nparation for the important duties which many of the sisters are called\\nupon to perform as teachers in schools for the poor, as well as for board-\\ning-schools connected with their rehgious houses.\\nIn 1840, for the first time, a seminary for female teachers, governesses,\\nor rather a seminary course, was established at Marienweider, in the\\nprovince of Prussia, in connection with a high school for young ladies, in-\\nstituted by Alberti. The course is for two years. Candidates must be\\nsixteen years of age, must be confirmed, and pass a satisfactory examina-\\ntion in the branches taught in common schools. Instruction is given in\\nFrench, English, and Italian languages, as well as in the German litera-\\nture and language, arithmetic, history, geography, natural sciences, music,\\nhistory of art and esthetics, including drawing, sketching, c., as well as in\\nthe theory and practice of teaching. The charge for tuition and residence\\ncan not exceed four thalers a month, and this is reduced according to the\\ncircumstances and continuance at the seminary of tlie pupils. In 1847,\\nthere were twenty-two pupils.\\nIn 1841, a class of female teachers was instituted in connection with the\\ncelebrated Diaconissen Anstalt, at Kaiserswerth, erected by Mr. Fleid-\\nner. The course for elementary schools occupied two years. In addition\\nto the studies pursued at Marienweider, instruction is given in domestic\\neconomy and household work. Practice in teaching is had in the orphan\\nand hospital schools, and the elementary school of the great establish-\\nment. In 1848, there were eighty-five pupils, forty-four of whom were\\ndestined for infant and industrial schools.\\nThe school for deaconesses, at Kaiserswerth. on the Rhine, was in-\\nstituted by Rev. Thomas Fleidner. the pastor of its small Protestant par-\\nish, who seems to be acting in a new sphere of Christian benevolence\\nwith the spirit of Franke. The main object of the institution was to train\\nfemales of the right spirit females who are willing to consecrate a por-\\ntion of their lives in humility and love to the service of their iellow-crea-\\ntures, for Christ s sake to the practical duties of the sick room. The\\noriginal plan has been extended so as to embrace a Normal department\\nfor training young women of the same spirit for teachers of infant schools,\\nas well as an asylum for erring. It is conceived in the spirit, and to some\\nextent, formed on the model of some of the orders of sisters of charity, in\\nthe Catholic church. It presents a new appHcation of the principle, and\\nillustrates in a beautiful manner the importance, of Normal or professional\\ntraining in every department of life which involve art and method. The\\nfollowing account of a visit to the institution is abridged from a communi-\\ncation in Lowes Edinburgh Magazine, for 1846.\\nKaiserswerth is the name of a small village on the east Dank of the Rhine,\\nabout an hour from Dusseldorf. The village is clean and orderly, but very an-\\ncient in its houses, and still more so in the aspect of its church and manse.\\nThis circumstance the more fixes the attention of the traveler on a new street\\nrunning at right angles to the old one. All the buildings in it are peculiar, and\\npiece on but awkwardly with the old manse, whence they spring, and which is\\noccupied by the School for Deaconesses. The Rev. Thomas Fleidner is pa^-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRnsSIA. 23^\\ntor of this small parish, and has found full occupation for his benevolent energy\\nin ihe institiiiion of which he is the founder.\\nWe unwittiiij^ ly made our visit of investigation on the great anniversary a\\nday for school examinations, for inspecting the hospitals, and for setting apart,\\nfor the exercise of their fimctions, wheresoever they may be called, such dea-\\nconesses as have satisfactorily passed through their period of training. The\\nwhole place was therefore in its best attire. Windows bright; walls newly\\ncolored, and every here and there, where an arch or a peg to hang a wreath\\nupon could be found, active and tasteful hands had transferred the garden s\\nautumnal treasures of flowers to the various chambers of the dwellings. In a\\nroom on one side of the street, the floor was covered with beds for the repose\\nof visiting schoolmistresses and deaconesses who had returned to enjoy the day\\nwiih their former associates while, on the other, the hall with its table of\\nmany covers, and the savor of good food from the kitchen, indicated that the\\nmother was on that day to entertain her children. In short, it was a gala day\\nthe day of all the year when many acquisitions are brought to light, and for\\nwhich many a studious preparation is made. As all were engaged in the ex-\\namination of the orphan-school, we had leisure, while waiting, to observe the\\ncharacteristic furniture of the manse parlor, where, according to the fashion of\\nthe country, the pale sand crackled under our i eet. There hangs a portrait of\\nMrs. Fleidner. the honored and most useful coadjutorof her husband. She has\\nbeen a fitting mother of that institution, of which he is the father. Having\\ngiven out all her strength to it, she was in her prime translated from the land\\nof labor and anxiety to the land of eternal rest.\\nNear her is placed, in meet companionship, a portrait of our Mrs. Fry, whose\\nexperienced eye took in at once, with much delight, the utility of the whole in-\\nstitution. On the same wall appears a portrait of Mr. Fleidner s mother, a\\nvenerable widow of a former pastor, whose lovely Christian bearing we had\\noccasion to respect and admire, having made her acquaintance in a distant city.\\nShe had reared a large family lor the church, and suffered many hardships\\nwhile her country was the scene of French warfare, being long separated from\\nher husband, uncertain of his safely, and moving from place to place with her\\nyoung children, at times at a loss for a lodging and all necessary provision.\\nOpposite to these portraits are engravings of some of the Protestant Reform-\\ners, among whom appear Luther and Calvin and in a corner a cupboard\\nwith a glass door, furnished with books for sale, chiefly such as are employed\\nin the schools or report their condition. Also the noble set of Scripture prints\\nwhich was prepared for the institution, but which is now to be found in many\\nseminaries for the benevolent instruction of the young in Germany and Prussia.\\nPresently an amiable and gentlemanly man, who apologized for his imperfect\\nEnglish, came and guided us to the school-room, in which an intelligent teacher\\nwas calling forth the attainments of his pupils. The audience consisted of Mr.\\nFleidner s co-presbyters, the physician, a lew personal friends, the teachers\\nwho were that day visitors to the school where they had themselves been trained,\\nand as many of the deaconesses as could be spared from their regular avo-\\ncations.\\nThe orphans under examination are many of them the children of pastors\\nand schoolmasters. They looked more vigorous and hearty than most children\\nof their age do in Germany, and are receiving good, sound education, which\\nwill fit them to help both themselves and others in future life.\\nWe were led from the school-room to the dormitories, and found each con-\\ntaining six small beds, and one larger. The deaconess, who occupies the\\nlarger bed, is regarded as .the mother of these six children, and fills that office\\nas to washing, clothing, medicating, and instructing them, just as a real mother\\nought to do. Each bed has a drawer which draws out at its foot, containing all\\nthe little tenant s property, and on the opposing wall is himg a tin basin, jug,\\nand tooth-brush for the use of each. The deacone.ss soon feels an attachment\\nto the orphans spring up in her bosom, while she al.so feels responsibility about\\ntheir neat and healthy appearance, proper demeanor, and attainments of all\\nkinds.\\nWe next saw the delinquents shelter, and two women in charge, one an\\nolder, sensible, firm-looking person, whose post is probably never changed, and\\nanother younger, her pupil. They showed us with some satisfaction the needle-\\nwork ihey had taught to a set of lOwering-browed, iinpromising-lookingf females,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "238 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA.\\nwho, like their peers in Scotland, gratify their curiosity by side-peeps, but never\\nlook you fairly in the face. From ihe educational system of Prussia, it rarely\\noccurs that reading requires to be taught to adults. The senior deaconess\\nspoke mildly and sensibly of some intractable, two or three runaways, some re-\\nconciled to friends, some restored to society, and acquitting themselves well in\\nservice. In short, it was a fac-simile of poor humanity, and the uncertain re-\\nsults of benevolent effort at home. These women sleep in small apartments,\\nwhich fill one side of a long gallery each contains a bed, a stool, and a box,\\nand in the midst of them is the room for the deaconess, who is, by means of\\nher open door, enabled to observe all movements, and prevent all communica-\\ntions on the subject of past transgressions. The delinquents are shut into their\\nnight-rooms.\\nIn the infant school department, we did not observe any thing differing from\\nwhat is to be seen in the best schools of the same style elsewhere, unless we\\nmight mention an extensive frame of pigeon-holes, each numbered to indicate\\nthe proprietor, and occupied by pieces of bread. In this Normal School have\\nbeen trained teachers who are now engaged in managing the infant population\\nin many parts of Prussia and Germany.\\nWe crossed the little street, and entered, on the opposite side, the hospital, a\\nhandsome building entirely of recent erection, in a pretty extensive and neatly\\nlaid-out garden, where we (Observed some patients of all ages the children at\\nplay or carried in the arms of their tender-looking nurse the adults resting on\\nbenches in the sun, for the day was cool, or moving feebly as their reduced\\nstrength enabled them.\\nOur guide, whom we here discovered to be chaplain to the hospital, led us\\nfirst into the apothecary s room, where we saw two sensilile, energetic-looking\\nwomen compounding medicines after the prescription of the physician. They\\nare licensed by government, serving a regular time to the acquisition of this\\nimportant branch of knowledge, and are always on the spot to watch the effect\\nof their administrations. The place is fitted up like a druggist s shop at home.\\nWe forgot to inquire if the counter, within whose railed-off quarter the chief\\napothecary stood, is rendered necessary by the shop being frequented by the\\nvillagers, which seems probable. The other deaconess was working at a mor-\\ntar. From this place we passed to the kitchen, and saw the huge apparatus\\nnecessary for feeding such a family, and the extra supply required on that festal\\nday, when their family was greatly increased. The plans for keeping food in\\nthat warm country, the cleanliness and beautiful order of the larder and laun-\\ndries, indeed of every corner, was quite remarkable, and the ventilation so per-\\nfect, that even when we ascended to wards occupied by persons in bed, or rest-\\ning on the long benches, who looked very ill, the atmosphere was tolerably fresh\\nand agreeable. Our conductors dropped here and there a good word to the sick\\nas we passed. In the male wards a part of the attendance seems to be done by\\nmen, but each has its quota of deaconesses who have their own charge and re-\\nsponsibility In one chamber we found five women who had joined the estab-\\nlishment a few days before, who were engaged in learning the useful art of\\ncutting out clothing, under two instructors. There was something touching in\\nthe ward of sick children, where we saw many eyes beaming tenderness, and\\nmany hearts exercising all the maternal instincts, albeit not mothers. Some\\nwho were very sick formed for the time the sole charge of one deaconess, while\\nthree or four might be intrusted to the care of another. In addition lo minute\\nwatchfulness over the body, there is, as they can bear it, an endeavor lo occupy\\nthe memory with suitable hymns and passages of Scripture, and to engage their\\nminds on subjects that lead them to glorify God by honoring and loving Him in\\nthe days of their youth. The chaplain was acquainted with each face, and its\\nowner s little hisiory, and tried to draw out a little repetition of their small store\\nof Scripture learning. One could not but.remark the useful discipline which\\nsuch employment must be for ihe young women who are engaged in it, or fail\\nto observe the loving patience with which one or two met the feverish frac-\\ntiousness of their nurslings.\\n_ The office of these sisters of charity, which elevates them above the common\\nsick nurse, and engages them in concerns that touch on eternity, is that of read-\\ning the Scriptui^es to the sick and aged, and dropping a word of consolation\\ninto the languid ear, while they minister to the bodily wants. This they are\\nauthorized and expected to do, so that, instead of doing it bv stealth, as a pious", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA\\n239\\nsick nurse may do in our hospitals or, instead of railing on the poor sufferer\\nwho cries out in concern for his soul s health, as an impious one has sometimes\\nbeen known to do they breathe balm while they turn the pillow, and speak of\\nthe way of reconc.iliaiio)i while they endeavor to lull pain. They are by the\\nbed in the midnight hour, and can seize the moment of coolness and clearness\\nto speak to the afflicted a moment which neither chaplain, nor medical man,\\nnor friendly visitor, may be so happy as to hit upon and, while they are forbid-\\nden to be preachers, their living actions, their Chn siian bearing, and their faith-\\nful advices, are calculated to drop like balm on the wounded spirit, and have, in\\nmany cases, accomplished good which we may justly call incalculable, for its\\nconsequences are eternal.\\nAfter examining the excellent arrangement of the sick wards, we found our-\\nselves in the chapel. It is placed at the lower extremity of the long range of\\nbuildings, and so crosses the end of four wards, two on the first, and two on the\\nsecond story, the door of entrance to the chapel being placed in the center.\\nEach ward has a folding-door of glass in the side of the place of worship, by\\nopening which the Word of God can sound along even to the remoter beds.\\nOn communion occasions, the pastor is accustomed to convey the elements into\\nthese wards, so that many a fainting soul is thus refreshed, which, in any other\\ncircumstances, would be denied the privileges of the house of God. There are,\\non one side of the chapel, seals where the feeble can recline, and some with\\nmuslin curtains, behind which the unhappy or unsightly can find shelter. In\\nthis small, but sacred, place of worship, at three o clock on that afternoon,\\nOctober 5th, were the deaconesses, whose term of training was satisfactorily\\ncome to a close, questioned before the congregation with respect to their wil-\\nlingne.ss to devote themselves to the work of mercy for the next five years, and\\nhaving assented to the engagement proposed to them, they were solemnly set\\napart by prayer. They are now prepared to go to whatever city or country, to\\nwhatever hospital, or Normal Institution, or private family they may be called,\\nthe taste and capacity of the individual of course being consulted for it must\\nbe carefully explained that there is nothing like a monastic vow of obedience\\nto the church in this affair, and that the engagement is formed subject to being\\nset aside by the claims of nearer domestic duties, if such should arise. Some\\ndeaconesses have been called away to assist their own families, some have\\nbeen lost to the Institution by entering on the conjugal relation. In truth, un-\\nfortunately for their vocation, they are rather too popular, as making excellent\\nwives. But while one regards this circumstance with regret as respects the\\nscheme, it is delightful to contemplate the sister of charity transformed into the\\nrearer of her own children in the tear of the Lord.\\nIn conversing with Mr. Fleidner, before taking leave, on the utility of form-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2ing such an institution in Scotland, he suggested, as a fundamental and absolute\\nnecessity, that it be ascertained that all who are admitted to the school are per-\\nsons renewed in the spirit of their minds, and willing, under the guidance of the\\nHoly Spirit, to devote themselves in humility and love to the service of their\\nfellow-creatures for Christ s sake.\\nThe two Prussian provinces of the Rhineland and Westphalia are united for\\nits support, and it is under the superintendence of the Protestant Provincial Sy-\\nnod. Above one hundred deaconesses are now at work in different parts of\\nGermany. Sixty are occupied in seventeen ho.spitals and orphan-houses at\\nBerlin, Dresden, Frankfort, Worms, Cologne, Elberfeld, c. Several are en-\\ngaged for large congregations which have no hospital, and about twenty are\\nsent out at the request of private families to nurse their sick members, (Sec.\\nFive are now at work in the German hospital at Dalston, near London: one\\nof them is matron of the establishment. It can readily be apprehended how\\nuniformity of language, ideas, methods of preparing food, c., will render these\\nacceptable nurses to their sick countrymen.\\nIn this country we lack a little of the German simplicity, and are so nice\\nabout distinctions of rank, and what belongs to our supposed station in society,\\nthat it may excite strong displeasure if we say that there are many single wo-\\nmen in Scotland, of the excellent of the earth, who are not so useful in the\\nchurch as they might be that the reason of this is their want of proper guid-\\nance in .selecting their work, and of support in its prosecution, and that the\\ndeaconess status in society, and the style ofcharacter and bearing expected from\\nher, is exactly what is wanted to confer the necessary energy and steadiness.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "240 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA.\\nAt Kaiserswerth, there are scholars not only of the middle classes, but several\\nof the higher ranks of life. The king of Prussia, having taken a lively view of\\nthe utility of the Institution, is now forming a large model hospital at Berlin\\na baroness, trained under Mr. Fleidner, is its destined matron and twelve well-\\ntrained deaconesses are without delay to be called into active employment there.\\nThe principle on which the deaconess is required to act is that of willingness\\nto be a servant of Christ alone to devote herself to the service, without the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0worldly stimulus of pecuniary emolument, and without over solicitude about\\nworldly comforts to do the work of charity and self-denial, out of gratitude to\\nher Savior.\\nHer wants are all supplied by the Institution, respectably, but without super-\\nfluity; while the salary paid annually for her services by the family, parish, or\\nhospital, by which she is employed, is paid to Kaiserswerth. Fiom the fund\\nthus accumulated, the supplies of the deaconesses are derived, and those of them\\nwho have suffered in health, in consequence of their services, are by it entirely\\nsustained.\\nThe deaconess, with her healthful, beaming, loving countenance, distin-\\nguished from her neighbors only by her dark print gown, a white habit shirt,\\nand cap, (a bit of head-gear that one often misses painfully, even on grey-\\nheaded German matrons,) looks all animation, attention, and lively collected-\\nness of spirit.\\nThere is at Kaiserswerth the simplicity of real life in this working-day-\\nworld, as exhibited by persons whose actions are under the influence of grate-\\nful love to their Lord and Redeemer, and to their fellow-pilgrims.\\nIn 1846, a Seminary for female teachers was established in connection\\nwith a new Institution for young ladies, in Friedrickstadt, Berlin. The\\ncourse extends through two years, and includes the branches and prac-\\ntical exercises before specified. In all teachers intended for governesses,\\nparticular attention is paid to music, drawing, and the Italian and French\\nlanguages, as well as to the literature of the German.\\nIn 1847, a regulation was adopted for the examination of female teach-\\ners in the province of Bradenburg. The examination i s conducted by a\\ncommittee consisting of one member from the school-board of the province,\\nand the directors and two teachers of the new seminary in Friedrickstadt.\\nIt is confined, unless the applicant desires a certificate for a higher\\nschool, to the branches taught in the primary schools. It is conducted\\nby written answers to a few questions in each branch, to be lyade out\\nwithout books, and without conference with each other; in conversation\\non the same subjects and pedagogical points; and in giving trial lessons\\nin teaching. A record is taken of the examination, and if the result is\\nsatisfactory, a certificate is issued by the school-board of the Province.\\nIf the pupils of the seminary in Friedrickstadt can pass a similar exam-\\nination before leaving the institution, they are not subjected to any\\nfarther examination.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS AS Tlir.V WERE. 241\\nThat the art of teaching, as now practiced in the primary schools of\\nPrussia, was but imperfectly understood b} her schoolmasters only a\\nquarter of a century ago, and that a knowledge of good methods was\\ndiffused throughout the kingdom only by the well directed efforts of the\\ngovernment, sustained by the self-denying and persevering labors of\\nschool officers and educators, in various directions, is evident from the\\nfollowing note appended to Prof. Stowe s address on Normal Schools\\nand Teachers Seminaries. The noble sentiment of Dinter, quoted by\\nProf Stowe at the opening of his address, I promised God, that I\\nI would look upon every Prussian peasant child as a being who could\\ncomplain of me before God, if I did not provide for him the best educa-\\ntion, as a man and a Christian, which it was possible for me to provide,\\nshows the spirit with which some of the school officers of Prussia have\\nacted. We append a brief notice of this excellent man, and model\\nschool officer, together with many excellent suggestions by other emi-\\nnent teachers and officers from other sections of Germany.\\nPRUSSIAN SCHOOLS, A FEW YEARS AGO.\\nThe following questions and answers are from Dr. Julius s testimony, before\\nthe Committee of the British House of Commons, in 1834, respecting the Prus-\\nsian School System.\\nDo you remember, from your own knowledge, what the character and attain-\\nments of the schoolmasters were previous to the year 1819\\nI do not recollect but I know they were very badly composed of non-com-\\nmissioned officers, organists, and half-drunken people. It has not risen like a\\nfountain at once. Since 1770, there has been much done in Prussia, and through-\\nout Germany, for promoting a pr6per education of teachers, and by them of\\nchildren.\\nIn your own observation has there been any very marked improvement in\\nthe character and attairmients of schoolmasters, owing to the pains taken to which\\nyou have referred\\nA very decided improvement.\\nDinter, in his autobiography, gives some surprising specimens of gross incapa-\\ncity in teachers, even subsequent to 1819. The following anecdotes are from\\nthat interesting work, Duders Lehen von ihm selbst beschrieben.\\nIn the examination of a scliool in East Prussia, which was taught by a subal-\\ntern officer dismissed from the army, the teacher gave Dinter a specimen of his\\nskill in the illustration of Scripture narrative. The passage was Luke vii., the\\nmiracle of rai,*ing the widow s son at Nain. See, cliildren (says the teacher),\\nNain was a great city, a beautiful city but even in such a great, beautiful city,\\nthere lived people who must die. They brought the dead youth out. See, chU-\\ndren, it was the same then as it is now dead people couldn t go alone they\\nhad to be carried. He that wan dead began to speak. This was a sure sign that\\nhe was alive again, for if he had continued dead he couldn t have spoken a word.\\nIn a letter to the King, a dismissed schoolmaster complained that the district\\nwas indebted to him 200705 dollars. Dinter supposed the man must be insane,\\nand wrote to the physician of the place to inquire. The physician repUed that\\nthe poor man was not insane, but only ignorant of the numeration table, writing\\n200 70 5 instead of 275. Dinter subjoins, By the help of God, the King, and\\ngood men, very much has now been done to make things better.\\nIn examining candidates for the school-teacher s office, Dinter asked one where\\nthe Kingdom of Prussia was situated. He replied, that he believed it was some-\\nwhere in the southern part of India. He asked another the cause of the ignis-\\nfatuus, commonly called Jack-with-the-lantern. He said they were specters\\nmade by the devil. Another being asked why he wished to become a school-\\nteacher, repUed, that he must get a living somehou\\n16", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "242 SCHOOJL COUNSELOR DINTER.\\nA military man of great influence once urged Dinter to recommend a disabled\\nsoldier, in whom he was interestetl, as a school-teacher. I will do so, says Dip-\\nter, if he sustains the requisite examination. O, says the Colonel, he doesn t\\nknow much about school-teaching, but ho is a good, moral, steady man, anJ I\\nhope you will rec^pmmeiid him to oblige me. D \u00e2\u0080\u00940 yes, Colonel, to oblige you,\\nif you in your turn will do me a favor. Col. What is that D. Get me ap-\\npointed druui-major in your regiment. True, I can neither beat a drum, nor play\\na life but I am a good, moral, steady man as ever lived.\\nA rich landholder once said to him, Why do you wish the peasant children\\nto be educated i it will only make them unruly and disobedient. Dinter re-\\nplied, If the masters are wise, and the laws good, the more intelligent the peo-\\nple, the better they will obey.\\nDinter complained that the mihtary .system of Prussia was a great hinderance\\nto the schools. A nobleman replied that the young men enjoyed the protection\\nof the government, and were thereby bound to defend it by arms. Dinter asked\\nif every stick of timber in a house ought first to be used m a fire-engine, because\\nthe house was protected by the engine or whether it would be good policy to\\ncut down all the trees of an orchard to build a fence with, to keep the hogs from\\neating the fruit\\n(C.)\\nSCHOOL-COUNSELOR DINTER.\\nGusTAvus Frederick Dintek was born at a village near Leipsic, in 1760. He\\nfirst distinguished himself as principal of a Teachers Seminary in Saxony, whence\\nhe was invited by the Prussian government to the station of School-Counselor\\nfor Eastern Prussia. He resides at Konigsberg, and about ninety days in the\\nyear he spends in visiting the schools of his province, and is incessantly employed\\nnearly thirteen hours a day for tlie rest of his time, in the active duties of his\\noffice and that he may devote himself the more exclusively to his work, he lives\\nunmarried. He complains that his laborious occupation prevents his writing as\\nmuch as he wishes for the public, yet, in addition to his official duties, he lectures\\nseveral times a week, during term-time, in the University at Konigsberg, and\\nalways has in his house a number of indigent boys, whose education he superin-\\ntends, and, though poor himself gives them board and clothing. He has maide\\nit a rule to spend every Wednesday afternoon, and, if possible, one whole day\\nin the week besides, in writing for the press and thus, by making the best use\\nof every moment of time, thou-gh he was nearly forty years old before his ca-\\nreer as an author comihenced, he has contrived to publish more than sixty origi-\\nnal works, some of them extending to several volumes, and all of them popular.\\nOf one book, a school catechism, fifty thousand copies were sold previous to 1830\\nand of his large work, the School-Teacher s Bible, in 9 volumes 8vo, thirty thou-\\nsand copies were sold in less than ten years.\\nHe is often interrupted by persons who are attracted by his fame, or desire\\nhis advice and while conversing with his visitors, that no time may be lost, he\\nemploys himself in knitting and thus not only supplies himself with stockings\\nand mittens, suited to that cold climate, but always has some to give away to\\nindigent students and other poor people. His disinterestedness is quite equal to\\nhis activity, and of the income of his publications, he devotes annually nearly\\nfive hundred dollars to benevolent purposes. Unweariedly industrious, and\\nrigidly economical as he is, he lays up nothing for himself He says, I am one\\nof those happy ones, who, when the question is put to them, Lack ye any thing V\\n(Luke xxii. 35), can answer with joy, Lord, nothing. To have more than one\\ncan use is superfluity and I do not see how this can make any one happy.\\nPeople often laugh at me, because I will not incur the expense of drinking wine,\\nand because I do not wear richer clothing, and five in a more costly style. Laugh\\naway, good people the poor boys, also, whose education I pay for, and for whom,\\nbesides, I can spare a few dollars for Christmas gifts, and new-year s presents,\\nthey have then- laugh too.\\nToward the close of his autobiography, he says respecting the King of Prus-\\nsia, I live happiljr imder Frederick William he has just given me one hundred", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "TEACHERS CONFERENCES. 243\\nand thirty- thousand dollars to build churches with in destitute places he has\\nestablished, a new Teachers Seminary for my poor Polanders, and he has so ful-\\nfilled my every wish for the good of posterity, that I can myself hope to live to\\nsee the time when tliere shall be no schoohnaster in Prussia more poorly paid\\nthan a comnion laborer. He has never he. iitatod, during the wiiole term of jpiy\\noffice, to grant me any reasonable request for the helpuig fcrward of the school-\\neystem. God bless him 1 I am with all my heart a Prussian. And now, my\\nfriends, when ye hear that old Dinter is dead, say, May he rest in peace he\\nwas a laborious, good-hearted, religious man he was a Christian.\\nA few such men in the United States would effect a wonderful change in the\\ngeneral tone of our educational efforts.\\n(D.)\\nIMPKOVEMENT OF SCHOOL-TEACHERS.\\nAt the commencement of the late school efforts in Prussia, for the benefit of\\nteachers already in the profession who had not possessed the advantages of a\\nregular training, it was the custom for them to assemble during the weeks of\\nvacation in their schools, and, under the care of a competent teacher, go through\\na regular course of lessons for their improvement. Of the entire course a care-\\nful and minute journal was kept and transmitted to the government. The fol-\\nlowing is from the journal of a four weeks course of this kind, which was held\\nat Regei .vald in 18 21, under the cliarge of School-Counselor Bernhardt. The\\nKing gave liis special approbation of this journal, and caused a large number of\\ncopies to be printed and circulated throughout the kingdom. The Minister of\\nPublic Instruction expresses himself respecting it in the following terms\\nThe view presented and acted upon by School-Counselor Bernhardt, that\\nthe important point is not tlie quantity and variety of knowledge communicated,\\nbut its solidity and acci;racy and that the foundation of all true culture consists\\nin the education to piety, the fear of God, and Cliristian humility and, accord-\\ningly, that those dispositions, before all things else, must be awakened and con-\\nfirmed in teachers, tliat thereby they may exercise love, long-suffering, and\\ncheerfulness, in their difficult and laborious callmg these principles are the only\\ncorrect ones, according to which the education of teachers every where, and in\\nall cases, can and ought to be conducted, notwithstanding the regard which must\\nbe had to the peculiar circumstances and the intellectual condition of particular\\nprovhices and communities. The Ministry hereby enjoin it anew upon the Re-\\ngency, not only to make these principles their guide in their own labors in the\\nconmion schools and Teachers Seminaries, but also to commend and urge them\\nin the most emphatic manner on all teachers and pupils in their jurisdiction.\\nThat this will be faithfully done, the Mmistry expect with so much the more\\nconfidence, because in this way alone can the supreme will of his Majesty the\\nKing, repeatedly and earnestly expies.sed, be fulfilled. Of the manner in which\\nthe Regency execute this order, the Ministry expect a Report, and only remark\\nfurther, that as many copies of the journal as may be needed will be supplied.\\nThe strongly religious character of the instructions in the following journal will\\nbe noticed; but will any Christian find fault with this characteristic, or with the\\nKing and Ministry for commending it\\nThe journal gives an account of the employment of every hour in the day, from\\nhalf past six in the morning to a quarter before nine in the evening. Instead of\\nmaking extracts from different parts of it, I here present the entire journal for\\nthe last week of the course, that the reader may have the better opportunity of\\nforming his own judgment on the real merits of the system.\\nFOURTH WEEK.\\nHoliday, Oct. 22. A. M. 6^-7. Meditation. Teachers and parents, forget not\\nthat your children are men, and that, as such, they have the ability to become\\nreasonable. God will have all men to come to the knowledge of the truth. As\\nmen, our children have the dignity of men, and a right to life, cultivation, honor,\\nand truth. This is a holy, inalienable right, that is, no man can divest liimself of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "244\\nTEACHERS CONFERENCES.\\nit without ceasing to be a man. 7-8^. Bible instruction. Reading tiie Bible,\\nand verbal analysis of what is read. Jesus in the wilderness. 9-12. Writing,\\nExercise in small letters. P. M. 2-5. Writing as before. 5^7. Singing. 8-8|.\\nMeditation. Our schools should be Christian schools for Christian children, and\\nJesus Christ should be daily the chief teacher. One thing is needful. Jesus\\nChAt, the same yesterday, to-day, and forever. Tlie great end of our schools,\\ntherefore, is the instruction of children in Christianity or the knowledge of heav-\\nenly truths in hope of eternal life and to answer tlie question. What must I do\\nto be saved Our children, as they grow up, nmst be able to say, from the con-\\nviction of their hearts. We know and are sure that thou art the Christ, the Son\\nof the living God. Beloved teachers, teach no Christianity without Christ, and\\nknow that there cannot be a hving faith without knowledge and love.\\nTuesday, Oct. 23. A. M. 6-7. Meditation. Cliristian schools are the gardens\\nof God s Spirit, and the plantations of humanity, and, therefore, holy places. How\\ndreadful is this ph\\\\ce This is none other than the house of God. Teachers,\\nvenerate your schools regard tlie sacred as sacred. 7-8 J. Bible instruction.\\nReading of the Bible and verbal analysis of what is read. Luke xv. 1-10. 8^9.\\nCatechism. Repeating the second article with proper emphasis, and the neces-\\nsary explanation of terms. 10-12. Writing. Exorcise in German capitals, with\\nthe writing of syllables and words. P. M. 1-4. General repetition of the instruc-\\ntions for school-teachers given during the month. 4-5. Brief instruction respect-\\ning school discipline and school laws. 5-7. Singing. 8-8^. Meditation. Teach-\\ners, you should make your school a house of prayer, not a den of murderers.\\nThou shalt not kill that is, thou shalt do no injury to the souls of thy chili Ireu.\\nThis you will do if you are an ungodly teacher, if you neglect your duty, if you\\nkeep no order or discipline in your school, if you instruct the children badly, or\\nnot at all, and set before them an injurious example. The children will be in-\\njured also by hurrying through the school-prayers, the texts, and catechism, and\\nby all thoughtless reading and committing to memory. May God help you\\nWednesday, Oct. 24. 6-6|. Meditation. Dear teachers, you labor for the good\\nof mankind and the kingdom of God be, therefore, God s instruments and co-\\nworkers. Thy kingdom come. In all things approving ourselves as the ministers\\nof God. 6|-8i-. Bible instruction as before, John iv. 1-15. 8^-9. Catechism. The\\ncorrect and emphatic reading and repeating of the first section, with brief expla-\\nnation of ternn. 10-12. Instruction in school discipline and school laws. P. M.\\n1-3. Instruction in the cultivation of fruit-trees. For instruction in this branch\\nof economy, the school is arranged in six divisions, each under the care of a\\nteacher acquainted with the business, with whom they go into an orchard, and\\nunder liis uispection perform all the necessary work. General principles and\\ndirections are written in a book, of which each student has a copy. More cool-\\ning is the shade, and more sweet the fruit, of the tree which thine own hands\\nhave planted and cherished. 3-5. Instruction in school disciphne and school\\nlaws. 5^-^. Singing. 8-9. Meditation. The Christian scliool-teacher is also a\\ngood husband and father. Blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober,\\nof good beliavior, apt to teach, not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy\\nlucre, patient, not a brawler, not covetous, one that ruleth well his own house,\\nhaving his children in subjection, with all gravity. He that readeth, let him\\nunderstand.\\nThursday, Oct. 25. A. M. 6-6|. Meditation. Dear teachers, do all in your\\npower to live in harmony and peace with your districts, that you may be\\nhelper of the parents in the bringing up of their children. Endeavor to main-\\ntain the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. As much as in you lies, live\\npeaceably with aU men. 6|-9. Bible instruction as before, Luke vii. 11-17.\\nReading by sentences, by words, by syllables, by letters. Reading according to\\nthe sense, with questions as to the meaning. Understandest thou what thou\\nreadest 10-11. Instructions as to prayer in schools. Forms of prayer suitable\\nfor teachers and children are copied an I committed to memory. Lord, teach us\\nto pray. 11-12. Writing. Exercise in capitals and writing words. P. M. 2-3.\\nInstruction respecting prayer in the family and in the school. Forms of prayer\\nfor morning and evening, and at the table, are copied, with instructions that\\nschool children shoidd commit them to memory, that they may aid their parents\\nto aa edifying performance of the duty of family worsliip that, as the school", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "TEACHERS CONFERENCES. 246\\ntlms helps the family, so the family also may help the school. Use not vain\\nrepetitious. 3-5. Bible instruction. General views of the contents of the Bible,\\nand bow the teacher may communicate, analyze, and explain them to his chil-\\ndren, yearly, at the commencement of the winter and summer terms. 5^-7.\\nSinging. 8-9. Meditation. Teachers, acquire the confidence and love of your\\ndistricts, but never forsake the direct path of duty. Fear God, do right, and be\\nafraid of no man. Tlie world, with its lusts, passeth away, but he that doeth the\\nwill of God shall abide forever.\\nFriday, Oct. 26. Meditation. Teachers, hearken to the preacher, and labor\\ninto his hands fur he is placed over the Church of God, who will have the\\nschool be an aid to the Church. Remember them that labor among you, and are\\nover you in the Lord, and esteem them highly in love for their works sake.\\nNeither is he tiiat [)lanteth any thing, nor he that watereth any thing, but God\\nwho giveth the increase. 7-9. Bible instruction. Summary of the contents of\\nthe Bible, to be committed to memory by children from ten to fifteen years of\\na.o-e. 10-12. Bible instruction. Brief statement of the contents of the historical\\nDooks of the New Testament. P. M. 1-5. Bible instruction. Contents of the\\ndoctrinal and proplietical books of the New Testament. Selection of the pas-\\nsages of the New Testament proper to be read in a country school. A guide\\nfor teachers to the use of the Bible in schools. 5-7. Singing. 8-9. Meditation.\\nHonbr and love, as a good teacher, thy King and thy father-land and awake\\nthe same feelings and sentiments in the hearts of thy children. Fear God, honor\\nthe King, seek the good of tlie country in which you dwell, for when it goes well\\nwith it, it goes well with thee.\\nSaturdai^, Oct. 27. 6-6^. Meditation. By the life in the fjimily, the school,\\nand the church, our heavenly Father would educate us and our children for our\\nearthly and heavenly home therefore parents, teacher.?, and preachers, should\\nlabor hand in hand. One soweth and another reapeth. I have laid the founda-\\ntion, another buildeth thereon and let every man take heed how he buildeth\\nthereon. Means of education 1. In the family the parents, domestic life, hab-\\nits 2. In the school the teacher, the instruction, the discipline 3. In the church\\nthe preaching, the word, the sacraments. 6^9^. Bible instruction. Rules\\nwhicl) the teaclier should observe in reading the Bible. In analyzing it. In re-\\nspect to the contents of the Old Testament books, and selections from them for\\nreading, written instructions are given and copied, on account of the shortness\\nof the time which is here given to this topic. 10-12. Bible instruction. Gen-\\neral repetition. P. M. 1-4. Bible instruction. General repetition. 4-5. Reading.\\nKnowledge of the German language, wit!) written exercises. 7-10-J. Review\\nof the course of instruction and the journal. 10^12. Meditation. The prayer\\nof Jesus (John xvii.), with particular reference to our approaching separation.\\nSmidai/, Oct. 28. 6-J\u00e2\u0080\u0094 9. Morning prayer. Catechism. Close of the term. (In\\nthe open air on a hill at sunset) singing and prayer. Address by the head teacher.\\nSubject. What our teacher would say to us when we separate from him. 1. What\\nyou have learned apply well, and follow it faithfully. If ye know these things,\\nhappy are ye if ye do them. 2. Learn to see more and more clearly that you\\nknow but little. We know in part. 3. Be continually learning, and never get\\nweary. The man has never lived who has learned all that he might. 4. Be\\nyourself what you would have your children become. Become as little children.\\n5. Let God s grace be your highest good, and let it strengthen you in the diffi-\\nculties which you must encounter. My grace is sufficient for thee my strength\\nis perfect in thy weaknes.s. 6. Keep constantly in mind the Lord Jesus Christ.\\nHe has left us an example that we should follow his steps. Hymn Lord Jesus\\nChrist, hearken thou to us. Prayer. Benediction.\\nReview of the hours spent in different studies during the four weeks. Arith-\\nmetic, sixty -seven writing, fifty-six Bible, twenty-five meditation, thirty-six;\\nother subjects, twenty-si.x singing, twenty-eight. Total, two hundred and\\nthirty-eight. From nine to ten, in the morning, was generally spent in walking to-\\ngether, and one hour in the afternoon was sometimes spent in the same manner.\\nFamiliar lectures were given on the following topics 1. Directions to teachers\\nas to the knowledge and right use of the Bible in schools. 2. Directions to teacli-\\ners respecting instruction in writing. 3. Directions for exercises in mental aritli-\\nmetic. 4. Instructions respfecting schobl discipline and school laws. 8. A ool", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "246 BERNARD OVERBER6.\\nlection of prayers for the school and family, with directions to teachers. 6. The\\nGerman parts of speech, and how they may be best taught in a country school.\\n7. The day-book.\\nPrinted books were the following: 1. Dinter s Arithmetic. 2. Dinter on\\nGuarding against Fires. 3. Brief Biography of Luther. 4. On the Cultivation\\nof Fruit-Trees. 5. German Grammar. 6. Baumgarten s Letter- Writer for\\nCountry Schools. 7. Luther s Catechism.\\nThat which can be learned and practiced in the short space of a few weeks, is\\nonly a little a very little. But it is not of so. much importance that we have\\nmore knowledge than others but most depends on this, that 1 have tlie right\\ndisposition and that I thoroughly understand and faithfully follow out the little\\nwhich I do know.\\nGod help me, that I may give all which I have to my school and that I, with\\nmy dear chUdren, may, above all tilings, strive after that which is from above.\\nFather in heaven, grant us strength and love for this.\\nBERNARD OVERBERG.\\nAmong the many devoted teachers and educators, whose example\\nand teachings breathed a new spirit into the schools of Germany, we\\nhave been particularly impressed with the character and views of Ber-\\nnard Overberg, who for thirty years was in the habit of meeting the\\nteachers of the neighborhood of Munster, twice a year during their va-\\ncations, and instructing them in the best modes of conducting their\\nschools, and especially in imparting religious in.\u00c2\u00abtruction. We make\\nthe following extracts mainly from a memoir of Bernard Overberg, by\\nProfessor Schubert, of Munster.\\nIn 1780, he became officiating vicar of Everswinkel, and many evt-n yet can\\nremember iiis powers as a spiritual guide and teacher, and the blts iiigs which\\nattended him. His chief anxiety was for the religious education of the cliildren\\nof the parish, and this at his request was v\\\\hoily given up to him by the rector. In\\nihi-ee years his manner of teaching became so perfect, that the minister Prince Furs-\\ntenberg was induced to think o) appointing him to the normal school* at Munster.\\nBut tirst he determined to hear the teaching himself, and getting into his carriage\\non Sunday, when he knew Overberg would catechise, he told the post boys to\\nbring him to Everswinkel exactly at two o clock. He thus got into the church\\nunobserved, and listening unseen, found his expectation exceeded, and therefore\\noifered the situation immediately. Overberg s disposition and humility inclined\\nhim to remain amongst the countrymen who were attached to him, but the offer\\nwas really a command from his vicar-general, (which Furstenberg then was,) and\\nhe had only to comply. On being desired to name his own salary, his modesty\\nasked only for 200 thalers, (about $150,) with board and lodging in the episcopal\\nseminary at Munster. He entered this, March, 1783, and here he died as prin-\\ncipal, in J 826.\\nThe leading object of his intercourse with all, both old and young, with whom\\nhe came in contact, was to implant and cultivate a spiritual principle a principle\\ncoming from God s spirit and continually nourished by it alone, whilst he believed\\nthe means for obtaining this to be clear and impressive views of the truth and\\npower of the Christian religion laid deeply in the character during childhood.\\nThe relation and intercourse between God and man either by natural or revealed\\nmeans was the great object of his instruction, and being so pervaded by this god-\\nliness himself, his pupils became in some degree warmed by it. Only that which\\ncomes from the heart can reach the heart, was a favorite saying of his and all\\nwho have heard him, agree in stating that a tone of cheerful piety seemed to\\nNot a resular normal school, but a gathering of teachers for special iustruUion in methods\\nsimilar to our teachers institutes.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "BERNARD OVERBERG. 247\\naccompany the studies, even the common reading, writing, arithmetic, mensura-\\ntion, o., whilst the intellectual faculties thus developed were more easily brought\\nunder the power of the will, when the moral faculties were in healthy exercise.\\nCatechetical as his instruction generally was, he avoided the extreme in which it\\nis now used and its attendant error of cultivating the memory of children at the\\nexpense of their reflecting, and still more, their moral powers. lie never began\\nwith abstract truths of religion, c., but with the imagination and actual experi-\\nence of the children so that the answer was not mere words or notions of the\\nmemory, but the enlargement of existing. ideas. His object was not so much to\\ngive information, as to give such information and such views of things, as would\\ndraw out all the good and amiable points of the character, and repress the\\ncontrary.\\nTiie office of schoolmaster in the district of Munster, was at that time performed\\nin the more populous parishes by men who, intending to be clergymen, had gone\\nthrough a part of the studies at the gymnasium, and then stopped for want of\\nmoney, talents, or other causes but in the smaller parishes and scattered country\\nplaces, it was performed by laborers, who, teaching in winter, returned to their\\nworli in summei By far the greatest number of them were, of course, very\\nignorant and unfit for any intelligent teaching but their pay was poor in propor-\\ntion, and many, having no room, made use of some bakehouse, or even an old\\nchapel without a stove, in the cold nights of winter. To tempt them to an inter-\\nnal improvement, Furstenberg began with an external one and for this, commis-\\nsioned Overberg to visit all the village schools of the district. Some of the bad,\\nsuperfluous, and unlicensed were closed, and instead of two or three inconvenient,\\none more convenient erected then every schoolmaster who offered himself for\\nexamination, and passed it creditably, had a yearly salary secured him of twenty,\\nthirty, or even forty thalers, (each about 7-5 cents,) according to the population of\\nhis parish. The examination was to be repeated every three years, and they who\\nwished to improve themselves were advised to attend the normal school at Mun-\\nster. The expenses of this attendance were all to be paid for them and in order\\ntliat there might be no material omiss on of their school duties, the attendance at\\nthe normal school was restricted to the usual time of their vacation, from August\\n21, to the beginning of November. On this being settled, from twenty to thirty\\nold scliool masters attended Overberg, and most thoroughly exercised his patience\\nand charity, by their indescribable helplessness and incapacity for learning from\\nnine to twelve, and from two to five, he instructed them in the principles of teach-\\ning, in religion, in Scripture history, in reading, writing, and arithmetic. He\\ncarefully prepared himself for this, by one and a half hour s study and he spent\\nthe rest of the day in reading with the most backward. Hopeless as all this\\ntrouble seemed at first, in a few years the result was rich in blessings.\\nAs was mentioned in the introduction, Overberg s zeal for the welfare of the\\nignorant poor produced in many others a similar feeling. Pupils soon came to his\\nlectures whose fervent wish was to become efficient Christian teachers. The\\nexample of these influenced some of the more indolent; and many of the school-\\nmasters attended him, not only as long as government paid their expenses, but for\\nmany years afterwards. Ignorant and unpolished as were the greatest number\\nof them at first, they scarcely ever required a reproof from him, feeling respect\\nand affection when they saw his estimable character shine forth in its simplicity\\nand friendliness. Their studies commenced with prayer and the dullest heart\\nmust have been, in some degree, moved when Overberg entered and began,\\nCome, Holy Ghost whilst his simplicity of manner, his want of all appearance\\nof study or learning, with his power and fervor, struck even those most accus-\\ntomed to preaching. The source from whence he obtained all this may be seen\\nfrom a rule in his diary.\\nLet in every thing, 1st, the love of God be the moving principle 2d, the will\\nof God the guiding clue 3d, the glory of God the end. When this is done, then\\nwilt thou walk before God and be perfect. Or more conscisely, Do and suffer\\nevery thing from love to God, according to God s will and God s glory. Again,\\nNovember 6, 1791, at the end of the course, having thanked God for his support,\\nc., he adds, In previous years I felt more ashamed, having more reliance on\\nmy own powers, and more inclination to the vanity of pleasing men. This year", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "248 BERNARD OVERBERG.\\nThou hast given me a stronger feeling of my weakness, more confidence in Thee,\\nand greater desire to please Thee only.\\nHis extreme care in previous preparation, even for teaching the children of the\\nfree school, will be seen by a subsequent extract and the following shows clearly\\nthe great conscientiousness with which he performed the details of his daily in-\\nstruction, and particularly that of the young communicants.\\nApril 12, 1790. I thank Thee, O Father in heaven, for the strength Thou\\ngavest me when instructing the children yesterday for the first communion sup-\\nport, O Jesus, those whom Thou hast fhus fed with thy flesh and blood supply\\nby thy grace what through my fault or theirs was disjileasing in their hearts to\\nThee and help ine to avoid those faults in future. I began too late to watsh\\ntheir conduct, in order to know their hearts, and so prepare them for thy advent.\\nI persuaded myself I could make amends by my instruction, though this evi-\\ndently requires observation of the character before. Thou knowest, indeed, that T\\noften strove to instruct them from the purest motives but how often, when teach-\\ning, did vanity come in, and how oft get conmiand over me I frequently ob-\\nserved this at the time, and, struggling against it, got confused, obscure, and\\ninjured the children in consequence. Often, when led captive by vanity, I said\\nsomething or left something unsaid, which I would not have done, had thy glory\\nand the salvation of the children been my sole object and this was particularly\\nthe case when strangers were present.\\nWriting out as much as possible previously was some safeguard against this\\nfolly, though it took away from the freedom and more touching simplicity of the\\nlecture.\\nMy getting confused and annoyed when the instruction did not go on as I\\nwished, showed me what mixed motives yet governed me my satisfaction de-\\npended not so much on my own conduct, as on the result of the satisfaction it gave\\nto others and although I struggled against all of this, it was not so earnestly as I\\nought to have done. O Lord Jesus, have mercy upon nie, and blot out all my\\nmisdeeds Make me a clean heart, and so shall I teach thy babes thy way\\nIn order to avoid these faults in future, I will now take down the names of\\nthose who will probably attend the communion next year so that I may observe\\nthe state of their heart and mind, during the whole time. I will pray for them\\nand when I think it will do good, I will mention them in the public prayers of the\\nschool. But, Lord, how can I have this singleness of view Thou must give it,\\nand the strength to act accordingly I will fight, unwilling though I be, and do\\nThou grant that I may endure the fight to the end\\nThe above app ies to the Lorraine free school, to which he paid constant atten-\\ntion when conducting the normal school. But to recur to his plan of teaching in\\nthis, we may remark his praeti ^e of explaining and illustrating, by examples, the\\nprinciples of moral philosophy on which teachers ought to proceed. His power\\nof illustrative narration being very great, he could, when necessary, fill up the\\ndetails of the picture so faithfully, that every one entered into it, and would prob-\\nably recollect some example from their own experience. Once, when illustra-\\nting some error in teaching, an old schoolmaster, struck with the ideal picture,\\ncried out in low German, Oh, Mr. Overberg, that is just what is done amongst\\nus Frequently his pictures were highly comical, but respect for him was such\\nas to prevent any one giving way to their feelings. In short, such was the varied\\ntalent shown in his lectures, that persons quite indifferent to the subject would\\ncrowd to hear them.\\nOverberg was an admirer of nature in the highest and noblest sense, and in\\nthe wonders of creation he saw a representation of the Deity. Every leaf, every\\nflower was to him a proof of the power, and goodness, and wisdom of God, and\\nhe must have accustomed himself to raise his views from the creature to the Crea-\\ntor from his earliest years, it having, as he said, become a second nature to him.\\nHe earnestly impressed upon the teachers the pious consideration of the works of\\ncreation, giving them directions for it, and urging them to turn the attention cf the\\nchildren to them as farly as possible. He thought that a teacher in the country\\nought occasionally ti^ give his lessons in the open air, and so teach the children to\\nobserve for themseives the end for which every thing is made, and how perfectly", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "BERNARD OVERBERG. 249\\nit is adapted to t whilst views of the power and wisdom of God should thus be\\nbrought into lectures on re! gion.\\nValuable, however, as was the information given to the pupils, it was not more\\n60 than the example of friendliness, humility, and patience which Overberg showed\\ntoward themselves; as when having twice clearly explained some very simple\\nthing, he would quietly go over it again, if the answer of the pupil made it proba-\\nble it was not clearly comprehended, and thus the other pupils would see in prac-\\ntice what is meant by adapting a subject to the powers of comprehension of the\\nhearer without omitting any principle.\\nThe instruction was always closed by one of the church hymns to which he was\\nvery partial, and professed even in one of his latter years to have been much ben-\\nefitted by the German hymn in the evening service of a village church. Were\\nI an ortic ating priest, (said he,) 1 would always use such a German litany\\ninstead of a Latin vesper. How impressive is that one beginning Have pity,\\nLord, c.\\nAt the conclusion of the course, the students were examined, and provided with\\nsituations, and subsequently promoted according to their merit.\\nThus was he, under God, not merely the founder but the supporter of a system\\nof education rich in blessings to his country, but besides this he had also the\\npeculiar merit of educating a class of female teachers to which probably there is\\nnothing similar elsewhere. Young women, not from necessity but piety, attended\\nsome of his lectures in the normal school, and his catechising in the free school,\\nand the majority resisting subsequent temptations to give up their labors, continued\\ndevoted to them through life. These were appointed to different girls schools,\\nand the results were so good, and subsequently so notorious, that many of them\\nwere sent for into other countries, whilst others as readers or governesses became\\nblessings to private families. He used to say that women made better teachers\\nthan men, and he regretted exceedingly that there was no normal school estab-\\nlished for them at the same time with that at Biiren.\\nHis instruction in the Lorraine cloister school consisted in some hours being\\ngiven three times a week to religion, Bible history, and arithmetic; to this, and\\nparticularly to the catechising the children in the church every Sunday, there\\ncame persons of all ranks, thinking that they then saw in Overberg a faithful fol-\\nlower of Him who said, Suffer little children, c. How important he felt this\\ninstruction of the children to be, may be seen from the following extract from his\\njournal\\nJanuary 15, 1790. Tliis morning I went into the school without sufficient pre-\\nparation. O God help me to improve in this. It is a delusion to imagine that\\nany thing is more necessary or ought to be preferred to this want of preparation\\ndraws many faults after it, the instruction becomes dry, confused, without point,\\nranibling lience the children are puzzled, their attention distracted, and the em-\\nployment becomes disagreeable to them and myself I must also be very careful\\nnot to go too much into details into too extended views, and become too learned\\nfor the little ones to comprehend and retain one good point is better for them\\nthan to hear ten and understand none well, or to miss the most important whilst\\nthinking of the others.\\nO God, help me ever more and more to imitate the manner of teaching of thy\\nbeloved Son, so divinely simple, short, clear, and easily remembered. Grant^tliat\\nbefore I propose any thing to the children, I may ask myself, Is it necessary\\nIs it useful Is there not something more useful, which ought to be preferred to\\nit Is it sufficiently comprehensible What is my object in proposing it Will\\nit, when known, give them only an appearance of learning, c. If so. away\\nwith it.\\nFebruary 7, 1790. Tliou art teaching me, O my God, more and more for my\\nown experience, that of myself I can do nothing. When I fear that the teaching\\nwhich Thou hast committed to me will not go on well, then I am surprised at its\\nsuccess, and the contrary happens when I say, this time I shall succeed. Is\\nnot this an intimation from Thee, not to trust on my own strength May thy\\ngrace help me to translate this into practice. O God, how many are thy favors\\neven to-day I observed that Thou tiikest away my usual impediment to clear and\\nkrud utterance, whenever I have to speak in the church to the children. Ever", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "250 BERNARD OVERBERG.\\ngrant me, O Lord, the gi-aee, (undeserving tliough I be, from having so frequently\\nwithstood it,) the grace, that in all I do, particularly as regards these children, I\\nmay look to thy will alone. O Father, my Father in Christ Jesus, do Thou he\\nwitli me, that 1 do not make the instruction of thy little ones needlessly difficult,\\ngiving them hard food instead of milk chaff instead of corn attending too much\\nto some, and neglecting others. Thou hast permitted me to enter upon a new\\nway of instruction if it be not better, if it be not thy ivill that I should go on\\nin it, do thou call me back if it be thy will, make it so clear to me, that I err\\nnot, and lead the children into by-paths, from which 1 must lead them back again.\\nI am unworthy of thy favor, but Thou wilt not turn away from these little ones,\\nsanctified by the blood of thy Son, and hence I rely on thy assistance May 1 be\\nwholly thine, and so do moi e for thy honor and the good of others. Oh, may not\\nthe trust which others place in me be disappointed.\\nThus did Overberg perform the apparently simple and easy duty of teaching\\nchildren with a deep and holy earnestness, as in God s sight, and in the strength\\nobtained by prayer. Jle knew and confessed what an important charge is the\\neducation of youth in prayer and filial intercourse with God.\\nSuch was his earnestness in the common daily teaching, and the blessings for\\nwhich he prayed, attended it, not merely on the sensitive hearts of the young, but\\nit softened also many hardened by age still his earnestness was doubled when the\\ntime for the sacrament drew near. He latterly took down, as we have said before,\\nthe names of the probable communicants a year before, and began carefully to\\nobserve the state of each, and direct them accordingly; the more immediate in-\\nstruction was given during an hour and a half daily during Lent, till the Third\\nSunday after Easter. He then gave them a compendium of the doctrines of\\nChristianity, and to guard himself against digressions, he wrote out his lectures at\\nlength daily. These were attended by many adult hearers, particularly of the\\ntheological students, many of whom carried away the matter in their note bonks,\\nhowever little they miglit be warmed by all the piety which animated the author.\\nOn Thursdays and Sundays during Lent, no strangers were admitted, because\\nthese days were devoted to repetition and examination in previous lessons. Be-\\nsides this public teaching, he instructed, exhorted, and warned them unceasingly\\nin private, according to the character and circumstances of each. He led them as\\ntheir confessor, to reflect on the truths of salvation, to prayer, and particularly to\\ncareful examination of conscience.\\nFrom time to time he prayed in the school for these communicants, and as the\\nday approached, he sent for the parents, put before tliem their duty to their chil-\\ndren, particularly that of personal example, and he made them promise to fullfil it.\\nAA hilst the children promised in writing that they would walk accoi ding to the\\ngospel, avoiding the danger to their faith and virtue, and using the means of\\ngrace; for himself, his earnest prayer was that he might be influenced in the\\nselection of candidates, by nothing but their piety, and such was his zeal and anx-\\niety in all this, that he frequently had some illness when it was over.\\nDuring the course of the year, after the first sacrament, the communicants were\\nrequired to go to the Lord s table, from time to time together, and he always pre-\\npared them for it.\\nThus had he labored in this, and the weekly instructioTi of the children for\\ntwenty-seven years, in the school of the Lorraine cloister when this was closed,\\nand the school made parochial, and tratisferred to the parish priest, who relieved\\nhim from the labor.\\nThe following is a specimen of his manner of addressing his normal\\npupils:\\njNIv beloved friends If you cherish sentiments of true benevolence, if the\\nwelfare of your scholars be of any importance or value to you, engrave deeply on\\nyour hearts the recommendations which I am about to address to you, and in the\\nperformance of the duties of your vocation, have them constantly presented to\\nyour mind.\\n1. If you desire to honor God, let there be no levity or carelessness in your\\nconduct.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "BERNARD OVERBERG. 251\\nYou can not use too much caution in this respect in the presence of your\\npupils their eyes are always directed to you, and are certainly far more penetra-\\nting than is generally imagined. They discover in you faults which you are not\\nconscious of yourself, and these faults often shuck them more, and render you\\nmore contemptible in their eyes, than other and much greater ones would do in\\nthe eyes of men of your own age. Forget yourself but in a single instance, and\\nyou may produce on them an impression, deeper than all your good lessons, and\\nall the efforts you have made for them. Be careful, then, even in the smallest\\nthings, as much as possible, not only not to give them a bad e;cample, but even an\\nexample which can not in all points be safely followed for your example acts with\\ngreat power on their character it may produce immense good, or intinitely greater\\nevil. Children pay more attention to the example of thejr superiors than to their\\nlessons, however good and salutary they may be and since they have not dis-\\ncernment to distinguish a slight and very excusable fault from one much greater,\\nor a weakness natural to humanity from an action intentionally bad, they are often\\nless shocked at the last than at the first. It is for this reason tliat we never can\\nbe too prudent in the presence of such spectators and such judges. It is precisely\\nin this company, more than in any other, that it is necessary to be 7nost watchful\\nover one^s self; and their society is, consequently, an excellent means of self-im-\\nprovement. Avoid, therefore, not only those vices which would cover you with\\nshame in the eyes of all good men, but also those defects and weaknesses which\\nyou would not like your pupils to imitate, if even your equals would not notice\\nthem.\\n2. Teach, on all occasions, not only by your words, but by your conduct and\\nhabits.\\nInstruction thus given, is for your pupils, not only the most efficacious, but also\\nthe most easy. Thus, would you accustom them to neatness let them see in you\\nth s good habit, while receiving your instructions on this subject; if you are your-\\nself slovenly in your clothes and in your person, what will they think of your les-\\nsons on neatness Would you form them to continuous activity never be idle\\nyourself; work cheerfully and never let them see you without occupation.\\nWould you introduce order in your school never let them sec any disorder,\\neither in your own person or your affairs. Let good order be obvious in the class,\\nin your habitation, in your household. He who throws every thing into confusion,\\nand who, when he wants any thing, has sometimes to seek it in one corner, and\\nsometimes in another, gives to his scholars a very sorry example of good order.\\nWould you wish to teach them truth and fidelity never let any thing contrary to\\ntruth proceed from your own mouth, even in playfulness, lest this playfulness be\\nmisunderstood never make a promise or a threat which you can not or will not\\naccomplish never leave a promise or a threat unperformed which you have made\\nunconditionally, lest a motive should be attributed to you which would place you\\nin the eyes of your pupils in the shade of suspicion of want of integrity.\\n3 Inspire in your pupils obedience to, and respect for, their relations and\\ntheir superiors and take particular care not to weaken the consideration which\\nchildren ought to have for their parents.\\nDo not those tutors commit a great sin, who never display more eloquence than\\nwhen they chatter in the presence of your pupils on the awkwardness and igno-\\nrance of men of a certain age, or of old men, because they have not learned this\\nor that thing which is now taught at the schools? By acting thus, they not only\\ndeprive their children of all respect for their parents, which leads to the most fatal\\nconsequences, but they also inspire them with an insupportable pride, which makes\\nthem despise all that may be said or done by those older than themselves.\\n4. Let the fear of God be visible in your actions, and in your manner on all\\noccasions, especially in teaching religion.\\nManifest always the most serious displeasure when your pupils say or do any\\nthing contrary to the lioly reverence which we owe to God, and take care your-\\nself not to pronounce the name of God or of your Saviour with levity. Seek to\\nhave your own heart deeply impressed when you speak of truths of great import-\\nance for example, of the paternal goodness of God toward men of his mercy", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "252 BERNARD OVERBERG.\\nto sinners in the sufferings and death of Christ of the obedience and love which\\nled hirn to subiuit to tliese suti erings and this death of the favor which he has\\nprocured for us of the ordinances vvhicli lie has instituted in remembrance of his\\ndeath; of the great rewards and terr.ble punishments of eternity, c. Your\\nemotion will manifest itself in your exterior deportment; it will render your words\\nimpressive, and will awaken like emotions in the hearts of your auditors. A sim-\\nple tear which may start in the eye of the master, and which is not the eflect of\\nart, but the involuntary expression of a heart truly softened and penetrated by the\\nimportance of the subject, acts very powerfully on the hearts of children, and\\noften produces in them impressions and resolutions which the most Uvely repre-\\nsentations could not have eitected.\\n5. By active compassion for the misfortunes of your neighbors^ you can ex-\\ncite in the children pity, and teach them the right manner of sympathizino-\\nwith their fellow creatures^ in joy and mj adversity.\\nYour manner of conducting yourself toward your pupils, will contribute much\\ntoward making them either courteous and charitable men, or morose and indif-\\nferent to their duties. If you act toward them as a good father if all your con-\\nduct .shows them your love that you labor with all your power for their real\\ngood, and to be useful to them as much as possible and (because you love them)\\nthat you willingly render them services, and procure pleasures for them, (which\\nmay be often in themselves the merest trifles,) you will awaken in many of them,\\nlove, and the desire to oblige, for love is contagious. They will learn also from\\nyou, to render voluntary service to their companions and to others; this will be\\nthe result of your example. In a word, each virtue will appear to them more\\namiable, and more worthy of being imitated and you will be more sure than\\never, that they will seek to acquire it, if it be manifest in your conduct.\\nOh, you can do much, yes, very much, to form the hearts of your pupils, if you\\nwill instru(^t them at the same time by your life and by your precepts. The best\\nof opportunities is offered to you they are confided to your care precisely at the\\nage when the instinct of curiosity and imitation acts with the greatest force when\\nyoa have them daily w.th you, and can thus instill gradually according to their\\ncapacity, good doctrines and good sentiments. A drop which falls incessantly\\nwears the hardest stones and much more easily can impressions be made on the\\nunformed characters of children. The faults which perhaps they may have vihen\\nyou enter into relation with them, are not so deeply rooted that they can not be\\nremoved, if you give to the work attention and zeal. Y^ou can really produce\\nmore substantial good in their hearts, than their pastors can at a more advanced\\nage. To destroy rooted vices is a difficult task, and often impossible to be accom-\\nplished, whatever efforts may be tried but to prevent them, to stifle them in their\\ncommencement, to fashion the mind when it is still pliant this is a much easier\\nwork, and one which, by the blessing of God, will succeed, if the master teach by\\nhis actions, as well as by precept. Do not shrink from the task it is the most\\nnoble, the most respectable, the most imposing that you can undertake.\\nDo not allow yourself to be frightened or arrested in a work so excellent, by the\\ndifficulties which it presents, many of which exist only in your imagination. The\\nduty to which I now exhort you, that of leading a life irreproachable and edifying\\nbefore God and before the children, is a duty obligatory upon you as Christians\\nit ought to be of importance to you even if you should not be schoolmasters but\\nas such, as directors of youth, who are to be formed by your teaching and by your\\nexample, you are doubly engaged to this duty.\\nIf, then, you love yourselves if you love these little ones confided to your care,\\nand placed under your responsibility if you love Him who is their Saviour and\\nyours, follow also his example on this point, teaching like him by words and actions\\nbe to your pupils on all occasions, a pattern of good works. (Titus ii. 7.) Let\\nyour light so shine before them, that they, seeing your good works, may do like-\\nwise, and with you, glorify your Father who is in heaven.\\nWe add a few suggestions in the same spirit by Zeller, and Becken-\\ndorf\u00e2\u0080\u0094 translated from Le Miroir des Instituteurs, ou Conseils sur\\n1 Education.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "C. B. ZELLER.\\n253\\nC. B. ZELLER.\\nWe have, in our brief sketch of the history of primary education in\\nGermany, alluded to the enthusiastic labors of Zeiler, a pupil of Pesla-\\nlozzi. The following fragment by him on the Influence of Example\\nin a teacher, exhibit the spirit with which he regarded the work of\\neducation.\\nYoung minds can at all times be acted upon without words, simply by example.\\nThe further any person is from what he ought to be, the more does he experience\\nthis influence. The less his mind is developed, the more is he urged by a pro-\\npensity to imitate, to direct and govern himself according to what he sees and\\nhears in the society of other men, better, older, stronger, more skillful, and more\\nexperienced than himself. This is a truth that can not be too often dwelt upon,\\nespecially in these days, when we attribute so many wonders to the power of\\nwords. Yes example alone, a life of practice without display, exercises a most\\nmarked influence on the soul, the character, and the will for the conduct of a\\nman is the true expression of his being, and gives a tone to (or animates) every\\nthing around him consequently nothing can remain uninfluenced within the\\nsphere of a living being. There emanates from the active noiseless life of a single\\nindividual, power which is to others, either a savour of life unto life, or a savour\\nof death unto death.\\nThis explains to us why parents, simple, and without culture, especially mothers,\\nwho perhaps have never opened a book on education, and speak very little to their\\nchildren, yet offer them every day the example of a lively afFeelion, and a well-\\nemployed though retired life, bestow an excellent education while, on the other\\nhand, we see the children of well instructed parents frequently turn out ill, who\\nhave been acted upon by words alone, rather than by example, and who contem-\\nplate around them a class of beings who exercise no good moral influence. Alas\\nthat all parents and instructors knew how much power there is in being virtuous,\\nand how little in only appearing to be so\\nThere can never be any efficacious or happy influence in the example of a\\nhypocrite. Many people avoid showing before children what they really are they\\nspeak and act in their presence as persons of morality, modesty, and piety but it\\nis only a cloak to cover their internal corruption, their self love, and want of\\ncharity. These are hypocrites their piety is but babbling, a tongue which they\\nhave learned, as we learn a foreign language, but it is not their mother tongue\\nthe fruit is of no greater value than the tree which produces it.\\nIt concerns all who are called to occupy themselves in education, to consider the\\nholy lesson taught by a well beloved disciple of the Saviour, in these words Be\\nthou an example of the believers, in word, in conversation, in charity, in spirit, in\\nfaith, in purity. 1 Tim. iv. 12. In all things showing thyself a pattern of\\ngood works in doctrine showing uncorruptness, gravity, sincerity, sound speech,\\nthat can not be condenmed that he that is of the contrary part may be ashamed,\\nhaving no evil thing to say of you. Titus ii. 7, 8.\\nHere we address the following exhortations to all persons, parents or tutors,\\nwho are charged with the task of education, beseeching them to give serious\\nattention thereto.\\n1 Be what the children ought to be.\\n2. Do what they ought to do.\\n3. Avoid what they should avoid.\\n4. Aim always that, not only in the presence of the children, but also in their\\nabsence, your conduct may serve them for an example.\\n5. Are any among them defective examine what you are yourself, what you\\ndo, what you avoid in a word, your wliole conduct.\\n6. Do you discover in yourself defects, sins, wanderings? Begin by improving\\nyourself, and seek afterwards to improve your children.\\n7. Think well that those by whom you are surrounded, are often only the re-\\nflection of yourself.\\n8. If you lead a life of penitence, and seek daily to have grace given you, it will\\nbe imparted to you, and Uirough you to your children.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "254\\nSCHOOL-COUNSELOR BECKENDORF.\\n9. If you always seek Divine guidance, your children will more willingly be\\ndirected by you.\\n10. The more obedient you are to God, the more obedient will your children be\\nto you thus in his childhood the wise Solomon asked of the Loi d au obedient\\nheart, in order to be able to judge and govern his people.\\n11. As soon as the master becomes lukewarm iu communion with God, that\\nlukewarmness will extend itself among his pupils.\\n12. That which forms a wall of separation between God and yourself, will be a\\nBource of evil to your children.\\n13. An example in which love does not form a chief feature, is but as the light\\nof the moon it is cold and feeble.\\n14. An example animated by an ardent and sincere love, shines like the sun\\nit warms and invigorates.\\nBECKENDORF.\\nThe following questions were prepared by School-Counselor Beck-\\nendorf for the teachers of primary schools in Prussia.\\nI. On awaking this morning, did I think first of God, or of the things of the\\nworld\\n2. In commencing the day, have I consecrated myself anew in prayer to my\\nGod and Saviour\\n3. Have 1 implored his blessing on the l.ibors of the day, especially seeking his\\nfavor for the children confided to my care\\n4. Have I besought him especially for such of the children as have the greatest\\nneed of assistance\\n5. Have I commenced the day full of strength and confidence in God\\n6. Have I sufficiently reflected, before school hours, on what I have to do\\nthrough the day\\n7. Have I suitably prepared myself for my duties\\n8. Are my cares extended equally to all my pupils, or do I manifest more inter-\\nest in some than I do in others\\n9. Has my attention been more particularly directed, and according to their\\nneed, to those among them who were weaker or more idle than the rest?\\n10. Or, consulting only my own taste, have I occupied myself more willingly\\nwith the most intelligent, and those most desirous of being instructed\\nII. In what manner have I influenced their moral progress\\n12. With regai d to that which is exterior, have I required order, quietness,\\nsuitable manners, cleanliness\\n13. Have I not been guilty of any negligence in these respects, from idleness\\nor inattention\\n14. Have I not from disgust, abandoned to their evil propensities, some children\\nwho resisted all my efforts\\n15. Have I not, without confessing it to myself, condemned some among them\\nas incorrigible?\\n16. And have I not thus neglected one of my most important duties; that of\\nnever despairing of the improvement of a single child confided to me\\n17. When it has been necessary to censure, punish, or recall to duty by exhort-\\nation, have I done it with calmness, reflection, and in an impressive manner\\n18. Or have I yielded to precipitancy, impatience, anger, and want of charity\\nor, on the other hand, have I been too indulgent\\n19. Am I in general just with regard to my pupils\\n20. Have I not an ill-judged aversion to some, and predilection for others?\\n21. On what is this partially founded\\n22. And if I can not in my heart excuse myself for these sentiments, ought I\\nto allow them to have any influence on my conduct\\n23. Have I not thus given to the children themselves reason to accuse me of\\npartiality\\n24. Do I not yield in general to the influence and disposition of the moment, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL-COUNSEiOR BECKENDORF. 255\\nam I not thereby unequal, and capricious sometimes veiy kind, and sometimes\\ncauselessly in a bad humor, or even passionate and violent\\n25. When it is necessary to i-eprove or punish, do 1 seek always to bear in mind\\nthe particular character of the pupil with whom I have to do, in order to guide\\nmyself aocoidingly in my reproof or punishment?\\n26. D j 1 always distinguish offenses which proceed from levity, indolence, or\\nrooted habits, fi-oni those which are the result of evil dispositions?\\n27. Have I not sometimes unconsciously excited the desire of praise, and pro-\\nmoted vanity or selfishness\\n28. Have I not been to-day an occasion of stumbling and scandal to my pupils\\n29. Has there not been in my conduct, thoughtlessness, levity, harshness, and\\nwant of love, or even pleasure in inflicting pain\\n30. Have I not given proofs of egotism, vanity, attachment to my own interests,\\nor of self sufficiency\\n31. Have I sought to obtain over the parents of my pupils, the influence which\\nI ought to endeavor to acquire if I am faithful in my vocation\\n32. Have I not allowed myself to be led astray in the fulfillment of this duty,\\nby pride, self love, or a misplaced sensitiveness\\n33. Have I sufScient confidence in Him, without whose will not a hair of my\\nhead falleth, and who knoweth what I have need bf\\n34. Do I, in the difficult position and sphere of action in which God has placed\\nme, wish for more ease, simply for the pleasure of enjoying it\\n35. \u00c2\u00a3)o I not in my heart feel mortified at the directions of my employers and,\\non these occasions, do I manifest ill humor\\n36. Am I ready to remain inflexible in the confession of truth and, if it be\\nthe will of God, to suffer for this confession, without tm-ning fi-om the right path,\\neither to one side or the other\\n37. Have I been faithful to the resolutions renewed this morning?\\n38. Have I not fallen into old faults and habits, which, even to-daj I had\\ndetermined to renounce\\n39. And if I have sinned anew, ought I not to implore a double measure of\\nstrength to surmount happily at last those obstacles which have opposed my pro-\\ngress for so long a time\\n40. In fine, have I made to day any progress in knowledge and virtue\\n41. Have I labored to improve myself in my vocation, even out of the hpm s in\\nwhich are presented to me positive and regular occupation\\n42 Have I read any portion of Holy Scripture, or other useful books\\n43. Have I there learned something which I can consider as the profit of the\\nday, for my spiritual advancement\\nThese are a few questions which a conscientious tutor may address to himself,\\nsome of them every day, others at longer intervals and those who would give\\nthemselves the trouble to examine their own hearts, would be able to add to them\\nmany more.\\nWe intended to have added a few additional remarks respecting the\\nsystem of school inspection as administered in Prussia. We will sim-\\nply remark, that religious ministers are, ex-nfficio^ inspectors of the\\nschools of their respective religious sects, and ohliged to visit the same,\\nand report on their condition to the Kreishul or union inspector, of which\\nthere are two in each union both of whom are ecclesiastical digni-\\ntaries, one in the Protestant and the other in the Catholic Church. To\\nsecure the requisite qualification for the duties of school inspection, the\\nPrussian government has, within a few years, made a law that every\\nyoung student for holy orders shall in future produce, at his examination\\nfor, and before his admission to the same, a certificate of his having\\npassed an examination in pedagogy, conducted by the principal of the\\ncollege and his professors. This is an important step in the right direc", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "256 SCHOOL INSPECTOR.\\ntion. To be able to conduct the examination, whether of teachers or\\nschools, in a satisfactory and profitable manner, requires a familiar and\\npractical acquaintance not only with the studies, but with the best meth-\\nods of classification, discipHne, and instruction. To this end, inspectors\\nshould be selected from the best educated, and most efficient and suc-\\ncessful school teachers. An additional grade will thus be added to the\\nscale of promotion open to teachers, and the stimulus will be felt through\\nthe entire profession, and at the same time the work of school inspection\\nwill be more thoroughly attended to.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "SAXONY.\\nThe constitution of Saxony, although monarchical, isbased upon repre-\\nsentative institutions. The members of the lower chamber are elected\\nby freeholders, and almost every head of a family is a freeholder.\\nSaxony was one of the earliest of the German states to convert the\\nparochial schools of the old ecclesiastical organization into public schools,\\nand to provide for the special training of teachers to the duties of their\\nprofession. In the cession of a large portion of her territory to Prussia in\\n181G, several of her best teachers seminaries, and higher literary institu-\\ntions, were transferred to that power, and with them went several of her\\nmost devoted and distinguished educators, and among them the celebrated\\nSchool Councilor Dinter.\\nThe present school law was given in 1836, and since that time more\\nhas been done in Saxony for the improvement of common schools than\\nin any other German state. Particular attention has been paid to the\\nregular attendance of children at school to the supervision of both public\\nand private schools, and to the qualification and compensation of teachers.\\nA number of common schools, corresponding to the wants of the people,\\nis insured by a division of the kingdom into school circuits (schul-bezirke,)\\nand all the children residing in each circuit must attend the school there\\nestablished. No boy can be apprenticed until after the age at which he\\nmay lawfully leave school. Congregations of different religious persua-\\nsions are allowed to establish schools in their circuit, and if no other school\\nexists than one so established, all the children of the circuit are bound to\\nattend it they are not, however, required to take part in the religious\\ninstruction.\\nEvery school circuit must furnish a school-house, and a dwelling for the\\nteacher. The schools are supported from funds of the church, from the\\ninterest on donations to the school fund, from fines levied on parents who\\nneglect to send their children to school, from a payment made to the\\nschool fund in purchases of property, from collections, from the fees paid\\nby the pupils, and from direct taxation. These funds are chargeable with\\nthe jnaster s salary, with the furniture of the school, books and slates for\\npoor children, prizes, insurance, and incidental expenses.\\nPrimary schools in Saxony, as in Prussia, are of two grades. In the\\n17", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "258 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\nlower, or elementary school, pupils must receive instruction, by law, in\\n1. Religion. 2. Exercises of speech and reading. 3. Caligraphy and\\northography, with written exercises on subjects relating to the affairs of\\ncommon life. 4. Mental and written arithmetic. 5. Singing. 6. The\\nmost important portions of natural history, geography, and history, espe-\\ncially those of the country. The details of the school plan are left to the\\nteacher and local school inspector.\\nIn the higher grade, or lower burgher school, the amount taught in\\nthese branches is increased, and exercises of style, geometry, and draw-\\ning, are added.\\nThe books used in the Protestant schools are, the Bible, Luther s Cat-\\nechism, the hymn book, and three reading books, the selection of which\\nis made by the local school inspector. In the Roman CathoHc schools,\\nthe selection of books is left to the ecclesiastical authorities.\\nThe regular time for attendance is six hours on three days in the week,\\nand four on two other days, making twenty-six hours per week. The\\nvacations are regulated by the church festivals, and last about a week^t\\na time. Children above ten years of age, in the country, are exempted,\\nduring harvest time, from attendance at school.\\nThe punishments are chiefly addressed to the moral sentiments, but\\ncorporeal chastisement, in extreme cases, is allowed. The code of dis-\\ncipline is required to be placed in a conspicuous situation in the school-\\nroom.\\nEvery child must attend school for eight years, (from the age of six to\\nfourteen,) and there is attached to each school a person whose duty it is\\nto ascertain the causes of the absences of pupils, and who is entitled to a\\nsmall fee from the parents for each call he makes upon them. According\\nto statistics in the German School Gazette, every child of a suita-\\nble age and of sound capacity was in some school, public or private, for a\\nportion of the year 1846.\\nThe kingdom is divided into four circles, in each of which there is a\\nschool board, which has charge of all primary schools, and teachers sem-\\ninaries, and regulates all appointments of teachers, and all pecuniary al-\\nlowances subordinate only to the Minister of Public Instruction.\\nNext in authority is a district board of inspectors, having charge of a\\ncertain number of schools subordinate to the school board of the circle.\\nThe district board consists of a superintendent, the highest ecclesiastical\\nand civil authority in the district, and a representative of the patrons of\\neach school. The superintendent is the district inspector who must\\ncounsel with the board, visit all schools, and report on the fidelity and ca-\\npacity of each teacher.\\nThe lowest authority is a committee for each school circuit, composed\\nof four persons, one of whom must be a clergyman, who must assemble\\non fixed days to consult together for the interests of the schools, must\\nhold semi-annual examinations in the presence of the district inspector, and\\nreport annually on the condition of the classes.\\nNo person can be licensed who has not attained twenty-one years of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 259\\nage, passed one examination as a candidate, served two years as an as-\\nsistant, and passed a second examination of a higher grade as, by the\\nlaw of 1825, he must have graduated at a teachers seminary. There\\nare now nine of these institutions, besides a seminary for classical teachers,\\nwhich was established in Leipsic in 1784, by Beck, and in which Her-\\nmann and Klotz subsequently gave instruction, for twelve students in\\nphilology, meeting twice a week. The annual graduates of these Normal\\nSchools are now sufficient to supply all vacancies which occur in the\\nschools. The state appropriates 14,050 thalers, (about S12.000.) annually\\nto the support of these seminaries.\\nThe prescribed course of instruction occupies four yeafs, and no one\\ncan now receive a certificate of qualification as a teacher without having\\ngone through this course, or showing an* amount of attainment and prac-\\ntical skill which shall be deemed its equivalent.\\nThe seminaries were located as follows in 1848:\\nTwn at Drp idcn J Royal, with 7 teachers and 71 pupils.\\niwoat uresaen, The Fletcher, 6 21\\nOne at Freiberg,\\nOne at Zitlau,\\nOne ai Bredissin,\\nOne at Plauen,\\nOne al Grimma,\\nOne at Annaberg,\\nOne at Waldenberg,\\n4 73\\n2 13\\n6 42\\n5 45\\n6 70\\n3 12\\n2 15\\nThe Royal Seminary at Dresden was founded in 1785, by Elector\\nAugustus IV., and formerly possessed the celebrated Dinter as one of its\\ndirectors. It was intended for fifty pupils, with a staff of four oflicers, in-\\ncluding the directors. All the pupils, except those whose parents live in\\nDresden, board and lodge in the institution with the officers. Calinisch,\\none of the highest educational authorities jn Germany, is vice-director.\\nCoimected with the seminary are six common schools, of the city, in\\nwhich the pupils of the seminary acquire practice.\\nThe Fletcher Seminary was founded by Baron Fletcher in 1825, .ind\\nhas its own administration, although it is aided by the government. Pro-\\nvision is made in the institution for twenty pupils, who, for the annual\\ncharge of about Sj^SO, receive board, lodging and instruction, and in the\\nsecond and third year of their course, a still larger allowance is made,\\nespecially to the poor and deserving. There is an institution for deaf\\nmutes in the same building.\\nThe government makes its appropriation in aid of local eflfort, and funds\\nand graduates its payments according to the character and standing of\\nthe several teachers providing that no teacher shall receive less than\\n130 thalers in the country, and 140 in the towns, besides a residence. In\\n1846, out of 2,142 teachers, only 315 received less than 130 thalers,\\n(equivalent here to $130,) and all but 687 were engaged not only through\\nthe year, but permanently, and had a residence.\\nThe government has also established, on a foundation of 30,000 thalers,\\nan institution, commenced in 1840, by Dohner, for superannuated teachers,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "260 PRIMAKT INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\nand the widows and orphans of teachers. To secure the benefits of the\\nfund, teachers of the first class, (teachers in gymnasia, real schools and\\nseminaries,) pay at their admission 4 thalers, and annually from 4 to 8\\nthalers. according to their salary. Teachers of the second class, (of\\ncommon schools,) pay 2 thalers, and yearly from 1 to 4 thalers, accord-\\ning to their salary. The state takes care of the funds, and makes up\\nany deficiency of the revenue of the fund to meet the demand upon it,\\nbesides a contribution of 2,000 thalers toward the capital. The fund\\nyields 1. To the widows of teachers of the first class, yearly, 60 thalers.\\n2. To orphans of teachers of the same class. 12 thalers until they reach\\niheir eighteenth year. 3. To widows of teachers of the second class, 30\\nthalers, and to their children 8 thalers. Teachers are thus not only\\nprovided against want while living, but from anxiety for their families,\\nwhen dead, or incapacitated for active exertion. The result of these wise\\nprovisions on the part of the government, is seen in the improved and\\nimproving condition of the schools, and the higher attainments, profes-\\nsional skill, and social standing and influence of the teachers.\\nWith a population of 1,809,023 in 1846, there was one university with\\n85 professors and 835 students six academies of the Arts and Mining, with\\n43 professors and teachers, and 1,400 pupils eleven gymnasia, with 131\\nteachers, and 1,590 pupils; six higher burgher and real schools, with 18\\nteachers, and 270 pupils three special institutions for commerce and\\nmilitary affairs, with 43 teachers and 240 pupils nine teachers seminaries,\\nwith 41 teachers, and 362 pupils seventeen higher schools of industry\\nor technical schools, with 72 teachers and 779 pupils; sixty-nine lower\\ntechnical schools, with teachers, and 6,966 pupils twenty-four schools\\nfor lace-making, with 37 teachers and 1,928 pupils; and 2,155 common\\nschools, with 2,175 teachers and 278.022 pupils besides one institution lor\\nthe blind one for deaf mutes; three orphan asylums; and a number of\\ninfant schools and private seminaries.\\nThe following account of the Royal Seminary, or College for Teach-\\ners, in Dresden, is taken with some alterations from Kay s Social Con-\\nditum and Education of the People in England and Europe,^ 2 vols.,\\npublished by Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1850. We\\nhave appended to this account remarks by the same author, on the\\npractical working of the system of public instruction in Saxony, espe-\\ncially in its relations to the teacher.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "ROYAL SEMINARY\\nTEACHERS AT DRESDEN.\\nThe Royal Seminary, or College for Teachers, at Dresden, was\\nfountled in 1785. and celebrated its 50t.h commemoration day on the 31st\\nOctober, 1835. and at the end of 1842, it had educated and sent out\\nabove 655 teachers, who had pursued a four years course of study and\\npractice, a course which Mr. Kay, a graduate of Oxford, pronounces\\nmuch more liberal, than nine-tenths of the undergraduates of either\\nOxford or Cambridge, receive. In 1843. there was one thoroughly ed-\\nucated and trained teacher for every 588 inhabitants. In consequence\\nof their thorough, liberal, and practical education, the common school\\nteachers of Saxony, occupy a social position, which is not accorded to\\nthe profession in any other country.\\nThe number of students who attend the lectures and classes of the college, is\\nlimited to seventy of these, sixty are lodged gratuitously in the institution the\\nremaining ten dwell with their parents or relations in the town. Twenty of the\\nplaces in the college have been endowed by the government, and are therefore in\\nits gift. The ablest of the candidates for admission are elected to them.\\nThe examination of candidates for admission to the college is held every Easter.\\nAs the life in the norinal college costs little or nothing, the lodgng and education,\\nif not the whole expenses, being given gratuitously and, as a young man, who\\ndistinguishes himself in the college is certain to be chosen by some school commit-\\ntee af erward as teacher, there are always plenty of candida:es for admiss on from\\nthe middle and lower classes of .society. All these are subjected to a rigorous ex-\\namination their acquirements, their character, and their past life, are most care-\\nfully scrutinized; and, from among them all the most promising are chosen for\\npreparation for the teacher s profession. No candidate can be elected who is not\\nhealtiiy and strong, who has not a powerful and clear voice, or who is lame, short-\\nsghted, or deaf. Every one must be at least sixteen years old, and must present\\nto the examiners a certificate of a medical man of freedom from all organic com-\\nplaints, and of sound health.\\nThe course of education in this college, as in all the other colleges in Saxony, is\\nof FOUR year s duration no student can leave before the end of this time, and\\neven then, he can not obtain admission into the ranks of the teachers, unless he\\ncan pass the prescribed examination for diplomas.\\nThe students are divided into three classes each young man remains, during\\nthe first two years of his residence, in the third and second classes; but, during\\nhis third and fourth years residence, he pursues his studies in the first class. The\\nstaff of professors and teachers in the college consist of,\\n1st. The Director, (Dr. Otto, in 1845.)\\n2nd. A Vice-Principal.\\n3rd. A Professor of Mathematics.\\n4th. A Professor of Music.\\n5th. Daily Teachers for Writing, Drawing, and Violin playing.\\nThe director gives, every week, fourteen, the vice-principal sixteen, the third\\nprofessor seventeen, and the fourth professor twenty-three houi-s instruction t\u00c2\u00ab\\nthe students.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "262\\nPRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\nThe following table will show what the subjects of instruction are in the college,\\nand how the time of residence is divided between them.\\nTIME TABLE IN TEACHERS COLLEGE IN DRESDEN.\\nSilmmei\\nWinter\\nHalf Year.\\nHalf Yea\\nClasses.\\number\\nof\\nNumber of\\nHour\\ns each\\nn Claes\\nkVeek\\nHours each\\nin Class\\nWeek\\n4\\nI.\\n2\\n11.\\n2\\nIII.\\n2\\n2\\nn.\\n2\\nIII.\\n2\\n1. Religion.\\n1\\n1\\n2\\n1\\n1\\n2. Explanation of the Scriptures,\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n3. Scripture history.\\n3\\n1\\n1\\n3\\n4. Catechism.\\n1\\n1\\n5. Religious exhortation.\\n2\\n2\\n6. Pedagogy.\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n7. Special methods of teaching.\\n2\\n1\\n1\\n2\\n8. I. Rhetoric and reading exercises; II,\\n1 and III. Mental calculations.\\n1\\nI\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n9. Recitation.\\n2\\n2\\n10. Natural philosophy.\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n11. Natural history.\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n12. Geography.\\n1\\n13. Mathematical geography.\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n14. History.\\n1\\n2\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n2\\n15. German language.\\n2\\n2\\n16. Latin language.\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n17. Writing.\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n18. Arithmetic.\\na\\n1\\n2\\n19. Geometrical drawingi\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n20. Geometry.\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n21. Drawing.\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n2\\n22. Singing.\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n23. Choral singing.\\n1\\n1\\n24. Quartet singing.\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n25. Concert singing.\\n6\\n3\\n2\\n3\\n1\\n6\\n26. Organ playing II. and III.\\nI playing.\\nViolin\\n13\\n19\\n19\\n7\\n12\\n6\\n27. Preparation and exercise hours.\\n2\\n52\\n2\\n51\\n2\\n50\\n2\\n42\\n2\\n40\\n2\\n40\\n28. Gymnastic exercises.\\nT\u00c2\u00bbtal number of hours per week.\\nThe students rise in summer at 5 o clock, and in winter at 6 o clock, in the\\nmorning as soon as they are dressed, they meet in one of the class-rooms, where\\nthe director reads the morning prayers their hours of study are from 7 to 12\\nA. M., and from 2 to 5 P. M.\\nConnected with the college is a primary school for children of that district of\\nthe city, in which the college is situated this school is under the dii ection of a\\nregularly appointed and experienced teacher, and is attended by 105 children, who\\nare divided into three classes, to each of which is assigned a separate class-room\\nin one part of the college buildings. In these classes, a certa in number of students\\nfrom the college first practice teaching under the eye, and aided by the advice of\\nthe teacher.\\nAt the end of this long and careful preparation, they are called before the board\\nof examiners. If the young man is a Protestant, his religious examination is con-\\nducted by the board of examiners themselves but if he is a Romanist, a priest it\\njdned tb the bf ard, and coliduets the feligioue part of the examination.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "ROYAL SEMINARY AT DRESDEN 263\\nThe examination last three days.\\nOn tlie first day the subjects are\\nFrom 1 to 10 o clock, A. M. Scripture history.\\n10 to 12 Pedagogy,\\n2 to 4 P. M. Mathematics and the theory of ttiusic.\\nThe answers to the questions of the first day s examination are given in writing.\\nOn the second day the subjects are\\nCatechising a class of village school\\nchildren on some subject of elementary\\nTBstruction.\\n{Reading\\nArithmetic; and\\nAn object lesson given to school chil*\\ndren.\\nA viva voce examination\\nIn religion\\n1 to 2 P. M. The Scriptures\\nI Luthers catechism and\\nI Pedagogy.\\nGerman language\\nLogic and\\nPsychology.\\n{History\\nGeography\\nNatural philosophy and\\nNatural history.\\nOn the third day the subjects of examination are\\nOrgan playing\\nSinging\\nPiano-forte and\\nViolin.\\nIf the young candidate, who had been educated for four years in a teachers*\\ncollege, can not pass this examination so as to satisfy the examiners, he is obliged\\nto continue his studies until he can do so. But if he passes the exaniiiiatron in a\\nsatisfactory manner, the examiners grant him a diploma, which is marked ex-\\ncellent, good, or passable, according to the manner in which he acquilted\\nhimself in his examination.\\nIf the young candidate does not obtain a certificate marked excellent, but\\nonly one marked good, or passable, he can notoflSciate as teacher, until he\\nhas spent two years in some school as assistant to an experienced teacher.\\nAt the end of this time, he is obliged again to present himself to the board of\\nexaminers, who examine him again in the most careful and searching manner. If\\nhe passes this examination, he receives another diploma marked excellent,\\ngood. or passable, according to his merit, and if he obtains a diploma\\nmarked excellent he is enrolled among the members of the teachers profes-\\nsion, and is allowed to officiate either as a private tutor or as a village teacher.\\nBut if he can not obtain this diploma, he is obliged to continue to act as an assist-\\nant teacher until he can do so. Seminar Director Dr. Otto, the principal of the\\nnormal college, and a member of the board of examiners, assured me, that it was\\na common thing for candidates to be examined four or five times, before they suc-\\nceeded in obtaining a teachers diploma. When they have at last succeeded, they,\\nas well as those, who obtained the diploma marked excellent in the first examin-\\nation, are eligible as teachers.\\nThe school committee of the different parishes elect their own teachers. The\\nonly condition, to which this right is subjected, is, that they mtiy not elect any\\nperson, who has not obtained a diploma of competence from the board of ex-\\naminers.\\nWhen a teacher dies or vacates his situation, the .school committee is required\\nby law to elect another within two months to fill his place. All candidates for the\\nvacant office are examined in the preEcnce of the Ecbool committee and of those", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "264\\nPRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\ninhabitants of the parish or town who desire to be present and after the\\nexamination, the school committee proceed to elect the candidates whom\\nthey consider the best qualified to fill the vacant situation. But even after\\nthis examination before the paroch al or municipal school authorities, the suc-\\ncessful candidate is generally obliged to present himself to another committee in\\nDresden, called the Landeonsistorium, for examination, before he can finally be\\ninducted into his hard-won office. Such is the great the seemingly exaggerated\\nprecautions, which are taken by the Saxon people to secure good and efficient\\nteachers for the schools. If, at any of these different examinations, any thing is\\ndiscovered against the moral or religious character of the candidate, he is imme-\\ndiately rejected. His moral as well as his religious character is carefully scruti-\\nnized before his reception into the Training College, and by each of the different\\nbodies of examiners, before whom he is obliged afterward to appear. If his pre-\\nvious life can not bear this scrutiny, or if the principal or professors of his college\\ncan not bear testimony to his morality and to his religious demeanor during his\\nresidence, he is rejected, and is not permitted to enter the profession.\\nIt is easy to perceive how high a teacher, who has passed all these examinations\\nand scrutinies, must stand in the estimation of his country and of those who sur-\\nround him more immediately. As Dr. Otto said to me, The great number of\\nexaminations, that a young man must pass through, before he can become a teacher,\\nis important, not only in preventing any unworthy person ever bi-ing admitted\\ninto the teachers profession, but also, and more especially, in raising the profes-\\nsion in the estimation of the public. The people have a great respect for men,\\nwho have, as they know, passed so many and such severe examinations. They\\nattend with more attention and respect to their counsels and instruction. And\\ncertainly, until the teacher is respected by the people, his teaching will be produc-\\ntive of but little profit. To be a teacher in Germany is necessarily to be a man\\nof learning and probity. None but such a person can be a teacher. Can we\\nsay the same in England How many of our teachers are only uninstructed wo-\\nmen, or poor uneducated artizans or rude and unlettered pedagogues or even\\nimmoral and low-minded meti How many have never been educated in any\\nthing more than reading, writing, and a little ciphering How many have never\\nbeen into a teacher s college How many have only been instructed in such a\\ncollege for the ridiculously short period of six months? How many have never\\nbeen educated at all And yet over Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark,\\nHolland, and France, every teacher has been carefully trained for some twelve or\\nfourteen years, in preparation for his duties has passed at least two, generally\\nthree, and often four years, in a teachers college, under the instruction of learned\\nand high-minded men, conscious of the importance of their work has passed\\nwith credit several severe examinations, and has only finally been received into the\\nteachers profession, after a most careful scrutiny into his character and accom-\\nplishments has given an assurance to his country of his fitness for the important\\nduties of his profession.\\nBut strange and humiliating as is the contrast between the care, that is taken in\\nSaxony and in England to prepare and elect efficient teachers for the village\\nschools, the contrast between the situations of the teachers in the two countries,\\nafter election, is no less sad. In Saxony, as indeed throughout Germany. Sv\\\\itzer-\\nland, Holland, Denmark, and France, great pains are taken to make the teacher s\\nrank in society, and his situation, worthy the acceptance of an educated man. The\\nti acher is never left dependent upon uncertain charity. If his salary is sometimes\\nsmall, it is at least fixed and certain. The minimum is fixed by goverment, and\\nno parish or town-committee may offer less than this salary to its teacher. More-\\nover, the teacher is never degraded into being his own tax-gatherer. The pari.sh\\nor town is obliged to arrange with the teacher, before his appointment, how much\\nhe shall receive, when he shall receive it, and how he shall receive it. The com-\\nmittee is obliged to collect the funds necessary for cleansing, warming, repairing,\\nand furnishing tTie school-buildings, and for faying the teachers. If they neg-\\nlect to pay the teacher regularly, he can always appeal to the county magistrates,\\nwho oblige the parochial or town-committee to perform its duty.\\nWlien a teacher has become too old, or too weak to perform all his accustomed\\nduties in the Bchool-room, tiie inspector of the disti-iot decides, whether he shall", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "ROYAL SEMINARY AT DRESDEN. 265\\nbe dismissed with a pension or, whether the committee shall engage an assistant\\nteacher, to aid him in the school- oom. The widows and children of deceased\\nteachers are pensioned oft in Saxony, in the same manner as in Prussia, and the\\nfunds for this purpose are raised by the same means.\\nAnother most important regulation is, that no person or persons in immediate\\npersonal connection with a teacher, shall Lave the power of dismissing him, after\\nhe is once elected. It must be evident to all, how much this is tending to lower\\nthe independence and respectability of the teachers of England. A pi ivate pat-\\nron, a clergyman, or a committee of parishioners has the power in almost every\\ncase, in our country, of dismissing a teacher. How often this has been done\\nmerely on account of some personal pique, or because the teacher would not sub-\\nmit to their crude notions of how a school ought to be managed or fi om misrep-\\nresentation or from mere village squabbles, 1 have no need to remind any of my\\nreaders. That such a dismissal is possible, every one will admit. How such a\\npiisiibility must often damp a good and earnest teacher s energy, or undermine\\nhis honesty and destroy his usefulness, or at least lower his profession in the eyes\\nof the people around him, is but too evident. But in Germany, no person in im-\\nmediate connection with the teacher can dismiss him on any pretext whatsoever.\\nHis judges are distant, unprejudiced, and impartial persons. In Sa.\\\\ony, after the\\nparish has elected its teacher, it loses all direct power over him. The parochial\\nminister or committee can inspect the school, when he or they please. Indeed, it is\\ntheir duty to do so at stated times. They can advise the teacher and counsel him,\\nbut they can not directly interfere with him. He is supposed to understand, how\\nto manage his school, better than any other person in his parish. If he did not,\\nhis long preparatory training would have been of little avail.\\nIf the clergyman, or any of the parishioners, have any cause of complaint to find\\nwith the teacher, and desire to have either dismissed or reprimanded, and obliged\\nto change his plans of proceeding, a complaint must be made to the county edu-\\ncational magistrate, and by him, to the minister of education in Dresden, who, in\\nSaxony, is the only person, who can dismiss a teacher. The county magistrate,\\non I eceiving the complaint, immediately sends an inspector to the spot, to inquire\\ninto the ground of complaint or dispute and after having received his report, the\\ncomplaint of the parish, and the defense of the teacher, sends them to the minis-\\nter of education in Dresden. It remains with the minister alone to pronounce the\\nfinal judgment. This impartial mode of proceeding tends to raise the teachers\\nprofession in the eyes of the people. They see that the teachers are men, who\\nare considered worthy of the protection and support of the government. But\\nabove all, it enables the teachei s to act honestly and fearlessly, to follow out the\\nplans they know to be the best, and to devote their whole energies and minds to\\ntheir duties, without any embarrassing fears of offending employers or patrons, or\\nof endangering their continuance in office.\\nThere are 2,925 teachers in Saxony, or one teacher to every 588 inhabitants\\nwhich is not large enough for the wants of the country. In Saxony, as through-\\nout Germany, they will not make any use ol monitors. As they will not avail\\nthemselves of the assistance of educated monitors in the more mechanical parts of\\nschool teaching, they have therefore been obliged to adopt the forovving expedient.\\nThe law ordains, that when there are more than sixty children in any parochial\\nschool, and the parish can not afford to support more than one teacher, the chil-\\ndren shall be divided into two classes, when there are not more than 100, and\\ninto three classes, when not more than 150 in number: that when there are two\\ncLosses, the teacher shall instruct one in the morning, and the other in the after-\\nnoon that when there are three classes, he shall instruct each class for three\\nhours daily at separate times and that all the children not under instruction shall\\nnot attend the school, while either of the other classes is there.\\nFrom inquiries made by Dr. Otto, of Dresden, it appears that 2,119\\nof the primary schools of Saxony receive the following salaries, inde-\\npendently of the lodgings, fuel, and garden, c. GUT receive not more\\nthan \u00c2\u00a330; 531 not more than \u00c2\u00a350 543 not more than \u00c2\u00a371; 206 not\\nmore than \u00c2\u00a390; 78 not more than \u00c2\u00a395; 25 not more than \u00c2\u00a3105; 12\\nnot more than \u00c2\u00a3120 9 not mbre thlm \u00c2\u00a3130 7 not mc/re tlmn \u00c2\u00a3138; 1\\nnot mote than \u00c2\u00a3W}.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "266 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\nMr. Kay makes the following observation on the public schools of\\nSaxony:\\nEach parent is obliged to begin to educate his children at home or to send them\\nto some school at the commencement of their sixth j ear, unless the child is sickly\\nand unfit to bear any mental exei tion. After a child has once commenced attend-\\ning a school, it must continue such attendance regularly, summer and winter, for\\neight years; and even on the attainment of its fourteenth year, it may not discon-\\ntinue such attendance, miless it has obtained a certificate, s .ating that it can read,\\nwrite, and cipher, and that it is well acquainted with the doctrines of its religion\\nand with the truths of the Scripture history. The examinations for these certifi-\\ncates are conducted by the religious ministers, in conjunction with the teachers.\\nIn some few cases, however, where the parents are very poor, the school commit-\\ntees are empowered to permit the parents to remove their children from school at\\nthe end of their tenth year, if they can read, write, arid cipher, and know the\\nleading facts and doctrines of the Scriptures. But before they have attained this\\nage, they can not be taken from school, except when they are too sickly or too\\nweak to attend the classes.\\nNo child may be employed in any manufactory, or in any manual labor, before\\nit has attained the age of ten years. The Saxons consider the education of young\\nchildren as a matter of primary importance, to which all else must be made to give\\nway. The morality and the liberty, as well as the social and physical condition,\\nof the people are all considered to be dependent on the early and full development\\nof their moral and intellectual faculties. To the attainment of this end, therefore,\\nevery other consideration is made to yield. The Saxons are, as is well known, a\\ncommercial people. But still commercial requirements have not outweighed\\nmoral considerations. From the age of six to the age of fourteen, every chijd\\nmust receive a sound, eflScient, and religious education. Those children, however,\\nwho are wanted to work in the manufactories, and who have attained a tolerable\\nproficiency in Scripture history, reading, writing, and arithmetic, are permitted to\\ndiscontinue their attendance on the daily classes, at the age of ten but are re-\\nquired to attend afternoon classes, two or three times a week, during the next four\\nyears. Thus, even the factory children receive regular periodical instruction from\\nhighly educated teachers, until they attain the age of fourteen.*\\nThe most minute and particular regulations are in force in Saxony respecting\\nthe school buildings. The law prescribes that they shall be situated as nearly as\\nThe following section, (143) of the School Law, relates to the neglect of school attend-\\nance.\\n1. In every parish where there is a school union, there shall be a school messenger. In\\nlarge parishes which are divided into many schiiol districts, every school shall have a partic-\\nular mes.senger, besides one for every school district.\\n2. Excepting on the common vacations, and on those weeks and days when there is no\\nschool, the school messenger must ask the teacher, on every school day, after the school\\nhours, what children have been absent without an adequate excuse.\\n3. In places where there is bnt one school, the school messenger must ask this question at\\nleast twice a week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and require an account of the last three\\ndavs.\\n4. The next morning, not later than an hour before the beginning of the morning school,\\nthe school messenger of every place must go to the parents of the absent and unexcused\\nchild, and demand him for the school, or else the reason for his absence. For every such\\nvisit the parent must give the messenger six pfennings.\\n5. If a child does not come after this demand, but remains away unexcused for two days,\\nthe school messenger must take him on the third day and conduct him to the school. The\\nfee from the parents shall be one grofchen.\\n6 A child of a place where there is but one school, who does not come on the Monday or\\nThursday after the visit of the school messenger, and remains unexcused also if he stays\\naway six days without adequate excuse, must be taken by the mcssetiger and carried to the\\nschool, and the fee from the parents s:iall be two groschen.\\n7. If the child slays from the school with the knowledge of its parents after being thus car-\\nried to it by the messenger, measures for punishment must be taken.\\n8 If the messenger can not collect his fees, he must apply to the magistrates, whose duty it\\nis to coerce the payment.\\n9. If the parents are actually too poor to pay the same, the magistrates must demand pay-\\nment quarterly from the school chest.\\n10. The magistracy must lend their assistance to the messenger if. without good reason, he\\nis prevented from taking the child to school or, if he js improperly treated while executing\\nthe duties of his office.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 26Y\\npossible in the center of the parish, and that a quiet and perfectly healthy site shall\\nbe selected. To use the words of one of the regulations of the f~axon Chambers\\non this subject If there is any building which deserves the careful considera-\\ntion of the architect, it is that which is intended for the village school. The\\ngovernment has prepared several plans, with specifications of the cost, c., for\\nthe guidance of the county authorities and village committees.\\nTo follow the words of the regulations themselves Every school-room must\\nbe sufficiently roomy, lofty, well lighted, perfectly dry, and free from damp, of a\\nconvenient and suitable form for the management of the school-classes, and in a\\nhealthy, open, and quiet situation.\\nOn each of these several heads, a great number of minute and most carefully\\ndigested regulations have been made, for the purpose of insuring the attainment\\nof these ends. The minimum of the size and of the height of the school-room\\nhas been laid down, and very particular regulations have been made relative to the\\nwarming, cleansing, and ventilating of the school-rooms to the proper draining\\nof the land upon which the school is to be built and upon which the play-grounds\\nare to be aid out to the lighting of the class-rooms to the disposition of the\\nde.sks and even to the position and construction of the doors. Nothing which\\nregards the school-rooms or school apparatus has been deemed too unimportant, to\\ndeserve the most careful consideration, or too insignificant to require the most\\nminute and scientific regulations. The school-rooms in Saxony, as indeed through-\\nout Germany, are well supplied with parallel desks, forms, maps, illustration\\nboards, and all the apparatus necessary to enable the teacher to instruct his chil-\\ndren in an effective manner. In the towns the schools generally contain eight or\\nnine classes. A separate room is provided for each class. A learned teacher,\\nwho has received fourteen years preparatory education, presides over each sepa-\\nrate class. One of these teachers is the general director and superintendent of\\nthe whole school.\\nEach of the class-rooms contains about sixty children. The law forbids any\\nteacher to allow more than sixty to be instructed in the same class-room. Each\\nof these rooms is fitted up along its length with parallel desks and forms, facing\\nthe teacher s desk, which is raised on a platform about a foot high at one end of\\nthe room. They are continually whitewashed and scoured, and are well venti-\\nlated. They are lofty, and always well lighted. The children are never kept in\\nthe rooms more than about two hours at one time. They are all taken down into\\nthe pfay-grounds at the end of every hour and a half, for ten minutes exercise,\\nand during this time the windows of the class-rooms are all opened and the air\\npurified.\\nThe law requires every school committee in Saxony to furnish their school\\nrooms with at least the following apparatus\\n1. A supply of school-books, slates, slate-pencils, lead-pencils, pens, paper, c.\\nfor the use of those scholars, whose parents are too poor to buy these things for\\ntheir children.\\n2. Some black painted, smooth, wooden boards, on which the teacher may\\nassist his class-lessons by delineations or writing.\\n3. A moveable easel on which to raise the blackboards.\\n4. Some maps, and among these one of the Holy Land also some large copies\\nfor drawing and writing.\\n5. A reading machine, like those now used in some of the best of our infaat\\nschools and\\n6. The school committees are advised to furnish, whenever they can afford to\\ndo so, a collection of objects for the illustration of the lessons in natural history and\\nphysical geography.\\nBesides this apparatus, many village schools are supplied with a library of\\nreading books, from which any villager can take books home, on payment of about\\na halfpenny a week.\\nTo give a general idea of the subjects of instruction in the schools, where the\\nchildren of the people are brought up, I subjoin a table, which will show what is\\ntaught in the primary schools of the city of Dresden, and how the hoiu s of the\\nday are apportioned to the various subjects of instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "268\\nPRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\nThe following Time Table in the Dresden Primary Schools, shows the number\\nof hours devoted each week to the different branches of instruction.\\nClass\\nI.\\nClass\\nII.\\nClass\\nIII.\\nClass\\nIV.\\nSUBJECTS OF INSTBCCTIOW.\\nBqjs.\\nGirls.\\nBoys.\\nGirls.\\nBoys.\\nGirls.\\nBoys.\\nGirls.\\n6\\n1\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n3\\n2\\n1\\n2\\n6\\n1\\n3\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n3\\n1\\n1\\n10\\n2\\n6\\n1\\n4\\n4\\n3\\n4\\n3\\n2\\n1\\n1\\n6\\n1\\n4\\n4\\n3\\n4\\n3\\n1\\n6\\n1\\n6\\n1\\n6\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n6\\n1\\n6\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n2\\n4\\n5\\n1\\n8\\n3\\n2\\n3\\n5\\n1\\n8\\n3\\n2\\n3\\nReligious instruction.\\nRecitation.\\nReading.\\nWriting,\\nj German language. IV. Men-\\nl tal and viva voce exercises.\\nArithmetic.\\nGeography, history, and natural\\nI history.\\nDrawing.\\nSinging.\\nInstruction in feminine duties,\\nI such as sewing, knitting, c.\\ni Preparation for the classes under\\nthe superintendance of one of\\nthe teachers.\\n28\\n37\\n29\\n33\\n25\\n29\\n22\\n22\\nTotal number of hours in each\\nweek devoted to instruction.\\nTo explain this table it is necessary to remark, that in the town schools, there\\nare generally eight classes instructed in eight separate class-rooms, four for boys\\nand four for girls that the fourth class contains the least and the first class the\\nmost advanced of the children that each class is under the charge of a separate\\nteacher and that the girls generally remain in the afternoons for an hour and a\\nhalf after the boys have left, in order to be instructed in sewing, knitting, c., by\\na woman who is paid to conduct this necessary branch of feminine instruction.\\nSince the revolution of 1848, the education in all the primary schools has been\\nmade perfectly gratuitous, so that every parent can send his children to any\\nschool free of all expense except that, which is incurred by providing them with\\nrespectable clothing.\\nBesides the day schools, there is still another class of schools, which merits our\\nattention. These are the Saxon Sunday schools. They are to be found in all the\\ntowns, in the great parishes, and in the manufacturing district.s. They are opened\\non the Sunday mornings or Sunday evenings, and are intended for the instruction\\nof all persons of whatever age they may be, who desire to continue their educa-\\ntion, and who are prevented, by their week-day duties, from attending any of the\\nprimary or superior schools. They are frequented principally by adults, or by\\nyoung people above the age of fifteen, who have left the primary schools. These\\nclasses are opened every Sunday for about three or four hours, and are conducted\\nbysome of the district teachers, who are paid for this extra labor by the county\\nauthorities. The education given in them is not confined to religious teaching. It\\ncomprehends besides this, instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, history,\\ngeography, the physical sciences, drawing, and the new inventions of the age.\\nThese classes generally assemble on the Sunday evenings, in one of the day-\\nschools of the town or district. The incidental expenses necessary for warming\\nand lighting the room, and for the purchase of the necessary books, e., are gen-\\nerally defrayed by the voluntary contributions of the students, who attend the\\nclasses, and by the benevolence of rich people, who are interested in promoting\\nthese useful institutions. When the funds derived from these soui ces do not suf-\\nfice, the minister of public instruction is empowered to assist the town or other\\nlocality, in perfecting and suppoi ting these schools. In many towns and parishes,\\nhowever, they are entirely maintained by public subscriptions, and in these cases\\nthe students do not pay any thing for their education.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY.\\n269\\nSo eager are the Saxon people to gain knowledge, and so well do they under-\\nstand its value, that wherever any of these schools are opened on the Sundays or\\nother holidays, they are, as in France, immediately filled to overflowing, with peo-\\nple of all ages from eighteen up to fifty, v.ho are desirous of increasing their stock\\nof information, and of unfolding the powers of their minds. Ihe importance of\\nthese institutions can not be over estimated. By their means, the people of Sax-\\nony are always learning, that they have more to learn, and are always renewing\\nthe instruction given in the primary schools. The lessons of the primary schools\\nare here continually enforced morality and prudence are inculcated the union\\nbetween the teachers and the people is continually strengthened the value of\\neducation and intelligence is each week shown in a still clearer light; the people\\nare continually brought into a closer connection with persons of a much higher\\norder of intelligence the tastes and habits of the people are raised and by these\\nmeans, their independence of character, their prudence, their energies, and all\\ntheir political as well as social virtues, are progressively developed. Ihey do not\\npretend to supply the place of day-schools. They contain scholars of all ages,\\nyoung and old, and their teachers are persons, who have studied pedagogy as a\\nscience, and who are. in every sense of the word, qualified to teach.\\nAs an example of what a Sunday school is in Saxony, 1 may mention one of those\\ninstituted at Dresden for adults. It is supported partly by charitable subscription\\nand partly by the municipal authorities of Dresden. Five paid teachers tonduet\\nthe instruction given in it. It is open every Sunday morning from 8 o clock until\\n12, during which time the teachers attend and instruct the different classes. The\\ninstruction is perfectly gratuitous, and a great part of the necessary materials, such\\nas paper, pens, ink, and drawing materials, are provided for the scholars free of\\nexpense. The object of the institution is to awaken the religious feelings of the\\nscholars to strengthen their moral principles and instruct them in reading,\\nwriting, the German language, geography, history, arithmetic, and drawing. The\\nway in which the four hours of study are divided between these diflferent studies,\\nmay be seen from the following table\\nLESSON PLAN OF A SUNDAY SCHOOL AT DRESDEN.\\nMurnin^.\\n1st Class. 2d Class.\\n3a Class.\\n4 h Class.\\nFrom\\n8 to 8^\\nPrayers and Religious Instruction.\\nFrom\\nArithmetic and Ele-\\nMental and Slate\\nGeography and History of\\n8i to 10\\nmentary Geome-\\nArithmetic; frac-\\nGermany Use of the\\no clock.\\ntry Extraction\\ntions, both com-\\nGlobes and Physical Geo-\\nof Square Root\\nmon and decimal.\\ngraphy, especially as re-\\nand the Rules of\\ngards Germany and Sax-\\nProportion and\\nony\\ntheir application\\nto mechanics.\\nFrom\\nDrawing; with con-\\nDrawing Light\\nGerman Lan-\\nArithmetic,\\n10 to 11\\nstructive Geome-\\nand Shadow Ex-\\nguage Or-\\nboth Mental\\no clock.\\ntry and Archi-\\nercises in Lead,\\nthography,\\nand Slate\\ntectural Drawing.\\nChalk, Pen and\\nInk, and Colors.\\nEtymology,\\nand Dicta-\\ntion Exer-\\ncises.\\nExercises.\\nFrom\\nGerman Language;\\nGerman Language;\\nDrawing prin-\\nWriting and\\n11 to 12\\nvarious Exercises\\nvarious Exercises\\ncipally from\\nElocution.\\no clock.\\nin Composition.\\nin Composition.\\nModels.\\nNo person may officiate as teacher in any school in Saxony, until he has ob-\\ntained from a committee of learned professors, expressly appointed for the pur-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "2Y0 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXON V.\\npose of examining candidates, a diploma certifying in precise and definite terms\\nhis fitness for admission into the profession. And, even when a candidate has\\npassed this examination, hfe can not be appointed head teacher of any school, until\\nhe has been tried, for two years, as assistant teacher in some elementary school,\\nand until he has after this passed another severe examination.* The preparation\\nfor these examinations continues fur many j ears. It begins at the elementary\\nechools. If a boy wishes to enter the teacher s profession, he must gain a testi-\\nmonial from his teacher, stating his diligence and his success in his studies. After\\nleaving the village school, he still continues his studies, either in one of the higher\\nburgher schools, or in one of the real schools or gj mnasia, until he attains the age\\nof fifteen. When he has attained this age, he lays testimonials of his character\\nand his acquirements, signed by his teacher and his religious minister, before the\\nmagistrates of his county, lie is then examined before these magistrates, together\\nwith all the other candidates, at the yearly entrance examinations of the *normal\\ncolleges of his county, in all the subjects of instruction in the elementary schools.\\nThe most promising are then chosen out, and are sent by the magistrates to fill up\\nthe vacancies in the normal colleges, of which there are always one or two in\\neach county.\\nThe young students remain four years in these colleges, continually engaged\\nin preparing for their entrance into the teachers profession. The education given\\nin thes(^colleges is, however, perfectly gratuitous, or it is manifest no poor young\\nmen would be able to bear the expenses of such a training.\\nIn a Saxon class-room one finds a learned professor, who has been educated\\nfor many years in preparation for his duties, standing before his class lecturing\\nhis children, as if they and he were rational beings. The aim of a German\\nteacher is to avi^aken the njinds of his scholars to enable them to think, and to\\nteach them to instruct themselves. lie never tries to cram. The method which\\nis pursued is the suggestive one. The teacher selects the subject of the lesson,\\nwhether it be on history, natural history, geography, arithmetic, or grammar; and\\nafter the class has read some few pages together, the teacher commences his les-\\nson by questions. When a question has been put by him to the class, all those\\nchildren, who think they can answer, hold up their hands the teacher calls upon\\nthem by turns to answer his question, or to correct the answers of theii- companions.\\nIf the lesson is in history or geography, the teacher increases the interest of the\\nchildren by anecdotes or descriptions, and enlists their sympathies on the side of\\nvirtue, heroism, and patriotism, by pointing out for notice the brilliant deeds of\\ntheir country s heroes, and the exploits of their ancestors in resisting the foreign\\ninvader, or in conquering the national foes. The teacher addresses his children\\nas thinking beings as those, who will one day be men, and who will one day\\nthemselves influence the destinies of their nation. The scholar will one day\\nbecome a citizen that is the truth engraven on the German teachers minds\\ntheir duty and their a*im is to awaken and to nurse into maturity the virtues of\\nthe people.\\nAs soon as the teacher has been appointed, he and the local inspector are re-\\nquired to prepare a plan of daily instruction, to apportion the ditforent school\\nhours to the difftsrent studies, and to arrange the order and the time for holding\\nthe different classes. When this so-called lesson-plan has been once determined,\\nthe teacher is bound by it, and can not vary the order of his class-instruction,\\nwithout again consulting with the inspector.\\nThe school duties are commenced every morning, and closed every afternoon\\nwith prayer and singing.\\nIn the literal words of flie law\\nNo one can bt! appoiiitKi teacher,\\nIsl. Who has not satisfied the examiners appointed by the minister of education, of his\\nfitness to be admitted into the teachers profession, by passing an examination conducted by\\nthem.\\n2d. Who has not, after the above-mentioned examination, practiced fnr two ycarx as\\nasxistant teacher, or, at least, as private tutor, under the direction, if pdss ble, of an able\\nteacher and wlio has not, during this time continued his education, and obtained the entire\\napprobation of his superior teacher.\\n3d. Who has not, after these two years, satisfactorily passed a second examination con-\\nducted by the above-mentioned body of examiners.\\n4th. Who has not attained his twenty-first year.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "PRTMARV INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 271\\nA public examination of all the children is held once every half year in the\\nBchool-room, and under the direction of the local inspector. Notice of the ap-\\npointed day is given by the religious ministers from their pulpits; and all the in-\\nhabitants of the parisn are invited to attend. The school committee is required\\nby law to be present at these public examinations. These examinations serve to\\nstimulate the efforts cf both teachers and children, to interest the parents in the\\nschools, and to encourage a spirit of healthy emulation among the scholars. At\\nthe end of the examination, the inspector pronounces I is opinion on the progress\\nof the children in the presence of the assembled parish but all remarks upon the\\nteacher himself are given to him in private, so as not to diminish the respect of\\nthe children for him, by showing them that he does not fully understaijd how to\\ninstruct them in the most effective manner.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "272\\nNORMAL 5E.MINARY IN DRESDEN.\\na\\nc\\nEd\\na\\na\\nn\\nt\\n2\\nO o\\nn\\n2S o\\n^3\\n2\\nfa 2\\n5 P\\ns\\n.J\\nu\\no\\nH\\nQ\\na\\na\\n-a e\\n11\\n8\\ns Z\\n^s\\nS:l\\nis\\nIf\\ne|\\ni\\nc\\n1\\n|S\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0-g\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\ns s\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2a g\\ns,\\n5.M\\neg\\nli\\nk s\\n|J\\n^S\\n$.1\\nX\\n1st class. 2d class.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\nn CI 1-1 c^ SI CI CI n -H\\n2 2\\n3 CI 5 3\\nE E S _.\\ng s s\\nrt 1-1 -1 -i\\nX\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n2 h, 2 h.\\n4h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2 h.\\n2 h.\\ncommon to both.\\n3h.\\n1 h.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\n2h.\\ncom.non to both.\\n2h.\\n3 h.\\n21..\\n2 h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2 b.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\nS\\n1\\n1\\nJ=\\n1.\\na\\nh\\nc\\n2:\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n4h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Vn del r-l dCICIr.(\\n2 2\\ndo cj\\nS E\\nC J5P.SJ5 JZJZJZ\\n1-1 CI 1-1 d SI -H\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n4h.\\n4h.\\n2h.\\n2 h.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\n3h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n2h.\\n2 h.\\n2 h. 1 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\n1\\n1st class. 2d class.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\n2 b.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\nIh.\\ncom.iion to both.\\n3h.\\n1 h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2^h.\\nI h. 1 h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n3 h.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 b. 1 h.\\n1\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n4h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n3h.\\nIh.\\ncommon to both.\\n4 h.\\n2 h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2 1..\\n1 hr 1 h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\n3h.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\nrz\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n4 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n2h.\\n4h.\\ncommon to both.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\n3h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n2h.\\ncoinmon to both.\\n2h.\\n11.. 2 h.\\nIh.\\n2h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. ,1 h.\\nX\\n1st class. 2d class.\\n4h.\\n4h.\\n2h.\\n2n.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\ncommon to both.\\n4h.\\n3h.\\n2h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 2 h.\\n2h.\\n2h.\\n2 h. 1 h.\\n2 h. 2 h.\\n1 h. 1 h.\\n3\\nBiblical Knowledge\\nBiblical History\\nBible Explanation\\nCatechism\\nArt of Ciuestioning\\nCatechetical Exeri ises\\nExercises in Thinking\\nPsychology and Art of\\nTeaching.\\nSchool Discipline\\nGeneral History\\nGerman and Saxon\\nHistory.\\nEatin\\nComposition\\nArithmetic\\nGeography\\nNatural Philosophy\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Writing\\nViolin\\nSinging\\nHistory of the Church\\nGeometry\\nGrammar\\nReading\\nNatural History\\nDrawing\\nThorough Bass\\nOrgan\\nPiano\\n1 -i-H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 SlddCIc lCISISICI", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "ORGANIZATION AND INSTRUCTION\\nBURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC, SAXONY.\\nIn Leipsic the public primary schools are of three sorts, the first for\\nthe use of the children of the poor who receive supplies from the public;\\nthe second for those who, not belonging to this class, would still be\\nburthened by the payment of a school fee the third, the burgher class.\\nMany of the schools are endowed. The Burgher school is considered\\nby Dr. Bache one of the most complete in its plan of organization in\\nGermany. He thus describes it\\nThis school is designed to educate children of the middle ranks of society, and\\nthose of the upper ranks whose parents wish them to receive a public education.\\nIt is composed, 1st. Of an elementary school for both boys and girls, which\\npupils should enter at six years of age. There are three classes, in the lowest of\\nwhich the two sexes are taught in the same room. The pupils are retained, in\\ngeneral, a year and a half to two years, leaving this department at eight years of\\nage and proceeding to the next higher.\\n2d. The burgher school proper. Here the boys and girls receive instruction\\nseparately. There are six classes for boys, each of which occupies a year. After\\npassing through the three lower classes, the sixth, fifth, and fourth, the pupils\\nbegin separate courses, according to their inclination or supposed destination in\\nlife. This is at about eleven years of age. Those who are intended for trades,\\nand whose school education must finish at fourteen, to enable them to begin their\\napprenticeship, pass through the remaining classes, the tihird, second, and first of\\nthe burgher school.\\nOther boys who are intended to pursue higher departments of mechanical oc-\\ncupations, or for manufacturers, clerks, miners, foresters, stewards of estates, mer-\\nchants, artists, civil officers, c., pass into the department called the ^^real\\nschool,^ terminating their course there at about sixteen years of age. Others\\nwho are intended for the learned professions go at eleven to a gymnasium, pass\\nthrough its classes at eighteen, and enter the university, being prepared for a pro-\\nfession at twenty-one.\\n3d. The ^real schooV or higher burgher school. In this there are four\\nclasses, intended to occupy together about five years, and to prepare the pupils to\\nenter a commercial, polytechnic, architectural, or mining academy, according to\\nhis vocation.\\nOmitting the girls school, the scheme thus marked out will appear better by the\\nfollowing skeleton\\nElementary School. Three classes. Pupils 6 to 8 years of age.\\nBurgher School. Three classes. Pupils 8 to 11 years of age.\\nHigher Burgher School. Three classes. Pupils 11 to 14 years of age.\\nThe pupils are apprenticed on leaving the school. Or,\\nReal Schools of four classes. Pupils 11 to 1 6 years of age, and pass to a\\npolytechnic, commercial, mining, architectural, ^c., academy. Or,\\nGymnasium (grammar school) of six classes. Pupils 11 to 18 years of age.\\nThey pass to the university, where, after a course of three years, they may be\\nadmitted to one of the learned professions.\\nA plan at once convenient and rational is thus marked out for a youth s educa-\\ntion, depending upon the views of his parents, their circumstances, and his own\\ntalents and dispositions. The first four named schools are united in one building,\\nerected by the liberality of the town of Leipsic, and have the same director.\\nThe subjects and the order of succession of the different courses are good\\n18", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "274\\nBURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC.\\nthere is a constant reference to the ultimate object of the instruction, and no\\nbranches are inserted in the programme merely for the purpose of preparing\\npupils for the higher classes of other schools. It is, on the contrary, considered\\nbetter that pupils should obtain access to them through the lower classes of the\\nsame school. By detaining them here, injury would be done to both schools.\\nThe primary instruction which is common to all the pupils, embraces a moderate\\nnumber of branches, and terminates at an age when experience has shown that\\nthe culture by the ancient languages should be no longer postponed, in the case\\nof those who are intended for the learned professions, and when the studies of\\nothers destined for the arts should take a different direction. The question,\\nwhether the proper age has been adopted for this separation is wholly one of experi-\\nence, and the facts in reference to it will be submitted in speaking of secondary\\ninstruction.\\nThe subjects taught and the time they occupy in the elementary school agtee\\nvery closely with those of the first two classes* in the seminary school of Berlin.\\nDrawing on slates and singing are both introduced here, constituting an advan-\\ntage over the other they are brought in as a relief from intellectual exercises,\\nand as objects of direct attainment. The number of hours of duty is but four on\\nfour days of the week, and two on each of the others. These might, I think, be\\nincreased to the standard of the primary schools, twenty-four hours per week,\\nwithout fear of over-tasking the pupils and if a portion of the time were be-\\nstowed on judiciously arranged exercises, the physical as well as moral education\\nwould be improved. The moral training of the play-ground is not as yet an ele-\\nment in any of the German systems. The same master teaches in succession all\\nthe studies of his class.\\nThe pupils pass from the third to the second class at the end of six months, a\\nchange which is favorable to their progress, since at this early age strongly marked\\ndifferences appear soon after entering the school. With a similar view of fitness\\nm regard to their age, the plan of daily exercises is not rigorously prescribed, but\\nis merely indicated to serve as a general guide in relation to the time to be devoted\\nto the different subjects.\\nI found occasion in this school to remark the danger of defeating the exercises\\nof induction, by making them merely mechanical, by the reception of fixed\\nanswers to invariable questions and, also, the necessity of selecting very simple\\nmelodies for the early exercises in singing; beyond these, the exertion of the\\nvoice of the child, so far from being a physical benefit, is a positive injury. My\\npreference for beginning arithmetic with a reference to sensilile objects, that is, by\\ndenominate numbers, was again strongly confirmed.\\nIt might seem impossible to determine how many pupils of a definite age might,\\nwith advantage, be inti usted to the care of one teacher under a given method of\\ninstruction. The average for branches of the same kind is not, however, so wide\\nfrom the extremes as might at first be supposed. In the simultaneous method,\\nthe skill of the teacher is the chief determining quality. The various subordinate\\nones depending upon the pupil, the particular exercise, the arrangements in refer-\\nence to ventilation, warmth, c., will readily suggest themselves. In the midst\\nof all these, the average shows itself to attentive observation. It is easy to see\\nhow many pupils are attending to what is going on, and if the teacher be skilled\\nin his art, the number is thus obtained, which a class should not exceed. For the\\nintellectual exercises, I obtained in this way from thirty-five to forty in the Ger-\\nman schools as the maximum number of an elementary class the observation in\\nreference to the classes of the best teachers here confirmed these numbers. In\\nthe mechanical branches, the number of pupils may be very much increased,\\nwithout material injury to the instruction, and hence, the classification which suits\\nthem is not adapted to the intellectual departments.\\nThe principal subjects of instruction in the burgher school, including both the\\nlower and higher departments, are religion and morals, German, French, arith-\\nmetic, geometry, natural history, history, geography, calligraphy, drawing, and\\nvocal music, and to these are added in the highest classes technology and physics.\\nThe list differs from that of the Dorothean higher city school, and the seminary\\nschool of Berlin, in the omission of Latin and the introduction of technology and\\nSee page 133.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC.\\n275\\nphysics, both which differences mark the proper character of the school. It is\\nnot intended that the upper classes shall prepare pupils for the higher classes of the\\ngymnasium, but that those who are to be trained in the classical studies shall have\\npreviously passed to the lower classes of the gymnasium, where they properly\\nbelong, and where they can obtain the instruction appropriate to their objects.\\nThe distribution of time is shown in the annexed table, which is similar in its\\narrangement to those already given.\\nPLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN THE HIGHER AND LOWER\\nBURGHER SCHOOLS OF LEIPSIC.\\n8UBJE0T3\\nBURGBEK SCHOOL FOR BOTS.\\nHiGHBR School.\\nLower Scbool.\\na,\\n?n\\nOF\\ns\\nINSTRUOTION.\\nM-a\\n2\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2s\\nb-9\\n^1\\nin \u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nH\\nc\\nM\\n4\\n24\\nReligious Instruction,\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n4\\nGerman Language,*\\n5\\n6\\n8\\n6\\n8\\n6\\n39\\nFrench,\\n2\\ny\\ny\\n6\\nArithmetic,\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n4+\\n6\\n6\\n28\\nGeometry,\\n2\\ny\\n2\\n6\\nNatural History,\\nU\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2^\\n12\\nTechnology,\\n2\\n2\\nPhysics,\\n2\\n2\\nGeography\\ny\\ny\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n10\\nHistory,\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n2\\nlU\\nWriting,\\n1\\n2\\n2\\n3\\n3\\n4\\n15\\nDrawing,\\n4\\n4\\n3\\n3\\n2\\n1\\n17\\nSinging,\\na\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n1\\n1\\n26\\n10\\nTotal,\\n33\\n33\\n33\\n28\\n28\\nThe increase in the number of branches as the pupils rise to the upper classes,\\nseems to me judiciously made in this plan. At the same time, the number of\\nhours per week is gradually increased, and perhaps beyond the due limit, though\\nit would require longer attention than I could give to this institution to affirm pos-\\nitively that this is the case. Comparing the programme with that of the classes\\nof corresponding age in the seminary school of Berlin, a general similarity appears\\nthroughout, although each has distinctive features. In the sixth class, of which\\nthe pupils are of the same age with those of the fourth in the seminary school, a\\nfew lessons of natural history and geography knowledge of home are given,\\nand with advantage. The number of hours per Week devoted to the different\\nstudies is nearly the same in both schools.\\nIn the fifth class, natural history and history are introduced in the burgher\\nschool, and in its corresponding classes in the seminary school, Latin, French, and\\ngeometry. The number of hours of arithmetical instruction is greater in this\\nschool than in the other.\\nA similar difference continues in the fourth class, as it is not the object to begin\\nFrench until after those who leave the school at ifourteen have terminated their\\ncourse. The elementary exercises of geometry are begun in this class of the\\nburgher school.\\nThe third class is the first or lowest of the higher burgher school, and the pro-\\nThis includes the exercises of reading.\\nt In this is included an hour of preparatory exercises for geometry.\\nJ Anthropology.\\nElementary natural history and natural philosophy.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "2*JQ BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC.\\ngramme of this and of the second agree in the main with those of the seminary\\nschool. Greater attention is devoted to religious instruction, to arithmetic, and\\ndrawing, and less to French, in the burgher than in the seminary school. The\\nnumber of hours given to the first named branch in the burgher school is double\\nthat in the other, and the number to the last only one-half, which is, probably, too\\nsmall an allotment for the object. Technology and physics are taken up in the\\nfirst class of the Leipsic school, and Latin is continued through all those of the\\nBerlin institution.\\nIn regard to the plan of treating the subjects of instruction, the following is a\\ncomparison of the two schools\\n1. In religious instruction, the general train is the same, being more detailed\\nin the burgher school, and having a special course of morals in the higher classes.\\nIn general, the German institutions are very free from an objection urged to a\\ncourse of religious instruction, in a former part of my report, namely, that it was\\naddressed rather to the understanding than to the heart. There is no express\\ninstruction in morals, but it is because the morals of the Scriptures mingle with\\ntheir daily lessons, and no special course is needed, until a more advanced age,\\nthan that embraced by these schools in general.\\n2. The course of German language (including composition) and reading, is\\nparallel with that of the Berlin seminary school, except in the two higher classes,\\nlu these a turn is given to the compositions to adapt them to the peculiar destina-\\ntion of the pupils, who are also exercised in speaking, by reading dialogues and\\nbrief dramatic pieces. In a country enjoying a constitutional government, the art\\nof public speaking may not be neglected by its citizens.\\n3. The course of French, in the burgher school, struck me as rather defective,\\nprobably from the small amount of time which is devoted to it, as already stated.\\n4. Matheinatics. The courses of arithmetic and geometry are also parallel with\\nthose in the seminary school. The mathematical studies here are extended further\\nin Algebra, and include logarithms, mensuration, and surveying.\\n5. Natural history, physics, and technology. The early beginnings of this\\nOMirse are exercises in induction, directed particularly to awaken habits of obser-\\nvation and reflection. Later, some of the more interesting parts of natural history\\nare taken up, and, finally, the subject is treated somewhat systematically, and a\\ntechnological direction given to it. The physics consists of such popular notions\\nof natural phenomena as should be possessed by all. The technology explains the\\nprocesses of some of the common arts and trades.\\n6. The course of geography begins like that already described at Halle, but\\nsubsequently pursues the inverse order, giving an idea of the earth as a part of\\nthe world, its form, motions, c. Director Vogel has conceived the plan of pre-\\nsenting the parts of the earth always in their just proportions, as upon the sphere,\\nand has contrived for this purpose a globe which may be divided through the\\nequator or through a meridian. The hemisphere being suspended with its plain\\nsurface against the wall, presents the convex surface, with its delineations, in true\\nproportion. This idea he proposes to extend, by substituting for maps, in the early\\nrecitations, portions of spherical surfaces, with the delineations of the countries\\nupon them.\\nAfter taking a general survey of the different countries, especially those of\\nEurope, the pupils pass to the geography of Germany. They then enter more\\ninto the details of the countries of Europe, draw maps, and, finally, study mathe-\\nmatical and physical geography in a scientific form. To carry out his views of\\nthe connection of history, natural history, and ethnography with geography,\\ndirector Vogel has prepared a school atlas upon a new plan. The vignettes sur-\\nrounding the maps contain illustrations of these different kindred branches, and\\naddress the eye of the learner, thus impressing the memory with their connection\\nwith the countries delineated. For example, around the maps representing the\\ndifferent quarters of the globe are the characteristic plants, animals, and men of\\nthe different regions near to the portions of the country where they are found.\\nThe more detailed maps of the countries give a view of their natural productions,\\nrepresent the more prominent or characteristic qualities of the nation, the arts which\\nflourish more particularly among them, and give medallions portraying their great\\nhistorical characters, or including the names of their distinguished men, or the\\ndati:s of impwtaut historical events.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. 277\\n7. The historical course, as far as it is distinct from that last mentioned, agrees,\\nin its general features, with that of the Berlin seminary school, being, however,\\nmore minute.\\n8. Writing and drawing. In learning to write, the classes begin with small\\nhand, and succeed better than is usual upon that plan, probably from the atten-\\ntion, at the same time, to drawing. The last named branch is taught by Schmidt s\\nmethod. The teacher has made an admirable collection of models in wood and\\nplaster, of geometrical solids, of machines, of buildings, bridges, and the like, of\\nornaments, c., and brings his class forward in this kind of drawing very rapidly.\\nOnly the more elementary parts of these collections, however, are used for the\\nclasses of the burgher school.\\n9. Vocal music is taught as in the other schools\\nThe particular method which the teacher pursues in his instruction is left much\\nto the individual, the director remarking, justly, that if he is competent to his\\nplace, his method must be good. He has for his guide, however, a programme\\nindicating the degree of proficiency which his class must show at the end of the\\nyear.\\nIn the lower classes of a school like this, if the pupils have been previously well\\ntrained, a larger number can be instructed by the simultaneous method than in\\ntile elementary classes, in a subject of the same kind. This advantage is lost as\\nthe course becomes higher, and the scale turns again in proportion as individual\\nteaching becomes more desirable, with mcreased individual development and dif-\\nferences in mental quality. The simultaneous method requires watchfulness on\\nthe part of the teacher, not to deceive himself as to the progress of his class. It\\nis, of course, rarely that a question can not be answered by some of them, while\\nthe mass may be entirely ignorant in relation to the subject. I have seen both\\nskill and attention fall into the mistake to which I refer.\\nBetween each of the hours of recitation there are a few minutes of interval,\\nduring which the classes leave the school-rooms. This is an arrangement favora-\\nble to health, and vi orthy of imitation.\\nThe lower classes have each a teacher for all the subjects, a system which is\\ngradually changed in the higher classes for that of a teacher for a single subject.\\nDrawing and singing are taught by special instructors in the higher classes.\\nThe classes for girls are similar to those described, the instruction being modi-\\nfied so as to render it more applicable to the sex.\\nThe plan of instruction in the Real School,^^ the highest of which this estab-\\nlishment is composed, can hardly be said to have received, as yet, its ultimate\\nform. The school belongs to the class of secondary instruction, running parallel\\nwith the gymnasium, and preparing for the university of the arts, or polytechnic\\nschool, as the other prepares for the imiversity of the learned professions. The\\nbranches taught, and which I may enumerate, to complete the description of the\\ninstitution, are,\\n1. Religious instruction. 2. German. 3. French. 4. English. 5. Mathe-\\nmatics, including algebra geometry, trigonometry, plane and spherical practi-\\ncal surveying a review of arithmetic and technical arithmetic. 6. Physics and\\nchemistry. 7. Natural history. 8. History. 9. Geography. 10. Calhgraphy.\\n11. Drawing. 12. Vocal music.\\nThe separate branches in this school are in general taught by special instruc-\\ntors. The methods of Pestalozzi are considered by the director as less applicable\\nto the higher than to the lower courses. But 1 doubt this, for though much less\\nfrequently applied, I have seen them used with good effect in advanced courses.\\nThe opposite method takes up less time if the object be to conununicate positive\\nknowledge, and the importance of this object certainly increases, and even be-\\ncomes paramount, in the later parts of the student s career. The objection\\nurged to this plan does not apply in the case of those subjects which are contin-\\nuous through a series of years, but to such as are broken up into a number of\\nkindred branches, the elements of which are to be taught at different, and even\\nat advanced stages of the course.\\nThe plan of special study hours for those whose parents wish them to be pre-\\npared for their lessons under the direction of a teacher, has been adopted in this\\nschool.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "278 BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC.\\nMr. Kay thus speaks of the public schools of Leipsic and Dresden.\\nIt was delightful to enter one of these well classified German schools, in which\\nall the children are divided according to their acquirements, into as many classes\\nas the school contains rooms one educated teacher is placed over each class, and\\nby having only children of the same degree of knowledge under his care, he is\\nable to give his class-lessons to all his children at one time, without being obliged\\nto divide them, and his thoughts and attention also. Every thing showed us,\\nthat all the details of instruction had been thoroughly and carefully considered.\\nThe size, careful ventilation, and cleanliness of the rooms their arrangement\\nand furniture, and the character of the apparatus, with which they were filled,\\nall told us, that the Saxon people and the Saxon government understood the im-\\nportance of the great work of the people s education, and knew that its perfection\\ndepended on a scientific regulation of all the details of school management. I\\nvisited, also, several of the primary schools in Dresden, and found them equally\\nadmirable for their classification, for the number, size, cleanliness, ventilation, and\\ngood arrangement of their class-rooms for the character and numbers of the\\nteachers connected with them for the scientific character of the instruction given\\nin them for the order, quiet, and excellent discipline of the class-rooms for the\\nsuggestive and awakening nature of the methods of instruction pursued in the\\nclasses for the gentlemanly and intelligent bearing of the teachers for the\\ncleanly, healthy, and comfortable appearance of the children, and for the friendly-\\nrelations of scholars and teachers.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY EDUCATION\\nSAXONY.\\nWe are indebted for the following account of the gymnasium or\\nschool for secondary instruction in Saxony, mainly, to Dr. Hermann\\nWimmer, of Dresden. Dr. Wimmer* was educated in the common\\nschool, gymnasium, anduniversity of his native country; was trained for\\na classical teacher in the philological seminary of Hermann and Klotz,\\nat Leipsic, and was for several years professor in the Fitzhum gymna-\\nsium or Blochmann college at Dresden, one of the best classical schools\\nin Germany.\\nThe gymnasia of Saxony are partly boarding and partly day schools.\\nThe most celebrated of the former at Meissen. Grimma, and Schulpforte,\\nwere established at the date of the Reformation by the electors of Sax-\\nony on the foundation of the old monasteries or cloisters, the buildings\\nand funds being thus diverted from ecclesiastical to educational purposes.\\nThese schools are known as Furstenschulen, or Prince schools, or\\nKlosterschulen, or Cloister school, from the circumstances of their founda-\\ntion. These old boarding gymnasia are called, by Dr, Wimmer. the\\nhearths of classical learning in Germany. The gymnasium of Pforta,\\n(schola Portensis,) was opened for pupils in 1543, the funds of the old\\nmonastery having been sequestered by the electoral Prince Maurice, on\\nthe advice of Luther, for this purpose. In 1815, the school passed with\\nthe province in which it is located into the dominions of Prussia. The\\nfoundation yielded, in 1838, a revenue of $30,000, on which one hundred\\nand seventy beneficiaries (intraners) were lodged, boarded, and in-\\nstructed. In most of the boarding gymnasia there are a class of pupils,\\n(extraners,) whose tuition is free, but who board, at their own expense,\\nwith the professors. Besides the Fursten, or Prince schools, there were\\nin all the large cities, a gymnasia supported by municipal taxation and\\nprivate tuition, and managed by the municipal authorities. But within\\nthe last few years most of the gymnasia have been merged in the bur-\\ngher or higher elementary school, leaving eight or ten to be aided and\\ncontrolled by the government, and which are continued as classical\\nschools. These are open day schools, and are situated in the larger\\ncities, where the parents of most of the pupils reside.\\nBetween the Fursten, or strictly boarding schools, and the open or day\\ngymnasia, there are two of a peculiar character the Thomas school\\nat Leipsic, and the Blochmann-vizthum gymnasium at Dresden. The\\nDr. Wimmer is now (1852) engaged in preparing for the press in Dresden, his observa-\\ntions on Education and Religion in the United States the results of his visit to this couij.\\ntry in 1850-. jl The work will be sold by B. Westermann Co., 290 Broadway, New York.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "280 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY.\\nThomas school is partly a classical and partly a musical institution more\\nthan half of its students form the great vocal choir of the Thomas\\nchurch, and is celebrated for its performances on Saturday s and Sun-\\nday s. Those students called alumni, have their. tuition and board free,\\nand in the latter part of their college life earn some money by their oc-\\ncasional singing. A similar musical class exists in connection with other\\ncity gymnasia, but the musical instruction is not carried so far. We\\ngive a more particular account of the Blochmann institution.\\nBLOCHMANN-VIZTHUM GYMNASIUM AT DRESDEN.\\nThe Blochmaim-vizthum gymnasium combines within itself a classical, and a\\nreal or scientific school, and a preparatory school, or progymnasium. It is both a\\nboarding and day school, and pai-takes of a public and private character,\\nbeing under the direction of the government authorities as a public school, and\\nsupported in part out of funds left by Covint Vizthum at the beginning of the 1 7th\\ncentury, for the education of children of the Vizthum and other noble families,\\nand for a number of poor boys who are clothed, boarded, and educated as com-\\npanions of the young nobles to stimulate them by their zeal and diligence.\\nAll the boarding students, about eighty, are distributed into nine rooms. The\\nbccupants of a room are under the special care of one of the teachers, who has\\ngenerally an adjoining dvt elling-room. He is interested in their moral and intel-\\nlectual welfare, is applied to by the teachers who see any thing in their pupils to\\ncommend or to blame, and by the parents who wish to hear something about\\ntheir physical or spiritual health he gives the allowance of money for buying\\nbooks, clothes, or whatever they want briefly, he is the representative of the\\nabsent parent, and enjoys usually the respect, confidence, and love of his pupils.\\nThey come but occasionally and for a few moments to their room, to get books or\\nsomething else out of their secretaries, or in stormy days they are allowed to pass\\na leisure hour there but the neighboring teacher has no oversight of them, unless\\nhe is disturbed in his studies by their noise, and then he gives them to under-\\nstand, by knocking at the door, that he is at home, which generally suffices to\\nprevent any further interference. The order of the day is exclusively committed\\nto the Inspectors of the day. For every day two professors are intrusted with\\nthis responsible ofiiee, so that every oflicer has the ambiguous honor and the tire-\\nsome task of sharing with a colleague for one day of the week the command over\\nthe whole. On that day he must see that the students rise (at 5 o clock in the\\nsummer, at 6 in the winter,) must be present at the first breakfast, superintend\\nthe study hours from 5f A. M. to 8 P. M. (all study in four adjoining class-rooms,)\\nlead singing and praying in the chapel, keep order before the lessons begin, ascer-\\ntain whether all the teachers in the nine classes are present before he leaves for\\nhis recitation or lodging-room, must be in the garden at the time of second break-\\nfast fi om 9 J to lOy, in stormy days go over the classes and rooms, and so again\\nfroom 11 or 12 till 3, when the lessons commence again and continue till 4f and\\nagain from 5| till 8 are study hours, in which he must be every where and nowhere,\\nand on Wednesdays and Saturdays he must be the walking or bathing-compan-\\nion of half the section. At 8 is supper time at 9, the great mass must go to bed,\\nand only such students of the superior classes as are to be trusted, are permitted\\nto study until 10, when the tired inspectors take their last round through the\\nbedrooms, to ascertain whether all are asleep or are likely to be in good order,\\nand then, imless something extraordinary has happened during the day, satisfied\\nvrith themselves and their day s work, they retire to their rooms. Except the\\nday scholars, no pupil is allowed to leave the house to make a social visit without\\na ticket of permission from his special tutor, signed likewise by the director, where\\nthe time of leaving is mentioned and the statement of the time of arriving and\\nleaving again is expected fi-om the hand of the visited person.\\nBesides the three or four study hours, under the superintendence of the two\\ninspectors, which are considered sufficient for the necessary preparation and repe-\\ntition, the students are bound to be in the garden, walking, running, playing, or\\nexercising in some way. It is in this free time, also, that lessons on the piano, in", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. 281\\nsinging, gymnastics, fencing, dancing, and riding, are given. Only the last houi*\\nof the evening is allowed to the older students for staying in their rooms. In this\\nrespect the Vizthum gymnasium takes the extreme view, and, for aught we know,\\nthe practice of studying in the room, adopted by the other colleges, seems to be\\ngenerally preferable to that of studying in full classes. But it is the authority of\\nthe older^Btudents, on which the practicability and the success of studying in\\ncommon rooms, without the inspection of quite as many tutors, chiefly depends,\\nand the character of the institution as well as the demand of rational supervision,\\nseem to have been the causes of an arrangement not sufficiently comfortable to\\nmake studying the great pleasure of life, as one might experience in the common\\nrooms of the Fiirstenschool, or in the private chambers of students in city gymna-\\nsia. There is a conference of the twelve chief teachers on Saturdays, the Direc-\\ntor being Chairman and the youngest professor secretaiy, in which the events of\\nthe week are spoken of and disciplinary measures taken. The private teachers\\nhave no access but in cases where they are particularly concerned. Every pro-\\nfessor has the right of punishing, and the private teachers may apply for it to the\\ninspector. To make use of that painful right, the teacher as such is but rarely\\nforced, oftener in the quality of inspector, and it will be understood, almost nevei-\\nas special tutor. Corporeal punishment is forbidden. The common penalty is de-\\nprivation of one of the meals the highest is imprisonment. It happens in the\\nBloehmann institution, that to malefactors of inveterate habits flogging is applied,\\nbut only to those of the two preparatoiy classes, and by decree of the conference,\\nand in presence of the directors. In the common gymnasia, where professors\\nand students meet with each other only in the recitation rooms, there is less\\nchance of transgressing laws, the law of the class-room being but one, and that\\nevery moment impressed upon the mind of the would-be-transgressor by the pres-\\nence of the law-giver and judge, but habitual indolence and laziness will meet\\nwith something more than a sermon on diligence, which would be like casting a\\nbrilliant pearl before a swine a few involuntaiy study-hours for making a Latin\\node appeals better and more successfully to the stubborn heart. It is never too\\nlate to mend hence expulsion from the college is and ought to be a rare case, and\\nsuch a victim has usually gone, before, through the dark hole called career, which\\nis known to ninety-nine per cent, of the gymnasiasts more by name than by sight.\\nThere is generally speaking, in the German gymnasia, a strict discipline, without\\nany Spartan severity and without Basedow s philanthropical sweetness. Of\\ncourse, there have been a great many students who never, in their college life,\\nheard a harsh word nor saw a stern look but others, who are not well prepared,\\nor are inattentive, or noisy, or have written their compositions carelessly, or com-\\nmitted a misdemeanor that comes to the ears of professors, are generally dealt with\\nin good, plain German, and without gloves, and a repetition may lead, by a\\nlong graduation, or rather degradation, to the hole. In the common gymnasia,\\nthe professors do not interfere with the private hfe of the students, unless some\\ncharge is brought against them by a citizen.\\nA gymnasium ordinarily consists of four classes, called Prima, (the highest, or\\nseniors,) Secunda, Tartia, and Quarta, (lowest^ or freshman,) and each of these\\nclasses are usually divided into two parts, upper and lower. In this institution\\nthere are six classes, including the progymnasium.\\nPupils are received into the progymnasium at nine or ten years of age, and\\nwith the attainments of the elementary period. In this school, which has two\\nclasses, they remain until from thirteen to fourteen. Its courses are the following\\nBible history, and religion, the German language, the Latin, French, history, arith-\\nmetic, knowledge of forms, geography, natural history, drawing, and writing.\\nFrom the upper class of the progymnasium, the pupils pass to the gymnasium, in\\nwhich there are four classes. The courses are of religion, Latin, Greek, German\\nlanguage and literature, French, mathematics, history, geography, natural phi-\\nlosophy, natural history, music, and drawing. From the fourth or lowest class of\\nthe gymnasium, the pupil who is not intended to go to the university enters the\\nreal gymnasium, or scientific school, in which there are two classes, and the\\nduration of the studies of which is one year less than that of the classical g|Tnna-\\nsium. In this the French and English, and the scientific studies, replace the\\nclassics, except a portion of Latin, which is still kept up. The comses consist of\\nreUgion, German language and literatui-e, Latin, French, English, mathematics,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "282\\nSECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY.\\nphysics, chemistry, natural history, mechanics, history, geography, drawing, auJ\\nmusic. The distribution of the time of study in the principal branches agrees en-\\ntirely with that of the two upper classes of the Royal Real School at Berlin,\\nalready described.\\nThe arrangements for the superintendence of the pupils in this institution are,\\nin the main, like those of Pforta. Pupils called inspectors are selected, apd super-\\nintend their fellows when in the play-ground and at study, and there are two mas-\\nters always on duty as superintendents. The physical education of the pupils is\\nvery well attended to, and the alterations of exercise and study have a very gno.^\\neffect. These alterations will appear by the following order of the day\\nThe boarders rise at six o clock, and breakfast at a quarter to seven. From a\\nquarter to seven to a quarter to eight, study under the superintendence of the two\\nteachers on duty. Pupils living out of the house join in this study hour. Prayers.\\nFrom eight to a quarter to ten, instruction. Quarter to ten to quarter after ten,\\nplay in the garden, and a light second breakfast. Quarter after ten to twelve, in-\\nstruction. Twelve to one, instruction in instrumental and vocal music, gymnastic\\nexercises, dancing, or free to play in the grounds under the charge of the two\\nsuperintendents, At one, the day scholars leave the institution. Quarter after\\none to two, dinner. Two to three, play under charge of the inspectors. Three\\nto quarter of five, instruction. On Wednesday and Saturday, walks. Quarter\\nto five to quarter after five, lunch and recreation. Quarter after five to eight,\\nstudy under charge and aided by the inspectors. Eight, supper. At nine the\\nyounger pupils retire, the older ones study until ten.\\nThe mathematical instruction in this school is continued, even in the higher\\nbranches, upon the inductive plan, and is the most effective which I have ever\\nseen. It consists of a mixture of explanation and question, and of oral and writ-\\nten exercises in the class-room. The recitations are upon the previous lessons,\\nand upon questions given to be solved out of the class-room, and the written exer-\\ncises are solutions of questions and notes of the explanation of the previous lesson.\\nThe collections in natural history are superior to those possessed by any other\\ngymnasium which I visited. Both this and the physical apparatus afford very\\nconsiderable means of illustration in these departments. The chemical laboratory,\\nin a building apart from the house, is very conveniently arranged, both for instruc-\\ntion and experiments by the pupUs.\\nThe time of a gymnasium life varies with the progress of the student in literary\\nacquirements. There are generally semi-annual transfers from one division to the\\nother, and in very rare cases it might happen that an excellent student would\\nfinish his course in four years, remaining in each division but half a year, and on the\\nother hand, a first-rate idler might stay as long as eight years. Hence, the average\\nnumber of college years is six. The student, advancing from one class to another,\\nfinds there a remaining stock of students superior to himself, if not in talents, at\\nleast in acquaintance with the studies and with the professor of the class. After\\na three months study and experience, the able student may leap over that\\nboundary and put himself on a level with his older companions and then he will\\nbe transferred with them to the next class. It is easier to do so in the inferior\\nclasses (lower gymnasium, IV. and III.,) where the order of the students is\\narranged according to their studies in the class, but in the upper gymnasium more\\nrespect is paid to the time and common order, though some capital scholar will\\nbreak through, while some sluggard will be left behind. There is, also, a good\\ndeal of difference in this respect between the different schools, some having only\\nannual translations, while only a part of the classes are divided 5 however, the\\nway of advancement is in all the same, except only in the Blochmann gymnasium,\\nwhere four regular courses of one year and a half each, carry the student in six\\nyears through the four undivided classes.\\nHistory flourishes in the German colleges to a high degree, not only the history\\nof ancient Greece and Rome learned by reading the various authors, but also the\\nuniversal history of the civilized world. The professor of history may be sure to\\nhave an attentive class, eager to hear of old German liberty beside the Roman\\ndespotism, of the Teutonic race conquering the Roman Europe, first running wild\\nin their braveiy, then grafting Christian civilization on the healthy stems of the\\ngreat empire imder Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, and under the Hohen-\\nstaufen, of the Franks and Normanns in Gallia, of the Saxons and Angles in", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. 283\\nBritain, of the Longobards in Italy, of the sea-power of the Northmen, of the\\nfree cities of the Middle Ages, of the Reformation, and of the American Revolu-\\ntion. In history and mathematics generally, the divisions of a class are united.\\nHowever, in those gymnasia where semi-annual transfers are in use, the teacher\\nof mathematics may have a good deal of trouble, whereas history may be taught\\nin short periods, and easily made intelligible to any one by brief introductions or\\nBome private study. We pass by geography, natural history, and philosophy,\\nwhich have only a short life in the lowest or highest classes.\\nThe circumstances, that mathematics and history are usually taught by one pro-\\nfessor each, facilitates somewhat the teaching, as it at least gives free scope to the\\nprofessor to make his arrangements as he pleases, while the Greek and Latin are\\nmostly taught by class-teachers. The average number of teachers is eight, five\\nor six of them called professors in some gymnasia, upper-teachers in others or\\naccording to their rank Rector or Director, Prorector or Rector, Collega III. (Ter-\\ntius,) Collega IV. (Quartus,) etc., and two or three Adjunct! or Collaboratores.\\nEach one of them has his respective class, with several lessons in the adjoining\\nclasses. It will be understood that this matter depends on the agreement of the\\nconference, and that the colleges, therefore, differ from each other in this respect,\\nsometimes considerably. But to a certain degree it exists even in the Blochmann\\nCollege, where there is no difference of rank among the professors, and the\\nteachers are appointed not for classes but their respective branches. However,\\nthere being four teachers of ancient languages, they have each, besides teaching\\nin all, one class in which they have their chief work. Wliat four and more\\nteachers, only to instruct in the ancient languages Yes, and all these have their\\ngood week s work. And the ancient languages are not only equally taught\\nthroughout the whole college, but even to a greater extent in the highest classes.\\nBesides, an American student has only three recitations a day, a German at least\\nfive lessons hence it is obvious that a greater nimiber of teachers is wanted in\\nGerman than in American schools.\\nWe have arrived now at an important point of difference. It lies in the char-\\nacter of recitations and lessons. In Germany the student prepares for the les-\\nson here the student prepares by learning the lesson. In Germany he receives\\nhis entire lesson from the teacher here he recites his lesson to the teacher.\\nThere he repeats his lesson at home here he repeats it before the teacher.\\nBriefly, there he learns almost every thing from the teachers here he learns the\\ngreater part from his books. We hope not to be misunderstood it is the con-\\nstruction of the machine, not the managing of it, which we have drawn here in\\nsharp lines too sharp, indeed, to be entirely correct, as it is the case with all dis-\\ntinctions of that kind, and yet evidently characteristic. Generally speaking, an\\nAmerican student has for preparing his lesson double the time of the recitation hour\\na German but half the time besides that, private study being supposed and required\\nas well there as here. Here the class or lesson-book is the fireman who makes\\nthe steam power, and the teacher the engineer who makes it run. There the\\nteacher is both fireman and engineer, and the student need to do no more than re-\\nmember his last trip, and bring a suppljtof fuel for his fui-ther progress. Hence\\nthe greater number of lessons and teachers. It follows, likewise, that a German\\nstudent usually has his pen in hand to make notes for recording and repeating,\\nand on the other hand that the professor has the most unlimited liberty in teach-\\ning what and how he pleases. There is naturally a great deal of danger in that,\\nbut a method prescribed to the teacher in spite of his will, disposition or capacity,\\nwould bear even more bitter fruits than a method of his own choice, though it\\nwere not the best. Yet he is not free in choosing the author, at least so far as he\\nmight interfere with other classes, or transgress the established rule of the college\\non account of the successive order to be observed. That order, adopted by most\\nof them according to the agreement of the most competent judges, is generally\\nthe following\\nIV. Cornelius Nepos, (Phaedrus.) IV. Jacob s Reader.\\nHI. Caesar. Ovid s Metamorphoses, (Tristia.) III. Xenophon. Lucian. Odyssey.\\nII. Cicero s Orations, or Cato and Laelius. II. Herodotus. Plutarch. Plato s Crito or\\nSallust or Livy. Virgil. lo. Iliad.\\nJ. Cicero s Rhetoric or Philos, Tacitus. I. Thucydides. Demosthenes. Plato. (Eu^\\nHorace. ripides.) Sophocles.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "284 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY.\\nThe two diflferent methods of reading the classics, the thorough and the cur-\\nsory, and the third running between them, are promiscuously used. Let us com-\\npare the first with the artillery, the second with the cavalry, and the third with\\nthe infantry, as the head, the feet, and the large body of the army. The first is a\\nhea% y, cumbersome mass, moving slowly yet reaching far, and the only means to\\nmake a fortress surrender. It requires both learning and skill, and, if well di-\\nrected, it breaks the battle-array of the enemies. So the fii st method is the chief\\ninstriunent for making the pupil master of the classical field. It may appear tedi-\\nous to stay long on the same spot, where the prospect invites to proceed, but the\\npresent place must be wholly conquered with all its environs, while the charms of\\nthe view around, the safety from an attack of enemies in the rear, and the con-\\nsciousness of a sure and safe progress, will conquer the worst enemy, the vagrant\\nlaziiii ;s of mind. No grammatical point, which is not entirely subdued, is to be\\npassed by, no beauty of style to be overlooked, no nicety of thought to be slighted.\\nIt is true, not a little learning and taste is required from the oflScer, to make it in-\\nteresting and useful for how can he make others at home where he himself is a\\nstranger Or how may he avoid the danger of dwelling long on those points\\nwith which he has been made acquainted just before, and of caring little about\\nthose which did not attract his special attention, as already known to him super-\\nficially Instances of abuse have not been rare in Germay. Some dictated nil\\nthe later notes of the best commentators perhaps one whole page to explain a\\nsingle verse, and added at last their own judgment others made the foreign vns-\\ndom their own, indeed, but it was not well digested, it could not inspire much\\ninterest in classical learning. Still, notwithstanding all this, the danger was not\\nso great as one might imagine, there being a variety of classical teachers in every\\ngymnasium, who bold one another in check, or rather who supply the deficiencies\\nof each other. Thus it happens even, that their foibles turn out as so many ad-\\nvantages for the student.\\nThe cursory method we have compared with tlie cavalry. It is good to recon-\\nnoitre the battle-field, to take possession of open places, and to destroy the enemy,\\nhen he is put to flight. No one should expect more from cursory reading. On\\nthe whole, it is not often used in the German colleges, because it contains not\\nmuch of educational element, either for character or for learning. However, we\\nthink it the best way to let it precede, and follow the first method. It acquaints\\nthe pupil somewhat with the language and tone of the writer, and thereby makes\\nthe following more thorough reading easier and more interesting. Here the pro-\\nfessor must carry the student over the fences and ditches. It should follow not\\nonly that the pupil may enjoy the reading of a larger piece of poetry or prose,\\nand excite lasting attachment to the author, but that it may throw light upon the\\npast subjects, make suggestions better understood and confirm the knowledge of\\nlanguage and style by silent repetition. Here the student must carry the profes-\\nsor, who, however, will make a wise use of bridle and spur. Rapidity of mind\\nand elegance of taste are the chief requisites for giving to the third method of\\nX eading the right turn and the best success. Every thing good lies between ex-\\ntremes. Most teachers are common foot soldiers, neither laden with learning nor\\nrapid in tastefal perception neither fond of standing too long, nor of running\\ntoo quickly, but they go duly on, as they are commanded by learning or custom.\\nIn modern times much has been done toward improving the method by uniting\\nthe obvious advantages of the thorough and cursory plan, in order to read more\\nof the author without losing the right understanding and the acquisition of the\\nFor author-lessons, a student is required to know all the necessary words\\nand be able in some degree to translate the following chapter. Four or five per-\\nhaps get parts of it for translating. This being done, the teacher commences ex-\\nplaining by asking whatever the character of the passage and the standing of the\\nstudents allow. In the lower gymnasium the Latin prose is used for repeating\\nand applying the rules spoken of in the Syntax lessons in the upper gymnasium\\ngrammatical remarks occur seldom, more frequently rhetorical, assthetical and his-\\ntorical ones. Etymologj is never lost sight of, but it is confined to Latin and\\nGreek stems. The students are expected to make notes, to read them over at\\nhome, and are sometimes directed to learn the passages that have been read by\\nheart.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONT. 285\\nThe editions of the classics used in the lessons are commonly without notes, and\\nthe use of such, as have all somewhat difficult passages explained is forbidden dur-\\ning the lesson-time. A good teacher keeps the whole class alive chiefly by ques-\\ntioning, and only when nobody has found the right or could find it, he formally\\nbegins to instruct. For although the professor is the only source of instruction,\\nthe character of classical teaching is such, that it may be easily interwoven with\\nany kind of examination, and few questions, proposed by an experienced and skill-\\nful teacher, will be so difficult as not to find among the many youths of different\\nacquirements and abilities, at least one who could give a satisfactory answer. We\\nmean an answer that gives a part of the point in question, and leads successively\\nto the full explanation, which afterward the professor in a few words recapitulates.\\nBut however correct the single remarks may be, that instruction only deserves to\\nbe called skillful and elegant, where every following question seems to originate\\nfrom the preceding, and the whole series of remarks appears to be more or less\\ninternally connected.\\nIn Prima, criticism is practiced to some extent, and, we believe, not unsuccess-\\nfully. To be sure to discern hair-breadth philological niceties, or to judge of the\\ngenuineness of a passage or a single word, belongs to the sphere of the professional\\nstudy of philology yet not only to give the result with some suggestions about\\nthe foregoing researches, but also to lay before the seniors such critical points to be\\ndecided as are not beyond the reach of their learning, will undoubtedly strengthen\\nthe power and acuteness of judgment in an interesting and profitable manner.\\nBut the judgment of the professor himself respecting the choice of the critical\\npoint of discussion, and the manner in which it is managed, are in the depai tment\\nof education, where method is every thing, the chief point to be inquired after.\\nThat young men of about twenty years acquainted with language and literature,\\nare qualified to play sometimes the part of critics, is evident, and they ought to be\\npracticed in it.\\nThere will be more doubt about the utility of speaking Latin in Prima and\\npartly in Secunda. Of course, the authors are translated into German, but gen-\\nerally explained in Latin. Besides, there is one hour a week set apart in some\\ncolleges for Latin conversation. It is true that the students become more familiar\\nwith the language in many respects, but the correctness of language and elegance\\nof style are not always much improved by it. Agreeable as that acquirement is,\\nand even necessary as yet for the students to understand the Latin lectures in the\\nuniversity, it is to be considered as subordinate to the achievement of a correct\\nstyle, and only when the speaking is well balanced by continual exercises in writ-\\ning, will it exert a great and wholsome influence, and become an essential part of\\nthe classical discipline of mind.\\nThe exercises in writing Latinare duly appreciated in the German gymnasia. In\\nQuarta and Lower Tertia, where the syntax is accurately reviewed in three or four\\nhours a week, short exercises, suitable to fix the learned rules by application, are\\nmade during and between the lessons. A translation-book, not unlike the English\\nArnold with rules, is often used besides Zumpt s gi ammar, but the right under-\\nstanding and the best exercises come from the teacher. In Upper Tertia and\\nLower Secunda the German text for translation is prepared by the teachers, in\\nwhich some care is taken of the weekly reading and of the still fluctuating gram-\\nmatical precepts. But in Upper Secunda and Prima, at least for two years, the\\nLatin exercises are free compositions on a given theme. They are not always\\nweekly, but half-monthly and monthly, in order to allow a longer time to larger\\ncompositions of six to ten pages, while the review of the same is going on usually\\ntwo hours a week. These free exercises are not only an important, but also a\\npleasant task to the advanced scholar, who is beyond the reach of a grammatical\\nblunder, in the possession of all the necessary words, and fond of moving freely in\\nimitating what he has read and in expressing what he thinks best. And Only to\\nhim they are useful to whom they are easy. Another help for writing Latin are\\nthe Extemporalia,^ in which the students, as the name indicates, is obliged to\\nwrite immediately down in Latin what they are told in German. This quiet com-\\nbination and exchange of the two languages promotes greatly the faculty of think-\\ning in Latin, necessary to speaking and writing. In one gymnasium we noticed\\nthe usage of spending in Prima one hour of the week in making a brief composi-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "286 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONV.\\ntion on a given subject, read in Cicero or spoken of during the week. The short\\ntime does not allow deep reflection, still it is long enough to the eager student, to\\nmake a few periods chiefly with regard to the form, and to apply some elegancies\\nof style remembered from the last Cicero-lesson. It is a matter of course, that\\nfree corapo.sitions in the German are made besides, and that they rank quite as\\nhigh.\\nThe teaching of the Greek reveals naturally a somewhat different character, as\\nno reproduction either for speaking or for writing is intended. There is some\\nwriting in and for the grammar-lessons throughout all classes, {Rost and Wustc-\\nmann^s Exercises are much used,) but it is easily perceived that the writing is by-\\nwork, and tends only to make authors and language better understood. Thus it\\nhappens that a young man who reads Homer without wanting the aid of a lexi-\\ncon, is sometimes in some perplexity to find a common Greek word, if asked in\\nGerjnan. And the Greek is not the worse for it, provided that on the one hand\\nis gained, what on the other is lost. It may be supposed, however, that the philo-\\nlogist in the university is so well acquainted with the language by reading and\\nexplaining Greek writers, that he will be able to write and even to speak Greek\\ntolerably, if compelled to do so.\\nIn order to understand and enjoy poetry, one hour is appointed in every class for\\nprosody and metre. The student of Tertia who commences reading Ovid, is pre-\\npared for it by a long practice of the rules of prosody and of the laws of hexameter\\ndistichs. In Secunda it is required of the student to make free verses, hexameters\\nor distichs. Having been introduced into the variegated world of lyrical forms,\\nand enabled to read and appreciate the odes of Horace, the Primaner makes\\nlittle poems of whatever metre, heroic, lyric or dramatic. We hold these lessons\\nand exercises to be very useful, not only to get a correct idea of the poetical but\\nalso of the general rhythmical laws of the languages, without which a nice under-\\nstanding of prose as well as of poetry is next to impossible.\\nLet us add a few words in regard to private studies. Our readers who have\\nrightly inferred from the large number of lessons, that a German gymnasiast has\\nplenty of work in order to do his public task conscientiously, and very little time\\nleft for fancy-studying, provided that he takes a suflScient time for meals, rest, and\\nexercise. On the other band, it is obvious, that not all the authors mentioned\\nabove can be read. Yet some acquaintance with all of them is required, and the\\nview is generally taken by the professors, that the reading which can not be done\\nin the lessons ought to be supplied at home. The student, therefore, must work\\npretty hard to be well prepared for the lessons, to have his weekly exercises, as\\nGerman and Latin compositions, Greek, metrical and mathematical lessons, ex-\\nactly studied, and to give, as it is required in some colleges, every month a good\\naccount of his private studies. There he presents extracts of an author with com-\\npositions of any kind he pleases, in prose or poetry and where no such account\\nis given publicly, private studies of the same sort are nevertheless expected.\\nBesides the morning and night hours, the free afternoons of Wednesday and Sat-\\nurday aff(: rd a longer series of study-hours. There are in the whole about eight\\nweeks vacation. The results of the home-studies are, of course, soon perceived by\\nteacher and pupil, and the loss of time is doubly compensated by the rapid progress\\nand by the ability to make the best exercises in the shortest time. Still, we do not\\nmean merely free and independent reading and working, but chiefly the free spirit\\nof diligence Used independently of the necessities of school, et in doing the\\nschool-work.\\nThe boy of fourteen is now a young gentleman of twenty years. Having made\\nhis la^vful run, and having the permission of tlie professors to graduate, he must bite\\na sour apple and get examined. This examen maturitatis is somewhat more diffi-\\ncult and more important than the usual semi-annual or annual examinations, for it\\nwill declare him prepared for independent and professional studies, and also decide\\non the degree of his maturity, imprimis, omnis, satis, dignus.) All\\nhowever have laid a good foundation for any kind of scholarship, or likely to read\\nwith ease the New Testament (such as are to be theologians are taught the Hebrew\\nin Prima,) the Corpus Juris and Celsus, can understand a Latin lecture or oration,\\nand retain so much during their professional life in the university, as to be able\\ngenerally to speak Latin after three years, iu the theological, juridical or medical\\nexaminations.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY.\\n287\\nThe classical education, as common to all scholars, is here closed. But for those\\nwho iuteiid devoting their lives to classical learning and teaching, the philological\\ntraining continues in the universities.\\nTABLE OF LESSONS IN THE BLOCHMANN-VIZTHUM COLLKGE, (1840,) AT DRESDEN.\\n1 Religion\\n2. Languages:\\nA Greek\\nB. Latin\\n(a) Coi-neliusNep.\\n(b/ Grammar\\n(c) Prosody\\n1. Religion\\n2. Languages:\\nA. Greek.\\nfa) Homer\\n(b) Lucian\\n(c) Grammar\\nB Latin,\\n(a) Caesar\\n(bj Ovid\\n1. Religion\\n2 Languages\\nA. Greek,\\n(a) Iliad\\n(b) Herodotus\\n(c) Grammar\\nB. Latin,\\n(a) Virgil\\n3\\nC. German\\nD. French\\n6\\n3. Mathematics\\n(a) Algebra\\n4\\n(b) Arithmetic\\n3\\n(c) Geometry\\nI\\n4. History\\nIII.\\n2\\n(c) Grammar\\n(d) Prosody\\nC. German\\n2\\nD. French\\n2\\n3. Mathematics\\n2\\n(a) Algebra\\n(b) Arithmetic\\n4\\n(c) Geometry\\n2\\n4. History\\nII.\\n2\\n(b) Cicero\\n(c) Sallust\\n(d) Grammar\\n2\\n(e) Prosody\\n2\\nC. German\\n3\\nD. French\\nE. English\\n2\\n3 Mathematics:\\n5.\\nNatural Hist.\\n1\\n6.\\n7.\\nGeography\\nDrawing\\n2\\n2\\n8.\\n9.\\n10.\\nSinging\\nGymnastics\\nDancing\\n2\\n2\\n2\\n(a) Algebra\\n(b) Arithmetic\\n(c) Trigonometry\\n4. History\\n5. Natural Hist.\\n6. Gymnastics\\n7. Singing\\n8. Dancing\\n40\\n5. Natural Hist.\\n1\\n6. Geography\\n2\\n7. Drawing\\n1\\n8. Singing\\n2\\n9. Gymnastics\\n2\\n10. Dancing\\n1\\n40\\n1. Religion\\n2\\nB.\\nLatin,\\nE.\\nEnglish\\n2\\n2. Languages\\n(a)\\nTacitus 2\\n3.\\nMathematics:\\nA. Greek,\\n(b)\\nCicero, phil. cursor. 1\\n(a) Stereometry\\n2\\n(a) A) Sophocles P\\n2\\nA) Cic. philos. P 2\\n(b)\\nHigher proport.\\n2\\nB) Euripides S\\nB) Cic. epis.\\n4.\\nHistory\\n2\\nb) A) Thucydides\\nB) Demosthen.\\n2\\n(c)\\nHorace 2\\n5.\\nNatural phil.\\n2\\n(d)\\nExercises 2\\n6.\\nGymnastics\\n2\\n(c) Homer cursor.\\n1\\n(e)\\nLatin speak. 1\\n7.\\nSinging\\n2\\n(d) Exercises\\n1\\nC.\\nGerman lit. 3\\n8.\\nDancing\\n2\\n(e) Greek Antiquit.\\n1\\nII.\\nD.\\nFrench 2\\nPROGYMNASIUM.\\nI.\\nII.\\n40\\nI.\\nReligion\\n4\\nHot., Zool., Min.,\\n2\\nji\\nLatin\\n6\\n9 Drawing\\n2\\n1,\\nGerman\\n3\\nCalligraphy\\n2\\nJ,\\nFrench\\n4\\nGymnastics\\n3\\n2\\nArithmetic\\n3\\nSinging\\n2\\nGeography\\n8\\n34\\nX", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL OF MINES\\nAT\\nFREVBERG, SAXONY.\\nThis celebrated school is one of the richest mining districts of Saxony, and the\\nproximity of the mines permits an easy combinati(\u00c2\u00abn of practice with theory. Its\\nfirst object is to furnish educated young men for the corps of mines of the king-\\ndom, but it also admits strangers to its courses at a triding expense for their in-\\nstruction, the pupils boarding in the town.\\nGeneral government. The school of mines is under the imrqediate govern-\\nment of the directory of mines (oberbergamt,) and is thus a branch of the minis-\\ntry of finance. The professors form a board for the execution of the general reg-\\nulations, and one of them is specially charged by the directory with the superin-\\ntendence of the instruction of discipline.\\nAdmission. Applications for free admission to the institution are made to the\\ndirectory of mines, and must be accompanied by certificates that the applicant is\\nbetween sixteen and twenty-three years of age, is of good moral character, in\\nsound health, writes German correctly, and understands the grammar of the\\nlanguage has made some proficiency in geography and history, can read easy\\nLatin authors, is acquainted with arithmetic, the elements of geometry, and has\\nmade a beginning in drawing. If he understands the French or English language,\\nit is a recommendation. The testimonials must be handed between the months of\\nJanuary and June, and the directory decide which of the applicants may present\\nthemselves for examination before the professors of the school. Those found\\nqualified in all the courses enter, and others may, in particular cases, be allowed to\\njoin the classes, undergoing subsequently an examination in the studies in which\\ntliey were defective. According to an edict of the German diet, in regard to the\\nattendance of foreigners upon the scholastic institutions of any of the German\\nstates, strangers must apply to the minister of finance for permission to attend the\\nschool and present a testimonial of character and proficiency, and the written ex-\\npression of their parents wish that they should attend the school. Admission is,\\nhowever, freely granted. Those pupils who are in part, or entirely, supported by\\nthe goverment, are divided into two classes. The first division includes the regu-\\nlar students, called beneficiaries (beneficianteu,) who pass through a course of four\\nyears at the school, and become candidates for the corps of mines the other is\\ncomposed of those who enter for places not requiring more than one or two years\\nof study, or who have passed a superior examination for admission, but can not\\nenter as regular students, in consequence of the want of a vacancy in the corps.\\nBesides these there are two other divisions, namely, Saxons, who pay their own\\nexpenses at the school, and foreigners. These diflferent divisions are distinguished\\nby characteristic differences in the uniform which they wear. The gratuitously\\neducated students come under an obligation at entering, in event of leaving the\\nservice of the government, to refund the pay which they may have received, and\\nto pay the cost of their tuition. The regular pupils receive a pay proportioned in\\ngeneral to the length of time which they have been in the school. The first class\\nreceives from twenty-two to thirty dollars per annum the second, from fifteen to\\ntwenty-two; the third, from seven to fifteen. The fourth class receive only the\\ncompensation to which they maj be entitled for their work in the mines.\\nInstruction. The courses of instruction are divided into those which are to be\\npursued by all the pupils, or general, and those which depend upon the branch to\\nwh ch they intend devoting themselves, or special. The first consist of elementary,\\nhigher, and applied or mixed mathematics, mechanics and the machinery of mines,\\ngeneral, analytical, and special or technical chemistry, physics, drawing, general\\nand topographical, of shades, shadows, and perspective, and of mining implements,\\nof mining and metallurgic machines and constructions, oryctognosy (mineralogy,)\\n19", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "290 SCHOOL OF MINES AT FREYBERG, SAXONY.\\ngeognosy (geology,) crystallography the art of mining, metallurgy, civil engineering,\\nmining jurisprudence and correspondence, the French language. The second of\\nspecial courses consist of the surveying of mines and land surveying, the keeping\\nof books, registers, c., of fossil geology, for those who are intended as miners,\\nand of the examination of minerals, and analytical chemistry, with special refer-\\nence to the ores of Saxony, for those who are to serve at the furnaces.\\nThese courses are pursued by the regular students according to the following\\nplan The first year is devoted to elementary mathematics, to physics, to geog-\\nnosy, to general and topographical drawing, to French, and to general practical\\noperations of mining and metallurgy. All these pupils are allowed at certain times\\nto be present in the mines and at the furnaces, under the charge of miners and\\nsmeltors, who act as instructors, and who report at the end of the year upon the\\ncharacter of their pupils.\\nDuring the second year the courses pursued are higher mathematics, general\\nchemistry, mineralogy, with practical exercises, crystallography, the art of mining,\\ncivil engineering, drawing, French, practical mining, and geological exerci.ses.\\nAfter this year the student determines whether he will devote himself to mining\\nor metallurgy, and receives special instruction accordingly.\\nThe general courses of the third year are applied mathematics, the art of min-\\ning, analytical chemistry, metallurgy, technical chemistry, drawing, practical exer-\\ncises in mining and metallurgy, geology, with practical exercises, and fossil\\ngeology.\\nThe courses of the fourth year are machinery of mines, theory and practice,\\nmining jurisprudence, examination of minerals, analytical chemistry, and practi-\\ncal exercises of mining and metallurgy. During this year, the pupils who intend\\ndevoting themselves specially to mining attend solely to practice in that branch,\\nand thus also with the metallurgists. The particular operation in which they en-\\ngage is regulated by tlie lectures, that the practice of each operation may be ac-\\nquired at the same time with its theory.\\nIn relation to the amount of study to be pursued, the government pupils are\\ndivided into three classes, those who aim at entire qualification for the coVps, and\\nwho, on graduating at the school, go to the university for one year, and those who\\nintend to connect themselves with the department of metallurgy.\\nAmong the apparatus for carrying out these courses is an admirable collection\\nof models of machines and of mines. The collection of minerals and geological\\nspecimens is large, and besides that of the school, the students have the use of the\\ncabinet of the celebrated Werner, which is kept detached from the other as a\\nmemorial of that great man. The library and reading-room, the collection of\\nphysical and chemical apparatus, and the arrangements for the study of analytical\\nchemistry, and the assay of minei als and ores, are all suitable to their several objects.\\nThe course of assaying with the blovv-pipe has become quite celebrated.\\nThe lectures are continued from October to July, with holidays of from one to\\ntwo weeks at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. During the summer vacations,\\nthe regular pupils make excursions into the other mining districts of Saxony, and\\neven into foreign countries, for their improvement in mining, geology, c., and\\nare expected to keep a journal of their tours. The short vacations are employed\\nat the school in practical exercises and in lit\u00e2\u0082\u00acrary compositions, unless leave of\\nabsence is obtained. There is also one day of each week on which there are no\\nlessons, (Monday,) to allow the pupils to take part both in the mining and smelting\\noperations of the district of Freyberg.\\nThei-e tire eight professors and five teachers attached to the school, among\\nwhom the different departments are divided according to the following plan, in\\nwhich the number of lectures per week is also noted One professor has charge\\nof the three departments of general and technical chemistry and of metallurgy,\\nlecturing on the first, five hours; on the second, three hours and on the third,\\nthree hours. The professor of theoretical and practical mineralogy lectures on the\\ntheory for students of the first and second courses, each three times a week gives\\na ri petition of one hour, and practical exercises two hours per week. The pro-\\nfessor of geology and crystallography lectui cs on the first, five hours, and on the\\nsecond, two hours per week. The professor of physics and fossil geology lectures\\non the first, four hours, and on the second, t\\\\ io Lours per week. The professor", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL OF MINES AT FREYBERG, SAXONY. 291\\nof the elementary and higher mathematics gives instruction in the first, four hours,\\nand in the second, two hours per week. The professor of mining jurisprudence\\nai:d correspondence gives two lessons per week to each of his two classes. Mixed\\nmathematics, mining machinery, and general surveying, are under one professor,\\nwho teaches the first and second, four hours, and the third two hours per week.\\nMining surveying is taught by a surveyor of the corps two hours per week.\\nDrawing and civil architecture by an instructor, the former, six hours, and the\\nlatter, three hours per week. Registry is taught by a superintendent of mines.\\nThe assay of minerals by an overviewer, five hours per week. The teaclier of\\nFrench gives four hours of instruction per week.\\nThe subjects are in general tiiught by lectures, combined with interrogation after\\neach lecture, and, when the courses admit, with practical exercises. Ihe pupils\\nare expected to write out a fair copy of their notes, and to keep a journal of their\\npractical exercises these are from time to time, with the essays which they are\\ndirected to write, submitted to the professors, and are presented at the examina-\\ntions. The subject of each recitation, the character of the pupils answers, and of\\nthe exercises, drawings, and journals, are reported to the directory of mines by\\nthe professors. At the close of each of the four years there is an examination of\\nthe students in the several branches, and they are classified according to its results,\\nand tlie estimate of their work during the year. Students who do not pass satis-\\nfaclorily, remain an additional year in the same class, after which, if they are not\\nfound proficient, they are dismissed. These remarks apply of course only to the\\nregular students. There are three prizes for proficiency in the upper classes, and\\ntwo in the fourth, varying in amount from two up to twenty florins, (eighty cents\\nto eight dollars.)\\nGraduation. Graduates of the school are candidates for the corps of mines,\\nand receive the pay of this grade until appointed in the corps. Permission may\\nbe obtained to go to a university for one year, after graduating, in which case the\\ncandidate, on his return to duty, must show satisfactory certificates of study and\\nconduct. This study of one year at a university is essential to certain situations in\\nthe corps, and hence is expected from those who intend to have the whole career\\nopen before them.\\nDiscipline. The discipline of the school is regulated by laws emanating from\\nthe directory of mines, and whicli are very minute. All the pupils without dis-\\ntinction, are subject to these regulations. The means of repressive discipline con-\\nsist of admonitions of various grades, report to the directory, mention in the report\\nto the king, obligatory work in the mines, deprivation of pay, and dismission.\\nThis school, from the character of its officers, government, instruction, and loca-\\ntion, offers great inducements to students who wish to become adepts in the prin-\\nciples of mining and metallurgy, and the sciences introductory to them.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN.\\nThere are four Normal Schools, or seminaries for teachers, in the Grand\\nDuchj of Baden, viz. at Carlsruhe, Ettingen, Meersburg, and Miillheim.\\nBefore giving a brief outline of the course of instruction pursued in the\\nNormal School at Carlsruhe, we will give a condensed analysis of the plan\\nupon which the primary schools of Baden are organized drawn from the\\nlaws and ordinances now in force. The Grand Duchy is one of the most\\nadvanced constitutional states of Germany, and one the best provided with\\neducational institutions.\\nWith a population in 1844 of 400,000, there were\\nTwo Universities one at Heidelberg, with 710 students.\\nat Freiburg, 485\\nFour Lyceums, or High Schools a grade below the University.\\nSix Gymnasiums devoted mainly to high classical instruction.\\nSix Pedagogiums, or Schools preparatory to the Lycea.\\nFourteen Latin Schools preparatory to the Gymnasium.\\nEight Seminaries for young ladies.\\nFour Normal Schools one at Carlsruhe, for Protestant teachers.\\nCatholic\\nOne Institution for the deaf mutes.\\nOne Veterinary School.\\nOne Polytechnical School, with 200 pupils.\\nOne Trade School.\\nOne Military Academy.\\n2121 Common Schools, each with different grades or classes.\\nSchool Authorities and Inspection. These institutions are all under\\nthe general supervision of the State, from which they receive in some form\\naid annually. Their supervision is committed to the Department of the\\nInterior, subordinate to which there exists an Education Department or\\nCouncil, consisting of one member for each of the four districts or circles,\\ninto which the State is divided. In all regulations respecting religious in-\\nstruction, the highest authorities of the Protestant and Catholic churches\\nare consulted.\\nFor the primary schools, there is a School Board, or committee for each\\nof the four districts, which must be consulted by the local school authornies\\nin the founding of a new school, or suppression of an old one, and respect-\\ning all changes in the appointment of teachers. The board has the appoint-\\nment of a School Visitor for all the schools of the district, who holds his\\noffice six years, and is paid out of the State appropriation for educational\\npurposes, and a School Inspector for the school or schools in each town and\\nrural parish.\\nThe lowest school authority consists of the Inspector as cliairman, the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "294 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN.\\nnif.jrqr, or hig-hest civil officer of the locality, the vestry of the pnrish among\\nProtestants, the trustees of all ecclesiastical foundations in Catholic com-\\nmunities, and the directors of synagogues in Jewish comnuini.ies. These\\nconstitute a local or parochial school committee. In large towns, on special\\napplicalion, the State Education Department can appoint a special board to\\ntake charge of all the schools, and of any separate school for a particular\\nreligious denomination.\\nSchool ATTENDA^ CE. Children whose sixth year terminates between the\\n23d of April of one year and the 23d of April of the year following, are\\nbound to commence their schooling with Easter of the second year. A year\\nis allowed where infirmity or similar disabling causes are proved to the sat-\\nisfaction of the school authorities.\\nThe parish clergy, who keep the registers, have to furnish the school au-\\nthorities with a list of all children whose schooling begins at the next fol-\\nlowing Easter. To this a list is added of all children not born in the phce,\\nand which has to be drawn up by the school authorities. These lists are\\nto be handed to the schoolmasters; and one fortnight after the school is\\nopened, the schoolmaster has to return to the authorities the names of such\\nchildren as attend the school, as well as those of the absent children. The\\nlatter are to be forced through the police to attend school, except where thoir\\nabsence is excused or explained for reasons hereafter to be stated.\\nChildren leave schools also at Easter. Boys on having completed their\\n14th ye. ir, and girls their 13th year, or expecting to complete it before 25th\\nApril of that year. If by that period children who have attained these ages\\nare not sufficiently advanced in the objects of instruction specified, they\\nmay be kept one or two years longer. Every scholar obtains a certificate\\non his leaving school.\\nChildren who have private instruction, or who attend higher institutions,\\nfor the purpose of obtaining better instruction, are free of the school, but\\nrequire a certificate from the school inspectors. Private seminaries must be\\nauthorized by the upper school authorities. This authorization cannot be\\nrefused where the applicants are in every respect approved candidates as\\nmasters but such establishments must make good the school money which\\nthey abstract from the regular schoolmaster.\\nEvery week the schoolmaster is required to give to the school authorities\\na list of such children as have been absent without leave, or who, having\\nabsented themselves, did not satisfactorily account for their so doing, to-\\ngether with number of days absence. This list is handed to the burgo-\\nmaster, who forwards it to the parents of the children, and imposes a fine,\\nvarying from 2 kreutzers (frf.) to 12 kreutzers (8c?.) for every day of non-\\nattendance.\\nStudies in Primary Schools. The studies in the elementary schools\\nare 1. Religion. 2. German language. 3. Writing. 4. Arithmetic.\\n5. Singing. 6. General instruction on subjects of natural history, natural\\nphilosophy, geography, and geometry also on points appertaining to health\\nand to farming. 7. Where there are sufficient means, drawing is to be\\ntaught. The last-named subjects are to be treated in such a manner that\\nthe more essential first five points are not to suffer by the attention be-\\nstowed upon them.\\nInternal Organization of Primary Schools. 1. Schools that have\\nbut one teacher are to be divided into three classes, to be counted from the\\nlowest afijirsl upward.\\nIn the summer half-year the third or highest class has two morning hours\\nof schooling daily the second class has also two morning hours, and the\\nfirst or lowest class has two hours in the afternoon.\\nIn the winter half-year the third or highest class has three morning hours\\nof iustruction daily. The second olasa the first afternoon hour alone, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. 295\\nthe second in conjunction with the first class or beginners. One of these\\nclasses is to be employed in wri.iiig, under tlie inspection of a proper mon-\\nitor selected from the scholars, while tlie other class is taught by the teacher.\\nOn half-holidays (Wednesday and Saturday) the morning hours, three in\\nsummer and four in winter, are to be proportionally divided among the three\\nclasses.\\n2. When there are two teachers, the elder scholars are to be placed under\\none teacher and the younger half under the other. The school is tlien di-\\nvided into four classes, each teacher taking two, and each class has instruc-\\ntioa fur three hours daily, boiii in summer and in winter, excepting on half-\\nholidays, when each class has but one hour and a half in the morning.\\nIf the number of pupils does not exceed 210, they may be divided into\\nthree classes, wiJi the consent of the school authorities. If boys and girls\\nare instructed simultaneously, the division indicated above, into higher and\\nlower classes, each under a se[ arate teacher.\\nWhere tiiere are three teachers, one is to instruct the beginners in the\\ntwo first classes. Where the upper classes are composed both of boys and\\ngirls, the elder pupils are under one teacher and the younger ones under the\\nother, or-. the sexes may be separated.\\nWith four teacliers, two distinct schools are formed, of four classes each,\\nthe arrangements being such as are already indicated.\\nThese arrangements, being fixed by the Education Department, in confer-\\nence with the parochial school authorities and the Inspector, may be modified\\nto suit the exigencies and the means of larger towns or villages, provided\\nthat nothing be so arranged as to interfere with the rules that no class is to\\nexceed 70 in number that each class is to have three hours instruction\\ndaily, and the upper boys class to have four in winter, with the exception\\nof half-holidays, when the instruction is to be for them two hours, and for\\nthe others half hours.\\nIn places where industrial schools for girls are established, no change in\\nthese arrangements is to be made in consequence. Changes made, in con-\\nsequence of the aid of an assistant being required from the ill health of the\\nmaster, or an increase in the number of children, are to be reported to the\\nInspector, who will report upon them when submitting the results of his in-\\nspeciion to the Education Department.\\n3. The advance of children from one class to another takes place after the\\nexamination, wiih the approval of the Inspector, and with due regard to the\\nage and natural powers of the pupils. When the parents do not consent, a\\nchild can only be required to continue at sciiool beyonti the legal age on an\\nauthorization of the Education Department through the Inspector.\\n4. Care is to be taken that the pupils assemble punctually at the fixed\\nhours, and they are clean in person and attire. They must also behave with\\npropriety both on their way to and from school and while at school. The\\ninjunciions concerning their conduct are to be publicly read to the pupils at\\nthe beginning of every half-year, and are to be hung up in every school-room.\\nThe pupils can be placed in their respective classes, according to their\\nconduct and diligence, every week or month; but in the first classes oftener,\\nif the teacher thinks it advisable.\\nPermission to absent themselves from a single lesson may be granted by\\nthe teachers for more than one, the permission must be obtained from the\\nschool Inspector.\\nPunishments consist in reprimands, in giving a lower place in the class, in\\ntasks after school hours, and, where obstinate persistence in ftxults i* ob-\\nserved, in blows with a cane on the hand in a manner that is not dangerous.\\nThe teacher only takes cognizance of faults committed in school, or on the\\nway to and from school. Bad conduct at other times is only punished at\\nadiool whero the parents and guardians palpably neglect their duty.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "296 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN.\\n6. The school-rooms should have ten feet in bight, and be built on a\\nscale of six square feet to a pupil.\\nPlan of Instruction. The aim of the primary school is to cultivate\\nthe intellect of the child, and to form his understanding and religious prin-\\nciples, as well as to furnisli him with the knowledge requisite for his station\\nin life. Instruction must, therefore, be imparted in such a manner as shall\\nimprove the mind.\\nThe pupil must have his attention sharpened, and his intellectual energies\\nmust be brought into activity. He must learn nothing mechanically. The\\nmemory must not be cultivated, except in connection with the understand-\\ning and the feelings. The formation of every idea is to be preceded by the\\nrequisite insight into its fundamental principle, whether exemplihed by ob-\\njects or figuratively. In all explanations the elementary principles must\\nprecede the complex views. What has been learnt must be made familiar\\nby frequent application and illustration. The instruction given in the differ-\\nent classes must correspond with the plan here laid down.\\nReligious Instruclion. Care must be taken that the lesson in religion\\ndoes not degenerate into a mechanical learning of sayings and of chapters\\nfrom the Bible. The pupil s insight into all points must be clear and well\\ngrounded his feelings must be roused, and his good propensities must be\\nconfirmed.\\nThe nature of the instruction given in religion is to be regulated in detail\\nby the higliest authority in the various confessions it is to be communicated\\nthrough the catechism and school books approved by these authorities and\\nsanctioned by the State. In this lesson the duties of the citizen are to be\\nenforced.\\nThe school is to open and close daily with a short prayer or hymn, and\\nthe children are to be kept to regular attendance at church, the subject of the\\nlast sermon being a matter for the catechist to examine them upon.\\nGrammatical Instruction. Grammatical instruction must be connected\\nwith exercises in correct thinking, as well as in the fittest mode of giving\\nexpression to thoughts. The consideration of the correctness of an idea\\nmust precede that of the mode of expressing it.\\nThe organs of speech must be exercised until completely formed, and a\\ndue modulation of the voice must be cultivated. The writing lesson must\\nteach neatness and a love of form.\\nArithmetical Instruction. Comprises the four rules, preceded by proper\\nexplanation of the properties and nature of figures, and simultaneously ex-\\nercised, mentally and in wri.ing. The mental calculation is to precede the\\nwritten sum on all occasions. After practicing the rules in whole num-\\nbers, fractions, and with given simple or compound quantities in examples\\napplicable in common life.\\nIn the second class the construction of simple geometrical figures is to\\nbe taught both to boys and girls. In the highest class the use of the square\\nand compass, and the mode of reducing to proportionate dimensions, is to\\nbe taught.\\nMusical Instruction. The classes range as follows\\nFirst class. Exercises of the ear and the voice. Simple solo airs.\\nSecond class. Duets and easy chorus singing.\\nThird class. Chorus and ornamental singing.\\nGeneral Instruction. In natural history and philosophy, geography, his-\\ntory, sanitary points, and agriculture, will be imported by the pieces selected\\nin the reading-books, and can be enforced and illustrated by addiiional ex-\\namples and reasoning on the part of the teacher.\\nDivision of Time. Half an hour daily must be devoted to religious in-\\nstruction, but this time may be prolonged or abridged, according to the\\nBubiect-matter treated of.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY EDUCATION IN HADEN.\\n297\\nThe study of the mother-tongue, combined with reading and writing, is\\nto occupy a portion of 8ix days in the week, in nddivion to copies to be\\nwritten out of school hours. Arithmetic is to be taken four times, and\\nsinging twice in the week. Instruction in matters of general interest is to\\nbe given to the second class once and to the highest class three times in\\nthe week.\\nThe plan of the school is to be arranged between the teachers and the\\nInspector for every half-year, and a draft of it must be laid before the school\\nauthorities once a year, together with the results of the inspection. When\\nthe children appear behindliand in particular points of instruction, more time\\nmust be appropriated to those in the following year.\\nIf the scholars of one school be of different religious confessions, care is\\nto be taken that they receive their religious instruclion at the same hour.\\nIf the school belong exclusively to one confession, but is also attended by\\nchildren of another confession, the instruction in religion must be fixed in\\nthe last hour of attendance, that such as do not participate in it may go\\nhome, or wherever such instruction may be provided for them.\\nBeside ttie primary schools, the following classes are established by\\nlaw as part of ttie educational system of this Duchy, and are provided lor\\nin the priauiry school-iiouses.\\nEvK.MNG Classes. Twice a week, during the winter, in every vil-\\nlage and town, an evening class must he opened under the proper\\nsciiool authority, when young persons who have completed iheir four-\\nteenth year, and have left the primary school, may continue their\\nstudies.\\n!Si!NDAY Classes. All young people who have completed the pri-\\nmary school course, are obliged to attend, in tiie towns for two years\\nand in the villages for three years, a class every Sunday morning, not\\nonly for religious, but for secular instruction.\\nIndusthial Classes. As a general rule, men are employed both\\nas principal and assistants in the primary schools, and boys and girls of\\nthe same age and proficieticy are taught in the same class-roonis. To\\nenable the girls to acquire the arts of sewing, knitting, c.. the school\\ncommittee are obliged to engage some suitable person to attend every\\nschool ill which a female assistant is not employed, for an hour at least\\nevery aflernoon after tiie boys are dismissed, to instruct the girls from\\nthe completion of their eleventh year in the mysteries of stitching, hem-\\nming, darning, shirt making, knitting. c. If their mothers wish it. tlie.\\ngirls bring ilieir sewing from home with them lor this practice, but if\\ntliey do not bring any material, the committee must provide it. No fee\\nis cliarged lor this industrial training. The inspectors are required to\\nreport on the state and progress of these as well as the other classes of\\nthe schools.\\nFactoky Schools. No child may be employed in any manual oc-\\ncupation, until it has completed its eleventh year; nor may any child,\\neven at ihe completion of its eleventh year, be employed in a ftictory,\\nor in an industrial occupation, unless it then attends the so called Fac-\\ntory iSchuols.\\nI he laws prescribe, that in these schools\\nNo greater number of children than seventy may ever be educated\\ntogether at the same time.\\nThe secular education given in them, must correspond to that pre-\\nscribed by law, for the primary schools in general.\\nNo person may be selected, as a teacher of one of these schools, who\\nhas not obtained a diploma from the committee of public examiners for\\ntlie Duchy.\\nEach child attending a factory must receive, at least, two hours\\ninstruclion in the factory school.\\nThe hdurs of inrtructiOn Bhciuld prtetfede the morning and aflbrndon s", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "298 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN.\\nworking hours; but where this is impossible, an hour s relaxation must\\nintervene between the hours of labor and the commencement of the\\nhours of study.\\nIn the middle of the above-mentioned morning and afternoon work-\\ning liours, ihe children must be allowed to take a quarter of an hour s\\nexercise outside the mill, and in the middle of the day. there must be\\nan interval of a full hour between the morning and the afternoon work-\\ning hours.\\nYoung people under the age of fifteen, are not to be employed more\\nthan twelve hours a day in the factory and factory school together.\\nSuch young people are not to be employed in labor before five\\no clock in the morning, nor after five in the evening, nor on Sundays or\\nholidays.\\nAll masters of factories, who employ young people under the age of\\nfifteen, must render periodical lists of the children employed by them\\ngiving the names, ages, places of residence, and names of the parents of\\nsuch children.\\nAny infringement of any of the above regulations will render the\\nmanufacturer offending liable to fines, the amount of which is fixed by\\nlaw.\\nThe county magistrates are charged with the strenuous enforcement\\nof these regulations.\\nAll the expenses of the education of the children attending a factory\\nbefore the completion of their fourteenth year, must be borne by the\\nowner ol the tlictory which they attend.\\nTeachers Conferences. In each union (district or circle) the\\nunion inspector is obliged, every September, i. e., during the holidays,\\nto send notices to every teacher in his district, to assemble at a place\\nand time specified in the notice.\\nEvery teacher, who receives the notice, is required by law to assem-\\nble at the place and time therein mentioned.\\nNotices are sent also to each of the religious ministers of the union,\\nthat (those, who are able, may meet the teachers. The educational\\nmagistrate of the county, or some one representing him, is also always\\nat the meeting.\\nThe notices are .-ent round as early as the month of May. preceding\\nthe meeting. The inspector, when he issues them, sends at the same\\ntime to each teacher in his district, one or two questions on .\u00c2\u00abome jioint,\\nconnected either with the practice, or the methods of teaching, or with\\nsome of the various subjects of instruction, and upon which there has\\nbeen some difference of opinion or practice.\\nEach teacher is required to send to the inspector an answer to these\\nque. -lions by the month of August.\\nVt lien (he inspector has received these answers, he reads them care-\\nfully through, and writes a short and concise criticism of each answer,\\nand reads it to the teachers when assembled at the conference.\\nAfter the inspector has read the answers and criticisms to the meeting,\\nthe leachers proceed to debate the subject among themselves, rising one\\nafter another, and addressing the meeting upon it by turn.\\nV\\\\ hen this debate is concluded, three teachers, who had been chosen\\nby the previous meeting, are then called upon to instruct a class of chil-\\ndren before the rest of the assembly, in different branches of instruction.\\nTheir performances are then criticised and discussed by the others, who\\nhad been looking on as spectators.\\nThis plan serves two important ends:\\n1st. It stimulates each of the teachers to aim at continual self-improve-\\nment, in order that he naay excel his competilors at the yearly meet-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN.\\n299\\nings, and prove himself worthy of recommendation by the inspector to\\nthe more hicrative situations as they fall vacant, and also that he may\\nwin the respect and approval of his professional brethren.\\n2d. It obliges the teachers to think over the various methods of in-\\nstruction to consider how they may teach in the most effective manner;\\nto avoid bad and slothful habits with their scholars, and to observe how\\nbest to catch and retain the attention of their scholars, and how most\\neffectually to interest them in the subjects of instruction.\\nAt these meetings, also, the teacher.s arrange the affairs of their book\\nclubs. Every teacher in each union is a member of the teachers union\\nbook club. They each pay a small sum monthly, and with the sum\\nthus collected, a few books are purchased and sent round from one to\\nanother. At the September meetitjgs. they choose the treasurer of\\ntheir book club, and determine what books are to be purchased.\\nBefore tiie meeting is dissolved, a short account of all the proceedings\\nis drawn up; and is then signed by the inspector, the magistrate present\\nat the meeting, and all the teachers, and forwarded to the chief magis-\\ntrate of the county, in which the union is situated.\\nThe expenses of each teacher, incurred by attending these yearly\\nconferences, are defrayed by the state.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "800\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT CARLSRCHE.\\nv\\nOJ\\na\\nd\\nf1\\nc\\n(11\\nHh\\ns:\\ns\\nu\\n(U\\n5 ,c\\n3 ttf c\\nill-\\np. 2\\n^Z20U00 :zi\u00c2\u00bb0-S\\na ca\\n0) (U\\nt-b-\\n-c-a\\nOO\\nE^\\nS c\\n5oJ\\n2 3 s H 2 I.\\no a\\n(u o\\nOO\\nS S 2 5 e S-^rt^ 2\\nZZoO(\u00c2\u00bb(nOC-OZ Q\\n|:5\\nc\\ntio be 9- so S -s bS\\ncCcScxSc\\nW bb bb bb 5 3 bb\\n\u00c2\u00a3..S.S S E S.H\\nO i^ cc o r^ C Z ta\\n!-5 b\\n.2\\nE-E- ^5\\nOOOOOcQOCOZ i\\nrt S JJi-S\\nb 3\\nE5\\no a:\\nbp\\nO\\nQi 0)\\ns s\\n03 CO\\nrt\\nbe U\\nzz\\n5 c i 1 5.E\\nbC^ -S bo bO\\nS \u00c2\u00a3?c S.c.E M^ 2\\ncoo^O ;OtBt\u00c2\u00abZ Q\\nOOOh\\nQ^\\nOi -H\\no o o 2\\n00 o o", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "WIRTEMBERG.\\nWtRTEMBERO was One of the earliest, of the German states to establish\\na graduated system of public instruction, from the common school to the\\nuniversity, and has always shared largely in all the educational move-\\nments of Germany. The framework of the school system in operation\\nin 1848, was substantially the same as it was in 1538, enlarged from time\\nto time to meet the demands of the age for new institutions and a more\\nliberal and practical instruction. With a population of 1,750.000 there\\nwere the following institutions, aided by the government, in 1847\\nOne University at Tubingen, with six faculties, seventy-one professors,\\nand ^00 students.\\nNine Real Schools, with seventy teachers.\\nSix Gymnasia, each with ten professors and three assistants, (that at\\nStuttgart has twenty-six professors.)\\nFive Lycea, each with seven teachers.\\nEighty-seven Latin Schools, in which eighty-six classical teachers, sixty-\\nsix real teachers, and forty-four assistants are employed.\\nOne Protestant Theological Seminary at Tubingen, with fifteen teach-\\ners, and four preparatory theological schools in other parts, each having\\nsix teachers and thirty pupils.\\nOne Catholic Theological Seminary.\\nOne Polytechnic School, with twenty-one teachers and a course of in-\\nstruction embracing four years, for engineers, architects, c.\\nOne Institute for Agriculture and Forestry at Hohenhein, the most\\ncomplete agricultural establishment in Europe.\\nOne Veterinary School, with five professors.\\nTwo Orphan Houses, each having 278 orphans.\\nSeven Schools of Art and Drawing.\\nOne Superior Seminary for Protestant girls, at Obenstenfeld, with\\neleven teachers.\\nOne Superior Seminary for Catholic girls, at Stuttgart, with thirteen\\nmale teachers, and thirteen female teachers.\\nOne Institute for Deaf Mutes and the Blind.\\nOne thousand four hundred and fifty-five Protestant Common Schools.\\nSeven hundred and eighty-seven Catholic Schools.\\nSix Teachers Seminaries.\\nThese institutions, providing on a liberal scale for the educational\\nwants of the whole community, are all in some way aided by the govern-\\nment, and subject to its supervision through the Home Department.\\nSubordinate to this department is the Evangelical Consistory, having\\ncharge of the Protestant, and the Church Council, having charge of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "302 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG.\\nCatholic seminaries, of the higher grade. Below these, for each of the\\nfour circles, or districts into which the kingdom is divided, there are Su-\\nperintendents of each denomination, for the Real and Latin Schools; and\\nSchool Inspectors for the Common Schools; and Directors of School\\nConferences, (Teachers Institutes,) which are held four times in each\\nyear, for the improvement of the teachers, at different points.\\nEach locality, comprisinrr thirty families, is compelled by law to have a\\nprimary school. Localities containing a population of less than thirty fam-\\nilies, are compelled by law to unite with a neighboring locality in the\\nestablishment of a school. If the neighboring locality is at a distance of\\nmore than two and a half English miles, or the road thereto dangerous,\\nthen the Government Committee of Education can decree the establish-\\nment of a separate school even for fifteen families.\\nIf in a community of different religious confessions the minority com-\\nprises sixty families, they may claim the establishment and support of a\\nschool of their own confession at the expense of the whole community.\\nThe expenses are paid by the whole community, without regard to reli-\\ngious confessions, and by each individual in proportion to the amount of\\ntaxes paid by him. In poor communities the government contributes in\\npart toward the salary of the schoolmaster and repairs of the school.\\nThe salaries of the schoolmaster are, in places containing 4000 inhabit-\\nants, 350 florins* and house-rent in places containing less than 4000 and\\nmore than 2000 inhabitants, 300 florins, and house-rent. In a school\\nwhere more than sixty scholars attend, 2.50 florins, and house-rent. In a\\nschool where less than sixty scholars attend, 200 florins, and house-rent.\\nSecond schoolmasters receive a salary of 150 florins, and are allowed\\none room and fuel. An assistant schoolmaster (candidate) receives a\\nsalary of 120 florins. In a school Avhere the number of scholars exceeds\\nninety, two schoolmasters are allowed if more than ISO scholars, three\\nschoolmasters; if more than 270 scholars, four schoolmasters; and so on\\nin proportion.\\nThe school hours are, in summer, four hours per day in winter, six\\nhours per day.\\nThe school is under the inspection of the clergyman of the confession\\nto which the schoolmaster belongs, and under the control of the pres-\\nbytery.\\nThere is in each district a special school inspector, who is a clergyman.\\nThe visitation of the schools is made by the school inspector of the dis-\\ntrict, the clergyman, and the presbytery of the community. The attend-\\nance of every child at the primary school is compulsory, unless he fre-\\nquents a superior school, or receives private instruction, such as he would\\nobtain at the primary school. If parents forbid their children s attendance\\nat the school, or do not allow their receiving private instruction, they subject\\nthemselves to a fine, and even imprisonment; and if afterward thev should\\nstill refuse to allow the children to attend the school, then the police is re-\\nquested to adopt such measures as will compel the children to visit the\\nA florin is thitty-eight cents.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "PTTBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG. 303\\nschool. If a child, by reason of health or otherwise, is unable to attend\\nthe public school, then the parents or guardians are obliged to see that he\\nreceive private instruction, and, if unable to pay for it, the community is\\nobliged to supply the means. Children who have not frequented the pri-\\nmary schools, are equally obliged to attend the public examinations.\\nThe right of selecting a teacher for a vacant school belongs to the local-\\nity, but in many instances, the locality has ceded this right to the author-\\nities having the supervision of the semin;iri3s. The professional tunning\\nand improvement of teachers in public institutions are provided for by six\\nTeachers Seminaries, sixty Teachers Associations or Conferences, and\\ntwelve annual courses of one or two weeks duration, similar to our\\nTeachers Institutes, held at twelve different places in the kingdom.\\nTlie candidates for the post of schoolmaster are not permitted to enter\\nthe seminary before they have reached seventeen years of age nor does\\ntheir education for that most responsible situation, nor the proofs of their\\ncapability (or it, begin at their entrance into the Normal School. Long\\nbefore that period they must give notice of their intention to devote them-\\nselves to such pursuits, and must undergo a previous preparation of two\\nyears ere they are allowed to enter the seminary.\\nThe course lasts two years, tuition is free, and the poor receive assist-\\nance as to board.\\nThe Seminary at Esslingen, under Director Denzel, isone of the oldest\\nand most celebrated seminaries in Europe. It was founded in 1757, and\\nwith only sixty pupils, it has a director, two chief masters, and three\\nassistants. The director is the author of the most complete treatise on\\neducation in any language. It is entitled the Introduction to the Sci-\\nence and Art of Education and Instruction for Masters of Primary\\nSchools^ Six volumes, Stuttgart, 1839. The author thus explains the\\nreason of his undertaking the work in his preface to the last edition\\nWhen, three and twenty years ago, I entered upon my present occu-\\npation, great exertions were already in progress for the improvement of\\nthe elementary schools of Germany. Much had been accomplished in\\nparticular states, and much active discussion was going on with respect\\nto the methods pursued, and the best means of raising the qualifications\\nof the schoolmaster. But the times required something more than had\\nyet been done for the popular schools. It came more and more to be\\nunderstood that the school was not merely a place of instruction, but of\\neducation that the common and necessary acquirements of the arts of\\nreading, writing, and ciphering were not to be the sole or the principal\\nobjects of its care, but rather the unfolding and strengthening of the\\nmental and bodily powers of the child conformably with nature and cir-\\ncumstances. When this began to be held to be the province of the ele-\\nmentary school, a new era broke upon it. Viewed In this its new and\\nloftier position, it a.ssumed a totally different aspect, and all relating to it\\nrequired to be dealt with in a more serious and scientific manner. This\\nsalutary change of view respecting the real character and destiny of the\\nelementary school, though long in progress, became at length universal,\\nchiefly through the genius and exertions of Pestalozzi. wliose principles,\\neven where only partially adopted, faciUtated and infused a new spirit\\ninto the processes of teaching.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "304 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG.\\nHe proceeds to state that, being called at that period to the duty of\\ntraining schoolmasters, and therefore desiring to find some manual or trea-\\ntise which embraced the entire subject, according to the enlarged views\\nthen entertained of it, he was unable to meet with any that satisfied his\\nwishes. Those that he found, either merely embodied the old views or\\ncontained fragments only of the new. After many fruitless attempts to\\ncompose out of those fragments something that would serve as a ground-\\nwork for his course of teaching, he found himself compelled to form a trea-\\ntise for himself; which has grown, with the experience of twenty years,\\ninto the valuable Introduction, now widely known by his name. The fol-\\nlowing is the summary of his introdactory course of instruction to teachers:\\nPart I.\\nChap. 1. Man as an organized, sentiont, and intellectual being.\\n2. Constitution and qualities of the body and mind.\\nI) 1. Of the body.\\n2. Of the mind and its principal faculties.\\nA. The feelings.\\nB. The understanding.\\nC. The will.\\nUnion of the highest powers in a Christian faith.\\nVarieties ofnatural const! tul ion and disposition, and their causes.\\n3. On the liability of the faculties and disposition of childliood to lake a wrong\\ndirection.\\n4. On the natural course of development in childhood, boyhood, and youth.\\n(j 1. On the frradii-il development of llie mental powers.\\n5. Man in his socl;il slate.\\n6. Man as an immortal being.\\nPart II.\\n1. On education in general.\\n2. On the training of the body.\\n3. On the training of the mind.\\n^1. On the regulation of the feelings.\\n2. On the strengthening of the understanding.\\nObservation and attention.\\nImagination.\\nMemory.\\nJudgment.\\n3. On the regulation of the will.\\nThe moral sense.\\nForce of habit.\\nThe love of what is right.\\nObedience.\\nPerseverance.\\nOrder and punctuality.\\n4. Religion\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The best means of fixing religious impressions on the mind\\nof a child.\\n4. On educating boys and girls together.\\n5. On rewards and punishments.\\n6. On elementary instruction.\\n6 1. Sulijects\u00e2\u0080\u0094 On the proper periods for commencing each.\\n^2. Method\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The synthetic.\\nRequisites of good teaching.\\nApparatus, c.\\nIn his second volume, the author enlarges on some of the principles laid down in the\\nfirst, and on the spirit and object of the primary school, the best modes of organization\\nand management, c. The third and remaining volumes form a School .Manual of four\\ncomplete courses, for children between the respective ages of six and eight, eight and\\nten. ten and twelve, twelve and fourteen. The sulijects treated of at length, for the guid-\\nance of teachers, are object lessons, instruction in readinsi, writing, and ciphering, reli-\\ngious instruction, grammar and etymology, geography, elements of geometry, singing,\\nelements of natural phiio-;ophy and natural hisloiy, composition, c. General exposi-\\ntions of the principles to be kept in view, and the ends to be aimed at, are given, together\\nwith specimens of the lessons in detail, and the substance of a useful course under each\\nhead.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WlRTEMBERf!. 305\\nThe following notice of education in Wirtemberg, is taken from\\nKay s Social Condition and Education of the People.\\nI traveled through the kingdom of Wirtemberg from Ulm to a town in the in-\\nterior by night. My companions in the eilwagen, or diligence, were an Oxford\\nFellow, a German, and a Frenchman. The subject of our conversation, during\\none part of the night, was, the efforts of the Germany governments and people to\\neducate the children of their poor. The Oxford Fellow would not credit the ac-\\ncount I gave him of these efforts, and affected, moreover, to laugh at them as\\nuseless and chimerical. 1 saw it would be impossible to make a convert of him\\nby argument, and so, to save words, I ended the conversation by saying, NN ell,\\nif you arc ever in the streets of a German town between eight and nine o clock,\\nor between twelve and one o clock, in the morning, observe what is then going\\non. and remember what I told you.\\nThe next morning it so happened, that we stopped about eight o clock to change\\nhorses, in a small town, about half way between Ulm and Stuttgard. It was just\\nbefore the primary schools commenced their morning s work. All the children\\nwe-e on their way to their respective classes. I made the Fellow get out of\\nthe diligence, and regard what was going on in the streets at that early hour.\\nThe street in which we had drawn up, was full of clean, neatly-dressed chil-\\ndren, each carrying a small bag of books in his hand, or a little goatskin knapsack\\nfull of books on his back.. There were no rags, and no unseemly patched and\\ndarned clothes. The little girls were neat, their hair was dressed with a great\\ndeal taste, their frocks were clean and tastefully made. Their appearance would\\nhave led a stranger to imagine, that they were the children of parents belonging\\nto the middle classes of society. I said to my companion, These orderly, clean,\\nand respectable-looking children are, many of them, the sons and daughters of the\\npoorest artizans and laborers. In England, they would have been the ragged-\\nschool children, or the squalid players in the gutters and back alleys. There\\nthere was no perceptible difference between the children of the poorest laborer and\\nthe children of the shopkeeper or rich parent. They all looked equally clean, re-\\nspectable, polite, and intelligent. I said to the Fellow, Are you convinced\\nnow He turned to me and answered, Yes, yes this is, indeed, a very in-\\nteresting and very curious sight. I do not any longer doubt the accuracy of all\\nyou told me last night. It is certainly very remarkable. That ten minutes\\ntaught my companion more than he would have learned by days of argument.\\nThe reflection, to which it leads every beholder, is, are all the children of\\nGermany like these Is there no class of children in Germany like those, which\\ngrow up in the gutters and alleys of our English towns? No wonder then, if this\\nbe so, that there is so much less pauperism in Germany than in England, and\\nthat the poor are so much more prosperous, virtuous, and happy, than our own.\\nTo give an idea of the liberal scale on which the teachers training colleges in\\nWirtemberg are regulated, I shall give the list of the professors and teachers at-\\ntached to the colleges at Esslingen and Nurtingen and the subjects of education\\ntaught in them.\\nI. The number of professors and teachers at the teachers college at Esslingen\\nin Wirtemberg, are\\n1 Director, who officiates also as first Professor.\\n3 Professors of the Sciences.\\n1 Professor of Music.\\n2 Teachers.\\n1 Assistant for the Musical Professor.\\n1 Teacher of the Jewish religion, (he conducts the dogmatical education of the\\nJewish students.)\\n1 Teacher of Music for the model practicing school attached to the College.\\n1 Treasurer and Accountant for the College.\\n1 Physician for the College.\\nThe number of students at this college was eighty.\\nII. Number of professors and teachers at the normal college of Nurtingen, in\\nWirtemberg.\\n20", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "30g PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERO.\\n1 Director, who acts as first Professor.\\n1 Professor of the Sciences.\\n2 Head Teachers.\\n2 Assistant Teachers.\\n1 Teacher of Music.\\n1 Teacher of Music, for the model school attached to the College.\\n1 Treasurer and ccountant.\\n1 Physician for the College.\\nThe number of students in this college was eighty.\\nThe Subjects of Instruction in the teachers colleges of Wirtemberg, are as\\nfollows\\nReligion.\\nMoral Philosophy.\\nGerman Language.\\nHistory (General, German, and Scriptural.)\\nArithmetic.\\nAlgebra.\\nPlane Geometry.\\nLogic.\\nThe Principles of Natural History.\\nPhysical Geography.\\nThe Philosophy of the Human Mind.\\nPedagogy.\\nPractice in Teaching.\\nTheory of Music.\\nThe Piano-forte and Organ.\\nChanting and Singing.\\nI beg my readers to look at these lists and compare the efforts made by a small\\nprovince of Germany not containing so many inhabitants as London, with those\\nmade by us when the numbers of our. working population are, like our com-\\nmerce, increasing with such an astonishing rapidity.\\nThe educational laws of AA irtemberg require the parishes to support, for every\\nninety children, one teacher for more than ninety children, two teachers for\\nmore than 180 children, three teachers; for more than 270 children, four teach-\\ners and so on in like proportion.\\nIf a country parish is very poor it is allowed, on proof of its inability to find funds\\nfor the support of the required number of teachers, to diminish the number, on\\ntwo conditions, viz.\\n1st. That very able men are selected and\\n2ndly. That one teacher is provided for every 120 children.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY\\nHOHENHEIM, NEAR STUTTGARD.\\niVro is the most complete agricultural school in Europe, and extends its useful-\\niiess iiot only throughout, but beyond Wirtemberg. It was established in 1817,\\nby tLfc/ A ffricultural Society of Wirtemberg, under the patronage of the king,\\nwho dovo.Ajd a royal seat, with extensive buildings, to the purposes of the institu-\\ntion. Tht farm includes nearly one thousand acres, exclusively appropriated to\\nthe support of the school, or the practical instruction of the pupils. In 1820 tlie\\nschool of ft-restry was united with this, and the pupils now follow, in part, the\\nsame couratm.\\nThe entire institution is divided into two departments, one of which is intended\\nto give a higher general and practical education than the other. In the higher,\\nthe object is Itss the acquisition of manual dexterity in the operations of agricul-\\nture, than the knowledge required to superintend them while in the lower, the\\npractice is the principal end. The latter department ranks with the rural schools\\nof Switzerland and the agricultural school of Templemoyle, in Ireland, hereafter\\ndescribed. In Iha higher school, all the pupils are expected to pay for their edu-\\ncation. In the lower, natives of Wirtemberg are admitted gratis, if their cir-\\ncumstances require it. Foreigners may be admitted to either their payments\\nbeing, however, on a much higher scale than those of natives.*\\nThe direction of the establishment is delegated by the Agricultural Society to\\na director and treasurer, the former of whom has the general superintendence of\\nall the concerns of the institution, while the latter is responsible for its financial\\nstate to the society and to the royal exchequer. The director is also an insti uctor.\\nThere are, besides, four regular or ordinary professors, and four extraordinary\\nprofessors, besides an overseer and steward, for the management of the farm and\\ndomestic economy. The treasurer has a book-keeper and an assistant in his\\ndepartment.\\nPupils are admitted at seventeen years of age, and are expected to possess ele-\\nmentary attainments necessaiy to the prosecution of the courses of the school.\\nBetween 1820 and 1836, one hundred and eighty natives and one hundred and\\neighty-two foreigners have been educated in agriculture, and one hundred and\\nforty-seven natives and one himdred and seventy-seven foreigners in forestry,\\nmaking a total of five hundred and thirty-nine in the institution. The number of\\npupils in the higher school in 1836 was seventy-two. That in the lower school\\nis limited to twenty-seven.\\nThe pupils of the lower school, in general, come under obligations to remain\\nthree years at the institution, in consideration of which their payments for instruc-\\ntion are diminished, in part, in the second year, and cease in the third. They\\nare engaged in the operations of the farm, the garden, and other parts of the es-\\ntablishment, which will hereafter be enumerated, under the direction of the work-\\nmen, and under the superintendence of the steward, their time being so distribu-\\nted that they may acquire practice in the various operations of farming. They\\nare also required to attend certain of the lectures given to the higher classes, and\\nreceive instruction at times when they are not engaged in agricultural labor.\\nThey receive regular wages for work done, for which they are expected to pay\\nfor their maintenance and clothing. Premiums are given to those who display\\ngreat skill and industry. While in the house, the younger pupils are under the\\nFor the yearly courses at the higher school natives pay forty dollars, and foreigners one\\nhundred ana twenty dollars. For instruction in forestry only, a native pays twenty-four\\ndollars, and a stranger seventy-two dollars. For the three years inbtniction in the lower\\nsi:hool, natives pay fatty dollar*.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "308 INSTITDTE OF AGRICULTTTRE AND FORESTRY AT HOHENHEIM.\\ncharge of the elder ones, and are under the general superintendence of the over-\\nseer. The same superintendence exists in the rif.ctoiy and dormitories. It sub-\\nserves the double purpose of economy, and of training the elder pupils in the\\nmanagement of men, which is one object of their education. The institution\\nundertakes to find places for those pupils who have given satisfaction while in the\\nschool, on their completing its courses.\\nThe agricultural course of the higher school may be accomplished in one year,\\nif the preliminary studies of the pupil have been directed with a view to his en-\\ntering, but in general it requires two years. The same period of two years\\nis required for that of forestry. Each scholastic year has two sessions, the one\\nfrom the first of November to Palm-Sunday, and the other from two weeks after\\nPalm-Sunday to the first of October. The intermediate periods are vacations.\\nThe branches of special theoretical instruction are as follows\\nFirst: Agriculture. General principles of farming and horticulture, including the culture\\nof the vine. The breeding of cattle. Growing of wool. Raising of horses. Rtaring of silk-\\nworms. Arrangement and direction of farms. Estimation of the value of farms. Book-\\nkeep in\u00c2\u00bb\\nSrCond Forestry. Encyclopeiiia of Forestry. Botany of forests. Culture and superin-\\ntendence of forests. Guard of lorests. Hunting. Taxation. Uses of forests. Technology.\\nLaws and regulations, accounts, and technical correspondence relating to forests\\nTh rd Accessory brunches Veterinary art Agr. culture technology, especially the man-\\nufacture of beet sugar, brewing, vinegar making, and distilling. The construction of roads\\nand hydraulic works.\\nBesides these special branches, the following general courses are pursued\\nFirst The Natural Sciences. Geology. Physiology of plants. Botany, as applied to ag-\\n1-. culture and forestry. Natural history of animals beneficial or noxious to plants and trees.\\n(Jtneral cliemistrv, and its applications to agriculture. Physics and meleuroiogy.\\nSi:-r(i\\\\i(\\\\- Maihematics. Theoretical and practical. Geometry. Elements of trigonometry.\\nArithmetic. Elements of algebra.\\nThe institution possesses the most ample means for the illustration of these\\ncourses in its farm and collections. The farm is divided into arable land, about\\nfive hundred and one acres meadow land, two hundred and forty-two acres\\nfiolds set apart for experiments, thirty-three acres woodland, thirteen acres\\nnursery, sixty-seven acres plantation of hops, two acres botanical garden, four-\\nteen acres ground for exercising the pupils in ploughing, two acres garden,\\none acre; the remainder eighty -five acres. Total, nine hundred and sixty acres.\\nTh^ arable land is cultivated according to five different rotations of crops, that the\\npupils may have specimens of the varieties of system. The botanical garden,\\nnursery, and experimental farm, are prominent parts of the establishment. There\\nis a large stock of cattle of diflferent kinds, foreign and domestic, and of sheep,\\nthat the pupils may acquire practical knowledge of the relative advantages of\\nd liferent breeds, the mode of taking care of the stock generally, and of rearing\\nthem for different purposes. Horses are kept for a riding-school, as well as for\\nthe purposes of the farm. The institution has a large collection of agricultural\\nimplements in use in Wirtemberg, and of models of the varieties of foreign and\\nnew implements. These are made in a workshop attached to the school, and\\nafford practice in the manufacture to the pupils, as well as instruction by their\\nuse or inspection, with the explanations of the professors. The sale of these im-\\nplements and models also contributes to the support of the establishment. There\\nare two collections of seeds and grain one as specimens for illustrating the lec-\\ntures, the other in quantities for sale. The pupils learn the mode of preserving\\nthem, and useful seeds are distributed through the country. There is a collec-\\ntion of soils of all kinds for the lecturers on terra-culture and the analysis of soils,\\nwith specimens of the means of amelioration used in different eases. The collec-\\ntions of natural history, though small, are interesting, from the precise adaptation\\nof the specimens to the objects of the school. They consist of birds, beasts, and\\ninsects, and of plants, woods, and rocks. The woods are arranged in the form of\\na library, the separate specimens having the forms of books given to them, and\\nbeing covered in part with the .bark. The name is inscribed upon the back.\\nCross and longitudinal sections are usually found in the same book, forming the\\ncovers. Between the covers is a box containing the seeds and flowers of the\\ntree-, the parasites. o., aad a description. There is a email ooUocton (rf physi-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY AT HOHENHEIM. 309\\ncal apparatus, a library, and a laboratory. The following farming and technologi-\\ncal establishments are connected with the school, and worked by the pupils, under\\nthe eharg,- of the teachers namely, a cider-press and appurtenances a beet-\\nsugar manufactory, a brewery, a distillery, and a vinegar manufactory. Though\\nI saw better individual collections than these, the whole suite stands unrivaled,\\nas far as my examination extended.\\nExamination takes place every year, which are obligatory upon those forestry\\npupils who intend to enter the service of the government strangers are not re-\\nquired to be examined. Persons wishing to learn the details of the institution,\\nmay be received as visitors for a period not exceeding a month, living with the\\npupils.\\nEach pupil in the higher school has his own sleeping-room or, at most, two\\nroom together. They bring their supplies of clothing, c., at entrance. The\\nrooms are kept in order by the servants, who receive a small compensation from\\nthe pupil. They take their dinner and supper in a common hall, and order what\\nthey please for breakfast from the Stewart s assistant.* This institution has sup-\\nported itself for several years, which is readily to be understood from the scale of\\nits farming operations. The success of the farm does not depend exclusively upon\\nthe productive manual labor of the pupils. It is analogous to the support of a\\nfamily on a large estate, the members of the family aiding in the work, and con-\\ntributing also in money to their own support, but the working of the farm not de-\\npending entirely upon their manual exertions.\\nThe dinner and supper cost four dollars a month, which is paid in advance to the\\nSteward.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "310\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT ESSI.INGF.N.\\nO z\\nirl\\nc c c\\no c\\nc- g s s s I c-^-j^ g\\ng.5 S S S S g.S.5-E \u00c2\u00a3P :_ w\\nI co-5-5\\nc o\\nIh c c\\na!\u00c2\u00abj\\nr =.ii re\\no E S S o\\noj .2 o 1^ (u\\nO 0- O Oh O Si o\\no o\\na C bS\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S c QJ ii o\\n5 c o o S\\nrt.ii 2 o 5 2\\n3 c\\no .i; -iS\\n=\u00c2\u00bb1J 2-S\\n.2-6 K-r\\nc S 2 c\\nO 3 O\\n-z: ^s\\n^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0k 3 x SfM\\nc O o o\\nO Q.- 5(, D- O Q,\\nS 5;^ e o S\\ns S ;s\\ni: o\\nJ! 0)\\nbO\\nO S\\ni p\\nre re -T-\\n3 re n. re\\n2 S\\n-5e:i- Z iiH Ot^oo6\\n-aj S -5 e: cC S o o H o\\nS\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22|2S| cS.S.Ho\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a02 c- o\\ng\\n2 re\\nQCU\\no rto\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2i: o S o\\no s re tn 3\\nIII\\n0) 5\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S c-\\nS re\\nre so\\nPiS-So^QO\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a02 o\\n^0-\\nbe tD-\\nbo\\n.2 bi)\\nccS2?2 E?g522\\nccccOOQ OQi QcC\\nO J\\nre\\nV\\nS\\n-n\\nbo bo bi)\\nc-o\\no\\nE\\no\\n4)\\nc c\\nc\\ng\\nBO bi\\nbn\\nre\\nc s\\nS\\noj\\ncuOfBOjai\\n5^ b\\no 3 o\\nm to .2\\ni .|l ijre I\\n2 (i, a, Oh f- Z bb\\nQ O o\\nre .2 41\\nZ cuoSH\\nn\\no\\no\\nn\\nn\\n3\\n-o\\nbr\\no-a\\no i;\\nc\\nc\\nC\\nc-^\\nbC be\\nbll\\nre o\\na,Q-a)(naj\\nt\u00c2\u00ab-\\nI,\\n2 S\\ni:i:^J\\n3\\nD.\u00e2\u0080\u009e bo_-\\nu.\\n.S S S-S re\\n0,00, E-Z\\n5 5P- o\\nre c a) j-\\n-a\\n-a\\n-a\\n-a\\n:;:i\\nd\\n~3\\n-a\\n-o\\n-o\\nu\\nt^ \u00c2\u00a7-2\\nHT!\\nSl=\\nV\\nv-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0P\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^^T\\nc\\no\\nt^\\nCQ\\n._ 4)\\n5S\\n5SS\\n^,:s\\no\\nCkCCc-\\nU-mH\\n[fcr/}^fctBE-ti-!/}^fct\u00c2\u00bbh\\nfcr/3t_\\nfcTJE-fc\\nW\\nt-\\nfcT}^\\nD\\nt~\\n05\\nO\\n(N\\n(N\\nCO\\nlO\\no\\no\\n2\\no\\no\\nO\\nO\\n2\\no\\n2\\no\\no\\nOD\\nO)\\nz\\nOJ\\nn\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2o", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS\\nHESSE-CASSEL, AND NASSAU.\\nThe Electorate of Hesse-Cassel, with a population of 750,000 inhabi-\\nlants, has three seminaries for teachers, viz.: at Fulda, Homberg and\\nSchluchtern.\\nThe course of instruction embraces three years, and each seminary re-\\nceives sixty pupils, who are divided into two classes. The division of\\ntime and allotment of studies in one of the best of these seminaries in the\\nsummer of 1839, may be seen on the opposite page.\\nNASSAU.\\nThe Duchy of Nassau, with a population of 420,000, supports one\\nTeachers Seminary at Idstein, which in 1846 had 154 pupils. The course\\niasts five years, four of which are devoted to a regular course of instruc-\\ntion in a thorough review of the studies pursued in the elementary schools\\nand the acquisition of studies which facilitate and illustrate the teaching\\nof the former, and the fifth, exclusively to the principles and practice of\\neducation. Pupils are admitted at the age of fourteen years. The library\\nof the institution is free to teachers in any part of the Duchy, and the\\nbooks are forwarded and returned by the government post without charge.\\nIn 1836 the government expended 3,596 thalers toward the expenses of\\nboard and lodging of the pupils.\\nThe Kingdom of Hanover, with a population of 1,790,000, supports\\nseven Teachers Seminaries. One of these, established in 1848, is devoted\\nto the education of Jewish teachers. The course embraces three years,\\nand, in addition to the studies and exercises embraced in the seminaries\\nfor Protestant and Catholic teachers, includes the study of Hebrew, the\\nOld Testament, and the commentaries of Hebrew scholars on the same.\\nThis is a practical religious toleration beyond any thing seen in the rest\\nof Europe. One of the seminaries is designated as the Chief Seminary,\\nand receives as pupils only those who have already taught school.\\nThe practice of boarding round, which constitutes one of the distin-\\nguishing marks of a bad state of public education, still prevails to some\\nextent in Hanover. I confess with shame. said a Director of a Teach-\\ners Seminary in Hanover, to Professor Stephens, now of Girard College of\\nOrphans, that this relic of barbarism may still be seen in a few villages\\nof the kingdom, but it must soon vanish before the light which a well-\\neducated class of teachers is diffusing among the people. This relic\\nof barbarism, necessarily disappears, where the business of teaching be-\\ncomes a profession, and the teacher becomes permanently employed in\\nthe same place.\\nMECKLENBURG SCHWERIN.\\nThe Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin, with a population of\\n515,000, supports two seminaries, viz. at Ludwigslust, and Rostock.\\nThe last is in connection with the University, and embraces a course of\\nthree months for students of Theology, who wish to be appointed tem-\\nporarily to situations as teachers.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "312\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT SCHLUCHTERN.\\nt^\\nschoo\\nining.\\nschoo\\norgan.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0g\\n01 o\\n.2\\ng\\no\\ns\\nQ\\na\u00c2\u00bb a; (U\\nS\\no E S.H o b.H\\n\u00c2\u00ab.E.S\\nmod\\nactis\\nphy.\\nbb\\nAttend\\nCatech\\nArt of\\nArithm\\nAttend\\nor pr\\nGeogra\\nArithm\\nE 60.1:2\\nrtjn!?\\nAttend\\nor pr\\nBotany\\nGeogra\\ns\\nSo\\nc\\nin\\n_\\nO\\n1 l\u00c2\u00a7\\n|S 1\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2f: 60 -S\\n.2\\no u \u00c2\u00a3r\\ncj \u00c2\u00a3r o\\nE\\nVi MO\\nMO\\nr\\nW)\\no\\ng\\nH\\n3.2 3 a e?\\nv V 3\\na\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0i\\nu\\na\\nAttend mod\\nLife of Chr\\nCatechism,\\nArithmetic,\\nAttend mod\\nor practis\\nSinging,\\nCompositioi\\nI.E\\n2 o\\no\\nAttend mod\\nor practis\\nDrawing,\\nAttend mod\\nIS\\n.5 S\\nu\\nrt\\n.2 t:\\na\\no\\na.\\no\\nH\\nU\\nn\\nschool,\\ntions,\\nS(!hool,\\norgan,\\nSophy,\\nM S\\n-^1\\nX S\\n6\\n3\\nz\\nci; u c^\\n5\\ncs\\nV\\nd:\\nM\\nmod\\nChr\\nism,\\nxpla\\nmod\\nrictis\\nsitio\\nIphi\\n60\\nS .5\\nII\\n8 i\\n(1)\\nu\\ns\\ns\\no\\nB\\nAttend\\nLife of\\nCatechi\\nBible e\\nAttend\\nor pr;\\nCompoi\\nNatura\\n1\\nAttend\\nor pr;\\nPiano,\\nBotany\\n2\\nclass\\nPiano,\\nReligio\\no\\nc\\nQ.\\nH\\no o\\no c\\n1.4\\nO bo 2 S i\\nM\\n-611\\n3\\no\\nu \u00c2\u00a3r u\\nb\\nX\\ntt\\nM C M o S\\neg\\nM o M\\nQ\\nCO\\nU\\nQ\\nttend model\\natechism,\\nrt of questio\\nrithmetic,\\nttend model\\nor practise\\neography,\\natechetical i\\ncises.\\n60 u\u00c2\u00ab\\nif-S\\nmodel\\nactise\\nmodel\\no\\n1\\na,\\nbE\\nS s\\n2\\na\\nttend\\nor pr\\notany\\nttend\\ng 2\\n60\\no\\no 2\\no\\npa\\no\\no\\nz\\nOO\\n0- v~\\nDQ- i\\npao\\ntf\\nm\\nO\\na\\nH\\nel schoo\\nst,\\nel schoo\\ne organ,\\niss,\\nel schoo\\ne organ,\\nling wri\\nb\\no\\nb\u00c2\u00a3\\nc\\nO\\nH\\nQ\\nm\\nD\\nmodi\\nChri\\nism,\\netic,\\nmodi\\nactis\\nIgh bi\\netic,\\nOS\\nIS\\nC3\\n4\\n3\\nH\\nttend\\nife of\\natech\\nrithm\\nttend\\nor pr\\nhorou\\nrilhm\\nii\\na o\\nttend\\nor pr\\nrawir\\nrt of 1\\nting,\\niano,\\nerma;\\nrt\\n(3\\nv\\nQ.\\no\\nH\\nIS\\nH\\nn\\n^XJ \\\\r\\nO\\nQ i\\n0.0\\nel school\\nist,\\nnations,\\nel school\\ne organ,\\nn,\\nlosophy,\\nM O\\n3 u\\nc\\nBo\\n6\\n3\\ne\\n1\\nV\\nX\\nlU\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2T3J- -rt-CMS-\\nT3 2\\na\\nosi e\u00e2\u0080\u0094 0-S-2-C\\n60\\no\\nvl _\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\nb\\nO\\nSO.i g-E\\n60 .S\\nEg\\nbO\u00c2\u00b0\\nH 3\\ns\\nttend\\nife of\\natech\\nible e\\nttend\\nor pr;\\nompo:\\natura\\nC 60\\n2\\nttend\\nor pr\\niano,\\notany\\nc c\\nrt S rt\\nM O\\nrt g;3\\nu 3\\na\\n2\\na^:^ OZ\\nCe!~^\\na.cQ\\n\u00c2\u00a3oi\\nO-tf\\nto\\nu\\nCO\\n93\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0-0 ts -d\\n-o -a\\n13\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2a\\n-o\\nT3\\nts\\nc e c\\ns e\\nc\\nc\\nc\\ne\\nc\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2J\\nirst\\neco\\nirst\\neco\\nirst\\neco\\nirst\\no M u\\n.1 i.l\\n8 2\\n(D.i:\\n\u00c2\u00a7.1\\ns\\nM\\nb,a!fc.M6t- m^\\n(Bfctn\\nlib Oltb\\najt,\\naju.\\nCCCbCn 1\\nV^V^\\nV\\nv\u00e2\u0080\u0094-^\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^v~-\\na\\no\\nB\\nN\\n00 O) rH \u00e2\u0080\u00a2-I\\no\\nB S B S\\n2\\n2 2\\n2\\n2\\nt- OD OS O\\n-H e\u00c2\u00bb\\nCO\\nlO\\n(0\\n_H_", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "BAVARIA.\\nBavaria is divided into eight provinces, 230 chief towns, 351 market\\ntowns, and 15,120 villages and parishes.\\nThe administration of public instruction is committed to four bodies, as\\nfollows 1. A local committee for each school, appointed by the com-\\nmittee lor each province, after consultation with the district committee.\\n2. A district committee for each town and village. -3. A provincial com-\\nmission for all of the schools of each province, one of whom only is paid,\\nand he must be a councilor of state. 4. A chief or head commission of\\nfour persons residing at Munich, one of whom is paid, and two of whom\\nmust be laymen. At the head of this commission is the Minister of Wor-\\nship and Public Instruction. Tlie second, third and fourth committees are\\nappointed by the ki^, who also appoints from time to time special inspec-\\ntors. The effective management of the schools is with the provincial\\ncommission. The special inspectors appointed by the king, are selected\\nfrom this board.\\nAll parents must send their children to some school, public or private,\\nfrom six to fourteen years of age, or be fined. The support of the schools\\nis borne by parents (varying from seventy-five cents to $1,50 per year in\\nquarterly payments, for each child by a local and provincial tax, voted\\nby each district and province and by the state, which appropriates about\\n$300,000 annually, in aid of local and parental efforts. The rate paid by\\nparents and by districts, is collected with the ordinary taxes.\\nThe course of instruction is the same as in the primary schools of other\\nstates of Germany. Religious instruction is given to the children on sta-\\nted days and hours. If a school is composed of scholars belonging to dif-\\nferent sects, the religious instruction is given by the pastor of each sect.\\nEvery school according to law must have a small Iiursery-garden un-\\nder the care of the teacher, where the pupils may learn the mode of treat-\\ning trees and plants. Out of 6065 Qerman schools, it appears from the\\nofficial reports that 5284 had such grounds attached.\\nBy a regulation adopted in 18.16, every teacher appointed to a public\\nschool, must have qualified himself at one of the Normal Schools. There\\nare seven of these institutions now in operation, viz. five for Catholic\\nteachers, at Bamberg, Eichstadt, Speyer, Keiserslautern, \u00c2\u00a3ind Lauingenj\\ntwo for Protestant teachers, at Altdorf and Schwabach.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "314 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA.\\nThe oldest Seminary is at Bamburg. It was founded in 1777, as a\\nNormal School, according to the meaning at that time conveyed by this\\ndesignation, that is, a model or pattern school, to which teachers resorted\\nfor observation, and a temporary course oflectures, and was raised into a\\nseminary, composed of teachers, in 1791. The course of instruction in\\n1846, was as follows\\n1. Religion, explanation of the catechism, Bible History, and eacred\\nsongs.\\n2. German Language, speaking, reading and writing.\\n3. Geography, including Natural History, and History.\\n4. Arithmetic.\\n6. Drawing and Geometry.\\n6. Penmanship, with constant exercises in composition.\\n7. Music, vocal and instrumental.\\n8. Pedagogics, general principles of education, methods of instruction,\\ndiscipline, and administration of school affairs.\\nThe number of pupils in 1844 was thirty-one, for whom there were three\\npermanent teachers residing in the institution, and several teachers em-\\nployed in special branches from the town. The pupils board in the Insti-\\ntution, and are charged a small fee for the priviteges of instruction, includ-\\ning board, lodging, tuition, c., which is, however, reduced from time to\\ntime, in consequence of diligence and proficiency. It does not exceed\\n$38 in any case. The coursse embraces two years. Out of study hours\\nthe pupils are under the special supervision of two oflfce instructors.\\nFor the Protestant teachers there are two seminaries, one at Altdorf\\nand the other at Schwabach.\\nJacobi, who was formerly inspector of the Seminary at Altdorf, and is\\nnow director of the new Protestant Seminary at Schwabach, published\\nthe following outline of a plan for a Seminary, in his Pedagogical Jour-\\nney in 1847, and which, we may now conclude, he is aiming to realize in\\nthe institution now in his charge.\\nFor the location of a seminary I should choose a large town for, however\\nmuch may be said in favor of country towns, there are in large towns more\\nmeans of culture and teaching: teachers and pupils are more easily provided\\nwith board; the institution is subjected to a more constant and intelligent in-\\nspection, and there is less exposure to a change of teachers, on accoi\\\\nt of the\\ndesirableness of a town residence to an educated man, and the facilities of edu-\\ncation for sons and daughters.\\nI would have a large, healthy and attractive building, without any thing re-\\npulsive in or about it, and in it there should be accommodations for the Direc-\\ntor, a housekeeper, and sixty pupils.\\nEach teacher should have his separate department: to one teacher should be\\nassigned Religion, pedagogic and didactic; to another, German Language, lite-\\nrature and history; to a third, Realia, (natural science,) arithmetic, penmanship,\\nand drawing; and to a fourth, the whole course of musical instruction and\\npractice. Each teacher must not only be master of his branch, but must have\\na practical power and skill to form future teachers in his department, without\\nbeing obliged to call in aid from any other teachers.\\nEvery teacher should be adequately compensated, so as to give his whole\\ntime and soul to the institution, and he should rank with the professors in the\\ngymnasia, and be subordinate only to the supervision of the highest govern-\\nmental authority.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA 316\\nEvery teacher should exhibit sincere piety, exemplary conduct, a glowing\\nzeal in the cause of education, and an enthusiastic attachment to the institu-\\ntions of his country found always on the side of education, religion and his\\nking, and above all, of his profession. The Director must be a good theolo-\\ngian, and must be so thoroughly trained in every department of study pursued in\\nthe institution, as to be abfe lo answer promptly the questions of the pupils;\\nmust be a good musician, and a ready and gifted speaker, so as to be able to touch\\nthe heart in leading the devotions and public exercises of the institution. He\\nmust also be a man of business habits, and possess a tact in governing and\\nmoving others to his purposes. To such a director 1 would cheerfully com-\\nmit the charge of the seminary, and to whom all other teachers must be subor-\\ndinate, so far as the impulse and direction of the instruction and exercises are\\nconcerned.\\nI would be very cautious in introducing text books, which may afterward be\\nfollowed exclusively by the pupils, when they become teachers. Every text\\nboyk used in the school should be subjected to the sharpest competition and\\nmost rigid scrutiny, as to its principles and methods.\\nThe regulations of the Seminary should be few and general, leaving the de-\\ntails of administration to the Director and a council of the teachers. It would\\nbe a matter of indifference to me, whether the pupils studied by themselves, or\\ntogether recited a particular study in the forenoon or afternoon, provided the\\nbest good of all was secured, and the great end of the Institution realized in\\nproducing good men, sincere Christians, sound scholars, and faithful and able\\nteachers.\\nFrom time to time, the Institution should be visited by the highest authori-\\nties of the church and state, but not by subordinate and local school officers.\\nBavaria has a population of about 4,250,000, The Educational Insti-\\ntutions consist of\\n3 Universities, viz., at Munich, with 1,329 students,\\nErlangen, 300\\nWiirzberg, 408\\n9 Lyceums, with 3,110\\n24 Gymnasiums, 85.681\\n32 Mechanics Schools, 7,495\\n70 Latin Schools,\\n3 Polytechnic Schools, 493\\n9 Nornral Seminaries, 696\\n6,065 German, or Common Schools, 556, i39\\nOiie Institution for the blind one Institution for deaf mutes; one Col-\\nlege or Higher Seminary for younar ladies; one Academy of science;\\none School for artists.\\nThe following remarks on the schools and teachers of Bavaria, are\\ntaken from Kay s Social Conditon and Education of the People.\\nThe statistics differ in some particulars from those given above.\\nWhen I was in Nuremburg, in the kingdom of Bavaria, I asked a poor man,\\nwhether they obliged him to send his children to school. He said, Yes I must\\neither sen f them to school or educate them at home, or I should be fined very\\nheavily. I said, I suppose you don t like these rules He answered, Why\\nnot, sir I am a very poor man I could not afford the time to teach my chil-\\ndren myself, nor the expense of paying for their education myself the municipal\\nauthorities pay all the school fees for my children, and give them good clothes to\\nwear at school both my children and myself are the gainers by such an arrange-\\nment; why should I object to it?\\nIn Ratisbon, I spent the whole of one day in company with a poor peasant, who\\nacted as my guide. I said to him, Have you any good schools here for your chil-\\ndren He answered with an air of astonishment, Oh dear yes, sir all cup", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "316 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA.\\nchildren go to school the law obliges us to send them to school, and provides good\\nschools for them. I said, But don t you dislike being obliged to send your\\ncli.ldren to scliool He answered, hy should I, sir the teachers are good\\nand learned men, and our children learn from them many things, which enable\\nthem afterward to get on in the world much better than they would be able to do,\\nif they were ignorant and incapable of studying. I asked again, But what\\nsort of men are the teachers He answered, Oh, they are very learned men\\nthey are all educated at the colleges. I said again, But are the teachers gen-\\nerally liked by the poor He answered, Oh, yes, they are learned men, and\\nteach our children many useful things.\\nWhen I reached Munich, I engaged, according to my usual custom, a poor man\\nas my guide. 1 asked him to take me to see some of the schools, where the chil-\\ndren of poor people were educated, and told him, that I did not wish to visit the\\nbest, but the worst school in the city. He answered me, Sir, we have no bad\\nschools here the government has done a great deal for our schools, and they are\\nall very good. I said, Well, take me to the worst of those you know. He\\nanswered again, 1 don t know any poor one, but I will take you to the one\\nwhere my own childen go. I am a poor man, and can not afford to pay any thing\\nfor the education of my children, and many of the children that you wiU see there,\\nare like my own, sent to the school at the expense of the city.\\nAccordmgly, after passing several very large and handsome schools for primary\\ninstruction, we proceeded to the one, which the children of my poor guide attended.\\nIt was a lofty and handsome building, four stories high, and about 60 feet broad.\\nIn the two upper stories, all the teachers, of whom there were ten educated men\\nattached to the institution, resided. On the lower floors, there were ten class-\\nrooms, each about 20 feet long, 15 broad, and 14 feet high, and fitted up with\\nparallel rows of desks, maps, drawing-boards, and school-books. Five of these\\nspacious class-rooms were for the boys, and five for the girls. The children were\\nall classified, according to the time of entering the school. All those who had\\nbeen less than a year in the school were put in the first class. These children,\\nafter remaining a year or a year and a half in the first class, moved on into the\\nsecond class, and thence into the higher classes, the same teacher accompanying\\nthem through their five changes, and continuing to instruct them, until their leav-\\ning the school. Each school-room was filled with parallel rows of desks and\\nforms the desk of the teacher stood in front of them all, and the walls were\\ncovered with maps, pictures, and blackboards.\\nThe desks, forms, maps, pictures, and apparatus of each school-room were\\nsuited to the age, size, or attainments of the children for whom the class-room\\nwas destined. The children sat during their first year or year and a half s educa-\\ntion, in the first class-room, during their second year and a half s education in the\\nsecond class-room, and so on.\\nI went first into the second class-room. The children were so clean and re-\\nspectably dressed, that I could not believe they were the children of poor persons.\\nI expres.sed my doubt to my guide. His answer was, My children are here,\\nsir and then turning to the teacher, he requested him to tell me, who were the\\nparents of the children present. The teacher made the children stand up one\\nafter another, and tell me, who their parents were. From them I learned, that\\ntwo were the sons of counts, one the son of a physician, one of an officer of the\\nroyal household, one of a porter, and others of mechanics, artizans, and of labor-\\ners, who were too poor to pay for their children s education, and whose children\\nwere clothed and educated at the expense of the town. They all sat at the same\\ndesks together. They were all clothed with equal respectability. In their man-\\nners, dress, cleanliness, and appearance, I could discern no striking difference.\\nMy inference from this interesting scene was, that the children of the German\\npoor must be in a very different state to that of the children of our English poor,\\nto allow of such an intercourse, and to enable the richer classes to educate their\\nsons at the same desks with the children. of the peasants.\\nAfter spending some time in the different class-rooms, the quiet and order of\\nwhich were admirable, I went to the town-hall to see the chief educational au-\\nthority for the city itself. Outside his door, I found a poor woman waiting to see\\nhim. I asked her what she wanted. She said, she had a htUe girl of five years", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS W BAVARIA. g|7\\nof age, and that she wanted to persuade the minister to allow her to send her little\\ndaughter to school a year before tiie legal age for admission, which in Bavaria, is\\nthe completion of the sixth year. 1 said to her, Why are you so anxious to\\nsend your child to school so early She answered, smiling at my question\\nThe children learn at school so much, which is useful to them in after life, that\\nI want her to begin as soon as possible. I thought to mj self, this does not look\\nas if the people dislike being obliged to educate their children.\\nI had an interview with the head inspector of Bavaria, and asked him, whether\\nhe was certain, that all the young men below thirty years of age could read and\\nwrite and understand arthmetic. He said, I am certain of more than that I\\nknow, that they all know their Scripture History, and that they all know some-\\nthing of geography, and of the elements of Natural History.\\nAt the time I visited Munich, the Jesuit party was in power. The ministers,\\nhowever, showed the greatest willingness to furnish me with all the information I\\nrequired, and supplied me with all the statistics and documents I wished to\\nprocure.\\nI. visited a priest, who directed one of the large educational establishments in the\\ncity. He told me, that they had established eight normal colleges in Bavaria for\\nthe education of teachers, and that two of these had been specially set apart for\\nthe education of Protestant teachers. He seemed to make very light of all diffi-\\nculties arising from religious dift erences, and spoke of education as of a national\\nwork, which it was necessary to accomplish, by the joint efforts of all religious\\nparties.\\nIt is said, greatly to the honor of the late king, that, careless as his government\\nwas to many of the internal wants of the kingdom, and profuse and lavish as his\\nexpenditure was upon art, he never neglected the education of the people, but that\\nhe effected a great advance in this part of the national administration.\\nThe Minister of the Interior for Bavaria, supplied me with all the laws and\\nstatistics relating to the educational institutions of the country. The laws have\\nbeen most carefully compiled and codified and perhaps there is no country in\\nEurope, which possesses such an admirable and minutely considered series of\\nenactments on the subject of national education.\\nMr. Kay makes the following remarks on the social equalization of\\ngood public schools, by bringing the children of the rich and poor, of\\nnobles and peasants under the same roof, and under the influence of the\\nsame good teachers.\\nIn Bavaria I found the same proofs of the excellence of the primary schools.\\nI remember particularly a visit paid to one school in Munich, which may be fairly\\ntaken as an example of all for all the schools in that city are remarkably good.\\nWhen I entered I did not know any thing about the children, or to what ranks of\\nsociety they belonged. The appearance of all was so clean, respectable, and\\norderly, that I imagined they were all the children of trades-people. I therefore\\nasked the teacher to tell me what their parents were. He answered The\\ntwo boys you see here are the sons of counts yonder is the child of a tradesman\\nthere is the son of a physician there, a son of one of the court servants and\\nso he continued to point out others, who were the children of professional men,\\nshoemakers, tailors, c. I then said, Have you any here, whose parents are so\\npoor, as not to be able to pay any thing for their education, and who are conse-\\nquently dependent on the town charity for their instruction Oh 1 yes, he\\nimmediately answered 5 the one you see yonder (pointing to a very clean and\\nrespectable-looking child) is one, and there is another and so he continued to\\nsingle out several others, who were paid for, and clothed, at the expense of the\\ncity.\\nThe very fact of the children of such different classes of society being mingled\\ntogether in the same schools, will serve to prove to any unprejudiced mind the\\nexcellence of the schools themselves, as well as the civilization of the poorer\\nclasses for if the schools were not good enough for the children of the rich and\\nnoble, or if the poor children were as rude and unrefined, as the children who\\nfrequent our ragged schools in England, we may rest adjured, that the rksber po-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "gjg PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA.\\nrents would not allow their children to attend the same classes with them. The\\nsame association of children of different ranks of society takes place, to even a\\ngreater degree in Switzerland.\\nI could mention a lady who moves in the first circles of London society, and\\nwho is rich enough and sufficiently interested in the improvement of her young\\nrelations to engage private tutors for them, if it were necessary, whose young\\ngrandchildren I found attending a village school for peasants, situated near the\\nLake of Geneva, where her son, who was till lately a member of the government\\nof the canton, resided. To prove to me, that it was not carelessness about the\\nchildren, that had led the parents to remain satisfied with the education given in\\nthe village school, she gave me an introduction to the teacher, and begged me to\\nvisit his classes. I accordingly went, and found there, what you may find in\\nnearly every village in Germany and Switzerland, an educated and gentlemanly\\nman. who appeared qualified to act as private tutor in any gentleman s family.\\nThe statistics, with which the Minister furnished me show, that, in 1846, there\\nwere in the kingdom of Bavaria, for a population little more than double that of\\nour own metropolis, a much more effective system of national education, and\\nmuch more perfect means for the education of the people, than we have in Eng-\\nland and Wales.\\nIn 1846, the population of Bavaria was 4,440,000, and for this there were\\n8 normal colleges for the education of .teachers for the elementary schools.\\n696 students in the normal colleges, who were being educated as teachers.\\n7,353 schools, (many of them containing as many as ten class-rooms and ten\\nteachers.)\\n8,978 classes open on Fridays and Sundays, for young people attending the\\nmanufactories, and for men and women desirous of improving themselves in\\nany particular branch of instruction.\\n556,239 scholars of both sexes attending the schools\\n565,876 persons of both sexes attending the Sunday and Friday classes.\\n8,797 teachers, who have the management and direction of the schools and\\n615 industrial schools, where some particular art is taught.\\n2,517 teachers of the industrial schools.\\n85,681 persons attending the industrial schools.\\nThese statistics give the following results that, in 1846, exclusive of the num-\\nber of persons attending the Sunday and Friday classes, and the industrial schools,\\nabout 1 person out of every 7 of the population was attending a daily school that\\nthere was 1 normal college for every 555,000 1 school for every 603, and 1\\nteacher for erery 508 persons in the kingdom.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "DR. GRASER S COURSE OF INSTRUCTION\\nIN THE\\nCOMMON SCHOOLS OF BAYRECTH, IN BAVARIA.\\nDr. Graser of Bayreuth, has developed a system of instruction, the\\nprinciples of which he claims, are founded in the nature and purposes\\nof education, and of man as its recipient. This system has been intro-\\nduced into the common schools of his native place, and has attracted\\nmuch attention from a class of teachers in Germany. Dr. Bache gives\\nthe following sketch of its general principles, and of its development in\\none of the common schools of Bayreuth:\\nAfter considering the constitution of man, Dr. Graser lays down the\\nprinciple, that he is destined to live in accordance with it, and in the pur-\\nsuit of holiness, (godliness, divinitat.) The child must be educated in\\nreference to this destination. Man requires strength of body, hence\\nphysical education, and of soul (virtue,) hence moral education. His\\nbodily strength must be rendered available by dexterity, his virtue by\\nprudence. Both must be directed by intelligence, hence intellectual\\neducation. Besides, he must have a just sense of the harmony in the\\nrelations of life, or a feeling of fitness, or beauty, hence aesthetical edu-\\ncation. As a condition of his being, man stands in certain relations\\nto external nature, to his fellow men, and to God. Instruction in\\nnature, man, and God. must, therefore, form the materials of his\\neducation. Nature must be viewed in its productions, the objects of\\nnatural history, or its phenomena, the objects of natural philosophy,\\nor physics. To complete the study of nature, geography, arithmetic,\\ngeometry, and its applications, and drawing, must be called in, and\\nthe practical application of the study includes technology and do-\\nmestic economy. The study of man requires that of the theory of gym-\\nnastics, dietetics, history, and geography. To approach to God, man\\nmust know him. The first form of godliness is truth. God s truth, then,\\nas revealed, should be man s study. The second form is justice; juris-\\nprudence in higher education, or the laws of the land inpower, should,\\ntherefore, also form a part of man s studies, and as acces.cory subjects,\\nhistory and grammar. The third is love, taught through morals or\\npractical religion. The fourth is beauty, requiring the study of paint-\\ning, music, poetry, and decorum. Dr. Graser next endeavors to modify\\nthe several subjects of education, according to the special wants of those\\nwho are to receive it, which he considers to depend upon their political\\nsituation. Thus, for his country, he divides men into three classes, the\\npeople, or governed; the nobles; and the reigning family, or governors.\\nThe first he considers as more concerned with material objects, the\\nothers with the ideal, or spiritual, and hence adopts two divisions of the\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Xibjfefcts of study, 38 calculated for their schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "320 GRASER S SYSTEM OF INSTRtTCTION.\\nIn the arrangement of instruction, his principle, that the school must\\nprepare for actual life, is brought into play. He admits no separation\\ninto branches of study, no natural order of succession in ihe branches,\\nbut insists that all instruction shall be grouped according to the wants\\nof some particular mode of life. Taking society as the state of man s\\nexistence, he begins instruction with the paternal mansion of the child\\nand his family relations, and attaches to these all the elementary know-\\nledge of morals, manners, speech, number, form, objects, drawing, and\\nwriting, which would be found necessary in this sphere. He next\\nwidens the sphere to include the place of residence, with its community;\\nextends it to the circle or judicial district, to the province, to the country,\\nto the assemblage of the German states, the division of the earth, the\\nentire earth, the universe.\\nThe application of Graser s principles to a common school will be\\nbest understood by following up the course of instruction as far as it has\\nbeen developed in one of the schools of Bayreuth.\\nThe sixth, or lowest class, is instructed in what relates to family life. The\\nexterior of the house. Its interior. Its inhabitants. Their wants.\\nThe classification followed in Wiirst s reading book will show, generally, the\\nway in which these subjects are taught.\\nI. The paternal mansion, considered as the dwelling place of the family. Houses and huts.\\nStones and lime. (Story of an accident from playing with lime.) The walls and the roof.\\nDoors and windows. (History ofthe discovery ofglass.) Earth, fire, water, and light. Compari-\\nson of building materials. Gloom, darkness, light, shadow. Property. Ownt-r. Rectitude.\\nGoodness. Decorum. Politeness. iStory of the polite and the rude boy Pilfering Theft.\\nRobbery. Robbers. 2. The inmates of the house. Enumeration of them. E.tterior dis-\\ntinctions between the men and animals. Distinctive qualities of the difff-rtnt domest c ani-\\nmals. The poultry Further distinctions between men and animals. Voice. Speech as a\\ncharacteristic of man. Power of induction. Moral order of the family. (The intractable\\nchild) Uses of the domestic animals, obligations toward them. (Tormentors of animals.)\\nNoxious domestic animals. Conduct toward them. Flies Spiders. Review of conduct\\ntoward animals in general. 3 Wants of the inmates of the house. The dwelling itself.\\nFurniture and clothing. Arrangements for their preservation. Inviolability of the property\\nof children and servants. Activity and offices of parents. Duties of children toward their\\nparents.\\nThis course is commenced between six and seven years of age, and occupies\\nabout six months. I shall go into some particulars in regard to parts of the in-\\nstruction. 1. The dwelling-house. The teacher shows a model of a simple\\ndwelling-house, of which the gable end may be removed, and is a rectangular\\nblock, surmounted by a triangle. The teacher takes off the triangle, and counts\\nthe number of its sides audibly this part of the house has how many sides is\\nhis question. Three. He shows that it has also three corners, or asks how\\nmany corners, leaving to the more intelligent pupils to lead the class in the an-\\nswer, and when the answer is obtained, causing it to be repeated by all. Watch-\\ning the class, if he finds inattention, he addresses the question where it prevails,\\ngiving the pupils as much as possible to find out, in order to keep up their atten-\\ntion as long as their physical constitution will permit. A change of subject, phys-\\nical exercise, or rest, should be allowed when the attention is exhausted, the\\nhabit of which may be gradually established by training. This inductive course,\\ncombined with repetition, is always employed, and in what follows I shall merely\\nindicate the order of the instruction. The figure in question is three-cornered.\\nInterior corners are called angles.* It is a three angled figure, and called a tri-\\nangle. Next, the four-sided figure is similarly treated. Then the triangular cap\\nis set upon the rectangle, forming a five-sided figure. This part of the model is\\nnow placed before the children to draw upon the slate, with the following pre-\\nlimmary instruction. Each group of three or four children, or, if convenient,\\nIn German, the space formed by the meeting of two lines viewed from the interior, or\\nfrom the exterior, ha^i different names, and the oompoundsof these, with the numerals three,\\nfour, five, c., oOnSitutfe the namee of the flgurce, as drey-eck, vigr-ecki b.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF BAYREUTH, IN BAVARIA. 321\\neach child, is furnished with a rectangle of pasteboard, or thin wood, in which\\nfive holes are pierced, corresponding to the five angular points of the pentagon to\\nbe drawn. These are marked on the slate by inserting the points of the pencil\\nthrough the holes, and the child is practiced in joining the points by hand. Prac-\\ntice in this constitutes his first drawing lesson. Returning to the rectangular part\\nof the model, the positions of the vertical and horizontal boundary lines are\\npointed out, and a plummet and common mason s level are shown, to give a\\nnotion how these lines are established in practice, and a correct idea of their\\nactual positions. Attention is next called to the horizontal side of the triangular\\ncap, then to the sloping sides. A comparison of the angles which they form with\\nthe horizon, and that formed by the horizontal and vertical lines, leads to the dis-\\ntinction between acute and right angles. The objects of a triangular roof, and\\nof the rectangular lower part of the house, are next stated. An obtuse angled\\npolygonal roof is substituted for the one already mentioned. The form gives an\\nillustration of the obtuse angle, placing it upon the model leads to counting as far\\nas seven Dividing the house into stories by lines, to counting to nine. The\\nchildren are next led to enumerate the parts of the house as shown in the model,\\nand with the names of which they are of course familiar, as the doors, windows,\\nc. The distinction between squares and rectangles is made obvious. The\\nparallelogram and rhomb are also here introduced. The distinction between\\ncurved and straight lines, c. Different simple drawings of cottages are made.\\nCounting is continued to ten. Addition is commenced by referring to the number\\nof panes in the windows of the model, covering up those not to be added, and\\nproceeding from smaller to larger numbers, within the limits of ten. These are\\nextended to one hundred, stating to the children the mode of formation of com-\\npound numbers, to assist their memory. Subtraction is introduced by reference\\nto the same illustrations. Mental arithmetic alone is practiced. In adding num-\\nbers which exceed ten, the tens are first added, then the units, carrying to the\\ntens, if necessary thus, in adding twenty-two and thirty -nine together, their\\nprocess would be, twenty-two is two tens and two ones thirty-nine, three tens\\nand nine ones two tens and three tens are five tens two ones and nine ones are\\neleven ones, or one ten and one one five tens and one ten are six tens, and one,\\nsixty-one. Multiplication is begun also by a reference to the window-panes,\\nwhich alTord, usually, manj^ combinations. Division is similarly treated, the\\nquestion being such as the children would take an interest in solving, and their\\ncoins are early explained to them, and made the subjects of their exercises. Frac-\\ntions grow naturally from division. The foregoing instruction is interspersed with\\nother matters yet to be described.\\nIn fact, there is no fixed order of exercise, or school plan, according to Graser s\\nmethod, but the teacher is relied upon to advance the different parts of the instruc-\\ntion duly, according to his observation of the progress of the cl ss.\\nTh? elements of physics, natural history, technology, and domestic economy, are\\nthus introduced, it being understood that the same mixed method of question and\\nanswer, and of direct and inductive teaching, is used throughout. Men did not\\nalways live in houses, but once in caves and huts. The inconveniences of -such\\nplaces from cold, damp, c., are pointed out. The materials required for a house,\\nas stone, mortar, wood, iron, c. Most of the children have seen the operation\\nof building, and can tell the materials required those who have not observed,\\nwill probably not let an opportunity pass afterward of so doing. Whence the\\nstone is procured, quarries, quarrymen. The hewing of stone. Limestone and\\nlime the objects being presented to them. The conversion of the limestone into\\nlime. The slaking of lime, making of mortar, its hardening, laying the stones.\\nDigging of the trench for the foundations, c.\\nNext the wood is taken for the subject of a lesson. Tlie distinction of wood\\nfrom fruit-trees and forest trees is shown. Shaping of the wood by sawing.\\nBeams. Planks. Boards. Laths. Trade of house carpenter. Of joiner, c.\\nIn the same way iron is treated of. Bricks and tiles. Glass.\\nIn recapitulating these matters, or in presenting new ones, the elements of\\ngrammar are begun. The nouns and adjectives are easily distinguished from the\\nOther parts of speech by the induction of the pupils themselves, when directed in\\nthe right way.\\nUsed as incidental matters of instruction, but not as forming its ground work,\\n21", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "322\\nGRASER S SYSTEM OF INSTKUCTION\\nit appears to me that the foregoing subjects are of value, and that useful hints\\nmay be gathered from the way of treating them henee, I am led to remark upon\\ncertain soui ces of difficulty in their execution. The instruction may be rendered\\nwholly ineffective by the teacher treating the subject in a mechanical way, so that\\nwhat is intended to excite the observing and reflecting faculties, especially tlie\\nformer, shall become a mere memory of words. It may be rendered actually\\nmischievous by the teacher inculcating erroneous ideas of natural phenomena\\nand natural history. The teacher s guide should be prepared with care, and\\nrevised by adepts in the sciences, to avoid such mischief, which I have known to\\nyeoiu in many cases.*\\nElementary ideas of right and wrong, of goodness, of fitness, the beauti-\\nnl, are inculcated in the following\u00c2\u00abway The dwelling being still mider discus-\\n:j;oii, the attention is called to the parts of the door, its lock, c. The object of\\nti .e door and its festenings. Who may rightfully enter a house. The right to\\nput out those entering wrongfully. A story is told here of a poor child begging\\niiir admission to a house dm-ing a storm, cold, hungiy, and ill clothed. The child\\n::i received and supplied. The moral is drawn from the children, and benevo-\\nlence, love to man, is inculcated. In entering a strange house or room, leave\\nmust be asked. The contrast of good and bad manners in making or answering\\nthe request is brought home to the children. The subject is next followed up by\\nsupposing an unlawful entry made into the dwelling, and the difference between\\ntheft and burglary, or stealing and robbing, is brought out. The smallest possible\\ntheft of any kind, or pilfering, is immoral. A story is told to illustrate the fate\\nof the pilferer.\\nNext the inmates of the house and out-houses form subjects of instruction, the\\nmode of treating which will easily be conceived by referring again to the general\\nenumeration of the arrangement of the subj ects. Exercises of speech and thought,\\nnatural history of domestic animals, and much elementary technological informa-\\ntion, are thus introduced. Proverbs are committed to memory, inculcating moral\\nlessons or duties.\\nThe next head furnishes an opportunity to examine the wants of the inmates\\nof the house, the topography of the dwelling and its groimds, as introductory to\\ngeography, the construction and uses of the fm-niture in continuation of techno-\\nlogy, and to introduce the drawing of simple articles of furniture. Speecl^ is\\nconsidered as the means of communicating between the members of a family.\\nOther modes of communicating ideas by signs and gestures are adverted to. The\\nsight may be addressed through pictures as substitutes for verbal descriptions\\naddressed to the ear. ilierogiypliies or sii;-ijs may bo sulistitated for pictures.\\nTrials of these are resorted to, as, for example, the cm-ve of the fore-finger and\\nthumb forming a C, may be imitated on the slate, and understood to stand for\\ncome here. A number of signs, having reference to letters subsequently to\\nbe fornied, and to their actual use in the spelling of words, are taught to the chil-\\ndren, who at first are delighted with these acquisitions, but after a time find the\\naccumulation of signs very troublesome. This is supposed to prepare the way\\nfor a zeal in acquiring writing and reading. To ^connect the written with the\\nspoken language. Dr. Graser goes back to the origin of the former, and imagines\\nthat the forms of the letters result, in general, from an attempt to imitate the\\nposition of the lips, or lips and tongue, in sounding the component parts of a word.\\nThis requires a difficult and in many cases a most fancifulf connection to be\\nformed in the mind of the pupil between the sound and its sign. Four different\\nTo show that this is not imaginary, I may mention that, in a school where the subject of\\nthe caustic nature of lime, and of its heating during slaking, were under examination, they\\nwere explained thus: the limestone was turned into lime by heat, in which process it ab-\\nsorbed a great deal of heat, which made it burning, or caustic when water is thrown upon\\nit, the water unites with the lime, and this heat escapes.\\nt I have called this fanciful, lor so it appears to me, but speak in no spirit of disrespect.\\nThis method is connected, in Dr. Graser s school, with the instruction of the deaf and dumb\\nwith other children. The maxim prevailing in the principal schools of Germany for the\\ninstruction of the deaf and dumb is, that they must be restored to society by enabling them to\\nunderstand speech and to speak. Hence the first attempt is to make them understand the\\nmotions of the organs of speech, and to imitate ihem, forcing air through them so as to pro-\\nduce the sounds. The perseverance and zeal expended in attempting to carry out this idea\\nare almost incredible. In some of the institutions for deaf mutes much of the instruction is\\nactually commuoicated through the means of speech.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF BEYREDTH, IN BAVARIA. 323\\nseries of lines are ruled by the pupils upon the slates, on which they write one\\nis a set of two parallels for the standard letters another of three parallels for the\\nletters which project above the standard lines, the interval between the upper\\ntwo being less tlian that between the lower another set, also of three parallels,\\nfor the letters which extend below, and a foui th for those which extend in both\\ndirections. Words are formed as soon as possible, and of a kind intelligible to\\nthe child, and sentences of the same character. I doubt much if the pupil re-\\nceives any real aid from the connection assumed between sounds and signs. The\\ndeterminate sound of the letters in the German renders the spelling easy when\\nthe true sound and the signs of the letters have been connected in the niemory.*\\nThe previous practice of drawing has prepared the hand, so that there is a re-\\nmarkable facility in requiring the manual part of writing. The selection of intel-\\nligible sentences carries out the habit of understanding every thing as it is brought\\nforward. Reading the written hand soon becomes familiar, and the transition to\\nthe printed letters is easy. In all this instruction the blackboard is used for\\nillustrating the lessons. Elementary principles of grammar are inculcated in con-\\nnection with the writing and reading.\\nIn the next class, occupying also six months, the instruction is connected with\\nlife in the community. This includes the political organization of the commu-\\nnity, with the reasons for it the geography of the place the continuation of the\\nexercises of thought and speech the commencement of JBible history an exten-\\nsion of instruction in morals, technology, and natural history of the elements of\\nform of grammar of drawing and writing so at least they would be called in\\nthe other schools. The plan of arrangement is as follows\\nLife in the community. History of the formation of communities, with their wants and\\nobligations. Original existence of man. Union of several families. Fatal accidents in com-\\nmunities. Necessity of mutual aid in misfortune. Necessity of a magistracy. Arrangements\\nfor safety. Taxes. Laws and punishments. Wants of the community. Roads, bridges,\\nc. Watchmen. Servants. Council-house. School-house.\\n2. In referknce to man. The five senses. Their abuse exposes to punishment. In-\\nformation in regard to the organs of sense. Their injury or deficiency. Their preservation\\nand exercise. The mind. Perception not required for thought, or for distinguishing the\\ntrue from the false, the good from the evil. She soul. Man has reason and will. Storfes of\\ngood actions. The good is not always rewarded in this world, but there is a God.\\n.3. Relation op man to Gi d. Attributes of the Deity. God is the creator, the supporter,\\nthe governor of the world, the father of all men, the high and righteous judge, a spirit. Du-\\nties 10 God. Honor, love as of a child, trust, thankfulness, reverence. Constant remem-\\nbrance of God. Conscience. Stories related. The evil conscience. Conscience maizes a\\nman anxious and uneasy when he does wrong. The moral to be inculcated is, that man has\\nwithin him a monitor which warns h m against doing evil. Story of a pleasant evening.\\nThere is also approval within one s self of good deeds. Necessity of a revelation to man.\\nStories from the Scriptures related. The creation. Cain and Abel. The deluge. Those\\nsaved. The prophets. Expectation and coming of the Messiah. The three wise men. The\\nchild Jesus. John. Jesus the teacher, saviour, and founder of the kingdom of godliness.\\n4. Relation of man to nature. The native place and its environs. The village as the\\ndwelling of the community. The cardinal points. Position of the buildings. Streets.\\nRoads. Springs. Storiesof the village. Review of the position of the village. Natural his-\\ntory. Beauties of nature. First walk in the garden. Fruit trees, shrubs, herbs, flowers.\\nThe fields, hills, valleys, woods, and forests. Morning ramble in the woods. Morning song.\\nInsects. Stories of cruelty to insects. Natural philosophy. Heat. The sun. Sunrise!\\nSong. Division of time. The calendar. Vapor. Storms. Thunder and lightning. Rules\\nfor protection.\\n5. Relation op man to society. Age and youth. Infirm persons. The able bodied\\nand the sick Duties toward and protection of the sick. Employments. Laborers and\\ntradesmen. Peacefulness. Willingness in service. Uprighteousness. Respectfulness. Dis-\\nposition to work. Poverty and riches. Contentment.\\nThe same elements of instruction are, in the next class, grouped about the next\\npolitical division, the circle, the course occupying, as before, six months. Begin-\\nning here, the division restricts some portions of instruction unnecessarily. In\\ngeneral, however, I was satisfied with the progress of this class. I had no oppor-\\ntunity of judging of the results of the following division, namely, life in the pro-\\nvince, no class being in that stage of progress.\\nIn the next following, or life in the kingdom, the political circumstances\\nbecame too abstruse for the intellectual development of the children, and the\\nattempts at induction in regard to the government failed almost entirely. All\\nI have a specimen of writing from one of a class who had been five months under this\\ninstruction, remarkable for the correctness of spelling and execution. It was written fromi\\ndictation. The pupil was seven years of age.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "324\\nGRASER S SYSTKM OF INSTRUCTION, ETC.\\nthe circumstances, except those relating to the army, were out of the pale of their\\nordinary experience, and the complex mechanism of government was beyond the\\npower of their reason to grasp. The German language is taught grammatically\\nin this class, and, besides the geography and natural history of Bavaria, its his-\\ntory, the biography of its most distinguished men, arithmetic, mental and written,\\ngeometry, drawing, singing, and morals from the Bible. At this stage of pro-\\ngress, it is quite apparent that the branches require a different mode of instruc-\\ntion, that they must be separated, and the progress of each regulated according\\nto the adaptation of the mind of the pupil to its reception, and not according to\\nany extraneous theoretical circumstances.\\nThe two highest classes being joined under a teacher who pursued altogether\\nthe old method of instruction, I had no opportunity to put to the test the judgment\\nformed in the lower class, which I have just expressed. Social or political circum-\\nstances do not afford, I am satisfied, a just method of arranging the details of in-\\nstruction, though a knowledge of them should doubtless form a part of education.\\nThe reasons why the arrangement of Graser produces satisfactory results in the\\nlower classes are, first, that elementary instruction does not require a systematic\\ndivision of its subjects, in order to apply them to cultivating the intellect or\\nmorals, or for communicating knowledge: and second, that the subjects are\\nwithin the pale of the child s experience, and refer to his every day wants and\\nperceptions. Just the reverse, however, is the case in the higher divisions, and\\nhence a different method becomes absolutely necessary.* Still the leading idea\\nof the system, that to develop the intellectual, moral, and physical faculties of man\\nis not sufficient, but that he must be educated in reference to the life in which he\\nis to take a part, strikes with the force of truth, independently of the details which\\nmay be devised to carry it into effect.\\nThe institutions which Dr. Graser considers necessary to give the entire public\\ninstruction of a nation are\\nPOPULAR SCHOOLS. SCHOOLS FOR HIGHER INSTRUCTION.\\n1. The elementary school. 1 The elementary school.\\n2. The real schoo l, real pvmnasium. 2. The gymnasium.\\n3. Tlie real institute, rearuniversity. 3. The university.\\nThe character of the instruction appropriate to these establishments may, ac-\\ncording to his views, be thus expressed. In the elementary school, it should be\\npopular and inductive in the real school, practical and scientific and in the\\nuniversity, scientific and practical, or applying science to practice.\\nThis view is also taken by Dr. KrOger, whose experience and skill as a feacner I have\\nalready so often referred to. See his journey through Germany. (Reise durch Ueutsch-\\nland, 6k., pp. 132, 133.)", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "AUSTRIA.\\nAustria has a system* of education which, from the village school to the\\nuniversity, is gratuitously open to all, and wliicli, in all its departments, is\\nbased on religion, and governed and molded by the State. Its universality\\nis secured not by direct compulsion, as in Prussia, but by enactments which\\nrender a certificate of school attendance and educational proficiency neces-\\nsary to exercise a trade, or be employed as a workman,! to engage in the\\nservice of the State in any capacity, or to be married. Besides this, it is made\\nthe interest of the wealthy landholders to contribute liberally for the educa-\\ntion of their ten;xnts and the poor, by throwing upon them the support of\\nthe pauper population.\\nAll the institutions for education are under the supervision of a Board or\\nCouncil (the Hof-studien Commission) at Vienna, composed of laymen ap-\\npointed by the crown, and at the head of which a Minister of Public Instruc-\\ntion was placed in 1848. It is the duty of this body to investigate all com-\\npl.iiuts agaiust these institutions suggest and prepare plans of improve-\\nmeut, and counsel the crown in all matters referred to them. Under them\\nis a graduated system of superintendence, to be exercised jointly, by the\\ncivil and spiritual authorities in the various subdivisions of the empire.\\nThe bishop and his consistory, jointly with the landestelle, has charge of all\\nthe scholastic institutions of the diocese the rural dean, jointly with the krei-\\nsamt, of those of a district the parochial incumbent, and the civil commis-\\nsary, those of a parish. This general arrangement has reference to the\\nCatholic establishment; but the proper authorities of the Protestant, Greek,\\nand Hebrew churches are substituted for those of the Catholic, for all that\\nregards the members of their several communions.\\nThere are six classes of schools subjected to the superintendence of the\\neducation-board namely, the popular, the gymnasial, the philosophical, the\\nmedico-chirurgical, tlie juridical, and the theological. The four last of these\\nform separately the objects of various special institutions; and, combined\\ntogether, they constitute the four faculties of the universities.\\nThe gymnasium is the school for classical learning, mathematics, and ele-\\nmentary philosophy.\\nThe popular schools comprehend the establishments of various degrees,\\nin which instruction is imparted of a more practical character, to those whose\\nstation in life does not fit them for the study of the learned languages. The\\nlowest of these are the volks-schulen, or, as they are often termed, the trivial\\nor the German schools, established, or intended to be established, in every\\ndistrict or parish of town or county, for the primary instruction in religion\\nThe following account of the educational system of Austria is abridged mainly from Turn-\\nbull s Austria.\\nt Tiu-nbull mentions an instance of a large manufacturer in Bohemia, who was flned for\\nploying a worlunan not provided witb the requisite OBrtificates of education.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "326 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.\\nand morality, reading, writing, and accounts. In the larger places are also\\nnumerous upper schools, haupt-schiikn, wherein a somewhat more extended\\neducation is given, for persons designed for the mechanical arts and other\\nsimilar pursuits. These have an upper class called Wiederholungs-schulen,\\nor Repetition Schools, who receive instruction in drawing, elementary geom-\\netry, and geography, and with it is combined a Normal School for teachers\\nin the volks-schulen. In the larger towns are also commercial academies,\\ntermed real-sclmlen, in which are comprised two divisions of scholars-, the\\none general, receiving instruction in accounts, geography, and history the\\nother special, having, in addition thereto, teachers in book-keeping and the\\nprinciples of trade for mercantile pupils, in natural history and rural econo-\\nmy for those intended for agricultural life, in mathematics, chemistry, and\\nprinciples of art for students in tiie higher arts, and in various foreign lan-\\nguages, especially English, French, and Italian, for those who may desire to\\nreceive such instruction. In the vojks-schulen girls are taught, except in rare\\ninstances, in separate rooms from the boys and for the superior instruction\\nof females there are distinct establishments corresponding with the havpl-\\nschulen and real-schiden of the boys, many of them managed and directed\\nby certain communities of nuns, which are especially preserved for the pur-\\npose of education. Industrial schools of various kinds, and for both sexes,\\nare also in some parts combined with these more general educational insti-\\ntutions; but the expenses attending such establishments prevent their being\\nvery numerous.\\nThe establishments thus last described constittite the class of popular\\nschools. The next above these are the gymnasial of which there are one,\\nor two, or several, in each district, according to the extent of its population.\\nThe pupils of the gymnasium are divided into several classes the earlier\\nones are taught in religion, moral philosophy, elementary mathematics and\\nphysics, and Latin philology. To these subjects are added, for the more\\nadvanced classes partly as perfect courses at the gymnasium, and partly\\nas introductory to the higher instruction in the same branches at the lyceum\\nor university general history (and especially that of Austria), classical lit-\\nerature, Greek philology, sesthetics (namely, rhetoric, poetry, and a knowl-\\nedge of the fine arts), and the history of philosophy. Above the gymna-\\nsium are the eight universities of Prague, Vienna, Padua, Pavia, Lemberg,\\nGratz, Olmutz, and Innspruck to which must be added the Hungarian uni-\\nversity at Pesth. These are divided into two orders those of Prague, Vi-\\nenna, Padua, Pavia, and Pesth, are of the iirst, having chairs for all the four\\nfoculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy the others have a\\nsmaller number as, for instance, Gratz, which has but three, having no pro-\\nfessorship of medicine, and Lemberg, which has only two. In further ad-\\ndition, according to circumstances and localities, professorships are estab-\\nlished, either at the gymnasium, the lyceum, or the university, in the Italian\\nand Oriental languages, in theoretical agriculture, astronomy, chemistrj\\nmechanics, and other branches of practical science.\\nIn most of the provincial capitals, where no university exists (in such\\ntowns, for instance, as Linz, Lay bach, Klagenfurt, c.), there is an institu-\\ntion, under the name of Lyceum, which answers the purpose of a minor uni-\\nversity wherein public courses of lectures are given in some or all of the\\nfour fiiculties, and in other branches of knowledge. The degree cannot, in-\\ndeed, be taken at the lyceum in any of the faculties but certificates may\\nbe there obtained, which are accepted in lieu of those of the universities,\\nfor a large number of cases wii\u00c2\u00abre certificates are required, and for youths\\nwho require them not, the education of the lyceum, extending as it does to\\nthe highest Greek and Latin classics, and natural philosopliy, answers every\\npurpose of general education. Of these lyceums, there are, in the empire,\\ntwenty-three undei- Roman Catholic direction besides eleven Protestant.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "PraMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA. 327\\nLullieran or Calvinist, and one Unitarian. For the instruction of the He-\\nbrew subjects there are gymnasiums and other schools, wherein the same\\nbooks are read as in the general establishments of the empire, except only\\nthat works of Jewish are substituted for those of Christian theology. In\\nspecial branches of knowledge, the government establishments are very nu-\\nmerous medical and surgical academies, clerical academies, polytechnic\\nschools, military institutions in all branches, and a college for the Eastern\\nlanguages, c.\\nThe popular schools are inspected and directed by the parochial incum-\\nbent, who, with a view to this duty, is bound to receive instruction, previous\\nto his induction to a benefice, in the system of scholastic management, or,\\nas it is termed in the language of the edicts, the science of pccdagogy. He is\\nrequired, at least twice a week, at certain fixed hours, to examine and cate-\\nchise the pupils, and to impart to them religious instruction; the parish or\\ndistrict being obliged to provide him with a carriage for that purpose, when\\nthe schools to be visited are di.^tant from Ills residence. He orders removals\\nfrom lower to higher classes, and grants those certificates, without which no\\npupil can pass fi-om the popular school to the gymnasium. He is bound to\\nrender, periodically, statistical and discriminating returns on the state of the\\nschools, both to his spiritual superior and to the kreisamt; to urge on pa-\\nrents the great importance of education to their offspring and to supply\\nbooks to those who cannot afford to purchase them, and clothes (so far as the\\npoor fund or private contribution may enable him to do so) to such as, for\\nwant of clothing, .ire prevented attending the schools. Where children of\\ndifferent creeds are intermixed in one school, religious instruction and cate-\\nchization is confined to the last hour of the morning and afternoon attend-\\nance, during which hour the non-Romanists are dismissed, to receive instruc-\\ntion elsewhere from their respective pastors but where the number of\\nnon-Romani^ts is sntficiently great to support a separate school, the minister\\nof that persua-.ion. whatever it may be, is charged exclusively with the same\\nduties as, intlie general schools, are imposed on the parish priest. To min-\\nisters of all professions an equal recourse is, by the terms of the ordinances,\\nallowed to tlie ;;id of the poor fund and of the grants-from the kreisamt. If\\nthe schools be too distant or too numerous for the proper supervision of the\\nlocal minister, a separate instructor is named by the bishop, or, if the school\\nbe Protestant, by the provincial superintendent; and, for the visitors of all\\ndenominations, the expense of a carriage is equally borne by the public.\\nExcept in the points above enumerated, the parochial minister has no power\\nto act, but only to report; in all those connected with defects or deficiencies\\nof the buildings, lie, in conjunction with the civil commissary, reports to the\\nkreisamt, and in those of merely scholastic nature, as well as in the con-\\nduct of the teachers, he addresses liis remarks to the inspector of the dis-\\ntrict.\\nThe teachers at all the popular schools are required to produce testimo-\\nnials from the Normal School at whicli they have been instructed, and re-\\nceive their appointment from the diocesan consistory, or from the provincial\\nchief of any special religions for which they may be intended, but require\\nin all cases the confirmation of the landestelle. They are provided with\\nresidences attached to the schools, together with fixed stipends during good\\nhealth and good conduct, and are allowed superannuation pensions, which,\\nif they shall have served for a period of ten years, are extended to their wid-\\nows, and to their orphans under fourteen years of age.\\nEach district has an aufseher, or inspector (named by the bishop from\\namong the parochial clergy holding beneiices therein), who compiles detailed\\ns^jitements on every point connected Vv ith education, for his spiritual supe-\\nrior, and for the kreisamt. Once a year he makes a tour of personal inspec-\\ntion, examiiioa the pupils, distributes rewai-da to the beat scholars, and super-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "328 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.\\nvises alike both the ministry and the teachers most especially enforcing the\\nrule, that those books only shall be used, and those instructions only be\\ngiven, which have been commanded by imperial edict. Above these district\\ninspectors, each diocese has a higher othcer, under the name of oheraufseher,\\nor inspector-general, who is named by the crown, and is in most cases a\\nmember of the cathedral chapter. His supervision extends not to the xolks-\\nschiden only, but also to the real and the hawpt-schulen and for these pur-\\nposes he is the dislrict-ins-pector for the city of his residence, and the inspect-\\nor-general for the whole diocese. He is the official referee, whose opinion\\nthe consistory are bound to demand in every exercise of their educational\\nfunctions, and by whom they are in fact principally guided; since every\\nmatter wherein their sentiments may not agree with his, must be referred\\nto the decision of the landestelle. He examines and certifies teachers for\\nappointment by the consistory receives quarterly statements in all details\\nfrom his subordinate inspectors, and embodies them into general reports,\\nfor tlie landestelle and the crown finally, as supervisor of spiritual in-\\nstruction, he examines candidates for orders, and novices for monastic vows,\\nand grants certain testimonials of proficiency which are indispensable for\\ntheir admission.\\nTo the episcopal consistories, headed by the bishop, is committed the\\ngeneral supervision of all the scholastic concerns of the diocese, the regu-\\nlations of matters of discipline, the communication of instruction, and the\\ninvestigation of delinquencies. It is a part of their functions to order the\\nerection of schools, to appoint the teachers, to authorize the payment of\\npensions to teachers in sickness or in age, and to their widows and orphans,\\nwhen entitled to them but in these points, as in all others which involve\\nany exercise of real authority, patronage, or influence, their acts are invalid\\nwithout the confirmation of the landestelle. For the professors of non-\\nRomanist creeds, these respective functions are discharged in their several\\ngradations by officers of their own persuasion. The Protestant seniors and\\nsuperintendents are the district-inspectors and the provincial inspectors-gen-\\neral for their respective communities; and the functions of the diocesan\\nconsistories are transferred to the central Calvinistic and Lutheran consist-\\nories at Vienna.\\nThe schools of higher degree, the Gymnasium, the Lyceum, the Theo-\\nlogical Seminary, and the University, are all, as well as the popular schools,\\nmore or less subjected to the supervision of the diocesan and his consistory;\\nbut these depend more immediately on the educational board at Vienna.\\nOver each of them presides a director, who is charged with the general man-\\nagement, in point both of discipline and instruction, acting under the orders\\nof the board, or the edicts of the emperor. The various professors and\\nteachers are all either named or approved by the landestelle, or the educa-\\ntional board the same discriminating precautions being adopted as at the\\npopular schools, for the religious instruction of those who profess non-\\nRomish creeds. In every station, and in the various branches of education,\\nthe pupils are subjected to half-yearly examinations by authorized visitors\\nand from the result of these examinations, as well as from the testimonials\\nwhich each is bound to produce as to moral conduct, and also as to religious\\nknowledge from the minister of his communion, the director forms the re-\\nports which are furnished to the government.\\nFor the erection of popular schools, certain rules are laid down which in-\\nsure their erection as occasion may require. Although no ordinances com-\\npel education, yet the inducements held out to desire it are so great, that for\\nschools of this description there is a constantly increasing demand, partly\\narising from the people themselves, and partly instigated by the spiritual an^\\ncivil authorities and, indeed, so urgent have of late years been applications\\nto tliis effect, that it has become a usual, although not universal practice, to", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA. 329\\nrequire of the parishioners, or the inhabitants of the district petitioning, that\\nthey shall bind themselves by voluntary assessment to bear the whole or a\\nportion of the attendant expenses. After the locality has been fixed by the\\naufseher and the kreisamt, it depends on the landestelle to issue the decree\\nthat the school be built and, this being done, the law then provides for its\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0gratuitous erection and completit)n. The lord of the soil is bound to grant\\nthe land and the materials; the inhabitants of the district to supply the la-\\nbor; and the patron of the parochial benefice the internal fittings-up; all\\nsubsequent repairs, as well as the hiring of buildings for temporary accom-\\nmodation, being a charge on these three parties jointly.\\nNotwithstanding, however, these ample provisions for general education,\\nit will be readily conceived, that in a country where certain classes possess\\nlarge pecuniary means and high aristocratic feelings, instruction cannot be\\nabsolutely confined to public institutions. In Vienna and other cities, many\\nacademic establishments of a superior order exist, endowed in the manner\\nof our public schools and in these, or in the schools of the monasteries be-\\nfore mentioned, wherein boarders are permitted to be received, or, finally,\\nunder private tutors in their own families, a large portion of the higher\\nclasses receive their education.\\nIn addition to the above summary of the system of primary schools\\nin Austria, we present a lew particulars as to the inspection of teach-\\ners and schools. The law requires that every district inspector, or over-\\nseer, must take care\\n1 That his district is supplied with a sufficient number of school-buildings and\\nfor this end, he is eiiipowereil. in conjunction with the village or town magistrates,\\nto levy a school-rate upon the householders of his district.\\n2. That all the new sehooi-buildings, which are erected from time to time in his\\ndistrict, are built in healthy situations, not near any noisy workshops, or any\\nswamp or bad smells; that the class-rooms are built according to the plans, which\\nliave been prescribed by vg(jvernment that the class-rooms are well provided\\nwith desks, forms, writing-boards, maps, and ail necessary school apparatus.\\n3. That the school-buildings are kept in good repair, well and frequently white\\nwashed, and well warmed and lighted.\\n4. That a good and suitable house is provided for the teachers and their fami-\\nlies, and that it is kept in a good condition and fit for their use.\\n5. That the cure of each parish regularly inspects his school that he watches\\nthe conduct and character of the teacher that he examines the scholars fre-\\nquently and tiiat he aids the teacher by his counsel, advice, and assistance.\\n6. That the parishioners send all their children, who are between the ages of\\nsix and twelve, to school regularly, and that they pay the weekly school-fees in a\\nregular manner.\\n7. That each parochial magistrate is zealous, in enforcing a regular school at-\\ntendance, in supporting the teachers, and in protecting them from the least disre-\\nspectful treatment.\\n8. That regular periodical reports of the state and progress of the schools in his\\ndistrict are forwarded to the county educational magistrates who, in their turn, are\\nrequired to forward a general report of the progress of education in the whole\\ncountry to the Minister of Education in Vienna.\\nBy these means the government in Vienna is informed every year of the actual\\nstate and progress of education, throughout every parish of their great empire of\\nthe wants and difficulties of those districts which require assistance of the results\\nof particular experiments in particular schools, in the remotest provinces and of\\nthe actual number of children in each county, who have not attended the classes\\nwith sufficient regularity.\\nEach inspector must visit all the primary schools in his district at\\nleast once every year.\\nFor this purpose he is required to divide all the schools in his district into two\\nparts, and to visit one of these in the latter part of one year, and in the early part\\nof tho succeeding yfear, so as to s eo each school in spring and ^nter alternately.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "330 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA\\nThe overseer is required to give public notice some time previously of his inten-\\ntion to visit any school, and of the day upon which he will publicly examine it.\\nThe law requires the parochial magistrates, the religious minister, to vi hose sect\\nthe school belongs, and a conmiittee of the householders of the parish, to be pres-\\nent at the examination, and impose a penalty on any of those persons, who absents\\nhimself without satisfactory excuse. The overseer is required to write down the.\\nnames of the absentees, in order that the magistrates may be informed, and may\\nimpose a legal fine to which their absence renders them liable.\\nThe teacher is required by law to give all his children notice of the day, on\\nwhich the examination will take place, and to order them all to attend at a certain\\nhour. lie is also required to bring the book, in which the daily absentees are\\nmarked down, the copy-books and exercises of the scholars, the monthly register\\nof the way, in which each child has attended to his work, an account of the prog\\nress the classes have made in the several subjects of instruction, and any notes or\\nobservations he may have made in his note-book for the inspector. These sevei-al\\ndocuments are laid before the overseer at the public examination, and are examined\\nby him. The knowledge that this will be done stimulates both scholars and\\nteachers, as each is as unwilling to be reproved for carelessness or incompetency,\\nas he is anxious to be praised for industry and skill.\\nThe law next directs each overseer\\n1. To examine what character the teacher has borne in his neighborhood how\\nhe acts toward his scholars, and toward those vi ho Mve about him whether lie\\nteaches skillfully or not what methods of teaching he pursues whether he is in-\\ndustrious and zealous in his work, and whether he continues to aim at self-im-\\nprovement.\\n2. To examine the registers of the school, and to observe, how often each child\\nhas been absent from the classes to observe the manners of the children in tin\\nclasses and in the play-ground, the manner in which they answer the questions put\\nto them, their demeanor to one another and to their teachers, their appearance,\\ncleanliness, and the state of their health.\\n3. To observe what intei-est the parishioners and parents take in the state of the\\nFchnol, and in the education of their children how far they assist the te;ieher i\\nSI cure a regular attendance what excuses they gcner.nlly make for the oocas on;:!\\niihs nces of their children; with what degree of respect they treat the teachers\\nand whether they pay the weekly school-pence regularly,\\n4. To observe the state of the school-buildings, whether they are built in a\\nhealthy locality, and after a good and reasonable plan whether the class-rooms\\nare dry and light whether they are furnished with sufficient school-apparatus\\nand whether they are supplied vi ith sufficient quantities of fuel for the daily con-\\nsumption during winter.\\n5. Whether the religious ministers of the sect, to which the majority of the\\nscholars belongs, visits and inspects the school-classes often whether he treats the\\nteachers in a wise and judicious manner whether he uses his influence among\\nthe parents to secure a regular attendance at school and whether he attempts to\\ndiminish any little misunderstandings between the teachers and parishioners, when\\nany such arise.\\n6. Whether the civil magistrates are strict in punishing any infraction of the\\nschool regulations.\\nThe law then proceeds to require, that as soon as the overseer has examined the\\nlist s, c., laid before him, he shall commence the examination. It is formally\\nopened by a short prayer and a speech. After this the overseer examines the chil-\\ndren, class after class, beginning with the first.\\nHe first requires the children to read aloud something selected from their\\nschool-books, and then questions them about the subject matter of the exercise.\\nHe selects some particular child to answer each question he asks, and does not\\nallow the whole class to shout an answer to it simultaneously, so as to conceal the\\nidleness and ignorance of some by the knowledge and ability of others.\\nThe overseer then dictates something to the school, and requires them to write\\nfrom his dictation. Tlie scholars are then made to write a copy, and are afterward\\nexamined in arithmetic and mental calculation.\\nThe overseer is jMirticularly required to observe, during the course of the examin-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA. 33 j\\nation, whether there are any scholars, who appear to have been neglected by the\\nteachers, or whether the instruction has been bestowed equally upon all.\\nThe law requires the overseer at the end of the e.xamination, to read aloud\\nto the whole meeting, the names of the twelve scholars, who in his opinion\\nhave made the greatest progress in their studies, or who have evidently been the\\nmost industrious to praise them publicly for their industry and ability, and to en-\\ncourage them and all the rest of the scholars to renewed exertion.\\nThe overseer is next required to publicly reprove any scholar, who has been very\\nidle or negligent in his studies, or in his attendance, and then to urge the children\\nto make fresii exertion to prepare for the next public examination.\\nAfter the examination is concluded, the overseer orders whatever repairs the\\nschool-building stand in need of, and whatever books and apparatus are required\\nfor the class-rooms. He then asks the parochial magistrates and clergy privately,\\nif they have any fault to find with the teachers, and if they have, he examines\\ninto the cause of complaint, and acts between the parties as impartial judge. On\\nthe other hand, if the teachers have any cause of complaint against the parochial\\nauthorities, they state it to the overseer, and he, after examining into the matter,\\ndecides upon it as an arbitrator, and as a protector of the teachers.\\nI have no need to point out how these visits of the representative of the central\\ngovernments stimulate all the teachers, children, and parishioners. Each is afraid\\nto be found behindhand in the performance of his duties and each is desirous to\\nmerit public praise for his efforts and success. The teacher is protected from neg-\\nlect, insult, or injudicious interference, while he is at the same time kept under a\\nwholesome cheek. His close connection with the emissary of the government of\\nthe empire, gives him a standing among his neighbors, and covers himself and his\\noffice with the respect of the people.\\nThe law respecting the teacher of a primary school prescribes as\\nfollows\\nThe teacher of a primary school must be a person of good sense, having a good,\\nclear pronunciation, good health, and a sound constitution.\\nThe teacher must not merely understand the science of pedagogy, but he must\\nbe able to practice it. In order that he may do this, he must not be satisfied with\\nmerely having obtained his diploma he must afterward seek to perfect his knowl-\\nedge by the study of able and scientific works upon this science he must make\\nand note down observations on the results of different methods he must not feel\\nashamed to learn from other teachers, or even from his own assistants and he\\nmust attend to the remarks and advice of the inspectors.\\nHe must be careful to speak clearly and loud enough to be heard by all his\\nclass, when giving instruction.\\nHe must be careful not to neglect any of his scholars, by attending too exclu-\\nsively to the more clever children.\\nHe must be particularly careful to make his scholars obedient, orderly, and quiet\\nin their classes, industrious, modest, clean, and polite.\\nHe must never endure a lie, and must prevent tale-telling, teazing, and vexing\\nof one scholar by another, buying, selling, and exchanging in school, eating during\\nthe hours of instruction, frequent going out of the class-room, careless sitting pos-\\ntures, and concealment of the hands.\\nHe must be most careful to prevent any unnecessary loitering in coming to\\nschool, or in returning home, all rough handling of the school-books, loud and un-\\nseemly shouting and screaming, and mingling of the boys and girls, c.\\nHe must take care that the children are clean that they come to school with\\nclean hands and faces, with cut nails, with combed hair, and with tidy clothes.\\nHe must warn the children not to drink, or to lie down upon the cold ground,\\nwhen they are hot.\\nHe must warn the children against eating roots or berries, whose properties they\\ndo not know, and against playing near deep water, or in public streets.\\nIn winter he must take care that the children shake the snow from their clothes\\nand shoes outside the school door.\\nHe must send unhealthy children home again, and prevent them mingling with\\ntho others.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "332 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA\\nHe must take care that the school-room is kept sufficiently warm that it is well\\naired when the children are out, and that it is well cleaned every second day.\\nIn order to make the scholars industrious and obedient, the teacher must win\\nthe respect of his scholars he can nfet do this by a sullen, angiy countenance, or\\nby using the ruler, or by making a noise but by evincing knowledge of his busi-\\nness, by command over himself, and by a manly, sensible, and unchangeable\\nbehavior.\\nIf the teacher leaves his class-room often in the day, or is inattentive or careless\\nin his manner of imparting instruction, or is lazy, impatient, or irritable, the conse-\\nquence will be, that his scholars will be disorderly, and will gain little or no good\\nfrom their school attendance.\\nThe teacher must guard against the extremes of both kindness and harshness\\nhe must act like an affectionate, but sensible father he must make a great distinc-\\ntion between his manner of reproving acts of mere childish carelessness, and\\nactual sins he must nev\u00c2\u00abr employ severe punishments, as long as he can hope to\\nsucceed by milder means and he must avoid any thing hke unfairness in his\\npraises and punishments.\\nThe teacher must carefully avoid hastily resorting to the rod he must never\\nbox a child s ears or pull or pinch them or pull its hair or hit him on the\\nhead, or any tender part; or use any other instrument of punishment, than a rod\\nor stick and that only in cases of great faults. Even in these cases, this kind of\\npunishment may only be administered after having obtained the consent of the\\noverseer, and of the parents of the child, and in their presence.\\nThe teacher must take care to be polite and friendly to the parents of his schol-\\nars if he is obliged to complain to any of them of their children, he must do it,\\nwithout showing any thipg like personal irritation he must never send his com-\\nplaints to them by any ol his scholars, or by third persons for, by such means\\nmistakes are easily made, and unkind feelings are often excited.\\nIf the teacher is obliged to speak severely to any one, he must be careful not to\\ndo so in the presence of his children.\\nThe teacher must not engage in any trade or business he must not keep a shop,\\nhe must not play music at public festivities, and he must avoid all companies and\\nplaces, which would be likely to throw any suspicion on his character, or to\\ninjure his reputation.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "SYSTEM\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS IN AUSTRIA.\\nIn the school system of Austria, a Normal School is a pattern or model\\nschool, which is the primary signification of the word Normal. Of this\\nclass of schools there is one in the principal town in each province, and\\nalso in the chief town of each circle. In these Normal Schools the older\\nboys who have passed through the course of instruction in the elementary\\nand superior schools, and show a peculiar desire or fitness for the busi-\\nness of teaching, are arranged in a class for special instruction in a course\\nof pedagogy. The course embraces a review of the studies pursued in\\nthe elementary schools, lectures on the principles of education, and the\\nart of teaching, and practice as assistants in the lower classes of the\\nschools. The time occupied by the course of study and practice varies\\nfrom six months to two years being longer in the provincial head school,\\nthan in the head school of the circle. There are twenty hours devoted\\nin each week to the course, which are distributed as follows\\nPedagogy, 3 hours.\\nMethods of Religious Instruction, 2\\nHigher Arithmetic, 3\\nWriting and Drawing, 3\\nExercises in Composition, 2\\nGeography, 1\\nPhysical Education, 3\\nVocal and Instrumental Music, 3\\nNo one is allowed to teach unless he has gone through a course of\\nNormal School training, either in the head school of the province or the\\ncircle. This system of training teachers was first introduced by order\\nof Maria Theresa, in 1771, under the personal supervision of Felbinger,\\nwho was invited from Silesia for this purpose. The experiment was\\ncommenced in the school connected with the convent of St. Stephen, in\\nVienna, and the teachers of the city and suburbs were assembled and\\ninstructed in the new methods of teaching pursued in Prussia. This\\nschool received, in 1772, the privilege of publishing all school books used\\nin schools on the crown lands of Austria, which was, in 1773, extended\\nover the empire: The profits of this monopoly were set apart for the sup-\\nport of a Normal teacher in the head school (the best primary superior\\nschool) of each province.\\nThe mode of training teachers does not satisfy the best educators of\\nAustria. It gives a routine knowledge of methods, but does not secure\\nthat mastery of principles, or that formation of the pedagogical character.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "^34 NORMAL SCHOOLS OF AUSTRIA.\\nwhich a three years course of instruction and practice in a regularly consti-\\ntuted Teachers Seminary is so well calculated to give. The government\\nhas been frequently applied to for aid to erect one or more Teachers\\nSeminaries, on the plan of those in Prussia, but thus far without success.\\nCalinisch, in his statistics of the schools in Germany, in Reden s Maga-\\nzine for 1848, thus sums up the professional training of teachers, in Aus-\\ntria: The pedagogical course in the provincial Normal Schools, which\\nembraces four classes, continues six months, and in those with three classes,\\nthree months. In the universities and theological seminaries, there are\\nlectures on pedagogy, and the methods of questioning children, and in\\ntwo large boarding schools, one in Vienna, and the other at Hernal, in the\\nneighborhood of Vienna, there is a course of special instruction for those\\nyoung females who are destined for governesses in private families. In\\n1842, an independent school or seminary for teachers was started in Salz-\\nburg, with a two years course, and with eighteen pupils. There is a\\nNormal head school in Prague for teachers of Jewish schools.\\nThe Provincial Normal Head Schools are located as follows: Vienna,\\nPrague, Trieste, Salzburg, Inspruck, Graz, Giirz, Klagenfurt, Laibach,\\nLinz, Brixnn.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE\\nVIENNA.\\nThb whole institution is intended to fulfill a threefold purpose, as a school for\\nthe mechanic arts, manufactures, and commerce, as a conservatory of arts and\\nmanufactures, and as an institute for the promotion of national industry. The\\nlast named object is oftl-cted by public exhibitions, from time to time, of the pro-\\nducts of manufactures, mider the direction of the institute. For the better exe-\\ncution Of this object, a spacious building is now erecting on the premises, adapted\\nto the occasional display and permanent deposit of specimens of the mechanic\\narts. The collections which form the conservators of arts are also used for in-\\nsti uction in the school, and will be described in connection with it.\\nThe whole institution is under the control of a director, who is responsible to\\nthe higher authorities of public instruction, and of trade and manufactures. The\\ndirector is the general superintendent of the business of the institute and of the\\ninstruction, but does not teach. He regulates the admission of pupils and the dis-\\ncipline. The money concerns are under the charge of a treasurer, who is re-\\nsponsible to the director. The inferior officers are responsible to the same\\nauthority^ The discipline of the scholastic department is simple but rigid, no\\npupil being allowed to remain connected with it whose deportment is not proper.\\nThe courses are gratuitous, except a small entrance fee, and this is considered as\\nwai-ranting prompt removal when the pupil does not perform the duties prescribed\\nby the institution.\\nThe department of instruction is composed of three schools, a technical, a com-\\nmercial, and a real school. The last named is a preparatory school for the\\ntwo others, and may be entered as early as thirteen years of age. Its courses\\nare of religious instruction, of German language, elementary mathematics, geog-\\nraphy, history, natural history, elocution, calligraphy, and drawing, and are obli-\\ngatory upon the pupils. Italian and French may be studied if the pupil desires\\nit. As these courses lead in three yeai-s to the other departments of the institu-\\ntion, the candidates for admission are required to possess the elementary attain-\\nments necessary to their successful prosecution. There are five professors and\\nfour teachers connected with this school, which is superintended by the vice-direc-\\ntor of the institute. The instructors rank by regulation with those in the gym-\\nnasia or classical schools of the empire. The course of instruction is not as com-\\nprehensive as that in the Pnissian real schools, but is an adequate preparation for\\nthe next higher divisions, which supply in part these deficiencies.\\nThe technical and commercial schools furnish special instruction according to\\nthe intended pursuits of the pupil, though he may, in fact, select the courses\\nwhich he wishes to attend, not being limited as to the number or character of the\\nbranches. The dii-ector advises with the pupil, on admission, as to the studies\\nmost appropriate to be followed, if his intended calling is fixed, and he is not\\nallowed to join the classes, the courses of which require preparation, without pre-\\nsenting a certificate from the school at which he has been instructed, or being\\nexamined, to ascertain his proficiency. In regard to other courses, there is no\\nsuch restriction. The age for admission is sixteen years.\\nThe instruction is given in the technical school by eight -professors and two\\nassistants the professors lecturing, and in some of the courses, interrogating the\\npupils. Certain lectures are also gone over by the assistants with the classes.\\nThe courses which combine practice with teaching will be pointed out in enumer-\\nating the subjects of study. The division of these subjects, and the time devoted\\nto them during the week, are as follows\\nI. General Chemistry, applied to the arts, five hours.\\nII. Speciai, Technical Chemistry, ten hours. This course gives a particular account\\nof all the processes of the arts of which the principles were developed in the general lectures.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "33Q POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA.\\nThere is a special laboratory devoted to the course, where, under the superintendence of the\\nprofessor or of Ills assistants, the pupils go tlirougli the processes on a small scale Those\\nwlio have a particular object in view, as dyeing, bleaching, printing upon stuffs, or the man-\\nufacture of chemical preparations or rnelalkirgy, are directed in their investigations espe-\\ncially to the parts of chemistry which they will have to apply. Practice and theory are thus\\ncombined.\\nIII. Physics, with special reference to its applications, five hours.\\nIV. Elementary Mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and mensura-\\ntion, ten hours. This course Is intended for those who have not passed through the real\\nsc iool.\\nV. Higher Mathematics, five hours. There is a repetition by an assistant, also of five\\nhours.\\nVI. Mechanics, including the description and calculation of machines, five hours This\\nsubject IS founded upon a course of machmes, considered as an application of descriptive\\ngeometry and drawing, superintended by an assistant.\\nVII. Practical Gkombtry, including land and topographical surveying, levelling, kc.,\\nfive hours The lectures are accompanied by practice in the nse of instruments in the field.\\nVIII CtviL and Hydraulic Architecture, ten hours. This includes a complete course\\nof engineering, in its var.ous branches. It is accompanied by exercises in drawing.\\nIX Technology, or a general discus^ion of arts and trades, five hours. The subjects\\nwhich come under the head of special chemistry are omitted ni the lectures of this division.\\nX. The assistant professor of chemistry delivers an extra lecture, daily, on the methods of\\nmeasuring Specific CiRavities, during part of the course.\\nXI. Elementary Drawing for those who have not passed through the real school, five\\nhours. There are extra courses In the Latin, Bohemian, and English languages, for those\\nwho wish to follow them.\\nThe time devoted to drawing depends upon the student, but it is obvious that\\nhis knowledge must be very incomplete, and that he will carry away from the\\nschool but an imperfect record of descriptive geometry and its applications, unless\\nhe devotes a great deal of time to this branch. In this respect the arrangement\\nof the school is entirely difl erent from that at Berlin, where the drawings accom-\\npanying the courses are made as much a matter of regular duty as the attendance\\nupon the lectures themselves. This is certainly the proper plan, and while it ap-\\npeared to me that the time spent in the graphic exercises at Berlin was even\\nbeyond the measure of their importance, I am decidedly of opinion that a strict\\nattention to this department is essential.\\nThe collections, by the aid of which these courses are carried out, are 1 An\\nextensive collection of chemical preparations for both special and general chemis-\\ntry. The pupils in special chemistry, as already stated, make preparations in the\\ndepartments of the art which they intend to follow, and some of these are left\\nbehind them as specimens of their skill. In the department of the dyer there is\\nquite a large series of specimens collected in this way. The laboratories for both\\nspecial and general chemistry are admirably adapted to their purpose.* 2. A\\ncabinet of instruments for the course of practical geometry. 3. A considerable\\ncollection of physical apparatus. 4. A collection of models of machines, and in\\nengineering. 5. A technological cabinet of a most complete character, and ad-\\nmirably arranged it contains many of the best specimens of Austrian arts and\\nmanufactures. All these collections are under the care of the professor in whose\\ndepartment they find a place there being, besides, curators for the immediate\\ncharge of them, and for keeping them in repair. The cabinet of physical appa-\\nratus, and of models and machinery, were in the main supplied from the work-\\nshops of the institution. These shops have long been celebrated for the astronom-\\nical and geodesic instruments furnished from them. They are still kept up,\\nthough on a reduced scale, their chief object having been accomplished. They\\nwere never intended, like those of Berlin, to afford practical instruction to the\\npupils. The institution, indeed, does not recognize the principle that this can be\\ndone to advantage in the mechanical department. It is certain, as already stated,\\nthat great care is required to render such establishments of any avail beyond the\\npoint of giving to the pupil a general readiness with his hands, and that even\\nwhen well conducted they are expensive. Success in practical chemistry requires\\nessentially a very considerable knowledge of theory the processes on a small\\nscale represent, in general, fairly those upon the large, and experiments thus made\\nfieG[uently save the outlay which is required to make them in the large way. The\\nThe laboratory of the profe.ssor of general chemistry. Professor Meifsner, is one of the\\nbest arranged which I saw abroad. The furnace operations, and others likely to incom-\\nmode the class, are performed behind a screen, with large glass windows, which allow a per-\\nfect view the space behind is provided with llie means of carrying off the fumes.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 33^\\npractice in the laboratory of a school is, besides, verj nearly of the kind required\\nfor the manufactory. These, among other circumstances render the problem in\\nregard to successful preparation for the arts depending upon chemistry, different\\nfrom that relating to the art of the machinist. It is in this department that the\\npolytechnic school of Vienna is particularly strong. There can be no doubt that\\nAustrian manufactures in general have received a great impulse through the me-\\ndium of this institution, and particularly of its scholastic department, but while\\npraise is yielded to the different courses, the arrangements for teaching chemistry\\nmust be considered as having a preference over the others.\\nThe lessons in the commercial school embrace the following subjects\\nI. Commercial correspondence, three hours per week.\\nII. Tlie science of trade (Handelswissenschatt.) three hours.\\nIII. Austrian laws relating to trade and exchange, three hours.\\nIV. Commercial arithmetic, six hours\\nV. Book-keeping, by single and double entry, four hours.\\nVI. Account of the materials of trade. (Waarenkunde.) the sources, uses, properties, kinds,\\nadulterations to which they are subject, c., four hours.\\nVII. Commercial geography, three hours.\\nVIII. History of commerce, three hours. There are five professors in this school.\\nOnce a week the professors of the institute meet, under the presidency of the\\ndirector, to confer on the business of the institution. Saturday is appropriated in\\npart to this purpose, and there are no exercises for the students on that day.\\nOne of the professors is secretary of the board. The professors rank by regula-\\ntion with those of the miiversities.\\nThe lectures last from October to August of every year. At the close of them,\\na pupil who wishes a certificate in any branch, presents himself, and is examined\\nby a professor, in presence of a director and of two members of the imperial com-\\nmission of studies. A student who has attended the lectures, and does not wish\\nto be examined, may receive a certificate of attendance.\\nTo supply the place of a regular division of studies for different callings, one\\nof the earlier programmes contained a recommendation of certain courses of study\\nas preparatory to particular occupations. The recommendations were the follow-\\ning For tradesmen, the two years of the real school, and one year of the com-\\nmercial school or for a more complete education, an additional year, embracing\\nthe courses of chemistry, physics, and technologj- of the technical school. For\\ndyers, printers in stuffs, bleachers, manufacturers of chemical products, of salt,\\nof saltpeter, for miners, metallurgists, brewers, c., special chemistry, physics,\\nand technology, with some of the courses of the commercial school. For ma-\\nchinists, hydraulic engineers, mill-wrights, foremen in manufactories, and mining\\nengineers a course of two years was recommended, the fii st to embrace mathe-\\nmatics, physics, and drawing, and the second, mechanics, machine-drawing, and\\ntechnology. As a preparation for agrieultm ists and foresters courses of mathe-\\nmatics, physics, practical geometry, chemistry and book-keeping. For miners,\\nmathematics, physics, practical geometry, mechanics, drawing, and book-keeping.\\nFor surveyors, mathematics, physics, practical geometry, drawing, and book-\\nkeeping.\\nThere is still a regular course laid down for architects and civil engineers, the\\nsatisfactory completion of which entitles to a diploma. The first year includes\\nelementary mathematics, technology, and drawing the second, higher mathe-\\nmatics, physics, and drawing the third, the applied mathematics, mechanics,\\npractical geometry, and drawing the fourth, architecture, engineering, drawing,\\ntechnology, chemistry, and book-keeping.\\nThe library of the institute is appropriated to the several departments, and ia\\nused by the students, as well as by the professors. Yearly appropriations, besides\\nthe entrance and diploma fees, are devoted to its increase. The professors have\\nthe right of recommending such works to be purchased as they may deem of use\\nin their departments. An aimual is published by the institute, consisting of origi-\\nnal and selected scientific articles, by the professors, ajid notices of the institution.\\n22", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "338\\nPRIMARY EDUCATION IN AtSTRIA.\\nK\\nt- .-1 r- t- CD -0 IC 00 CO\\ncn\\n-t- :0 0 1 OD 7Q c-^ o^ i\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nc-\\n3o-E\\n00 I^ CO CC 10 1:- 0? -O iO CO\\n1\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s 1\\nr-Ti -Tu^Tir ^T-rcro lo to C5\\nifT\\no.= S\\n^COt^cOO^OCOr-^COCqcOOOi\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1\\n02\\nO^g\\nCOf-lrJ ^f-lrt rH 00 r-l\\nof\\n05(NC-li--ICT^ tl01\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (MOOO- 1\\nL-5\\n3\\nCOCO-^CM^Oilrtl-COOCOOq-*\\n(M\\nCOC/l Y-H-^iiOilr^COCOCOCOCirHi-H\\ni\\nH\\nMr-li.^Tj G^Kli-l 03i-l(M\\n(M CD 1^ 1 t~ CO r- CO OD\\n01\\n1\\n5^\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0-M CO -M JD CO r-H C CD SS\\ne\\nO^t-^t- 0^0^t- ^0 C! C^ =5_O^0^\\n00^\\nJ\\nof r-TitTco s^of lO^r-Tr-T\\nco\\n(M\\ntn\\nl^OO^^lOOlI^COr-li^eO MtO\\nCO\\nii\\n(M r-l CO 3 M CV N CO\\n00\\nrHt-C0MC3OC0C0i-H CO_^ CO\\ncsa\\nr-T r-T.^ r^ CO~\\n05\\nrH\\n-S3\\n030r-it-oooo5coiocoeoco\\nl-(M-^t^OOOt-!MC?J~-CDlOCO\\n00\\na c.\\nCO 00 CO r- _C3 CD_3^Ci^C ^^__05\\nCs_\\nm\\n^^-^-.^c^I ^^r-^-^co^r-^c\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^ co\\no r\\nr-l C-l CM 5i rH r-l O 00\\nCO\\n3 ti\\nM r-l i:~ r-( r-l JJ\\nCO\\nca\\nof\\nOOOrHr-ii SMOOI^OCOCOOl-\\nira\\nO\\n00 :JH CC \u00c2\u00bb0 CO CO rH 00 lO CO \u00c2\u00bb0\\nOJ\\no\\nH;J COT) OCM^mrHCOOOOrHCO\\n10\\nQO Mt-coocooocoo.cr5c:\\nCnCO^r-103t-0(M t- rH CM\\n01\\nto\\nCO N\\no_\\nrH CO t^ CO CO 1^ u:: CO 10\\nen CO CD -M CD Ci CO CO 00 CO CO 1.0\\nCD\\nii\\nCO 10 00 CO 1-H CO CO\\nC0\u00c2\u00bb iCDrHl^OrH-rt1C5rH0-3C0C0\\nn\\nrHCDt-COCOOOCOO) OlOSlTi\\nrH CO tN r-H\\nC0_\\nm\\n_2\\nJL\\n010(M:^01COCD OCOCOOCO\\nt-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03\\nSi; a\\nOCOrHCO?Jt^OOrHCO MO\\n05\\n1\\nO^^CO^?]_C^CO_rH_CO_CO_C-^t- Cn_^\\nOo r-^C^t^-^o co lc co co cO~ 0\\nm\\nlO^^t^CO-^COi\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1 M\\nCO\\nc\\n0.3\\nM rH\\nCO\\n_.i\\n05C0rHlCrHrH^-- i^-i^OOC0\\n5\\nrHOCOOCnOiCOOOOCOCOJr-\\nQO\\n2\\nCO -^OO^IO rH_ 0 -.Jl M i-a\\nJ\\nO4\\nJ3\\n_\u00c2\u00ab_\\n^M~^\\nrn C0 r-r i-T\\ncT\\nO^IOC^QOOOt^Cil^t^OiOOOO]\\n00\\n1\\ni-OOC-JCOJ^OCD\u00e2\u0080\u0094 IrHO^OCO\\nCO\\nM\\nrH Ol CD C^ CO 00 i CO 10 C-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a c\\ncd jfj^i-rccTj-rarco^r-r^co\\nCO C-. 1^ CO t- 03 ut IC CO\\nrH :M rH O)\\nCD_\\n02\\na\\nr\u00e2\u0080\u0094i\\nb\\n:a\\ns\\n-2 O\\nrHCDOCOOCO\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^^Or-lCOC^ lCOCC\\nCO\\na\\n^11\\nOOi-t-OOCOrH NCOrHt-(MrHK:\\nCO\\nb\\nrHCO-!J^OOCOCOCOCOrHrH.OrH\\nir5_\\nr-T co r-T r-T r-T l^r-Tr-T\\ns\\ne\\n10 CO 35 jq 00 CO i-O C:\\nOt-CDCOOCOOiCOlOCOOJ^C\\nrH u ^LOJtr-CO iJlasijrSlMCDCOCOO\\n3\\nt~rcrco t-r ^c\u00c2\u00a3rrH~ifro oo c fc\u00c2\u00a3ro-\\nCO\\nS\\nd\\nOOltNOOrHOOCOOCOOCMCC\\n00\\n\u00c2\u00a323\\nrH OOJlOrHrH lO(MrH\\n00\\nof\\na\\nooooooooooooc\\nCaJ\\n000000000000c\\nC^O^O CD 00 C\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23-\\ncT cd co oT cc~ cT ccT co riT co crT\\nof\\n0-*I^t- MC01~-C0 1^CDCMC!50-\\nira\\nC.S\\n-^J100rHrHJ^^00Ciir-\u00e2\u0096\u00a0*i^CDOrHC0\\nCO^\\nt-H Ttl i\u00c2\u00bb -rji CO OJ rH\\neo~\\no\u00c2\u00bb\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0.2\\n3 :.2\\ni\\n1\\n3\\nci O^cJpR _,\\nEh", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "SUPERIOR EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA.\\n339\\nTABLE II.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 INSTITUTIONS OF SECONDARY AND SUPERIOR\\nEDUCATION.\\nUniversities.\\nVienna\\nGwtz\\nInnsbruck\\nPrague\\nOllmutz\\nLemberg\\nPesth\\nPavia\\nPadua\\nTotal (without Hungary)\\nLycea.\\nSalzbwg, with Theol., Philos., and Medicine\\nLinz\\nLai bach\\nKlageiifurth\\nKlausenburg\\nIn Hungary, 14*\\nSeminaries for Divines.\\nVienna (Protestant)\\nRedemptorists (for their order)\\nAdmoiit\\nMantern\\nTurnow\\nPrzemysl S\\nLemberg\\nCarlowitz (Greek Church)\\nZara\\nHermannstadt (Greek)\\nIn Hungary, Sf\\nColleges of Philosophy^\\nSpecial Institutions j? S^\\nGymnasia? (Grammar-schools) pr*\u00c2\u00b0stant\\nTotal cost of the higher establishments for\\neducation, without including Hungary\\n353\\nOutlay.\\n4,718\\n876\\n317\\n3,341\\n640\\n1,403\\nV,3i6\\n1,260\\nflorins.\\n165,671\\n25.372\\n25,053\\n66,864\\n29.525\\n53,593\\n80,821\\n98,646\\nBuraar.\\nabipa.\\n256\\n47\\n52 j\\n55 I\\n112 I\\n48\\n24\\nflorins.\\n21,583\\n1,267\\n3,593\\n3,065\\n5,600\\n4,480\\n4,200\\n13,871 545,545\\n594 43,788\\n212\\n167\\n299\\n171\\n330\\n83\\n1,179\\n23,465\\n12,090\\n22,160\\n4,624\\n8,810\\n71,149\\n455\\n362\\n2,294\\n1,409\\n4,520\\n1\\n5\\n1\\n6\\n1\\n6\\n1\\n7\\n2\\n8 1\\n1\\n5\\n59 17,007\\n2,650\\n4,193\\n3,010\\n4,765\\n15,128\\n180\\n30\\n2,400\\n54\\n46,933\\n25 166 I 3,192 I 127,089\\n116\\n14\\n195\\n29\\n3,508\\n429\\n248,151\\n21,775\\n38\\n163\\n21\\n2,400\\n2,140\\n29,097\\n2,026\\n25,458 I 505.350\\n2,451 I 12,963\\n446 j 20,515\\n13 I 72\\n1,378 I 35,038 915,328 681 53,850\\n1,8\\n50,497 I 1,578,955 1,387 I 104,558\\n2 at I^resburg 2 Baab 1 Agram, Debreczin, Eperies, Erlau, Grosswardein, Kasmark,\\nCashau, Oedenburg, Papa, Saros-Patak.\\nt At Kerestur and Torda.\\ni At Krems, Kremsmunster, GOrz, Trent, Budweis, Leitomischl, Filsen, Bnmn, Nikolsburg,\\nPrzemysl, Tamopol, Czernowitz, Zara, Milan, Brescia, Cremona, Mantua, Bergamo, Como,\\nLodi, Venice, Verona, Udine, Vicenza.\\nIn Hungary, at Stein am Auger and Szeyechin, 2.\\nHungary has 67 Catholic and 13 Protestant Gymnasia.\\nThe Mining Academy at Schemnitz has 7 Professors, 233 Students it costs 11,500 florins,\\nand has 55 Bursarships endowed with 11,000 florins annually.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "$40\\nSUPERIOR EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA.\\n3\\n3\\n(M C-3 CO\\nCM 1^ OC r-\\n2?\\n3\\no\\nsi\\ntn CO OS O I-\\nH CO\\n1\\n1\\n^CM,t-;_\\nco_\\n1\\nC Ci T-H CO c^\\n5 t-\\nco oTi-T\\ni-^\\nii\\nJ3\\n=o^^\\no\\n1\\ntH\\n3\\nn\\nd\\ni-H CO CM\\nCO\\n|a\\nT-H IC o c\\nD 05\\n1\\nd\\n03 rHi\\nCO V\\n5- i^\\nOP ti\\nQ.3\\nt^ CM CO\\nIC Ttl\\n1.0\\n,n\\n01\\nO\\nf f\\ncrc-r,-r,-r\\nuo\\nH-3\\nm M CM\\noa\\nO\\n0)\\nT-^\\nm\\nI\\nO^ 00 50-* O\\n1 IM\\nm\\nCO CO OS\\nt^\\n1\\nOS CO CO o ir\\ng 5^^C0__O_C-)^=C\\n5 Ir-\\nS.\\nt- 05 CM\\nCMi~ ir-\\n00\\nc\\na\\nC o \u00c2\u00bbo t^\\nt-^\\n00\\nCl,\\nCM*\\nco^\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22g\\nO 3\\nj::\\nO CM CD o Lt\\nIC\\nO\\nT: -C CO r-\\nOi_\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0z\\n3 C\\n3\\nO M\\nt-\\n2\\nm\\n1^ CO CM\\n03\\nH\\no\\nCD_-* 01. CM^\\nCO_\\nm\\no\\nC.S\\n5\\nH\\nco o co~\\ncf\\nos t- lo cs ir\\nCO CM\\n-C^CO^^J^^^iCt\\nofof Crfclfr-\\nO\\n]5\\nd\\n00 CM\\n10\\nC -\u00c2\u00bb3\\nCO CO CO\\nb^\\no|\\nM CO\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0-J.\\n3\\nT-T oT\\nCC CM CM O tc\\nCM\\nH\\ni SP\\nP3\\ns\\ncc r^ c^f CO i\\nQ\\n.3\\nI^ CM CO\\ns\\nO\\n03~-^ CO iC^ iT\\nCO\\nd\\n^\u00e2\u0080\u00a22\\n,9 S\\ncro o\\nCO C\\nea\\n\u00c2\u00b01\\niH CO ^H CM\\n1\\n^a\\nI\u00e2\u0080\u0094 t CO CO X OS\\nco__\\nC4\\nQ\\nC0~\\ns\\nlA\\nEl\\ns\\ni\\nM 1.-;\\nCM\\nC\u00c2\u00bb\\n03\\no\\ni\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2O (M CO\\n-*_\\nj=\\nPS\\nrH\\ns\\nc\\n3\\nO\\nCO C3 CO cc\\ni-c 00 c;\\n00\\n3\\no\\n3\\nco ^T-T CO\\n05^\\ni-\\n1- CO CO\\nJ,\\no\\n.3\\n3^ L^\\nCO\\no\\nH\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\n2.\\n1-M CM\\nQO\\nj3\\nCM COl^ IC t-\\nti\\nCM CO CM\\nT-H 10\\nCO\\nCO\\n.J\\nPQ\\na\\nO\\nxrr. CO lO o^ CO\\no_\\ns\\na\\nCo co cO~Tirr-(\\nc^\\no\\n03\\nQ\\n1\\nH\\nH\\n\u00c2\u00ab-Si\\na\\n00 cr i-i\\ni\\nr- CK 1 CM ca\\n00\\n03 a)\\n1\\n03 00 CO C--\\n1- r^ r-l CO\\nCO_\\n6\\n2\\ni-T\\nCk\\n1.\\nb:\\nCO .-1 O r-lt-\\nt-\\nen\\no\\n0 lO Tt( O rH\\no\\nC3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S\\n!5\\nCO\\n.2\\nH\\nS\\nH\\n3\\nt3\\nrr-*\\n.2\\n3\\no\\ncS\\n\u00c2\u00a7^1\\n02 P^\\n1?\\n,\u00c2\u00ab2\\n1\\n1 i-IB\\nCmChO\\noo-3\\nOD CO\\nCD a 3 oT\\nS 3 3\\nM^\\ngPHf.^fe gg\\nfe fep^\\nj )a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "SWITZERLAND.\\nThe following general outline of the educational institutions of Switzer-\\nland, will be found to contain not only an interesting notice of the Normal\\nSchools of that country, but also valuable hints respecting the compulsory\\nattendance of children at school, and school inspection, as well as the re-\\nlations of education to pauperism. It is abridged from a recent work by\\nJoseph Kay, published by J. Hatchard and Son, London, 1846, entitled\\nHie Education of the poor in England and Europe^\\nPerhaps of all countries Switzerland offers the most instructive lesson\\nto any one investigating educational systems and institutions. It is divi-\\nded into twenty-two independent cantons, each of which manages its own\\ninternal policy after its own peculiar views so that the educational sys-\\ntems of the several cantons differ very materially, whilst the federal gov-\\nernment which unites all, brings all into intimate connection one with\\nanother, and facilitates improvement, as the institutions which are found\\nto work best are gradually adopted by all the different governm.ents.\\nEach canton being acquainted with the systems pursued by the others,\\nthe traveler is enabled, not only to make his own observations on the\\nvarious results, but is benefited also by the conversation of men accus-\\ntomed to compare what is being done by their own government with\\nwhat is being done by others, and to inquire into the means of perfecting\\ntheir educational systems.\\nBut the advantage to be derived from an investigation of the various\\nefforts made by the different cantons, is still further increased by the fact\\nof their great difference in religious belief Thus, the population of the\\ncanton of Vaud, tor example, is decidedly Presbyterian, that of Lucerne\\nis almost exclusively Roman Catholic, whilst those of Argovia and Berne\\nare partly Protestant and partly Roman Catholic. Not only, therefore,\\ndoes the traveler enjoy the advantage of studying the educational sys-\\ntems of countries professing different religious creeds, but the still greater\\none of witnessing the highly satisfactory solution of the various difficulties\\narising from differences of rehgious belief existing under the same gov-\\nernment.\\nThe great development of primary education in Switzerland, dates\\nfrom 1832 or 1833, immediately after the overthrow of the old aristocrati-\\ncal oligarchies. No sooner did the cantonal governments become tho-\\nroughly popular, than the education of the people was commenced on a\\ngrand and liberal scale, and from that time to this, each year has witness-\\ned a still further progress, until the educational operations of the several\\ngovernments have become by far their most weighty and important du-\\nties.\\nThroughout all the cantons, with the exception of Geneva, Vallais, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "342 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND.\\nthree small mountainous cantons on the Lake of Lucerne, where the popu-\\nlation is too scanty and too scattered to allow of the erection of many\\nschools, education is compulsory that is, all parents are required by law\\nto send their children to school from the age of six to the age of fourteen,\\nand, in several cantons, to the age of sixteen. The schoolmasters in the\\nseveral communes are furnished with lists of all the children in their dis-\\ntricts, which are called over every morning on the assembling of school;\\nthe absentees are noted, and also the reasons, if any, for their absence\\nthese lists are regularly examined by the inspectors, who fine the parents\\nof the absentees for each day of absence.\\nIn some of the manufacturing districts, the children are permitted to\\nleave school and enter the mills at the age of eleven, if they have then ob-\\ntained from the inspectors a certificate of being able to read and write\\nbut they are obliged to attend a certain number of periodical lessons\\nafterward, Until they attain the age of fourteen or fifteen. In the canton\\nof Argovia, however, which is one of the manufacturing districts of Swit-\\nzerland, the children are not allowed to enter the mills until they attain\\nthe age of thirteen, and I Avas assured by several of the manufacturers of\\nthis canton, that they did not suffer any inconvenience from this regula-\\ntion, although it had been warmly opposed at first by the commercial\\nmen.\\nIt ought to be remembered, that these laws are enforced under the\\nmost democratic forms of government.\\nThe people themselves require attendance at the schools, so conscious\\nare they of the necessity of education to the encouragement of temper-\\nance, prudence, and order.\\nIn the cantons of Berne, Vaud, Argovia, Zurich, Thurgovia, Lucerne,\\nand Schaffhouse, where this law is put into force most stringently, it may\\nbe said with truth, that all the children between the ages of seven and\\nfifteen are receiving a sound and religious education. This is a most\\ncharming result, and one which is destined to rapidly advance Switzer-\\nland, within the next eighty years, in the course of a high Christian civil-\\nization. One is astonished and delighted, in Avalking throvigh the towns\\nof the cantons I have mentioned, to miss those heart-rending scenes to be\\nmet with in everjr English town; I mean the crowdsof filthy, half-clotiied\\nchildren, who may be seen in the back streets of any of our towns, grovel-\\ning in the disgusting filth of the und rained pavements, listening to the\\nlascivious songs of the tramping singers, witnessing scenes calculated to\\ndemoralize adults, and certain to leave their impress on the susceptible\\nminds of the young, quarreling, swearing, fighting, and in every way\\nemulating the immorality of those who bred them. There is scarcely a\\ntown in England and Wales whose poorer streets, from eight in the morn-\\ning until ten at night, are not full of these harrowing and disgusting\\nscenes, which thus continually show us the real fountain-head of our de-\\nmoralized pauperism. In Switzerland nothing of the kind is to be seen.\\nThe children are as regularly engaged in school, as their parents are in\\ntheir daily occupations, and henceforward, instead of the towns continu-\\ning to be, as in England, and as they have hitherto been in Switzerland,\\nthe hot-beds and nurseries of irreligion, immorality, and sedition, they will\\nonly afford still more favorable opportunities, than the country, of advanc-\\ning the religious, moral, and social interests of the children of the poor.\\nHow any one can wonder at the degraded condition of our poor, after\\nhaving walked through the back streets of any of our towns, is a thing I\\nnever could understand. For even where there are any schools in the\\ntown, there are scarcely ever any playgrounds annexed to them so that\\nin the hours of recreation the poor little children are turned out into the\\nstreets, to far more than forget all the moral and religious counsel given\\nia the Bchool. It is strange that we do not understand how invaluable", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND. 343\\nthe refuge is, which a school and playground afford to the children of the\\npoor, however indifferent the education given in the school.\\nThis small country, beautified but impoverished by its Alpine ranges,\\ncontaining a population* less than that of Middlesex, and less than one-\\nhalf its capital, supports and carries on an educational system greater\\nthan that which our government maintains for the whole of England and\\nWales Knowing that it is hopeless to attempt to raise the character of\\nthe education of a country without first raising the character and position\\nof the schoolmaster, Switzerland has established, and at the present mo-\\nment supports, thirteen Norm.d schools for the instruction of the school-\\nmasters and schoolmistresses, whilst England and Wales rest satisfied\\nwith six Eleven of these schools are permanent, and are held during\\nthe whole of the year the remaining two sit only for about three months\\nyearly, for the purpose of examining monitors recommended by the mas-\\nters of the primary schools, and desirous of obtaining diplomas to enable\\nthem to act as schoolmasters. In the majority of these schools the mem-\\nbers of the different religious sects are received with a willingness and\\nwith a Christian charity, which puts to shame our religious intolerance.\\nNor does this liberality proceed from any carelessness about the religious\\neducation of the people, for no master can obtain, frum his canton s gov-\\nernment, a diploma, to enable him to officiate as schoolmaster, without\\nhaving first obtained from a clergyman of his own church a certificate of\\nmoral character and of competency to conduct the religious education in\\nthe school for which he is destined but it proceeds rather from a recog-\\nnition of this great truth, that the cause of religion must be deeply injured\\nby neglecting the secular education of the people, and from a Christian\\nresolution in all parties to concede somewhat, for the sake of insuring\\nwhat must be the foundation of all social improvement, the advancement\\nof the intelligence and morality of the people. M. Gauthey, a Presbyte-\\nrian clergyman, and director of the Normal schools at Lausanne, M.\\nVehrli, director of the Normal school near Constance, the professors of the\\nNormal school in Argovia, M. Schneider von Langnau, minister of public\\ninstruction in the canton of Berne, and M. Fellenberg. of Hofwyl, all\\nassured me that they did not find the least inconvenience resulting from\\nthe instruction of different sects in the same schools. Those who differ\\nin faith from the master of the school are allowed to absent themselves\\nfrom the doctrinal lessons given in the school, and are required to attend\\none of their own clergy for the purpose of receiving from him their doc-\\ntrinal instruction.\\nEven in Fribourg, a canton governed by Catholic priests, Protestants\\nmay be found mingled with the Catholics in the schools, and are allowed\\nto absent themselves during the hours of religious lessons and, in Argo-\\nvia, a canton which has lately so distinguished itself by its opposition to\\nthe Jesuits of Lucerne. I found that several of the professors in the Nor-\\nmal school were Catholics, and that the utmost tolerance was manifested\\nto all the Catholics attending the cantonal schools.\\nThe Swiss governments perceived, that if the powerful sects in the\\nseveral cantons were to refuse education to the Dissenters, only one part\\nof the population would be educated. They perceived also, that secular\\neducation was necessary to the progress of religious education, and that\\nthey could secure neither without liberality and therefore they resolved\\nthat all the children should be required to attend school, and that all the\\nschools should be opened to the whole population.\\nIn the canton of NeuchAtel, they have no Normal school, but they\\nchoose their masters from the monitors of the primary schools, who are\\nmost carefully educated and trained by the masters of the primary schools\\nIq IS46 the population of Switzerland was about 2yl00,000,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "344 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND.\\nfor their future important situations. Notwithstanding their greatest ex-\\nertions, however, to choose persons qualified for this most important post,\\nI was assured by those interested in the progress of education in that can-\\nton, that they found the present system totally inadequate to the produc-\\ntion of efficient masters, and that they felt that they must follow the ex-\\nample of the other cantons, and establish a permanent Normal school.\\nIn the cantons of Fribourg and Schaffhouse tiie Normal schools sit only\\nduring three months of the year, during which time they give lectures to\\nthose desiring to be schoolmasters, and examine the candidates before\\ngranting the diplomas. But so totally inefficient have they found this\\nsystem, that Fribourg is about to establish a Normal school during the\\npresent year, and Schatf house has only been prevented from doing so by\\nthe want of sufficient funds.\\nI was assured by the priests in the one canton, and by the Protestant\\nclergy in the other, that they were fully convinced that no efforts on their\\npart could insure good masters, unless they were aided by a sufficiently\\nlong religious, intellectual, and domestic training, under the eye of expe-\\nrienced and trustworthy professors.\\nFour of the Normal schools of Switzerland contain each from eighty-\\nfive to one hundred pupil-teachers; the rest average from forty to eighty.\\nIt may seem extraordinary to some that so small a country as Switzer-\\nland should require so many schools for teachers, but the explanation is\\nvery simple. Switzerland is a poor country, and although it gives the\\nschoolmaster a very honorable station in society, and regards him as next\\nin dignity to the priests and clergy, it is not able to pay him very well, so\\nthat in many cases there is no other inducement to a schoolmaster to re-\\nmain long at his post, than the interest he feels in his profession. From\\nthis cause there is always a constant desertion from the ranks going on in\\nsome parts, and a consequent necessity for the preparation of a sufficient\\nnumber to fill the vacant posts. If the masters were paid better, Swit-\\nzerland would be able to dispense with two or three of its Normal\\nschools.\\nI should like to enter upon a description of the different Normal schools\\nof Switzerland, were not that rather beside the purpose of this report\\nbut I cannot refrain from recording the unanimous opinion of the Swiss\\neducators on two points coimected with these schools. These are, the\\nnecessity of manual labor in connection with the instruction given in the\\nschools, and the time which all are agreed upon as necessary to the per-\\nfecting of a schoolmaster s education. On the latter point, all with whom\\nI conversed assured me, that their experience had taught them that three\\nyears were absolutely necessary for the education of a master; that\\nwherever less time had been tried, it had always been found insufficient\\nand that in order that even three years should suffice, it was necessary\\nthat the young man entering the Normal school should have completed\\nhis education in the primary schools.\\nWith respect to the necessity of manual labor in a Normal school, opin-\\nions were hardly less unanimous. To the Bernese Normal schools, as well\\nas to that at Kruitzhngen, conducted by Vehrli, the successor of Pesta-\\nlozzi and Fellenberg, and to the Normal schools of Lucerne and Solleure,\\nlands have been annexed, which are farmed and cultivated by the pupil-\\nteachers. They are sufficiently extensive, in five of these schools, to em-\\nploy all the young men in the Normal school at least two hours per diem in\\ntheir cultivation. On these lands all the pupil-teachers, accompanied by\\ntheir professors, and clothed in coarse farmers frocks, with thick wooden\\nsandals, may be seen toiling most industriously about the middle of the\\nday, cultivating all the vegetables for the use of the household, as well as\\n6ome for the neighboring markets, and could any one be taken among\\ntliem at that period of the day, he would imagine he saw before him a set", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND. 345\\nof peasants at their daily labor, instead of the young aspirants to the much\\nrespected profession of schoolmaster.\\nBesides this labor in the fields, the young men are also required to\\nclean their apartments, to take charge of their own chambers, prepare\\ntheir own meals, besides keeping all the premises in good repair. Thus\\nthe life of the pupil-teacher in Switzerland, during the time he remains\\nat school, is one of the most laborious nature. He is never allowed to\\nlose sight of the manner of life of the class from which he was selected,\\nand with which he is afterward required to associate. He is never\\nallowed to forget that he is a peasant, so that he may not afterward feel\\nany disgust in mingling with peasants. In this manner, they train their\\nteachers in habits of thought and life admirably suited to the laborious\\ncharacter of the profession lor which they are destined, and to the hum-\\nble class who will be their companions in after life. The higlier the in-\\nstruction that is given to a pupil-teacher, the more difficult and the more\\nimportant is it to cherish his sympathies for the humble and often degra-\\nded class among whom he will be called to live and exercise his important\\nduties.\\nIn fact, as all the Swiss educators said, the great difficulty in educating\\na teacher of the poor is to avoid, in advancing his intelligence and eleva-\\nting his religious and moral character, raising his tastes and feelings so\\nmuch above the class from which he has been selected, and with which\\nhe is called upon afterward to associate, as teacher, adviser, and friend,\\nas to render him disgusted with his humble companions, and with the\\ntoilsome duties of his profession. In educating the teachers, therefore.\\nfar above the peasant class whom they are intended to instruct, the Swiss\\ncantons, which I have mentioned, are very careful to continually habitu-\\nate them J,o the simplicity and laborious character of the peasant s life, so\\nthat, when they leave the Normal schools, they find that they have\\nchanged from a situation of humble toil to one of comparative ease.\\nThey do not therefore become dissatisfied afterward with their laborious\\nemployments, but are accustomed even from their childhood to combine\\na high development of the intellect and a great elevation of the character\\nwith the simplicity and drudgery of a peasant s occupations.\\nThus the Swiss schoolmasters live in their villages as the coadjutors of\\nthe clergy, associating with the laborers in their homes and at their fire-\\nsides, whilst at the same time they exhibit to therp the highly beneficial\\nand instructive example of Christian-minded, learnfed and gentle peasants,\\nliving proofs of the benefits to be derived from possessing a properly edu-\\ncated mind.\\nI cannot deny myself the pleasure of giving Vehrli s opinion on this sub-\\nject. He said, Your object in educating a schoolmaster ought to be, to\\nprepare a teacher of the people, who, whilst he is considerably elevated\\nin mental acquirements above those among whom he will be obliged to\\nmingle, shall thoroughly sympathize with them by having been himself\\naccustomed to hard manual labor. If you take pupil-teachers into your\\nNormal schools, and content yourselves with merely cultivating their\\nmental powers, you will find that, however carefully you tend their reli-\\ngious instruction, you have educated men who will .soon, despite them-\\nselves, feel a disgust for the population with whom they must associate,\\nand for the laborious duties which they will have to perform but if during\\nthe whole of their residence at the Normal school, you accustom them to\\nhard and humble labor, when they leave, they will find themselves in\\nhigher and easier situations than when tliey were at school, they will\\nsympathize with their poor associates, and feel contented and satisfied\\nwith their position.\\nIn Argoviii they have so strongly felt the truth of the above remarks,\\nUmt they h;ivc resolved to adopt M. Vehrli s suggestions, and to annex", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "346 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND\\nlands to their Normal school and in the canton of Vaud, where no labor\\nis required from the pupil-teacher, I was assured that they had constant\\nreason to complain of the dissatisfaction expressed by the teachers for\\ntheir profession after leaving the Norma] school. Nor is it only by means\\nof agricultural labor that Vehrli endeavors to prepare his pupils for the\\nhonorable but arduous duties of their future lives. Nearly all the domes-\\ntic concerns of his household are conducted by the pupil-teachers, and all\\nassistance that is not absolutely necessary is dispensed with. Vehrli\\nassured me that by these means the expenses of maintaining his Normal\\nschool were greatly diminished, as they sent to market all the surplus of\\ntheir agricultural produce, and employed the proceeds in defraying the\\nordinary expenditure of the school.\\nBut whilst the Swiss cantons are thus careful to prepare the pupil-\\nteachers tor the practical duties of their lives, they do not neglect their\\nintellectual instruction as they are fully convinced that the instruction\\ngiven in a village school by an ignorant man must not only be very mea-\\nger in kind, but very unattractive in character. In order to attain a cer-\\ntain standard of instruction in a village school, the education of the master\\nshould be very much elevated above it and in order to make the poor\\nprize the village school, it is necessary that they should have a very high\\nopinion of the character and learning of the teacher.\\nThe education given by these masters in the parochial schools includes,\\n1. Religious instruction. 2. Reading. 3. Writing. 4. Linear drawing.\\n5. Orthography and grammar. 6. Arithmetic and book-keeping. 7. Sing-\\ning. 8. The elements of geography, and particularly of the geography\\nof Switzerland. 9. The history of Switzerland. 10. The elements of\\nnatural philosophy, with its practical applications. 11. Exercises in com-\\nposition. 12. instruction in the rights and duties of a citizen.\\nIn the Catholic cantons, however, the instruction is generally confined\\nto religious lessons, reading, writing, and arithmetic.\\nNo teacher is allowed to undertake the charge of a school, until he has\\nobtained from the council of his canton, whose duty it is to examine can-\\ndidates, a diploma stating his capability of directing the education of a\\nschool. This diploma is only granted after a very severe examination,\\nwhich the candidate must pass before he can become a schoolmaster.\\nBesides this, he must have obtained a certificate of character from the\\ndirector of the Normal school in which he was educated, and in many\\ncases another from a clergyman of his own sect, stating his capability of\\nconducting the religious education of a school. This latter point is\\nalways strictly inquired into, either by the council of inspection, which\\nexamines the candidates, or by a clergyman of the sect of which the can-\\ndidate is a member. The character and abilities of the teachers are not\\nconsidered in Switzerland as matters of small concern, but on the contra-\\nry, every precaution is taken to guard against the possibility of a man of\\nlow character or poor education obtaining such a post. It is happily un-\\nderstood in the Swiss cantons, that such a schoolmaster is much worse\\nthan none at all. The influence of such an one on the young is demoral-\\nizing in the extreme, and does infinite mischief by creating in the minds\\nof the children associations connecting the name of school with unhappy\\nthoughts, and thus often actually engendering a spirit of hostility, not\\nonly against education, but also against the holy precepts which were\\nprofessedly taught at school.\\n1 consider the very backward state of education in some of these can-\\ntons, compared to the great progress it has made in others, as a satisfac-\\ntory proof of the necessity of adopting a centralization system in prefer-\\nence to one leaving the direction of education to provincial governments.\\nI know there are many in our own country who blindly cry out against\\ncentralization, not reflecting that the central government, as being the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND. 347\\nrichest and most powerful body, can most easily collect sufficient st ,tistics\\non the comparative merits of different systems, and on the comparative\\nresults of diiferent ways of teaching and managing a school, and that it\\naffords a much greater security to the country than the best provincial\\ngovernments can do, that what is found to work best shall be speedily\\nintroduced throughout the country, and that education shall be univer-\\nsally spread, instead of being greatly developed in one part of the country,\\nand altogether neglected in another.\\nEach canton in Switzerland is divided into a certain number of com-\\nmunes or parishes, and each of these communes is required by law to fur-\\nnish sufficient school-room for the education of its children, and to provide\\na certain salary, the minimum of which is fixed by the cantonal govern-^\\nnient. and a house for each master it receives from the Normal school of\\nthe canton. These communal schools are, in the majority of cases, con-\\nducted by masters chosen from the most numerous religious sect in the\\ncommune, unless there are sufficient numbers of the different religious\\nbodies to require more than one school, when one school is conducted by\\na master belonging to one sect, and the other by a master chosen from a\\ndifferent sect. The children of those parents, who differ in religion Irom\\nthe master of the school, are permitted to absent themselves from the doc-\\ntrinal lessons, and are required to obtain instruction, in the religious doc-\\ntrines of their own creed, from clergy of their own persuasion.\\nThe inspection of the cantonal schools is conducted in the most satis-\\nfactory manner. Each canton has a board of inspectors, or council-gen-\\neral of in.struction, which is presided over by the Minister of Public In-\\nstruction for the canton, and whose duty it is, to visit all the schools of the\\ncanton, once at least in the year, and to report on them individually to\\nthe government of the canton, as to the state of the schools themselves.\\nas to the progress of the pupils, as to the character of the instruction given\\nby the master, and as to the attendance of the children of the commune.\\nBut besides the cantonal board of inspectors, there is also in each com-\\nmune a board of inspectors, who are elected annually from among the\\nclergy and educated men of the commune, and who visit the communal\\nschools at least once each year, and report to the Minister of Public In-\\nstruction for the canton, on the individual progress of the children in tiie\\ncommunal schools. The head inspector of the canton of Solleure showed\\nme samples of the handwriting, composition, accounts, c., of all the chil-\\ndren in the canton. By these means each schoolmaster is encouraged in\\nhis exertions, as he feels that the eyes of his canton are upon him, and that\\nhe is regarded as a most important public functionary, to whom is com-\\nmitted a great and momentous trust, for the proper discharge of which it\\nis but right his canton should receive constant assurance.\\nBy these means the different communes or parishes are immediately\\ninterested in the progress of their schools, whilst the government is iasured\\nagainst the possibility of a school being wholly neglected, as every school\\nis sure of receiving one or two visits from the government inspectors, even\\nif the parochial authorities should wholly neglect them, or should not pay\\nthem sulficient attention.\\nThis is the true theory of a system of inspection. There ought always\\nto be a system of local inspection, because local authorities are able, when\\nactive, to discover better than any stranger can possibly do, the peculiar\\nwants and requirements of their localities, as well as the real character\\nof their teachers, and because a sy.stem of local inspection provides a con-\\ntinual check upon the schoolmaster but as persons, who have other and\\npressing duties upon their hands, and who are deeply engaged in busi-\\nness or in agricultural pursuits, are very likely to neglect at times, and\\noften altogether, the important duty of attending to the schools of their\\nneighboi lu)oJ, and as schools, whicli receive no ourvcillanL^e from persons", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "348 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND.\\nqualified to judge of their particular merits or demerits, are always sure\\nto degenerate, and are liable to become seriously demoralized and as,\\nmoreover, it is deeply important that every government, for the sake of\\nsocial order and also for the sake of the happiness and morality of its sub-\\njects, should have every security that the people are really educated and\\nnot demoralized by a sinful sham of education, it is necessary that in\\nevery well-governed state, where the government takes any interest in\\nthe improvement of the people, there should be a central inspection of all\\nthe schools of the country, which should be supported and directed by\\nthe government. If government has not the power of examining every\\nschool, it can have no security that the children are not being absolutely\\ndemoralized, and that the seeds of future rebellion and sedition are not\\nbeing sown in the village schools. In many of the neglected schools of\\nEngland and Wales at the present day, this is actually the case, and just\\nbecause the schoolmasters, in many instances, are never visited and\\nwatched by any person capable of judging of the moral condition of their\\nschools.\\nThe development of the people s education in Switzerland and France\\nis of far too recent a date to allow me to speak of its results. It is not in\\nthirteen years that the habits, opinions, taste, and manner? of a people can\\nbe changed. A change in a nation s character is not wrought in one\\ngeneration; so that nothing can be more unfair than the language held\\nby many persons on this subject. If any thing is said of French and Swiss\\neducation, the answer is, Look at its results. The people of these two\\ncountries are the most disaffected and turbulent in Europe. I repeat,\\nthat nothing can be more unfair than this reasoning. The real develop-\\nment of education dates in both countries from 1833, so that but few of the\\nage of thirty in either country can have reaped any advantage from it,\\nand of those below thirty, many can not have been able to attend any good\\nschool for more than two or three years, and many others not at all, whilst\\nof those young men, who have enjoyed the advantages of attending a\\nschool directed by an able and efficient master, many must have received\\nas much harm from the evil influence of demoralizing homes, as they hive\\nreaped benefit from the ennobling effect of the lessons and examples given\\nthem by a Christian and noble-minded schoolmaster. It is only when the\\ncorrupting influences of the old. ignorant, and demoralized generations\\nhave passed away, when the parents themselves have begun to estimate\\nthe advantages to be reaped from education, when the lessons of the\\nteachers are backed by the lessons and examples of the parents, that the\\neffects of education will begin to be apparent. This requires more than\\none generation, and much more than thirteen years and it is this very\\nslowness in the working of an educational system, however perfect, which\\nrenders me the more anxious that we should speedily prepare for the\\ncoming future.\\nSuch is a short outline of the general character of the educational sys-\\ntems of Switzerland.\\nAt the present time it may be truly said, that in nearly the whole of\\nSwitzerland, every boy and girl below the age of seventeen years, can\\nread and write. The education of the girls is perhaps in a more satisfac-\\ntory condition in the Catholic cantons than in the Protestant. It is confi-\\nded to the special care of the nuns, and I can bear testimony to the gentle,\\npatient, and religious spirit in which these excellent women aflectionately\\ntend the progress of the young girls. The self-denying life which the\\nCatholic nuns lead, and the excellent education they receive in the nun-\\nneries, admirably suit them for the important duties confided to their\\ncharge in these cantons. After examining the schools conducted by some\\nof the sisters in Fribourg, the abbess of the nunnery, to which the nuns\\nwho had the direction of the female schools belonored. allowed me, in com-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND. ^AQ\\npany with a very intelligent priest, with whom I had been spending some\\ndays, to visit the nunnery. We went over it in company with one of the\\nsisters. When I entered, I found myself in the presenceof about twenty\\nof the nuns, who, under the direction of a very venerable old abbess of\\nabout eighty years of age, were seated in the entrance-hall, engaged in\\nmaking clothes for the poor.\\nThe apartments of the sisters were of the plainest possible description.\\nThey were in beautiful order, and perfectly clean but furnished very\\nmeagerly, and literally destitute of every thing that was not absolutely\\nnecessary. The sisters have no servants and no assistants. They pre-\\npare their own food, clean their own chambers, take charge by turns of\\nthe dining-room, hall, and room of the abbess, and, in fact, perform by\\nturns all the humblest duties of domestic servants. They, at the same\\ntime, give a very excellent education to the young persons destined to\\ntake the veil, comprising reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography,\\ngrammar, and singing. The novitiates are, therefore, in every way ad-\\nmirably prepared for the duties of instruction, which they undertake after\\nhaving taken the veil, whilst the humble life to which they are accus-\\ntomed during the years of their novitiate, and during the rest of their\\nlives, in turn with the other sisters, makes them admirably well qualified\\nfor intercourse with the poor, and renders them patient, gentle, and perse-\\nvering in their eflforts in the schools. They certainly are living examples\\nof the class of teachers a good training is capable of producing.\\nThe condition of the peasantry in the Protestant cantons of Berne, Ar-\\ngovia, Vaud, Thurgovia, Neucliatel, Geneva, Basle, and SchafThouse, and\\nin the Catholic cantons of SoUeure and Lucerne, is a very happy one.\\nNo beggars are to be seen in these cantons, and what is still more surpris-\\ning, no signs of pauperism. Their dress, though homely, is always good,\\nfree from patches, and clean. Their cottages, though, from the smoked\\nappearance of the timber, at first sight giving an idea of great poverty,\\nare nevertheless very commodious, substantially built, and comfortably\\nfurnished, and what is more, they are their own. They are generally\\nsurrounded by their little gardens, and almost always stand on plots of\\nland which belong to and are cultivated by the tenants, and no one, who\\nhas seen the garden-like appearance of the cantons of Berne, Vaud, Sol-\\nleure, Argovia, Thurgovia, and Zurich, will doubt again the high state of\\ncultivation which may be attained by small farmers, proprietors of their\\nown farms. The Swiss proprietor, himself a farmer, is interested in the\\nstate of his little property, and he is not a man to reject the aid of science,\\nor to shut his ears to advice, or his eyes to observation. Their small\\nfarmhouses are the pictures of neatness, and their little estates are tended\\nwith the care an Englishman bestows upon his flower-garden. By far\\nthe greater part of the population are themselves proprietors, and the\\nlands are so subdivided, as to bring them within the reach of the poorest\\nlaborer. This acts as the happiest preventive check on early and improv-\\nident marriages, and as the strongest possible incentive to providence*\\nand self-denial. Owing to this cause, the earhest age at which a young\\nman thinks of marrying in several cantons is twenty-five, as he spends the\\nfirst part of his life, after he has begun to earn any wages, in laying by\\nsome little capital toward the purchase of a house and piece of land.\\nWhen he can offer a certain share of the purchase-money, he pays it over\\nto the vendor and enters into possession, clearing the rest of his debt by\\nyearly payments. It is only after he has thus attained the great object\\nof his wishes that he marries. Many even of the laborers in tlie towns\\nown or rent their little properties outside. The happy eftects of this\\nsystem are manifest not only in the excellent check it affords to impru-\\ndently early marriages and in the happy stimulant to prudence and sobri-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "350 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN SWITZERLAND.\\nety, but also and more particularly in the interest it gives the country\\npeasants in the maintenance of social order.\\nThe Swiss have so clearly understood that the real cause of pauperism\\nis want of prudence and foresight among the poor, that the people them-\\nselves, in three of the most democratic of the cantons, have not only re-\\nsolved, that all children should be forced to attend school for a certain\\nnumber of years, and that the descent of lands should be so arranged, as\\nto insure a great subdivision and make the separate estates small and\\nnumerous and have not cnly created, by these means, strong incentives\\nto prudence among the poor, by elevating their tastes, by teaching them\\nthe great benefits to be derived from temporary self-denial, and by hold-\\ning out to the saving and self-denying laborer the prospect of becoming a\\nproprietor; but they have also enacted laws, which prohibit any man\\nmarrying, until he prove to the state that he is able to support his wife.\\nIt must be remembered, that these laws are put in force by the people\\nthemselves. So clearly is it understood in Switzerland that the true\\ncause of pauperism in a well-governed state can only be ignorance, and\\nimprovidence resulting from ignorance, or some misfortune which could\\nnot have been foreseen and that it is only the pauperism resulting from\\nthis latter cause for which a well-organized community ought to be called\\nupon to provide.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT\\nMR. DE FELLENBERG, AT HOFWYL.\\nThe great educational establishment of Mr. de Fellenberg at Hofwyl,\\nin the canton of Berne, has attracted more attention, and exerted a wider\\ninfluence, than any one institution in Europe or America, during the pres-\\nent century. It originated in motives of patriotism and benevolence,\\nabout the year 1805, and was sustained for forty years by personal efforts\\nand pecuniary sacrifices on the part of its founder, which have never been\\nequalled among men of his wealth, and social position. Born to every\\nadvantage of education which wealth and rank could secure, advanced\\nearly to positions of trust and influence in public life, enjoying extensive\\nopportunities of observation by travel in the most refined nations, thrown\\nby the political convulsions of his country and of Europe, from 1790 to\\n1805, much among the people and their rulers, Fellenberg became con-\\nvinced that improvement in early education was the only resource for the\\npermanent strength and elevation of the state of his own and other coun-\\ntries. To this object, at the age of thirty-one. he consecrated himself\\nand his fortune. Being possessed of ample means, he resolved to form\\non his own estate, and on an independent basis, a model institution, in\\nwhich it should be proved Avhat education could accomplish for the bene-\\nfit of humanity. Out of this determination arose the Institution at\\nHofwyl.\\nHe commenced with two or three boys from abroad, with his own chil-\\ndren, in his own house and from time to time received others, but never\\nmore than two or three new pupils at once, that they might fall insensibly\\ninto the habits of the school, without producing any effect upon its general\\nstate. In 1807, the first building was erected for the Literary Institu-\\ntion, and the number of pupils increased to eighty, mostly from patrician\\nfamilies. During this year he projected an institution for indigent chil-\\ndren, and employed Vehrli, the sonof a schoolmaster of Thurgovia, in the\\nexecution of the plan, after training him in his own family. The farm-\\nhouse of the establishment was assigned for this school, and here Vehrli\\nreceived the pupils taken from among the poorest families in the neigh-\\nborhood. He left the table of Mr. de Fellenberg, and shared their straw\\nbeds and vegetable diet, became their fellow-laborer on the farm, and\\ncompanion in hours of relaxation, as well as their teacher, and thus laid\\nthe foundation of the Agricultural Institution, or Poor School, in\\n1808. The principles on which this school was established, were to employ\\nagriculture as the means of moral education for the poor, and to make", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "352 FELLENBERG S INSTITUTION AT HOFWYL.\\ntheir labors the means of defraying the expense of their education. In\\nthis institution, Vehrh attained that practical knowledge of teaching\\nwhich fitted him for his higher work in the Normal School at Kruitz-\\nlingen.\\nAbout the same time, a school of Theoretical and Practical Agricul-\\nture for all classes, was formed and provided with professors. To this\\nschool several hundred students resorted annually. In the same year,\\nFellenberg commenced the formation of a Normal School, or seminary\\nfor teachers, at his own expense, inviting one of the most distinguished\\neducators of the day to conduct it. Forty-two teachers, of the canton of\\nBerne, came together the first year and received a course of instruction in\\nthe art of teaching. So great was the zeal inspired by the liberality of\\nFellenberg, and the course of instruction, that the teachers were content\\nto prolong their stay beyond their first intention, and to lodge in tents, in\\nlack of other accommodations on the premises. Owing to some jealousy\\nand low party intrigue, the government of Berne interfered with his plan\\nof bringing the teachers of the canton annually together for a similar\\ncourse, and henceforth the benefits were open only to teachers from other\\ncantons, and to such as belonged to the School of Agriculture. The\\nteachers, after one of these annual courses, presented an address to Fel-\\nlenberg, from which the following is an extract. It is addressed to the\\nworthy Father and Friend of the People.\\nWhen we reflect that without education no true happiness is to be attained,\\nand that this can only be secured by means of well-taught and virtuous teach-\\ners and when we recollect that you have devoted yourself to the object without\\nregard to the sacrifice it may require, we must rejoice that this age is favored\\nwith such a friend of his country and when we remember the kindness and\\nfriendship with which we have been treated at HofwyL we are compelled to\\ngive you our affection as well as our admiration, and which will not diminish\\nas long as our hearts shall beat, and our children shall leain to say, So lived\\nand labored Father Fellenberg. We will not enter heie into any particular\\nstatement of our views concerning the course of instruction we have received,\\nwhich we shall in due time make known to the public we will only say, for\\nyour own satisfaction, that this course hks far exceeded our expectations, by its\\ncomplete adaptation to practical life, by the skill and efforts of your assistants,\\nand by the moral and religious spirit with which the whole has been animated.\\nWe have been led to enter with a fervent devotion into a sacred engagement,\\nthat we will live and labor in our calling in the spirit which you have exhibited,\\nand thus prove to you that your noble sacrifices have not been vain. We are\\nmore deeply penetrated than ever before with a sense of the sacredness of our\\ncalling. We are resolved to conduct ourselves with prudence and caution, in\\natfection and union, with unyielding and conscientious faithfulness, in the dis-\\ncharge of our duty, and thus to prove ourselves worthy of your Institution.\\nIn continuation of our brief sketch of Fellenberg s establishment at\\nHofvvyl, we will add that, from 1810 to 1817, it attracted the attention of\\neducators and statesmen in Switzerland and all parts of Europe. Pupils\\nwere sent from Russia, Germany, France and England. Deputations\\nfrom foreign governments visited it, to learn especially the organization\\nof the School of Agriculture, and the Poor, or Rural School. In 1815, a\\nThis title was habitually given to De Fellenberg by the Swiss teachers and youth who appra-\\ntiated his character, or who had experienced his kindness.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "FELLENBERG S INSTITUTION AT HOFWYL. 353\\nnew building was erected to accommodate the increasing number of the\\nAgricultural School, the lower part of which was occupied as a riding-\\nschool and gymnasium. In 1818 another building became necessary for\\nthe residence of the professors, and the reception of the friends of the pu-\\npils and soon after, a large building, now the principal one of the estab-\\nlishment, with its two wings, was erected for the Literary Institution,\\nwhich furnished every accommodation that could be desired for health or\\nimprovement. In 1823 another building was erected, in the garden of\\nthe mansion, for a school of poor girls, which was placed under the direc-\\ntion of the oldest daughter of Fellenberg; and in 1827 the Intermediate\\nor Practical Institution was established. It is much to be desired that\\nthis example of slow and cautious progress might be imitated by those\\nwho are establishing institutions in our own country, in place of collecting\\nat once a large mass of discordant materials, without any preparation\\nwhich can render them a solid basis for a well-proportioned or permanent\\nmoral edifice.\\nThe Practical Institution, or Real School. was designed for the chil-\\ndren of the middle classes of Switzerland, and not solely for the same\\nclass in the canton of Berne, aiming thereby to assimilate the youth of\\nthe whole country into common feelings and principles of patriotism, by\\nbeing educated together, and on one system. The course of instruction\\nincluded all the branches which were deemed important in the education\\nof youth not intended for the professions of law, medicine and theology.\\nThe pupils belonged to families of men of business, mechanics, profes-\\nsional men, and persons in public employment, whose means did not allow\\nthem to furnish their children an education of accomplishments, and who\\ndid not wish to have them estranged from the simplicity of the paternal\\nmansion. In view of these circumstances, the buildings, the furniture, the\\ntable, and the dress of the pupils, were arranged in correspondence to the\\nhabits in these respects of their families at home. In addition to an\\nordinary scholastic course, the pupils were all employed two hours in man-\\nual-labor on the farm, in a garden plot of their own, in the mechanic s\\nshop, and in household offices, such as taking care of rooms, books, and\\ntools.\\nMore than one hundred reports, many of them quite voluminous, have\\nbeen published in this country and in Europe, respecting the whole, or\\nportions of Fellenberg s Establishments at Hofwyl. The most particular\\naccount, and that in which the spirit of the institutions was considered by\\ntheir founder to be best exhibited, was given in a series of Letters from\\nHofwyl. by William C. Woodbridge, in the Annals of Education, pub-\\nlished in Boston. These letters were republished in London, in 1842, as\\nan Appendix to Letters from Hofwyl, by a Parent, on the Educational\\nInstitutions of De Fellenberg, pp. 372. The preceding sketch of these\\ninstitutions, and the outline of the Normal Course which follows, have befen\\ndrawn from this volume. The following summary of the Principles of\\nEducation, as developed in the experience of Fellenberg, is gathered also\\n23", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "354\\nFELLENBERG S INSTITUTION AT HOFWYL.\\nfrom this work, and from a letter of his directed to Lady Byron, who has\\nestablished and supports a School of Industry at Earling, after the model\\nof the Rural School at Hofwyl.\\nThe great object of education is to develop all the faculties of our nature,\\nphysical, intellectual, and moral, and to endeavor to train and unite them into\\none harmonious system, which shall form the most perfect character of which\\nthe individual is susceptible; and thus prepare him for every period, and every\\nsphere of action to which he may be called. It is only by means of the har-\\nmonious development of every faculty of our nature, in one connected system,\\nthat we can hope to see complete men issue from our institutions men who\\nmay become the saviors of iheir country, and the benefactors of mankind. To\\nform such characters is more important than to produce mere scholars, howev-\\ner distinguished, and this is the object on which the eye of the educator should\\nbe fixed, and to which every part of his instruction and discipline should be\\ndirected, if he means to fill the exalted office of being a fellow-worker with\\nGod.\\nOn the reception of a new pupil, our first object is to obtain an accurate\\nknowledge of his individual character, with all its resources and defects, in order to\\naid in its farther development, according to the apparent intention of the Creator.\\nTo this end, the individual, independent activity of the pupil is of much greater im-\\nportance than the ordinary, busy officiousness of many who assume the office of ed-\\nucators and teachers. They too often render the child a mere magazine of knowl-\\nedge, collected by means purely mechanical, which furnishes him neither direction\\nnor aid in the business of life. The more ill-digested knowledge a man thus col-\\nlects, the more oppressive will be the burden to its possessor, aud the more painful\\nhis helplessness. Instead of pursuing this course, we endeavor, by bestowing the\\nutmost care upon the cultivation of the conscience, the understanding, and the judg-\\nment, to light up a torch in the mind of every pupil, which shall enable him to ob-\\nserve his own character, and shall set in the clearest light all the exterior objects\\nwhich claim his attention.\\nA great variety of exercises of the body and the senses are employed to prepare\\nour pupils for the fulfilment of their destination. It is by means of such exercises\\nthat every man should acquire a knowledge of liis physical strength, and attain con-\\nfidence with regard to those efforts of which he is capable, instead of that fool-hardi-\\nness which endangers the existence of many who have not learned to estimate their\\nown powers correctly.\\nAli the various relations of space should be presented to the eye, to be observed\\nand combined in the manner best adapted to form the coup d oeil. Instruction in\\ndesign renders us important service in this respect every one should thus attain the\\npower of reproducing the forms he has observed, and of delineating them with\\nfacility, and should learn to discover the beauty of forms, and to distinguish them\\nfrom their contrasts. It is only where the talent is remarkable that the attempt\\nshould be made to render the pupil an artist.\\nThe cultivation of the ear by means of vocal and instrumental music is not less\\nimportant to complete the development of the human being. The organs of speech,\\nthe memory, the understanding, and the taste, should be formed in the same man-\\nner by instruction, and a great variety of exercises in language, vocal music, and\\ndeclamation. The same means should also be employed to cultivate and confirm\\ndevotional feelings.\\nIn the study of natural history the power of observation is developed in reference\\nto natural objects. In the history of mankind the same faculty is employed uuon\\nthe phenomena of human nature and human relations, and the moral taste is culti-\\nvated, at the same time the faculty of conceiving with correctness, and of employing\\nand combining with readiness, the materials collected by the mind, and especially\\nthe reasoning faculty, should be brought into exercise, by means of forms and num-\\nbers, exhibited in their multiplied and varied relations.\\nThe social life of our pupils contributes materially to the formation of their moral\\ncharacter. The principles developed in their experience of practical life among\\nthemselves, wliich gi-adually extends with their age and the progress of their minds,\\nserves as the basis of this branch of education. It presents the examples and occa-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "FELLENBERG S INSTITUTION AT HOFWYI,\\n355\\nsions necessary for exhibiting and illustrating the great principles of morals. Ac-\\ncording to the example of Divine Providence, we watch over this little world in\\nwhich oiii: pupils live and act, with an ever vigilant, but often invisible care, aad\\nconstantly endeavor to render it more pure and noble.\\nAt the same time that the various improvements of science and art are applied to\\nthe benefit of our pupils, their sound religious education should be continually kept\\nin view in every branch of study this is also the object of a distinct series of les-\\nsons, which generally continue through the whole course of instruction, and whose\\ninfluence is aided by the requisite exercises of devotion.\\nBy the combination of means I have described, we succeed in directing our pupils\\nto the best methods of pursuing their studies independently we occupy their atten-\\ntion, according to their individual necessities and capacities, with philology, the an-\\ncient and modern languages, the mathematics, and their various modes of apphca-\\ntion, and a course of historical studies, comprising geography, statistics, and political\\neconomy.\\nMoral Education. ^-The example of the instructor is all important in moral\\neducation. The books which are put into the pupils hands are of great influence.\\nThe pupil must be constantly suiTOunded with stimulants to good actions in order to\\nform his habits. A new institution should be begun with so small a number of\\npupils, that no one of them can escape the observation of the educator and his moral\\ninfluence. The general opinion of the pupils is of high importance, and hence\\nshould be carefully directed. Intimate intercourse between pupils and their edu-\\ncators begets confidence, and is the strongest means of moral education. The edu-\\ncator must be able to command liimself his conduct must be firm and j ust fre-\\nquent reproofs from such are more painful to the pupil than punishinent of a\\nmomentary sort.\\n^Tiile influences tending directly to lead the pupil astray should be removed from\\nthe sebool, he must be left to the action of the ordinary circumstances of life, that\\nhis character may be developed accordingly. The pupil should be led as far as pos-\\nsible to correct his faults by perceiving the consequences of them the good or bad\\nopinion of his preceptor and comrades are important means of stimulation. Exclu-\\nsion from amusements, public notice of faults, and corporal punishment, are all ad-\\nmissible. Solitary confinement is efficacious as a punishment. Rewards and\\nemulation are unnecessary as motives.\\nReligion and morality are too intimately connected to admit of separation in the\\ncourses inculcating them. The elementary part of such a course is equally applica-\\nble to all sects.\\nNo good is to be derived from employing the pupils as judges or juries, or giving\\nthem a direct share in awarding punishment for ofienses. It is apt to elevate the\\nyouth too much in his own conceit.\\nFamily life is better adapted, than any artificial state of society within an institu-\\ntion, to develop the moral sentiments and feelings of youth.\\nIntellectual Education. A system of prizes, or emulation, and the fear of pun-\\nishment, do not afford the strongest motives to intellectual exertion. Experience\\nshows that places in a class may be dispensed with. It is possible to develop a taste\\nfor knowledge, a respect and attachment for teachers, and a sense of duty which\\nwill take the place of any lower motive in inducing the requisite amount of study.\\nIn the higher departments of instruction it is better to confine the task of the\\nteacher to giving instruction merely, placing the pupil under the charge of a special\\neducator, at times when he is not engaged in the class-room.\\nWith the other, and more useful branches of instruction, correct ideas of natural\\nhistory and phenomena should be communicated to children, and require, first, that\\nthey shall be duly trained to observation by calling the observing faculties into fre-\\nquent exercise. Second, that they shall be made acquainted with the elements of\\nnatural history, especially in reference to familiar objects. Third, tliat the most fa-\\nmiliar phenomena of nature, such as thunder and lightning, the rail bow, c. and\\nfurther, the most simple principles of the mechanic arts, trades, c., should be ex-\\nplained to them. Fourth, they should be taught to draw, in connection with the\\nother instruction. Accuracy of conception is favored by drawing, and it is a power-\\nful aid to the memory. The most important principles of physiology, and their ap-\\nplication to the preservation of health, should form a part of the instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "356\\nPELLENBERG S INSTITUTION AT HOFWYL.\\nPhysical Education. Pure air, a suitable diet, regular exercise and repose, and\\na proper distribution of time, are the principal means of physical education. It is as\\nessential that a pupil leave his studies during the time appropriated to relaxation, as\\nthat he study during the hours devoted to that purpose. Voluntary exercise is to be\\nencouraged by providing suitable games, by affording opportunities for gardening,\\nand by excursions, and by bathing. Regular gymnastic exercises should be insisted\\non as the means of developing the body a healthy action of the bodily frame has an\\nimportant influence on both mind and morals. Music is to be considered as a branch\\nof physical education, having powerful moral influences. The succession of study,\\nlabor, musical instruction, or play, should be carefuUy attended to. The hours of\\nsleep should be regulated by the age of the pupil.\\nExperience has taught me that indolence in young persons is so directly opposite\\nto their natural disposition to activity, that unless it is the consequence of bad edu-\\ncation, it is almost invariably connected with some constitutional defect.\\nThe great art of education, therefore, consists in knowing how to occupy every\\nevery moment of life in well-directed and useful activity of the youthful powers, in\\norder that, so far as possible, nothing evil may find room to develop itself\\nMr. de Fellenberg died in 1846, and hie family discontinued the educa-\\ntional estabhshments at Hofwyl, in 1848, except the Poor School,\\nwhich is now placed under a single teacher, and the pupils are employed\\nin the extensive operations of the farm to acquire a practical knowledge of\\nagriculture. But the principles developed by the distinguished philan-\\nthropist and educator, have become embodied in the educational institutions\\nof his native country and of Europe, This is particularly true of the great\\naim of all his labors to develop all the faculties of our nature, physical,\\nintellectual and moral, and to train and unite them into one harmonious\\nsystem, which shall form the most perfect character of which the individ-\\nual is susceptible, and thus prepare hira for every period, and every\\nsphere of action to which he may be called.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "OUTLINE\\nOF THE\\nNORMAL COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AT HOFWTL.\\nThe Rural or Agricultural School at Hofwyl was designed to be a\\nseminary for teachers, as well as a school for those devoted to labor.\\nBoth Fellenberg and Vehrli deem it very important for all who are to be\\nemployed in the instruction of common schools to have a thorough ac-\\nquaintance Avith the practical labor of a farm. As an additional provi-\\nsion for their support, and as an invigorating exercise, it will be desirable\\nfor them (as indeed it probably would be for all literary men) to continue\\nthese labors. But a practical acquaintance with the life and habits of a\\nmajority of their pupils is the only means of preparing them fully to enter\\ninto the views and feelings of those under their care, to understand their\\nwants and their difficulties, and prepare them for their duties. It also\\nfurnishes many important illustrations and topics of remark. It enables\\nthem to give much valuable information of a practical kind in connection\\nwith the subjects of their studies, and much may be done in this way to\\nextend agricultural improvements. It is also an additional means of\\nsecuring the attachment of the teachers to those to whom it is desirable\\ntheir labors should be devoted, and inducing them to continue in this em-\\nployment. So much is this object appreciated in some of the seminaries\\nfor instructors in Germany, whose plan and location do not admit of a\\nfarming establishment, that a garden and a nursery of fruit-trees are an-\\nnexed to the seminary, and regular instruction is given in connection with\\nthem.\\nThe direct preparation of the teachers for their profession consists, 1.\\nIn a thorough study of the branches to be taught, which they acquire in\\ncommon with the other pupils, and on the productive plan. 2. In a series\\nof lessons designed especially for them, in which Vehrli directs them as to\\nthe method of communicating instruction. 3. In assuming alternately the\\nplace of teachers in this class, under the immediate inspection of Vehrli.\\n4. In acting alternately as instructor and monitor to the other pupils, and\\nsuperintendents of their conduct, under the general direction of Vehrli.\\n5. In the daily advice and direction they receive from him in the discharge\\nof these duties. 6. In witnessing his own methods of instruction, as he\\npasses from class to class to observe their progress. 7. In the discussions\\nconnected with a meeting for familiar conversation. 8. Those who are\\nqualified for a more extended course of study are permitted to attend the\\nlessons of the professors in the Literary Institution and some are era-\\nployed in the instruction or superintendence of the younger pupils in that\\nschool. Indeed, Fellenberg has found that those who were trained in the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "353 NORMAL COrrRSE AT HOFWYL.\\nAgricultural Institution were among the most valuable and faithful educa-\\ntors he could obtain and on this account he deems an establishment of\\nthis kind an important aid to one of a more scientific or literary character.\\nIt is with the aid of assistants thus trained that Vehrli has succeeded in\\nrendering a school, often composed of the worst materials, a model of order,\\nindustry, and improvement, which has excited the admiration of all who\\nhave visited it.\\nThe following is a sketch of the course of instruction pursued with the\\nclass of teachers which annually assembled, by invitation and at the ex-\\npense of Fellenberg. at Hofwyl\\nThe first object was to ascertain, by free conversation or examination,\\nthe intellectual condition of the teachers, and to arrange them in classes,\\nand provide means of instruction adapted to their wants they were con-\\nnected in such a manner that the better informed might assist those who\\nwere less familiar with the subject, and that they might enjoy the advan-\\ntages of mutual as well as general instruction.\\nThe day was opened and closed with religious exercises, in which they\\nwere led particularly to consider the duties of their office. Eight hours\\nwere assigned to instruction; the evening was devoted to free conversa-\\ntion on the state of the schools and their wants, and the subjects present-\\ned in the day and the teachers had the opportunity of asking general\\nquestions, or presenting topics for discussion. Daily lessons were given\\nin language, arithmetic, natural history, and vocal music three lessons\\nweekly in religion, and the same number in geometry and drawing and\\ntwo in geography and two in anthropology^ or the description of the\\nhuman body and mind. Two or three hours daily were specially devoted\\nto repetitions, or the copying of notes. The mode of instruction was\\nadapted to the topic: sometimes it consisted merely in the exhibition of\\nthe subject, or of the methods of instruction but it was accompanied as\\noften as possible by questions to the teachers, and by practical illustra-\\ntions, either by forming a class among the teachers, or calling in the pu-\\npils of the Agricultural School. The object of this course was to give\\ngeneral views of some important topics to improve and inform the minds\\nof the teachers themselves; and especially to give them a complete view\\nof the methods of teaching. We add an account of the principal courses\\nThe Maternal Language, or Grammar. The course of instruction in\\nthe mother tongue occupied one hour daily of the course, as being the\\nbasis of instruction in all other branches. Clear and precise ideas of the\\nmeaning and coimection of words, and of the proper mode of expressing\\nour ideas, are not less indispensable to successful study than to the busi-\\nness of life. But the study of language was also presented as an efficient\\nmeans of exciting and developing the powers of the mind because it\\nshould always be connected with the observation of the things to be de-\\nscribed, or reflection on the ideas to be expressed. In short, if properly\\ntaught, every step in this study is a practical exercise in logic. Instruc-\\ntion in the mother tongue ought to commence with exercises in speaking,\\nthe materials for which should be derived from the objects immediately\\nsurrounding the child, or most familiar to him and are always connected\\nwith the exercise of the senses in distinguishing form, color, size, weight,\\nsound, feeling, and taste. It was also urged that the speaking, writing,\\nand reading of the native language should go on together, in alternate ex-\\nercises, as a part of one course of instruction; and not divided, as they\\noften are. A plan of instruction was described extending through the\\nwhole period allotted to school education. The subject was divided into\\nportions corresjunding to our division of etymology and syntax the first", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "NORMAL COURSE AT HOFWYL. 359\\ninvolving simply words and their variations, and the second their connec-\\ntion in sentences. The teachers were advised to present both in\\nsuch a manner that the pupil could not escape with mere mechanical\\nhabits that he should be compelled to exercise thought and judgment in\\nregard to the meaning and variations of individual words and their modes\\nof combination. The last was especially recommended as the best means\\nof showing the meaning as well as the use of individual words: in short,\\nthe methods advised and adopted present the most striking contrast with\\nthe mechanical exercises and the parrot-like acquisitions of pupils in\\ngrammar in English and American schools.\\nThe more important principles were dictated and written down by the\\nteachers and questions were asked and answered in illustration. Writ-\\nten exercises on the various points presented, were also prepared and cor-\\nrected, as far as the time would allow.\\nReligio lis Instruction. The course of instruction in religion embraced,\\n1. Biblical history of the Old and New Testament; 2. History of the\\nChristian religion 3. Principles and precepts of Christianity 4. A brief\\nexposition of the best manner of giving religious or catechetic instruc-\\ntion. The design of this course was two-fold\\n1. To give to the teacher himself clear views of the sacred truths and\\nsolemn duties of religion; to enlighten his mind to strengthen him in the\\nresolute, persevering performance of his duties to enlarge and ennoble\\nhis feelings and to implant in his heart an unchangeable, cheering hope,\\nwhich should sustain him in the changes and trials incident to his labori-\\nous calling.\\n2. To render him an able teacher of religion, so far as it falls within\\nthe sphere of the common school and to prepare him, by precept and\\nexample, to make his pupils acquainted with the truths of the Bible, and\\nthe duties it imposes, and to educate them as disciples of Christ.\\nBoth these objects were kept in view, and each more or less attended\\nto, according to the nature of the subject and the knowledge of the au-\\nditors.\\nBiblical History. As the history of the Bible was already familiar to\\nthe audience, this subject was treated principally in reference to the\\nmethod of teaching. After a general chronological review of tlie princi-\\npal events of the history, and its connection with that of other nations, the\\nexperienced teacher of a common school to whom this part of the course\\nwas intrusted, examined the various methods of Biblical instruction\\nadopted in the canton of Berne. He warned his hearers against many of\\nthose methods, some of which reduce this part of instruction to a mechan-\\nical exercise of memory, that destroys its spirit; while others neglect the\\ngreat object, and employ it merely as a means of instruction in language.\\nHe recommended 1. That the teacher should relate each portion of the\\nhistory in language as much -biblical and child-like as possible, and call\\nupon the cliildren to repeat the narration.\\n2. That he should require ihem to select the principal and subordinate\\ncircumstances, and combine them in their regular order and connection.\\n3. That he should lead them to draw the conclusions and make the re-\\nflections which the history may sugarest, under his direction and with his\\nassistance but that he should carefully guard against the error of at-\\ntempting to derive too many lessons of a different nature from a single\\nhistory, for this only enfeebles the influence of the great principle involved,\\nand distracts the mind and the feelings with too great a variety of sub\\njects. In order to illustrate more completely the methods proposed, a\\nclass of children from the Agricultural School was generally brought in,\\nand exercised in the manner proposed.\\nHistory of the Christian Religion. The great objects of this course\\nwere, to awaken a deeper and more general interest in the Christian reli-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "ggO NORMAL COURSE AT IIOFWYL.\\ngion, and to strengthen their faith in its irresistible power, by showing\\nthem how light and truth have ever gained the victory amidst all the op-\\npression and persecution they have endured.\\nThe progress of light was traced the earnest and useless groping after\\ntruth described, which preceded the coming of the Saviour, and was only\\nsatisfied by his instructions. The political and civil condition of the world\\nat the Christian era, and the influence which Christianity has had in\\nchanging or modifying it, by the mutual and undistinguishing benevo-\\nlence it requires between individuals and nations, and the equal rights\\nwhich it thus establishes, was made the subject of particular attention.\\nBut the attention of the pupils was principally directed to the internal\\ncondition of the Christian church in the first three centuries, while it re-\\nmained comparatively pure they were pointed to the influence of Chris-\\ntian feelings and a Cluistian life in the family, the community, and the\\nstate to the invincible power of that faith, and that love to the Saviour\\nand to one another, which triumphed over ridicule and suflfering, and mar-\\ntyrdom itself in its most horrid forms. The errors in principle and prac-\\ntice of this early period were also exhibited, with their sad consequences\\nand the eflTects of the various extremes to which they led of slavish for-\\nmality or lawless licentiousness of intolerance and of hypocrisy of su-\\nperstition and fanaticism of ecclesiastical despotism, and of anarchy\\nwere presented in such a light as to point out the dangers to which we\\nare still exposed. The time did not allow the extension of the course to\\nlater periods of history.\\nPrinciples and Precepts of Christianity. The religious instructor ob-\\nserves, tiiat he endeavored to present this part of his subject in its biblical\\nform, and to show his pupils the inexhaustible richness of Divine wisdom\\nexhibited in the Scriptures, to which reason, when duly enlightened as to\\nits proper sphere, will come as a pupil, and not as a teacher. This reve-\\nlation, he remarked, made in the language of men, should be the rule by\\nwhich the exhibitions of the Deity, in nature, and providence, and the\\nmind of man, must be judged. On the other hand, he presented the lead-\\ning doctrines contained in the formularies ot the Swiss churches, but still\\nas subordinate to the biblical exhibition of truth with which the teacher\\nin Switzerland is chiefly concerned. The first subjects of instruction\\nwere the general nature of religion, the peculiar character of Christianity,\\nand its adaptation to the nature of man, the admirable form in which it is\\npresented, and the importance of taking the Savior as a model for the\\nmethods of religious instruction. The Scriptures were next exaniined as\\nthe sources of religious truth, and the principal contents of the various\\nbooks described, with the leading evidences of its historical authority, of\\nits inspiration, and of the credibility of the principles it contains. The\\nleading doctrines maintained in the national church Avere then presented,\\neach accompanied with the evidence and illustrations afforded by the\\nScriptures, and followed by an exhibition of the duties involved in it, or\\nfounded upon it. At the same time, illustrations were derived from na-\\nture and from the human heart; and directions were given as to the best\\nmode of teaching these truths to the young.\\nMethods of Religiotis Instruction. The method of giving religious in-\\nstruction was also taken up in a special manner, at the conclusion of the\\ncourse: the first object was to point out the manner and order in which\\nthe various principles and precepts of religion should be presented to the\\nyoung in correspondence with the development of their faculties; and the\\nimportance of preparing their minds to receive the truths, by making them\\nfamiliar with the language, and the objects of intellect and feeling in\\ngeneral, instead of calling upon them to pass at once from the observa-\\ntion and the language of the material world, to the elevated truths of re-\\nligion expressed in terms entirely new, and which leave so many minds", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "NORMAL COURSE AT HOFWYL. ggj\\nin hopeless confusion, if not in absolute ignorance of their real natiire.\\nTile distinction of essential and non-essential doctrines was adverted to,\\nand general directions given as to the methods of narrating and exam-\\nining.\\nAnthropology, or the Study of Man. This course was intended to give\\na general idea of the nature of man, and especially of the construction of\\nour bodies, with a view to illustrate at once their wonderful mechanism,\\nand to direct to the proper mode of employing and treating their various\\norgans. The teacher adopted as his leading principles, to exclude as\\nmuch as possible all that has not practical importance, and to employ the\\nmost simple terms and illustrations which could be chosen. The first\\ngreat division of the course was devoted to the structure of the human\\nbody: it was opened with a brief introduction to natural history, and a\\ncomparative view of vegetables and animals, and man, and of the several\\nraces of men. The elementary materials of the human frame were then\\ndescribed, and the great and wonderful changes they undergo in receiving\\nthe principle of life, and becoming a part of man.\\nThe various systems of the human body, the bones, muscles, vessels,\\norgans, and nerves were next described, and illustrated by a human skel-\\neton and by preparations of animals the offices of each part were de-\\nscribed in connection with its form and situation thus uniting anatomy\\nand physiology. At the same time, reference was made to the mode of\\nemploying tiiem the common accidents to which they were liable, as\\ndislocations, fractures, c., and the mode of guarding against them.\\nThe second portion of the course was devoted to the subject of Hygiene,\\nor Dietetics; the proper mode of employing and treating the various\\norgans, in order to preserve health and strength. It was opened with\\nsome views of the nature and value of health, and the causes whicii most\\nfrequently undermine it. The first object of attention was the organs o(\\nreproduction, their important destination, their delicate nature, and the\\nevil consequence of loo early excitement or abuse on the rest of the sys-\\ntem; with the indications of abuse, and the methods of restoration. The\\nnervous system, in its connection with the subject, led to the consideration\\nof spiritual life, and its connection with the body, through the medium of\\nthe nerves. The various passions and atfections were particularly de-\\nscribed, with their influence upon the health and the rules of education\\nderived ti-om this topic. Sleeping and waking were then treated as phe-\\nnomena of the nervous system and the distinction to be observed be-\\ntween children and adults on this subject was pointed out. The import-\\nance of attending to the structure and use of the bed-room and the bed,\\nand even the position in sleep, was also adverted to.\\nThe organs of sense, especially the eye and the ear, were minutely de-\\nscribed, with the diseases to which they are liable from improper use or\\nneglect, or from causes injurious to the brain and nervous system in gen-\\neral. The importance of the skin and its functions, and of maintaining\\nits cleanliness by frequent changes of clothing and bathing; the necessity\\nand methods of useful exercise the precautions which ought to be em-\\nployed to secure the purity of the air, especially in schools, and to guard\\nagainst diseases of the organs of respiration, were the subjects of partic-\\nular instruction. The formation and uses of the blood, the influence of\\nfood, and the circumstances in its condition or preparation which render it\\ninjuriou.s. the evil eflects of alcoholic drinks, and the most obvious causes\\nof injury to the digestive organs, or of interruption in their functions, were\\nafterward discussed in a practical manner. The course was closed with\\nsimple directions as to the treatment of injuries produced by sudden acci-\\ndents, falls, wounds, drowning, fi eezing, fits, c., during the time which\\nmust elapse before medical aid can be procured, or when it is not within\\nreach a species of knowledge tor want of which many a life has doubt-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "3(52 NORMAL COURSE AT HOFWYL,\\nless been lost, and which is peculiarly important to one who is entrusted\\nwith the care of a large number of young persons. Indeed, what more\\nvaluable gift could be made to a collection of American teachers than\\nsuch a course of instruction a course which every well-informed physi-\\ncian is capable of giving?\\nGeography.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The course of instruction in geography was designed to\\npoint out the best methods of teaching facts already familiar to the audi-\\nence. Two principles were laid down as fundamental 1. To commence\\nwith giving the pupil distinct ideas of hill, valley, plain, stream, and lake\\nin his own circle, and the characteristics of his own neighborhood and\\nthus to become familiar with the elements, and to proceed from particu-\\nlar to general views. 2. That the geography of their native country\\nshould be made familiar to the pupils of the common school, before they\\nare confused or attracted by the peculiarities and wonders of foreign coun-\\ntries, A course of instrucfion was described for the canton of Berne in\\nconformity with these principles, and the necessarj references given to\\nthe authorities from which the teacher should derive his information. As\\na part of the course, each teacher was required to write an account of the\\nplace of his residence and was taught how he should direct his pupils in\\nthe observations and inquiries necessary for this purpose, and fitted to\\ndevelop the habits of quick and accurate perception and patient research.\\nHistory of Sicitzerland. It was assumed as a principle, that history\\nshould not be taught as awliole in common schools because young minds\\nare incapable of understanding the causes and connection of events which\\ninvolve the ideas, and plans, and motives of warriors and statesmen. On\\nthe other hand it was deemed of great importance to present the leading\\nevents of history to the young, in order to impress the moral lessons which\\nthey furnish, and especially those which belong to their own country.\\nTo the teachers, however, it was considered necessary to give a complete\\nview of the history of Switzerland, in order to enable them to select and\\nexplain better its individual portions. It was accordingly narrated, so far\\nas the time would admit, in several great divisions: the primitive period,\\nthe Roman period, and the period of transition, introduced the Swiss\\nconfederation the heroic or warlike period, the period of political decUne,\\nand the period of revolution, (since 1798.) embraced the history of the\\nconfederation. This view of the course will be sufficient to show the\\ngeneral principles on which the method of instruction in this subject is\\nfounded.\\nAgriculture. A course of lectures on agriculture was given to the as-\\nsembled teachers by Fellenberg himself The audience were reminded\\nof that wise Omnipotence which presides over the circle of human activi-\\nty, and of the manner in which it operates incessantly to prepare man for\\nhis higher destination, by rendering all his efforts dependent on this pa-\\nrental guidance for their success; and by leading him through all the\\nvariety of events in the material world, to that higher moral existence tor\\nwhich we are made. The lecturer pointed out the wisdom of this ar-\\nrangement, and the defects which would exist in our education, as men,\\nwitliout these external means. He stated that he had assumed it as a\\npart of his task to illustrate, by the evidence of facts, in a rational system\\nof agriculture, that man is called upon to become like God\u00e2\u0080\u0094 in governing\\nhimself, and in controlling the material world, liir the good of his fellow-\\nmen and that he observed constantly more and more the powerful influ-\\nence of well-conducted plans of agriculture exerted in counteracting the\\nspirit of indolence and ^labits of idleness. The first subject illustrated,\\nwas the power which a knowledge of the great principles of agriculture\\nconfers over the operations of nature, by giving a suitable direction to the\\ncares and labors of its possessor and the wretciied slavery of the ignorant\\nto the mere chanjies o\\\\ matter, and to those effects of the elements which", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "NORMAL COUKSE AT llOFWYL. 353\\nthe Creator gives us the capacity in some measure to employ for our own\\nbenefit. He next considered the best mode of rendering agriculture a\\nmeans of exciting mental activity in the children and parents of a village,\\nand of forming their character. Many sources of poverty and suffering\\nin Switzerland were pointed out, which arose from the neglect of this\\nsubject, and the intimate connection between the improvement of agri-\\nculture, and the increase of intelligence and comfort of those who are en-\\ngaged in it. with the prosperity and the free institutions of the country.\\nVarious leading principles of agriculture were then taken up such as\\nthe removal of all the obstacles to vegetation stones, weeds, excessive\\nwater, c. the rational preparation and use of manure the proper form\\nand employment of the plough and the succession of crops. The influ-\\nence of these principles, and of the knowledge of the elements that com-\\npose the materials employed in cultivating the earth, on the products and\\nthe facility of labor, were clearly exhibited, and were illustrated by a ref-\\nerence to the improved fields and increased products of Hofwyl. In\\nshort, the great object of this course was, not to teach the science, but to\\ngive such general views as should lead the teachers to appreciate and in-\\nculcate its importance, to observe and reflect on the prevailing evils and\\ntheir remedies, and to excite their pupils to observation, as a means of\\nrendering their very labors a source of intellectual and moral improvement.\\nA brief course ot instruction was also given by Fellenberg, on the con-\\nstitution of the canton, and the rights and duties of citizens. It would,\\nof course, be out of place to enter into the details of the Berne constitu-\\ntion; but we can not give a correct view of the spirit of this course of in-\\nstruction without describing the peculiar manner in which he introduced it.\\nHe observed that the merely material interest of civil and political hfe\\nforms a foundation too sandy and unstable for the life of the family or the\\nstate. A constitution truly free, and fitted to promote the higher moral\\nends of our existence, can find no firmer basis, no more noble and appro-\\npriate means, no higher ends, than in the message of peace on earth, and\\ngood will to men, which was brought by our Savior. No book of free-\\ndom can better satisfy its true friends than the Bible, with its evangelical\\ncomplement, if its instructions and its objects are rightly understood.\\nSince I have sought here the sources and objects of a constitution. I have\\nfelt a higher value than ever for the Scriptures. The constitution pre-\\nsents the good of all as the great object; and this is the end of the Divine\\ngovernment. It calls upon each citizen to live and die for others the\\nobject of our Savior s instructions and example. The Creator makes\\nno distinction in the birth and death of men and the constitution only\\nfollows his example in giving equal rights to all. The Savior teaches\\nus to regard our fellow-men as members of the same family the consti-\\ntution simply enforces and carries out this principle. It acknowledges\\nthat the welfare or misery of a state depends on the moral and intellect-\\nual cultivation of its citizens, and that their sound education is among its\\nfirst duties, and thus admits the great principle of the Gospel in relation\\nto the affairs of this world. Such is the spirit which Fellenberg wishes\\nto pervade every course of instruction.\\nThe success of the Normal course of instruction at Hofwyl, in spite of\\nthe petty jealousy with which the patriotic and benevolent labors of its\\nfounder was followed by the government of Berne, led to the establish-\\nment of two Normal Schools in that canton, and of similar institutions in\\nmost of the cantons of Switzerland. Fellenberg was elected a member\\nof the Legislative Assembly, on the adoption of the new constitution, in\\n1831. On his motion the following article was introduced into the funda-\\nmental law", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "2g4 NORMAL COURSE AT HOFWYL\\nThe welfare or woe of every state depends on the moral worth of its\\ncitizens. Without the cultivation of the mind and heart, true freedom is\\ninconceivable, and patriotism is an empty sound. We must labor for our\\nmoral elevation, for the highest possible cultivation of the powers we have\\nreceived from the Creator, if we would partake of the happiness which a\\nfree constitution should afford. The zealous promotion of this object is\\nrecommended by the Constituent Assembly to all future legislators, as\\nholding a higher place in importance than all other objects.\\nAlthough the teachers of the canton were prohibited by a vote of the\\nEducation Department of the canton from attending his Annual Normal\\nCourse, a society was formed in 1832, with the name of the Cantonal\\nTeachers Society of Berne. The following account is given by Mr.\\nWoodbridge, in 1834:\\nBERNE CANTONAL SOCIETY OF TEACHERS.\\nThis society was formed by the teachers assembled for instruction at\\nHofvvyl in the summer of 1832. and consisted of 154 members, with few\\nexceptions, teachers of ordinary schools. Fellenberg was chosen presi-\\ndent; and Vehrli. the excellent teacher of the farm pupils of Hofwyl,\\nvice-president. Its constitution presents, as the great objects of the soci-\\nety, union and co-operation in promoting the education of the people, and\\nelevating the character of the schools. The means proposed were, free\\ncommunications between its members, consultations concerning the best\\nmodes of advancing the cause of schools and improving the condition of\\nteachers, and direct efforts to excite the attention of the people to the de-\\nfects of present plans and methods of organizing and instructing the com-\\nmon schools of the country.\\nAmong the important topics in the school itself which are proposed by\\nthe Society of Berne, to be presented in the meetings of its auxiliary so-\\ncieties, the first named is a careful inquiry into the condition of the pupils\\nof their schools, and the proper means for their moral improvement. For\\nthis purpose they urge that every effort be made to give the pupils con-\\nstant employment, and to guard them against the temptations of idleness;\\nto preserve a mild but firm course of discipline and to promote fraternal\\naffection among them. They urge, that every branch of instruction, from\\nthe highest to the lowest, be discussed at these meetings; and that there\\nshould be a steady effort among the teachers to advance in knowledge\\nand skill. Would that the last object could be impressed upon the\\nminds of the multitude of teachers in our country, who wrap themselves\\nup in the consciousness of having attained the ne plus idtra of skill and\\nknowledge, or lie down in listless apathy, after their daily task is per-\\nformed, with no anxiety but to get through the business of to-morrow\\nas early as possible.\\nThe second meeting of the Berne Society of Teachers was also held at\\nHofwyl. It was opened by an interesting address from the president, full\\nof truth and energy, of which we can only give a few opening sentences:\\nGuardians of the spiritual life, the personal wealth, of the children of\\nour people we have assembled to ratify our bond. We have pledged\\nourselves that in our schools shall grow up a noble, well-taught genera-\\ntion of the people true to the principles of the Gospel, devoted to God,\\nand faithful to men a people whose characters shall not be unworthy of\\nthe scenes of grandeur and beauty which the Creator has assigned as\\ntheir native land\\nIn this great object we shall succeed only so far as we follow the Sa-\\nvior s example, and imbibe the fullness of his love to man, and trust in\\nGod, in forming the hearts of those who are committed to us, in extending\\nthe influence of the school to every household, and in warming the hearts", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "NORMAL COURSE AT HOFWYL. 355\\nof parents as well as children. God will reward such labors, even if they\\nare not rewarded on earth. The God who feeds the ravens and clothes\\nthe lilies, will never forsake the faithful guardians of /i7s children.\\nAmong tlie evils suggested at this meeting of the society, as requiring\\na remedy, were some familiar to our own schools the want of faithful\\nvisitation, for which responsible and paid officers were considered the\\nonly remedy neglect and difficulties in obtaining suitable teachers im-\\nperfect school-books and means of instruction the want of a periodical\\nfor teachers the unhappy difficulties arising from the dependence of the\\nteacher on the caprice or convenience of individuals for his scanty pay,\\nand claims of parental dictation often founded upon it.\\nAfter the meeting was closed the band of music of the farm pupils of\\nHofwyl called the assembly to a repast prepared for 360 persons by ihe\\nliberal founder of Hofwyl. It was opened by him with prayer, acknow-\\nledging the favor of God to their association, and intreating his blessing\\nupon their future efforts. A scene of social enjoyment and familiar inter-\\ncourse then followed, suited to cheer the hearts of these fellow-laborers in\\nan arduous and too often thankless office. Occasional songs, of that ele-\\nvated and heart-stirring character which we have formerly described,\\nwere sung by the farm pupils, and united in by the chorus of teachers.\\nWe translate one sentiment given by a teacher, as a specimen of those\\noffered on this occasion\\nThere is one means of making the happiness, and the delight, which\\nwe feel to-day, universal! There is one unfailing means to convert\\nruined families into families of joy to dry up the sources of poverty and\\nmisery and to stem the torrent of overwhelming vice to secure our\\nliberties, and those of our children, against all the power of treachery,\\nin short, to secure the purity and the happiness of the neople. And this\\nunfailing means is. Christian kati9Nal education of the people, and\\nespecially of the poor. To all, then, who understand this mighty cry, and\\nput their hands to the holy work, Long life Health to all the friends\\nand promoters of rational education of the people, and the poor\u00e2\u0080\u0094 far and\\nnear! Long life to them\\nSuch animating sentiments were followed and impressed by some of\\nthe noble mannencheren, or hymns for male voices, which the Swiss\\nmusic furnishes to cherish social, and benevolent, and patriotic, and devo-\\ntional feeling, in place of the bacchanalian and amatory songs which so\\noften disgrace our social meetings.\\nDuring the summer of 1833, a course of instruction was given to teach-\\ners, under the immediate direction of Fellenberg. It was closed by an ex-\\namination, at which a considerable number of persons were present and\\nthe Cantonal Society of Teachers held its third meeting immediately\\nafter. It was attended by 200 teachere and friends of education, or school-\\nmen, as they are all styled in simple German, many of whom were new\\nmembers.\\nWould that we could witness such a movement in any considerable\\nportion of our own country. Could we see some individual who had the\\nfaith to invite, and the influence necessary to collect such a body of teach-\\ners to listen to instruction, and consult for the good of their schools, for\\nthree months, in any State in the Union, we should expect more benefit\\nto the cause of education than from any amount of school funds for, im-\\nportant as they are, under proper regulation, they can never supply the\\nplace of an intelligent and well-trained body of teachers.\\nSince the above letter was written, State, County and Town Associa-\\ntions of Teachers have been formed Teachers Institutes have been\\nheldj and Normal courses of instruction and Normal Schools, established.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL\\nAT\\nKRDITZLINGEN IN THE CANTON OF THUKGOVIA.\\nThe Normal School at Kruitzlingen, in the canton of Thurgovia, is\\nunder the direction of Vehrli, who for several years had the charge oi\\nthe school in Fellenberg s establishment at Hofwyl. Under Vehrli s\\nmanagement, this Normal School has attracted much attention, not only\\nin Switzerland, but in France, Germany, and England. The Training\\nSchool at Battersea, near London, was modeled after this. The follow-\\ning account of a visit to Kruitzlingen is taken from Dr. Kay s Report an\\nthe Training School at Battersea,^^ in 1841.\\nThe normal school at Kruitzlingen is in the summer palace of the former\\nabbot of the convent of that name, on the shore of the Lake of Constance, about\\none mile from the gate of the city. The pupils are sent thither from the several\\ncommunes of the canton, t(i be trained three years by Vehrli, before they take\\ncharge of the communal schools. Their expenses are borne in part by the com-\\nmune, and partly by the council of the canton. We found ninety young men,\\napparently from eighteen to twenty-four or twenty-six years of age, in the\\nschool. Vehrli welcomed us with frankness and simplicity, which at once won\\nour confidence. We joined him at his frugal meal. He pointed to the viands,\\nwhich were coarse, and said, I am a peasant s son. I wish to be no other\\nthan I am, the teacher of the sons of the peasantry. You are welcome to my\\nmeal it is coarse and homely, but it is offered cordially.\\nWe sat down with him. These potatoes, he said, are our own. We\\nwon them from the earth, and therefore we need no dainties, for our appetite is\\ngained by labor, and the fruit of our toil is always savory. This introduced\\nthe subject of industry. He told us all the pupils of the normal school labored\\ndaily some hours in a garden of several acres attached to the house, and that\\nthey performed all the domestic duty of the household. When we walked out\\nwith Vehrli, we found them in the garden digging, and carrying on other gar-\\nden operations, with great assiduity. Others were sawing wood into logs, and\\nchopping it into billets in the court-yard. Some brought in sacks of potatoes\\non their backs, or baskets of recently gathered vegetables. Others labored in\\nthe domestic duties of the household.\\nAfter a while the bell rang, and immediately their out-door labors terminated,\\nand they returned in an orderly manner, with all their implements, to the court-\\nyard, where having deposited them, thrown off their frocks, and washed, they\\nreassembled in their respective class-rooms.\\nWe soon Ibllowed them. Here we listened to lessons in mathematics, prov-\\ning that they were well-grounded in the elementary parts of that science. We\\nsaw them drawing from models with considerable skill and precision, and heard\\nthem instructed in the laws of perspective. We li.stened to a lecture on the\\ncode of the canton, and to instruction in the geography of Europe. We were\\ninformed that their instruction extended to the language of the canton, its con-\\nstruction and grammar, and especially to the history of Switzerland arithpie-\\ntic mensuration; such a knowledge of natural philosophy and mechanics as\\nmight enable them to explain the chief phenomena of nature and the mechani-\\ncal forces; some acquaintance with astronomy. They had continual lessons\\nin pedagogy, or the theory of the art of teaching, which they practiced in the\\nneighboring village school. We were assured that their instruction in the Holy\\nScriptures, and other religious knowledge, was a constant subject of solicitude.\\nThe following extract from Vehrli s address at the first examination of the\\npupils, in 1837, will best explain the spirit that governs the seminary, and the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "3gg NORMAL SCHOOL AT KRUITZLINGEN.\\nattention paid there to what we believe has been too often neglected in this\\ncountry the education of the heart and feelings, as distinct from the cultiva-\\ntion of the intellect. It may appear strange to English habits to assign so\\nprominent a place in an educational institution to the following points, but the\\nindication here given of the superior care bestowed in the formation of the\\ncharacter, to what is given to the acquisition of knowledge, forms in our view\\nthe chief charm and merit in this and several other Swiss seminaries, and is\\nwhat we have labored to impress on the institution we have founded. To those\\nwho can enter into its spirit, the following extract will not appear tinctured\\nwith too sanguine views\\nThe course of life in this seminary is three-fold.\\n1st. Life in the home circle, or family life.\\n2nd. Life in the school-room.\\n3rd. Life beyond the walls in the cultivation of the soil.\\nI place the family life first, for here the truest education is imparted here\\nthe future teacher can best receive that cultivation of the character and feelings\\nwhich will fit him to direct those, who are entrusted to his care, in the ways of\\npiety and truth.\\nA well-arranged family circle is the place where each member, by partici-\\npating in the others joys and sorrows, pleasures and misfortunes, by teaching,\\nadvice, consolation, and example, is inspired with sentiments of single-minded-\\nness, of charity, of mutual confidence, of noble thoughts, of high feelings, and\\nof virtue.\\nIn such a circle can a true religious sense take the firmest and the deepest\\nroot. Here it is that the principles of Christian feeling can best be laid, where\\nopportunity is continually given for the exercise of affection and charity, which\\nare the first virtues that should distinguish a teacher s mind. Here it is that\\nkindness and earnestness can most surely form the young members to be good\\nand intelligent men, and that each is most willing to learn and receive an im-\\npress from his fellow. He who is brought up in such a circle, who thus recog-\\nnizes all his fellow-men as brothers, serves them with willingness whenever he\\ncan, treats all his race as one family, loves them, and God their father above\\nall, how richly does such a one scatter blessings around! What earnestness\\ndoes he show in all his doings and conduct, what devotion especially does he\\ndisplay in the business of a teacher How differently from him does that mas-\\nter enter and leave his school, whose feelings are dead to a sense of piety, and\\nwhose heart never beats in unison with the joys of family life.\\nWhere is such a teacher as I have described most pleasantly occupied\\nIn his school amongst his children, with them in the house of God or in the\\nfamily circle, and wherever he can be giving or receiving instruction. A great\\nman has expressed, perhaps too strongly, I never wish to see a teacher who\\ncan not sing. With more reason I would maintain, that a teacher to whom a\\nsense of the pleasures of a well-arranged family is wanting, and who fails to\\nrecognize in it a well-grounded religious influence, should never enter a school-\\nroom.\\nAs we returned from the garden with the pupils on the evening of the first\\nday, we stood for a few minutes with Vehrli in the court-yard by the shore of\\nthe lake. The pupils had ascended into the class-rooms, and the evening being\\ntranquil and warm, the windows were thrown up, and we shortly afterward\\nheard them sing in excellent harmony. As soon as this song had ceased we\\nsent a message to request another, with which we had become familiar in our\\nvisits to the Swiss schools; and thus, in succession, we called for song after\\nsong of Nageli, imagining that we were only directing them at their usual hour\\nof instruction in vocal music. There was a great charm in this simple but\\nexcellent harmony. When we had listened nearly an hour, Vehrli invited us\\nto ascend into the room where the pupils were assembled. We followed him,\\nand on entering the apartment, great was our surprise to discover the whole\\nschool, during the period we had listened, had been cheering with songs their\\nevening employment of peeling potatoes, and cutting the stalks from the green\\nvegetables and beans which they had gathered in the garden. As we stood\\nthere they renewed their choruses till prayers were announced. Supper had\\nbeen previously taken. After prayers, Vehrli, walking about the apartment,\\nconversed with them fanailiarly on the occurrences of the day, mingling with", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL AT KRUITZLINGEN. 359\\nhis conversation such friendly admonition as sprang from the incidents, and\\nthen lifiins: his hands he recommended them to the protection of heaven, and\\ndismissed them to rest.\\nWe spsni iwo days with great interest in this establishment. Vehrli had\\never on his lips We are peasant s sons. We would not be ignorant of our\\nduties, but God forbid that knowledge should make us despise the simplicity of\\nour lives. The earth is our mother, and we gather our food from her breast,\\nbut while we peasants labor for our daily food, we may learn many lessons\\nfrom our mother earth. There is no knowledge in books like an immediate\\nconverse with nature, and those that dig the soil have nearest communion with\\nher. Believe me, or believe me not, this is the thought that can make a pea-\\nsant s life sweet, and his toil a luxury. I know it, for see my hands are horny\\nwith toil. The lot of men is very equal, and wisdom consists in the discovery\\nof ihe truth that what is wiihnut is not the source of sorrow, but that which is\\nwithin. A peasant may be happier than a prince if his conscience be pure before\\nGod, and he learn not only contentment, but joy, in the life of labor which is to\\nprepare him for the life of heaven.\\nThis was the theme always on Vehrli s lips. Expressed with more or less\\nperspicuity, his main thought seemed to be that poverty, rightly understood,\\nwas no misfortune. He regarded it as a sphere of human exertion and human\\ntrial, preparatory to the change of existence, but offering its own sources of en-\\njoyment as abundantly as any other. We are all equal, he said, before\\nGod; why should the son of a peasant envy a prince, or the lily an oak; are\\nthey not both God s creatures 1\\nWe were greatly charmed in this school by the union of comparatively high\\nintellectual attainments among the scholars, with the utmost simplicity of life,\\nand cheerfulness in the humblest menial labor. Their food was of the coarsest\\ncharacter, consisting chiefly of vegetables, soups, and very brown bread. They\\nrose between four and live, took three meals in the day, the last about six, and\\nretired to rest at nine. They seemed happy in their lot.\\nSome of the other normal schools of Switzerland are remarkable for the same\\nsimplicity in their domestic arrangements, though the students exceed in their\\nintellectual attainments all notions prevalent in England of what should be\\ntaught in such schools. Thus in the normal school of the canton of Berne the\\npupils worked in the fields during eight hours of the day, and spent the rest in\\nintellectual labor. They were clad in the coarsest dresses of the peasantry,\\nwore wooden shoes, and were without stockings. Their intellectual attain-\\nments however, would have enabled them to put to shame the masters of most\\nof our best elementary schools.\\nSuch men, we felt assured, would go forth cheerfully to their humble village\\nhomes to spread the doctrine which Vehrli taught of peace and conteniment in\\nvirtuous exertion; and men similarly trained appeared to us best fitted for fhe\\nlabor of reclaiming the pauper youth of England to the virtues, and restoring\\nthem to the happiness, of her best instructed peasantry.\\nA brother of Dr. Kay, in his Education of the Poor in England and\\nEurope, thus speaks of Vehrli\\nI saw Vehrli twice. The first time I found him clad in a plain coarse\\ntweed vest, at work upon his fields and on my second visit, he was busily\\nengaged with his boys in repairing the plain wooden furniture of his\\nhouse, and the handles. c.. of his farming tools. He said to me, You\\nmust not expect to find any grandeur in our iiouse my boys are all to be\\nengaged among our peasants, and I teach them to sympathize with those\\nwith whom they must associate hereafter, by accustoming them and my-\\nself to simple peasants lives. On my first visit I dined with him. The\\nviands were of the plainest possible kind, but Vehrli reminded me that\\nthe laborer s fare was no better, and that therefore the laborer s compan-\\nion and teacher ougiit to be satisfied. The result of this .simple life is,\\nthat while in other parts of Switzerland, schoolmasters, who have been\\nadmirably instructed at Normal schools, but who have never had the ad-\\nvantage of the excellent discipline of the habits which Vehrli s pupils\\n24", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "gYQ NORMAL PCHOOLS AT KRUITZMNGEN.\\nreceive, often become discontented with the drudgery of a schoolmaster s\\nlife, the young men, who have left Vehrli s school, are found to persevere\\nwith cheerfulness and Christian enthusiasm in the work of instruction and\\nsocial reformation.\\nThroughout Switzerland, Vehrli s school is looked on as the pattern,\\nand in all the other Normal Schools they are gradually adopting his views\\nrelative to the education of the teachers.\\nI have thus particularly noticed the necessity of a great simplicity in\\nthe daily life of a pupil-teacher, as I fear this important part of a school-\\nmaster s training is almost entirely neglected in several of the kw Normal\\nschools we at present possess. We seem to imagine that it is a. perfectly\\neasy thing I or a man, who has acquired habits of life fitting him for the\\nhigher circles of society, to associate with the poor, without any previous\\ntraining. No mistake can be more fatal to the progress of the religious\\neducation of the poor. An instructed man, accustomed for several years\\nto the society of intellectual professors and companions, without having\\nany thing to remind him of, still less to habituate him to communication\\nwith, the humble class among whom he is afterward to live, must feel\\nconsiderable reluctance, il not decided disgust, when he finds himself\\ncalled on to associate with the simple, rude, and uneducaied poor. To\\nenable him to do this, requires as careful a training as to enable him to\\nteach and although men are found, whose sense of duty and whose\\nChristian philanthropy triumph over the defects of their education, yet, in\\nthe majority of cases, the dissimilarity of tastes between the teacher and\\nhis associaies, must at least curtail his power of doing good, even if it\\ndoes not uct\\\\ially cause him to neglect altogether the principal of his du-\\nties, from that natural repugnance which he cannot surmount. To teach\\nthe poor effectively, we must choose the teachers from among themselves;\\nand during their education we must continually accustom them to the\\nhumble character of their former lives, as well as to that of their future,\\nassociates. The Roman Catholic Church has always clearly understood\\nthis truth. She has perceived from the first, with that sagacity which\\nhas marked all her worldly policy, that to obtain men who would really\\nunderstand and sympathize with the poor, and who would feel no disgust\\nfor the greatest duty ol*a priest s life, the visitation of the meanest hovels,\\nshe must take hfer teachers from the poor themselves, and keep their minds\\ncontinually habituated to a toilsome and humble life, whilst receiving edu-\\ncation fitting them to be the religious teachers of the people. The greater\\npart, therelbre, of her priests are chosen from the poorer classes. The\\npoor know that these priests can understand their necessities, can sympa-\\nthize with their sufferings, and can visit their simple firesides without\\ndisgust. Whilst, therefore, the Roman Catholic peasant respects his\\npriest tor the sacred character of the oifice he fills and for the education\\nhe has received, there is none of that painful sense of separation between\\nthem, which exists, where the peasant feels that his religious minister\\nbelongs to another class and can never perfectly comprehend the situa-\\ntion, the wants, and the troubles of the poor. Still less does such a reli-\\ngious minister feel any difficulty in his communications with the poor.\\nHe visits the meanest hovel without disgust, he associates with the\\nlaborer without any danger of exhibiting an insolent air of worldly supe-\\nriority, and knowing what a laborer s feelings are, he communicates with\\nhim without embarrassment, without reserve, and above all, without\\nsuperciliousness.\\nIn the Catholic cantons of Switzerland the priest is not only the spirit-\\nual advjser, but he is also the friend and companion of the laborer, and\\nthat too, naturally, without any difficulty to himself and with infinite ad-\\nvantage to the poor. An Englishman would scarcely believe me, were I", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL AT KRL ITZI.INGEN.\\n371\\nto describe how the priests, in the Catholic cantons, may be seen associa-\\nting with the peasants.\\nIn this country, where the clergyman is so far separated from the poor\\nman byliis station in society, his associations, habits, and education, it be-\\ncomes doubly important that the schoolmaster of the Church should be a\\nconnecting link between the clergyman and his flock. He ought to be the\\nadjutant of the clergyman, capable by his education to be indeed his\\nassistant, and strictly united by his habits to the poor, among whom he\\nought with cheerfulness to labor.\\nDeeply grieved am I, then, to see that in some of our Normal schools\\nwe have not only abandoned tiie idea of labor being a necessary part of\\nthe di.scipline of a Normal school, but that we are accustoming the pupil-\\nteachers to manners of dress and living far. far above those of the poor,\\namong whom they must afterward live, and with whom they ought\\ncontinually to associate. The life of a pupil-teacher in a Normal school\\nought to be such, that when he leaves it for his village school, he shall\\nfind his new position one of greater ease and comfort than the one he has\\nleft, and that he may feel no disgust for the laborious drudgery that must\\nfall to his lot in such a situation.\\nM. Prosper Dumont. in his treatise* on Normal Schools, published in\\nParis, in 1841, commends the Normal School of Vehrli, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2as an excellent\\nmodel for educating teachers for country schools. So profoundly was\\nhe impressed by the character of this practical educator, and the results\\nof his teaching and example,that he regards Vehrli as a beautiful exam-\\nple of the Normal teacher, the religious and well-informed laborer, ca-\\npable of demonstrating, in an unequivocal manner, to working men, that\\nenlightened and elevated sentiments are not incompatible with manual\\nlabor. All is here combined to contribute to the education of a country\\nteacher the example is always placed by the side of the precept all\\ninstruction is mutually connected, and illustrative of each other; the\\nmoral, mental, and physical development go along together. The whole\\natmosphere is pedagogic\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the pupil teacher imbibes the spirit of his vo-\\ncation at every pore. That which strikes most is the happy application\\nof the best principles of education, and the profoundly Christian spirit, with-\\nout ostentation, which characterizes every portion of the detail.\\nVehrli was still laboring in his vocation at Kruitzlingen in 1849, at the\\nage of sixty, with the same simplicity of life, the same singleness of pur-\\npose, and the same noble enthusiasm which marked the opening of his\\ncareer at Hofwyl.\\nWe add a Table exhibiting the allotment of time in each week of the\\nCourse of Instruction at Kruitzlingen, in the summer of 1836.\\nM. Dumont received the prize offered by the Academy of Moral and Political Sci-\\nences, in It SS, for the best discussion of the question: What degree of perfection\\nmay the estaljlishment of primary Normal Schools acijuire, considering them in heir re-\\nlation to the miral education of youth\\nThe title of the work is De I Education Populaire et des Ecoles Normales Pri-\\nmaixes. Paris, 1841.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "372\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT THTIROOVTA.\\no\\no\\nm\\na\\n8\\ng\\nH\\nS\\nJ\\nm\\nX\\na\\nS\\ns\\na\\nH\\nm\\n3\\nes\\nn\\nH\\na\\nH\\nU\\n2\\nH\\ng\\nK\\nZ\\nS\\nEd\\nb\\nH\\nts\\nH\\nH\\nQ\\nZ\\nP\\nZ\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00c2\u00ab1\\nJ\\nK\\nO\\nt=\\na\\nh\\no\\no\\nH\\nz\\nH\\nn\\nH\\nZ\\nZ\\nE\\nH\\npa\\nS\\nBS\\nH\\nn\\nH\\nA\\nH\\nB\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S\\nb\\n0.\\na\\nz\\ns\\nm\\nAttending divine service, sacred music, teaching in Sunday school.\\n6h\\nQ\\nH\\n03\\no\\n5\\nArt of teaching.\\nOut-door labor.\\nBreakfast.\\nProfane history.\\nManagement of land.\\nNatural history.\\nGrammar.\\nGrammar.\\nGeometry.\\nArithmetic.\\nArt of teaching.\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises.\\nDrawing.\\nWriting.\\nSupper.\\nGarden-work, house-\\nwork, conversa-\\ntion.\\nOut-door labor.\\nOut-door labor,\\nBreakfast,\\nBiblical history.\\nBiblical history,\\nGrammar,\\nArithmetic,\\nSinging,\\nGrammar,\\nGeometry,\\nNatural history,\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises.\\nWriting,\\nSinging,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeography,\\nReading,\\nGeometry,\\nSupper,\\nGarden-work, house-\\nwork, conversa-\\ntion.\\na\\nto\\nX\\nOut-door labor.\\nArt of teaching.\\nBreakfast,\\nNatural history.\\nProfane history.\\nGrammar,\\nGeometry,\\nSinging,\\nGrammar,\\nArithmetic,\\nNatural history.\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises.\\nSinging,\\nDrawing,\\nGeography,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeometry,\\nReading,\\nSupper,\\nGarden-work, house-\\nw\u00c2\u00bbrk, conversa-\\ntion.\\nQ\\nw\\n2\\nD\\nArt of teaching,\\nOut-door labor,\\nBreakfast,\\nProfane history.\\nManagement of land.\\nNatural history.\\nGrammar,\\nGrammar,\\nGeometry,\\nGeometry,\\nArt of teaching,\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises.\\nDrawing,\\nViolin,\\nArithmetic,\\nNatural history.\\nRepetitions,\\nArithmetic,\\nSupper,\\nGarden-work, house-\\nwork, conversa-\\ntion.\\nD\\nCO\\nS\\nOut-door labor.\\nOut-door labor.\\nBreakfast,\\nBiblical history.\\nBiblical history.\\nGrammar,\\nArithmetic,\\nSinging,\\nGrammar,\\nGeometry,\\nNatural history.\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises.\\nWriting,\\nDrawing,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeography,\\nReading,\\nGeometry,\\nSupper,\\nGarden-work, house-\\nwork, conversa-\\ntion,\\nQ\\nO\\ns\\nOut-door labor.\\nOut-door labor.\\nBreakfast,\\nNatural history,\\nProfane history,\\nGrammar,\\nGeometry,\\nSinging,\\nGrammar,\\nArithmetic,\\nNatural history.\\nDinner and gymnas-\\ntic exercises,\\nSinging,\\nWriting,\\nGeography,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeometry,\\nReading,\\nSupper,\\nGarden-work, house-\\nwork, conversa-\\ntion.\\nCO\\no\\n13 d T3 d -d 13 -d -d\\nc cccc ccc\\n^g.-Sg^-o^o^o. -Sg^g^g..\\n05\\no\\nX\\n5 to 7\\n7 to 8\\ne to9\\n9 to 10\\n10 to 11\\n11 to 12\\n12 to IJ\\n3 to 4\\n4 to 5\\n5 to 6\\n6 to 9", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL\\nKUSSNACHT, IN THE CANTON OF ZURICH.\\nThe Normal School at Kussnacht is about a league from the town of\\nZurich, and the buildings are prettily situated on the borders of the lake\\nof the same name. This institution vvixs re-organized in 1836. though the\\nmodifications made have been rather in the details than in the general\\nprinciples. It now consists of a school for teachers, a preparatory school\\nfor tliis seminary, and three pritnary model schools. It is intended to\\nsupply teachers for the ditferent grades of primary schools of the canton,\\nand during a portion of the year lectures are also delivered in the semi-\\nnary to the older teachers, who are assembled for the purpose in their\\nvacations.\\nThe superintendence and control of the Normal School is vested by the\\nlegislative council in the council of education, who appoint a committee of\\nsuperintendence from their own body. This committee visits the school\\nat least, once a month, attends its examinations, and, in general, inspects\\nits management. The executive power is delegated to a director, who\\nhas the immediate charge of the school, and arranges the plan of instruc-\\ntion, in subordination to the council of education. He examines the can-\\ndidates tor admission, inspects the clas.ses of the seminary, and of the\\nschools attached to it, and lectures in the school of repetition for the older\\nteachers. He is also responsible for the discipline, and reports half-yearly\\nthe state of the institution to the council of education. He is moreover\\npresent at the meeting of the committee of superintendence. There are\\nthree other teachers, besides a variable number of assistants. These\\nteachers in turn have charge of the pupils of the Normal School in and\\nout of school-liours. There are conferences of all the teachers, at which\\nthe director presides. The manners of the people and the purpose of the\\nseminary render the discipline of very trifling amount. The pupils of the\\nNormal School reside in the village of Kussnacht, but spend the greater\\npart ol their time at the school, under the direction of its masters. All\\nthe time devoted to study, recitation or lecture, and regular exercise, is\\npassed there.\\nTo be admitted as a candidate for the Normal School, a youth must be\\nsixteen years of age, and of suitable morals, intellectual, and physical\\nqualities for the profession of a teacher. He must have spent two years\\nin the higher division of primary instruction (called here secondary) in the\\nmodel school, or some equivalent one, or have passed through the\\npreparatory department of the Normal School, which gives a preference\\nto the candidate, other qualifications being equal. The examination of\\ncandidates takes place once a year, and in presence of the committee\\nof superintendence, or of a deputation from their body. The formal right\\nof admitting to the school is, however, vested alone in the council of ed-\\nucation. The subjects of examination are Bible history, speaking and\\nreading, grammar, the elements of history, geography and natural phi-\\nlosophy, arithmetic and the elements of geometry, writing, drawing, and\\nvocal music. The council of education fixes the number of pupils who\\nmay be admitted, and the most proficient of the candidates are selected.\\nThere are forty stipendiary places, ten of the value of one hundred and\\nsixty Swiss francs, (forty-eight dollars,) euid thirty of half that sum.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "374 NORMAr. SCHOOL AT KUSSNACHT.\\nNatives who are admitted all receive their instruction gratis. If there is\\nroom in the school, foreigners may be received, paying twelve dollars per\\nannum for their instruction. The number of pupils at the date of my\\nvisit, in the autumn of 1837, was one hundred and ten. The stipendia-\\nries are bound to serve as teachers in the canton two years a very mod-\\nerate return for the education received.\\nThere are two grades of courses in the Normal School, one of two\\nyears for pupils intending to become teachers in the lower primary\\nschools, the other of three years for the higher primary schools. The\\ncourses begin in April, and continue, with seven weeks of vacation,\\nthroughout the year. The subjects of instruction are Religious instruc-\\ntion, German, French, mathematics, history, geography, natural history\\nand philosophy, pedagogy, writing, drawing, and vocal and instrumental\\nmusic. French is only obligatory upon the students of the three years\\ncourse. Gymnastic exercises and swimming are regularly taught and\\npractised.\\nThere is, besides, a lecture of an hour and a half on the art of building,\\nonce a week, attended by all the students. Those who learn instrumental\\nmusic have lessons two hours and a half every week, and two hours oi\\nSunday are occupied with singing in concert. One of the teachers de-\\nvotes two extra hours every week to the assistance of some of the pupils\\nin their studies, or to repetitions.\\nAt the close of each year there is a public examination, and the pupils\\nare classed according to its resvilts. On leaving the institution, they are\\narranired in three grades the first, of those who have gone very satisfac-\\ntorily through the school, the second, of ihose who have passed satisfoc-\\ntorily and the third, of those who have not come up to the standard.\\nCertificates of the firsi two grades entitle their holders to compete for any\\nvacant primary school.\\nThe courses of practice begin in the second year, when the pupils ta ke\\nregular part in the exerci.?es of the schools attached to the seminary.\\nTliese are, first, two model schools for children from the ages of si.\\\\ to\\nnine, and from nine to twelve, at which latter age the legal obligation to\\nattend the school ceases. The third, called a secondary school, contains\\npupils from twelve to sixteen years of age. The system of instruction\\nused in the lower schools is attended Avith very striking results. The\\nlessons are not divided into distinct branches, studiously kept separate, as\\nin most elementary schools, but are connected, as far as possible, so as to\\nkeep the different subjects constantly before the mind. Thus, a lesson of\\ngeography is, at the same time, one of history, and incidentally of gram-\\nmar, natural history, of reading and writing, and so on through the circle\\nof elementary instruction. The Pestalozzian lessons on form are made\\nthe basis of writing, and with good success. The lowest class is taught\\nto speak correctly, and to spell by the phonic method, to divide words into\\nsyllables, and thus to count. To number the lessons. To make forms\\nand combine them, and thus to write, and through writing to read. The\\nsecond passes to practical grammar, continues its reading and writing,\\nthe lessons in which are made exercises of natural history and grammar.\\nReading and speaking are combined to produce accuracy in the latter,\\nwhich is a difficulty where the language has been corrupted into a dia-\\nlect, as the German has in northern Switzerland. Movable letters are\\nused to give exercises in spelling and reading. The plan of the Pesta-\\nlozzian exercises in grammar is followed, and when the pupils have\\nlearned to write, a whole class, or even two classes, may be kept em-\\nployed intellectually, as well as mechanically, by one teacher. In read-\\ning, the understanding of every thing read is insisted upon, and the class-\\nbooks are graduated accordingly. I never saw more intelligence and\\nreadiness displayed by children than in all these exercises it affords a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL AT KUSSNACHT g^g\\nBtrong contrast to the dullness of schools in which they are taught me-\\nchanically. The same principles are carried into the upper classes, and\\nare transplanted into the schools by the young teachers, who act here as\\nassistants. The examination of the second school in Bible history, with\\nits connected geography and grammar lessons in composition, with spe-\\ncial reference to orthography and to the hand-writing; and the music les-\\nson, at all of which the director was so kind as to enable me to be present,\\nwere highly creditable.\\nThere are three classes in each of these schools, and the pupils of the\\nNormal Seminary practice as assistant teachers in them at certain periods\\nthe director also gives lessons, which the pupils of the seminary repeat in\\nhis presence.\\nIn tile highest, or secondary school, the elementary courses are ex-\\ntended, and mathematics and French are added.\\nThe pupils of the preparatory department of the seminary spend two\\nyears in teaching in the two model schools, and in receiving instruction in\\nthe secondary school under the special charge of the director of the\\nseminary. This establishment has iurnished, during three years of full\\nactivity, two hundred teachers to the cantonal primary schools. These\\nyoung teachers replace the older ones, who are found by the courses of\\nrepetition not able to come up to the present state of instruction, and who\\nreceive a retiring pension. The schools must thus be rapidly regener-\\nated throughout the canton, and the education of the people raised to the\\nstandard of their wants as republicans.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "376\\nNORMAL SEMINAKV AT ZURICH.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SEMINARY AT ZURICH.\\n377\\n^b\\no\\nQ.\\nu S\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0A\\nii rt\\no o\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0\u00c2\u00a7.8\\ni\\nbo\\nu I.\\nS 2 c,\\nS o s\\n.s\u00c2\u00ab\\no c._\\nS 1\\nQ,._\\nX J2\\n1-0 4!\\n0.2\\nN SIS\\n2 c c s\\nc.2 i:\\n2 5\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S S C ctf\\nS^ S\\no w g\\nc M 2\\na yj\\n;-5.2.\\ni i 2 g,\\n-a S-~\\nt\u00c2\u00ab (U\\n2 a- S c\\nS\\no S o\\nO _ E c\\nK ov2-=\u00c2\u00bbs\\nS c m\\na) S-^ c\\nrt fifl\\nH 2\\nc\\n0) O c\\n0)-- o S\\nJ- fc- 1- o\\nS K c\\n2 m IXl\\nO .S\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2;r O.S\\nE S o\\n\u00c2\u00a3S\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a03.\\nS ori\\nj\\n2 c i\\nlet: a^\\n3 S\\no a a Sr\\nii.2 5 S\\n2 0.-0 i\\n.2 2\\n_C Oi (U g\\nS g.2 \u00c2\u00a3.2\\n*jCqdQx?03\u00c2\u00a3)\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2sofB^qj\\no\\nCJ o\\nn\\nX 2\\nri\\nH\\noi 2\\nw-\\nc g\\nC 3 rt f^\\nb\\nrt g\\n5 g 2\\no o\\nc cs\\no o\\n-c\\n2 u\\n-3 E\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a05 5\\nQ o g\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2JuIMBJQ", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "378\\nNORMAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE.\\nQ\\neS\\n7 to\\nCO\\ne\u00c2\u00bb\\nil\\nJ3 a)\\nrf CO\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0A CO\\nm bo\\n00\\nH-\u00c2\u00ab\\nf^J\\n.2 c\\ni\\n2\\ns-\\ns 5\\nS\\nd 1\\no\\nO\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2i\\n\u00c2\u00ab(N\\n4)\\n.c\\n(N .2\\nc^\\n;2\\nD.\\nN i: \u00c2\u00bbr i\\nu\\no\\nOJ O J=\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a00\\nt\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1\\nOJ\\nX H a- -co\\n41\\ni\\nex\\no\\nIS\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0z; CO\\ncf g\\n05\\nbO S\\nt\u00c2\u00ab S\\nd O C3 OJ\\ne\\nct!\\no\\nS\\nV\\nCO\\n.E 3\\na. a. E CO\\ng\\ncn\\n0011, 03 OJ\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\nc\\ne\\nu\\nCO\\nSP\\n(NO\\nCO\\no\\nO\\nQ\\nm\\nti\\n4)\\no.ti\\n1.3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a05\\nrawing, 3 me\\narithmetic, 1,\\nrawing, 3 rea\\n2,\\neading, 3,\\neography, 1, 2\\ninging, 1, 2,\\na\\nbo\\nS\\nP\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2J\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2a\\nOS\\no\\nQ Q Bh OO)\\nm\\nfa\\nO\\nH\\nO\\nm\\nQ\\n3\\n1\\n-co\\nCO\\nCO\\ncs\\no\\no\\no\\nz\\nS\\no\\ncs\\na\\nJ3\\nE J3\\nJ3 C\\nii-\\n6 8\\nrammar,\\nymnastic\\nook-keep\\neading, 1\\neometry,\\ninging, 1\\n60\\nJ\\nR\\nU\\nH\\n2\\nH\\nH\u00c2\u00abJ\\nO\\nomwo 73\\n1\\nB\\nm\\nH\\nbo\\nO\\nc3\\na\\n.5\\nO\\no\\nm\\nu\\n5\\na\\no\\nt*.\\n(N\\n0)\\nQ\\nm\\nM\\no\\n.2\\nV*\\nn\\no\\nw\\nrawing, 1, 2\\n3,\\nrawing, 1, 2,\\neography, 1,\\neography, 3,\\ninging, 3,\\na\\n13\\no\\nt^\\ns\\nCS\\no\\nm\\nCO\\n11\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a21\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2c\\nO\\nJ^\\nQ Q OaJ\\nH\\n2\\n-3\\n1\\ns\\n-Bl\\nbe\\no o\\njT\\nn\\n?f\\nbO\\na\\nJ-s\\no\\nCO ef\\ntzi\\nc i:\\n\u00c2\u00ab(_ C9\\na.\\n(N rt\\nQ\\nO\\ns\\nt-. bo\\n2-\\nea\\nS\\no\\ncd v\\n\u00c2\u00b0.5\\ng e\\no lu-C\\n.2i5\\n1 i\\ni i 2\\nA C\\nj3\\nu J=\\no\\nS\\ncu\\nH\\nCE-\\nP3\\n000\\nin\\nei\\nB\\n00\\n5\u00c2\u00bb\\no\\nCJ fO us t-\\nO\\nI\\nX", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE.\\n379\\n1^\\nC^ S 4J J2\\no\\ns s\\noo\\nDS-j;\\nC\\nk -c i;\\nO O J)\\nS2 I\\nO (U\\nE bb\\nra o\\n1.^ a;\\nCO\\n500\\nc E c\\nI s s\\ne-bo s\\n0)^\\nis\\n\u00c2\u00ab-a M\\nD.\\na.\\nbc 3 la\\nc\\nc\\n0-^03\\n1m\\ns\\nz\\nQ\\n;-r=\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0\u00e2\u0080\u0094St\\n!S s-g\\no\\nO\\n0- S\\n5. a, 5\\no\\no\\nbO\\ns\\ng s\\nE rt\\nc c\\n.5 c S o c\\ng 3 c 3^\\n00 QO BJ\\n?;.2 g.-a\u00c2\u00a7-\u00c2\u00a3.\\np.bo c 3 :s 3\\n6\\nI i\\nbc^ ri 2\\nbt) Ji bn\\nc E c\\n0) i_\\n:i\\nbO\u00e2\u0080\u0094 bn\\nM\\nC bO\\nOXCO\\n_ J3\\no o\\nO J=\\nZ2\\no\u00c2\u00a7\\nEC!\\nbo\\nC j3\\n.ii O\\no\\nJ:\\n^s\\nrt bo\\nS 3\\n3\\n5J O\\nC^ 3", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "S80\\nNORMAL SEMINARY AT LUCERN.\\no\\no\\nfa\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00baJ\\nB\\nZ\\n9\\nb:\\nM\\nH\\ni\\nz\\nm\\no\\nb\\nkj\\nH\\ns\\na\\nij\\nS\\nd:\\no\\nz\\nEd\\nH\\na\\nc\u00c2\u00a3\\n\\\\j\\no\\no\\nb:\\n8\\nH\\nIS\\ni-\\nZ\\nQ\\na\\nu\\na\\na\\na\\nCO\\n3d course.\\nGeometry.\\n2 c\\n\u00c2\u00a7\u00e2\u0096\u00a02\\nTog\\na) S\\n111\\nbb\\ntiO\\n5.5\\n2d and 3d\\ncoarse.\\nGeometry.\\nNatural\\nphilosophy\\nor history.\\nGymnastics.\\n1st and 2d\\ncourse,\\nReligious\\ninstruction,\\ns\\n1\\n1st course.\\nHistory,\\nArithmetic,\\nGeography,\\nIx\\na\\ni\\ns\\no\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse.\\nArithmetic,\\nSchool\\ndiscipline,\\nGeography,\\nm\\n1st course.\\nArt of teach-\\ning,\\nArithmetic,\\nGymnastics,\\nO\\n3d course.\\nWriting,\\nu\\nbe O\\nCO\\nc\\na. aj\\no-S\\nand 3d\\nrse,\\ning,\\nGymnastics,\\n1st and 2d\\ncourse.\\nReligious\\ninstruction.\\nbB\\na\\ns\\no\\nto\\n!o\\nII\\no\\nU\\nbo\\nC\\n1st, 2d,\\ncou\\nDraw\\nGeography,\\nQ\\nCO\\nZ\\nQ\\nW\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse,\\nComposi-\\ntion,\\ni\\nQ\\nO\\nbo\\nC\\nbb\\nB\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse,\\nGeography,\\n1st course.\\nGeometry,\\na\\no\\naT\\n3\\nO\\nQ\\n3d course,\\nWriting,\\n3 o\\nc -x:\\naj i\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2a\\nCO\\nc\\nM\\naT o\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse.\\nArithmetic,\\nNatural\\nphilosophy.\\nGymnastics,\\n1st and 2d\\ncourse.\\nReligious\\ninstruction,\\ns\\ns\\n2\\nO\\ni\\n3\\no\\nu\\ns\\no\\nbo\\nC\\nbb\\nc\\n1st course.\\nHistory,\\nWriting,\\nGeography,\\nQ\\nZ\\nO\\ns\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse.\\nGrammar\\nand school\\n\u00c2\u00ab.2\\nS\\na\\nbb\\nc\\nto\\n2d and 3d\\ncourse.\\nGeometry,\\nNatural\\nphilosophy\\nor history.\\nGeography,\\naT .2\\n-2\\nGrammar\\nand school\\ndiscipline.\\n1st course.\\nArt of teach-\\ning,\\nArithmetic,\\nGymnastics,\\nTO\\nBj\\nD\\nO\\ns\\n2S,\\n^2\\nQ.\\nHN O\\n05\\no\\n2\\no\\nof\\n2\\nJ past I to\\n3,\\n3 to 4,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "FRANCE.\\nBefore 1789, religious zeal, the spirit of association, the desire of living\\nhonorably in the recollection of mankind as the founder of pious or learned\\ninstitutions, individual enterprise, and to some extent government endow-\\nment, had covered France with establishments of higher education, and\\nwith men consecrated to their service. This was particularly true with\\nregard to schools for classical education, and the instruction generally of\\nall but the poorer classes of society. In grammar schools and colleges,\\nFrance was as well provided in 1789, as in 1849. In the upbreak and\\noverthrow of government and society, which took place between 1789 and\\n1794, and which was, in no small measure, the result of the neglected edu-\\ncation of the great mass of the people, these public endowments, many of\\nwhich had existed for centuries, were destroyed, and these religious and\\nlay congregations, such as the Benedictines. Jesuits, Oratorians. Doctrin-\\naires, Lazaristes, and Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, were abolished,\\ntheir property confiscated, and most of them were never again re-estab-\\nlished. From 1791 to 1794, by various ordinances of the Convention, a\\nsystem of public schools was projected, in which primary education was to\\nbe free to all at the expense of the State. Out of these ordinances sprung\\nthe first Normal School in France, and the Polytechnic School in 1794.\\nBut the promise of good primary schools was not realized, and the Nor-\\nmal School was abolished in the following year. In 1802 the promise was\\nrenewed in a new ordinance, but amid the din of arms, the peculiar fruits\\noi peace could not ripen. In 1808 Napoleon organized the Imperial Uni-\\nversity, embracing under that designation the governmental control of\\nall the educational institutions of France, primary, secondary, and supe-\\nrior. In one of his decrees, primary instruction (intended for the masses\\nof society) was limited to reading, writing and arithmetic, and the legal\\nauthorities were enjoined to watch that the teachers did not carry tlieir\\ninstructions beyond these limits. Under the organization established by\\nNapoleon, and with views of primary education but little expanded be-\\nyond the imperial ordinance referred to, and with even these limited views\\nunrealized, the gov^ernment continued to administer the system of public\\neducation till the Revolution of 1830. In the mean time the wants of a\\nmore generous and complete system of primary schools had been lelt", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "382\\nPRIMARY INSTRUfeTION IN FRANCE.\\nthroughout France, and one of the firfit steps of the new government was\\nto supply this want, and most considerately and thoroughly was the work\\naccomplished. Not only were steps taken to increase the number and\\nefficiency of the schools already established, by additional apprbpriations\\nfor their support, but the Department of Public Instruction was re-organ-\\nized. Normal Schools for the education of Teachers were multiplied,\\nand made effective, and the experience of the best educated states in\\nEurope was consulted in reference to the reconstruction of the whole\\nsystem.\\nThere is nothing in the history ot modern civilization more truly sub-\\nlime than the establishment of the present Law of Primary Instruction in\\nFrance. As has been justly remarked by an English writer, Few na-\\ntions ever suffered more bitter humiliation than the Prussians and French\\nmutually inflicted during the earlier years of the present century; and\\nit was supposed that feelings of exasperation and national antipathy\\nthus engendered by the force of circumstances, were ready, on the match\\nbeing applied, to burst forth in terrible explosion. At the very time,\\nhowever, when the elements of mischief were believed to be most active\\nin the breasts of a people jealous of their honor, and peculiarly sensitive\\nto insult, the French ministry, with the consent of the King and Cham-\\nbers, send one of their ablest and wisest citizens, not to hurl defiance or\\ndemand restitution, but to take lessons in the art of training youth to\\nknowledge and virtue, and that too in the capital of the very nation whose\\ntroops, sixteen years before, had, on a less peaceful mission, bivouacked\\nin the streets of Paris, and planted their victorious cannon at the passages\\nof her bridges. There are not many facts in the past history of mankind\\nmore cheering than this not many traits of national character more mag-\\nnanimous, or indicating more strikingly the progress of reason, and the\\ncoming of that time when the intercourse between nations will consist not\\nin wars and angry protocols, but in a mutual interchange of good offices.\\nM. Victor Cousin, one of the most profound and popular writers of the\\nage, in one department of literature, who was sent on this peaceful mis-\\nsion in the summer of 1831, submitted in the course of the year to his\\ngovernment, a Report on the coyidition of Public Instruction in Germa-\\nny, and particularly in Pncssia. This able document was published,\\nand in defiance of national self-love, and the strongest national antipathies,\\nit carried conviction throughout France. It demonstrated to the govern-\\nment and the people the immense superiority of all the German States,\\neven the most insignificant duchy, over any and every department of\\nFrance, in all that concerned inslitutionsof primary and secondary educa-\\ntion. The following extracts will indicate the conclusions to which\\nCousin arrives in reference to the educational wants of his own country.\\nAfter pronouncing the .school law of Prussia the most comprehensive\\nand perfect legislative measure regarding primary instruction with\\nwhich he was acquainted, he thus addresses himself to the minister:\\nWithout question, in the present state of things, a law concerning primary", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\n383\\ninstruction is indispensable in France the question is, how to produce a good\\none, in a conn;rv where there is a total absence of all precedent and all experi-\\nence in so grave a matter. The education of the people has hitherto been so\\nn glecied, so few trials have been made, or those trials have succeeded so ill.\\nthat we are entirely without those universally leceived notions, those j redilec-\\ntions rooted in the habits and the mind of a nation, which are the conditions and\\nthe bases of all good legislation. I wish, then, for a law and at the same time\\nI dread it for 1 tremble lest we should plunge into visionary and impracticable\\nprojects again, without attending to whai actually exists.\\nI he idea of compelling parents to send their children to school is perhaps not\\nsufficiently diffused through the nation to justity the experiment of making it\\nlaw; but eveiybody agrees in legaiding the establishment of a school in every\\ncommune as necessary. It is also willingly conceded that the maintenance of\\nthis school must rest with ihe commune always provided that, in caseof ii:al il-\\nity through poverty, the commune shall apply to the departmert, and the depart-\\nment to the state. This point may be assumed as universally admitted, and\\nmay theiefore become law.\\nYou aie likewise aware that many of the councils of departments have felt\\nthe necessity of securing a supply of schoolmasters, and a more complete ecu-\\ncation for them and have, with this view, established primary iSormal Schools\\nin their departments Indeed, they have often shown rather prodigality thnn\\nparsimony on this head. This, too, is a most valuable and encouragii.g indica-\\ntion and a law ordaining the establishment of a primary Normal School in\\neach department, as well as a primary school in each ccmtvnine, would do\\nlittle more than confirm and generalize what is now actually doing in alniust\\nall parts of the country. Of course this primary Normal J^chool must be more\\nor less considerable according to the resources of each department.\\nHere we have already two most important points on which the country is\\nalmost unanimously agreed. You have also, without doubt been struck by the\\npetitions of a number of towns, great and small, for the establishment of schools\\nof a class rather higher than the common primary schools; such as though\\nstill inferior in classical and scientific studies to our royal and comn)unal cl-\\nleges might be more particularly adapted to give that kind of generally usetul\\nknowledge indispensable to the large ]iortion of the population uhich is not in-\\ntended for the learned professions, but which yet needs more extended and vaiied\\nacquirements than the class of day-laborers and artisans. uch petitions are\\nalmost universal. Several municipal councils have voted considerable funds\\nfor the purpose, and have applied to us for the necessary auihoiity, foi- advice\\nand assistance. It is impossible not to regard this as the symptom of a real\\nwant, the indication of a serious deficiency in our system of public instruction.\\nYou are sufficiently acquainted with my zeal for classical and scientific\\nstudies; not only do I think that we must keep up to the plan of study prescribed\\nin our coLleg ^s, and particulaily the philological part of that plan, but 1 think we\\nought to raise and extend it, an 1 thus, while we maintain our incontestalile\\nsuperiority in the physical and mathematical sciences, endeavor to rival Ger-\\nmany in the solidify of our classical learning.\\nLet our royal colleges then, and even a great proportion of our communal col-\\nleges continue to lead the youth of France into this sanctuary; they will merit\\nthe thanks of their country. But can the whole population eiiler learned\\nschools 1 or, indeed, is it to be wished that it should 1 Primary instruction with\\nus, however, is but meager; between that and the colleges there is nothing; -^o\\nthat a tradesman, even in the lower ranks of the middle classes, who has the\\nhonorable wish of giving his sons a good education, has no resource but to send\\nthem to the college. Two great evils are the consequence. In general, these\\nboys, who know that they are not destined to any very distinguished career, go\\nthrough their studies in a negligent manner; they never get beyond mediocrity\\nand when, at about eighteen, they go back to the habits and the business of their\\nfathers, as there is nothing in their ordinary life to recall or to keep up their\\nstudies, a few years obliterate every trace of the little classical learning they\\nacquired. On the other hand, these young men often contract tastes and ac-\\nquaintances at coll-gc which render it difficult, nay, almost impossible,- for ihrm\\nto return to the humble way of life to which they were born hence a race of\\nmen restless, discontented with their position, with others, and with them-\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2elves enemies of a slate of society in which ihey feel themselves out of their", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "!S4:\\nPRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nplace and with some acquirements, some real or imagined talent, and unbri-\\ndled ambition, ready to rush into any career el servility or of revolt. The ques-\\ntion then is, whether we are pre|)ared to make ourselves res|jonsible to the state\\nand society lor training up such a race of malcontents Unquestionahly, as I\\nshall ta-ke occasion to say elsewhere, a certain number of exhibitions (bourses\\nougfht to be given to poor boys who evince remarkable aptness this is a sacred\\nduty we owe to talent a duty which must be fulfilled, even at the risk of being\\nsometimes mistaken. These boys, chosen for the promise they give, go through\\ntheir stuJies well and thoroughly, and on leaving school experience the same\\nassi tance they received on entering. Thus they are enabled, at a later period\\nof life, to display their talents in the learned and liberal professions which are\\nopen to them, to the advantage of the state to which they owe iheir education.\\nAs, however, it is impossible for any government to find employment for every\\nbody, it ought not to furnish facilities for every body to quit the track in which\\nhis fathers have trod. Ouv colleges oaghi. without doubt, to remain ojen to all\\nwho can pay the expense of them but we ought by no means to Ibrce the lower\\nclasses into them; yet this is the inevitable eflfect of having no intermediate\\nestablishments between the primary schools and the colltges. CTcrmany and\\nPrussia more especially, are rich in establishments of this kind. You per-\\nceive that 1 allule to the schools called tradesmen s or burghers schools, or\\nschools for the middle classes, {Bnrgerschid n,) ecuks bourgeoises, a name which\\nit is perhaps impossible to transplant into France, but which is accurate and\\nexpressive, as contradistinguishing them from the learned schools, [Gel hHes-\\nckukn,) called in Germany gymnasia, and in France colleges, (in England,\\ngrammar-schools, a name, too, honorable to the class for whose especial use\\nand benefit they are provided honorable to those of a lower class, who by fre-\\nquenting them can rise to a level with that above them. The burgher schools\\nform the higher step of primary instruction of which the elementary schools are\\nthe lower step. Thus there are but two steps or gradations: lo. Elementary\\nschools, the common basis of all popular instruction in town and country 2\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBurgher schools, which, in towns of some size and containing a middle class,\\nfurnish an education sufficiently extensive and liberal to nil who do not intend\\nto enter the learned professions. The Prussian law, which fixes a minimum\\nof instruction for the elementary schools, likewise fixes a minimum of insttuc-\\ntion for the burgher schools; and there are two kinds of examination, exttemely\\ndistinct, for obtaining the brevet of primary teacher for these two grada-\\ntions. The elementary instruction must be uniform and invariable, for the\\nprimary schools represent the body of the nation, and are destined tonouiish\\nand to strengthen the national unity; and. generally speaking, it is not expedi-\\nent that the limit fixed by the law.for elementary instruction should be exceeded\\nbut this is not the case with the burgher schools, for these are designed for a\\nclass among whom a great many shades and diversities exist, the middle class.\\nIt is therefore natural and reasonable that it should be susceptible of extension\\nand elevation, in proportion to the importance ot the town, and the character of\\nthe population for whom it is destined. In Prussia this class of schools has,\\naccordingly, very different gradations, from the minimum fixed by the law, to\\nthat point where it becomes closely allied with the gymnasium, properly so\\ncalled. At this point it sometimes takes the name of Progymnasium or pre-\\nparatory gvmnnsia, in which classical and scientific instruction stops short\\nwithin certain limits, but in which the middle or trading class may obtain a\\ntruly liberal education. In general, the German burgher schools, which are a\\nlittle inferior to ourcnnmunal colleges in classical and scientific studies, are in-\\ncomparably superior to them in religious instruction, geography, history, modern\\nlanguages, music, drawing, and nadonal literature.\\nIn my opinion, it is of the highest importance to create in France, under one\\nname or another, burgher schools, or schools for the middle classes, which give\\na very varied education and to convert a certain number of our communal\\ncolleses into schools of that description. I regard this as an afl^air of state.\\nThere is a cry raised fiom one end of France to the other, demanding on be-\\nhalf of three-fourths of the population, establishments which may fill the middle\\nground between the simple elementary schools and the colleges. The demands\\nare urgent and almost unanimou.s.\\nThe most difficult point in law on primary instruction is the determinatiou\\nwhat are the authorities to be employed. Here also let us consult facts. Thd", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nS85\\nFrench administration is the glory and the masterwork of the imperial govern-\\nment. The organization of France in viaires and prefectures, wiih municipal\\nand departmenial councils, is the foundation of government and of social order.\\nI his foundation has stood firm amidst so much ruin, that prudence and policy\\nseem to point lo it as the best and safest prop. Moreover, this organization\\nhas just been reformed and vivified by rendering the municipal and depart-\\nmental councils elective and popular. Thus the French administration unites\\nall that we want, activity and popularity. The administration, then, is what\\nyou must call to your aid. Recollect, also, that it is these local councils that\\npay, and that you can not lairly expect much from them unless they have a\\nlarge share in the disbursement of the money they have voted. These councils\\nare chosenout of the body of the people, and return to it again; they are inces-\\nsantly in contact with the people; they are the people legally represented, as the\\nmaires and the prefects are these councils embodied, if I may so say. in one per-\\nson for the sake of activity and despatch. I regard, then, as another incontest-\\nable point, the necessary intervention of the municipal and departmental coun-\\ncils in the management of public instruction. As there ought lo he a school in\\nevery commun so there ought to be for every communal school a special com-\\nmittee of superintendence, which ought to be formed out of the municipal coun-\\ncil, and presided over by the maire. I shall perhaps be told, that men who are\\nfit to conduct the business of the commune are not fit to superintend the communal\\nschool. I deny it: nothing is wanted lor this superintendence but zeal, and\\nfathers of families can not want zeal where their dearest interests are concerned.\\nIn Prussia no difficulty is found in this matter, and every parish-school has its\\nSchutvorsLand, in great part elective. Over the heads of these local committees\\nthere ought to be a central committee in the chief town of each department,\\nchosen out of the council of the department, and presided over by the prefect.\\nThe committee of each comnmne would correspond with the committee of the\\ndepartment; that is to say, in short, the rnaire, with the prefect. This corres-\\npondence would stimulate the zeal of both committees. By it, the departmental\\ncommittee would know what is the annual supply of schoolmasters required for\\nthe whole department, and consequently, the number of masters the Normal\\nSchool of the department ought to furnish, and consequently, the number of\\npupils it ought to admit. It would have incessantly to urge on the zeal of the\\nlocal committees in establishing and improving schools, for the sake of provi-\\nding as well as possible lor the pupils it sends out of its Normal School. Nothing\\ncan be more simple than this organization. It is, applied to primary instruc-\\ntion, what takes place in the ordinary administration I mean, the combined\\naction of the municipal councils and the departmental councils, of the maires\\nand the prefects.\\nAfter the administrative authorities, it is unquestionably the clergy who\\nought to occupy the most important place in the business of popular education.\\nThe rational middle course is to put the cure or the pastor, i. e. the Catholic\\nand the Protestant clergyman and if need be both, on every communal com-\\nmittee and the highest dignitary of the church in each department, on the\\ndepartmental committee. We must neither deliver over our committees into\\nthe hands of the cleigy, nor exclude them we must admit them, because they\\nhave a right to be there, and to represent the religion of the country. The\\nmen of good sense, good manners, and of consideration in their neighborhood,\\nof whom these committees ought to be, and will be, composed, will gradually\\ngain ascendancy over their ecclesiastical colleagues, by treating them with\\nthe respect due to their sacred functions. We must have the clergy; we must\\nneglect nothing to bring them into the path toward which every thing urges\\nthem to turn both their obvious interest, and their sacred calling, and the\\nancient services which their order rendered to the cause of civilization in\\nEurope. But if we wish to have the clergy allied with us in the work of popu-\\nlar instruction, that instruction must not be stripped of morality and religion\\nfor then indeed it would become the duty of the clergy to oppose it, and they\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2would have the sympathy of all virtuoiis men, of all good fathers of families,\\nand even of the mass ol the people, on their side. Thank God, you are too\\nenlightened a statesman to think that true popular instruction can exist without\\nmoral education, popular morality without religion, or popular religion without\\na church.\\nThe proceedings of the communal and departmental committees, the maires,\\n25", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "386 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nsub-prefects and prefects, ought, like all the other parts of the administration, to\\nrefer to one common center, from which a vigorous impulse and a supreme\\nguidance may emanate, ami upon whom all the responsibility before ihe cham-\\nbers may rest. This center, in France, as in Prussia, is, the ministry and coun-\\ncil of public instruction. This is not only according to law, but to nature and\\nreason. It is perfectly consistent to leave primary instruction to the minister\\nwho has all the rest of public instruction, as well as ecclesiastical affairs, in\\nhis hands; that is to say, the two things with which the education of the people\\nis the most intimately connected. Has any evil resulted from the present order\\nof things Far from it: every body is agreed that the minister and his council\\nhave done a great deal for primary instruction since the revolution of July.\\nAs you would have been able to elTect nothing without the municipal and de-\\npartmental councils, the malreR and prefects, so those authorities acknowledge\\nthat they could have done little or nothing without your co-operation and\\ndirection. It is you who excited their zeal, who supported and encouraged\\nthem; you who, as the enlightened dispenser of the funds placed in your hands\\nby the two chambers, have given vigor to public instruction by giving propor-\\ntionate aid to necessitous places.\\nI strongly recommend the creation of a special inspector of primary instruc-\\ntion for each department. Our academical inspectors should be reserved for\\nschools of the second class, which will suffice, and more than suffice, to employ\\nall their powers, and all their diligence. Your natural agents and correspond-\\nents for primary instruction are the prefects, who would preside over the de-\\npartmental committees, and to whom the correspondence of maires and com-\\nmunal committees, as well as the report of the departmental inspector, would\\nbe addressed.\\nThe prefects would correspond officially with you, as they have hitherto done\\nextra-officially and there would be a councilor in the central council of public\\ninstruction, specially charged with the reports to be made on that portion of the\\nbusiness, as in fact there is now. This machinery is very simple, and would\\nproduce quick results being less complex, it would work more freely. The\\nonly thing in which I would employ agents taken from the body of teachers\\nwould be, the commission of examination appointed for granting schoolmasters\\nbrevets. No one disputes that professors have peculiar qualifications, and all\\nthe necessary impartiality, for that office. I should wish, then, that the exam-\\nination-commission should be appointed by you, and composed of masters or\\nprofessors of the royal or the communal colle ;rs of the department; adding, for\\nthe religious part, a clergyman proposed by the bishop.\\nAs to private teachers, and what people are pleased to call liberty of primary\\ntuition, we must neither oppose it, nor reckon upon it. There are branches of\\nthe public service which must be secured against all casualties by the state, and\\nin the first rank of these is primary instruction. It is the bounden duty of gov-\\nernment to guarantee it against all caprices of public opinion, and against the\\nvariable and uncertain calculations of those who would engage in it as a means\\nof subsistence. On this principle are founded our primary Normal Schools in\\neach department, bound to furnish annually the average number of schoolmas-\\nters required by the department. We must rely exclusively on these Normal\\nSchools for the regular supply of communal teachers.\\nBut if, in the face of our primary communal schools, there are persons who,\\nwithout having passed through the Normal Schools, choose to establish schools\\nat their own risk and peril, it is obvious that they ought not only to be tolerated,\\nbut encouraged; just as we rejoice that private institutions and boarding-\\nschools should spring up beside our royal and communal colleges. This compe-\\ntition can not be otherwise than useful, in every point of view. If the private\\nschools prosper, so much the better; they are at f\\\\ill liberty to try all sorts of\\nnew methods, and to make experiments in teaching, which, on such a scale,\\ncan not be very perilous. At all events, there are our Normal Schools. Thus\\nall interests are reconciled; the duties of the state, and the rights of individuals\\nthe claims of experience, and those of innovation. Whoever wishes to set up a\\nprivate school must be subject lo only two conditions, from which no school,\\npublic or private, can on any pretext be exempt, the brevet of capacity, given\\nby the commission of examination, and the supervision of the committee of the\\ncommune and of the inspector of the department.\\nAll these measures, on which I will not enlarge, are more or less founded on", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 387\\nexisting facts they have the sanction of experience it would be simply ad-\\nvantageous to add that of law. On all the points concerning which the law is\\nsilent, experiments might be made. Among these experiments some would\\nprobably be successful when sufficiently long practice had confirmed them,\\nthey might be inserted in a new law or ordonnances and instructions, maturely\\nweighed by the royal council, would convert them into general and official\\nmeasures. Nothing must pass into a law which has not the warranty of suc-\\ncess. Laws are not to be perilous experiments on society; they ought simply\\nto sum up and to generalize the lessons of experience.\\nOn the experience of Prussia as a basis, a great and comprehensive\\nmeasure of elementary education for France was framed by M. Guizot.\\nThe bill was reported in 1833. In introducing the measure to the con-\\nsideration of the Chamber of Deputies, M. Guizot made a speech as\\nremarkable for its eloquence as for its large and liberal views of popular\\neducation, as will be indicated by the following passages:\\nIn framing this bill, it is experience, and experience alone, that we have\\ntaken for our guide. The principles and practices recommended have been\\nsupplied to us by facts. There is not one part of the mechanism which has not\\nbeen worked successfully. We conceive that, on the subject of the education\\nof the people, our business is rather to methodize and improve what exists, than\\nto destroy for the purpose of inventing and renewing upon the faith of dangerous\\ntheories. It is by laboring incessantly on these maxims, that the Administra-\\ntion has been enabled to communicate a fiira and steady movement to this im-\\nportant branch of the public service so much so, that we take leave to say,\\nthat more has been done for primary education during the last two years, (1831,\\n1832,) and by the Government of July, than during the forty years preceding,\\nby all the former Governments. The first Revolution was lavish of promises,\\nwithout troubling itself about the performance. The Imperial Government ex-\\nhausted itself in efforts to regenerate the higher instruction, called secondary;\\nbut did nothing for that of the people. The restored Dynasty, up to 1828, ex-\\npended no more than 50,000 francs annually upon primary instruction. The\\nMinistry of 1828 obtained from the Chamber a grant of 300,000 francs. Since\\nthe Revolution of July, 1830, a million has been voted annually that is, more\\nin two years than the Restoration in fifteen. Those are the means, and here are\\nthe results. All of you are aware that primary instruction depends altogether\\non the corresponding Normal Schools. The prosperity of these establishments\\nis the measure oi Us progress. The Imperial Government, which first pronounc-\\ned with effect the words, Normal Schools, left us a legacy of one. The Restor-\\nation added five or six. Those, of which some were in their infancy, we have\\ngreatly improved within the last two years, and have, at the same time, estab-\\nlished thirty new ones twenty of which are in full operation, forming in each\\ndepartment a vast focus of light, scattering its rays in all directions among the\\npeople.\\nThe Bill recognized two degrees of primary instruction, viz. elementa-\\nry and superior, in speaking of which M. Guizot remarks:\\nThe first degree of instruction should be common to the country and the\\ntowns it should be met with in the humblest borough, as well as in the largest\\ncity, wherever a human being is to be found within our land of France. By\\nthe teaching of reading, writing, and accounts, it provides for the most essential\\nwants of life by that of the legal system of weights and measures, and of the\\nFrench language, it implants, enlarges, and spreads every where the spirit and\\nunity of the French nationality finally, by moral and religious instruction, it\\nprovides for another class of wants quite as real as the others, and which Prov-\\nidence has placed in the hearts of the poorest, as well as of the richest, in this\\nworld, for upholding the dignity of human life and the protection of social order.\\nThe first degree of instruction is exlen.sive enough to make a man of him who\\nwill receive it, and is, at the same time, sufficiently limited to be every where\\nrealized. It is the strict debt of the country toward all its children,\\nBut the law is so framed, that by higher elementary schools, primary in-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "388 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nstruction can be so developed, so varied, as to satisfy the waDts of those profes-\\nsions which, though not scientific, yet require to be acquainted wiih the ele-\\nments of science, as they apply it every day in the office, the workshop, and\\nfield.\\nOn the plan of supervision of schools, which embraced both local and\\nstate inspection, the Minister remarks\\nIn the first place, this operation demands, at cerlain times of the year, much\\nmore time, application, and patience, than can reasonably he expected from\\nmen of the world, like the member of the council of the arrondissement and of\\nthe department; or from men of business, necessarily confined to their homes,\\nlike the members of the municipal council. In the next place, positive and\\ntechnical knuwledge of the various matters on which the examination turns is\\nabsolutely necessary; and it is not sufficient to have such knowledge, it must\\nhave been proved to exist, in order to give to these examinations the requisite\\nweight and authority. For these reasons, the members of these commissions\\nought to be, in great part, men specially qualified men familiar with the busi-\\nness of tuiiion. It is evident that primary instruction rests entirely on these\\nexaminations. Suppose a little negligence, a little false indulgence, a little\\nignorance, and it is all over with primary instruction. It is necessary then, to\\ncompose these commissions with the most scrupulous severity, and to appoint\\nonly persons versed in the matter.\\nThe necessity of providing for the professional education and training\\nof teachers is thus eloquently set forth:\\nAH the provisions hitherto described would be of none efl^ect, if we took no\\npains to procure for the public school thus constituted, an able master, and\\nworthy of the high vocation of instructing the people. It can not be too often\\nrepeated, that it is the master that makes the school. And, indeed, what a\\nwell-assorted union of qualities is required to constitute a good schoolmaster!\\nA good schoolmaster ought to be a man who knows much more than he is\\ncalled upon to teach, that he may teach with intelligence and with taste who is\\nto live in a humble sphere, and yet to have a noble and elevated mind, that he\\nmay preserve that dignity of sentiment andof deportment, without which he will\\nnever obtain the respect and confidence of families who possesses a rare mix-\\nture of gentleness and firmness; for, inferior though he be in station to many\\nindividuals in the cmnmune, he ought to be the obsequious servant of none a\\nman not ignorant of his rights, but thinking much more of his duties showing\\nto all a good example, and serving to all as a counselor; not given to change\\nhis condition, but satisfied with his situation, because it gives him the power of\\ndoing good and who has made up his mind to live and to die in the service of\\nprimary instruction, which to him is the service of God and his fellow-crea-\\ntures. To rear masters approaching to such a model is a difficult task and yet\\nwe must succeed in it, or else we have done nothing for elementary instruction.\\nA bad schoolmaster, like a bad parish priest, is a scourge to a comviuw^ and\\nthough we are often obliged to be contented with indifferent ones, we must do\\nour best to improve the average quality. We have, therefore, availed our-\\nselves of a bright thought struck out in the heat of the Revolution, by a decree\\nof the National Convention, in 1794, and afterward applied by Napoleon, in\\nhis decree, in 1808, for the organization of the University, to the establishment\\nof his central Normal School at Paris. We carry its application still lower\\nthan he did in the social scale, when we propose that no school-master shall be\\nappointed who has not himself been a pupil of the school which instructs in the\\nart of teaching, and who is not certified, after a strict examination, to have\\nprofited by the opportunities he has enjoyed.\\nNo statesman of any age or country, has expressed in language at once\\neloquent and just, a more exalted estimate of the mission of the teacher.\\nAlthough not uttered in this connection, the following passages will\\nillustrate the views presented above\\nHumble as the career of a schoolmaster may be, and though doomed to pass\\nhis whole existence most frequently within the sphere of a small community,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. ggg\\nhis labors are, nevertheless, felt throughout society at large, and his profession\\nis as important as that of any other public functionary. It is ncjt for any par-\\nticular parish alone or merely local interest, that the law demands that every\\nman sh )uld acquire if po ssible, the knovvie Ige which is indispensable in social\\nlife, and without whicJi intelligence often languishes and degenerates; it is for\\ntlie siata itself and the pu )lic interest; it is because liberty is certain and\\nsteadfast only among people enlightened enough to listen, in every circum-\\nstance, to the voice of Reason. Public elementary instruction is one of the\\nguarantees of order and social stability. Doomed to pass his life in discharg-\\ning the monotonous duties of his vocation, sometiines even in struggling with\\nthe injustice or the ingratitude of ignorance, the parish schoolmaster would\\noften repine, and psrhaps sink under his afflictions, did he not draw strength\\nan i coiragi from anather an:l higher source than that of immediate and mere\\np.ersjnal interest. A deep sense of the moral importance of his duties must\\nsupport and encourage him; and the austere pleasure of having rendered .ser-\\nvice to mankind, must become the worthy recompense which his own con-\\nscience alone can give. It is his glory to pretend to nothing beyond the sphere\\nof his obscure and laborious condition; to exhaust his strength in sacrifices\\nwhich are scarcely noticed by those who reap their benefit; to labor, in short,\\nfor his fellow-beings, and to look for his reward only to God.\\nYour first duty is toward the children confided to your care. The teacher is\\nsummoned upon by the parent to share his authority; this authority he must\\nexercise with the same vigilance, and almost with the same affection. Not\\nonly is the health of the children committed to him, but the cultivation of their\\naffections and intelligence depends almost entirely on him. In all that con-\\ncerns education, as it is generally understood, you shall want for nothing that\\ncan be of service to you; but as to the moral education of the children, I trust\\nespecially to you. Nothing can supply for you, the desire of faithfully doing\\nwhat is right. You must be aware, that, in confiding a child to your care,\\nevery family expects that you will send him back an honest man; the coimtry,\\nthat he will be made a good citizen. You know that virtue does not always\\nfallow in the train of knowledge; and that the lessons received by children\\nmight become dangerous to ihem, were they addressed exclusively to the under-\\nstanding. Let the teacher, therefore, bestow his first care on the cultivation of\\nthe moral qualities of his pupils. He must unceasingly endeavor to propagate\\nand establish those imperishable principles of morality and reason without\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2which, universal order is in danger; and to sow in the hearts of the young\\nthose seeds of virtue and honor, which agk, riper years, and the passions, will\\nnever destroy Faith in Divine providence, the sacredness of duty, submission\\nto parental authority, the respect due to the laws, to the king, and to the rights\\nof every one such are the sentiments which the teacher wild strive to develop.\\nThe intercourse between the teacher and parents can not fail of being frequent.\\nOver this kindness must preside: were a teacher not to possess the respect and\\nsympathy of the parents, his authority over their children would be compro-\\nmised, and the fruit of his lessons lost; he can not, therefore, be too careful and\\nprudent in regard of these connections. An intimacy inconsiderately formed\\nmight injure his independence, and sometimes even mix him up with those\\nlocal dissensions which frequently distract small communities. While civilly\\nyielding to the reasonable demands of parents he must, at the same time, be\\npardcularly careful not to sacrifice to their capricious exactions his educational\\nprinciples, and the discipline of the school.\\nThe duties of the teacher toward those in authority are still clearer, and not\\nless important. He is himself an authority in his parish how then can it be\\nfitting that he give an example of insubordination 1 Wherefore should he not\\nresaect the magistracy, religious authority, and the legal powers, whereby pub-\\nlic security is maintained\\nThe Mayor is the head of the community the interest, therefore, as well as\\nthe duty of the schoolmaster, is to exemplily on every occasion the respect due\\nto him. The v\\\\c?iT and pastor are also enlitded to respect, for their mission is in\\naccordance with all that is most elevated in human nature. Nothing, besides,\\nis more desirable than a perfect understanding between the minister of religion\\nand the teacher; both are in possession of moral authority; both require the\\nconfidence of families both can agree in exercising over the children commit-\\nted to their care, in several ways, a common influeooe,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "390 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nWith such enlarged views of the scope, and agencies, and ends of pri\\nmary instruction, the bill was framed and introduced into the Chamber\\nof Deputies and of Peers. It was referred to committees, who reported\\nthrough M. Renouard in the lower, and M. Cousin in the upper house.\\nThese reports are full and elaborate discussions of great principles, and\\nespecially that of M. Cousin.\\nThe bill, after going through a protracted examination and discussion\\nof its details, received the sanction of the Chambers and the King, and\\nbecame a law on the 28th of June, 1833. Under the wise and energetic\\nadministration of the department of public instruction, by such men as\\nGuizot, Cousin, Villemain, and Salvandy, the system went into immedi-\\nate and successful operation, giving a powerful impulse to the progress\\nof popular intelligence throughout the whole domain of France. Expe-\\nrience has brought to light some imperfections and deficiencies, some of\\nwhich have been remedied or supplied, and others are still under discus-\\nsion. We must wait till a generation has passed through the course of\\ninstruction now provided by law, and come into active life, before we can\\nfully appreciate the wise forecast of the labors of Cousin and Guizot in\\nthis long neglected field of primary education.\\nIt should be added, that a private association, called The Society for\\nElementary Instruction, was very instrumental in waking up the atten-\\ntion of the people and of government to the condition and improvement of\\nprimary schools. This society was formed in 1805, by a number of distin-\\nguished philanthropists, and has continued in active operation to the pres-\\nent time. It has been instrumental in establishing infant schools, schools\\nfor needle work, adult schools and classes, reformatory schools, associations\\nfor teachers, village libraries in various parts of France, and has a com-\\nplete series of popular schools under its immediate management, in Paris.\\nThe Minister of Public Instruction, in 1835, ascribed to it the honor of\\nhaving given the first impulse to the present school law. It publishes\\na monthly journal of its proceedings, and was mainly instrumental in es-\\ntablishing, in 1830, the Journal de I Instruction Elementaire, which is\\nstill continued under the title of Manuel General de I Instruction Pri-\\nmaire, and is the official organ of the Minister of Public Instruction.\\nThere is also published another educational journal, called L Echo des\\nEcoles Primaires, devoted to the dissemination of improved methods of\\ninstruction. It commenced in 1837, and was for several years under the\\neditorship of M. Cousin, assisted by many of the best teachers and educa-\\ntors in France. We noticed articles by Beudant, Willm, Parandiex,\\nPhilippar, and several directors of Normal Schools, and Inspectors of the\\nPrimary Schools. Upward of one hundred volumes on the science and\\nart of education have been published in Paris smce 1835 several of these\\nare by men of the best intellect, and large practical and benevolent\\nviews.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "OUTLINE\\nOF THB\\nSYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nFrance is divided by law for municipal and all administrative pur-\\nposes, into 86 Departments, 363 Arrondissements. 2,842 Cantons, and\\n39,381 Communes.\\nin each department there is appointed by the legal voters a prefect,\\nwho is associated with a general council for the department, and a spe-\\ncial council for each arrondissement, in the administration of the local\\naffairs of the department; in each canton there is a judicial office, styled\\njuge de jpaix in each commune, a mayor, with a municipal council, elect-\\ned by the people.\\nSince 1S08 there has existed in the government a central and special\\ndepartment for the administration of public instruction, for the application\\nof all funds appropriated by the state for educational, scientific or htera-\\nry purposes. Over this department has presided from time to time, some\\nof the most distinguished scholars and statesmen of France, and no\\nbranch of the public service has been regarded, for the last thirty years,\\nwith more favor by the Chambers, or the people. Since 1824, the chief\\nof this department has had a seat in the cabinet council of the king, which\\nconsists of nine members.\\nTo the supervision of the department of public instruction, as now\\norganized, are assigned all schools, primary, secondary and superior,\\nwhich together constitute the University of France, and are directed\\nand superintended in its name all scientific and literary societies to the\\nsupport of which the government contributes, such as the Institute, the\\nAcademy of Medicine, c. all public libraries, which the state main-\\ntains, or to which it contributes all institutions having charters prior to\\n1808, and which were not by royal ordinance incorporated into the Uni-\\nversity and all encouragements, by the way of subscription, or publica-\\ntion, to science and letters.\\nThe Royal University of France embraces the whole system of nation-\\nal education, and includes all the institutions for imparting instruction\\nwhich are spread over the whole kingdom, from the lowest schools, up to\\nthe highest colleges. The term may thus be considered synonymous with\\nthe French national system of education.\\nThe University is placed under the direction of a council of six mem-\\nbers, called the royal council of public instruction, of which the minis-\\nter of public instruction is the otBcial president. Each councilor has the\\nspecial charge of one or more divisions of public instruction. Subordi-\\nnate to this council are the inspectors-general of the University, who are\\nrequired to examine, once a year, the institutions of every description,\\neach within a certain district assigned to him, and to transmit a report to\\nthe council.\\nThe University is composed of twenty-six Academies, each of which\\ncomprehends two, three, or more of the departments into which the king-\\ndom is divided, and contains one or more royal colleges. The presiding\\nofficer of each academy is the rector, who is appointed by the minister of\\npublic instruction, and is assisted by two inspectors and a council. The\\ngoverning body of each academy has the superintendence of all the com-\\nmunal colleges, institutions, pensions, (boarding schools,) Normal Schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "392 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRANCE.\\nor schools for the education of teachers, and primary schools, ivithin the\\ndistrict which the seminary comprehends.\\nBesides the superintending body, the academy includes the teaching\\ncorps, or faculties namely, the faculties of letters, science, medicine,\\nlaw, and theology, all of which, however, do not actually exist in every\\nacademy; in some indeed, there is no organization of faculties. The\\nfaculties consist of a variable number of professors, one of whom is dean,\\nand a committee of whom examine candidates for degrees. There are,\\nhowever, some institutio:is which are not subject to the jurisdiction of\\nthe University, as the College of France, the Museum of Natural Histo-\\nry, the Ecole des Charles, School of Oriental Languages, the French\\nInstitute, and societies of all kinds for the advancement of knowledge.\\nThe royal colleges are supported chieQy by the government, and the\\nsalaries of the professors, which are generally from $iOO to i$800, are paid\\nfrom ihe budget of the minister of public instruction. The students are\\ndivided into two classes, the internes and e.vternes, or boarders and day-\\nscholars. The communal colleges are supported principally by the com-\\nmunes in which they are situate; some of them have endowments, but\\nthe majority depend chiefly for their support on the fees paid by the stu-\\ndents. The professors or teachers receive but small salaries, varying\\nfrom $200 to $600.\\nA distinguishing feature of the -system of public instruction in France,\\nis the appointment of all professors in all the colleges and lyceums, and\\nin the faculties of law, medicine, theology, and letters, and all institu-\\ntions of education above the primary school, by public competition (les\\nconcours.) A concours may last a i ew days only, or it may last for\\nmonths. The months of September and August are the months of vaca-\\ntion in the ditlerent colleges, and are usually devoted to the public com-\\npetition of candidates for any professorship or chair declared to be vacant\\nby the minister of public instruction. The judges are selected from\\namong the most distinguished scholars in France. The mode of con-\\nducting the trial varies with the department to be filled. But it embra-\\nces every mode by which the accuracy and extent of the attainments or\\neach candidate in the study can be tested, as well as his ability to com-\\nmunicate his knowledge to classes of pupils. Each candidate is subject\\nto the criticism of his competitor. Every professor in all the colleges\\nand great schools of France has passed through this ordeal.\\nNearly all the higher schools of learning and science are concentrated\\nin Paris. Almost all the young men who want to complete their studies,\\nwhether in letters, law, medicine, or the arts, in short, in all those pre-\\nparatory to any learned or liberal career, are forced to live in the capital.\\nThis is attended with a disastrous result, in the neglect or discontinuance\\nof all domestic training and discipline, which can not be compensated by\\nany superiority of mental culture, secured by the concentration of able\\nmen. and all the means and appliances of superior education at the capital.\\nThere are six faculties of Catholic theology, at Aix, Bordeaux, Lyons,\\nParis, Rouen, and Toulouse; and two of Protestant theology^ one of ihe\\nLutheran or Augsburg confession, at Strasburg, and another of the Cal-\\nvanist or Helvetic confession, at Montauban, under the academy of Tou-\\nlouse.\\nThe faculties of law are nine, at Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Paris, Poi-\\ntiers, Rennes, Strasburg, and Toulouse. There are three faculties of\\nmedicine, at Grenoble, Paris, and Montpellier; with seventeen secondary\\nschools of medicine.\\nThe faculties of science are nine in number, at Paris, Bordeaux, Stras-\\nburg, Caen, Toulouse, Montpellier, Dijon, Lyons, and Grenoble; those ot\\nletters or literature, seven, at Paris, Strasburg, Bordeaux, Toulouse Ca-\\nen, Dijoa, and Besangon.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC raSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 393\\nIn order to become a student in law or theology, a person must have\\ntaken the degree of bachelor of letters and a course of three years in\\neither faculty, is requisite to obtain the degree of bachelor; for the de-\\ngree of doctor, four years; and to obtain the degree of doctor in divi lity,\\nthe candidate must defend a final and general thesis. Candid.ites tor\\nthe degree of doctor in medicine, must have taken the degree of biiche-\\nlor of letters, and also of sciences, and must complete a course of four\\nyears. The faculties of law and medicine at Paris, are greatly distin-\\nguished. The former has sixteen professors, and had, in 1836, upward\\nof 3000 students: the latter, twenty-seven professors, and in 1836, about\\n4000 students.\\nThe law ordains at least one elementary school in every commune, and\\nthose communes in which the population exceeds 6000, are required to\\nsupport one superior primary school, and are aided in opening infant\\nschools, evening schools, classes for adults, and high schools.\\nWhere the number of lamilies of ditierent sects is sulficient, the mini.s-\\nister of public instruction is aulliorized to grant permission, if advisable\\nso to do, 10 the commune to establish separate schools for the children of\\neach denomination.\\nBy a law passed in March, 1841, the duty of school attendance is made\\nobligatory. No young person below the age of twelve years can be em-\\nployed in any workshop or manufactory, unless his parents or guardians\\ntestify that he actually attends some public or private school within the\\nlocality, and all such as were so employed at the dale of this law, were\\nrequired to attend school till the age of twelve. All young persons above\\nthe age of twelve can be excused from attending a school, only in case a\\ncertificate can be given by the Mayor of their place of resi.lence, that\\nthey have received the primary or elementary instruction. To meet the\\nwants of those adults, who have grown up without the advantages of\\nschool attendance, evening schools, and classes for aduUs, are establish-\\ned and provided for, by law.\\nThe central government, the departmental authorities, the municipal\\nauthorities, the religious authorities, the heads of tamilies, have each their\\nsphere of action, and their influence in the administration of primary\\nscliools.\\nThe local management of a primary school is intrusted to a committee\\nof the commune, consisting of the mayor, the president of the council,\\nthe cure, or pastor, and one person appointed by the committee of the\\narrondissement in which the commune is situated.\\nThe general supervision of the schools of each arrondissement is as-\\nsigned to a committee of the arrondissement, which consists of the mayor\\nof the chief town, of the jnge de pai:r, a pastor of each of the recognised\\nreligious sects, a professor of a college, or school of secondary instruction,\\na primary schoolmaster, three members of the council of tlie arrondisse-\\nment, and the members of the council-general of the department who\\nreside in the arrondissement.\\nThese committees meet once a month. The communal committees\\ninspect and report the condition of the schools in the commune to the\\ncommittee of the arrondissement. Some member of the committee of the\\narrondissement is present at each local inspection, and a report of the\\nwhole committee on the state of education in the arrondissement is made\\nannually to the minister of public instruction.\\nIn each department there is a commission of primary education, com-\\nposed of at least seven members, among which there must be a minister\\nof each of the religious denominations recognized by law, and at least\\nthree persons who are at the lime, or have been, engaged in t acbing\\npublic schools of secondary instruction. This committee is charged with\\nthe examination of all candidates for the certificate of qualification to", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "394\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nleach primary schools, or to enter the Normal School of the department.\\nThese examinations must be public, at a time fixed, and notified by the\\nminister, and in the chief town of the department. The examination is\\nvaried according to the grade of school for which the candidate ap-\\nplies. With a certificate of capacity from this commission, the candi-\\ndate can teach in any commune in the department, without any local\\nexamination.\\nBesides these local committees the minister of public instruction ap-\\npoints an inspector for every department, with assistant inspectors, when\\nrequired by the exigences of the public service. The duty of the inspec-\\ntor is to visit every school in the department, at least once a year, and to\\ninquire into tlie state of the school-house, the classification, moral charac-\\nter, and methods of discipline and instruction of each school. He must\\nleave a written memorandum of all deficiencies noted in his visit, for the\\nuse of the local committee, and report annually to the prefect of the\\ndepartment, and through liim to the minister. This stimulates and\\nencourages teachers, as well as communes, and informs the minister of the\\ntrue wants of difi erent localities, as well as the deficiencies of the law.\\nThe inspectors are required to pay particular attention to the Normal\\nSchools in their several departments. The inspector has a salary of two\\nthousand francs, and an allowance of three francs a day for traveling\\nexpenses, and one franc for every school visited. In 1843 there were\\neighty-seven inspectors, and one hundred and fourteen sub-inspectors\\nand the number of conmiunes visited by them in that year, was 30,081,\\nmaking 50,986 visits to schools.\\nThe resources of the state, the departments, the communes, and the\\ncontributions paid by parents, combine to insure the creation and main-\\ntenance of the school. Every commune must provide a school-house\\nand residence for the school-master, and to the first expense of this outfit,\\nthe state contributes one third. Every teacher must have a lodging, or\\nits equivalent in money, and a fixed salary of 200 francs, or 400 francs,\\n(from S40 to $80,) according to the grade of school, in addition to the\\nmonthly fees paid by parents, and collected by the commune. If the\\ncommune refuses, or neglects to provide by tax on the property of the\\ncommune, the government imposes and collects the same. If the com-\\nmune, on account of poverty or disaster to crops or depression in business,\\ncan not raise its necessary sum, the department to which it belongs must\\nprovide it, and if the revenues of the department are not sufficient to sup-\\nply the deficiencies of all the communes, the deficit must be supplied by\\nthe Slate. In every department, the prefect and general-council, annually\\ndraw up in concert a special estimate in which the expense of primary\\ninstruction is fixed, and necessary revenue provided. In each commune,\\nthe Mayor and municipal council make a special estimate of the same\\nkind and at the same time fix the monthly tuition-fee to be paid by each\\nparent.\\nEvery department must by itself, or in concert with adjoining depart-\\nments, support a Normal School, to supply the annual demand for teach-\\ners of primary schools. The sum to be expended on a Normal School,\\nfor the salaries of teachers, apparatus, and bursaries, or scholarships in aid\\nof poor pupils, is not left with the department to fix, but is regulated by\\nthe council of public instruction. The salary of the Director is borne by\\nthe state and department combined; that of the assistant teachers by the\\ndepartment. The expense of the normal pupils for board is borne by\\nthemselves, unless they enjoy an exhibition or scholarship, founded by the\\nstate, department, university, commune, or by individual benevolence.\\nThe scholarships are sometimes divided so as to meet, in part, the expense\\nof two or three pupils. In 1846, there were ninety-two Normal Schools,\\nseventy-six of which were for the education of schoolmasters, and sixteen", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. ggg\\nfor the educatbn of schoolmistresses. To fifty-two of these schools\\nenough land is attached to teach agriculture and horticulture.\\nThe course of instruction in these elementary schools, embraces Moral\\nand Religious Instruction, Reading. Writing, the elements of Arithmetic,\\nelements of the French Language, legal system of Weights and Meas-\\nures, Geographyr (particularly of France,) History, (particularly of\\nFrance,) Linear Drawing, and Singing. In the superior primary schools,\\nor High School, the above course is extended so as to embrace Modern\\nLanguages. Book-keeping, Perspective Drawing, Chemistry, and the\\nMathematics, in their application to the arts. There is a special course\\nof instruction open in evening schools, to those children and youth who\\ncan not attend the day school and in evening clas.ses for adults, whose\\nearly education was neglected, or who may wish to pursue particular\\nstudies connected with their pursuits as artizans, manufacturers, and\\nmaster-workmen.\\nProvision is made to encourage teachers to form associations, and to\\nhold frequent conferences for improvement in their professional knowl-\\nedge and skill, and to found libraries of books on education.\\nIn each department a fund is accumulating for the relief of aged teach-\\ners, and of the widows and children of teachers, who die in the exercise\\nof their important functions. Each master must subscribe one twenti-\\neth part of the salary he receives from the commune and the sum-total\\nwhich he subscribes, together with the interest upon it, is returned to\\nhim when he retires, or to his widow and children, when he dies.\\nThe government awards medals of silver and bronze to those masters\\nwho distinguish themselves in the management of their schools. This\\nencourages and stimulates them to continued efforts, and connects them\\nin an honorable way, with the government and the nation.\\nThe whole charge to the State of the department of public instruction,\\naccording to the Budget of 1838, was 19,005,673 francs, or nearly $4,000^\\n000, which was distributed as follows\\nFrancs.\\nCentral Administration, 686 623\\nGeneral Services, 238,000\\nDepartment and Academic Administration, 919.900\\nSuperior Instruction, faculties, 1,9*2 0.50\\nSecondary Instruction, 1,655.600\\nElementary Instruction, general fund, 1,600.000\\ndo. do. additional, 3,500.000\\nPrimary Normal School, 200^000\\nLiterary and Scientific establishments, 7,676.500\\nSubscriptions to Literary Works, c 557,000\\nTotal, 19.005,673\\nor $3,800,354.\\nThis does not include the sum to be raised in the departments and com-\\nmunes, or contributed by parents.\\nFrom the reports of the Minister of Public Instruction, for 1843, it\\nappears that in the ten years, from 1833 to 1843. France expended the\\nsum of X 2,.565,883 (about $1L000,000.) on the erection of school-houses,\\nand residences for teachers. In 1843, the expenditure for the current\\nexpenses of her educational establishments was a little short of $4,000,000,\\nindependent of the sum paid by the communes, individuals, and parents in\\nschool fees, which amount to near S5,000,000. Even this sum was found\\ninsufficient, and since that date the appropriation has been increased. In\\n1833 there was one person in every eighteen of the population, receiving\\neducation, while in 1843, there was one in every ten. But the primary\\nschools are far from reaching the excellence which characterizes the ele-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "396\\nPTTBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nmentary schools of Germany. Much is yet to be done to carry out the\\nliberal provision of tlie law.\\nIn a late Report. (1849.) on the state of common school instruction in\\nGermany, to the President of the Society for Elementary Instruction in\\nFrance, by A. Hennequin, late inspecteur d academie, the following\\nfive questions are all answered in the affirmative, by the author:\\nIs the in.spection of schools better practised in Germany than in France?\\nAie the common schools in Germany superior to ours\\nAre the people in Germany belter instructed than in France\\nAre the German teachens superior to the French teachers\\nAre the methods of instruction in Germany belter than ours?\\nA volume of 756 pages was published at Breslau, in 1848, by L. Hahn,\\non the schools and school-system of France. The author has resided\\nmany years in Paris, as a teacher, and has had access to the latest offi-\\ncial information. Altiiough much has been done since 1833, to improve\\nthe prmiary schools, the author thinks that their condition in respect to\\nschool-houses, attendance of children, universality and quality of instruc-\\ntion given, and the qualifications, social and pecuniary position of the\\nteachers, is far behind that of the same grade of schools in Germany.\\nThe Normal Schools are accomplishing much good, but they have not\\nbeen able yet to supply a majority of the communes with well-trained\\nteachers. The Normal Schools at Versailles, and Strasbourg, are pro-\\nnounced the best in France, and the latter especially, is regarded as mak-\\ning the nearest approach to the best teachers seminaries in Germany\\nThe following tables will e.xhibit the workmg of this great system of\\npublic instruction in several important particulars.\\nTABLK I.\\nEXHIBITING THE NUMBER OF SCHOOLS EMBRACED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE IN IS37.\\nAix,\\nAmiens,\\nAngers,\\njBesancop,\\nBordeaux,\\nBoiirges,\\nCaen,\\nCahors,\\nClermont,\\nDijon,\\nDonai,\\nGrenoble,\\nLimoge.s,\\nLvons,\\nMetz,\\nMontpelier,\\nNancy,\\nNimes,\\nOrleans,\\nParis,\\nPan,\\nPoictiers,\\nRennes,\\nRouen,\\nStrasburg,\\nToulouse,\\na\\nF\\ns\\noi:\\nt\\n^a\\n1\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n2\\n4\\n3\\n3\\nI\\n2\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n3\\n1\\n2\\n1\\n4\\n2\\n3\\n1\\n4\\n3\\n3\\n2\\n7\\n7\\n3\\n4\\n5\\n3\\n2\\n2\\n4\\n86\\n~4I\\n1\\nII\\nlyOT\\n.1\\n14\\n160\\n230\\n~T6\\n-1,\\n12\\n121\\n180\\n10\\n2\\n12 118\\n110\\n18\\n1\\n12 110\\n160\\n15\\n2\\n13 170\\n120\\n5\\n12 129\\n120\\n9\\n1\\n15 212\\n290\\n16\\n1\\n22 90\\n160\\n9\\n1\\n42 287\\n292\\n12\\n13 88\\n150\\n20\\n12 131\\n110\\n21\\n6\\n14 133\\n141\\n7\\n4\\n111 88\\n220\\n9\\n5\\n20 276\\n2(54\\n6\\n10\\n15 100\\n240\\n5\\n1\\n23 199\\n256\\n17\\n2\\n14 110\\n260\\n15\\n39 3i;5\\n226\\n10\\n2\\n24 241\\n286\\n5\\n3\\n180 1629\\n3324\\n19\\n77,\\n12, 57\\n90\\n10\\n1[\\n15 130\\n201\\n14\\n4!\\n33 346\\n407\\n18\\n3\\n17. 164\\n491\\n9\\n3\\n14 121\\n203\\n12\\n1I\\n15 112\\n239\\n9\\n6\\n626\\n5779\\n8870\\n318\\n1461\\n41\\n50\\n17\\n21\\n54\\n21\\n25\\n47\\n30\\n36\\n4:5\\n25\\n18\\n52\\n26\\n36\\n25\\n26\\n31\\n251\\n32\\n34\\n35\\n68\\n15\\n55\\n1,6.59\\n2,697\\n1,212\\n1,671\\n1,209\\n532\\n2,340\\n1.451\\ni;i2i\\n1,855\\n2,643\\n1,120\\n264\\n1,470\\n1.541\\n1,766\\n2 444\\n1,594\\n730\\n4,203\\n1,734\\n1,536\\n941\\n1,712\\n1.543\\n1,327", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\n397\\nTABLE II.\\nSHOWING THE CONDITION OP PRIMARY EDnOATION IN THE DIFFERENT COMMUNES, IN 1843.\\nNumber of arrondissemen ts 363\\nNumber ol communes 37,038\\nPopulation 34,230 178\\nNumber of communes provided with a primary school 34,578\\nPopulation of ihe communes provided with primary schools 33,080,002\\nNumber of communes not yet provided with a primary school 2 4G0\\nPopulation of the communes not yet provided M-ith primary schools 1,150,176\\nNumber of communes who require several primary schools, and\\nwho possess only one 23\\nNumber of communes who are required by law to support one supe-\\nrior primary school 290\\nNumber of communes who ought to support superior primary\\nschools, and who do suppoit them 222\\nPopulation of these communes 4,177,047\\nNumber of communes who ought to support several superior prima-\\nry schools, and who support only one 23\\nNumber of communes who are not required bylaw to support a\\nsuperior primary school, and who do support one 103\\nTotal numherof primary schools, elementary and superior, for bo) s\\nand girls, established in France in 1843 59,838\\nTotal number of primary schools in the 86 departments of France,\\nvisited in 1843 by the 87 inspectors and 113 sub-inspectors 50 936\\nIn addition to these schools for the youth there ought to be added 6,434 class-\\nes for the laborers, which are conducted by the primary school teachers in the\\nevenings, after the dav s woik, or on the Sunday, and in^which 95,064 adult\\nlaborers received instruction in 1843 and also a greatnumber of infant schools\\nwhich have been recenilv opened in the departments, and which are receiving\\ngreat encouragement and attention from the Government.\\nTABLE III.\\nSHOWING THE NUMBER OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS BELONGINQ TO THE DIFFERENT SECTS.\\nPrimary scnools spe\\ncially set apart for\\nthe Roman Catholics\\nPrimary schools spe-\\ncially set apart for\\nthe Protestants\\nPrimary schools spe-\\ncially set apart for the\\nJews\\nMixed schools open\\nfor all three sects\\nPublic schools\\nPrivate schools\\nf Public schools\\nPrivate schools\\nPublic schools\\nPrivate schools\\nC Public schools\\n(^Private schools\\nS Boys\\nI Girls\\n5 Boys\\nGirls\\nBoys\\nI Girls\\n5B0VS\\nGirls\\nSBoys\\nGirls\\n(Boys\\nGirls\\n33 207\\n7,660\\n7,098\\n8,847\\n702\\n59\\n163\\n156\\n5 Boys\\nGirls\\n948\\n10\\nBoys\\nGirls\\n326\\n450\\n1,831\\nI 1,055\\nI 776\\nTotal number of Primary Schools in France, in 1843, 59,838\\nj 40,867\\nj 15,945\\n761\\n39\\n37\\n56,812\\n1,080\\n115", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "3^8 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nThe number of the Roman Catholic population of France being 33,050,178,\\nit follows, (see Table I.,) that in 1843, there was one primary school for every\\n581 Roman Catholics.\\nI he number of the Protestant population of France being 1,000,000, it fol-\\nlows, that in 1843, there was one primary shool for every 1,018 Protestants.\\nThe reason why the proportion of schools for the Protestants to their numbers\\nis so small is, that very many of this sect attend the mixed schools.\\nThe number of Jews being 80,000, it follows, that there was one school for\\nevery 695 Jews.\\nTABLE IV.\\nSBOWINO THE NUMBKR OF CHILDREN IN ATTENDANCE AT THE PRIMART SCHOOM Or\\nFRANCE, IN 1843.\\nNumber of Scholars at the Public Elementary Primary\\nSchools for Boys,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmasters, 1,699,586\\nSchoolmasters, members of Religious 1,857,017\\nSocieties 157,431 1\\nNumber of Scholars at the Public Superior Primary\\nSchools for Boys,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmasters, 15,092\\nSchoolmasters, members of Religious So- 15,448\\ncieties, 356\\nNumber of Scholars at the Public Schools for Gjjls,\\nDirected by L,s(f Schoolmistresses, 230,213\\nSchoolmistresses, members of Religious 534,960\\nSocieties, 304,747\\nNumber of Scholars at the Private Elementary Primary\\nSchools for Boys,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmasters 230,383\\nSchoolmasters, members of Religious So- J- 272,935\\ncieties, 42,r\\n[),383 i\\n2,5523\\nNumber of Scholars at the Private Superior Primary\\nSchools for Boys,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmasters 3,469\\nSchoolmasters, members of Religious So- 4,272\\ncieties, 803\\nNumber of Scholars at the Private Primary Schools for\\nGirls,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmistrfcses, 278,637\\nSchoolmistresses, members of Religious 479,665\\nSocieties 201,\\nTotal number of Scholars at all the Primary Schools,\\nDirected by Lay Schoolmasters or Schoolmistresses, 2,457,380\\nSchoolmasters or Schoolmistresses, mem\u00c2\u00bb 3,164,297\\nbers of Religious Societies, 706,1\\n3,637\\n1,028)\\n7,380)\\n3,164,S\\n5,917)\\nTotal number of children attending the Primary Schools in 1843, 3,164,297\\nTotal number of children admitted gratuitously into the Com-\\nmunal Schools in 1843 763,820\\nTotal number of children who paid something monthly for their\\neducation in 1843, 2,400,447", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\n399\\nTABLE V.\\nSBOWINB THK NUMBER AND CONDITION OF TUB CLA.SSES FOR ADULTS, FOR TOUNO OIRLS,\\nAND FOR YOUNO APPRENTICES IN FRANCE, IN 1843.\\nNumber of classes for Adults, 6,434\\nYoung Girls, 160\\nApprentices, 36\\nNumber of Infant Schools,\\nPublic, 685 g\\nPrivate, 804 J\\nNumber of Scholars,\\nIn the classes for Adults 95,064^\\nYoung Girls 5,908 I ,^.09\\nSchools for Apprentices, 1,268 f ^j*^\\nInfant Schools, 96, 192 J\\nNumber of communes in which there are Adult Classes, 6,043\\nNumber of Adult Classes,\\nfor Men, 6,266\\nWomen, 168\\nNumber of persons who frequent them,\\nfor Men, 9,451\\nWomen, 4,613\\nNumber of Classes directed by\\nSchoolmasters belonging to a Religious Society, 125\\nSchoolmistresses, 51\\nNumber of Adult Classes in which are taught\\nMoral and Religious Instruction 3,331\\nReading, 5,035\\nWriting, 4,483\\nArithmetic, 4,456\\nSystem of Weights and Measures, 3,857\\nLinear Drawing, 271\\nVocal Music, 107\\nResources of these Classes,\\nSums furnished by the Communes, 136,836 Frano.\\nDepartments, 38,350 S- 201,886\\nState, 26,700)\\nTABLE VI.\\nSHOWING THE NUMBER AND COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF\\nFRANCE, IN 1843.\\nNumber of Normal Schools thoroughly organized, 78\\nNumber to which a garden is joined for the purpose of teaching the\\npupils the culture of trees, 52\\nNumber of Professors in these schools, 495\\nincluding the Directors 573\\nNumber of hours devoted weekly to the different branches\\nof education l,t Ye\u00c2\u00bbr. 2d Year. 3d Year.\\nMoral and Religious Instruction 2$ 2i 2i\\nReading, 3{ 3 2\\nWriting 44 4i 4\\nStudy of the French Language 6 5i i\\\\\\nHistory and Geography, 3i 4^ 3^\\nArithmetic, 5 3j 3\\nUse of the Globes, 2 2i 2\\nElements of Practical Geometry, 4 SJ 3j\\nElements of Physics and Natural History, 2i 2| 3i\\nMechanics, 2 2i 3\\nSurveying 2 2i 3\\nLinear Drawing, 3j 4 4j\\nMethods of teaching, l| If 2f\\nVocal Music 3i 3i Sj\\nCivil Law, 2 IJ U\\nCulture of Trees, If H U", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "400 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nTABLE VII.\\nSHOWING THE STATB OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN 1843,\\nNumber of Colleges. Royal, 4f)\\nCommunal, 312 J\\nNumber of Scholars in Colleges 44091\\nNumber ol Institutions of Secondary Education, 102\\nBoarding Schools 914\\nPrivate Establishments 1,016\\nPublic and Private 2|390\\nNumber of Scholars in the Institutions -which follow the\\ncourse of a College, 6,066)\\nNumber of Scholars in the Institutions which do not fol- 3l,3lG\\nlow the course of a College, 25,250)\\nNumber of Secondary Pupils, 69,341\\nPopulation of the Departments, 1842, 34,194,875\\nProportion in each Department between the population and the\\ntotal number of establishments of Secondary Educa-\\ntion, 1 estab. for 24,887\\nNumber of Scholars in establishments of Secondary Educa-\\ntion, 1 493\\nNumber of Young Men between eight and eighteen in each De-\\npartment, 3,182,397\\nProportion between the total number of Young Men between\\neight and eighteen, and the total number of pupils in Secon-\\ndary Establishments in each Department, 1 school for 45 ycung men.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "CONDITION OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION\\nDEPARTMENT OF TARN, DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 1^9-50.\\nThe most satisfactory insight into the practical working and actual\\nresults of a school system, can be obtained, not by looking to any gen-\\neral summary applicable to the whole State, but to the operations in\\ndetail, of a particular school, or of the schools of a neighborhood, or of\\nsome of the larger and yet subordinate divisions of the State. For this\\npurpose we select for publication a report on the condition of primary\\neducation, by M. A. Domergue, the governmental inspector for the de-\\npartment of Tarn one of the 86 territorial and civil divisions of the\\nState. Tarn belongs to the old province of Languedoc. and in 1850\\nhad a population of 330,000, distributed through 79 arrondisements, 20\\ncantons, and 300 communes. In 1828, when M. Charles Dupin projected\\nhis intellectual map of France, the department of Tarn was represented\\nby a black spot, to indicate its low state as to schools and education.\\nThe report does not cover the whole ground, but shows the progress\\nwhich has been made in one of the most backward portions of France\\nsince the new system went into operation.\\nPrimary instruction includes the elementary and superior, the commimal and\\nprivate schools. Some of these are attended exclusively by boys, some by girls,\\nand some by infants, while others are common* schools that is, attended by both\\nboys and girls. There are also classes for adults, a primaiy normal school for\\nmasters, and another for schoolmistresses.\\nB0Y6 SCHOOLS.\\nThere are altogether in the department 309 communal and 40 private schools.\\nThis gives a total increase of 8 schools over the year 1848. But there have been\\nat the same time an increase of communal and a decrease of private schools. This\\nresult is doubly advantageous for, with few exceptions, the public schools are\\nsuperior to private schools, both as regards instruction and discipline.\\nWith respect to the mode of instruction, the 349 boys schools are thus divi-\\nded Schools directed according to the mutual mode, 12 simulUmeous, 261\\nindividual, 21 rnixedf mode, 55 total, 349. This last mode is the best that can\\nbe employed in the schools which have more than 50 pupils it demands, on the\\npart of the master, indefatigable zeal, but it gives, in exchange, most beneficial\\nresults.\\nThere are 314 schools exclusively devoted to Roman Catholics, and 18 to Pro-\\ntestants, whilst 17 schools receive children belonging to both. The directors of\\nthese IT schools are all Roman Catholics.\\nCivil State of the Teachers. Of the 349 instructors, 336 are laymen, and 13\\nbelong to religious societies. There are also employed in the schools 49 assistant-\\nbrothers. Of the 336 lay teachers, 117 are bachelors, 196 are married, and 23\\nare widowers.\\n\u00e2\u0099\u00a6Schools where boys and girls are taiijiht together, are generally termed in this country\\nmixed schools. Common schools are public schools in our school nomenclature.\\ntThis is a combination of the mutual and the simultaneous.\\n26", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "402 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN.\\nNumber of Pupils, ^c. The communal schools receive 11,882 boys; the\\nprivate schools, 1,981 in. all, 13,863. If to this number we add 217 boys who\\nattend the common schools, we shall have a total of 14,080 boys, thus showing an\\nincrease of 807 over the year 1848.\\nBesides the 13,863 boys admitted into the 349 schools, there are also taught,\\nby the masters of the common schools, 1,234 girls.\\nOf the 14,080 boys, 7,943 pay a school fee, which varies from fivepence to\\ntwenty pence a month; 6,137 are instructed gratuitously. The number of gra-\\ntuitous pupils it is hoped will increase for the 24th article of the law of the I3th\\nMarch, 1850, states that \u00e2\u0096\u00a0primary instruction ought to be given gratuitously to\\nall children of those families ivho are not in a condition to pay for such in-\\nstruction.\\nMoral and Political Conduct of the Teachers. The conduct of our instruc-\\ntoi s is generally very good. With some exceptions, happily few in number, they\\nhave all learned that they ought to confine themselves exclusively to the discharge\\nof the duties belonging to their profession, and not to engage in political or mu-\\nnicipal discussions.\\nWe can not speak so satisfactorily of the capacity of our teachers. Besides\\nthose who have been educated at the Normal School, and whose schools are of a\\nsuperior order, there are a hundred instructors who were breveted immediately\\nafter the promulgation of the law of June 28th, 1833. These know, in general,\\nvery little they are ignorant of good methods of teaching, and- their schools are\\nconducted with little order and regularity. But they have rendered services, and\\nalthough they are not at the top of their profession, yet it would be unjust to\\nhurry on their superannuation.* The law which assures to instructors a mini-\\nmum salary of 600 ft-ancs ($125,) will enable us to demand of them more zeal\\nand assiduity. They will not require to seek, in labors foreign to their profession,\\nan increase of pay to assure the daily existence of themselves and their families.\\nBut 19-20ths of the instructors of this department will not be able to claim more\\nthan the fixed minimum allowance. It is to be regretted that we can not, by\\nmeans of salaries increasing progressively in proportion to the services performed,\\nexcite the emulation of teachers and establish a system of promotion advantageous\\nto the cause of education.\\ngirls schools.\\nThere are in the department 54 communal and 163 private schoolmistresses,\\nTlie increase on 1848 is 18 in number.\\nThe communal schools receive 3,669, and the private schools 5,662 pupils; in\\nall 9,331. When compared with the numbers attending school in 1848, there is\\na decrease of 151 pupils. If we add to the above number 1,234 girls who are\\ntaught in the common schools, we shall have a total number of 10,565 girls re-\\nceiving elementary instruction.\\nOf the 9,331 who are taught by schoolmistresses, 6,674 pay, and 2,657 are\\neducated gratuitously.\\nOf the 1,234 who attend the conunon schools,! 941 pay, and 293 receive gra-\\ntuitous instruction.\\nThe communal masters alone receive pupils who pay nothing the private\\nteachers receive none. All the schoolmistresses, on the contrary, whether com-\\nmunal or private, admit gratuitously a great number of children.\\nThere is no need to direct your attention to the fact, that the zeal and the devo-\\ntion of our schoolmistresses are not sufficiently recompensed. Every one is fully\\nconvinced of the salutary influence which the education of females exercises upon\\nthe morality of a country. We ought, therefore, to find some means of properly\\nrewarding our schoolmistresses for the eminent services which they have rendered,\\nft is necessary, above all, to encourage the establishment of girls schools, in order\\nto diminish, as much as possible, the number of mixed schools, which, in spite of\\nthe most careful superintendence, present results most unfavorable. As a proof\\nof the low estimation in which these mixed schools are held, take the following\\nfacts: --In those communes which possess a girW school, the mean number of\\nBy a recent law a retiring pension is granted to teachers in proportion to their length of\\nservice,\\nt These common or mixed schools are conducted by masters.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN. 403\\npupils attending is 64 per commune; whereas, in the communes having no girls\\nschool, but, on the contrary, a toys school open to girls, the mean number is re-\\nduced to nine.\\nThere are 189 communes entirely without schoolmistresses; that is to say, in\\n189 communes of the department the girls are either wholly deprived of instruc-\\ntion, or receive an education which, from being given by a man, is not at all in\\nharmony with the duties imposed upon the sex by society.\\nFrom these considerations, I have the honor of proposing to you to ask of the\\ngeneral council the sum of 2000 francs, to be appropriated thus ^1000 francs\\namong private schoolmistresses, many of whom find it difficult to live, and 1000\\nfrancs to be divided among the poorest of the communes which shall make sacri-\\nfices to establish communal schoi ls for girls.*\\nChildren attending the Schools. Out of 1000 inhabitants, 68 children, on an\\naverag.-, attend the primary schools. In 1839, there were only 55 out of 1000\\nthe progress, then, is real. We are, however, below the average which, for the\\nwhole of France, is about 92 in 1000; while some of the departments, such a.s\\nthat of Doubs, count 176 pupils out of every 1000 inhabitants. The number of\\nchildren between 6 and 14 years of age, who do not aetuallj attend the primary\\nschools, may be reckoned at 20,000. JVIany of these have already left school,\\ncarrying with them notions the most imperfect, which they will very soon com-\\npletely forget. The great majority are condemned to absolute ignorance.\\nSchool Houses. The law of 28th June, 1833, compels communes to provide\\nsuitable buildings which shall serve both as school-rooms for the children, and\\ndwelling-houses for the masters. The law of 15th March, 1850, has preserved\\nthis obligation. Communes are also advised to become the owners of school-\\nhouses and in 1848 they possessed 86 school-houses, while at the present day\\nthey have 99. About 15 new school-houses may be reckoned which shall be\\ncompleted during the next year. Every where, in the course of my inspection,\\nI have ascertained that the places rented by the comrnunes to serve as schools\\nand teachers residences are unhealthy badly ventilated, insufficiently Lighted.^\\ninconvenient., and inadequate; v:hilst some are in a completely dilapidated\\ncondition.\\nPurchase of Books for the Poor. Rural schools are entirely without good\\nbooks. Poverty prevents many parents from purchasing such books as are neces-\\nsary for their children, or it makes them select, not those which the teacher indi-\\ncates to them, but those which itinerant booksellers sell them at a very small cost.\\nSerious inconveniences result from this state of things. I believe that it is neces-\\nsary to provide in the budget a grant of 500 francs for the purchase of books for\\npoor scholars.\\nAssistance to Old and Jnfirm Teachers. The aged instructors have spent\\ntheir strength in the career of primary instruction- an office, up to the present\\ntime, so badly remunerated. They are now worn out, and will suffer all the hor-\\nrors of poverty, unless the department render them assistance. I solicit for them\\nan allowance of 500 francs. This sum will annually diminish, and, finally, will\\ndisappear from the departmental budget; since the new law in reference to educa\u00c2\u00bb\\nlion assures to instructors a retiring pension in proportion to a duration of their\\nservices.\\nInfant Schools. -The department contains 9 infant schools for boys and girls,\\ncontaining a total of 1001 children.\\nNormal School. The excellent condition of this establishment continues to\\ndeser\\\\ e the praises which have been bestowed on it by the general council of the\\ndepartment, the academic authorities, and the general Inspectors of the Uni-\\nversity.\\nThe satisfactory results which it is permitted me to state, are owing to the un-\\nbouuiled devotion and untiring zeal of the director of the school to the strict\\ndiscipline which he maintains with vigor to his constant presence at all the ex-\\nercises of the house to the religious punctuality which is every where manifest,\\nan d which is the best precept on order and regularity which it is possible to give\\nto our future instructors.\\nEvery commune is obliserl by law to support at least one primary school, either of ita\\nown, or in conjunction with neighboring communes.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "404 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN.\\nThe normal school has rendered immense service to the country it has given\\nus our best instructors it has raised, to a considerable extent, the love of popular\\ninstruction thanks to it, above all, should M. Charles Dupin trace out again the\\nintellectual map of France, we shall behold the black spot disappear by which\\nthe illustrious statistician had stigmatized the department of Tarn.\\nSince 1833 the normal school has produced 174 instructors; of these 120 are\\ncommunal teachers, and 9 are about to become so 1 is assistant master in the\\nnormal school 3 are private instructors 27 have left the profession 14 have\\ndied in the exercise of their duties total 174 who have obtained their brevet on\\nleaving the school.\\nThe teachers who have come from the normal school are infinitely superior to\\ntheir colleagues. They are superior by their capacity by their faithful observ-\\nances of rules and, almost always, by their zeal, and by their conduct towards\\nthe local authorities and the heads of families. In the course of my inspections,\\nI have been constantly struck with the marked difference which exists between\\nthe teachers who have been educated at a normal school and those who have\\nnot been in any special way prepared for the duties of instruction. People par-\\ntake of my convictions, in this respect and normal students are always chosen,\\nin preference to other candidates, by local committees and municipal councils.\\nNormal School for Females. The opinion which I have formerly expressed\\nof the importance which I attach to the good education of girls, will, I trust, be\\nsufficient to make you appreciate the strong desire which I have for the contin-\\nuance of exhibitions for female candidates. The normal school is in excellent\\ncondition, and the results obtained are satisfactory. At the last examination, out\\nof 13 who presented themselves, 3 were breveted with the numbers 2, 4, and 6.\\nSuch is a faithful and impartial account of the state of primary instruction in\\nthe department of Tarn. I have endeavored to give, by figures obtained from\\nauthentic sources, the results due to the law of 28th June, 1833, and at the same\\ntime to establish the starting-point of the law of 15th March, 1850; so that it\\nmay be easy, at a later period, to estimate the benefits which the department may\\nhave derived from it.\\nN", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTIONS\\nSPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nIn addition to tlie regular institutions for primary, secondary, and\\nsuperior instruction, which belong to the supervision of the Minister of\\nPublic Instruction, there are a number of schools of the class prepara-\\ntory for the pursuits of life, which are assigned by law to other depart-\\nments of the government. The Polytechnic School, the Military School\\nof St. Cyr, and the Military College of Fleche, are assigned to the Min-\\nister of War the School of Roads and Bridges, the two Schools of\\nMines, one at Paris and the other at St. Etienne, to the Minister of\\nPublic Works the Model Farm Schools, the District Schools of Agri-\\nculture, and the National Agronomic Institute at Versailles, the School\\nof Arts and Manufactures at Paris, Chalons, Angers, and Aix, to the\\nMinister of Agriculture and Commerce the Naval Schools at Brest\\nand L Orient, to the Minister of the Marine the Conservatory of Arts\\nand Manufactures, and of Music, to the Minister of the Interior. These\\nschools properly belong to the division of superior instruction, which is\\nnot embraced, except in a general view, in the plan of this Report, but\\nas they are intended to complete the course of studies begun in the\\nhigher schools and academies of our systems of public instruction, and\\nas they furnish useful hints, both as to studies and their applications,\\nfor similar institutions in this country, whether public or private, an ac-\\ncount of several of the most important of this class, will be given.\\nFrance is better supplied with schools of special instruction and vol-\\nuntary and incorporated societies for the promotion of literature, science,\\nand the arts, as well as with various forms of active philanthrophy, than\\nany other country in Europe. The stimulus given to the universal\\nmind of France, by the political revolutions which have changed the\\nwhole face of modern society, while it has made elementary education\\nmore general and active, has also given progress to higher studies, and\\ngreat scientific undertakings.\\nIn addition to 36 learned societies in Paris, recognized and aided by\\ngovernmental grants besides a multitude of others unchartered and\\nbut little known either to one another, or the public there were in\\n1851. in the departments of France 189 learned societies, besides twelve\\narcheological commissions, seventy-eight agricultural associations, and\\nseven hundred commercial societies, to promote the application of science\\nto industry. These associations generally feel the impulse described by\\nLamartine in his address to his colleagues of the Academy of Literature\\nand Science at Maqon You have felt, gentlemen, that knowledge is", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "406 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nyours only on the condition that you diffuse it and to raise tlie low, is to\\nelevate the high. Around you all is progressing. Will you stand\\nalone? Will you suffer yourselves to be overtaken? No; men of leisure\\nor rather workmen workmen of thought and science, it is for us to be\\nthe first to participate in the movement. In a state of civilization where\\nintelligence gives power, rank is maintained only by the maintenance of\\nmoral superiority when the intellectual order is deranged, disorder is\\nnot far off.\\nThere were in 1850. one hundred and sixty-six towns in France, in\\nwhich there were public libraries, containing 5,510,295 volumes of these\\nlibraries, one hundred and nine contained over 10,000 volumes each.\\nThe following summary of the grants comprised in the French Budget\\nof 1847, as voted by the chambers, exhibits the comprehensive charac-\\nter of the aid extended by the government to educational, literary, sci-\\nentific, and artistic purposes.\\nA. In the Department of Public Instruction.\\nI. Central Administration and to aid institutions of special\\ninstruction, such as schools for idiots, the blind deaf\\nmutes, c., $112,000\\nII. University of France including schools of primary, sec-\\nondary, and superior education, 2,800,000\\nIII. Literature and science including libraries in Paris and\\nthe provinces, museums of natural history, the insti-\\ntute of France, c., 600,000\\nB. In the Department of the Interior.\\nSchools of design, and the fine arts, 450,000\\nC. In the Department of Public Works.\\nBuildings connected with science, and the arts, 100,000\\n$4,062,000\\nThe above sum is exclusive of special grants in aid of schools of ag-\\nriculture, commerce, and manufactures, or of charitable institutions in\\nwhich agricultural and mechanical instruction was given, or of expendi-\\ntures fof the galleries of the Louvre, Luxembourg, and Versailles\\namounting to at least another million.\\nThe following survey of the Industrial Instruction of France is\\nabridged from an article in the Retae des deux mondes, for 1851, by A.\\nAmphori, entitled, The intellectual movement among the working\\nclasses.\\nIn the scheme of institutions devoted to this special instruction, the fii-st rank\\nbelong to the conservatory of arts and trades at Paris. This great establishment\\nperforms a twofold duty it collects models, designs or descriptions of machines,\\ninstruments, apparatus, and mechanical tools, and gives public lessons upon the math-\\nematical and physical sciences as applied in the arts. The first idea of the conser-\\nvatory was conceived in the reign of Louis XVL, by a famous mechanic, who\\nseemed to have even drawn from the very sources of life, wherewith to gift his\\nmarvellous mechanisms. The idea of V^aucanson, legislated upon in the year III. of\\n(1794,) the revolutionary era, was not realized until the year VJ. (1796.) Since\\nthat time, the conservatory has followed the developments of the national industry", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. ^Qfj\\nand its methods of action have been increased in number, with reference to its\\ndouble purpose. It now includes four departments the collections of machines,\\nc., a technological library, a department for liigher instruction, and a small prac-\\ntical elementary school.*\\nThe galleries filled with precious material treasures, form what may be called\\nthe archives of the industrial arts. These collections are annually increased, and\\nnow fill thirteen gallt^ ies.\\nThe department of higher instruction was established about the commencement\\nof the restoration. Up to 1817, there had been at the conservatory only a designer\\nand three demonstrators, who gave advice and explanations to those who come to\\nask for them. These accommodations, however, remained nearly useless to the\\npublic. The regular courses were of more value, as also were those commenced\\nin 1819, upon geometry applied to the arts, industrial chemi.stry, and industrial\\neconomy. Besides these three chairs, others were erected, under the govern-\\nment of July, of industrial mechanics, descriptive geometry, chemistry applied to\\nthe arts, industrial legislation, agriculture, and the ceramic arts. The situation of\\nthe institution in the midst of a populous neighborhood, furnishes to its lectures an\\nauditory composed chiefly of working men. It is the merit of these lectures, that\\nthey are clear, simple, intelligible to all. and susceptible of immediate practical ap-\\nplication. Theory is explained in close contact with practice. The workmen,\\neager to learn, crowd to these lessons they hasten thither from the worksliops\\nevery evening. A most fevorable indication is given by the admirable order which\\nreigns throughout this audience in blouses, bestowed in an immense amphitheater,\\nand often overcrowded. Every one is silent and attentive. There is no instance\\nthere of the indecorums so frequent in institutions giving a higher order of\\ninstruction.\\nThe library of the conservatory of arts and trades is appropriated to the mem-\\nbers of the institution. It is distinguished by a fine collection of French and for-\\neign scientific works and contains much which may afford valuable information\\nto practical men in the various branches of industrial art. The lower school,\\nfounded under the empire, may be regarded as a primary school of explained labor,\\n(Industrie raisonnee.) Its three courses, of descriptive and elementary geometry,\\nof mechanical and architectural design, and of industrial design, are attended by\\nfrom a hundred and fifty to two hundred pupils.\\nThe conservatory of arts and trades, as at present constituted, contains very val-\\nuable elements of industrial instruction. Workmen, foremen, chiefs of establish-\\nments, children of mechanics and laborers, come thither to obtain an instruction\\nwhich shall enlighten their career of labor.\\nThe three schools of arts and trades, at Chalons, Angers, and Aix, dependent,\\nlike the conservatory, directly upon the State, are devoted more especially to prac-\\ntical instruction. The eldest, that at Chalons, established for a little while at\\nCompiegne, was erected by a decree of the consular government of the year XI.\\nThe second, created in 181 1, was placed by the imperial government at Beaupreau,\\nin the middle of La Vendee, to become a new center of activity for that ignorant\\nneighborhood. The third dates only from 1843. The schools of arts and trades\\nare intended to train skillful workmen. Each of them is divided into four work-\\nshops the blacksmiths the foundry, the finishers and the carpenters To the\\nthree establishments of Chalons, Angers, and Aix, are appropriated for 1851,\\n.\u00e2\u0080\u00a2$200,200 but deduct from this the sums received by paying scholars, and from\\nthe sale of articles manufactured, and the net expense to the treasury amounts only\\nto about $120,000.\\nOfficial estimates show that more than half the pupils leaving -go into business,\\nas finishers, founders, blacksmiths, machinists, or carpenters. And numbers of\\nthe others are employed in the department of roads and bridges, as overseers or\\nconductors; draftsmen in machine shops, or as architects. The schools of arts\\nand bridges also contribute a remarkably large proportion of the machinists, c.,\\nfor the public steamers. Thus, within the last seven years, have been employed\\nmore than a hundred graduates of these schools, as foremen or firemen. As to\\nthe proportions of theory and practice in the instruction, it is enough to say that\\nThe appropriation to the conservatory in 1851, was S30,000 \u00c2\u00ab18,168 for salaries, and the\\nremainder for other purposes.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "408 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nthe pupils pass seven hours and a half daily in the workshops, and only five hours\\nand a half daily in classes and in the apartments for design. The professors are\\nrigorously obliged, in their lessons, to take the most usual point of view that from\\nwhich the pupil can best see how to use the knowledge he acquires. Since the\\nvote was substituted for ministerial selection of professors, two years since, the\\ncourses of instruction have been so arranged as to drop out jhose theoretical gen-\\ntlemen who are unable to do what they teach.\\nThe principal advantage of these schools is not, in our opinion, the direct influ-\\nence which they exert upon the national industry. The two hundred and fifty\\npupils or thereabout vvlio leave them every year, are scarcely the thousandth part\\nof the workmen who grow -up in France during the same time but the schools\\nshow a style of instruction which serves as a model for comparison. The pupils\\ncarry into private workshops theoretical knowledge which they could not acquire\\nthere, and which is most useful in the explanation of practical labor. Although\\nyet imperfect workmen, they improve more rapidly than the others, and sooner\\nbecome excellent foremen. Although we know that among some foreign nations,\\nhabits supply the place of institutions, among us, these schools will stimulate a little\\nour untoward habits. They have another destination, of higher importance they\\nmay become seminaries of professors for the industrial instruction which the coun-\\ntry waits to see organized, and for which we are now endeavoring to prepare a\\nway. Once improved by the practical training of the private workshops and manu-\\nfactories, the best pupils of these schools will become most useful in the develop-\\nment of this special instruction which needs a body of instructors adapted to its\\npeculiar needs.\\nAn institution established at Paris, the central school of arts and manufactures,\\nalso helps the accomplishment of this same work. The similar nature of its in-\\nstructions alone justifies the assistance granted it by government, which confers\\nupon it a sort of public character.* During an existence of twenty years, the cen-\\ntral school has fully justified the expectations of its founders, it is devoted to the\\neducation of civil engineers, directors of machine-shops, and chiefs of manufacto-\\nries. Besides the four principal courses studied, the mechanic arts, the chemical\\narts, metuUurgy and architecture, it instructs its pupils in all the pursuits of indus-\\ntrial labor. Since chemistry has left laboratories to enter workshops and to per-\\nfect there the results of manufacturing processes since the physical world has\\nbeen searched for the means of employing heat and steam, which have become\\nsuch powerful agents of production, industry has ceased to be abandoned to em-\\npiricism. Every manufacture has asked from science methods quicker, surer, and\\nmore economical. The central school satisfies this demand. By physical and\\nchemical study, it prepares pupils expressly for the direction of industrial labor,\\njust as the polytechnic school, by the study of mathematical science, becomes\\na seminary for the department of public works, and for some other special\\nprofessions.\\nUnder these institutions, which have a general character, may be ranked those\\ninstitutions which we will term local. These may be divided, in respect to their\\ndestination, into two great classes one, consisting of those whose design is to\\ninstruct in the applications of some one science to the industrial arts and the\\nother, of those which confine their instruction to the practice of an art or trade\\nor to the collaterial knowledge necessary to exercise it. To estimate the actual in-\u00c2\u00ab\\nflucnce of both, they must be considered in the place where they exist.\\nIn the northern section, where manfacturing industry reigns supreme, we see\\nonly the arts of design as applied to arts and trades, gratuitously taught. The\\nschools of design established in most of the important towns, are generally of\\nrecent creation. The oldest date from the restoration or from the empire, except\\nthat three or four, have an earlier origin. For instance, the school of Arras, where\\nsome instruction is given, which relates partly to industrial occupations, was\\nfounded by the states- general of Artois, in 1775 that of St. Omer in 1780, and\\nthat of Calais in 1787. These institutions are every where much valued among\\nthe working classes. Some of them contain classes of as many as a hundred and\\nfifty pupils. Some of them are particularly for children, but most for adults.\\nThe State allows the central school an annual sum of 86,000, which is distributed to can-\\ndidates (for prizes) by a vote.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\n409\\nArchitectural design and practical geometry, as applied to cutting stone, wood,\\nc., are often among the studies. In all that populous district which extends from\\nthe Belgian frontier to the western extremity of Normandy, and contains such\\nmanufacturing metropolises as Rouen and Lille, there are only two small institu-\\ntions which really have the character of industrial schools. Une is at Diejipe it\\nis a school for lace-making and open-stitch for young girls. It was founded during\\nthe restoration, and increased during the government of July. It receives about\\nthree hundred pupils, and while giving them a primary school course of instruc-\\ntion, it also instructs them in an occupation. It has exercised a favorable influence\\nupon the laee manufacture there has been organized in connection with it, a\\nboarding department, where some poor girls are supported gratuitously, and edu-\\ncated to become skillful work-women and assistant teachers. The other institutions\\nsituated at Mesnieres, in the arrondissement of Rouen, receives about sixty orphan\\nboys, and trains them for business in workshops appropriate for different trades.\\nSome local societies, as the society of workmen at St. Quentin, \u00c2\u00abSrc., endeavor to\\ninstruct the laboring classes in some occupations.\\nIn our eastern departments, the domain of industrial instruction is less confined.\\nThere are there gome schools, some technic institutions, for the working classes.\\nThe schools of design are more numerous than in the north, and are more de-\\ncidedly directed towards manufactures. The manufacturers of Switzerland, Ger-\\nmany, and England, have more than once had upon their fabrics the marks of the\\ndesigners, engravers, and colorists, trained in the gratuitous schools of the Ilaut-\\nRhin. Some schools of design of rather wider scope, do great service to industry.\\nAmong these may be especially mentioned the school of Saint- Etienne, where are\\nintructed all the designers employed in the neighboring manufactories, and in par-\\nticular by the ribbon-makers, who are so very jealous about the good taste of these\\narticles of ornament. Besides instruction in design, there are given from time to\\ntime public courses of instruction, established and supported by the towns, and\\nparticularly elementary courses in chemistry, in mechanics, physics and mathe-\\nmatics, such as may furnish the workingmen with an intelligent understanding of\\ntheir profession. Among the cities which enjoy to some extent instruction of this\\nsort, may be mentioned Metz, Mulhouse, Colmar, Bar-Je-Duc, Besan^on, Rheims,\\nNancy, Dijon, Rive-de-Gier, Langres, c. These institutions are sometimes the\\nresults of individual effort thus, at Besan^on, a private citizen founded in r829\\na public and free course of study upon mathematics as connected with the arts.\\nAt Bar-le-Duc, industrial courses were established by an association of subscribers,\\nand were taken charge of by the commune. Local societies, among which the\\nindustrial society at Mulhouse is first in influence and resources, have increased\\nthe local activity, and give the initiative to the population in general. In Semur,\\na small town of the C6te-d -0r, a private society. Some manufacturers have imi-\\ntated this example for instance, in the great establishment of Guebwiller (Ilaut-\\nRhin) gratuitous lessons are given to the operatives in linear design, geometry,\\nand machinery.\\nThere are also in the east of France, several institutions devoted more exclu-\\nsively to special purposes. The most important, whose regulations are worthy of\\nmost attention, are at Lyons, Strasbourg, Nancy, and Saint-Etienne. Lyons stands\\nfirst, both for population and manufacturing wealth. Besides the Lamartine school,\\nin which are given instructions in mechanics, physics, chemistry, and design, and also\\na course in the manufacture of cloth, a number of private institutions give practical\\ninstruction in loom-weaving, and the theory of the decomposition of cloth, (decompo-\\nsition des etoffes they instruct also how to set up looms after any required pattern.\\nInstruction is also given in making patterns, in designing for woven fabrics, and in\\nkeeping accounts for workshops. These lessons, as will be observed, go to the\\nlieart of the industry of Lyons. It is only to be wished that it were more liberally\\ndispensed and that the city would make it gratuitous. Lyons has also schools\\nfor teaching designing of figures, stone-cutting, and several schools of design for\\njourneymen carpenters but it is to be regretted that payment is necessary for ad-\\nmission to them. Strasbourg has a well organized school of design, maintained by\\nthe commune. The practical instruction given there, besides elementary theoretic\\ninstruction in mathematical and physical science, includes iron-work at forge and\\nvice, turning, carpentry, lithography, and chemical manipulations. In selecting the\\nworkshop for a pupil, reference is had to his tastes and aptitudes. At Nancy", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "410 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.\\nthere has been for several years established a house for apprentices on an en-\\ntirely new plan. The results have been considered deserving of encouragement\\nby tlie council-general of the department of the jMeurthe. The apprentices form a\\nfamily, and call one another brother. Infractions of rules tji e determined upon by\\na tribunal composed of all those apprentices who have obtained a certain number\\nof good marks. A good mark is given by vote of all tlie pupils. The penalties\\nconsist of a system oi reparations founded upon the nature of each fault. Thus,\\none who breaks silence when silence is ordered, is condemned to keep silence until\\npermitted to break it. If two apprentices quarrel, they must embrace and become\\ncompanions at play for a set time. The pupils of this establishment labor in the\\nworkshops established in it, and attend the communal schools to receive primary\\ninstruction. At Saint-Etienne, a school of mines is intended to furnish conductors\\nof mines, and directors of explorations and rnineralogical workshops. As this in-\\nstruction is gratuitous, workmen may attend the school to be taught mining.\\nIn the department of I Joubs, a practical school of liorology was founded in 1836,\\nat Morteau, for the purpose of preserving and increasing the beautiful employment\\nwhich is important to the labor of that section. In the leisure of winter, always\\nso long among the mountains, the iarmers, shut in so much by the snow, have no\\nother means of occupying their time. The town of Besan9on, the department,\\neven the supreme government, had encouraged the establishment of the school at\\nMorteau, which seemed to promise great success but different causes having di-\\nminished the demand for the clocks from Doubs, the school, after having already\\ndone some good, was forced to be closed. Similar institutions have been unable\\nto support themselves at Dijon and Ma^on. The departments and towns ought to\\nhave afforded them a more liberal support. The same may be said of a school of\\nanother species, for mounting looms, established at Rheims by a local society, in\\nwhich skillful mounters and weavers had already been trained, but which per-\\nished for lack of funds.\\nIn this same region, at one of the most ignorant points of the department of the\\nMeurtho, a project is being put in execution to which we wish the best success.\\nIt is intended to establish a special school for a branch of industry to which, though\\nhumble, a considerable population is confined. The inhabitants of the six com-\\nmunes of the ancient county of Dabo, at the foot of the Vosges, which was united\\nwith France only in 18(il, have no other means of gaining a living than their\\nforest-rights in the public forests, and the execution of carefully carved wood-work.\\nTheir hereditary industry, remaining absolutely stationary, has become surpassed\\nby other products of the same kind, and commerce gradually refuses them. The\\nprojected school is designed to instruct these unskillful turners in methods of labor\\nmore suited to existing tastes and demands. Instruction will be given in making\\nplaythings and domestic utensils, such as those made in Switzerland and in the\\nBlack Forest. In order to have some chances of success, it will be necessary to\\ninstruct the young, and not the adult workmen, whose traditional habits it would\\nbe difficult to alter. These latter, having been exclusively employed in doing\\ncoarse work, would find it very difficult to acquii e delicacy of hand. With this\\nproviso, the plan of the founders of this school appears excellent; when it has suc-\\nceeded, it will be another good example of what our eastern departments can offer\\nin the way of industrial instruction.\\nThe southern section of France is not so favored in this respect it presents a\\nsimilar aspect to the northern. Schools of linear design of trade, architecture or\\ndecoration, existing at Marseilles, Avignon, Montauban, Digne, Aude, Grenoble,\\nTarbes, Grasse, c., a few courses of instruction in three or four towns in the ele-\\nments of chemistry, of physics, of mechanics, of geometry, are almost the only in-\\nstitutions for industrial instruction. The town of Nismes alone is better supplied\\nperhaps there is not in all France another city where special instruction is given\\non so extended a scale. A course of design for manufactures embraces instruction\\nin damasked and in stamped flowers. Another course of geometrical design com-\\npletes the knowledge which the children have received in the elementary schools.\\nThe instruction in chemistry comprehends lessons in dyeing, an important branch\\nof local industry. Admission to all the classes is free. A school of vv eaving, dat-\\ning from 1836, is liberally opened for theoretic and practical instruction in the\\nmanufacture of cloths. The theory is of the processes employed both in brocaded\\nand in plain stuffs the practice consists in the actual weaving of the cloths in the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 411\\nloom. The town furnishes the tools, machines, and raw material, necessary for the\\nwork. B}^ explaining the art of weaving in two aspects, this school has had an\\nexcellent influence upon the manufactures of Nismes. It was only necessary to\\nendeavor to gather into it as many foremen and workmen as possible. In this\\nsame department, of the Gard, at Alais, has been established a school of master-\\nminers. The instruction has not so high a character or purpose as that at Saint-\\nEtienne, at least in that part(jf the course designed for directors of machine-shops.\\nThe practical exercises consist in drawing plans both of the surface of the groniid\\nand of the mines, and in mining in the mints of pit-coal about Alais. The pupils\\nalso practice blacksmithiug, wagon-making, and carpentry. Admission is not free,\\nand scarcely any pupils are expected except those maintained by some department,\\nor by some of the coal companies.\\nIn our western departments the two large cities of Jiordeaux and Nantes ai e\\nthe only ones which have paid much attention to special instruction. In the capi-\\ntal of ancient Guyenne, in 1834 and 183.5, the municipal council founded public\\nand gratuitous courses of instruction in industrial chemistry, mathematics and me-\\nchanics, as applied to arts and trades. The chamber of commerce also, a rich and\\nactive body, established in 1843 a course of chemistry and natural iiistory. A pri-\\nvate society called the philomathic society, whose assistance has often been valua-\\nble to the laboring population of Bordeaux, has for six years defrayed the expense\\nof special instruction the practical part of which consists in linear design and\\ninstruction about the steam-engine. At Nantes, besides that the town maintains\\na free school of design, founded in 1T89, there is a private society known as the\\nindustrial society, whose effi)rts for young workmen are now appreciated through-\\nout France, which is at the head of the industrial training of the masses. It re-\\nceives from the connnune, the department, and the State, assistance which is\\nincreased by private subscriptions. The workmen are counted by hundreds, whose\\nfirst steps it has guided in the rude career of labor. The object of this society is\\ntwo-fold to give its pupils instruction carefully adapted to their condition, and to\\narrange for their apprenticeship in different trades.\\nLa Rochelle and Brest have also made some effiu-ts to introduce industrial edu-\\ncation in the west of France. At La Rochelle, was established in 1844 a theo-\\nretic course in ship-building at Brest, a society called the society of emulation\\nendeavors to instruct in linear design, in drawing plans, c. In this part of\\nFrance, all children, not merely of those of easy circumstances, but of all who are\\nnot altogether too poor, attend, without exception, the classical schools. They are\\noften interrupted in their studies, by the inability of their parents to bear their\\nprolonged expenses, and rarely succeed in reducing to practice, even at a late\\nperiod, the imperfect education they receive. Families unable to send their sons\\nto the high school, content themselves with the ordinary instruction. The idea of\\nspecial instruction is scarcely a germ in this soil, which seems ungenial to it. No-\\nwhere is the word professional applied to insti uction in a narrower or falser\\nsense.\\nThe center of France, excepting the department of the Seine, whose establish-\\nments deserve a distinct notice, is scarcely less ill supplied than the vi est. Most of\\nthe departments are destitute of graded (serieux) establishments also. Schools of\\nlinear design, or of design more or less api licable to industry, exist only at great\\ndistances. There are, however, a few institutions in which some practical instruc-\\ntion is given. For instance, the prytanajum of Menars, established in 1832 in the\\ndepartment of the Loire and Cher, and recently reopened after having been some\\ntime shut, is devoted to industrial studies. The plan of the institution is similar to\\nthat of our schools of arts and trades, but unfortunately has not as great resources\\nat command. The city of Tours has established a course in physics and chemistry,\\nbut it has not been organized upon a sufficiently wide basis to attract many auditors.\\nAt Limoges, the municipal council and the agricultural society, by uniting their\\nefforts, have done much good by m( ans of public and free lessons, in geometry,\\nmechanics, design, modeling, and stereotomy. In the Ilaute-Loire, Le Puy\\nreceived the gift of a free industrial school from private subscriptions, the town\\npaying its annual expenses. This institution, though less complete than that of\\nStrasbourg, is constructed upon the same model, and accommodates a hundred\\nchildren of workmen. There are some special courses at Le Puy also but the\\npractical applications of science are not brought out there. In the department of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "413 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCK.\\nthe Correze, though small and unkindly treated by natui e, we see with pleasure,\\nat Tulle, a free school of mechanical geometry. Linear design is applied there to\\nthe drawing of figures and of machines, to stone cutting, carpentry, and architecture.\\nAt the other extremity of the central section, in the department of the Seine,\\nwhose riches and activity contrast singularly with the nakedness and simplicity of\\nthe country we are leaving, have been united most of the means of industrial in-\\nstruction which are scattered here and there over the surface of France. Paris,\\nnevertheless, contains nothing comparable with the school of weaving at Nismes,\\nwith the private institutions for teaching weaving at Lyons, with the national\\nschools of arts and trades at Chalons, Angers, and Aix. We seek there in vain\\nfor an organized system of practical instruction, provided with all resources neces-\\nsary to meet the public demand. All the establishments of this class in Paris,\\nexcept the national conservatory of arts and trades, may be classed in two divisions;\\none appropriated to those in easy circumstances, or who can pay a monthly fee,\\nthe other gratuitous, and thei efoi e accessible to the working population. In the for-\\nmer class are the Chaptal municipal college and the Turgot school, in both of\\nwhich there is a department of industrial teaching several schools preparatory to\\nthe school of arts and trades schools of architecture, horology, c. From our\\npresent point of view, the latter class calls for our especial attention. The number\\nof public establishments included in it is inconsiderable. Besides the small school\\nof the conservatory, there are hardly any other than free classes in industrial de-\\nsign. Design for woven stuffs does not occupy so prominent a place as it ought;\\nthe artistic element of design is preponderant, which will not be surprising when it\\nis known that by a singularity of which our administration affords more than one\\nexample, these schools are altogether separate from the department of connnerce,\\nand under the direction of that of the fine arts.\\nIn the vast field for industrial instruction among the working classes, the prin-\\ncipal burden has fallen upon private institutions established by charity or by econo-\\nmic foresight. In the immense gulf of the capital, the action of these establish-\\nments does not appear to the indifferent, or to those immersed in business but\\nthough silent and almost unknown, they are a valuable help to the unfortunate and\\nto the helpless, and very profitable to the community. The institution for appren-\\ntices in the city of Paris, under the direction of M. Armand de Melun, trains up\\nto labor, from the pavements of the cit} and from garrets and misery, a crowd of\\nchildren who would otherwise have hastened to populate the prisons. While their\\ninstructors train their minds by primary Instruction, and seek to inspire right sen-\\ntiments into their hearts, they are gradually prepared for the actual life which\\nawaits them. Another institution, that of Saint-Nicolas, receives several hundred\\npupils in two establishments, one at Paris and the other at Issy. Its judicious\\ndirectors mingle a proper amount of elementary instruction with manual labor.\\nLTnfortunately the limited resources of this establishment do not permit it to furnish\\na very great variety of instruction. Other similar institutions are entering the\\nsame course. The work-rooms for girls are actual industrial schools for the most\\nfeeble and exposed portion of the laboring population, and that needing most care.\\nThere are also in Paris small school for apprentices, established almost entirely by\\nthe contributions of foremen for poor orphans. Such enterprises are worthy of\\njudicious encouragement by the municipal council.\\nOther public and gratuitous courses of study, founded by private societies, with\\ndifferent designs and by different means, are assisting to disseminate technical in-\\nstruction among the workmen. When a man has some property, and is thus in a\\nway to fill a useful place in society and to gain his own living, instruction of this\\nkind, carefully adapted to his requirements, dealing with fact rather than with\\ntheory, simple, and appealing to the good sense of the masses, is likely to produce\\nexcellent moral effects. I do not say that all these qualifications actually exist\\nsome additions and retrenchments are necessary. The philosophic sentiment of\\nthe great task of industrial improvement for the masses is not clearly brought out;\\nand the conditions of true practical instruction are often not fulfilled. Yet many\\nhonorable individual efforts have been made in .this direction. They have pro-\\nduced real good, and merit efiective encouragement from the Parisian municipal\\nauthority.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "HISTORY\\nNORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nThe earliest movement towards the professional training of teachers\\nwas made in France by the Abbe de Lasalle, while canon of the Cathe-\\ndral at Rheims, in 1681, and perfected, in his training school for his Insti-\\ntute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, in 1684.\\nIn 1794, by an ordinance of the National Convention a normal school\\nwas established at Paris to furnish professors for colleges and the higher\\nseminaries. The institution was projected on a scale beyond the prepa-\\nration which its earliest pupils could bring, and beyond the wants to be\\nsupplied. The instruction was mainly by lectures, which were delivered\\nby Lagrange, Laplace, Sicard, Laharpe, and other distinguished teach-\\ners and men of science. The experiment was abandoned in 1795, and\\nnot resumed till 1808, when Napoleon re-established the school in the\\nordinance creating the Imperial University of France. It has since\\nbeen maintained for the purpose of training a class of pupils for profes-\\nsorships in the colleges and secondary schools.\\nIn 1810 the first seminary designed for teachers of elementary schools,\\nwas established at Strasbourg, through the liberality of Count de Lezai\\nMarnesia, and the co-operation of the Rector of the Academy, and the\\nprefect of the department of the Lower Rhine. It opened in 1811 as a\\nNormal class of primary school teachers. No pupil was admitted who\\nwas under sixteen yearsof age. or over thirty, or who was not acquainted\\nwith the studies pursued in elementary schools. The course embraced\\nfour years, and included as wide and thorough range of studies as is now\\nrequired in the best Normal Schools of France. The number of pupils\\nwas limited to sixty, and those who enjoyed the benefit of a bourse, or\\nscholarship, came under obligation to teach at least ten years in the\\nschools of the department. Those scholarships were founded partly by\\nindividual liberality, and partly by the department, and by the communes,\\nwhich sent candidates to the school. Under the organization estabUshed\\nin 1810, with such modifications as experience suggested, this school has\\ncontinued ifo^ exert a powerful influence on the cause of popular educa-\\ntion through that section of France, and it now ranks not only as the old-\\nest, but one of the best in Europe. The department of Upper Rhine,\\nwitnessing the results of this experiment in the neighboring communes,\\nappropriated six thousand francs to found scholarships, for the benefit ot\\na certain number of candidates in the seminary at Strasbourg. Accord-\\ning to a Report of M. Guizot to the King, in 1833, it appears that the\\nstate of primary education m the two departments constituting the Acad-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "414 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nemy of Strasbourg, was far in advance of any other section of France.\\nGood schools were more numerous; fewer communes were destitute of\\nGchoois; and the slow and defective method of individual instruction had\\ngiven place to more lively and simultaneous methods of class instruction.\\nIn all respects the superiority of the popular schools is striking, and the\\nconviction of the people is as general that this superiority is mainly due\\nto the existence of this Normal School.\\nThe establishment of two Normal Schools for the departments of Mo-\\nselle and Meuse, in 1830, was followed by the same results, the estab-\\nlishment of schools in communes before destitute, and the improvement\\nof schools already in operation, by the introduction of better methods. In\\n1828 a new impulse was given to educational improvement by public-\\nspirited individuals and teachers associations in Paris, and other parts of\\nFrance, which led to the establishment of a fourth Normal School in the\\ndepartment of Vosges, and a fifth in that of Meuth. About the same\\ntime a Normal course of instruction was opened in the college of Charle-\\nville, for the department of Ardennes, and the foundations of superior\\nNormal Schools were laid at Dijon, Orleans, and Bourges, as well as a\\nTraining School for the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Rouen. At\\nthe close of 1829, there were thirteen Normal Schools in operation. The\\nmovement already commenced, received a new impulse in the right direc-\\ntion by the Revolution of 18.30, which in this respect was as beneficent as\\nthe Revolution of 1791 was disastrous. In the three years immediately\\nfollowing the change of dynasty in 1830, thirty-four new Normal Schools\\nwere established in ditferent sections of France, and wherever they were\\nestablished they contributed to the opening of primary schools in com-\\nmunes before destitute, and of diffusing a knowledge of better methods\\namong teachers who did not resort to these seminaries. But the most\\nauspicious event was the publication of M. Cousin s Report on the con-\\ndition of Public Instruction in several of the States of Germany, and espe-\\ncially in Prussia, in 1832. A considerable portion of this report was\\ndevoted to an account of the best Normal Schools of Prussia, and to the\\nmost emphatic recommendation of the same policy in France. The fol-\\nlowing valuable suggestions were made on this subject, most of which\\nwere subsequently embodied in the Law of Primary Instruction, and the\\nRegulations of the Minister relating to Normal Schools.\\nI have already remarked, that as every commune must have its pri-\\nmary school, so every department must have its primary Normal School.\\nIf the same law which shall render the former imperative on the com-\\nmunes, should render the latter equally imperative on the departments,\\nwe should have made a great advance. If the law does not go so far as\\nthat, you must at all events come at the same results by administrative\\nmeasures you must require every council-general of a department,\\nthrough the medium of the prefect, to vote funds for the establishment of\\na primary Normal School, under condition of binding yourself to contrib-\\nute a greater or less portion of the total expenditure, and to take upon", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 415\\nyourself, 1. the salary of the director, whom you would nominate; 2. the\\nbooks, maps, and instruments necessary for the use of the students. It\\nmust be laid down as a principle, tiiat every department must have its\\nJJormal School; but that school should be proportioned to the extent and\\nthe wealth of the department, and it may, with equal propriety, be small\\nin one and large in another. I take the liberty of referring to a very\\nsimple and very economical plan on which a primary Normal School may\\nat first be organized.\\nChoose the best-conducted primary school in the department, that\\nwhich is in the hands of the master of the greatest ability and trust-wor-\\nthiness. Annex to this school a class called Normal, in which this same\\nmaster shall teach his art to a certain number of young men of the de-\\npartment, who are willing to come to it to form themselves for school-\\nmasters. None should be admitted till after an examination, made by a\\ncommission appointed by you. This commission must send you the re-\\nsults of its labors and it would be well that the admission of the students\\nto the primary Normal School should be signed by you, as is the case in\\nthe admission of students to the great Normal School for the instruction\\nof the second degree. This small Normal School ought never to be placed\\nin a very large town, the influence of which would be adverse to that\\nspirit of poverty, humility and peace, so necessary to the students. There\\nis no objection to their being day-pupils, provided they are responsible for\\ntheir conduct out of the house. Nor is it necessary that all should receive\\nexhibitions, or purses, especially whole purses. In all small towns there\\nare families in which a young man may be boarded and lodged for about\\n300 francs a year, ($60;) so that 3000 francs, ($600,) prudently divided\\ninto whole, half, and quarter purses, would easily defray the cost often or\\nfifteen students. Give the master the title of Director of the Normal\\nSchool, which would be a real gain to him, inasmuch as it would increase\\nhis consideration and for the additional labor you impose upon him, give\\nhim a salary of 700 or 800 francs. Add a yearly allowance of 400 or jOO\\nfrancs for books, maps, and other things required in teaching and thus,\\nfor 5000 francs, ($1000,) at the utmost, you have a small Normal Schoolj\\nwhich will be extremely useful to the department. The pupils should be\\npermitted to leave it if they choose, in a year, provided they be able to go\\nthrough the examination at quitting, on which depends their obtaining\\nthe brevet of primary teacher. Yes, it rests with you, by means of a\\ncircular to this effect, addressed to all the prefects of the kingdom, to have\\nin a few months, eighty-four small primary Normal Schools in France.\\nThe plan which I propose does not commit you to any future measures,\\nyet it at once covers France with Normal Schools which will supply our\\nfirst wants. It is for time, zeal, intelligence, and perseverance to do the\\nrest. There must always necessarily be a great difference among the\\nNormal Schools of our eighty-four departments but the best way is, to\\ngo on gradually improving, in proportion as experience shows you what\\nis required. Even with this wise tardiness, three or four years will suffice\\nto improve all these small Normal Schools, and to raise a great number\\nto the rank of complete great Normal Schools.\\nThe difference between a great and a small Normal School consists in\\nthis a small Normal School is only an appendage to a primar} school,\\nwhilst a great Normal School is an establishment subsisting by and for\\nitself, to which a primary school (and if possible that should comprise\\nboth an elementary and a middle school) is annexed.\\nThis difference gives the measure of all other differences. In the\\nsmall Normal School there are only day-pupils, or at most a few board-\\ners. In the great, the majority may be boarders. In the one, the course\\nmay be terminated in a year in the other, it should extend through two\\nyears, as at Bruhl and even, in time, according to the resources of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "416 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\ndepartments and the progress of public education, it might embrace three\\nyears, as in most of the great Normal Schools of Prussia, Potsdam, for\\nexample. The departments must be the judges of their resources and ot\\ntheir wants. A department which wants twenty schoolmasters a year,\\nand which has a certain number of middle or burgher schools, as well as\\nmany elementary schools, can very well receive twenty pupils a year\\nwhich, supposing the course to occupy two or three years, amounts to forty\\nor sixty pupils at a time in the school. Then there must be accommoda-\\ntion Ibr boarding them, a large building, a greater number of masters,\\nmore exhibitions, (bourses,) more expense of every sort.\\nIn the hope that the i ew great primary Normal Schools we already\\npossess will soon be succeeded by others, I beg your attention to the Ibl-\\nlowing maxims, deduced from general experience, and from all the data\\nI have accumulated here.\\nI. To begin by giving instructions rather than rules to confine your-\\nself in these instructions to the establishing of a few essential points, and\\nto leave the rest to the departmental committee. To discuss and decide\\nthis small number of points in the royal council; not to multiply them,\\nbut inriexibly to enforce their execution. The fewer they are, the more\\neasy will this execution be, and the more susceptible will they be of ap-\\nplication to all the Normal Schools of France so that there would be a\\ncommon groundwork for all a unity, which, passing Irom the Normal\\nSchools into the whole body of popular education, would have a beneficial\\ninfluence in strengthening the national unity. At the same time, this\\nunity would not be prejudicial to local diversities for the departmental\\ncommittee would be desired to apply your general instructions according\\nto the peculiar manners or usages of the department. From the combina-\\ntion of the uniformity of these instructions, with the diversity of arrange-\\nments which the prudence and intelligence of the committee, and the\\nexperience of each year, will recommend, a set of regulations for each\\nNormal School will gradually arise, more or less definitive, and therelbre\\nfit to be made public. The plan of study of the great Normal School at\\nParis, for the supply of the royal and communal colleges, is the fruit of\\nfifteen years experience. This school, which was founded in 1810, had\\nno written laws till 1815. We made important modifications in those\\nlaws at the Revolution of 1830, and it was not till then that we ventured\\nto print them, as the result, nearly definitive, or at least likely to endure\\nfor some time, of all the experiments successively tried. Let us imitate\\nthis caution, and begin with a simple set of instructions from the minister.\\nRules for the studies and the discipline will gi adually arise. Every year\\nwill modify them. The important thing is, to exact an accurate account\\nof the proceedings and results of the year, drawn up by the director, and\\ntransmitted to you, together with all the necessary documents, by the de-\\npartmental committee and the prefect, who will subjoin their own opinion.\\nThen, and then only, you will interpose your authority, with that of tJie\\nroyal council, which will revise this report every year at the vacation, and\\npronounce on the improvements to be introduced.\\nII. To attach the greatest possible importance to the choice of a director.\\nIt is a principle generally established in Prussia, that the goodness of a\\nNormal School is inexact proportion to the goodness of the director just\\nas the primary school is what its master is. What constitutes a Normal\\nSchool is not a fine building; on the contrary, it is not amiss that it should\\nnot be over commodious or splendid. It is not even the excellence of the\\nregulations, which, without a faithful and intelligent execution of them,\\nare only a useless bit of paper. A Normal School is what its director is.\\nHe is the life and soul of it. If he is a man of ability, he will turn the\\npoorest and humblest elements to account if he is incapable, the best\\nand most prolific will remain sterile in his hands. Let us by no means", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 417\\nmake our directors mere house-stewards. A director ought to be at the\\nhead of the mo.st important branches of instruction, and to set an example\\nto all the other masters. He must have long lulfilled the duties of a mas-\\nter; first, in different classes of a Normal course of education, so that he\\nmay have a general knowledge of the wliole system secondly, in several\\nNormal Schools, so that he may have experience of difficulties of various\\nkinds; lastly, he must not be placed at the head of a Normal School oi\\nthe highest class, till he has been director of several of an inferior class,\\nso as to graduate promotion according to merit, and thus keep up an hon-\\norable emulation.\\nIII. An excellent practice in Germany is, to place the candidates, im-\\nmediately on their leaving the Normal School, as assistant masters in\\nschools which admit of two. The young men thus go through at least a\\nyear of apprenticeship. a very useful novitiate they gain age and ex-\\nperience, and their final appointment depends on their conduct as assist-\\nant masters. I regard every gradation a-= extremely useful, and I think\\na little graduated scale of powers and duties might be advantageously\\nintroduced into primary instruction.\\n1st. Pupil of a Normal School admitted after competition, holding a\\nmore or less high rank in the examination list at the end of each year,\\nand quitting the school with such or such a number. 2d. Same pupil\\npromoted to the situation of assistant master. 3d. Schoolmaster succes-\\nsively in diflerent schools rising in salary and in importance. 4th. After\\ndistinguished services, master in a primary Normal School. 5th. Lastly,\\ndirector of a school of that class, with the prospect of gradually rising to\\nbe director of a numerous and wealthy Normal School, which would be a\\npost equal to that of professor of a royal college. The human soul lives\\nin the future. It is ambitious, because it is infinite. Let us then open to\\nit a progressive career, even in the humblest occupations.\\nIV. We can not be too deeply impressed with this truth that paid\\ninstruction is better than gratuitous instruction. The entire sum paid for\\nboard at a Normal School must be extremely moderate, for the young\\nmen of the poorest classes to be able to pay it. We must give only quar-\\nter or half exhibitions, (^bourses,) reserving two or three whole ones Ibr\\nthe two or three young men, out of the fifteen admitted annually, who\\nBtand first on the list and even this should not be continued to them the\\nsecond year, unless their conduct had been irreproachable and their appli-\\ncation unremitting.\\nOn the same principle as that laid down above, the elementary school\\nannexed to the Normal School ought not to be entirely gratuitous it\\nought to have no other masters than the forwardest pupils of the Normal\\nSchool, acting under the direction of their masters. The profits of the\\nelementary school for practice would go to diminish the total cost of the\\nNormal School. As for the middle school for practice, it would be con-\\ntrary to the principle of all middle schools to have it gratuitous.\\nV. Divide the studies of all Normal Schools into two parts: during\\nthe first, the pupils should be considered simply as students, who.se ac-\\nquirements are to be confirmed, extended, and methodized during the\\nsecond, as masters, who are to be theoretically and practically taught the\\nart of teaching. If the Normal course only lasts a year, this part of it\\nought to occupy at least six months if it lasts two years, it ought to oc-\\ncupy a year if three years, it would still occupy only a year. The stu-\\ndents in this last year would give lessons in the elementary and middle\\nschools annexed to the Normal School.\\nVI. The examination at quitting ought to be more rigid than that at\\nentering the school. The important thing is to have young men of good\\ncapacity, even if they know little; for they will learn rapidly; while\\nsome, who might not be deficient in a certain quantity of acquired know-\\n27", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "418 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nledge, but were dull or wrong-headed, could never be made good Fchool-\\nmasters. No latitude vvliatever must be left to the Comiiiission of Exam-\\nination at departure. Here, intelligence must sliow itself in positive\\nattainments, since opportunitj^ to acquire them has been given. Nothing\\nbut negligence can have stood in their way. and tiiat negligence would\\nbe the greatest of all faults. This latter examination, therefore, must be\\ndirected to ascertain the acquired, and not the natural fitness. But in\\nthe examination on entering, I wish that the Commission should more\\nparticularly inquire into the talents and natural bent, and, above all. into\\nthe moral character and disposition. A little discretionary power ought\\nto be confided to it. This applies more especially to those Normal\\nSchools, the course of which lasts two or three years. Three years of\\nstudy will not give intelligence; but they will give all the necessary\\nattainments in abundance.\\nVli. It is my earnest desire, that conferences* should be formed among\\nthe schoolmasters ol each canton. I wish it, but have but little hope of it,\\nat least at first. Such conferences suppose both too great a love for their\\nprofession, and too great a familiarity with the spirit of association. A\\nthing much more easy to accomplish is, that during the vacations of the\\nprimary schools, a certain number of masters should repair to the Normal\\nSchool of the department to perfe(;t themselves in this or that particular\\nbranch, and to receive lessoiis appropriate to their wants, as is the case\\nin Prussia. This time would be very usefully, and even very agreeably\\nemployed for the young masters would be brought into contact with\\ntheir old instructors and companions, and would have an opportunity of\\nrenewing and cementing old friendships. Here would be an interesting\\nprospect for them every year. For such an object, we musi not grudge\\na httle expense lor their journey and their residence. I siiould therefore\\nwish that the vacations of the primary schools, wiiich must be regulated\\nby certain agricultural labors, should always precede those of the primary\\nNormal Schools, in order that the masters of the former might be able to\\ntake advantage of the lessons in the latter, and might be present at the\\nparting exammations of the third year, which would be an excellent ex-\\nerci.se for the young acting masters.\\n1 am convinced of the utility of having an inspector of primary schools\\nfor each department, who would spend the greater part of the year in\\ngoing from school to school, in stirring up the zeal of the masters, in giv-\\ning a right direction to that of the communal committee.s, and in keeping\\nup a general and very beneficial liarmony among the uiaires and the\\ncures. It is unnecessary for me to say, that this inspector ought always\\nto be some old master of a Normal School, selected for his talents, and\\nstill more for his tried character. But if this institution, which is univer-\\nsal in Germany, were not popular among us, nearly the same results\\nmight be obtained by authorizing the director, or in default of him, some\\nmasters of the Normal School, to visit a certain number of the schools oi\\nthe department every year, during the vacation of their own school, and\\nto do what would be done by the inspector above named. They would\\nfind great facilities from their old habits of intercourse and friendship with\\nmost of the masters, over whom they would exercise almost a paternal\\ninfluence. On the other hand, they would gain by these visits, and would\\nacquire a continually increasing experience, which would turn to the ad-\\nvantage of the Normal Schools. You have seen that in Prussia, besides\\nthe visits of tiiecircle-inspectors.the directors of Normal Schools make visit-\\nations of this kind, for which they receive some very slender remuneration\\nfor these little journeys are sources oi pleasure to them, as well as of util-\\nity to the public.\\nSee notes to Professor Stowe s Essftyy page 243.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 419\\nVIII. Let solidity, rather ihnn extent, be aimed at, in the course ofin-\\nEtruction. The young masters must know a lew tilings tundaiaentally.\\nrather lliau .many thing.s supei-ficialiy. Vague and suiJerticial altai i-\\nments must be avoidt d al any rate. The steady co.itinuous labor which\\nmust be gone through lo know any t hi ig whatsoever thoroughly^ i.s an\\nadmirable discipline lor the mind. Besi.ies, nothing is so proliHc as one\\nthing well known it is an excellent starting point for a thousand others.\\nThe final examinations must be mainly direcied to the elements. they\\nmust probe lo the bottom, they must keep solidiiy always in view.\\nIX. Avoitl ambitious methods and exclusive systems: attend, above\\nall to results, that is to say, to solid acquirements and, witii a view to\\nthem, consult experience. Clear explanations on every subject, connect-\\ned. less and continuity in the lessons, vvilh an ardent love for the business\\nofteaching, are worth all the general rules and methods in the world.\\nX. A branch of study common to all schools ought to be the French\\ntongue; the just pronunciation of words, and tlic purity and correctness\\nof language. By this m.ans the natio:ial language would insensibly\\nsuper^^ede the rude unintelligible dialects and provincialisms. In the Nor-\\nmal Schools rtlierc; German is still the language of the people, German\\nand F rench must both be lauglit, in order not to oii end against local\\nattachments, and at the same time to implant the spirit of nationality.\\nXI. Without neglecting physical science, and the knowledge applica-\\nble to the arts of life we nui.st make moral science, which is of far higher\\nimportance, our main object. Tlie mind and the character are what a\\ntrue master ought, above all. to fashion. We uuist lay the foundations of\\nmoral life in the souls ol our young masters and theretbre we must place\\nreligious instruction, that is to speak distinctly, Christian instruction. in\\nthe first rank in the education of our Normal Schools. Leaving to the\\ncure, or to the pastor of the place, the care of instilling the doctrines pecu-\\nliar lo each communion, we must constitute religion a special object of\\ninstruction, which must have its place in each year of the Normal course;\\nso that at the end of the entire course, the young masters, without being\\ntheologians, may have a clear and precise knowledge of the history, doc-\\ntrines and, above all, the moral precepts of Chi istianity. VV itiioul this.\\nthe pupils, when they becoiae masters, would be incapable of giving any\\nother religious instruction than the mechanical repetition of the catechism,\\nwhich would be quite insutficient. I would particularly urge this point,\\nwhich is the most ini[)ortant and the most delicate of all. Betbre we can\\ndecide on what shoulil constitute a true primary Normal School, we must\\ndetermine what ought to be the character of a simple elementary school,\\nthat is, a humble vUlage school. TUe popular schools of a nation ought\\nto be imbued with the religious spirit of that nation. Now without going\\ninto the question of diversities of doctrine, is Christianiiy. or is it not. the\\nreligion of the people of France? It can not be denied that it is. I ask\\nthen, is it our object to respect the religion of the people, or to destroy it?\\nIf we mean to set about destroying it, then, I allow, we ought by no\\nmeans lo have it taught in the people s schools. But if the object we\\npropose to ourselves is totally ditlerent, we must teach our children that\\nreligion which civilized our fathers; that religion whose liberal spirit pre-\\npared, and can alone sustain, all the great institutions of modern times.\\nWe must also permit the clergy to fulfil their first duty, the superintend-\\nence of religious instruction. But in order to stand the test of this superin-\\ntendence with honor, the schoolmastej- umst be enabled lo give adequate\\nreligious instruction; otherwise parents, in order to be sure that their\\nchildren receive a good religious education, will require us to appoint\\necclesiastics as schoolmasters which though assuredly belter than having\\nirreligious schoolmasters, would be liable to very serious objections of\\nvarious kinds. The less we desire our schools to be ecclesiastical, the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "420 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nmore ought they to be Christian. It necessarily follows, that there must\\nbe a course of special religious instruction in our Normal Schools. Reli-\\ngion is, in my eyes, the best, perhaps the only, basis of popular educa-\\ntion. I know something of Europe, and never have I seen good schools\\nwhere the spirit of Christian charity was wanting. Primary instruction\\nflourishes in tliree countries, Holland-, Scotland, and Germany; in all it is\\nprofoundly religious. It is said to be so in America. The little popular\\ninstruction I ev^er found in Italy came from the priests. In France, with\\nfew exceptions, our best schools for the poor are those of the Freres de la\\nDoctrine Chretienne. (Brothers of the Christian Doctrine. These are facts\\nwhich it is necessary to be incessantly repeating to certain persons. Let\\nthem go into the schools of the poor, let them learn what patience, what\\nresignation, are required to induce a man to persevere in so toilsome an\\nemployment. Have better nurses ever been Ibund than those benevolent\\nnuns who bestow on poverty all those attentions we pay to wealth?\\nThere are things in human society which can neither be conceived nor\\naccomplished without virtue, that is to say, when .speaking of the mass,\\nwithout religion. The schools tor the middle classes maybe an object of\\nspeculation; but the country schools, ihe miserable little schools in the\\nsouth, in the west, in Britanny, in the mountains of Auvergne, and, with-\\nout going so far, the lowest schools of our great cities, of Paris itself, will\\nnever hold out any adequate inducement to persons seeking a remunera-\\nting occupation. There will doubtless be some philosophers inspired\\nwith the ardent pliiianthropy of Saint Vincent de Paule. without his reli-\\ngious enthusiasm, who would devote themselves to this austere vocation;\\nbut the question is not to have here and there a master. We have more,\\nthan Ibrty thousand schools to serve, and it were wise to call religion to\\nthe aid of our insufficient means, were it but for the alleviation of the\\npecuniary burdens of the nation. Either you must lavish the treasures\\nof the state, and the revenues of the comnnmes, in order to give high\\nsalaries, and even pensions, to that new order of tradesmen called school-\\nmasters or you must not imagine you can do without Christian charity,\\nand that spirit of poverty, humility, courageous resignation, and modest\\ndignity, which Christianity, rightly understood and wisely taught, can\\nalone give to the teachers of the people. The more I think of all this, the\\nmore 1 look at the schools in this country, the more I talk with the direct-\\nors of Normal Schools and councilors of the ministry, the more I am\\nstrengthened in the conviction that we must make any eflbrts or any\\nsacrifices to come to a good understanding with the clergy on the subject\\nof popular education, and to constitute religion a special and very care-\\nfully-taught branch of instruction in our primary Normal Schools.\\ni am not ignorant that this advice will grate on the ears of many per-\\nsons, and that Ishall be thought extremely devout at Paris. Yet it is not\\nfrom Rome, but from Berlin, that I address you. The man who holds\\nthis language to you is a philosopher, formerly disliked, and even perse-\\ncuted, by the priesthood but this philosopher has a mind too little affect-\\ned by the recollection of his own insults, and is too well acquainted with\\nhuman nature and with history, not to regard religion as an indestructi-\\nble power: genuine Christianity, as a means of civilization for the people,\\nand a necessary support tor those on whom society imposes irksome and\\nhumble duties, without the slightest prospect offortune, without the least\\ngratification of self-love.\\nI am now arrived at the termination of this long report. May it be of\\nuse to you in the important work which now engages your attention\\nMy illustrious colleague, M. Cuvier, has already exhibited to France the\\norganization of primary instruction in Holland. The experience of Ger-\\nmany, and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon us. National\\nrivalries or antipathies would here be completely out of place. The true", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 421\\nf neatness of a people does not consist in borrowing nothing from others,\\nut in borrowing from all whatever is good, and in perfecting whatever it\\nappropriates.\\nI am as great an enemy as any one to artificial imitations but it is\\nmere pusillanimity to reject a thing for no other reason than that it has\\nbeen thought good by others. With the promptitude and justness of the\\nFrench understanding, and the indestructible unity of our national char-\\nacter, we may assimilate all that is good in other countries without lear\\nof ceasing to be ourselves. Placed in the center of Europe, possessing\\nevery variety of climate, bordering on all civilized nations, and holding up\\nperpetual intercourse with them, France is essentially cosmopolitan and\\nindeed this is the main source of her great influence. Besides, civilized\\nEurope now forms but one great family. We constantly imitate England\\nin all that concerns outward life, the mechanical arts, and physical refine-\\nments; why, then, should we blush to borrow something from kind, hon-\\nest, pious, learned Germany, in what regards inward life and the nurture\\nof the soul?\\nFor my own part, I avow my high esteem and peculiar affection for\\nthe German people; and I am happy that my mission proved to them\\nthat the revolution of July, that revolution, as necessary and as just as\\nthe legitimate right of self defense that revolution, sprung from the\\nunanimous resistance of a great people to a capricious aggression, an\\nopen violation, not of hypothetical rights, but of liberties secured by law,\\nis not, as its enemies pretend, a return to the impiety, the licentiousness\\nand the corruption of a fatal period but, on the contrary, the signal for\\na general improvement in opinion and in morals since one of the first acts\\nof the new government has been the holy enterprise of the amelioration of\\npublic education, of which the instruction of the people is the basis.\\nWith this preparation, a good beginning already made in several de-\\npartments, and the long and successful experience of Prussia and other\\nGerman states before him, a regulation was framed by M. Guizot, and\\nsanctioned by the Council of Public Instruction, by which, in connection\\nwith the law of 1833, a system of Normal Schools has been established\\nand is fast regenerating the elementary instruction in France. The fol-\\nlowing is an outline of the system\\nEach department is obliged, either alone or in conjunction with other\\nneighboring departments, to support one Normal School for the education\\nof its schoolmasters.\\nThe expense of this establishment for building, apparatus, and instruc-\\ntion, is borne mainly by the department, whilst the direction of the educa-\\ntion given in it is vested in the Minister of Public Instruction, who is re-\\nsponsible to the Chambers, of both of which he is an ex officio member,\\nfor the right exercise of his power.\\nThe immediate management of Normal Schools and of the model\\nschools annexed is committed to a Director who is appointed by the Min-\\nister, on the presentation of the prefect of the department, and the rector\\nof the academy. These directors are paid wholly or partially from the\\npublic funds set apart by the department for public instruction. If the\\ndepartment refuses or neglects to provide sufficient funds, the govern-\\nment enforces the collection of the necessary tax; if the department is\\noverburdened, the government contributes its aid.\\nTo meet the expense of board, the pupils are assisted by gratuities, or\\nbursaries, which the communes, departments, the university, the state,\\nand even individuals, have established for this purpose. These burses\\nare usually granted in halves or quarters, the rest of the expense being", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "422 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nborne by the pupils. Of 1944 pupiF-teachers in 1834, 1308 were bursars\\nol the departments, 118 of the communes, 245 of the state, and 273 were\\nmaintained at their own expense.\\nEvery candidate for admission to these institutions, and to the enjoy-\\nment of a bourse, or any part of one, must bind himself to follow the pro-\\nfession of a parish schoolmaster for ten years at least after quitting the\\ninstitution; and to reimburse it for the whole expense of his maintenance,\\nif he fail to fulfill his decennial engagement. He must have completed\\nhis sixteenth year; and besides the ordinary elementary acquirements,\\nmust produce evidence both of good previous character, and of general\\nintelligence and aptitude to learn. Most of the bursaries are adjudged\\nupon a comparative trial among competitors, who are likely to become\\nevery year more nnmerous and the examination for admission is so well\\narranged and conducted, that it tends to raise higher and higher the\\nstandard of previous acquirement.\\nThe course of instruction and training to which the youth is thus intro-\\nduced, occupies two years of eleven months each, i. e. from tiie first of\\nOctober to the first of the ensuing September, and embraces the follow-\\ning objects:\\n1st. iVIoral and religious instruction. The latter, in as far as it is dis-\\ntinct from the former, is given by the clergyman of the particular faith\\nwhich the pupil happens to profess.\\n2d. Reading, with the grammar of their own language.\\n3d. Arithmetic, including an intimate and practical acquamtance with\\nthe legal system of weights and measures. This knowledge is made to\\nhold so prominent a part in the program of instruction, as atlbrding the\\nbest means of introducing that admirable system into the habits of the\\nFrench people, among whom, from ignorance and prejudice, it is still far\\nfrom being generally adopted.\\n1th. Linear drawing, and construction of diagrams, land-measuring,\\nand other applications of practical geometry.\\notli. Elements of physical science, with a special view to the purposes\\nof ordinary life.\\n6th. iVlusic, taught by the eye as well as by the ear.\\n7th. Gymnastics.\\n8th. The elements of general geography and history, and the particu-\\nlar geography and history of France.\\n9th. The pupils are instructed, and, wherever the locality admits, exer-\\ncised also, in the rearing of esculent vegetables, and in the pruning and\\ngrafting of trees.\\n10th. They are accustomed to the drawing out of the simpler legal\\nforms and civil deeds.\\nA library for the use of the pupils is fitted up within the premises and\\na sum is set apart every year Ibr the purchase of such works as the Coun-\\ncil of Public Instruction may judge likely to be useful to the young\\nschoolmasters.\\nThe course of study is, for the present, limited to two years, instead of\\nthree, which is the term ultimately contemplated as the most desirable.\\nDuring the second of those years, instruction in the principles of the art of\\nteaciiing is kept constantly in view and for the last six months, in partic-\\nular, the pupils are trained to the practical application of the most approved\\nmethods, by being employed as assistants in the different classes of the\\nprimary schools, which are invariably annexed to the JNormal, and form\\npart and parcel of the establishment.\\nThe director, besides general superintendence, is charged with some\\nimportant branch of the instruction the rest is devolved on his adjuncts,\\nor assistant masters, who reside in the establisimient.\\nAny graduate of a Normal School can attend any of the courses of in-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 423\\nBtruction in the Normal School of the department in which he resides, to\\nlearn new methods, or improve previous acquirements. The depart-\\nments are authorized to grant assistance to such teachers. The IVormal\\nSchools admit pupils of dillerent religious denominations. All sectarian\\ninstruction is avoided in the general lessons, and the j)upils receive this\\ninstruction at times set apart for it li om clergymen of their own church.\\nUntil a pupil has obtained a certificate of his proficiency in the doctrines\\nof liis own religion, fi-om a minister of his own church, he can not officiate\\nas a schoolmaster. Any person who ventures to conduct a public school\\nwithout having obtained from the departmental committee of examination\\na certificate of qualification, is liable to a fine of two hundred francs.\\nThe Departmental Committee, or Commission of Examination, is com-\\nposed of at least seven members appointed by the Minister of Public\\nInstruction, upon the recommendation of the rector of the academy.\\nThree members at least must be selected from among those who have\\nalready exercised, or are at the time exercising the function of public\\nteachers, and who are most hkely to unite ability and integrity. It is\\nrecommended that one of the seven be a clergyman. To act. saya\\nthe Minister, in a circular addressed to each of the twenty-six rectors,\\nto act in concert with the three members belonging to the body of Pub-\\nlic Instruction in these Commissions (V examen, a minister of religion will\\ndoubtless be summoned. The law has put moral and religious instruction\\nin the foremost rank; the teacher, therefore, must give proof of his being\\nable to communicate to the children intrusted to his care, those important\\nideas which are to be the rule of their lives. Doubtless every functionary\\nof public instruction, every father of a family who shall be placed on thia\\ncommission by your recommendation, as rector of the academy, will be\\nllillyable to appreciate the moral and religious attainments of the candi-\\ndates; but it is, nevertheless, fit and proper, that the future teachers of\\nyouth should exhibit proof of their capacity in this respect, belbre persons\\nwhom their peculiar character and special mission more particularly qual-\\nify to be judges in tliis matter.\\nTlie most important of all the duties devolved upon these examining\\ncommissions, is that of conferring on the pupil, when he quits the institu-\\ntion, a brevet de capacite. Carelessness, partiality, or ignorance, in the\\ndischarge of it, would entirely defeat the main object of the law on primary\\ninstruction. This brecet, certifying the holder s fitness to be a teacher,\\neither in the lower or higher grade of primary schools, constitutes his\\npassport to the labors and honors of his profession. With it, and his cer-\\ntificate of good conduct in his pocket, he may carry his skill and industry\\nto any market he pleases, without further let or impediment.\\nThere are three grades of certificates of qualification for both element-\\nary and superior primary; Ires bien, (very good.) bien. (good,) and assez-\\nbien. (sufficient.) which infuses a spirit of competition throughout the\\npupils of the Normal Schools, and the public schools generally.\\nThe system of Normal Schools has remained substantially on this basis\\nto the present time. Every year has extended and consolidated its influ-\\nence in spite of the interested opposition of old and inefficient teachers,\\nwho find themselves less and less appreciated, and the complaint of local\\ncommittees, who in many instances are disposed to take up with the first\\nteacher who presents himself, whether qualified or not. Their number\\nhas increased from forty-three in 1833 to ninety-three in 1849, including\\nten Institutes belonging to the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, and\\nthree for female teachers, under the ausjiices of an association of Christian\\nEducation, on a similar plan. In 1834 there were but 1,044 graduates ol", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "424 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE.\\nNormal Schools employed in the primary schools in 1848, this number\\nhad increased to 10,545. The expense of this branch of the school sys-\\ntem cost in 1841, according to a report of M. Villemain,\\nTo the State, 164,445 francs.\\nCommunes, 23,890\\nDepartments, 1,081,348\\nPupils, 268,520\\nTotal, 1,538,203", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCES. OR TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS,\\nAND TEACHERS LIBRARIES.\\nThe suggestion of M. Cousin in his Report* as to the utility of conferen-\\nces of teachers, was not acted upon by the Council of Public Instruction\\nuntil 1837. In February of that year, a law was presented by the Minis-\\nter of this department and passed by the Chambers on this subject. The\\nsubstance of this law is presented in the following remarks by M. Willm,\\nm his valuable treatise on the Education of the People.\\nThis law treats, in the first place, of the object of conferences and then, of\\ntheir epochs and government. The first article authorizes the teachers of one\\nor several districts to assemble, with the sanction of the local authorities, and,\\nunder the close inspection of the committee of the department, to confer amongst\\nthemselves on the different subjects of their teaching on the ways and methods\\nthey employ and on the principles which ought to be adopted in the education\\nof children and conduct of masters. Every other subject of discussion must be\\nexcluded from these conferences. In regard to this article, I would observe,\\nthat it would not be advantageous for teachers who thus assemble to be very\\nnumerous; and that they must avoid coming from too great a distance to the\\nplace of meeting. Neither must they be very few in number; because, in that\\ncase, there would be too little variety and animation in their labors; but, were\\nthey more than twelve or fifteen, each would not be able to take an active part\\nin the proceedings.\\nThe second article reminds teachers that the law has placed at the head of\\nthe subject-matters of instruction, moral and religious instruction and that it\\nis their duty to occupy themselves with it. From this it seems to follow, that\\nteachers belonging to different sects must not assemble together in the same\\nconferences. In Alsace, for example, priests or ministers are generally presi-\\ndents which is a stronger reason for teachers of different communions not as-\\nsembling promiscuously together.\\nThe third article says, that the superior committees will point out to the dif-\\nferent assemblies the subjects on which the attention of the teachers ought more\\nespecially to be fixed. These committees hitherto have, unfortunately, occupied\\nthemselves very little with such conferences; some even have opposed their\\nformation, or given them an organization very different from that recommended\\nby the royal council. Can there be no means of remedying this omnipotence\\nof the committees, and regulating that liberty, in such a way as not to risk\\nanarchy 1\\nAccording to the fourth article, each teacher may beg permission to give an\\naccount of what he has read since last meeting, to make observations on the\\nworks in connection with primary instruction recently published, to read some\\nessay of his own on the discipline of schools, or on some one of the branches of\\ninstruction. Each may, besides, address to the assembly a verbal communi-\\ncation on the art of teaching, submit to it a doubt or difficulty, which in his\\ndaily practice he may have met.\\nThe eighth article says that the president of the conferences must always be\\nappointed by the rector of the academy. The president ought, wherever pos-\\nsible, to be selected from such as are not members of the association he should\\nbe some friend and connoisseur of popular education, without being teacher;\\nhe will thus direct the debates and labors of the conference with more authority\\nand a wider range of view the information which he displays in the discharge\\nSee page 418.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "426 CONFERENCES OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE.\\nof his duties will be more varied and profound and he will be, in the midst of\\nteachers, the interpreter of what the world expects from them.\\nEvery thing will depend on the manner in which their labors are directed,\\nand on the zeal with which ihe teachers engage in them. One of the principal\\nresults of conference ought to be, the exercising them in speaking. Speech is\\nthe instrument of the ait of teacliing. In the management of a school, and in\\nall that concerns the mechanism of teaching, the teacher ought to speak little;\\nhis commands ought to be brief; and, in most cases a word, a gesture, a look\\nwill suffice. But in teaching, properly so called, when he is engaged in ex-\\npounding the first truths of morality and religion, in explaining whal has been\\nread by the pnpils, in narrating to them the history of the Bible or national his-\\ntory, (sacred or profane history,) in telling them of the wonders of the heavens\\nand the earth then he must be able to speak with fluency, clearness, and pre-\\ncision, if ndt eloquently. Children, like men, are fascinated by the charms of\\nspeech. The choicest things, badly saici, p.^vluceon them no impression and\\nlike arrows, darted by a feeble and tremb jng hand glide, so to speak, over\\nthe surface of their mind, and never reach its depths.\\nThe essays of the teachers may consist of two kinds. One class may be\\nwritten on any subjects, but should be analogous to what teachers prescribe to\\ntheir most advanced pupils such as some scene of nature or of human life, a\\ngrand or-useful thought, an historical fact, c. These essays ought not to be\\nlong; and must be written wilti that correct simplicity, which is as far lemoved\\nfrom the inelegancies of a vulgar style, as from the far-fetched phraseology of\\nthe Wit. These first essays exercises in composition and thought will also\\nbe a means of perfecting the teachers in the art of speaking. The other kind\\nof essays, treating of some branch of the pedagogic art, may be more directly\\nuseful to them. In composing them, theirmemory. their own experience rather\\nthan books, ought to be consulted and simplicity and truth, rather than novelty\\nand originality, ought to be aimed at. The greatest possible clearness, pre-\\ncision, and actual utility ought to be the distinguishing features of these essays.\\nIn some societies of teachers, the same question is offered to the consideration\\nof all the members thus creating amongst them a species of competition but\\nas every essay must be read and discu.ssed during the meeting, they would be\\nrestricted, in following this mode of procedure, to the composition only of two\\nor three a-year or obliged to multiply, beyond measure, the number of the\\nmeetings; and in both cases the interest would be, inevitably, diminished. It\\nis desirable, however, that at each sitting, the same subject be handled by two\\nmembers. The two essays would compete with each other, and occasion a\\ndiscussion M^hich the president would take care to manage, so that all inight\\nspeak in rotation, and that no one, while speaking, tat; undue adv.Tntage.\\nEvery expression of praise or censure, every ob ervation tending to shock self-\\nesteem or modesty, ought, on all sides, to be prohibited. If at the termination\\nof the sitting, the majority be not sufficiently instructed, they could cominission\\nthe president, or another member, to resume the discus.sion at the next con-\\nference.\\nOn other occasions, to vary still farther the proceedings, the author of an\\nessay could address it soine days before the meeting in the form of a letter, to\\none of his colleagues, requesting his opinion of it. The letter and rei ly might\\nthen be read, and their contents discussed in the ordinary manner. This pro-\\ncedure is preferable, in my opinion, to the practice of several societies in Ger-\\nmany. After the reading of an essay, a member is then enjoined to present a\\ncriticism of it at next meeting. This method is accompanied with seiious in-\\nconveniences. Self-love becomes a willing co-operator. The critic endeavors,\\nby every means, to find cause for controversy, and believes himself, in some\\nsense, obliged to think diffeiently from him whom he has been appointed to\\njudge. In this manner concord and friendship, so necessary to the prosperity of\\nthe association, are, without great benefit to truth, seriously compromised.\\nI would add, that copies of all the essays should be deposited in the library,\\nwhere every one might consnlt them.\\nI have said that each member may demand permission to make to the assem-\\nbly any communication relative to the art of teaching; to submit to it a ques-\\ntion, a doubt, an observation, which his practice may have suggested to him.\\nSuch communications add much to the interest and utility of conferences, By\\nmeans of them, the experience of each becomes, in some sense, the experience", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE. 427\\nof all. Those who have been occupied many years in teaching will aid their\\njunior fellow-laborers.\\nIn fine, it may happen, and it happen.s but loo often, that, in their relation.s\\nwith the local authorities and the parents, differences arise, to disturb the good\\nunderstanding the perfect harmony between them and the teacliers. These\\ndifferences should be submitted in the conferences to the appreciation of their\\ncolleagues to the judgment of iheir compeers. They will thus be less subject\\nto mistakes and anger; and, when necessary, more undaunted in repelling in-\\njustice, and in maintaining their rights.\\nLIBRARIES FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE.\\nThe fifteenth article of the Inw of February, 1837, on conferences of\\nteachers, provides for the establishment of libraries for the use of those\\nwho attend the conferences. By means of the funds which the parishes\\nor the county have granted for this purpose, or by means of clubbing\\namong the teachers, a library should be formed for those who attend\\nthe conferences regularly. The books composing the library should be\\ninserted in a catalogue, Avhich must be verified every year. A copy of\\nsaid catalogue must be sent to the Minister of Public Instruction.\\nM. Willm makes the following remarks on the subject:\\nSuch libraries may be established by teachers who do not assemble in\\nregular conferences, or associate for such a purpose. A distinguished teacher\\nmay he conceived to address the following language to his colleagues, to induce\\nthem to establish such a society: Two principal objections maybe made\\nagainst this scheme. In the first place, how, with the scanty resouices at our\\ndisposal, can we establish a library, in the smallest degree, complete; and\\nthen, amongst such a host of books, whose number augments every day, will\\nnot a proper selection be difiicult even impossible In replying lo these ob-\\njeclions, I will, at the same time, let you know my views on the course to be\\npursued in the acquisition of books. These views are the results of my own\\nexperience, and of the counsels which, in former times, I was fortunate to\\nreceive.\\nI do not dissemble the importance of the doubts I am attempting to remove\\nthe first, especially, seems but too well founded. How, indeed, willi our trifling\\nresources can we hope to establish in a few years a library ever so little worthy\\nof the name 1 We are ten members; each of us will j)ut into the society s\\nstrong box, three shillings as entry money, and a shilling per month, or twelve\\nshillings per annum this is much for us too much peihaps; and it is to be\\ndesired, that, at a later period, this monthly payment be reduced. We will\\nthus have at our disposal, the first year, the sum of one hundred and fifty shil-\\nlings. Of this sum, fifteen shillings must he spent in purchasing registeis!| pens,\\nand paper and. by adding ten shillings for small incidental expenses, our in-\\ncome will be reduced to one hundred and twentv-five shillings. We must be-\\ncome subscribers lor two pedagogic journals, which may cost about twenty-five\\nshillings a year. To lay the foundation of our library, about one hundred shil-\\nlings remain.\\nTo found, with a hundred shillings, a library, appears absurd^impossible.\\nBut let us forget for an instant the ambitious name of library, and simply say\\nthat we unite together for the purpose of procurirg, in one year, ten times more\\nbooks than each of us singly could purchase, and it will be granted that we are\\ndoing a judicious thing, and making an excellent speculation. Will it not be a\\nsufficiently good result of our association, if, instead of one or two works, which\\nEerhaps each of us might have purchased, besides what are indispensable, we\\nave at the end of the year irom ten to twenty at our disposal 1. And supposing\\nwe continue at this rate for ten years; instead of from ten to twenty, would we\\nnot hnve from one hundred to two bundled, and perhaps morel And Cuuld\\nnot our collection, then, without too much vanity, be styled a library 1 Great\\nthings have often sprung from small beginnings. If you persevere, you will\\nhave the merit of bequeathing to your successors a considerable number of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "428 LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE.\\nbooks; and, after two or three generations, the teachers of our district will\\nhave for their use a valuable library. Is, then, the thought of working for the\\nfuture of no estimation to the good man, and is not even that thought for us, as\\nsays Lafontaine, a fruit which fo-dai/ we enjoy?\\nBm, besides the satisfaction of founding a work for which our successors\\nwill bless as, we ourselves will reap Irom it precious advantages. By associa-\\nting, we unshackle the means of instruction. The books besides, which after\\ndeliberation and common consent we procure, will be better selected, than if\\neach had been left to his own knowledge. And if you adopt my views of the\\ncourse to be followed in the acquisition of books, if you select them according\\nto fixed principles, agreed to beforehand, they will form, in the very firsi year,\\nin spite-of their fewness, a finished whole. Ten, twenty volumes selected with\\njudgment, according to a certain plan, and which, by referring to each other,\\nmutually complete and explain each other, are in spite of the variety of their\\ncontents and immediate object more valuable than three or four times as\\nmany works, excellent, perhaps, but chosen at random and inconsequently.\\nFrom this, it follows, that after ten years association, we might have at our\\ncommand, not only ten times more books than we would have had, if each had\\nbeen left to his own resources but that these books, more judiciously selected,\\nwill have a relative value much greater than the same, or double the number\\nof volumes collected at random.\\nAn association affords still another advantage in this respect. There are\\nworks composed of several volumes, and whose price is such, that the majority\\nof teachers are incapable of procuring them at their own expense. United, we\\ncan acquire, if necessary, even very expensive works, and some of these publi-\\ncations may be indispensable.\\nWe may, besides, entertain the hope that other teachers will soon join us. I\\ncherish another hope I hope, if we persevere, that the communities of our dis-\\ntrict, that the higher committee of our parish and the academy, will come to\\nour aid. As we think not of ourselv es alone whilst we are endeavoring to en-\\nlarge the limits of our instruction, but of our schools and of the fu itre, we can,\\nwithout a blush, invoke the assistance of all who are intei-ested in popular edu-\\ncation of the citizens who discover in it a means of public felicity and of the\\nauthorities intrusted with its direction. Works, we do not doubt, will pour in\\nfrom different sources, and, if we seriously wish it, we will soon have at our\\ndisposal a stock of books, sufficiently respectable to constitute the nucleus of a\\nDISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY.\\nI come to the second objection the difficulty of making a suitable selection\\namong so many books. This difficulty is serious but in proportion to the\\nscantiness of our means, we are less liable to be misled. This consideration,\\nfar from discouraging us, ought only to impress still more deeply the principles\\nwhich ought to guide our selection.\\nThe number of works on all subjects, has, for a century especially, prodi-\\ngiously increased. The science of education, for a long time neglected, and\\ntreated by some distinguished writers only at distant intervals, reckons, in our\\ndays, its books by hundreds if we comprehend those addressed especially to\\nchildhood and.t} ^outh. But we must not be frightened by this mixititude; this\\nriches, in the main, is but apparent. Many of those works whose titles swell\\nthe catalogues of the booksellers, are old and obsolete; many others are but\\nimitations and of little value. Good writers of every kind are not numerous\\nand even among the good, a selection can be made. The essential point is to\\nknow how to select well. As to old books, we will trust to their reputation,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0which seldom misleads and as to new books, we will consult enlightened men.\\nOf the works recognized as good, we will always select the best and the\\nmost complete. To read m^ich is not the principal point, but to read veil; and\\nto read often the best productions. The fruits which may be reaped from read-\\niirg, depend as much upon the manner of reading, as upon the excellence of the\\nbooks read.\\nOur library will be composed of three kinds of works. In the first rank, we\\nshall place such as treat of the art of education; of teaching in general; of\\nprimary instruction in particular. It will not be necessary to secure a great\\nnumber of books of this class; a few solid and complete treatises, which epito-\\nmise the science, will suffice for the commencement. The most essential pre-\\ncepts and the rules tmiversally approved, are found in all good productions of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE. 429\\nany length. To good treatises, however, to encyclopedic manuals, -which exhibit\\npedagogy as a whole, and which, I aithlul to the precept, prove all things and\\ncleave to v;hnt is good unite what even the ditlerent methods possess of most\\npractical and reasonable we will add, later works upon the most remarkable\\nspecial methods. Still later, in a few years, we may be able to admit into our\\ncollection a certain number of works already old, which, like Rousseau s Emile,\\nhave formed an epoch in the history of the an of education then, to keep pace\\nwith the progress of the science, we only have to procure, at distant intervals,\\nsome good new treatise.\\nThe second series of works of our future library, should consist of such as\\nexpound either the whole or some branch of primary instruction of manuals of\\nreligion and morality; of arithmetic, geography, and general or national his-\\ntory natural history, phs-^sics, hygiane, agriculture, and technology written\\nexpressly for teachers, children, and the people.\\nFinally, the richest portion of our library might be composed of instructive\\nand rare works, which, while adding to our knowledge, will afford useful relax-\\nation, and the means of inlusing into our lessons a wholesome variety; of ex-\\nciting and sustaining the attention of our pupils, and of throwing an interest\\naroimd our teaching.\\nI rank in this third class of books, /r5 extracts or selections from travels in\\nthe different quarters of the globe. They will supply the place of the original\\nnarratives, too dear, and which include, besides, generally many very useless\\ndetails, or things already known. There is scarcely any kind of reading more\\ninteresting than the history of travels in distant countries, and which furnishes\\nthe most useful materials for the instruction of youth.\\nSecondly, hi.storical works, particularly natural history, selecting, in prefer-\\nence, such as have been composed for the ypung of schools. We might extract\\nfrom them, to narrate to our pupils, those traits of magnanimity and devoted-\\nness to one s country and Immanity, which constitute the beauty and honor of\\nhistory.\\nThirdly, I would place in our library a few religious and national poets;\\ngood anthologies; selections and collections of pieces in prose and verse a few\\nbooks more especially written for the instruction and amusement of childhood\\nand youth, and which can be read to and by our pupils.\\nFourthly, popular works which, addressed directly to the people, in towns\\nand in the country, strive to snatch them from the misery of ignorance, to ren-\\nder them better and happier; and which adapt to their capacity, morality,\\ncounsels of prudence, and the most interesting and useful results of science in\\ngeneral. Till each parish pos.sess its own library, we shall form, as it were, an\\nintermediate stage, a connecting link, between science and the people. To ex-\\nplain these books, and to facilitate the comprehension of them, we must our-\\nselves be thoroughly acquainted with them. We will find in them, besides, an\\nabundant source of instruction for ourselves and for our pupils.\\nIn short, my dear Colleagues, our library ought to consist of a small number\\nof works on methods; manuals of all the branches of primary instruction and\\nof the education of the people; and many instructive and popular works.\\nThus, all works of pure amusement, and such as are not addressed directly\\neither to schools or youth, to the people or to the teachers of the people, mus t\\nbe excluded. By confining ourselves within these limits, our selection will not\\nbe difficult especially if we be guided by men well versed in such matters.\\nLet us begin the work; let us persevere in the prosecution of it; and soon we\\nshall have to congratulate ourselves on having undertaken it, and on having\\nfounded, at the expense of a few light sacrifices, an institution of incontestible\\nutility.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "MEANS OF IMPROVING\\nTHE\\nPECUNIARY CONDITION OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE.\\nThe provisions of the French law respecting Teachers Conferences\\nand Libraries, and the remarks of M. Wilhii, are intended to show how\\nteachers, by association, may add to the acquirements of the Normal\\nSchool, keep pace with new methods and discoveries, clear up the diffi-\\nculties and supply the wants met with in their particular position, and es-\\ncape from that meaningless routine of practices, and dull uniformity of\\ncharacter, to which their profession pursued alone exposes them. But\\nthe French law aims, although imperfectlj to ameliorate the teacher s\\ncondition, and the condition of his family, by guarding against present\\nand future want. On these points M. Willm makes many judicious sug-\\ngestions from which American teachers may profit.\\nIt poverty be always an evil, it is especially so to the teacher; because it\\nprevents him from performing etficiently his duty, and enjoying due distinction.\\nHis functions will be doubly painful, if the caies of the morrow deprive him of\\nthe e.iergy sufficient to aceampiish his daily task. I demand not wealth for the\\nteacher: 1 ask not that he be rich but he3^ond the reach of indigence; that\\nhe be able to live in honest ease, without being obliged to devoie himself to la-\\nbors f)reiga to his profession; that he have the power to continue his studies,\\nto support a f.Hmilv. and to enjoy an honorable repose in his old age if Heaven\\naccord him length of days or die undisturbed as to the future lot of his\\nchildren, if carried away i rom them in the midst of his career.\\nThe condition of the teacher is at present widely different from this. The\\nlaw of 1833 has unlouhiedly bettered his lot; and it were imgraleful to deny\\nit. It may be said, indeed, that in general, schoolmasters are better paid in\\nFrance than in most other countries. In Germ;iny there are a considerable\\nnumber whj do not gain the minimum salary of four hundred francs; and even\\nin Prussia, the average every thing included is, for a town-teacher, eight\\nhundred francs; for a couutry teacher, about three hundred francs; and let us\\nremark that in Prussia, living is much deaier than in France. It is not neces-\\nsary to reckon up in detail our every-day expenses, to be convinced that, with\\nsuch a paltrv income, it is wholly impossilile to maintain housekeeping on the\\nmist economical principle; and that a family of industrious laborers has much\\ngreater chance of prospering than that of a teacher.\\nIn France, I repeat, teachers are, in general, much better paid. In towns, it\\nis seldom that they do not gain fiom one thousand to twelve hundred francs;\\nand in several localities their income exceeds this. In the country, there are\\nfew whose salary is under five hundred francs; and manv gain a great deal\\nmore. But five hundred francs and one thousand francs are but poor remunera-\\ntion for three hundred and sixty-five days labor for to gain even that sum. the\\nteacher is most freq ii^ntly obliged to add to the functions of schoolmaster, those\\nof beadle organist, and ch^ner; such a sum is loo inconsiderable to support a\\nfimily for we alwnys take tor sranied that the teacher is married and has a\\nfamily: and that so he sets a good example, and is rendced mure q.u:ilified to\\ntrain men and citizens.\\nThe condition of teachers must therefore be improved it m:i-l e rendered\\nmore pleasant, and, at thesame time, more respected, not only with a regard to\\ntheir interests, but especially tor the sake of schools, of the people, and of the\\nstale itself.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS CONDITION. 43 J\\nI. Teachers may themselves do much to ameliorate their lot, and raise their\\ncondition. They mu.st remember the old proverb help yoursc/f, and Heaven\\nwll help you. M. chlez, a much esteemed German teacher, thinks that a\\nteacher should always follow some trade, avoiding scrupulously, however,\\nevery degrading calling, or which might bring him into competition with the\\ninhabitants of the district. He proposes, as compatible wiih the functions of\\nthe teacher of the people, gardening; the cultivation and grafting of trees the\\nrearing of bees and silk-worms musical instrument-making; clock-making;\\nbookbindmg; bandbox-making; moulding; painting; the art of turning; the\\nconstruction of barometers and thermometers the duties of copyist and book-\\nkeeper and, finally, private lessons. But many of these occupations would\\nrequire too long an apprenticeship, or engage 100 much time, to render them\\nlucrative or they would need an outlay beyond the ordinary means of a teacher.\\nCountry teachers might find a valuable resource, as well as a noble recreation,\\nin the cultivation of a garden of limited extent, which all districts ought to\\nhave at their disposal and the ground of which, if if could not be purchased,\\nthey might almost always find opportunity to rent.\\nThe art of gardening, which includes the grafting of trees, the cultivation of\\nuseful plants and of flowers, appears the most compatible with the occupation\\nof teachers; between them are close analogies. That art can be learned at\\nsmall expense, and in a short time. The teacher who, fiom his being well\\npaid, needs not devote himself to pursuits foreign to his profession, might follow\\nit simply for amusement; others would find it a means of improving their con-\\ndition and the employment would neither be degrading nor fatiguing. I have\\nseen one of these gardens cultivated by a teacher, whose school was a garden\\nbles.sed to him by Heaven. One division of it furnished kitchen vegetables\\nanother was planted with fruit-trees of the best sorts; a third, was a nursery\\nexceedingly varied, and flowers abounded in every quarter. Often he led to ft\\nhis select pupils; his garden was at once a source of pleasure and profit to him-\\nself and of instruction to his school. This example ought to be generally imi-\\ntated. To the cultivation of a garden and orchard, country teachers might join,\\naccording to circumstances, ihe rearing of bees or silk-worms. During winter,\\nstudy and instruction ought exclusively to occupy them, and nothing should\\nprevent their keeping an evening-school for adults, or for young people from\\nfifteen to twenty years of age, as is done in several districts of Alsace. This\\nevening-school, which might be of great utility, would supplement a little in-\\ncome and it depends but on the interest they had in it, to induce a great num-\\nber of their old pupils to take an active part in this additional instruction.\\nBandbox-making and book-binding, would likewise be suitable occupations,\\nbut not very lucrative.\\nShall I inform the coimtry teachers that they have in their own power an-\\nother means of being in less uneasy circumstances, and that this means is rigid\\neconomy, a retired and unassuming life I have scarcely courage to do so, for\\nthe majority are indeed forced to be economical. There is, however, a consid-\\nerable number who frequent inns and cofl^ee-shops and who are loo much en-\\ngaged in public amusements, little compatible with the moral authority which\\nthey ought to exercise, or with the state of their fortune. Without preventing\\nthem, on certain occasions, from mingling with public life, and sharing the\\nhonest pleasures of society, they ought to be counseled not to be prodigal of\\nthemselves, nor to court these occasions; but carefully to avoid whatever may\\ntend to compromise their dignitv, or lead them into useless expense.\\nIn several Normal Schools, the pupil-masters are taught to draw up civil ads,\\nas a srcat many of them will one day become registrars at the mayoralty.\\nSuch functions very well correspond with those of teachers in small parishes\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0where there are few acts to write, provided the registrar-teacher can abstain\\nfrom mixing himself up with the mvnicipal p^sions; often very violent in the\\nsmallest villages. Some, likewise, compete with the notary, and for a trifling\\nsalary, draw out contracts in private.\\nLand-surveying aflx)rds another resource a very inconsiderable number can\\nbe emploved in it. and little dependence should be placed on it.\\nIn short, besides a life sober and modest, the cultivation of trees, the rearing\\nof bees and silkworms, a little rural and domestic economv, private lessons, the\\nfunctions of registrar, land-surveying, and, perhaps, book-binding and bandbox-\\nmaking, are the methods by which teacbera may ameliopate tieir condition,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "432 MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS CONDITION.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0without neglecting their duties, or derogating from their dignity. There is,\\nhowever, still another resource which might be valuable it is that which\\nteachers may find in the assistance of their partners: if they kne\\\\V well how to\\nchoose if they chose not such as are rich, but such as are economical, well-\\neducated, good, and intelligent. I know some who are not only good house-\\nkeepers, but who render great services to the community by the examples and\\nlessons they give to the voung girls of the district.\\nTeachers wives, in the absence of sisters or governesses, properly so called,\\nought to be able to undertake the teaching of needle-work and other similar\\nbranches, as well as the management of infant-schools, throughout all the rural\\ndistricts. Their rank, as mothers, far from being an obstacle, would adapt\\nthem still better for the discharge of such functions; and when temporarily pre-\\nvented from accomplishing them themselves, they would easily find among\\nthe young girls they had trained, assistants to supply their place.\\n2. Communes (corresponding to our parishes, towns and districts) may place\\nat the disposal of the teacher a portion of ground capable for farming, an orchard\\nand garden. To the school-house, which the l-2th article of the organic law-\\nobliges every parish to provide for the teacher, ought always to he annexed, in\\nthe country, a piece of ground for a garden. If it were impossible to purchase\\nsuch a piece of ground, the parish might secure it on a long lease, or supply its\\nplace by an annual indemnification of fifty francs to the teacher. In fine, the\\nparishes that possess the means, should be obliged to supplement the fixed\\nlegal salary, in proportion to the increase of their ordinary revenue. Several\\ngeneral councils have voted fimds to indemnify teachers who attend conferences,\\nand to aid in the maintenance of libraries established by them. This example\\nought to be generally imitated. Instead of limiting themselves to making up\\nthe exact legal salary of teacher.s, when the revenues of the parishes are defi-\\ncient, the counties ought to aid such as can not raise the salary of their school-\\nmasters to the minimum of five hundred francs, comprising every kind of\\nemolument. The majoritv of the general councils vote funds for improving the\\nbreed of horses and cattle; whv could they not establish a few premiums for\\nthe amelioration of mankind 1 Whv could they not grant, every year, a few\\nprizes to the best teachers of each district\u00e2\u0080\u0094 those whom the reports of the in-\\nspectors and the committees recognized as the best 1 In fine, the parishes\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nand, they failing, the counties and the state\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ought always to provide a mode-\\nrate retiring provision for deserving teachers so that they may not dread re-\\ntiring, when age unfits them for the maintenance of discipline. The higher\\nschool authorities,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the departmental and county councils,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 could add to the pre-\\nmium now required by law.\\n3. The nation alone can make thorough provision for the necessary amelio-\\nration of teachers, who are now public functionaries, and intrusted with the ed-\\nucation of the people. That they may discharge their functions with courage\\nand devotedness, it is necessarv, after they have been properly trained in the\\nNormal Schools, and their morality and capacity well attested, to make them\\na suitable appointment, so as to enable them to devote themselves exclusively\\nto their school-duties; to live honorably, though unostentatiously, and to con-\\ntinue improving themselves. It is necessary, besides, to afford them a pension\\nwhen old age renders retreat imperative, and to remove from them all appre-\\nhensions as to the lot of their families should they die prematurely\u00e2\u0080\u0094 victims of\\ntheir zeal in executing their painful duties.\\nLet me be permitted to observe, that the law of June, 1833 that law, in\\nother respects, so full of wisdom, which grateful posterity will always quote\\nwith respect, and from which dates truly good primary instruction in France\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthat law, I sav. whilst declaring popular schools a public obligation, a social\\nnecessity, and raising teachers to the rank of commimal and irremoveable\\nfunctionaries, has not done enot^h to render their condition what it ought to be,\\nnor sufficientlv armed the executive for the strict execution of the law.\\nThe twelfth article savs, that every parish teacher shall be provided with a\\nlocality, properly situated for a habitation and the reception of pupils. I have\\nmentioned, elsewhere, how this order of the law has, in many places, been exe-\\ncuted; and in what sense many parishes understand the word properly.\\nThe same article guarantees the primary teacher a fixed salary of at least\\ntwo hundred francs: it is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the minimum\\nshould be raised to three hundred francs: it results from calculations made by", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS CONDITION. 433\\nthe Minister of Public Instruction in his last report, that to raise the minimum\\nto three hundred francs, it would be requisite to add a million to the budget, and\\nthat the said sum would I all to the account of the department. 1 will not ask\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0what is a million amid a budget of a thousand millions, and what is a million\\nportioned nut among the eighty-six counties 1 know fiial the resources of\\nFrance are great: her wants are likewise immense. But I will say, that the\\ncountry should consider no sacrifice too costly to secure a service so important\\nas that of popular instruction and that it ought not, in this respect, to be be-\\nhind any civilized nation.\\nThe monthly fee, which, according to the fourteenth article, ought to be col-\\nlected by tax-gatherers in the ordinary form, is the principal source of the\\nteachers income; but the law has left the fixing of if, too much to the arbitrary\\ninclination of the mimicipal councils. An additional paragraph inserted, upon\\nthe proposal of M. Antoine Passy, in the third article of the law of receipts,\\n1841, submits this fee and the number of gratuitous pupils to the approval of\\nthe prefects, who, on the advice of the district commiitees, may fix a minimum\\nrate for the monthly iee, and a maximum one for the number of gratuitous ad-\\nmissions. The faithful execution of this legislative enaciment would be a great\\nbenefit: let me hope, that in the next report of the minister, the lot of teachers\\nshall appear every where ameliorated by its means. We must not believe,\\nhowever, that it will be so productive as to exempt the legislature from raising\\nthe minimum fixed salary to three hundred francs.\\nThe law has, at the same lime, wished to guarantee the future of teachers.\\nTwo methods presented themselves for this object. To deduct from their fixed\\nsalaryfive per cent., as is done with the functionaries of the University, and thus\\nto acquire for them a right to a retiring pension, or to establish simply a savings\\nor provident-box, in every respect like the ordinary ones; with this diflierence,\\nthat the deposits should be obligatory, and that they could not be withdrawn\\nbut at the retiring or death of the depositors. The first of these two systems\\nhas the disadvantage in case of the more or less premature death of a teacher\\nof depriving his family of the amount deducted from his salary in favor of\\nthe surviving teachers. The second system, on the contrary, that of savings\\nboxes, makes them run no chance of risk having reached the end of their\\ncareer, the product of their economy is restored either to themselves when they\\nretire, or to their families, should they die in the discharge of their duties.\\nIt is this last system which the law has sanctioned by establishing sav-\\nings -boxes, formed by the annual deduction of a twentieth fiom the fixed salary\\nof each parish teacher. This system has been found fault with, lor producing\\nbut a poor resource for a deserving teacher and his family. Indeed, the deduc-\\ntion of a twentieth from a fixed salary of two hundred francs will produce, of\\ncapital and interest, at the end often years, only a reserve of one hundred,and\\ntwenty francs, five centines at the end of fifteen years, only a reserve of two\\nhundred francs, fifteen centines at the end of twenty years, it will produce\\nabout three hundred francs at the end of twenty-five years, a little more than\\nfour hundred francs; at the end of thirty years, about five hundred trancs\\nand forty years service are necessary to save, in thie manner, a thousand\\nfrancs. The same deduction made upon a fixed salary of three hundred\\nfrancs will produce one hundred and eighty francs, at the end of ten years\\nfour hundred and fifty francs, at the end of twenty years; eight hundred\\nand forty francs, at the end of thirty years; and about one thousand lour\\nhundred and twenty-five francs, after forty years service. A deduction of\\ntwenty francs per annum would amount, in teir years, to two hundred and Ibrty\\nfrancs; in twenty years, to about six hundred francs; in thirty years, to about\\none thousand one hundred and twenty francs at the end of forty years, one\\nthousand nine hundred francs.\\nWe see that, in supposing each teacher to deposit twenty francs a year, this\\nsystem would still leave much scope for improvement since, after twenty or\\nforty years hard labor, it guarantees the teacher only from fifty to one hundred\\nfrancs of revenue.\\nTo render these saving-boxes of great importance, it would be necessary, in\\nmy opinion, to make the deduction of a twentieth, not only from iheir Jixcd\\nsalary, but likewise from the casual one, from the mo atlily fee a thing easily\\ndone, as this fee must be collected by the ordinary tax-gatherers.\\nA mixed system would perhaps be preferable\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a system that would unite, as\\n28", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "434 MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS CONDITION.\\nmuch as possible, the advantage of savings -boxes and of deductions made from\\nthe salaries, to constitute a fund for retiring pensions. For this purpose, it\\nwould be necessary to establish in each chief city, a box, which should be both\\nfor savings and deductions, to which the teachers, the districts, and the counties\\nshould contribute, and which might receive gifts and legacies. I shall leave to\\nn;ore skillful financiers, the task of developing this idea, and of showing how it\\nmight be executed; I limit myself to laying its foundation. Let me suppose a\\ncounty composed of five hundred districts, and reckoning six hundred and fifty\\npublic teachers this is almost the condition of the Lower Rhine. Let me sup-\\npose that this county consents to disburse per annum into the schools -box, the\\nsum of five thousand francs; that, on their part, the five hundred districts pay\\ninto it, annually, at an average, ten francs, which is one thousand francs in\\nfine, that a deduction of ftfteen francs is made from the salaries of the six hun-\\ndred and fifty teachers, which makes annually seven thousand seven hundred\\nand fifty francs; let me suppose farther, that all these payments amount to-\\ngether to twenty thousand francs per annum, and we will have, at the end of\\nten years, without counting interest, or probable gifts and legacies, a sum of\\ntwo hundred thousand francs; and, after twenty years, four hundred thousand\\nfrancs; a capital which, placed at four per cent., would produce sixteen thou-\\nsand francs of interest. This interest would be divided, according to an under-\\nstood ratio, between the deserving and infirm teachers, and the widows and or-\\nphans of teachers deceased. To have a right to a retiring pension, it should be\\nnecessary to give proofs of infirmity, or of at least thirty years service. Widows\\nwould lose their claims on remarrying; and the children would cease to receive\\ntheir portion at twenty-one years of age. It should be understood that the dis-\\ntricts, small in number, which themselves might engage to provide retiring\\npensions to deserving teachers, should be at liberty to do so, and be exempted\\nfrom contributing to the county-box.\\nThis box which should, especially and essentially, be a fund ior pevsions\\nwould be a saviii rs -box only for such teachers as have been obliged, from bad\\nconduct, to resign their functions, or who voluntarily give them up, and with-\\nout being unwell, before having served thirty years. The amount only of what\\nthey had paid in, should, without interest, be restored to them. The same\\nshould be done with such as leave for situations elsewhere their disbursements\\nshould be transmitted to the box of the county to which they go.\\nEvery one would gain by realizing this scheme there would be a loss sus-\\ntained only by such as abandoned their calling, or by children become majors\\nat the death of their fathers. The enactment, again, might, according to cir-\\ncumstances, stipulate for some succor to the latter, and even in favor of the\\nchildren of destitute teachers. But to render such a box truly productive, the\\nconcurrence of the counties and districts is indispensable. We might hope,\\nlikewise, that many friends of popular education would assist it, especially at\\nthe commencement. After twenty or twenty-five years, the box would subsist\\nof itself, and without any other fresh contributions, save of those concerned.\\nIn short, what is necessary to render the condition of the teachers comforta-\\nble, is, in the first place, a convenient dwelling-house, with a garden in the\\nrural districts; then a fixed salary of at least 300 francs, with a casual salary\\nproportioned to the number of scholars, and resulting from a monthly fee, fixed\\nby the municipal councils, subject to the approval of his prefects, and collected\\nby the tax-gatherers; finally, a county-box for retiring pensions, and for aid to\\nthe widows and orphans, supplied by the concurrence of the counties, the dis-\\ntricts, and the teachers. Encouragements, premiums adjudged by the counties\\nto the most deserving, and succor granted to the most necessitous districts,\\nwould usefully complete this system.\\nThe medals which at our anniversaries are distributed every year can have\\nno real value until their recipients are beyond the reach of want. Honorary\\ndistinctions add, besides, to the consideration of such as are the objects of\\nthem; and they contribute more to the interests of the body to which they be-\\nlong, than to those of the men who have been decorated by them. It would,\\ntherefore, be very useful, that, from time to lime, this bullion recompense, to\\nwhich M. Guizot refers in his beautiful circular, attest to the most experienced\\nand devoted teacher that the government watches over their service^ and knows\\nhow to honor them.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL\\nTHE FRERES CHRETIENS, OR CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\nAny description of popular education in Europe would be incomplete,\\nwhich should not give prominence to the Institute of the Christian\\nBrothers or the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine including in that\\nterm the earliest professional school for the training of teachers in Europe\\none of the most remarkable body of teachers devoted exclusively and\\nwithout pay to the education of the children of the poor th.at the world\\nhas ever seen, and the introduction of improved methods in the organ-\\nization, instruction, and government of elementary schools.\\nThe Institute was established as a professional school in 1681, and to\\nAbbe John Baptist de la Salle, belongs the high honor not only of found-\\ning it, but of so infusing into its early organization his own profound\\nconviction of the Christ-like character of its mission among the poor, that\\nit has retained for nearly two centuries the form and spirit of its origin.\\nThis devoted Christian teacher, was born at Rheims on the 30th of\\nApril, 1651, of parents distinguished alike by their piety and their high\\nsocial position, To his mother he owed a prayerful and watchful home\\ntraining, and to his father every facility for obtaining a university edu-\\ncation. He was early distinguished for his scholarly attainments and\\nmaturity of character; and at the age of seventeen, before he had com-\\npleted his full course of theological study, he was appointed Canon in\\nthe Cathedral church of Rheims. From the first, he became interested in\\nthe education of the young, and especially ol the poor, as the most direct\\nway of leading them to a Christian life and with this view before he\\nwas twenty-one years old, he assumed the direction of two charities, de-\\nvoted to female education. From watching the operation of these\\nschools, conducted by teachers without professional training, without\\nplan, and without mutual sympathy and aid, he conceived the design of\\nbringing the teachers of this class of schools from the neighboring par-\\nishes into a community for their moral and professional improvement.\\nFor this purpose, he invited them first to meet, and then to lodge at his\\nhouse, and afterwards, about the year 1681, he purchased a house for\\ntheir special accommodation. Here, out of school hours and during their\\nholydays, they spent their time in the practice of religious duties, and in\\nmutual conferences on the work in which they were engaged. About\\nthis period, a large number of free schools for the poor were established\\nin the neighboring towns; and applications were constantly made to the\\nAbbe, for teachers formed under his training, care, and influence. To\\nmeet this demand, and make himself more directly useful in the field of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "436 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\nChristian education, he resigned his benefice, that he might give his\\nwhole attention to the work. To close the distance between himself,\\nhaving a high social position and competence from his father s estate,\\nand the poor schoolmasters to whom he was constantly preaching an\\nunreserved consecration of themselves to their vocation he not only re-\\nsigned his canonry, with its social and pecuniary advantages, but dis-\\ntributed his patrimony, in a period of scarcity, in relieving the necessities\\nof the poor, and in providing for the education of their children. He\\nthen placed himself on the footing equality as to occupation, man-\\nner of hfe, and entire dependence on the charity of others with the\\nschoolmasters of the poor. The annals of education or religion, show\\nbut few such examples ol practical self-denial, and entire consecration to\\na sense of duly. His reasons for the step are thus set forth in a mem-\\norandum found among his papers.\\n1. If I have resources against misery, I can not preach to them an entire con-\\nfidence in Providence.\\n2. In remaining as I am, they will always find a specious pretext in my rev-\\nenue to warrant their diffidence.\\n3. A temptation, so plausible in appearance, can not ultimately fall to produce\\nthe effects which the demon desires and the masters in part or in whole will de-\\nsert the schools, and leave me without persons to conduct them.\\n4. The rumor of their desertion will spread through the city and those who\\nwould have a vocation to become masters, will be attacked by the same tempta-\\ntions, even before they enter.\\n5. The schools without permanent masters will fail, and the Institute will\\nbecome buried under their ruins, never more to be re-established.\\n6. Should none of these anticipations be realized, can I be superior of these\\nmasters without ceasing to be a canon are the two duties compatible I must\\nrenounce either.\\n7. Now, in this choice, what should determine me The greater glory of\\nGod, the greater service of the church, my own perfection, and the salvation of\\nsouls. If I consult but such motives, so worthy of a priest of the Lord, I must\\nresign my canonry to take upon me the care of the schools, and to form masters\\ncapable of conducting them.\\n8. I feel no further attraction in the vocation of a canon and though I have\\nentered upon it legitimately, it appears to me that God now calls me to renounce\\nit. He has placed me in my present situation but does he not show me another\\nwhich merits a preference\\nHaving completed his act of resignation and self-imposed poverty, he\\nassembled his teachers, announced to them what he had done, and sung\\nwith them a Te Deum. After a retreat\u00e2\u0080\u0094 a period set apart to prayer\\nand fasting, continued for seventeen days, they devoted themselves to\\nthe consideration of the best course to give unity, efficiency, and perma-\\nnence to their plans of Christian education for the poor. They assumed\\nthe name of The Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, as expressive\\nof their vocation which by usage became to be abbreviated into\\nChristian Brothers. They look on themselves vows of poverty, celib-\\nacy, and obedience for three years. They prescribed to themselves the\\nmost frugal fare, to be provided in turns by each other. They adopted\\nat that time some rules of behavior, which have since been incorpo-\\nrated into the fundamental rules of order, viz., not to speak of any in-\\ndividual in censorious terms not to contradict, or correct each other,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 43*7\\nthis being reserved to the brother-director not to jest, or speak of idie\\nand frivolous topics, but to introduce such matters only as might lead to\\nthe love of God and practice of virtue to exhibit equal affection for\\nall poor scholars, and more for the poor than the rich to give a contin-\\nual example of modesty and of all the virtues which these pupils ought\\nto practice and never to punish when they were irritated.\\nTheir dress was fixed by a sort of accident. The mayor of Rheims saw some\\nof the brothers badly clothed and, as it was the depth of winter, he feared lest\\ntheir health might suffer, from want of defense from the inclemencies of the\\nweather. He represented this to the founder, who accordingly procured some\\ncoarse black cloth, part of which he got made into cloaks, and part into soutans,\\nsuch as were worn in former times by ecclesiastics closed in front by hooks and\\neyes. To this he added a collar of coarse linen, strong shoes, and a hat of ample\\ndimensions, which is the dress still worn by the brothers.\\nArdent zeal, like that of these Christian schoolmasters, is liable, if not joined\\nwith discretion, to run into excess. Some of the brothers carried their austerities\\nso far that their health was destroyed, and three of them fell victims to their indis-\\ncreet ardor. This left a sad blank in the establishment. However, in spite of these\\nlosses, the number of the brothers soon began rapidly to increase, and still more\\nthe demand for their services so great was their reputation for skill, patience, and\\nindefatigableness in teaching.\\nFrom the great increase of the establishment, M. de la Salle resolved to vacate\\nthe office of principal. He also judged it necessary, for his soul s health, to be\\nsubject like the rest, to the orders of a superior. Accordingly, he persuaded the\\nbrothers to elect brother Felix, as his successor. He was the first to greet the new\\nsuperior and, for a time, became an ordinary brother. He swept the house in\\nhis turn washed the utensils and submitted himself implicitly to all the rules of\\nthe institution. However, it was judged expedient that he should resume the\\noffice of superior, which he did from a sense of duty, though with great reluctance.\\nThe life which this pious man had chosen was not without its disappointments\\nand drawbacks. His former friends, and even his relations, scoffed at his pious\\nlabors, and publicly insulted him all of which he bore vi ith patience. Some of\\nthe younger members of the institute were unable to command the respect of the\\nchildren under their instruction aud, in the hope of maintaining discipline, had\\nrecourse to undue severity. M. de la Salle knew the source of the evil he ex-\\nhorted his disciple to watch over themselves to restrain their impatience; and to\\nmake themselves beloved by mildness. His instruction and example had the de-\\nsired effect and the leading characteristic of the Christian Brothers is, that im-\\nperturbable patience, joined with kind benevolence, which are the most valuable\\nqualities of the teachers of youth. If the teachers would but watch over them-\\nselves, they would soon learn to influence others.\\nThe demand for teachers, in connection with the brothers, exceeded\\nthe supply and to remedy this, those who stood in need of teachers\\nsought out young men of good dispositions to attend on the instructions\\nof M. de la Salle. These young candidates were lodged and in-\\nstructed by the most experienced brothers, and thus received a normal\\ntraining in their future duties.\\nIn 1688, M. de la Salle, with two brothers, took charge of a school in\\nthe parish of St. Sulpice, in Paris. They found the schools in great dis-\\norder without regulation, as the time of opening and closing, the order\\nand length of lessons, and without discipline. By skill and patience the\\nschool was improved, and a desire created for similar schools in other\\nparishes. But all this was done at a time when some of the brothers\\nproved weak and faithless and the founder was under the necessity of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "488 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTrfERS.\\nreorganizing this institute, and providing for its permanence by a novi-\\ntiate at Vaugirard. near Paris, in which pious young persons who felt it\\nto be a duty and a pleasure to teach and labor for the poor, might go\\nthrough a course of tried and preparation for the self-denying life of the\\nbrothers. He accordingly associated with him two brothers, and they\\ntogether consecrated themselves entirely to God, to procure by all our\\npower, and all our care, the establishment of Christian schools, and for\\nthis purpose make vow of association and union, to procure and main-\\ntain this establishment, without liberty to swerve, even though there\\nshould remain but three in the society, and that we should be obliged to\\nask alms, and live on bread only. And they did persevere in seasons\\nof scarcity, when they lived on herbs only, against the misapprehensions\\nof good men, and the interested opposition of the teachers of Paris, who\\nfound that the gratuitous and skillful labors of the brothers interfered\\nwith their emoluments. The schoolmasters of Chartres, where M. de\\nla Salle had sent six brothers to open a large school, succeeded in ob-\\ntaining from the bishop an order, that no children should be admitted\\ninto this school unless they were inscribed on the list of paupers. This\\nregulation was fatal to the school. In 1700, a school was opened at\\nCalais.\\nIn 1699, M. de la Salle attached to the novitiate in Paris, a Sunday\\nschool for apprentices and other young persons under twenty years of\\nage. In these schools, besides oral instruction in the catechism and\\nBible, lessons in reading, arithmetic, and drawing, were given to those\\nwhose early education had been entirely neglected. But he was not\\nallowed to continue these schools many years without opposition. In\\n1706, the society of writing masters presented a memorial to the officer\\nof police, charging the brothers with keeping, under pretext of charity,\\nschools not legally authorized, to the prejudice of those that were, and\\nasking if these schools were to be tolerated, they should be confined to\\nthose only who were paupers, and that such children should be taught\\nonly those things which were suitable to the condition of their parents.\\nThey succeeded, and at a subsequent application, obtained a grant, pro-\\nhibiting parents who had means from sending to free schools. By these\\nefforts the Sunday schools were broken up, after some six years trial.\\nIn 1702, the first step was taken to establish an Institute at Rome,\\nunder the mission of one of the brothers, Gabriel Drolin, who after years\\nof poverty, was made conducter of one of the charitable schools founded\\nby Pope Clement XI. This school became afterwards the foundation\\nof the house which the brothers l\\\\ave had in Rome since the pontificate\\nof Benedict XIII., who conferred on the institute, the constitution of a\\nreligious order. In 1703, under the pecuniary aid of M. Chateau Blanc,\\nand the countenance of the archbishop, M. de Gontery, a school was\\nopened at Avignon. The archbishop, in a certificate addressed to the\\nPope in 1720, says since the establishment of the gratuitous schools\\nin the city of Avignon, the brothers have already discharged their duties\\nwith zeal and assiduity. The public have derived great advantages", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "NORMA^, SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 439\\nfrom their application to the Christian education of the children and\\ntheir modesty and purity of morals have, at all times, given singular\\nedification.\\nIn 1704 a school was opened at Marseilles, for the children of sailors,\\nunder the care of two brothers. They were so successful, that in 1735\\ntheir number was increased to 10, and they were received into the regu-\\nlar communities, or guilds, of the city.\\nIn 1705, two teachers, under the invitation of the archbishop of Rouen,\\nopened a school in that city, and in the course of a few months, M. de la\\nSalle, decided to remove and establish his Novitiate there. But here\\nthe established order of schoolmasters interposed their claim against the\\nnew comers, and it was only after submitting to the following conditions\\nprescribed by a committee of the great hospital, to whom the right of\\ngranting permi-ssion to teach belonged by charter.\\n1 That the brothers should be present when the poor of the city hospital were\\nrising and going to bed and that they should recite for them morning and eve-\\nning prayers.\\n2. That they should, moreover, instruct them, and attend also to the four large\\nschools of the city.\\n3. They were to return from the schools, though situated in the most remote\\nparts of the city, to take their refrection at the hospital.\\n4. On their return from the schools, they were to serve the poor at table.\\n5. Five brothers were to perform all these duties.\\nThe brothers acceded to these terms. And in the neighborhood estab-\\nlished, in 1705, a novitiate on an estate called St. You through the aid\\nof Madame de Louvois. Here candidates for admission to the commu-\\nnity came and entered the novitiate here he renewed the annual re-\\ntreats, in which the brothers who were now dispersed abroad in differen*\\ncities, reassembled and renewed their vows of poverty and obedience.\\nIn 1710, a priest of Vans, Vincent de St. John Delze du Rouze, hav-\\ning witnessed the success of the schools at Avignon, made provision in\\nhis will for the support of a school to be taught by the brothers, per-\\nsuaded as I am, that the greater part of young children fall into irregu-\\nlarity of morals, for want of a religious education.\\nIn the same year a school was established at Moulins, where the\\nAbbe Languet was so pleased with their methods of instruction, that he\\nengaged the senior brother to instruct the children in the church of St.\\nPeter, the principal church in the town, and required all the young ec-\\nclesiastics to attend on his instruction with a view of acquiring his\\nmethods. The last labor of M. de la Salle, was to assist in establishing\\na school at Boulogne under the auspices of M. de la Cocherie, and the\\nMarquis de Colembert.\\nIn the year 1716, he urged the acceptance of his resignation as supe-\\nrior over the community and brother Bartholomew was elected in his\\nstead. At this time, the rules of the order were revised and confirmed.\\nHe died on the 7th of April, 1719, at the Institute of St. You, near Rouen\\na portion of the last year of his life was devoted to a class of little chil-\\ndren, confided by their parents to the care of the brothers for their", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "440 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\ntraining. Born with a large endowment of mental faculties, which he\\nhad enriched by studious and careful culture, after a hfe of laborious\\nusefulness, he died poor, having in possession only the New Testament,\\nthe Imitation of Christ, a crucifix, a breviary, and liis beads, on the 17th\\nof April, 1719, in the sixty-eight year of his age.\\nIn 1724, the society obtained a corporate existence under letters-patent\\nfrom Louis XV., and early in 1725 the rules of the institute were approved\\nby Pope Benedict XIII., and tlie community raised to the dignity of a\\nreligious order. The Bulls of the Pope were approved by the king s\\ncouncil, and immediately accepted by the society. St. Yon continued\\nto be the residence of the superior general until 1770, when it was\\nchanged to Paris, and in 1778 to Melun. In 1777, the society raised a\\nfund to sustain the aged and infirm brothers who could no longer labor\\nin their vocation as schoolmasters, and at the same time established a\\nnormal school at Melun, for the training and education of novitiates.\\nIn addition to the common or ordinary gratuitous day schools, for rich\\nand poor, as taught by the brothers, there were two classes of boarding\\nschools under their care the first consisted of ladie of noble and respec-\\ntable parents, whose early profligacy and bad character, required a\\nseparation from home and the second was composed of children of\\nparents in easy circumstances. There was one of the first class a board-\\ning schools at St. Yon, and its establishment was one of the conditions\\non which the lease, and afterwards the purchase of the property, was\\nobtained. It was a sort of reform school. Of this last class, there were\\nfive or six, which were established in consideration of liberal subscrip-\\ntions in aid of the day schools, for the benefit of the children of the sub-\\nscribers. These schools did not fall within the regular plan of the\\nbrothers, but were maintained until their dispersion in 1792.\\nIn 1789, the national assembly prohibited vows to be made in commu-\\nnities; and 1790, suppressed all religious societies; and in 1791, the insti-\\ntute was dispersed. At that date there were one hundred and twenty\\nhouses, and over one thousand brothers, actively engaged in the duties\\nof the school room. The continuity of the society was secured by the\\nhouses established in Italy, to which many of the brothers fled, and over\\nwhich Pope Pius VI., appointed one of the directors vicar-general.\\nThe houses were suppressed in 1798, on the success of the French arms,\\nand of the once flourishing society, there remained in 1799 only the two\\nhouses of Ferrara and Orvietto. In 1801, on the conclusion of a Con-\\ncordat between the Pope and the government, the society was revived\\nin France by the opening of a school at Lyons and in 1815, they re-\\nsumed their habit, and opened a novitiate, the members of which were ex-\\nempt from military service. At the organization of the university in 1808,\\nthe institute was legally reorganized, and from that time has increased\\nin numbers and usefulness. Since 1833, they have opened evening\\nschools for adults in Paris, and the large provincial towns. To supply\\nteachers for this class of schools, a preparatory novitiate was established\\nin 1837 at Paris, which has since became the normal school of the society.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 441\\nIn 1842, there were 390 houses, (of which 326 were in France) witli\\n3,030 brothers, and 585 novices. There were 642 schools with 163.700\\nchildren, besides evening schools with 7,800 adults in attendance, and\\nthree reformatory schools with 2,000 convicts, under instruction.\\nThe sell-devotion and missionary spirit of the Christian Brothers, and\\nthe religious influence which pervades their schools have attracted the\\nattention, and won the admiration of every visitor\\nTlie following sketch is taken from Kay s Education of the Poor in\\nEngland and Europe,^ published by J. Hatchard and Son, London, 1846.\\nThe Freres are a society of men devoted entirely and exclusively to\\nthe education of the poor. They take the vow of celibacy, renounce ail\\nthe pleasures of society and relationship, enter into the brotherhood, and\\nretain only two objects in life, their own spiritual advancement and the\\neducation of the people. But before a young man can be received into\\nthe society, he is required to pass an intermediate period of education and\\ntrial, during which he is denied all the ordinary pleasures of life, is ac-\\ncustomed to the humblest and most servile occupations, and receives an\\nexcellent and most liberal education. During this period, which lasts\\nthree years, he is carefully instructed in the principles of the Roman\\nCatholic religion, in the sciences, in the French and Latin languages, in\\nhistory, geography, arithmetic, writing, c., and at the same time he is\\nrequired to perform the most humble household duties. The Freres and\\nthe young men who are passing through their first novitiate, manage in\\nturn all the household duties, as the cooking, the preparation of the meals,\\nand all the ordinary duties of domestic servants; whilst their simple and\\nperfectly plain costume, their separation from the world and from their\\nfriends, who are only permitted to visit them at long intervals, accustom\\nthem to the arduous and self-denying life they are called upon afterward\\nto lead in the primary schools.\\nBy these means they form a character admirably fitted for the impor-\\ntant office of a schoolmaster.\\nThe Freres never leave the walls of one of their houses except in com-\\npany. One Frere is not permitted to travel without being accompanied\\nby another and when a department or commune requires their services\\nin a primary school, three are sent out, one of whom manages their do-\\nmestic concerns, whilst the other two conduct the school classes. If, how-\\never, there is in any town more than one school conducted by Freres,\\nthey all live together under the superintendence of an elder Frere, who is\\nstyled director.\\nIf at the end of the first novitiate the young man is still willing and\\ndesirous of entering the brotherhood, he is admitted by gradual advance-\\nment and preparation into the bosom of the society. He is then at the\\ndisposition of the principal of the order, who sends him. in company with\\ntwo brothers, to some district which has demanded a master from them.\\nWhat remains of their salaries after defraying the expenses of their\\nfrugal table, is returned to the treasury of the society, by which it is ex-\\npended in the printing of their school-books, in the various expenses of\\niheir central establishment, and in works of charity.\\nBefore a Frere is allowed to conduct a primary school, he is obliged to\\nobtain, in like manner as the other teachers, a brevet de capacite gov-\\nernment demanding in all ca.ses assurance of the secular education of the\\nteachers, and of the character of the instruction given by them in their\\nschools. All their schools are of course open as well to the inspectors of\\ngovernment, who visit, examine, and report upon them, as to their own,\\nwho strictly examine the conduct and progress of the Freres in their dif-\\nferent schoolsj and report to the principal.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "442 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\nThe following table will show the number of schools conducted by\\nFreres in 1844, and the number of children educated in them\\nNo. of Children.\\n169,501\\n9,535\\n5,110\\n6,490\\n4,199\\n1.840\\n580\\n444\\nNo. of Schooli\\nPrance,\\n658\\nBelgium,\\n41\\nSavoy,\\nPiedmont.\\n28\\n30\\nPontifical States,\\n20\\nCanada,\\n6\\nTurkey,\\nSwitzerland,\\n2\\n2\\nTotal, 787 197,699\\nThe education given in their schools is very liberal and the books used\\nvery good. The Freres consider that if they neglect todevelope the intel-\\nlect of their pupils, they can not advance their religious education satisfac-\\ntorily they consequently spare no pains to attain the former develop-\\nment, in order that the latter, wliich is the great end of their teaching and\\nof all instruction whatsoever, may not be retarded.\\nThe following are among the regulations of the Society\\n1. The Institution des Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes is a society which pro-\\nfesses to conduct schools gratuitously. The design of this institution is to give\\na Christian education to children. With this object in view, the Freres conduct\\nschools where childien may be placed under the management of masters from\\nmorning until evening so that the masters may be able to teach them to live\\nhonestly and uprightly, by instructing them in the principles of our holy reli-\\ngion, by teaching them Christian precepts, and by giving them suitable and\\nsufficient instruction.\\n2. The spirit of the institution is a spiritof faith which ought to encourage its\\nmembers to attribute all to God, to act as continually in the sight of God, and in\\nperfect conformity to His orders and His will. The members of this associa-\\ntion should be filled with an ardent zeal for the instruction of children, for their\\npreservation in innocence and the fear of God, and for their entire separation\\nfrom sin.\\n3. The institution is directed by a superior; who is nominated for life. He has\\ntwo assistants, who compo.se his council, and aid him in governing the society.\\nThese assistants live in the same house with him, assist at his councils, and\\nrender him aid whenever necessary.\\n4. The superior is elected by ballot by the directors assembled at the principal\\nhouses the two assistants are chosen in the same manner, and these latter hold\\noffice ten years, and can then be re-elected.\\n5. The superior may be deposed, but only by a general chapter, and for grave\\ncauses.\\n6. This chapter is composed of thirty of the oldest Freres, or directors of the\\nprincipal houses, who assemble by right once every ten years, and whenever it\\nis deemed necessary to convoke an extraordinary meeting.\\n7. The private houses are governed by Freres-directors, who are appointed for\\nthree years, unless it appears advisable to the superior and his assistants to\\nname a shorter period, or to recall them before the end of it.\\n8. The superior names the visitors. They are appointed for three years, and\\nmake a round of visits once every year. They require of the directors an ac-\\ncount of their receipts and expenses, and as soon as their visits are completed,\\nthey present a report to their superior of the necessary changes and corrections\\nto be made by him.\\n9. No Frere can take priest s orders, or pretend to any ecclesiastical office,\\nneither can he wear a surplice or serve in the churches, except at daily mass;\\nbut they confine themselves to their vocation, and live in silence, in retreat, and\\nin entire devotion to their duties.\\n10. They are bound to the institution by three simple religious vows, which\\nare taken at first for only three years, as well as by a vow of perseverance and\\na renouncement of any recompense for the instruction they give. These vows\\ncan only be aiinulled after dispensation granted by the Pope.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 443\\n11. They are not admitted to take the vows until they have been at least two\\nyears in the institution, and until they have passed one year in the novitiate\\nand one year in the school.\\n12. They are only admitted after a severe examination, and then only by a\\nmajority of the votes of the Freres of the house where they have passed their\\nnovitiate.\\n13. There are two novitiates, one where they admit young men between 13\\nand 16 years of age, the other for older men. But all young men who are ad-\\nmitted below the age of 25 renew their vows every year till they attain that age.\\n14. They banish from the society every Frere who conducts himself unbe-\\ncomingly. But this is only done for grave offenses, and by a majority of votes\\nat a general chapter.\\n15. The same regulation is observed when a Frere desires to leave the soci-\\nety and to obtain a dispensation from his vows.\\n16. The Freres do not establish themselves in the dioceses without the con-\\n.sent of the bishops, and they acknowledge their authority as their spiritual gov-\\nernment, and that of the magistrates as their civil government.\\n10. The Freres shall instruct their pupils after the method prescribed to them\\nby the institution.\\n20. They shall teach their scholars to read French and Latin, and to write.\\n21. They shall teach them also orthography, and arithmetic, the matins and\\nvespers, le Pater, I Ave Maria, le Credo et le Confiieor, and the French trans-\\nlations of these prayers, the Commandments of God and of the Church, tlie\\nresponses of the holy mass, the Catechism, the duties of a Christian, and the\\nmaxims and precepts that our Lord has left us in the holy Testament.\\n22. They shall teach the- Catechism half an hour daily.\\n27. The Freres shall not receive from the scholars, or their parents, either\\nmoney or any other present, at anytime.\\n30. They shall exhibit an equal affection for all their poor scholars, and more\\nfor the poor than f rthe rich; because the object of the institution is the in-\\nstruction of the poor.\\n31. They shall endeavor to give their pupils, by their conduct and manners,\\na continual example ofraotlesty, and of all the other virtues which they ought\\nto He taught, and which they ought to practise.\\n37. The Freres shall take the greatest care that they very rarely punish their\\nchildren, as they ought to.be persuaded that, by refraining as much as possible\\nfrom punishmetit. they will best succeed in properly conducting a school, and\\nin establishing order in it.\\n38. When punishment shall have become absolutely necessary, they shall\\ntake the greatest care to punish with the greatest moderation and piesence ol\\nmind, and never to do it under the influence of a hasty movement, or when they\\nfeel irritated.\\n39. They shall watch over themselves that they never exhibit the least anger\\nor impatience, either in their corrections, or in any of their words or actions;\\nas they ought to be convinced, that if they do not take these precautions the\\nscholars will not profit from their correction, (and the Freres never ought to\\ncorrect except with the object of benefiting their children) and God will not\\ngive the correction his blessing.\\n40. They shall not at any time give to their scholars any injurious epithet oi\\ninsulting name.\\n41. They shall also take the greatest care not to strike their scholars with\\nhand, foot, or stick, nor to push thetn rudely.\\n42. They shall take great care not to pull theirears, their hair, or their noses,\\nnor to fling any thing at them; these kinds of corrections ought not to be prac-\\ntised by the Freres, as they are very indecent and opposed to charity and Chris-\\ntian kindness.\\n43. They shall not correct their scholars during prayers, or at the time of\\ncatechising, except when they cannot defer the correction.\\nThey shall not use corporal punishment, except when every other means of\\ncorrection has failed to produce the right effect.\\n58. The Frere-director shall be inspector over all the schools in his town\\nand when more than one inspector is necessary for one house of Freres, the\\nother inspector shall report to the Frere-director twice a week on the conduct of\\neach Frere, on the condition of his class, and on the progress of his scholars.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "444 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\nThe following remarks on the Training School of this Brotherhood of\\nTeachers are taken from the Second Report of J. P. Kay Shuttleworth,\\non the Schools for the Training of Parochial Schoolmasters at Batter-\\nsea.\\nWe had frequently visited the schools of the Brothers of the Christian Doc-\\ntrine in France, and had spent much time in the examination of their Ecolcs-\\nmires, or Mother-School. Our attention was attracted to these schools by the\\ngentle manners and simple habits which distinguished the Freies; by their\\nsympathy for children, and the religious feeling which pervaded their element-\\nary schools. Their schools are certaiidy deficient in some of the niceties of\\norganization and method and there are subjects on which the instruction might\\nbe more complete and exact; but each master was, as it were, a parent to the\\nchildren around him. The school resembled a harmonious family.\\nI he self-denying industry of these pious men was remaikable. The habits\\nof their order would be deemed severe in this country. In the Mother School\\n(where they all reside,) ihey rise at four. After private meditation, their pub-\\nlic devotions in the chapel occupy the early hours of the morning. The do-\\nmestic drudger} of the household succeeds. They breakfast at seven, and are\\nin the schools of the great cities of France at nine. When the routine of daily\\nschool-keeping is at an end, after a short interval for refreshment and exercise,\\nthey open their evening schools, where hundieds of the adult population receive\\ninstruction, not merely in reading, writing, and the simplest elements of num-\\nbers, but in singing, drawing, geography the mensuration of planes and solids;\\nthe history of 1^ rance. and in religion. Their evening schools do not close till\\nten. The public expenditure on account of their services is one-third the usual\\nremuneraiioiT of an elementary schoolmaster in France, and they devote their\\nlives, constrained by the influence of a religious feeling, under a rule of celibacy,\\nbut without a vow, to the education of the poor.\\nThe unquestionable self-denial of such a life; the attachment of the children,\\nand of the adult pu[iils to their instructors, together with the constant sense of\\nthe all-subduing presence of Christian principle, rendered the means adopted\\nby the Christian Brothers, for the training of their novices, a matter of much\\ninterest and inquiry.\\nThe Mother School differs in most important respects from a Normal School,\\nbut the extent of this difference is not at first sight apparent, and is one of those\\nresults of our experience which we wish to submit.\\nThe Mother School is an establishment comprising arrangements for the in-\\nstruction and training of novices for the residence of the brothers, who are\\nengaged in the active performance of the duties of their order, as masters of\\nelementary day and evening schools and it affords an asylum, into which they\\ngradually retire from the fatigues and cares of their public labors, as age ap-\\nproaches, or infirmities accumulate, to spend the period of sickness or decrepi-\\ntude in the tranquillity of the household provided for them, and amidst the\\ncon.solations of their brethren. The brothers constitute a family, performing\\nevery domestic service, ministering to the sick and infirm, and assembling for\\ndevotion daily in their chapel.\\nTheir novices enter about the ages of twelve or fourteen. They at once as-\\nsume the dress of the order, and enter upon the self-denying routine of the house-\\nhold. The first yearsof their novitiate are of course devoted to such elementary\\ninstruction as is necessary to prepare them for their future duties as teachers\\nof the poor. Their habits are formed, not only in the couise of this instruction,\\nbut by joining the religious exercises; performing the household duties; and\\nenjoying the benefit of cofistant intercourse with the elder brethren of the Mother\\nSchool, who are at once their instructors and friends. In this life of seclusion,\\nthe superior of the Mother School has opportunities of observing and ascertaining\\nthe minutest traits of character, which indicate their comparative qualifications\\nfor the future labors of the order nor is this vigilance relaxed, but rather increas-\\ned, when they first quit the private studies of the Mother School, to be gradu-\\nally initialed in their public labors as instructors of the people.\\nSuch of the novices as are found not to possess the requisite qualification.s,\\nespecially as respects the moral constitution necessary for the duties of their\\norder, are permitted to leave the Mother School to enter upon other pursuits.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 445\\nDuring the period of the novitiate, such instances are not rare, but we have\\nreason to believe, that they seldom occur after the brother has acquired ma-\\nturity.\\nAs their education in the Mother School proceeds, the period devoted every\\nday to their public labors in the elementary schools is enlarged and they thus,\\nunder the eye of elder brethren, assisted by their example and precepts, gradu-\\nally emerge from the privacy of their novitiate to their public duties.\\nIn all this there is not much that differs from the life of a young pupil in a\\nNormal School but, at this point, the resemblance ceases, and a great diver-\\ngence occurs.\\nThe brother, whose novitiate is at an end, continues a member of the house-\\nhold of the Mother School. He has only advanced to a higher rank. He is sur-\\nrounded by the same influences. The daily routine which formed his domestic\\nand religious habits continues. His mind is fed, and his purposes are strength-\\nened by the conversation and examples of his brethren, and his conduct is under\\nthe paternal eye of his superior. Under such circumstances, personal identity\\nis almost absorbed in the corporate life by which he is surrounded. The strength\\nof the order supports his weakness the spirit of the order is the pervading\\nprinciple of his life: he thinks, feels, and acts, by an unconscious inspiration\\nfrom every thing by which he is surrounded, in a calm atmosphere of devotion\\nand religious labor. All is prescribed and a pious submission, a humble faith,\\na patient zeal, and a self-denying activity are his highest duties.\\nContrast his condition with that of a young man leaving a Normal School at\\nthe age of eighteen or nineteen, after three or four years of comparative seclu-\\nsion, under a regimen closely resembling that of the Mother School. At this\\nage, it is necessary that he should be put in charge of an elementary school, in\\norder that he may earn an independence.\\nThe most favorable situation in which he can be placed, because remote from\\nthe grosser forms of temptation, and therefore least in contrast with his previous\\nposition, is the charge of a rural school. For the tranquil and eventless life of\\nthe master of a rural school, such a training is not an unfit preparation. His\\nresources are not taxed by the necessity for inventing new means to meet the\\nnovel combinations which arise in a more active state of society. His energy\\nis equal to the task of instructing the submissive and tractable, though often\\ndull children of the peasantry and the gentle manners and quiet demeanor,\\nwhich are the uniform results of his previous education, are in harmony with\\nthe passionless life of the seclusion into which he is plunged. His knowledge\\nand his skill in method are abundantly superior to the necessities of his posi-\\ntion, and the unambitious sense of duty which he displays attracts the confidence\\nand wins the regard of the clergyman of the parish and of his intelligent neigh-\\nbors. For such a life, we have found even the young pupils whom we intro-\\nduced into the training schools at their foundation well fitted, and we have pre-\\nferred to settle them, as far as we could, on the estates of our personal friends,\\nwhere we are assured they have succeeded. Those only who have entered the\\nNormal School at adult age, have been capable of successfully contending with\\nthe greater difficulties of town schools.\\nBut we are also led by our experience to say, that such a novitiate does not\\nprepare a youth of tender age to encounter the responsibilities of a large town\\nor village school, in a manufacturing or mining district. Such a position is in\\nthe most painful contrast with his previous training. He exchanges the com-\\nparative seclusion of his residence in the Normal School for the diflicult position\\nof a public instructor, on whom many jealous eyes are fixed. For the first time\\nhe is alone in his profession unaided by the example of his masters not stim-\\nulated by emulation with his fellows removed from the vigilant eye nf the\\nPrincipal of the school separated from the powerful influences of that corpo-\\nrate spirit, which impelled his previous career, yet placed amidst difficulties,\\nperplexing even to the most mature experience, and required to tax his inven-\\ntion to meet new circumstances, before he has acquired confidence in the un-\\nsustained exercise of his recently developed powers. He has left the training\\nschool for the rude contact of a coarse, selfish, and immoral populace, whose\\ngross appetites and manners render the narrow streets in his neighborhood\\nscenes of impurity. He is at once brought face to face with an ignorant and\\ncorrupt multitude, to whose children he is to prove a leader and guide.\\nHis difiiculties are formidable. His thougnts are fixed on the deformity of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "446 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.\\nthis monstrous condition of society. It is something to have this sense of the\\nextremity of the evil, but to confront it, that conviction should become the spur\\nto persevering exertion. We have witnessed this failure, and we conceive thai\\nsuch difficulties can only be successfully encountered by masters of maturer\\nage and experience.\\nThe situation of the novice of a Mother School, founded in the centre of a great\\nmanufacturing ciiy, is in direct contrast with that of the young student, ex-\\nchanging his secluded training in a Normal School for the unaided charge of a\\ngreat town school.\\nIf such a Mother School were founded in the midst of one of our largest\\ncommercial towns, under the charge of a Principal of elevated character and\\nacquirements if he had assembled around him devoted and humble men, ready\\nto spend their lives in reclaiming the surrounding population by the foundation\\nand management of schools for the poor; and into this society a youth were\\nintroduced at a tender age, instructed, trained, and reared in the habits and du-\\nties of his profession; gradually brought into contact with the actual evil, to\\nthe healing of which his life was to be devoted; never abandoned to his own\\ncomparatively feeble resources, but always feeling himself the missionary of a\\nbody able to protect, ready to console, and willing to assist and instruct him\\nin such a situation, his feebleness would be sustained by the strength of a corpo-\\nration animated with the vitality of Christian principle.\\nWe are far from recommending the establishment of such a school, to the suc-\\ncess of which we think we perceive insurmountable obstacles in this country.\\nThe only form in which a similar machinery could exist in England is that of a\\nTown Normal School, in which all the apprentices or pupil teachers of the\\nseveral elementary schools might lodge, and where, under the superintendence\\nof a Principal, their domestic and religious habits might be formed. The mas-\\nters of the elementary schools might be associates of the Normal School, and\\nconduct the instruction of the pupil teachers, in the evening or early in the\\nmorning, when free from the duties of their schools. The whole body of mas-\\nters would thus form a society, with the Principal at their head, actively em-\\nployed in the practical daily duties of managing and instructing schools, and\\nalso by their connection with the Town Normal School, keeping in view and\\ncontributing to promote the general interests of elementary education, by rear-\\ning a body of assistant masters. If a good library were collected in this central\\ninstitution, and lectures from time to lime delivered on appropriate subjects to\\nthe whole body of masters and assistants, or, which would be better, if an upper\\nschool were founded, which might be attended by the masters and most advan-\\nced assistants, every improvement in method would thus be rapidly diffused\\nthrough the elementary schools of towns.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOLS\\nOF VERSAILLES AND DIJON.\\nThe Prim iry Normal School of Versailles is for the Department of Seine\\nand Oise. It comprises within its ample premises* several establishments\\nfor the instruction and practice of teachers. The sciiool itself contains\\neighty pupils under regular instruction throughout the year, iind furnishes a\\ntwo months course to adult schoolmasters. The establishments for practice\\nbegin wiih the infant school, and rise through the primary to the grade of\\nprimary superior. Of the elementary schools, one affords the y( nng teach-\\ners an example of the method of mutual, and another of simultaneous in-\\nstruction. The primary superior school had been recently established, at\\nthe date of ray visit, in 1837. There is, besides, an evening department for\\nthe element n-y instruction of adults, taught by the pupils of the Normal\\nSchool, and also a school of design, which is established here rather for\\nconvenience than as properly belonging to the range of the institution.\\nThe whole establishment is under the immediate control of a director\\n(Mr. Le Brun), subject to the autliority of a committee, and of the univer-\\nsity, the inspectors of which make reguLn- visits. The eonunittee inspect\\nthe school y sub-committees once a month, visiting the recitation-rooras of\\nthe professors without giviug special notice ^a plan much to be preferred to\\nthat of stated visits. If a member of a committee desires questions to be\\nput upon any particular points, he calls upon the professor to extend his\\nexamination, or asks questions himself The director examines the classes\\nfrequently, or is present at the lessons. There are eight professors for the\\nvarious courses, and two repeaters (repetiteurs), these latter superintend-\\ning the pupils when not with the professors, and giving them assistance if\\nrequired. The repeaters are responsible for the execution of the order of\\nthe day in the institution, and for the police, and one of them sleeps in each\\nof the two dormitories. Some of the teachers in the Normal School also\\ngive instruction in the model schools, and have charge of the pupils while\\nengaged in the practical exercises. The domestic economy is under the\\ncharge of the director, but he is allowed an assistant, who actually dis-\\ncharges the duty of superintendence, and who has brought this department\\ninto most excellent order.f\\nTiiere are a certain number of gratuitous places, to which pupils are ad-\\nmitted by competition, those found best prepared at the examination for\\nadmission having the preference. Pay pupils are also received at a very\\nmoderate rate,| but are exactly on the same footing, in reference to the\\nduties of the institution, with the former. Young men who wish to com-\\npete for a place, and are not sufficiently prepared, may enter as pay pupils,\\nand thus receive instruction directly applicable to their object. The age of\\nadmission is, by rule, between sixteen and twenty-one, but the former limit\\nis considered too early for profitable entrance. The qualifications for ad-\\nmission consist in a thorough knowledge of the subjects taugiit in the ele-\\nmentary schools.\\nThe period of instruction is two years. The first year is devoted to the\\nUsed under a former dynasty to accommodate ttie hounds of Charles X.\\nt During the first year of the institution, the fare of each student cost flfty-nine centimes (twelve\\ncents; per day. They had meat twice a day, except on the fasts of the Church,\\nt Five bundred francs, or about one hundred dollars, per annuin", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "448 NORMAL SCHOOL OF VERSAILLES.\\nrevision of elementary studies, and tlie second to an extension of them, and\\nto theoretical and practical instruction in the science and art of teaching.\\nThe subjects of revision or instruction are, reading, writing, linear drawing,\\ngeography, history, the drawing of maps, morals and religion, vocal music,\\narithmetic, elementary physics, terraculture, and pedagogy.\\nThe religious instruction is given by an ecclesiastic, who is. almoner to the\\nschool it includes lessons on the doctrines and history of the church, given\\ntwice per week. Protestants are not required to attend these lessons, but\\nreceive instruction out of the institution from a minister of their own con-\\nfession.\\nPhysical education is conducted by means of exercises in gymnastics, by\\nwalks, and the practice of gardening. In summer the pupils bathe once a\\nweek. The gymnastic exercises are taught by the more expert pupils to\\nthe scholars of the model schools, and appear to have taken well among\\nthem.\\nThe pupils study in a room common to all, and the degree of attention\\nwhich they pay, and their conduct, are marked, according to a uniform scale,\\nby the superintending repeater, and reported daily to the director. Once\\nevery month the professor examines these classes on the studies of the past\\nmonth, and reports the standing. Marks are also given for great proficiency\\nand attention, which are reported with the standing. These marks, and\\nthose of the examination, are summed up, and when they amount to a cer-\\ntain number for the month, the pupil is entitled to a premium. The premi-\\nums consist of books uniformly bound, and accompanied by a certificate\\nReport is made of these pupils to the minister of public instruction, and the\\nrecord may serve them when desirous to secure a particular place. The\\ndirector assembles the school to hear an account of these monthly reports,\\nand makes such remarks as they may suggest.\\nBesides the more usual school implements, this institution has a library, a\\nsmall collection of physical and chemical apparatus, of technological speci-\\nmens, already of considerable interest, and of models of agricultural imple-\\nments. There are also two gardens, one of which is laid out to serve the\\npurposes of systematic instruction in horticulture, the other of which con-\\ntains specimens of agricultural products, and a ground for gymnastic exer-\\ncises. Tiie pupils work by details of tlu-ee at a time, under the direction ot\\nthe gardener, in cultivating flowers, fruits, vegetables, c. They have the\\nuse of a set of carpenters and joiners tools, with which they have fitted up\\ntheir own library in a very creditable way.* In the second year they receive\\nlectures on the science and art of teaching, and in turn give instruction in\\nthe schools, under the direction of the teachers. Their performances are\\nsubsequently criticised for their ithprovement.\\nThe order of the day in summer is as follows\\nThe pupils rise at five, wash, make up tiieir beds, and clean their dormi-\\ntories, in two divisions, wliich alternate meet in the study-hall at half past\\nfive for prayers, breakfast, engage in studies or recitation until one dine\\nand have recreation until two study or recite until four have exercises or\\nrecreation, sup, study, and engage in religious reading and prayers and\\nretire at ten, except in special cases. Before meals there is a grace said, and\\nduring meals one of the pupils reads aloud.\\nIn distributing the time devoted to study and recitation, an hour of study\\nis made to precede a lesson, when the latter requires specific preparation\\nwhen, on the contrary, the lesson requires after-reflection to fix its principles,\\nor consists of a lecture, of which the notes are to be written out, the study\\nhour follows the lesson. The branches of a mechanical nature are inter-\\nA carpenter who came to attend the evening classes was found by the director so intellie;ent,\\nthat he advised him to prepare for the school. The yount; man succeeded in entering, at the\\nannual competition, and subsequently, on leaving the school, received one of the best appoint\\nments of his year as a teacher.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL OF DIJON. 4i9\\nspersed with the intellectual. The students of the second year are em-\\nployed, in turn, in teaching, and are relieved from other duties during the\\nhours devoted to the schools of practice.\\nOn Sunday, after the morning service, the pupils are free to leave the\\nwalls of the institution. The same is the ease on Thursday afternoon. The\\ndirector has found, however, bad results from these indiscriminate leaves of\\nabsence.\\nThe discipline of the school is mild, the age and objects of the pupils\\nbeing such that the use of coercive means is seldom required. The first\\nstep is admonition by a repeater or professor, the next a private admo-\\nnition by the director. If these means prove inetfectual, dismission follows.\\nThe director has great influence, from his personal character, and from the\\nfact that his recommendation can secure a good place* to the pupil imme-\\ndiately on leaving the school. The mode of life in the institution is very\\nsimple. The pupils are neatly but roughly dressed, and perform most of the\\nservices of police for themselves. The dormitories are very neat. The\\nbedsteads are of wrought-iron, corded at the bottom. During the night the\\nclothes are deposited in small bo.xes near the beds. The extra articles of\\nclothing are in a common room. Cleanliness of dress and person are care-\\nfully enjoined. The fare is plain, but good, and the arrangements connected\\nwith the table unexceptionable. There is an infirmary attached to the\\nschool, which is, however, but rarely used.\\nThe schools for practice do not require special description, as their organ-\\nization will be sutticiently understood from what has already been said of\\nprinuiry schools, and they have not been long enough in operation to acquire\\nthe improved form which, I cannot doubt, they will receive under the present\\nable director of the Normal School.\\nThe Primary Normal School at Dijon, for the Department of Cote d Or,\\nin its general organization, is the same as that at Versailles. It ditt ers, how-\\never, in one most important particular, which involves other diflerences of\\ndetail. All the instruction, except of religion and music, as well as the su-\\nperintendence, is under the charge of the director and a single assistant,\\nwho, by the aid of the pupils, carry on the schools of practice, as well as the\\ncourses of the Normal School. This arrangement limits the amount of\\ninstruction, and interferes very materially with the arrangement of the stud-\\nies. The school is conducted, however, with an excellent spirit. An idea\\nof the plan will be obtained from the order of the day, which also contains\\nan outline of the course of instruction.\\nFrom five to six A. M., tlie pupils say their prayers, wash, c. From six\\nto seven the higher drvision has a lesson in French grammar. The lower\\nreceives a lesson in geography or history alternately. From seven to eight,\\nthe higher division has a lesson in geography or history alternately the\\nlower division in arithmetic. From eight to half past eight, breakfist and\\nrecreation. From half past eight until eleven, a portion of the higher di-\\nvision is employed in the prinuxry schools of practice, and the others are\\nengaged in study. From eleven until one, writing and linear drawing for\\nboth divisions. From one until two, dinner and recreation. From two until\\nhalf past four, as from half past eight to eleven. Recreation until five.\\nFrom five to six, instruction in instrumental or vocal music for each division\\nalternately. From six to seven, the higher division has a lesson in geome-\\ntry, or its applications the lower division in French grammar. From seven\\nuntil a quarter before eight, supper and recreation. From this time until\\nnine, the higher division has a lesson in physical science or natural history,\\nmechanics, agriculture, and rural economy, or book-keeping the lower di-\\nThe best pliices, in point of emolument, are worth from fifteen to eighteen himdred franca\\n(about $300 to $360).\\n29", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "450 NORMAL SCHOOL OF DIJON.\\nvision in reading. The last quarter of an hour is occupied by both divisions\\nin prayers, after which they retire. This order applies to all the days of the\\nweek but Thursday, when, from eight to ten, the pupils receive moral and\\nreligious instruction from ten to eleven, instruction in the forms of simple,\\nlegal, and commercial writings and from two to four, engaged in the review\\nof part of the week s studies. On the afternoon of Thursday the schools of\\npractice are not in session.\\nOn Sunday, after the duties following their rising, the pupils are occupied\\nin studying and revising some of the lessons of the week. From nine to\\nten o clock, in religious reading, aloud. At ten they go to service in the\\nparish chapel, attended by the director and his assistant. Receive moral\\nand religious instruction, on their return, until dinner-time. After dinner,\\nattend the evening service, and then take a walk. In the evening, assemble\\nfor conversation on pedagogical subjects, and for prayers.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL*\\nFOR\\nTEACHERS OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS,\\nAT PARIS.\\nThe Normal School, intended to furnish professors for colleges, was\\nestablished in 1794, by the same convention which created the polytechnic\\nschool. The organization proposed by the law was upon a scale entirely\\nbeyond the wants to be supplied and, notwithstanding the exertions of its\\neniinent professors, the school had but a temporary existence, and ill suc-\\ncess, meanly from the unprepared state of the pupils who had entered it, and\\nto wiiom the kind of instruction was entirely unadapted. There were thir-\\ntee*courses of lectures, and among the professors were Lagrange, Laplace,\\nHaiiy, Monge, BerthoUet, Volney, Bernardin St. Pierre, Sicard, and Laliarpe.\\nThe school was suppressed by a decree of April, 1795, and its pupils dis-\\npersed. After the reorganization of the university, in 1806, the expediency\\nof reviving the normal school appears to have been felt, and it was reorgan-\\nized ill 1808. The number of pupils provided for in the new plan was three\\nhundred; but from 1810 to 18-J6 there were never more than fifiy-eight\\nactually in attendance. According to the plan of instruction, lectures were\\nto be attended out of doors, and interrogations and study to take place witliin\\nthe school, under the charge of the elder pupils. The recitations of the\\npupils to each other were called conferences a name which is still pre-\\nserved, being applied to the lessons given by the teachers, who are called\\nmasters of conferences. The duration of the course of instruction was lim-\\nited at lirst to two years, but subsequently extended to three. The school\\nwas a second time suppressed, in 1822 and in 1826 an institution, termed\\na preparatory school, was subsiituted for it, which in its turn was abol-\\nished, and the old normal school revived by a decree of the lieutenant-genen.l\\nof the kingdom, on the 6th of August, 1830. A report was made by M.\\nCousin, Secretary of the Council of Public Instruction, in October, 1830,\\nthe recommendations of which were adopted substantially. New regulations\\nfor the course of study, the general arrangements and discipline, have been\\ngradually prepared, and the school has commenced a career of usefulness\\nwhich it bids fair to prosecule wiih increasing success.\\nThe ciiief purpose of the normal school is to give its pupils ample oppor-\\ntunities of preparation for the compe .hion for places of adjuncts in the col-\\nleges (cours d agregalion), and its arrangements are all subordinate to this\\nobject. In this compeiidon. however, the pupils of the school meet on an\\nequal footing, merely, with all otiier candidates.\\nThe officers, in 1837, were, the director, who did not reside at the school,\\nnor take part in the instruction the director of studies, the resident head of\\nthe establishment; eight masters of conferences for the section of letters;\\nsix masters of conferences, and one for the drawing department, for the sec-\\ntion of sciences; two preparers (preparateurs) a sub-director, charged wi:h\\na general superintendence of the pupils, and two assistants, called superin-\\ntending masters. The masters of conferences have, in general, equivalent\\nduties to the professors in the colleges. In 1837 there were eighty pupils\\nin the !-ciiool, of whom forty-nine were supported entirely by the funds al-\\nlowed by the government, and eighteen had half their expenses defr.iyed.\\nThe normal school at present occupies a part of the buildings belonging\\nFrom Bache s Education in Europe.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "452 SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.\\nto the Royal College of Louis-le-Grand, and the college furnishes the food\\nand clothing of the pupils by ngreemeiU with the school. This connection\\nhas advantages, and among them, that of enabling the pupils to have some\\npractice in teaching but they are more than counterbalanced by disadvan-\\ntages, and the friends of the school are earnest in their endeavors to procure\\na separate domicile for it. The accommodations for lodging, study, instruc-\\ntion, and exercise, as far as the building and its site are concerned, are cer-\\ntainly of a most limited kind.\\nAdmission. The number of pupils who may be admitted is determined\\nevery year by the probable number required to till the vacancies in second-\\nary instruction. The admissions are made by competition, and for the\\nmost successful competitors a limited number of bursaries (bourses) are\\nestablished, divisible into half bursaries, which are distributed to those who\\nrequire assis-tance. The candidates enter their names at the academy near-\\nest to their residence, between the fifteenth of June and of July, every year.\\nEach candidate deposits the following certificates, viz., of the date of birth,\\nshowing that he is over seventeen and under twenty-three years of ag^ of\\nhaving been vaccinated; of moral conduct of having completed, or l^ng\\nabout to complete, his studies, including philosophy, and, if he intends to\\nbecome a teaciier of science, a course of special mathematics and of phys-\\nics a declaration from his parent or guardian, if the candidate is a minor,\\nthat he will devote himself for ten years, from the period of admission, to\\npublic instruction. These lists are forwarded by the rectors of the several\\nacademies, with their remarks, to the council of public instruction, which\\nreturns, before the first of August, a list of those persons who may be ex-\\namined for admission. This examination is made in the several academies,\\nwith a view to select the most prominent candidates, whose cases are to be\\nultimately decided by competition at the school in Paris. It consists of\\ncompositions upon subjects which are the same for all the academies, and of\\ninterrogations and oral explanations. For the candidates, as future instruct-\\nors in letters, the written exercises are a dissertation, in French, on some\\npoints of philosopliy, an essay in Latin, an essay in French, a Latin and\\nGreek version, and Latin verses. 7 he oral examinations turn upon the\\nclassical authors read in college, and upon the elements of philosophy,\\nrhetoric, and history. The candidates in science have the same written ex-\\nercises in philosophy and in Latin versions, and in addition, must solve one\\nor more questions in mathematics and physics. The oral examinations are\\nupon subjects of mathematics, physics, and philosophy, taught in the philos-\\nophy class of the colleges. All the written exercises and notes of the oral\\nexaminations are forwarded to the minister of public instruction, and sub-\\nmitted severally to a committee of letters and a committee of science, taken\\nfrom among the masters of the normal school, the director being chairman\\nof each committee. These committees decide whether the candidates are\\nfit to be allowed to present themselves for examination at the school, and\\nthose who are deemed worthy, receive a notice to report themselves on or\\nbefore the fifieenth of October. Previous to this competition the candidates\\nare required to present tiieir diploma of bachelor of letters or of sciences.\\nThe masters of the normal school are divided into two committees, one of\\nletters and the other of science, for conducting these examinations, which\\nare oral, and the result of which determines the admission or rejection of\\nthe candidate. On admission, the pupil makes an engagement to devote\\nhimself to public instruction for ten years.\\nInstruction. The present arrangement of the courses of instruction can\\nonly be regarded as provisional, improvements being gradually introduced,\\nas observation shows their necessity. The principle declared by the direct-\\nor, M. Cousin, to be that of tiie school in this respect, is worthy of all com-\\nmendation. When, says M. Cousin, in his Report of 1835-6,* experi-\\nEcole Normale. Reglemeots, programmes, et rapports. Paris, 1837.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. 453\\nence shows the necessity or utility of a measure which the fundamental\\nregulations of the school have not provided for, it is by no means proposed\\nat once to the royal council for adoption as an article of the regulations\\nauthority is asked to put it to the test of practice, and it is only when found\\nrepeatedly successful that it is deemed prudent to convert it into a regula-\\ntion. A close observation of the merits and defects of the system is thus\\nmade to pave the way for judicious changes.\\nThe full course of the school, at present, occupies three years. The\\npupils are divided into two sections, that of letters and of science, which\\npursue separate courses. In the section of letters, the first year is devoted\\nto a revision, and the second to an extension, of the higher courses of the\\ncolleges, and the third is especially employed in fitting the pupils to become\\nprofessors. In fulfilling this object, however, no instruction in the science\\nor art of teaching is given in the establishment, nor is it obligatory upon the\\npupils to teach, so that, as tar as systematic practice goes, they derive no\\ndirect benefit from the school it is a privilege, however, which many enjoy,\\nto be called to give lessons in some of the royal colleges, particularly in\\nthat with which the school is now connected by its locality. When the\\npupil intends to devote himself to teaching in the grammar classes of the\\ncolleges, or is found not to have the requisite ability for taking a high rank\\nin the body of instructors, he passes at once from the first year s course to\\nthe third, and competes, accordingly, in the examination of adjuncts (agreges).\\nThe consequences of the low esteem in which the grammar studies are held\\nhave been much deplored by the present director of the school,* and a re-\\nform in regard to them has been attempted, with partial success.\\nThe courses are conducted by teachers called masters of conferences, who\\nseldom lecture, but question the pupils upon the lessons which have been\\nappointed for them to learn, give explanations, and are present while they\\ninterrogate each other, as a kind of practice in the art of teaching. In some\\ncases, the students themselves act as masters of conferences.\\nThe course of letters of the first year comprised, in 1836-7 ,f\\n1. Greek language and literature, three lessons per week. 2. Latin and French\\nliterature, three lessons. 3. Ancient history and antiquities, three lessons. 4. A\\ncourse of philosophy higher than that of the colleges, three lessons. 5. General\\nphysics, one lesson. Chemistry, one lesson, the courses being introduced chiefly\\nto keep up the knowledge of these subjects. 6. German and EngUsh language,\\neach one lesson.\\nThe conferences, or lessons on general physics, chemistry, and the modern\\nlanguages, are by pupils who give instruction and explanations to their com-\\nrades.\\nAt the end of the first year there are examinations, according to the result\\nof which the student passes to the courses of the second year, or, in the\\ncase before stated, to those of the third year, or leaves the school. These\\nexaminations are conducted by inspectors-general of the university, named\\nfor the purpose by the minister. Pupils who have passed, may present\\nthemselves at the university as candidates for the degree of licentiate of let-\\nters.\\nThe second yearns course of letters does not necessarily include any scien-\\ntific studies.\\nThe courses of language and philosophy go into the liistory of these subjects.\\nThey consist of 1. Lectures on the history of Greek literature, three lessons per\\nweek. 2. On the history of Roman literature, two lessons. 3. On the history of\\nFrencli hteraturc, one lesson. 4. English language, one lesson. 5. On the history\\nof philosophy, two lessons. 6. Continuation of the historical course, two lessons.\\nThe recitations are accompanied by suitable written exercises.\\nRapport sur les travaux de l 6cole normale pendant l ann6e, 1835-6. Par M. Cousin,\\nt The distribution of subjects is taken from a manuscript kindly furnished to me by the direct-\\nor of studies, M. Viguier it does not agree precisely with the plan mai ked out in the regulations.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "454 SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS.\\nAt the end of the year the pupils are examined. Those who have not\\nalready obtained the degree of* licentiate of letters are now required to do\\nso, or to leave the school.\\nThe examinations for this degree consist of compositions in French and Latin\\nprose, on ditferent days. Latin verses and Greelv themes. Explanations of selected\\npassages from the second book of Herodotus, the speech of Pericles in Thncydides,\\nthe Gorgias of Pluto, the speecli of Demosthenes against Leptines, the choruses of\\n(E:lipus at Colonos, the Hecuba of Euripides, the combat of Heroiiles and Amyous\\nin Theocritus, the Hymns of Synesius, Cicero de O/ atore and de leg-ibus, the Ger-\\nmany of Tacitus, the Treatise of Seneca de beneficiis, the last two nooks of Quin-\\ntilian s Rhetoric, the iifth book of Lucretius de natura rerum, the first book of\\nHorace s Epistles, the second book of Horace s Odes, the Troas of Seneca.\\nThese books are liable to be changed, from time to time, on no ice being\\ngiven. The candidate is expected to answer the questions on philosophy,\\nliterature, history, and philology, to which the reading of the author may\\ngive rise.\\nIn llie third year of letters, the courses are special, the divisions corre-\\nsponding with the courses of the royal colleges, and consisting of grammar,\\nhumanities, and rhetoric, history, and philosophy. Each pupil takes his\\nplace in one or other of these divisions, and is not required to follow the\\ncourses of the others.\\nThe lectures and recitations constituting the entire course of letters of the third\\nyear were, during the second half year of 1836-7\u00e2\u0080\u00941. Latin language and grammar,\\nthree lessons. 2. Greek language, two lectures and one lesson, 3. Latin litera-\\nture, two lectures and one lesson. 4. Greek literature, two lectures and one lesson.\\n5. Latin eloquence, two lectures. 6. Latin poetry, two lectures, 7. French litera-\\nture, one lesson. 8. History of the philosophy of the ancients, two lectures.\\n9. Ancient geography, two lectures. 10. Philosophy, one lesson. The lectures\\nalluded to are those attended by the pupils at the Sorbonne.\\nThe following were the courses of the different years in the section of\\nscience during the same term, the lectures being those of the faculty of\\nsciences of the university.\\nFirst year. 1. Astronomy, two lessons per week. 2. Descriptive Geometry, two\\nlessons. 3. Chemistry, two lectures, one lesson, and four hours of manipulation.\\n4. Botany, one lesson. 5. Philosophy, two lessons, fi. German language, one\\nlesson. 7. Drawing, one lesson, during the week, and one on Sunday.\\nSecond year. 1. Physics, two lectures, two lessons, and one hour of manipula-\\ntion. 2. Chemistry, two lectures. 3. Botany, one lesson. 4. Vegetable physiolo-\\ngy, two lectures. 5. Calculus of probabilities, two lectures. 6. Differential and\\nintegral calculus, two lectures and two lessons. 7. Drawing, one lesson during the\\nweekj and one on Sunday.\\nThird year. 1. Mechanics, four lectures and two lessons. 2. Chemical analysis,\\ntwo lectures and one hour of manipulation. 8. Chemistry, one lecture. 4. Natural\\nhistory, two lessons. 5. Geology, one lesson. 6. Botany, one lesson. 7. Draw-\\ning, one lesson. On Sunday, the pupils make botanical and geological excursions\\ninto the environs.\\nThe pupils undergo similar examinations to those of the section of letters,\\nand before presenting themselves as candidates for the place of adjunct, they\\nmust have taken at least the degree of licentiate of sciences. They are\\nhowever, specially relieved from the necessity of matriculating in those\\ncourses at the university which they attend in the school, and which other-\\n\\\\vise would be necessary in order to obtain the degree of licentiate. These\\nare, for the mathematical sciences, the differential and integral calculus and\\nmechanics for the physical sciences, physics and chemistVy and for the\\nnatural sciences, geology, botany, \u00c2\u00abSlc. The examination for the degree of\\nlicentiate of mathematical science may be made at the end of the second\\nyear, bv pupils of this section of the normal school, and that for licentiate\\nof physical science at the close of the third year,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. 455\\nThe programmes of the several lessons* in both sections are prepared by\\nthe masters, and submitted to the council of public instruction every year\\nbefore the beginning of the course.\\nBesides these lectures and recitations, the pupils are required to attend\\nsucii other lectures at the faculty of letters or of sciences of the university,\\nor any other public institution, as may be designated to them. At the ter-\\nmination of the third year s course, ia the month of July, they are examined\\nin the school, and present themselves as competitors for the places of ad-\\njuncts, according to the special studies which they have pursued.\\nThe courses of the school are arranged in reference to the competition for\\nthese places, an account of the examinations for which has already been\\ngiven in the general description of secondary instruction in France. In this\\ncompetition they are brought in contact with the best talent wliich has chosen\\na different road to preferment from that offered by the norma! school. Suc-\\ncess in this trial is, of course, not always a fair criterion of the state of the\\nschool, but certainly offers, on the average, an idea of the merits of its dif-\\nferent departments, and is so used in directing their improvement. It may\\nbe of interest, therefore, to give the results of one of these competitions,\\nnamely, that for 1836. The judges of the competition for the places of ad-\\njuncts in philosophy report ten candidates for the six places; of these, five\\nof the successful ones were from the normal school, but the first was from\\nanotlier institution. For six vacancies in the higher classes of letters there\\nwere thirty candidates examined, and of these, two of the successful ones,\\nincluding the first upon the list, were pupils of the school. For adjuncts in\\nthe sciences there were eight places and nineteen candidates, the school\\nfurnishing six of the successful competitors, and among them the first on\\nthe list. In history and geography there were eight candidates for five\\nplaces; the institutions from which they came are, however, not stated. In\\ngrammar, there were forty-one candidates for eight places of the successful\\ncompetitors the school sent five, and among them the first on the list.\\nThe keen nature of this competition, while it excites the pupils of the\\nschool to great exertion, produces a most deleterious effect upon the health\\nof the more feeble. Indeed, their general appearance, when compared with\\nthose of other young men of the same age, is far from favorable. It is part\\nof a system which is considered adapted to the national character, but winch\\nis certainly by no means a necessity for men in general, since the teachers\\nof the German gymnasia are prepared without its severe pressure.\\nThe collections subsidiary to the instruction are 1st. A library of works\\nrelating to education and to the courses of study, which is open for two hours\\nevery day, and from which the students may receive books. This library is\\nunder the charge of the sub-director of studies. The students are, besides,\\nfurnished with the books which they use in their classes at the expense of\\nthe school, and which, unless injured, are returned by them after use. 2d.\\nA small collection of physical apparatus. 3d. A collection of chemical\\napparatus connected with a laboratory, for practice in manipuL.tion. The\\ncourses of manipulation are not, however, carried out to their due extent,\\nand the study-rooms are common to many individuals. The pupils are\\ndivided into two sections for study, each of which is in charge of one of the\\nsuperintending masters.\\nDiscipline. Though there are minute regulations for discipline, the age\\nof the pupils and the character of their pursuits and expectations render the\\nexercise of severity but little necessary. At the tim(f of my visit to the\\nschool, in 1837, the youngest pupil was seventeen years of age, and there\\nwere but four of between eighteen and nineteen connected with it.\\nMuch difference of opinion exists as to whether the frequent permissions\\nto individuals to leave the premises should not be replaced by excursions\\nmade by the whole of the pupils, under the supervision of an officer. At\\nA series of programmes is given in full in M. Cousin s work, before referred to.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "456 SECOJiDARY NORMAL, SCHOOL AT PARIS.\\npresent, Sunday is a day of general leave of absence, and on Thursday after-\\nnoon individual permissions are freely granted by the director of studies.\\nThis institution occupies the same rank with those attached to some of\\nthe Prussian universities, and intended to prepare masters for the gymnasia.\\nIt has an advantage over them in the spirit produced by the greater numbers\\nof its pupils, and by the closer connection with the school, which results\\nfrom their studying and residing within its walls. It is, in turn, inferior to\\nthe seminaries for secondary teachers at Berlin, in the absence of arrange-\\nments for practical teaching, and in even a more important respect, namely,\\nthe want of that religious motive of action which forms the characteristic\\nof the Prussian system. The deficiencies of this great school, in regard to\\nboth religious and practical education, struck me, I must confess, very forci-\\nbly.*\\nIn the general tenor of the foregoing; remarks, I have the sanction of M. Cousin, ia the pref-\\nace to liis-;iccount of the Normal School, already referred to.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL\\nFRANCE.\\nThe Polytechnic School of France was established by adecree of the\\nNational Convention, dated March 11, 1794, through the inOuence of\\nMonge, Carnot, Fourcroy, and others, under the name of the Central\\nSchool of Public Works which name was changed to its present desig-\\nnation in 1795. To prepare a suitable choir of teachers, a certain num-\\nber of pupils of the right character were trained under such professors\\nas Lagrange, Laplace, Hassenfratz, and BerthoUet.\\nThe original object of the school, a diffusion of mathematical, physi-\\ncal, and chemical science, and the graphic arts, has been constantly\\nmaintained under the successive changes in the government of France;\\nand although the pupils are not obliged to enter any branch of the gov-\\nernment service in point of fact, most of the graduates become engineers,\\nmilitary, naval or civil, or are promoted to the direction of public works.\\nSince 1800, the school has furnished, on an average, one hundred\\nthoroughly educated graduates for the public service, annually.\\nThe general charge oi the institution belongs to the war department,\\nand the immediate control is vested in a military commandant, assisted\\nby a vice-commandant, both of whom must have been pupils of the\\nschool with an able choir of subordinate officers, professors, and tutors.\\nThe following account of the school is abridged from President Bache s\\nReport\\nThe school is open to all candidates over sixteen years of age, from any part of\\nFrance, who give satisfactory evidence of talents and acquirements.\\nEach applicant registers his name at the prefecture of the department in which\\nhe resides, and is examined for admission in the district to which he belongs, or\\nwhere he is under instruction. With this registry is deposited the certificate of\\nthe date and circumstances of birth, a certificate of vaccination or of having had\\nthe small-pox, and of general health, and an obligation on the part of the parent or\\nguardian to pay the sum of one thousand francs (about two hundred dollars) yearly\\nto the school, in case of admission.\\nThe subjects upon which a candidate is examined are 1. Arithmetic, in all its\\nbranches. 2. Elementary geometry. 3. Algebra. 4. Plane trigonometry. 5.\\nStatics treated synthetically. 6. Elements of analytical geometry. 7. The use of\\nthe logarithmic tables. 8. Latin, as far as it is taught in the rhetoric class of the\\ncolleges, and French composition. 9. Drawing, with the crayon and with instru-\\nments. If the candidate possesses, in addition, a knowledge of physics, chemistry,\\nGerman, and of India-ink drawing, they are taken into the account.\\nThere are four examiners appointed annually by the minister of war, on the\\nnomination of the council of instruction of the school. Tliese divide between them\\nthe different districts in which the examinations are to be held, and repair, at a\\nstated time, between the first of August and tenth of October, to the place ap-\\npointed. The performance of the candidates is registered according to a scale of\\nmarks, as nearly uniform as the judgment of different individuals allows; these\\nregisters being compared, the candidates are admitted in the order of merit, thus", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "458\\nPOLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE.\\ndetermined, as far as the number of vacancies permits. Tlie successful candidates\\nare informed of the result of their examination, and join the school early in No-\\nvember. They are received by a board (jury) of examiners, who subject them to\\na second examination, intended to verify the first, and to tlie inspection of a sur-\\ngeon. This board consists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the\\ntwo permanent examiners attached to the school, and the four examiners for\\nadmission.\\nThere are twenty-four gratuitous placfs for pupils whose families are in needy\\ncircumstances of these, twelve are at the disposal of the minister of war, eight of\\nthe minister of commerce, and four of the minister of marine. These bursaries\\nmay be halved. No pupil who is lower than two-thirds from the head of the list,\\nin the order of merit at admission, is eligible to a bursary or half bursary.\\nBesides the students thus regularly entei ing the school, a certain number of\\nyouths are permitted to attend the lectures, (auditeurs libres.) The majority of\\nthese are foreigners.\\nThe highest executive authority in matters of instruction, is the director of\\nstudies. This office was created in 1804, previous to which time the council of\\ninstruction had discharged its duties. The director of studies overseers the details\\nof instruction, being immediately responsible to the commandant of the school.\\nHe is appointed by the king, on the joint nomination of the council of instruction\\nof the school and of the academy of sciences, and is a member of all boards con-\\nvened in relation to its affairs. A council, termed the council of instruction\\n{conseil d^ instruction,} and composed of the two commandants, the director of\\nstudies, the professors of the school, one master, appointed annually by the teach-\\ners from among their number, and the librarian, who acts as secretary, meets once\\na month for the discussion of business relating to instruction. When changes are\\nrequired in the courses or in the examinations, they are discussed in this council\\nand referred to a second, which may be considered as the chief legislative body, in\\nregard to the subjects composing the instruction.\\nThis council, termed the council of ]mpvo\\\\emen\\\\, (conseil de perfectionnement,)\\nconsists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the five examiners in the\\nschool, one examiner for admission, three members of the academy of sciences, three\\nprofessors in the school, and a member from each of the branches of the public\\nservice into which the graduates enter.\\nThe officers directly concerned in instruction are, the professors and the re-\\npeaters (repetiteurs.) The professors and masters are appointed by the minister\\nof war on the joint nomination of the council of instruction and of the particular\\nacademy of the institute in which the subject of instruction is classed. The pro-\\nfessors communicate instruction by lecture and by general interrogations of the\\npupils. The repeaters conduct the special interrogations, and give aid to the pupils\\nwhile engaged in study. The title of repeater is, no doubt, derived from the\\noriginal duty of these teachers having been to go over the lessons of the professors.\\nThe repeaters do the more laborious work of instruction, and since their substitu-\\ntion for the pupil teachers, who were employed in the early period of the existence\\nof the school, have been considered most important officers. Some of the most\\ndistinguished professors have risen from the rank of repeaters.\\nThere are two divisions of the pupils for instruction, corresponding to the two\\nyears duration of the courses. No pupil is allowed to remain in one of these di-\\nvisions more than two years, nor in the school more than three. To proceed from\\nthe first division to the second, or to graduate, an examination must be passed\\nupon the studies of the year then just elapsed. Until 1798, these examinations\\nwere conducted by the professors, but now there are examiners, who are not con-\\nnected with the school. Two of these are permanent, and appointed by the min-\\nister of war on the joint nomination of the council of instruction and of the academy\\nof sciences, and three are appointed annually on the recommendation of the council.\\nThe courses of the first year are analysis, geometry, mechanics, descriptive\\ngeometry, application of analysis to geometry, physics, chemistry, French composi-\\ntion, topographical drawing, drawing of the human figui-es, landscape drawing,\\nand India-ink drawing. Those of the second year are a continuation of the analy-\\nsis, geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, and drawing of the first year, besides\\nmachines, geodesy and social arithmetic, architecture, and the German language.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE.\\n459\\nAnalysis.\\nFirst Year. Differential and integral calculus, to include the rectification and quadrature\\nof plane curves, and curved surfaces, and llie cubature of solids.\\nSecond Year. Ufferential and intefjral calculus continued. Elements of tile calculus of\\nvariations aud of finite differences. Formulaj of interpolation, Scc.\\nMechanics.\\nFirst Year. Statics. Composition and equilibrium of forces. Theory of parallel forces.\\nOf the center of gravity. Allraction of a point by a homogenous sphere. Dynamics Gen-\\neral formation ot motion. The pendulum. Projectiles. Problems in physical astronomy.\\nSecond Year. Statics continued. Forces applied to an invariable sy.siem. Principle of\\nvirtual velocities. Application to simple meclianics. Dynamics. DAlembert s principle.\\nCollision. Moment of inertia, Ac. Hydrostatics. Hydrodynamics.\\nEvery lecture of analysis or mechanics is preceded or followed by interrogations by the pro-\\nfessor. Problems are given out for solution. The repeaters inttrrrogale the pnpils three\\ntimes per week. After the completion of the course, general interrogations take place, upon\\nthe whole subject, by the professors and repeaters.\\nDescriptive Geometry.\\nProblems relating to the right line and plane (twelve problems Tangent planes and nor-\\nmals lo curved surfaces (four problems.) Intersections of surfaces (seven problems.} Mis-\\nceilaneoud problems (seven\\nApplications uf Descriptive Geometry. Problems with a single plane of projection, and a\\nscale of declivity. Linear perspective (.three problems.; Shadows (three problems.) Stone\\ncutlins (seven problems.) Carpentry (lour probltms.)\\nIndia-ink drawing. Elements in lour examples.\\nAnalytical Geometry.\\nThe right line and plane. Curved surfaces.\\nThe professor may precede or follow his lecture by interrogations. During the course the\\nclass is examined by the repeaters, and at the close of the studies of Analytical Geometry\\nthere is a general review.\\nMachines, Astronomy, Geodesy, and Social Arithmetic.\\nElements of Machines. Machines for transporting burthens and for pressure. For rais-\\ning liquids. Moved by air, by water, by steam. U.--eful effect of machines.\\nAstronomy and Geode.ty. Formulae of sphericaltrigonometry. Meas^urement of space and\\ntime Of the celestial bodies. Ol the earth. Element.* of physical geography and hydrogra-\\nphy. Geodesy. Instruments. Figures of the earth. Projection of maps and charts.\\nElemenis of the calculation of probabilities Tables. Insurances. Life insurance, c.\\nInterrogations by the professor accompany the lessons. Those by the repeater must be at\\nleast as frequent as those by the professor. At the close of the principal courses there is a\\ngeneral review, in the way of interrogation, by the professor and repeater.\\nPhysics.\\nFirst Year. 1. General properties of bodies. Falling bodies. Principle of equilibrium of\\nfluids. Specific gravities. 2. Heat. Radiation, conduction, c. Vapors. Latent heat.\\n3. General constitution of the atmosphere. Hygrometry. 4. Molecular attraction. Capillary\\naction. 5 Electricity Laws of attraction, repulsion, distribution, ic. Atmospheric elec-\\ntricity. Modes of developing electricity.\\nSecond Year. 6. Magnetism. Phenomena and laws of magnetism. Instruments. Re-\\nciprocal act. on of mngnets and electrical currents. Electro. dynamics. Mutual actions of\\nelectrical currents. Thermo-electric phenomena. 7. Acoustics. Of the production, propo-\\ngation, velocity, c., of sound. Acoustic instruments. 8. Optics. Mathematical and physi-\\ncal o|ltic^. Optical instruments.\\nDuring the whole course the repeaters interrogate each division twice every week they go\\nthrough the study-rooms, and give any explanations which may be required by the pupils.\\nChemistry.\\nFHrst Year. General principles. Division of the course. Examination of the principal\\nsimple subtances Mixtures and binary compounds. Laws of definite proportions, tc.\\nHydrac ds. Oxacids and oxides. Bases. Neutral binary compounds. Salts. Principal metals.\\nSecond Year. Reciprocal action of acids and oxides. Action ot water upon salts. Laws\\nof BerlhoUet discussed General properties of the carbonates, and special study of some of\\nthe more important. Borates and silicates. Glass and pottery. Nitrates. Gunpowder.\\nPhosphates. kc. Sulphates. Chlorates. Chromates and other classes of salts, with details\\nas to the more important. Extraction of the metals from thejr ores, methods of refining, c.\\nOraanic chemistry. Vegetable substances. Animal substances.\\nThis course is accompanied by manipulations in the laboratory of the institution, in which\\nthe most useful preparations of the course are mafle by the pupils themselves. They are also\\ntaught the principles ot analysis, both mineral and organic, practically.\\nArchitecture.\\nComponent parts of edifices. General principles. Materials. Foundations. Strength.\\nForms and propurl ions of the jiarls of buildings. Floors. Roofs, arches, c. General prin-\\nciplesof the compositions of parts of edifices Illubtrations of the different varieties of parts,\\nasportico.i, porches, vestibules, halls, c. Composition of an edifice. Varieties of build-\\nings\u00e2\u0080\u0094 as colleges, hospitals, prisons, barracks, Ac.\\nThe pujjils copy from the board the sketches of the professor, and draw them carefully\\nwhen required At the close of the lectures there are four different subjects assigned, upon\\neach of which there is a competition. The pupils are classified according to the result of\\nthese competions, and of the marks for their graphic exercises during the course. The best", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "460 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE.\\ndesigns are eihibited. Three India-ink drawings are made on architectural subjects during\\nthis course.\\nFrench Composition.\\nThe course consists principally in the writing of essays and compositions by the pupils,\\nwhich are subsequently criticised during the recitations.\\nGerman Language.\\nElements of the language. Grammar reading. Themes and versions. Every lecture is\\nfollowed by an examination of an hour and a-half in duration, by the professor or repeater.\\nThere are, besides, exercises of pronunciation and common conversation.\\nTopography.\\nExercises in topographical drawing. Different modes of representing the ground by hori-\\nzontal curves, the projections of lines of greatest declivity, and by shading. Convejitional\\nsigns. Lettering. The exercises of the second division are preceded by lessons from the pro-\\nfessor of geodesy, explanatory of the theory.\\nDrawing of the Human Figure and Landscape Drawing.\\nIn the first branch the pupils are divided into two classes, one of which copies engraving.?,\\nand the otiier draws from models. On entering the school the pupils are classified according\\nto the drawings which they made at the examination for admission. They are then divided\\ninto two sections, of as nearly equal strength as possible, and assigned, each one, to a master,\\nwith whom they remain during their course. One of the drawing-masters is specially\\ncharged with the course of drawing from casts and from nature. At the beginning of the\\nsecond year, the highest third of the pupils of each secJion of the former first division go to\\nthe teacher of drawing in water colors, and remain for two months. They return to their\\nsections, and are replaced by the next division, each pupil occupying a third of the second\\nyear in this kind ol drawing. The merits of the drawings are judged every two months.\\nAfter the first of May the ordinary drawing lessons are replaced by those in water colors.\\nBesides these regular studies, there are from twelve to fifteen lectures on anatomy and phys-\\niology, given towards the close of the second year, during hours not devoted to the regular\\nbranches, and which it is optional with the pupils to attend or not. Fencing, music, and\\ndancing lessons, are also given.\\nDuring tlie interrogations by the professors and repeaters, notes are taken of the\\nmerit of the answers of the pupils, according to a uniform scale of marks. These\\nare communicated with the subjects of each lecture or recitation to the director of\\nstudies, and placed upon record, as assisting in determining the merit of the pupils.\\nThe exanjiners mark according to the same scale. The pupils are classified after\\nthe examinations in the several departments, and in taking the average for the\\nstanding in general merit, a different weight is allowed to the different courses.\\nMathematics counts most, and then the graphic exercises, descriptive geometry\\nand geodesy united, and conduct count the same then physics and chemistry.\\nThe examinations at the end of the two years of study are divided into four\\nthe first, on the courses of the first year, including analysis, part of analytical\\ngeometry, and mechanics the second, on chemistry the third, on physics the\\nfourth, on descriptive geometry and its applications, and part of analytical geometry.\\nThe examination at the close of the second year is divided as follows First,\\nanalysis, analytical geometry, mechanics, effects of machines and social arithmetic.\\nSecond, chemistry. Third, physics. Fourth, geodesy, description of machines,\\nand architecture. The examination on analysis and its applications, and mechanics,\\nare conducted by the two permanent examiners. The pupils are examined singly\\nand without the presence of their comrades, and each examiner occupies a separate\\nroom. Where the branches admit of it, the examinations are viva voce, the stu-\\ndent using the blackboard when required.\\nAfter the examinations are completed, the results are reported to a board, who,\\nwith all the materials before them from the examiners and from the school, decide\\nwhether the pupils may pass to the higher division, or are admissible into the pub-\\nlic service, according to the division to which they belong. This board jury\\nconsists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the two permanent and\\nthree temporary examiners.\\nThe arrangement of the time allotted to study, like the similar points in regard\\nto instruction, is a matter of very minute regulation. The pupils study in large\\nrooms, conveniently fitted up for the purpose, and where they receive by lot, at\\nentrance, places which they retain, in general, during the course. The interroga-\\ntions or recitations take place in rooms adapted to that purpose, separate from the\\nlarger lecture halls. These recitation-rooms are also open to the pupils in winter,\\nduring recreation hours, and after supper and in summer, whenever the weather\\nis bad, so as to prevent them from spending the time in the open air, besides at\\ncertain stated periods before the examinations. The repeaters are present during", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE.\\n461\\nthe periods devoted to the studies of their several departments, and, except in the\\ncases of the graphic exercises where it is not allowed, are expected to give assist-\\nance to the pupils who ask for it.\\nThe order of the day in the institution is arranged with a view to bring the lec-\\ntures, recitations, and studies of particular branches together. Besides this, there\\nare study-hours called free, in which the student may employ himself as he pleases,\\notherwise than in drawing of any kind (graphic exercises.)\\nThe discipline of the school is thoroughly military, and the means of carrying it\\nout in all its strictness are provided. The regulations are very minute, and fix, in\\ndetail, the punishment considered equivalent to each offense, as well for those\\nagainst morals as transgressions of the regulations themselves. The punishments\\nare 1. Private admonition by the commandant or viee-coronrmndant. 2. Public\\nreprimand before the corps of pupils. 3. Confinement to the walls of the institu-\\ntion, or stoppage of leave. 4. Confinement to the house. 5. Imprisonment\\nwithin the walls. 6. [Military imprisonment. 7. Dismission. The usual pun-\\nishment for trivial ofienses is the stoppage sortie, one of which is equivalent to\\na deprivation of the general leave of absence for half a day. This may be awarded\\nby an officer as low as an adjutant. It follows certain specified oflTenses, as over-\\nstaying a leave, when the number of stoppages is in proportion to the time of over-\\nstaying tlie leave, and is even assigned for a failure in recitation. Imprisonment\\nwithin the walls can only be awarded by the commandant, vice-commandmant, or\\ndirector of studies, and excludes the student from the recitation-room. Confine-\\nment in the military prison requires the order of the commandant, w ho reports the\\ncase at once to the minister of war. Dismission can not take place without the\\nsanction of the minister. Cases of discipline, suppose to involve dismission or the\\nloss of a bursar} are referred to a board called the council of discipline, and com-\\nposed of the two commandants, the director of studies, two professors, two captain\\ninspectors, the captain instructor, and one administrator.\\nFor military exercises, and the general furtherance of discipline, the pupils form\\na battalion, divided into four companies, each division of the school forming two\\ncompanies. From each company eight petty officers, called sergeants, are taken\\naccording to the order of the merit-roll of the division, making thirty-two in the\\nwhole battalion. These sergeants are distinguished by appropriate military badges.\\nThe sergeants have charge of the other pupils in the study-rooms, halls, recitation-\\nrooms, refectory, laboratories, and lecture-rooms, and two of them in turn are\\njoined with a higher officer, an adjutant, in the inspection of the food. They have\\ncharge in general of the details of police. The second sergeants are intrusted\\nwith the collection of money due by their comrades for letters and other authorized\\nexpenses. These officers are appointed once a year.\\nThe administration of the fiscal affairs of the school is committed to a board con-\\nsisting of the commandant and vice-commandant, the director of studies, two pro-\\nfessors, designated by the council of instruction, two inspectors of studies in turn,\\naccording to rank, the administrator or steward as reportor (rapporteur,) the treas-\\nurer as secretary. The last two named agents are consulting members only.\\nThis board meets twice eveiy month. It prepares the estimates for the expenses\\nof the school, which are submitted to the minister of war. The form of these and,\\nindeed, of all the accounts, is laid down minutely in regulations.\\nThe payment made by parents for the maintenance of the pupils does not go\\ninto the treasury of the institution, but into the general central treasury of the coun-\\ntry. The school furnishes the pupil, for a stipulated sum, with his board, lodging,\\nclothing, and petty expenses. For repairs of clothing and pettj- expenses, a special\\nsum is set aside, of which the student receives an account. Parts of the supply of\\nclothing, c., at entrance, may be furnished by the parents, but the rest is sup-\\nplied by the school at the parents expense.\\nThe steward (administrateur) is the executive officer of the domestic economy of\\nthe school prepares all matters of business for the consideration of the council of\\nadministration, and the estimates of every kind, regular and contingent presents\\nthe plans and estimates of the architect of the school for repairs or new buildings,\\nand superintends their execution when authorized makes contracts and receives\\nthe articles contracted for has charge of the issue of all articles, of the store-\\nhouses, and of the servants superintends the infirmari he nominates the sub-\\nordinate persons employed in his department, and is responsible directly to the\\ncouncil, in virtue of tlie authority of which he is supposed to act.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "462 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE.\\nThe board of examination decide formally upon the claims of the pupils of the\\nsecond year to be graduated, and arrange the rolls in the order of merit. Tlie\\npupils then, in turn, choose the department of the public service which they wish\\nto enter, and in case there is no vacancy in this department, are still entitled to\\npriority of choice in other branches over those below them.\\nOn entering these several services, the graduates pass to the schools of applica-\\ntion, or special schools, intended to give the technical preparation necessary a\\nnotice of those which prepare for civil pursuits is here given.\\nThere are special schools of practice for the land artillery and engineers, and for\\nthe staff or topographical engineers. The otticers who have charge of the manu-\\nfacture of powder are sent to the different government establishments for practice.\\nThe graduates intended for tlie naval artillery go to the school of practice for the\\nland artillery at Metz those for the naval engineers, to a special school at L Urient.\\nThe hydrographical engineers enter at once upon the actual discharge of their\\nduties in subordinate situations. The courses in these schools, or the apprentice-\\nship to the duties of the sei vice, vary from two to three years, according to the\\nbranch. The civil services have the schools of practice for the corps of roads and\\nbridges, and of mines, and for the manufacture of tobacco.\\nThe corps of civil engineers, entitled corps of roads and bridges (corps de ponts\\net chaussees,) have in charge all the works of this class, for the constructinn and\\nrepair of which the government is responsible. Their special school at Paris was\\nfounded as early as 1747, and embraced some of the acquisitions now made at the\\npolytechnic school. Its organization, however, appears to have been exceedingly\\nimperfect, the pupils being admitted without examination, and receiving part of\\ntheir instruction out of the .school. At present, the regular pupils are admitted\\nfrom the polytechnic school, and go through a course of three years. The branches\\ntaught consist of applied mechanics, civil aichitecture, constructions, mineralogy,\\ngeology, administrative jurisprudence, drawing, and the English, Gernian, and\\nItal.an languages. There are examinations at the close of each year. The lectures\\noccupy the period from the Juth of November to the 1st of May. During the inter-\\nvening time, ffom iVlay to November, the students of the second and third years are\\nsent into the field for practice, under the depirtmental engineers. The pupils re-\\nceive pay, as aspirants from the government hile at the school, and may rise to the\\nrank of engineer of the second class in tliree years fioni the period of leaving it.\\nThe corps of mines is charged with the execution of all laws relating to mines,\\nminers, quarries, and furnaces, and with the promotion, by advice or personal ex-\\nertion, of the branches of the arts connected with mining. They superintend the\\nworking of mines, and are responsible for the safety of the vv orkmen, the due pre-\\nservation of the soil, and the economy of the work. They also have the special\\nsuperintendence of the execution of the laws relating to the safety of the steam-\\nengine. They have two schools of practice, one at Paris, called the school of\\nmines, the other at St. Etienne, called the school of miners. The duties of in-\\nstruction in both these schools are confided to members of the corps. That at\\nParis is considered to rank among the first of the special schools of France.\\nThe regular pupils of the school of mines are divided into two classes, according\\nto the pay received from the government. The pupils from the polytechnic school\\nenter the second of these classes. They remain at the school not less than two nor\\nm\u00c2\u00bbre than four years. During the winter there are courses of mineralocry. geology,\\nthe working, refining, and assaying of metals, the working of mines, drawing, and\\nthe English and German languages; and at the close, the pupils are examined.\\nThe students of the first year are employed during the summer in chemical\\nmanipulation in the laboratories of the school, which are admirably provided for\\nthis purpose, in making geological excursions in the neighborhood of Paris, and in\\nthe use of surveying instruments. During the similar periods of the following\\nyears, the students are sent into the departments, and sometimes abroad, to make\\nparticular examinations in relation to their profession, and on their return are ex-\\npected to present a memoir descriptive of their investigations.\\nThe students of the first, or hiarhest class, are present ot the sittings of the gen-\\neral council of mines, to familiarize them with the business of the corps. After\\ntheir final examination they are classed in the order of merit, and receive their first\\npromotion accordingly.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES\\nAT\\nPARIS.\\nThe school of Arts and Manufactures started with the principle, that,\\nhowever numerous might be the different theoretical courses of instruc-\\ntion which each student might require, in order to qualify him for a spe-\\ncial profession or trade, still such theory should be in intimate connec-\\ntion with, and be made subservient to, industrial science. Thus the\\nchemist who quitted the college should not only be well versed in theory\\nand a good operator in the laboratory, but he should also be a mechanic,\\na geologist, and a draughtsman so that, in case of an emergency, he\\nwould not only know how to select the best materials, but to superintend\\nthe construction of works which he might eventually have to direct. It\\nwas assumed that by adopting this plan of a comprehensive scientific,\\nand practical training, young men would acquire an aptness, a general\\nintelligence, and a taste for seeking knowledge after quitting the college\\nwhich would fit them for various useful careers.\\nNone of the existing establishments in France afforded such advan-\\ntages. At the colleges, students were free to follow, with more or less\\nassiduity, any particular course of lectures, or merely that portion most\\nattractive to them. They abandoned their studies without responsibility,\\nand their application was not enforced by any check.\\nThe School of Arts and Manufactures was established in order to pro-\\nvide a remedy for these defects. Although a private establishment, it\\nwas placed first under the surveillance of the Minister of Public Instruc-\\ntion, and eventually, in 1838, under the Minister of Commerce, who, in\\nhis budget for that year, asked for certain sums to defray the expense ot\\nsending up students to it. A commission of the Chamber of Deputies\\nrecommended the grant for the following reasons\\nThat this college was created in 1829, under the most eminent and\\nexperienced professors, for the purpose of forming engineers, directors\\nof manufactories, and workshops of all descriptions.\\nThis private establishment, which by its excellence and utility com-\\npetes with our best public establishments, has created and put into\\npractice a complete system of industrial education.\\nIt is at the same time a sequel to our Polytechnic School, and an\\nadjunct to our schools for special arts or trades. This college meets the\\nconditions which the age requires, and it has completely succeeded. It\\nhas been proved both by the support given to it by our great manufac-\\ntures, and by the fact that all the young men educated there immedi-\\nately find the most lucrative employment.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "464 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS.\\nThe money was granted by the Minister in 1838, and in 1842 it ap-\\npears that nineteen of the Counseils Generaux in different departments\\nin France voted funds to send up to this college a certain number of\\nyoung men from their towns and the Minister had, it seems, provided\\nfor forty, whose previous instruction and good conduct, and the positions\\nof their families, has entitled them to the favor of the State.\\nThe STUDENTS of the establishment are of three classes viz., those who are\\nbrought up by the State those for whom fuuds have been voted by the Councils\\nGeneral of departments and those received at the expense of their families.\\nIn order to obtain admission. Government and departmental candidates are\\nexamined at Paris, before a jury named by the Minister of Commerce for this\\npurpose each year. The candidates must have been registered and recommended\\nby the department whence they come and they must prove that they are between\\nthe ages of eighteen and twenty-one. They undergo two examinations one oral,\\nthe other written and they must solve with ease certain problems in elementary\\nmathematics and geometry. They must write and describe their problems and\\ntheories well draw by rule and compass sketch and color. Without these\\nqualifications it is impossible to be admitted as a Government student, and the\\njuries are instructed to select those who shew most literary attainments, and who\\nappear to have that deception of intelligence which promises an aptitude for in-\\ndustrial science, rather than mathematical acquirements. A great preference is\\ngiven to those who have obtained the necessary qualification in a high degree,\\nand whose means are limited, and the administration is not to aid thase whose\\nfamilies are in a position to defray the expenses of their education. All students\\nmay participate in an Encouragement Fund for the first year, but afterwards\\nonly those who sliew the greatest amount of merit 5 and an augmentation may be\\naccorded to those who are remarkable for still higher qualities. Private stu-\\ndents are admitted at any age above sixteen. They, too, submit to both oral and\\nwritten examinations. They must execute certain problems, and write clearly\\nand correctly the theories as set forth in the programme. Foreigners as well as\\nFrench students are admitted, provided they can write and read the language.\\nIn Paris, these examinations are made by a board named yearly by the Council of\\nStudies, in the departments by public professors of mathematics, and in foreign\\ncountries by the university professoi-s and all applicants must produce proper tes-\\ntimonials as to their morality.\\nThe authority of the school is vested in a director and a Council of Studies,\\nconsisting of nine professors. The director lives in the college, and is charged\\nwith its administration and correspondence, but he can not appoint professoi-s\\nthese are selected for their practical as well as theoretical experience. The Coun-\\ncil admit or reject candidates after reading the statement of their examinations,\\nand they report on the progress of each student as to his aptitude and capabili-\\nties, and whether he is eligible to be transferred to a superior division, or whether\\nhis friends shall be requested to remove him. The students bind themselves by a\\nsolemn declaration to take no part in any conspiracy to oppose the execution of\\nthe decisions of their superiors, and they promise to enter into no coalition for im-\\nposing on the junor or senior branches of the college. No students are lodged\\nwithin the college, and they are not permitted to wear any description of\\nuniform.\\nThe COURSE OF instruction is limited to three years, during which period it is\\nobligatory. It includes lectures, daily examinations, drawing and graphic exer-\\ncises, chemical manipulations, working in stone and wood, physics and mechanics,\\nthe construction of buildings and other works, and general annual examinations.\\nThe students are, in addition, expected to make notes and reports, and to visit the\\nworkshops and manufactories. Tliey are boarded and lodged at respectable\\nhouses in the immediate vicinity, at their own expense. Each year there are\\ngeneral examinations in every branch of science and art. In the middle of the\\nsecond year the studies are subdivided one course is general, the other has spe-\\ncial relation to the ultimate destination of the scholar.\\nThe specialities are four in number: 1. Mechanicians. 2. Constructors, as\\narchitects, engineers. 3. Mining and metallurgy. 4. Chemistry, applied in all", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 465\\nits branches, including agriculture. After that period, the whole energies of the\\nstudent are rlevoted to those branches of science on which the profession he is\\nabout to adopt depends.\\nWith respect to diplomas and certificates, the students of the third year are\\nadmitted to competition for diplomas, a programme of examination being made\\nGUI for each speciality. The competitors are allowed thirty-five days within the\\ncollege to make out their designs and compose their memoir, and then they are\\nexamined by five professors in public and before the students of two years. After\\nthe examination, the professors in council grant liplomas to those who have ex-\\ncelled and who have passed with the greatest honors, and certificates of ca-\\npacity to those who have given less general proof of the highest talent. At each\\nexamination those who do not advance sufiieiently, or are idle, are recommended\\nto retire. All the examinations are kept for reference in the archives of the\\ncollege.\\nThe FEES FOR EACH STUDENT, including several extras, are altogether 870 francs\\n($174) per annum. That the institution is flourishing, is proved by its being\\nmainly self-supporting and that the ci)untry benefits by it, the long array of emi-\\nnent graduates who might be named together with a statement of their present\\nemployments, would most satisfactorily illustrate.\\nThe following is the programme of instruction somewhat more in detail\\nFIRST YEAR.\\nDescriptive Geometry. Theory and application to perspective, drawing, and shading\\nBtonecutliiig details carpentry\u00e2\u0080\u0094 details.\\nAnalytical Geometry and Mechanics generally. Theory of motion and equilibrium of\\nforces velocity, acciltratlon, force, mass; general principles of motion, gravity, power, ef-\\nfect statics of solid bodies.\\n!unxl ruction of Machines.\\nTrdnsf.irmation and Modification of Motion.\\nPhysics genernlly Laws of gravity, balances, pendulum, and its application hydrosta-\\ntics, hydrodynamics, heat, masnetiim. electricity, electrodynamics and electro-magnetism,\\nmolecular aciioii. acoustics, li^ht. optics.\\nFor the tirsi year the students are made to manipulate, in determining the density of solids,\\nliquids, and gasses, the construction and use of barometers, thermometers, and hygrometers\\ndeterminaiion of refractive powers, photometers; power of rotation in liquids, saccha-\\nrometers.\\nChemistry generally Mi wrals, and the study of all objects not metallic the atmosphere,\\ngasses. Metallic: general methods for extraction of metallic oxides; general properties of\\nsulphurets, chlorides, c. general properties of the salts metals useful either alone or in\\ntheir comlination for the arts.\\nOrganic chemistry Methods of analysis principal organic products their uses in the\\narts; acids, and their applications.\\nOne day in the week in the laboratory, to practice the experiments they have seen In the\\nlecinreroom\\nMedicine and Natural History applied to Industry.\\nHygeian Scic/ice and Physiology, as far as Pulilic Health is concerned\\nFirst Part Food, clothing influence of heat and cold dampness, and a dry atmosphere\\nsun and wind.-:: the health in different professions; sanitary regulations and legislation.\\nSecond Part.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Natural History. The animal creation in all that relates to uidustry, the\\narts and agrirnllure; power, produce, and nutriment The vegetable creation substances\\nemployi^d in the arts wood, textiles, cereals, wines, tanning, dyes.\\nDraining and Design in its various Brunches During the vacation, plane and elevations\\nof buildings and works are txeculed, which must be presented at the commencement of the\\nterm.\\nSECOND YEAR.\\nThe same as the first year, besides modeling in plaster for stone-cutting, c\\nIndustrial Physics. Properties and construction of furnaces of all kinds for different de-\\nscriptions of fuel, transmission of heat, sublimation, distillation, evaporisation. heating air and\\nliquids, lefrigeration. lightning, ventilation, and sanitary arrangements of towns construc-\\ntions of all kinds in model bricks and plaster of Paris\\nDuring the recess the students visit works and manufactories, and are obliged to present\\ndetailed reports on tliem.\\nThe students of the third year complete five different projects, with drawings, calculatiou\\nand estimates on which there are conferences, one on each speciality every month.\\nSecond and Third Year. Applied mechanics in great detail, applied hydrodynamics, con-\\nstruciion and st-iling np of machines, analytical cliemistry in different branches for different\\nprnffssioiis, indu.str al chemistry both mineral and organic, agricultural chemistry.\\nPublic Works. Roads, bridges in stone, wood, iron, and suspension natural inland navi-\\ngation, artificial inland navigation.\\nArchitecture.\\nGeology and Mineralogy.\\nMining. Working, and Ventilation Metallurgy and fabrication in iron, steel, zinc, and\\ncopper furnaces and founderies for all metals.\\nTechnology. Manufacture of cordage stone and wood sawing: textile manufactures in\\n80", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "466 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS.\\ncotton, wool, flax, silk cotton spinning; expression of oils grinding, felting, ceramic works,\\nand pottery.\\nSpecial Courses_fur the Third Year. Steannengines of all descriptions; railways and dif^\\nfereiit systems for locomotion; ihe students visiting the mogt iniportaiit works with their\\nprofessors.\\nThe students are examined daily upon the subjects of their lectures, by the pro^\\nfessors and repeaters (Repetiteurs.) The utility of this latter class of teachers is\\nwell established in France, and they are found in every institution in whicli lec-\\nturing is practiced to a great extent as a means of instruction they prevent the\\nburthen of teaching from tailing upon professors, whose duty it is to be engaged in\\nadvancing, as well as in propagating science, and who would be prevented from\\nfollowing one or other of these honorable and useful careers, by having the duty\\nof teaching superadded to that of lecturing. So well is the necessity of relieving\\nthe professor understood, that in all courses requiring preparation, special persons\\nare appointed, called preparers, who take off this burthen also from the professor.\\nThe result is, that many men of high eminence are thus enabled to diffuse their\\nknowledge among students by lecturing, and are willing to do so, tliough they\\nhave other and niore profitable employments, to whicli they v^ ould e.\\\\elusively\\nconfine themselves, if this were connected with teaching by interrogation and the\\ntask of preparing experimental illustrations. The pupil is thus greatly the gainer,\\nand has at the same time the special examination upon the lecturers which is so\\nnecessary to complete the instruction, and to which a repeater is entirely compe-\\ntent. Young men of talent seek the situations of repeaters as the best niethod of\\nshowing their particular qualifications, and the most certain road to a professor-\\nship. For each recitation the pupil receives a mark, and the roll of the class with,\\nthese marks being preserved, its indications are combined with the results of the\\nexamination, to decide upon the fitness of a pupil when lie comes forward for a\\ndiploma.\\nThe graphic exercises consist in the drawing of ornamental work, in India ink\\ndrawing, in drawing with the steel pen and instruments, and in sketching the\\ndiagrams of the lectures to a scale. Great importance is attached to this part of\\nthe course, and much time spent in it. The rooms for these exercises are con-\\nveniently arranged, and the pupils are superintended during them by a professor\\nor a repeater, and visited occasionally by the director of studies or his deputies.\\nThe drawing-tables are so arranged that the pupils stand while at work, which at\\ntheir age is very desirable.\\nThe arrangements for chemical manipulation by the students are very complete\\nthey have access not only to the laboratories of the two professors, but to others\\nwhich are devoted to special branches. During the first year every student is\\nemployed in laboratory duty once a week, and has also the opportunity of per-\\nforming some of the principal physical experitnents. They are superintended,\\nwhile thus occupied, by repeaters. During the first half year of the second course\\nthe students are called, in turn, to general duty in the laboratory and during the\\nsecond half of the same year, and the whole of the third, the two sections who\\nfollow the courses of chemistry applied to the arts and metallurgy, are employed\\nin manipulations connected with them. There is an officer for their superintend-\\nence, called the director (chef) of the chemical exercises, who is subordinate to\\nthe professor of chemical analysis. The opportunities thus affJjrded of acquiring\\na general practice under the guidance of the distinguished professors of this school\\nare invaluable, and form one of the most important features of the establisliment.\\nThe materials for constructing models of some of the more useful works, and\\napparatus relating to the arts, are furnished to the pupils, and used under the di-\\nrection of their instructors.\\nThe annual number of students entering varies from 130 to 160. They work\\neight hours and a half in the college, and four at their residences. Four inspec-\\ntors are constantly occupied in sui veying, independently of those superintending\\n(he graphic department.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\\nFRANCE.\\nThe great industrial interest of agriculture is wisely recognized and\\ncared for by the government of France in the following manner\\n1. There is not simply a bureau with a clerk, but a department with\\na secretary or minister, to collect and disseminate information as to the\\ncondition and improvement of agriculture, and the agricultural popula-\\ntion, and to administer all laws which may be passed on the subject.\\nAn annual report, statistical and suggestive, is made by the minister.\\n2. Agricultural inspectors are employed some to visit foreign coun-\\ntries, gather information, and import plants and seeds, and improved\\nstock, to be disposed of at public sales and others to visit particular\\ndistricts of the country, and communicate information and advice, as\\nthey may see that they are r^eeded-\\n3. Encouragement is given to agricultural societies and shows. In\\n1850, there were over one million of members enrolled in the various\\ncentral, departmental and local societies, for the promotion of horticul-\\nture and agriculture. Premiums are offered for improvement in every\\nbranch of agricultural industry.\\n4. In the Conservatory of Arts and Trades. provi.-?ion is made for a\\ncollection of models and drawings of agricultural buildings and imple-\\nments, and for courses of gratuitous lectures on the principles of chem-\\nistry and mechanics as applied to agriculture.\\n5. The government has organized an extensive system of agricultural\\nand veterinary instruction, and makes liberal appropriation for its sup-\\nport.\\nThe earliest effort in Europe to provide for special instruction in agri-\\nculture, was made by Abbe Rosier in France, who submitted to Tur-\\ngot, minister of Finance, in 1775, a Plan for a National School of\\nAgriculture in the Park of Chambord, and again to the National Asr\\nsembly in 1789, After his death, the plan was submitted to Bonaparte,\\nbut without success. In the mean time, Fellenberg opened an institu--\\nlion in Switzerland. The first experiment in France was made by M,\\nde Domsbasle at Roville, in 1822, which, for want of sufficient capital,\\nwas abandoned in 1842. Its success was such as to lead to the estab-\\nlishment of the Royal Agronomic Institution at Grignon in 1827, the\\nInstitute of Coetbo in 1830, of the school at Grand Juan in 1833. and\\nthe model farm of Saulsaie in 1842. In 1847, there were twenty-five\\nagricultural schools in operation, to several of which orphan asylums\\nand penal colonies were attached. At the close of that year, the gov-\\nernment introduced a measure for the better organization of agricuU", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "468 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.\\ntural instruction, which was voted by the National Assembly on the 3d\\nof October, 1848, and the sum of 2,500,000 francs was appropriated to\\ncarry its provisions into execution.\\nAgricultural Education.\\nThe law of 1848 provides for three degrees of professional instruction\\nin agriculture at the expense of the State. 1. A farm school in each\\n(86) department, and ultimately, for each (363) arrondisement. 2. A\\nhigher seminary, called a District or Regional School, embracing two\\nor more departments; and 3. A National Agronomic Institute, a sort of\\nnormal school of agriculture.\\ni\\\\IoDEL Farm School.\\nThe farm school is a rural enterprise, conducted with ability and\\nprofit, in which the pupils perform all the labor, and receive a practical\\ncourse of instruction in agriculture. The objects aimed at are first, to\\nfurnish a good example of tillage to the flirmers of the district; and\\nsecond^ to form agriculturists capable of cultivating intelligently, either\\nupon their own property or that of others, as farmers, managers, over-\\nseers of cattle, c.\\nThe school is open to pupils who are afe least sixteen years of age,\\nhave a good constitution, and have received an education in the primary\\nschools. Each school must have at least twenty-four pupils, before it\\ncan receive aid from the government. The aim is to have pupils enough\\non each farm to carry on all its operations in the field, nurseries, and\\ngardens, without any other help, except that of the teachers.\\nThe officers or teachers selected and paid by the government, are a\\ndirector with a salary of 2,400 francs; a head ^vorkman with a salary\\nof 1000 li-ancs; a nursery gardener, with a salary of 1000 francs; a\\nveterinary surgeon, with a salary of 500 francs besides these, in some\\nof the schools, there are special assistants, such as shepherds, silk-\\ngrowers, c., c.\\nThe practical course extends through three years. The first is de-\\nvoted to simple manual labor; th^ second to the charge of animals and\\nthe third to the oversight of various operations on the farm. The hours\\nappropriated to study are devoted, 1st, to copying and writing out the\\nnotes taken of the instructions of the different leaders: 2d, to reading a\\nmanual of elementary agriculture and 3d, to lessons given by the over-\\nseer of accounts, on arithmetic, book-keeping, and surveying. Relig-\\nious instruction is given by the clergy in the neighborhood.\\nThe director works the farm at his own risk, and must so conduct it,\\nas not only to give as good examples of tillage, but as profitable return\\nof crops, as other farms in its neighborhood, otherwise the patronage of\\nthe government is withdrawn.\\nPupils are boarded and instructed without charge, and are also\\nallowed a small sum toward clothing. Prizes are also awarded for good\\nconduct and proficiency.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 459\\nSeventy-one Model Farm Schools were in operation in 1851, with\\nover 1,500 students in attendance on a course of practical instruction\\nextending through three years.\\nDistrict, or Regional Schools of Agriculture.\\nFrance is divided into a number of agricultural districts, in each of\\nAvhich there is to be a District School of Theoretical and Practical Ag-\\nriculture. They have three objects in view\\n1. To form enlightened agriculturists, by teaching them the princi-\\nples of agriculture.\\n2. To offer an example, or model, of practical agriculture of a high\\norder, and constantly advancing.\\n3. To make experiments for improving the cultivation of the soil.\\nThe instruction in these schools is of a much higher order than in the\\nfarm schools, and is adapted not to prepare laborers on the farm, so\\nmuch as men to direct agricultural affairs. The farm connected with\\nthe school is expected to present an enlighted system of culture, and to\\nadapt that culture to the wants and peculiarities of the district in which\\nit is situated. The director, also, is no longer a farmer, or proprietor,\\nlaboring at his own risk, but an agent employed by the government,\\nand accountable to them, and subject to their direction.\\nThe instruction is both theoretical and practical, embracing the fol-\\nlowing six professorships:\\nOne professor of rural economy and legislation.\\nOne of agriculture.\\nOne of zootechny, or the economy of animals.\\nOne of sylviculture, (cultivation of forest trees,) and of botany.\\nOne of chemistry, physics, and geology, applied to agriculture.\\nOne of rural engineering, (irrigations, rural constructions, survey-\\ning, c.)\\nThe course on rural economy and legislation describes the relation\\nbetween rural productions and the public revenue, as well as the differ-\\nent branches of industry. It shows what circumstances are favorable\\nor unfavorable to such or such a system of cultivation, or to such or such\\na speculation in animals, or vegetables, according to the situation of the\\nlands, the facility of communication, and demand for the products by the\\npeople of the surrounding country. The course embraces also rural\\nlegislation.\\nThe course on agriculture embraces the study of the soil, of manures,\\nof instruments of tillage, of different cultivated plants, an estimate of\\nthe different modes of culture, and the theory of the distribution or rota-\\ntion of crops.\\nZootechny treats of the production and amelioration of animals. The\\nprofessor gives at first some ideas of anatomy and physiology generally,\\nand then treats, in a practical way, of the raising of domestic animals,\\nof their support, of their amelioration, of their hygiene, and their pro-\\nduction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "470 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.\\nThe professor of sylviculture and botany gives first, a summary sketch\\nof vegetable physiology and botany applied to agriculture. He teaches\\nthe subject of sylviculture, (cultivation of woods,) and of forest economy,\\nwith special reference to the training, working, and preservation of the\\nforests of individuals and the communes.\\nThe professor of chemistry, physics, geology, c., has a wide field,\\nas his titles show. His chief object is to take those views of the sciences\\nnamed which bear directly upon agriculture.\\nThe professorship of rural engineering embraces geometry, mechan-\\nics, and linear drawing, as applied to rural architecture, to the construc-\\ntion of agricultural instruments, and particularly to irrigations.\\nTo second the lessons of the professors, an equal number of tutors are\\nappointed. Their duties are to explain in private, to the pupils, what-\\never is obscure or difficult in the oral instruction. They also see that\\nnotes are taken of the lectures, c.\\nEach school has its library, its philosophical and chemical cabinet,\\nadapted especially to agriculture, its agronomic museum of geology,\\nZoology, botany, and agricultural technology.\\nThe pupils have an opportunity of witnessing on the farms connected\\nwith these schools, all the important agricultural operations, also speci-\\nmens of the best breeds of animals, and the mode of taking care of them,\\nand using them and they engage personally in all the important opera-\\ntions connected with husbandry, so as to know how to conduct them in\\nafter-life.\\nThe number of scholars admitted is fixed by the government, and\\nvaries at the different schools. The price of board is 750 francs, ($138.)\\nThe State furnishes several scholarships to each school. Half of\\nthem is given to the most deserving of the pupils from the farm schools,\\nplaced at the regional schools. The other half is divided among the\\nscholars who are the most distinguished, after six months trial, for their\\nlabor and conduct. Scholarships from the national agronomic institute,\\nare also given to those most successful in study and conduct.\\nTowards the close of the third year, examinations are held, and to\\nthose who sustain them, diplomas are given, and the way is laid open\\nfor their admittance to the national institute.\\nTo these schools a farm is always attached, for the purposes already\\nindicated also, a manufactory of agricultural instruments, an establish-\\nment for silk, a place for preparing liquid manures, distillery, oil mill,\\ndairy, sawmill, c.\\nThe head men on the farm are essentially the same as those already\\ndescribed as connected with the farm schools.\\nNational Agrono.miC Institute.\\nTo give unity and efficiency to the system of agricultural instruction,\\nthe law provides for the establishment of a National Agronomic Insti-\\ntute on a portion of the magnificent garden of Versailles. Suitable\\nbuildings, and a library, laboratories, and appropriate collections of spe-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTDRAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 4*71\\ncimens, models and drawings, of implements, animals, seeds, plants, c.\\nare to be provided by the government. The plan embraces\\n1. A complete faculty of agronomic science.\\n2. A superior normal school of agriculture.\\n3. A higher institute for agriculturists.\\nTo meet the wants of this latter class especially, a large farm is con-\\nnected with the school. Here will be performed, at the expense of the\\nState, all the experiments necessary to the progress of agronomic sci-\\nence, and to verify practically all the innovations and improvements\\nproposed by others, before they are recommended to the public.\\nThe theoretical and practical parts of this institute are really distinct,\\nbut they are placed under the general government of one director.\\nThe professorships are nine, as follows\\nOne chair of rural economy and legislation.\\nOne of agriculture.\\nOne of zootechny, or the economy of animals.\\nOne of sylviculture.\\nOne of rural engineering, embracing leveling, irrigation, construction\\nof roads, rural architecture, and mechanics applied to agricultural instru-\\nments.\\nThe above professorships belong to practical agriculture. The others\\nbelong to the theory of the subject.\\nOne of terrestrial physics and meteorology.\\nOne of chemistry applied to agriculture.\\nOne of botany, and vegetable physiology.\\nOne of applied zoology.\\nHere, as in the lower schools, a number of tutors is appointed equal\\nto the number of professors.\\nIn addition to the director, professors, and tutors, the following officers\\nwill be appointed\\nA prefect of studies.\\nA curator of the collections.\\nA librarian.\\nAn overseer of studies.\\nTo these will be added a corps of head men to oversee and manage\\nthe affairs of the farm. These will, in part, be called from the farm\\nschools. For example, the institute will need twenty-one herdsmen,\\ntwenty-one grooms, twenty-one shepherds, and fifteen gardeners.\\nThe French minister adds, The end of the institute at Versailles, is\\nnot merely to afford agricultural instruction, but to open the way for\\nstudious men, who wish to direct their labors toward the application of\\nscience to rural industry. This is the first attempt of the kind that has\\nbeen made. Industry has enriched the learned men who have explored\\nthe domain of the physical sciences and of chemistry for this object.\\nBut if agriculture has given reputation to any. it has not procured for\\nany one a position which would enable him to make that the center of\\nhis studies. The institute at Versailles is intended to change this state", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "472 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.\\nof things by offering as a prize of lauJabie ambition, to those who\\ndirect their researciies to agriculture, a certain number of chairs, before\\nwiiich an immense field opens.\\nVeterinary Education.\\nIn addition to the above system of agricultural education, the govern-\\nment of France maintains three institutions (ai Lyons, Allbrt, and Tou-\\nlouse,) at an expense of over $75,000 a year, to qualify persons by the\\nstudy of comparative anatomy and physiology, and by opportunities of\\nwitnessing hospital practice, and investigating the symptoms and phe-\\nnomena of disease in domestic animals, to practice veterinary surgery\\nand medicine. In countries where a large number of horses are re-\\nquired for cavalry service, and in all countries where live stock consti-\\ntutes so large a portion of the motive power and capital of every agri-\\nculturist, there should be one or more institution of this kind. The first\\nin the world was established at Lyons in 1762 the second, at Alfort in\\n1766; the third, at Berlin in 1792; and the fourth, at London in 1793.\\nVeteri.xary School at Alfort.\\nThe Veterinary school at Alfort was instituted in 1766. It is beauti-\\nfully situated on the river Seine, about six miles from Paris, and em-\\nbraces every facility, of building, anatomical specimens and prepara-\\ntions, books, and professors, ibr a complete course of instruction in\\nveterinary medicine and surgery. The Ibllowing sketch of the school\\nis taken from Mr. Colman s Report:\\nA student at his entrance must be well versed in the common\\nbranches of education; and a full course of instruction requires a resi-\\ndence of four yeans. The number of pupils is limited to three hundred.\\nOf these, forty are entirely supported by the goverrmient. These are\\neducated for the army; and are required not only to become versed in\\nthe science and practice of veterinary medicine and surgery, but like-\\nwise in the common business of a blacksmith s shop, as far as it is con-\\nnected with farriery. Students can be admitted only by the nomination\\nor with the consent of one of the great officers of government, the min-\\nister of commerce and agriculture. The expense of Imard and lodging\\nis about fifteen pounds or eighty dollars a year; the instruction is\\nwholly gratuitous, the professors being supported by the government.\\nThe establishment presents several hospitals or apartments for sick\\nhorses, cows, and dogs. There are means for controlling and regula-\\nting, as far as possible, the temperature of the rooms, and for producing\\na complete and healthy ventilation. There are stables where the\\npatients may be kept entirely alone, When the case requires it; and\\nthere are preparations for giving them, as high as their bodies, a warm\\nbath which, in cases of diseased limbs or joints, may be of great service.\\nThere is a large cjilege with dormitories and dining-rooms for the\\nstudents; houses for the professors within the inclosure; rooms for\\noperations upon animals, and for anatomical dissections; a room with a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0474.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 4^3\\ncomplete laboratory for a course of chemical lectures a public lecture\\nroom or theater; and an extensive smitliery. witli several forges fitted\\nup in the best possible manner. There are likewise, several stands,\\ncontrived with some ingenuity, for confining the feet of horses, that\\nstudents may make with security their first attempts at shoeing, or in\\nAvhioh the limb, after it has been separated from its lawful owner, may\\nbe placed for the purpose of examination and experiment.\\nAn extensive suite of apartments presents an admirable, and, indeed,\\nan extraordinary museum both of natural and artificial anatomical pre-\\nparations, exhibiting the natural and healthy state of tiie animal consti-\\ntution; and, likewise, remarkable examples of diseased parts. The\\nperfect examples of the anatomy of the horse, the cow, the sheep, the\\nhog, and the dog; in which the muscular integuments, the nerves, the\\nblood-vessels, and, indeed, all the parts, are sef-arated and preserved,\\nand exhibited, by the extraordinary skill of an eminent veterinary sur-\\ngeon and artist now deceased, who occupied the anatomical chair of the\\ninstitution, exhibited wonderful ingenuity in their dissection and pre-\\nservation, and present an interesting and useful study, not to the med-\\nical students only, but to the most ordinary as well as the most profound\\npliilosophical observer. I have seen no exhibition Tof the kind of so\\nremarkable a character.\\nThe numerous examples of diseased affections, preserved, as far as\\npossible, in their natural slate, strongly attract observation, and make\\na powerful appeal to our humanity in showing how much these poor\\nanimals, who minister so eissentially to our service and pleasures, must\\nsuti er without being able to acquaint us with their sufferings; and how\\noften they are probably compelled to do duty, and driven to the hardest\\nservices by the wliip or the spur, in circumstances in which a human\\nbeing would not be able to stand up. A great number of calculi or\\nstones, taken from the bladders of horses after death, are exhibited, of a\\nlarge size, and, in some instances, of a very rough exterior, which must\\nliave excest^ively irritated and pained the sensitive parts with which\\nthey came in contact. It is scarcely possible to overrate the suffering\\nwhich the poor animal must have endured under such an affliction.\\nThe department for sick dogs, containing boxes for those which re-\\nquire confiiiement. and chains for such as require to be kept in the open\\nair. and a cooking apparatus and kitchen for the preparation of their\\nfood, was spacious, well-arranged, and contained a large number of\\npatients. Any sick animals may be sent to the establishment, and their\\nboard is to be paid at a fixed rate of charges; twelve sous or cents, or\\nsixpence per day for a dog and fifty sous or cents, or twenty-five pence,\\n(t)r a horse, including medicine, advice, and attendance. In cases of\\ne{)idemics or murrain prevailing in any of the districts of France, the\\nbest attendance and advice are sent from these schools to assi.-^t in the\\ncure, and especially to watch the symptoms and progress of the malady.\\nIn countries where large standing armies are maintained, and where\\nof course there are large hntlies of cavalry and artillery to be attended", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0475.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "474 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.\\nupon, as well as waggon-horses for carrying the supplies, the importance\\nof veterinary surgery is vastly increased but in countries where no\\nstanding armies exist, the number of horses kept for use or pleasure,\\nand of other domestic animals, bears a much larger proportion to the\\nnumber of human beings than we should be likely to infer without in-\\nquiry; and renders the profession highly important.\\nA large and select library belongs to the establishment, and a garden\\nfor the cultivation of medicinal plants, and likewise of the grasses em-\\nployed in agriculture. A farm is likewise attached to the place, on\\nwhich instruction is given in practical agriculture, and numbers of vari-\\nous kinds of animals are kept for the purpose of breeding the best, and\\nillustrating the effects of crossing. Some selected animals of domestic\\nand of the best foreign breeds, horeee, bulls, cows, and sheep, are kept\\nfor this special object.\\nAgricultural Reform Schools.\\nIn addition to the special schools of agriculture and the associated\\narts and sciences above described, there is a class of institutions not\\nonly in France, but in Germany, which are instrumental in diffusing a\\nlarge amount of practical instruction in farm and garden industry, while\\nthey are accomplishing a still higher purpose in cultivating the long\\nneglected or abused souls of their pupils we refer to the Reform Farm\\nSchools, of which a particular account will be given further on.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0476.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL\\nAT\\nGRIGNON IN FRANCE.\\nThe best agricultural school in France is situated at Grignon, about\\ntwenty miles from Paris. It consists of an estate of about 1200 acres\\nbelonging to the French Government, which is rented for a term of forty\\nyears to a society of gentlemen interested in agriculture, who have the\\nmanagement of ihe institution, and who subscribed 300,000 francs, or\\nabout 60.000 dollars for conducting it. The government is represented\\nin the board of management. The course of instruction embraces both\\nthe science and the practice of agriculture, and is designed for a cla !.s\\nof students, who depend upon their own exertions for a livelihood, and\\nespecially for those persons who manage the estates of large proprie-\\ntors, who in England or Scotland are called bailiffs, or stewards, and i;i\\nFrance, agricultural engineers. The following is abridged from\\nColman s European Agriculture and Rural Economy.\\nThe term of residence at Grignon is fixed at two years but the pupil remains\\nthree months after liis studies are completed, in order to digest and draw up the\\nentire management of an estate, and describe its details in every department.\\nThe students are divided into classes denominated internals and externals, or\\nresident and non-resident. The former reside entirely in the house, where they\\nare lodged and boarded, and pay about 8U0 franes, or 32 pounds, or 160 dollars,\\nper year. The externals, or non-residents, provide for themselves, or lodge at\\nthe houses of the neighboring farmers, and pay a Very small amount for their\\ninstruction. This arrangement is particularly designed to benefit poor scholars.\\nBoth classes are equal!} subject to the general discipline and rules of the institu-\\ntion and are alike engaged in the same works and studies.\\nThere are lectures every day in the week. At the commencement of each\\nlecture, the professor e.xamines the pupils on the subject of the preceding lec-\\nture and they are required often to take notes, aud present a written report ot\\nthe lecture. Besides the professors, there are two monitors, who have been\\neducated at the school, who labor with the pupils in the fields. Tliey are ex-\\npected, and it is their duty, to question the pupils on the subjects which have\\nbeen treated in the lectures to show their application to illustrate what may\\nhave been obscure and, in short, to leave nothing unexplained which is liable\\nto misunderstanding or error. Thers are two public examinations annually, in\\nwhich the scholars are subjected to a rigorous questioning in what they have\\nbeen taught. If, at the end of two years, their conduct has been approved, and\\ntheir examination is met successfully, they receive a diploma from the\\ninstitution.\\nThey are not only employed in the general work oi* the farm, but particular\\nportions of land are assigned to individuals, which they manage as they please,\\nand cultivate with their own hands they pay the rent and expenses of m.anure\\nand team, and receive the product or its value from the institution. Certjiin of\\nthem are appointed in turn to take care of the different departments of the farm\\nfor a length of time such as the hog establishment, the sheep establishment, the\\ncattle, the horses, the implements, c. c. They have likewise adopted a\\npractice, which seems much to be conmieuded that of employing workmen,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0477.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "4*76 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE.\\nshepherds, cow-herds, e., from foreign countries; as, for example, from\\nBelgium and Switzerland, that they may in this way become acquainted with the\\nbest practices in those countries.\\nThe time is thus divided and arranged among them they rise at four o clock\\nin summer, and at half-past four in winter. They go immediately into the stables\\nto assist in the feeding, cleaning, and harnessing of the teams, and the\\ngeneral care of the live stock, according to their respective assignments. At half-\\npast five they take a light breakfast at six o clock they go into the halls of study,\\nand here they remain until eleven o clock at half-past si.x they attend a lecture,\\nor course of instruction, which occupies them until eight o clock at half-past\\neight they are occupied in reading or in making notes of the lectures which they\\nhave heard, and the monitors before spoken of are present to render them any\\nassistance required at half-past nine o clock there is another lecture or course\\nof instruction for both sections, which occupies them until eleven, when they take\\ntheir second or principal breakfast. From noon until five o clock, the pupils are\\noccupied in labor or practical operations. The professors, from time to time, take\\na section, and employ them in land-surveying, in drawing plans, and in level i ngs\\nothers are occupied in mineralogical or in botanical excursions, or in inspecting\\nthe management of forest lands others are occupied by their teacher in the\\npractical management of farming implements, in the management of teams in the\\nfield, in sowing, and other general operations of husbandry, in a field devoted to\\nthese purposes; and a section, to the number of twelve, are every day employed\\nin the direct labors of the farm, in ploughing, digging, harrowing, c. c.\\nThey work in company with the best laboreis, that they may observe and learn\\ntheir modes of executing their work. They are required to be attentive to every\\noperation that is performed and to present a full report of each day s work to\\nthe director-general.\\nAt half-past five in winter, and at six in summer, they take their dinner. At\\nseven o clock in the evening they go again into the halls of study. From seven\\nto half-past eight o clock there is another course of instruction, or a repetition of\\nwhat they have had before. Until nine o clock they are occupied in their\\njournals, or in making notes of their lectures. At nine o clock the sleeping\\nrooms are lighted, and they retire for the night.\\nThere are several distinct professorships. The Professor of Practical Agricul-\\nture gives two courses the one written, the other oral and, like the lecture\\nof a clinical pi ofessor at the bed-side, it is given in the fields. This professor un-\\nderstands not only how a thing should be done, but how to do it and he can\\nput his hand to every form of agricultural labor, such as ploughing, harrowing,\\nsowing, managing the teams, feeding the animals, handling every instrument\\nof agriculture, buying, selling, q. In the words of his commission, his object is\\nat the same time to form the eye and the hand to teach his pupil how to learn\\nto command, to direct, and to execute. To this end it was necessary to form a\\ncomplete agricultural organization for practice, independent of the exercises\\nattached to the departments of the other professors.\\nThe farm is composed of\\nArable land, about\\nLand in wood and plantations\\nIrrigated meadows\\nGardens, including vegetable, botanical,\\nfruit garden, orchards, mulberry planta-\\ntions, osiers, and nurseries\\nPonds and water-courses\\nRoads and lands in pasture\\nOccupied by buildings 6\\nThe animals on the farm include\\nAnimals of draught or labor of different\\nkinds 18\\nOxen for fatting 20\\nCows of different ages and races, and\\ndifferent crosses 100\\nSheep, embracing the different kinds 1100\\nSwine establishment 100\\n670\\nacres.\\n365\\n(1\\n35\\n(1\\n28\\n15\\n50", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0478.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 477\\nThere are likewise on the establishment workshops or manufactories, if so they\\nmay be called,\\nFor the making of agricultural instruments\\nA threshing-house and machine for grain\\nA dairy room for the manufacture of different kinds of cheese and of butter;\\nA magnanerie, or establishment for silk-vvonns\\nA stercorary for the manufacture of compost manures.\\nTo all these various departments the attention of the students is closely called,\\nand they are required to take some part in the labors connected with them.\\nBesides the farm belonging to the establishment, there is a field of one hundred\\nacres devoted exclusively to the pupils, and principally to the culture of plants\\nnot grown on the farm. Here they make experiments in different preparations\\nof the soil, and with different manures.\\nEvery week two scholars, one of the second and one of the first year, are\\nappointed to attend particularly to the general condition of the farm. Their\\nbusiness is to examine constantly the whole establishment the works that are\\ngoing on in every department to look after the woods and the plantations the\\ngardens the horses the fatting cattle the dairy the sheep-fold the swine\\nand the hospital and to attend to the correspondence, and the visitors. This\\nservice lasts a fortnight, and there is a change every week, taking care always\\nthat there shall be one scholar of the first, and one of the second year associated.\\nThey attend to all the labors on the farm, and to all the communications between\\nthe principal director and inspectors, and the laborers. In the veterinary or\\nhospital department of the establishment, they assist the surgeon in all his visits\\nand operations take notes of his prescriptions make up and attend to the\\nadministration of his medicines and observe particularly the sanitary condition\\nof the stables and buildings, where the live stock, sick or well, are kept.\\nOn Saturday evening, each scholar, to whom this duty has been assigned,\\nmakes to his fellow-pupils a full verbal report of what has been done. This\\nreport is transcribed into a journal designed for that purpose and thus a\\ncontinued history of the entire management of the farm is kept up. The whole\\nschool is divided into sections or classes of twelve each six of two and six of one\\nyear s standing and these sections are constantly under the direction of the\\nProfess :)r of Practical Agriculture.\\nAs the establisjliment at Grignon may be considered a model agricultural\\nestablishment, it may be useful to go more into detail in regard to the course of\\ninstruction pursued here.\\nOnce a week there is an exercise, which embraces every thing relating to the\\nmanagement of the teams and the implements.\\nFirst, for example, in the different modes of executing any work, and using the\\nutensils employed. The harness, the collar, the traces, and how attached, the\\nshaft-horse or the cattle attached to the load, and the adjustment of the load\\nto their backs the yoke, the single yoke, the double yoke the pack-saddle the\\nharnessing of a saddle-horse the team for ploughing the team for harrowing\\nthe team for drawing loads the team for wagons, and for carriages with all\\ntheir appurtenances every one of these matters is to be practically understood,\\nas well as the whole management of the team in action.\\nIn ploughing, the turning the furrow, its inclination, its breadth and depths\\nthe laying out of fields the management of large and small fields how to make\\nthe first furrow, and finish the last furrow to lay the land flat, to break it up in\\nclods to plough it at a certain angle, to lay the land in curved furrows these\\nare all considered, and make part of the instruction given. The preparation,\\nequipment, and use of every agricultural implement such as ploughs, harrows,\\nrollers, scarifiers, cultivators, sowing machines, trenching machines the practice\\nof sowing, the different modes of sowing, whether broadcast, by dibble, or in\\ndrills; the application of manure both as to time, mode, quantity, and pi-eparation,\\nand the composting of manures, are matters of inquiry and practice.\\nThe cutting of grasses the making of hay, and the construction of stacks the\\nharvesting of grain, by the scythe or by the sickle appendages to the scythe,\\ncalled commonly the cradle and the grinding of scythes the making of sheaves,\\nand of shocks, or stacks and the loading and the stowing away of gi ajn, are\\nmatters to be understood.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0479.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "478 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE.\\nA practical attention is required to every form of service on the farm in the\\ncow-house the horse-stables the fatting-stalls the sheep-fold the styes the\\npoultry -yard the threshing-floor the stercorary and the store-houses for\\nthe produce of the farm of every description. The duties in this case embrace\\nnot merely the observation of how these things are done, but the actual doing\\nof them until an expertness is aequii ed.\\nLeaving the practical department we come now to the course of studies to be\\npursued.\\nFor admission into the institution some previous education is demanded, and the\\ncandidate is subjected to an examination before the principal and one of the\\nprofessors.\\nFirst, he is required to present an essay upon some subject assigned to him,\\nthat his knowledge of the French language and grammar may be ascertained.\\nIt is necessary, next, tliat he should be well grounded in the four great rules\\nof arithmetic in fractions, vulgar and decimal in the extraction of the roots in\\nthe rules of proportion and progression and in the system of measures adopted in\\nFrance.\\nIn geometry, he must be well acquainted with the general principles of straight\\nlines and circles, and their various combinations and with the general measure-\\nment of plane surfaces.\\nIn natural philosophy, he must understand the general properties of bodies and\\nbe acquainted with the uses of the barometer and thermometer.\\nCandidates for admission must bring with them certificates of good character\\nand manners, and must be at least eighteen years old. They are rigidly held to\\nan attendance upon all the courses of instruction at the institution and have leave\\nof absence only on the application of their parents or guardians.\\nThe studies of the first year are begun with a course of mathematics. Geome-\\ntry and trigonometry are made a particular subject of attention embracing the\\nstudy of straight lines, and circular or curved lines on the same plan the ad-\\nmeasurement of surfaces the use of the compass the recording of measure-\\nments the delineation of measurements the surveying of open fields, of woods,\\nof marshes, of ponds or lakes comparison of ancient land measures with those in\\npresent use the use of the square, the chain, and the compass; the elevation\\nof plans the construction of scales, and the ordinary divisions of landed\\nproperties.\\nThe study of various plans in any form solid measure conic sections, their\\nprincipal properties, and their practical application the theory and practice of\\nleveling the method of projections and their application cubic measure of\\ndifferent solids, of hewn stones, of rough stones the measurement of loose or\\nbroken stones, of sand, of lands excavated, of ground filled in, of stacks, and\\nof heaps of manure the cubic measure of trees standing, and of felled trees,\\nof beams, and every kind of carpenter s work, of firewood, of walls, arches, and\\nditches or dikes the ascertaining of the capacity of carriages, wagons, carts,\\nwheel-barrows, pails, troughs, barrels and casks, basins or ponds, and different\\nvessels in use, and of granaries and barns, and the determination of the weights\\nof bodies. To all this is added a full course of trigonometry. They are accustomed\\nlikewise to the familiar use of the scale, of the square, of the compass, and of the\\ncompasses for delineation, and are often occupied in superficial, and in profile\\ndrawing.\\nThe next course of instruction embraces embankments, the force of earths and\\nliquids, or their pressure, at rest or in motion.\\nThe materials employed in masonry their uses and application in building\\nembracing stones, bricks, lime, sand, mortars, cements, plaster and all the\\nvarious modes of building.\\nThe laying of walls for foundations the erection of walls the supports\\nrequisite and the construction of passages, inclosures, and arohes the different\\nkinds of woods, their absolute and relative strength their duration, and the modes\\nof preserving them every kind of carpenter s work the construction of floors,\\nstaircases, scaffoldings, and exterior supports the constructions of roofs, in\\ntimber, with thatch, rushes, shingles, tiles, slates, zinc, or bitumen the paving\\nof roads, the formation of barn -floors, with d.-vy or composition of bituminous sub-\\nStances which form a hard and enduring suil ace, are subjects of inquiry.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0480.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 479\\nNext comes instruction in the blacksmith s shop, in the use of the forge, and\\nthe other implements of the trade and in the various applications of iron and\\nsteel, of copper, lead, and zinc.\\nThey are instructed, likewise, in the manufacture and use of leather and cord-\\nage and in the various details of painting and glazing. The prices or cost like-\\nwise of all these different processes, are, as far as practicable, ascertained and the\\nmodes of estimating such work are explained.\\nThe next course embraces the elements of natural philosophy and this includes\\nchemistry, geology, and mineralogy.\\nFirst, the general properties of bodies, their divisibility, elasticity, and porosity\\nor absorbent powers and the special influence of this last circumstance upon the\\ncharacter of an arable soil.\\nThe following are all subjects of study; bodies in the mass; the weight of\\nbodies means of determining the density of bodies and their specific gravity the\\nphysical properties of the air of atmospheric pressure and of the construction\\nand use of the barometer.\\nThe study of hydrostatics the pressure of liquids in their reservoirs, and against\\ndikes and embankments hydraulics; capillary attraction the use of siphons and\\npumps.\\nThe study of heat in all its various phenomena, Its effects upon solid and liquid\\nbodies, and the changes which it makes in their condition the phenomena of\\nfusion, ebulition, and evaporation of vapors of the hygrometer or measurer\\nof moisture, and the utility of the instrument the conducting powers of bodies\\nof metals in particular of free or radiating heat application of heat to furnaces\\nor kilns laws of cold applied to bodies power of emitting and of absorbing cold\\nmeasure of heat means of determining the mean temperature of any place in-\\nfluence of heat and cold upon vegetation means of preserving certain vegetables\\nfrom frost construction and use of the thermometer.\\nMeteorology. Explication of the phenomena of dew of white frosts of clouds;\\nof rain of snow their various influences upon harvest, and the whole subject of\\nclimate.\\nStudy of light. Progress of light in space laws of its reflection laws of its\\nrefraction action of light upon vegetation. The subject of vision. The polariza-\\ntion of light the explication of the rainbow, and other phenomena of light the\\nprism.\\nStudy of electricity. Conductors of electricity distribution of the electric fluid\\nin nature power of the electric rods or points electricity developed by the con-\\ntact of bodies of galvanic piles their construction and uses. Atmospheric\\nelectricity its origin the formation of thunder clouds action of electricity upon\\nvegetation of lightning of thunder of hail.\\nChemistry. Simple bodies compound bodies difference between combination\\nand mixture atomical attraction cohesion affinity what is intended by\\nchemical agents. Explanation of the chemical nomenclature, and of chemical\\nterms.\\nThe study of simple bodies. Of oxygen its properties its action upon vegeta-\\ntion, and upon animal life. Nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, carbon, hydrogen their\\naction upon vegetable and animal substances their uses in veterinary medicine,\\nand their influence upon vegetation.\\nThe study of compound substances. Chemistry as applied to air and water\\ntheir importance in agriculture their influence upon the action and life of plants\\nand animals the acids, the sulphuric, the nitric, the carbonic, the chloric the\\nalkalies,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 lime, soda, potassium, ammonia their application in various forms. The\\nsalts in chemistry, and their various applications and uses their importance as\\nconstituent parts of the soil, or as improvements.\\nThe subject of marls and of earths, and of various substances deemed favorable\\nto vegetation. Under the direction of the Professor of Chemistry, the students\\nare taught to make analyses of different soils and marls.\\nTo this is added a course of Mineralogy and Geology. This embraces the\\ngeneral properties of minerals the physical, chemical, and mechanical character\\nof mineral substances the most common.\\nThe study of the distinctive properties and situation of those mineral substances\\nwhich are most extended over the globe, and which are the most in use such,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0481.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "480 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE.\\nespecially, as the carbonate of lime comprehending stones for building, for the\\nmaking of roads and walls, lime-stones, marbles, sulphate of lime, or plaster of\\nParis and all the variety of mineral substances ordinarily found, and of use in\\nagriculture or the arts.\\nA course of Geology follows this, embracing all the leading features of the\\nscience, with a special reference to all substances or conditions of the soil con-\\nnected with agricultural improvement.\\nIn this case, the professor makes frequent excursions with the pupils, that they\\nmay become familiarly acquainted with the subjects treated of in the lectures, and\\nsee them in their proper localities so that the great truths of geological science\\nmay be illustrated by direct and personal observation.\\nNext follows a course of instruction in horticulture, or gardening.\\nOf the soil the surface and the subsoil, and practical considerations relative\\nto their culture and products.\\nOf the climate the temperature, the aspect and local condition of the land\\nin reference to the products cultivated the amelioration of the soil, and the\\nsubstances to be used for that object, with the modes of their application.\\nThe various horticultural operations, and implements employed and manner in\\nwhich the}- are to be executed. The employment of water in irrigation; modes\\nof inclosing by ditches or walls walls for the training of trees trellises and palings\\nand of protections against the wind.\\nThe different modes of multiprcation sowing, engrafting by cuttings and by\\nlayers, and practical illustrations of these different processes. The culture of seed-\\nbearing or grain-producing plants the choice of them their planting and\\nmanagement the harvesting and preservation of the crojjs.\\nUnder this head comes the kitchen-garden, and the choice of the best esculent\\nvegetables for consumption the nursery, and the complete management of trees\\nfrom their first planting the fruit-garden, considered in all its details and the\\nflowci -garden.\\nThe general results of gardening the employment of hand, or spade-labor\\nthe care, preservation, and consumption of the products, and their sale. The\\ngardens at Grignon are upon a scale sufficient to supply all practical demonstra-\\ntions.\\nThe next division embraces the botanical garden. Here the whole science of\\nbotany is treated in its principles, and their practical application. The study of\\nvegetable organization, with a full account of the prevailing systems and nomen-\\nclature of botany, and the classification of plants. Vegetable physiology, in all its\\nbranches, and vegetable anatomy comparison of plants in their native and culti-\\nvated states influence of cultivation in developing and improving plants the\\npropogation of plants in their natural condition, or by artifieial means the subject\\nof rotation, or change of crops.\\nThe practical application of these botanical instructions and especially in the\\nexamination of plants or vegetables which may be useful in an economical view.\\nThe garden of the establishment embraces what is called a school of trees\\na school of plants for economical and commercial purposes and a school of plants\\nfor conmion use. These are all carefully classed and distinguished by their proper\\nnames. The pupils are accustomed to be led into the gardens by the professor,\\nthat his instructions may be fully exemplified and confirmed.\\nThe next branch of science taught at the school is veterinary surgerj and\\nmedicine. This embraces a course of anatomy and animal phisiology. It com-\\nprehends a full description of all the animal organs and demonstrations are given\\nfrom subjects, destroyed or obtained for that purpose. The functions of the\\ndifferent organs are likewise described the organs of digestion, respiration, cir-\\nculation, and the organs connected with the continuance of the species.\\nEvery part of the animal, external and internal, is shown, its name given, its\\nuses explained its situation in relation to the other organs; the good points, the\\nfaults or defects in an animal the peculiarities of different races of animals, with\\nthe modes of discriminating among them.\\nThe choice of animals intended for different services, as in horses for example,\\nwhether for the saddle, the race, the chase, the carriage, the road, the wagon, or\\nthe plough. Next, the treatment of the diseases of animals the medicines in\\nuse their preparation, and the mode of applying or employing them.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0482.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 481\\nThe next subject of instruction embraces a complete system of keeping farm\\naccounts and journals, with the various books and forms necessary to every\\ndepartment.\\nFrom this the pupil proceeds to what is called rural legislation, embracing an\\naccount of all the laws which affect agricultural property or concerns.\\nThe civil rights and duties of a French citizen, and the constitution of France.\\nProperty, movable or immovable, or, as denominated with us, personal and\\nreal of the divisions of property of its use and its obligations.\\nOf commons of laws relating to forests of the rights of fishing in rivers and\\nof hunting.\\nThe laws relating to rural police to public health to public security to con-\\ntageous or epidemic diseases.\\nThe rights of passage of men or animals over the land of another if any, and\\nwhat.\\nOf crimes. Theft in the fields breaking or destruction of the instruments of\\nagriculture throwing open inclosures destruction or removal of bounds. Lay-\\ning waste the crops by walking over them inundation of fields by the stoppage\\nof streams, or the erection of mills. Injury or breaking of public roads and\\nbridges. Poisoning, killing, or wounding animals.\\nThe duties of country magistrates guards or justices of the peace. Of courts\\nof law.\\nOf contracts, general and specific. Contracts of sale and prohibitory conditions.\\nOf leases of different sorts. Of hiring labor of the obligations of masters and\\nservants. Of corporations, and the laws applicable to agricultural associations.\\nOf deeds, mortgages, bills of e-xchange, commissions, and powers of agency and\\nattorney insurance against fire, hail, and other hazards. Of the proof of obliga-\\ntions written proof oral testimony presumptive evidence of oaths. Of legal\\nproceedings of the seizure of property real or personal, and of bail.\\nThe instruction proceeds under various courses, and I have so far given but a\\nlimited account of its comprehensiveness, and the variety of subjects which it\\nembraces.\\nThe study of the diflferent kinds of soil, and of manures, with all their applica-\\ntions, and the improvements aimed at, take in a wide field. Under the head of\\nsoils there are the argillaceous, the calcareous, the siliceous, turf-lands, heath-lands,\\nvolcanic soils, the various sub-soils, loam, and humus.\\nUnder the head of manures, come the excrements of animals, all fcecal matter,\\npoudrette, urine the excrements of fowls guano noir animalisee the refuse\\nof sugar refineries the relics of animals oil-cakes the refuse of maltings\\ntanners -bark bones, hair, and horn aquatic plants green-dressings.\\nThe application likewise of sand, clay, marl, lime, plaster, wood-ashes, turf-\\nashes, soot, salt the waste of various manufactures mud and street dirt.\\nThe plants cultivated for bread wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, millet,\\nrice, and the modes of cultivating them.\\nFor forage, potatoes, beets, turnips, ruta-bagas, carrots, artichokes, parsnips,\\nbeans, cabbage.\\nLucerne, lupins, sainfoin, common clover, trifolium incarnatum, vetches, peas,\\nlentils, and plants for natural meadows and for pasturage.\\nTo these are added, cobra, rape, poppy, mustard white and black, hemp, flax,\\ncotton, madder, saffron, woad, hops, tobacco, chicory, teazles.\\nThe weeds prejudicial to agriculture, and the insects which attack the plant\\nwhile growing, or in the granary or barn.\\nThe production of milk and, as already said, the making of butter and cheese.\\nThe production of wool tests of its fineness classing of wools shearing of\\ngheep weight of the fleece washing of wool before br after shearing and every\\nparticular in reference to the subject.\\nThe fatting of beef, mutton, and pork. Choice of animals for this purpose\\nnutritive properties of different kinds of food in what form to be given grains\\nentire or ground roots cooked or raw, green or dry the value of the pulp of\\nbeet-root after the sugar is expressed refuse of the starch factories of the dis-\\ntillery of the brewery fatting by pasture or in stalls comparison of the live\\nweight with that of the animal when slaughtered.\\nCare and management of the various kinds of domestic poultry,\\n31", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0483.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "482 AGRICULTURAL SOIIOOI, AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE.\\nCare and management of bees, with the constiHietion of hives.\\nCare of silk-worms, and their entire management.\\nAll these studies are pursued in the first year of the course and the time is so\\narranged as to afford the diligent pupil an opportunity of meeting his duties, though\\nthe period is obviously too limited for the course prescribed.\\nThe second year enjoins the continuance and enlargement of these important\\nstudies the higher branches of mathematics and natural philosophy an extended\\nknowledge of chemistry and a thorough acquaintance with mechanics, when the\\nscholars with their professor visit some of the principal machine-shops and factories\\nin Paris, or its environs, in order to become practically acquainted with them.\\nThe students are further instructed in the construction of farm-buildings of\\nevery description in irrigation, in all its forms in the drainage of lands; in the\\nconstruction of roads in every thing relating to farm implements and in the\\nconstruction of mills and presses.\\nAs I have said, organic chemistry is largely pursued with the various manufac-\\ntures to vvhicii it is applicable and animal physiology and comparative anatomy\\nare very fully taught.\\nThese studies are followed by a course of what is called agricultural technology.\\nThis embraces the manufacture, if so it may be called, of lime, of cement, of\\nbricks the preparations of plaster the making of coal by various processes the\\nflaking of starch the making and purificatit)n of vegetable oils the making\\nof wines, of vinegar, of beer, of alcohol, of sugar from the beet-root, including all\\nthe improvements which have been introduced into this branch of manufacture\\nand the pupils, under the direction of the professor, are taken to see the various\\nmanufactories of these articles, so far as they are accessible in the vicinity.\\nThe whole subject of forests, of nurseries, of fruit trees, ornamental trees, trees\\nfor fuel, trees for mechanical purposes, are brougiit under the student s notice.\\nThis is a great subject in France, where wood has an extraordinary value where\\ninmiense extents of ground are devoted solely to the cultivation of trees; and\\nwhere consequently it is most desirable to understand the proper kinds of\\nwood to be selected for the purpose in view the proper mode of forwarding the\\ngrowth of the trees and of removing them without prejudice to their restoration.\\nUnder this head comes the culture of\\nTrees for fuel.\\nTrees for timber.\\nTrees for house and ship building.\\nTrees for fruit, including all the varieties adapted to a particular climate.\\nTrees for their oily matter such as olives.\\nTrees for their bark to be used in tanning, and other purposes.\\nTrees for their resinous ])roperties such as pines.\\nOsiers and willows for making baskets.\\nMulberry-trees for the support of silk-worms.\\nNext to this comes the culture of vines, and the establishment and care of a\\nvineyard a subject of great importance in France.\\nI have already spoken of the veterinary course of instruction. This embraces\\nthe whole subject of the breeding and rearing of animals their training, shoeing,\\nand harnessing, and entire management.\\nUnder the head of farm accounts, the establishment itself at Grignon is made\\nan example the accounts of which are kept most accurately by some of the\\nstudents, and open to the inspection of all.\\nA journal of every thing which is done upon the farm is made up every night\\nand these accounts are fairly transferred into a large-book.\\nTo this is added, a particular account of the labors performed, and the occupa-\\ntion of each workman on the farm.\\nNext, a cash-book, embracing payment and sales, which are adjusted every\\nfortnight.\\nNext, an account with the house charging every article supplied or con-\\nsumed.\\nNext, a specific account of each principal department of the farm such as the\\ndairy, with all its expenses and returns the pork-establishment the granary,\\nc. which are all balanced every month, so that tlie exact condition of the de^\\npartment may be known.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0484.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 483\\nAs the students are advanced, more general and enlarged views of the various\\nsubjects of inquiry are given such as,\\nThe taking of a farm, and the cultivation or management to be adopted.\\nTlie influence of climate and soil.\\nThe ci ops to be grown and the rotation of crops.\\nAgricultural improvements generally.\\nThe devoting of land to pasturage to dairy husbandry to the raising of\\nanimals; to the fatting of cattle; to the growth olj wool; to the production of\\ngrain to the raising of plants for different manufacturing purposes or to such a\\nmixed husbandry as may be suggested by the particular locality.\\nThe use of capital in agriculture the mode of letting farms cash rents rents\\nin kind rents in service laws regulating the rights and obligations of real\\nestate the conveyance of real estate with the various forms of culture in large\\nor in small possessions, or on farms of a medium size.\\nThe above is an imperfect and abridged statement of the subject matters of in-\\nstruction and study at this institution, which may be considered as a model\\nestablishment and a thorough education in the various branches referred to.\\nmust be, to any young man, an important and invaluable acquisition.\\nThe question comes up. Will such an education make men better farmers? It\\nmust be their own fault if it does not. There may be some branches of the\\nprescribed course, which may not appear to have a direct practical bearing but\\nthere is not one without its use if not directly, yet indirectly subservient to\\nagricultural improvement and if not immediately applicable to practice, yet\\nintimately connected with the agricultural profession, adapted to increase its\\npower, utility, and dignity, to elevate and adorn it.\\nPresident Hitchcock, of Amherst College, in a Report to the Legisla-\\nture of Massachusetts on Agricultural Schools, in 1851. speaks of the\\nabove institution in commendatory terms, and of Mr. Coleman s descrip\\nlion as sufficiently accurate of the system now pursued there.\\nThe following abstract of the suhjects of study and lectures at the Ag-\\nricultural school at Grand Jouan is taken from President Hitchcock s\\nReport.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0485.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0486.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 485\\nAgricultural School at Grand Jouan.\u00c2\u00ab\\nThe Agricultural school at Grand Jouan, in Brittany, was established\\nin 1S33, by M. Neviere, who had been trained in this department of edu-\\ncation in the Roville Agricultural school. In 1848 it was remodeled by\\nthe government and placed under the administration ot the minister of\\nagriculture.\\nSubjects of Study and Lectures.\\nMathematical Sciences: xVrifhmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mechanics, Sur-\\nvej-ing, Leveling, Stereometry, (measuring solid bodies,) Linear Drawing.\\nPhysical and Natural Sciences Physics, Meteorology, Mineral Chemistry,\\nMineralogy, (xeology, Botany.\\nTechnological Sciences Organic Chemistry, or Agricultural Technology,\\nAgriculture, xVrboriculture, Sylviculture, Veterinary Art, Agricultural Zoology,\\nEquitation.\\nNoological Sciences Rural Architecture, Forest Economy, Rural or Farm\\nAccounts, Rural Economy, Rural Law.\\nAbstract of the course of Lectures on General Agriculture.\\nAgricultural Formation, (Terrain,) L Soil .\u00e2\u0080\u00a2\u00e2\u0080\u0094Constituent Elements, Classi-\\nfication of the Formation Argillaceous, Siliceous, and peaty soils Physical pro-\\nperties Causes which modify these properties Influence of soil on vegetation.\\n2. Sub Soil .\u00e2\u0080\u0094Sub soil active Sub soil inert Influence of sub soil on the soil\\nand on the life of plants.\\nAgricultural Geography :-^Aatronomic situation of France: Mountains:\\nValleys. Plains. Rivers.\\nAgricultural Physics Atmospheric Air Caloric: Light: Darkness.\\nAgricultural Meteorology Winds Fogs Dew Rain White Frost\\nFrost with Ice Snow Hail.\\nClimatology .-\u00e2\u0080\u0094Influence of Climate Climate of France Regions.\\nFertilization .-\u00e2\u0080\u0094Considerations preliminary Fecundity and Fertility.\\nL Improvement: Clay: Rocks: Sand: Slates: Lava: Plomhage Irriga-\\ntions Ditching Ploughing IMovement of the sub soil Colmafage.\\n2. Stimulants Stimulants of Mineral Origin Lime Marl Calcareous\\nearth: Broken shells Sea sand: the Whiting Shellfish: Plaster: Fire Ashes\\nSulphate ol Iron Salts of Potash of Soda of Ammonia.\\nStimulants of Vegetable Origin Soot Ashes Leached Ashes.\\n3. Manures Animal ^Manures Excrements Urine Pigeons Dung\\nGuano E.\\\\crement of Animals Muscular Flesh Blood Fish Fat Oil\\nWoolen cloth: Horn: Horsehair: Human hair: Feathers.\\nVegeto-Animal Manures Litter: Horse dung: of Sheep: of horned Cattle\\nof Swine: of Rabbits.\\nAnimnl Manures Mineralized Animal charcoal Bone.\\nVegetable Manures Green crops ploughed in. Manure and Aquatic plants\\nTurf: poor Vegetables Oil Cake Tan Mesh pulpy matters Leaves\\nStubble.\\nLiquid Manures Urine of the Domestic Animals Flemish Manures U^rine\\nWater from Fecularies.\\nCompound Manures Manure of Jauffi-et and Lane Compost Slime of\\nPonds: River Mud Marine Mud.\\nBreaking up the Soil Work Animals Cattle: Horses: Cows: Mules:\\nAsses Race Age Mode of tackling Length of working Treatment Neces-\\nsary proportion.\\n2. Instruments Plough with or without fore wheels Harrow Scarifica-\\ntors Rollers Instruments for second dressing Weeders Extirpators Nec-\\nessary proportion.\\n3. Tillage: Theory and Practice: Soil: Temperature Flat Tillage: Flat\\nTillage in rows Flat Tillage in ridges Tillage by digging and by grubbing.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0487.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "486 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN.\\n4. Methods of moving the earth Harrowing: Rolling: Second Ploughing\\nButt ages.\\n5. Clearing Land Heaths Woods Peaty lands Clearing by the hand\\nby the 1 lough Hoeing: Destination of the ground.\\ni?;a7 /a /(g .-\u00e2\u0080\u0094Arable Land: Morasses: Ponds: Nature and destination of the\\nsoil.\\nIrrigation Theory and Practice by Infiltiation Renewal of the Water\\nPlanches Dombees.\\nQuantity of water by the acre, and according to the nature of the soil. Value\\nof the bottoms irrigated and not irrigated. Mode of working these almost irri-\\ngated. Fertility and value of the products.\\nFences NA alls iJitehes Hedges, living or dead.\\nSowing: Theory and practice: Sowing in lines at random: selection, re-\\nnewal, cleansing, and preparation of the seeds: Burying them by the harrow:\\nby the plough.\\nMethod of Treatment Weeding Cleaning of thistles stripping off the\\nleaves {EffuiUuge Bringing into the light.\\nHarvesting. General Considerations.\\n1 Harvesting of Fodder Instruments and Machines Mowing Hay mak-\\ning: Grindstones.\\n2. Harvesting of Grain Instruments and Machines Mowing Reaping\\nThre-h iig Luge.\\n.i. Harvesting of Roots Pulling up by the hand by the plough Uncover-\\ning Cleaning.\\nSelection of the methods of preparing the Soils According to atmospheric\\ncircniristances Nature of the Soil its condition its destination.\\nDistribution of Labor by Rotation Normal conditions Exceptional con-\\nditions.\\nRural Architecture.\\nMaterials: Siliceous, calcareous and argillaceous rocks: Fat, meagre, and\\nhydranl c Lime Sands: Mortar: Cements: Puzzolana Plaster: Wood: Iron:\\nPaving Ijrick Rooting Slate Tiles Lead Zinc Leather Ropes.\\nWorks Foundations Terracing Properties of Earths.\\nMasonry: Foundation Walls High Walls for support: for inclosure: Plas-\\ntering Pise.\\nCarpentry: Assemblages: Combles Pans de bois Partitions: Staircases.\\nJoiners Work Floors Gates Windows Slnitters.\\nIron Work Large Iron Ironing the Buildings.\\nRoofing :\u00e2\u0080\u0094Y\\\\\\\\iis,: Slate: Tliatch Zinc: Bitumen.\\nPainting andi Glazing Oil Painting: Distemper Paintings: Badidgeon,\\n(coloi-ing) Window glass.\\nPaving and Bricking.\\nEstimate of the Works Masonry Carpentry.\\nSpecification Form of the works.\\nEdifices: Stable: Cow house: Sheep fold Hogpen: Hen house: Pigeon\\nhouse Silk wnrin nurser3^\\nAnimal products Dairy Cheese house.\\nVegetable products Barns Granaries Wine cellars Cellars Corn pits\\nOvens.\\nAgricultural Manufactures Fecvlary Distillery: Sugar manufactory.\\nReservoirs Watering places Wash house Wells Cisterns Ditches for\\nurine Ponds.\\nDwelling house Form and Proportion.\\nIrrigations: Dams: Taking out the Water: Sluices: Canals: Weirs:\\nSlopes.\\nDrainage: Damming up Trenching: Cespool Machines for drainage.\\nRouts: Soil: Slope: Outline: Leveling: Materials: Support: Bridges:\\nEst iirate of Excavation and Embankment.\\nGroup of Edifices composing a Farming Establishment Relation to th\u00c2\u00a9\\nfertility of the soil and the culture and extent of the farm.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0488.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "REFORII SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES\\nFOR\\nYOUNG PAUPERS, VAGRANTS, AND CRIMINALS.\\nThe frequent wars in which tiie several States of Europe have been\\nengaged, by carrying desolation into the home, the field, and the work-\\nshop, have multiplied the number of orphans and penniless children,\\nbeyond the ordinary causes of such visitations, and at the same time by\\nweakening the bonds of law and virtue, have increased the-temptations\\nto a vicious life, and thus swelled the ranks of juvenile criminality. The\\nextreme severity, and almost uninterrupted succession of belligerent\\noperations, growing out of the revolutionary movement of France, left\\nat its close, in every continental State, a larger number than ever before,\\nof poor, neglected, and vicious children to care for, which arrested the\\nattention of government and benevolent individuals, and led to many\\ninteresting experiments as to the best means of relief and reformation.\\nTo Switzerland belongs the credit of having first applied the princi-\\nples of domestic and agricultural training to the reformation of young\\ncriminals, and to the still higher purpose of preventing pauperisn) and\\ncrime, by incorporating these principles into the early education of\\norphan, pauper, and neglected children. The Orphan House of Pes-\\ntalozzi, at Neuhof. opened in 1775. in which he lived with his pupils as\\na friend, pastor, and teacher, and on which he expended all his limited\\nmeans; the Rural School for indigent children, established by Fellen-\\nberg in 1805. as an essential part of his great enterprise at Hofwyl. to\\ndemonstrate what could be done to elevate the people by a gooii edu-\\ncation; the Agricultural Normal Scliool of Yehrli. at Krutzlingen, to\\ntrain a class of practical agriculturists to be skillful teachers; and the\\nReform School of Kuralli at Bachtelen, near Berne, for vicious and\\noffending boys, have all established the practicability of accustoming\\nyoung persons, while engaged in their studies, to habits of useful\\nmanual labor, and the wisdom of subjecting all children, and especially\\nthe orphan and outcast, to tlie kindly restraints, and humanizing intlu-\\nences of doa)estic lite. These principles of home, liirm, and shop train-\\ning have been slowly recognized and introduced among the charitable,\\npreventive, and reibrmatory agencies of other countries.\\nSmall rural colonies, arranged in tiunilies. are fast supplanting the great\\nhospitals and a.--ylums where hundreds of orphans, it may be. are well\\nfeil, cliilhed ami lo.lged under salaried governors, secretaries, and keep-\\ners but with little or noihing of that fireside education that ciiliivation\\nof the feelings those Ijabifs of mutual helpand courtesy, that plantation\\nof delightful remembrances of innocent sports and rambles in the field,\\nor that acquisition of ready tact in all household and rural industry, which", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0489.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "488 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\nare the distinguishing features of a good New England practical\\nhome culture.\\nPri.sons, of high stone walls and barred windows, where hundreds of\\nyoung inmates are congregated, with nothing useful for head or hands\\nto do or else working in large squads, at some undiversified employment,\\nunder the watchful eye of armed men, without the cheering word or\\nsympathy of woman, acting and feeling as a mother, sister, or compan-\\nion, or the wise counsel and example of men, acting like fathers, bro-\\nthers, or friends such places of detention and punishments are giving\\nway to farm, reform, and industrial schools, where young criminals, or\\nthose who would soon become such in a majority of cases, the neglected\\nand wretched outcasts of tainted homes, the otlspring of vicious and\\nintemperate parents, or the fatherless or motherless boys who com-\\nmenced their downward career by committing petty thefts to keep li(e\\ntogether, or under the influence of bad companionship, and of tempta-\\ntion too strong for their neglected moral culture to resist, where such\\nchildren are subjected to kind domestic training, to watchful guardian-\\nship, and are treated with a long suffering forbearance, while they are\\nacquiring the habit of useful occupation in the workshop or farm, and\\nare getting rid of their wild impulses and irregular habits, in the round\\nof duties and employments of a well regulated household.\\nThese rural and industrial schools, especially on the continent of\\nEurope, constitute an interesting chiss of educational institutions. They\\nare of two kinds. 1. Asylums and houses tor pauper, orphan, deserted,\\nand morally endangered children, who are destitute of that education\\nsupplied by the common relationship of the family. 2. Correctional\\nand reformatory schools for children and young persons convicted of\\ncrime, or acquitted only as having acted without knowledge, but de-\\ntained under a certain age for the purpose of being instructed and\\ntrained to some usefuT occupation. In all of them, farm and garden\\nlabor form the basis of all industrial instruction trade and handicraft\\nare recognized and provided for, but are deemed of secondary impor-\\ntance, except in a limited number of cases. Before giving a particular\\ndescription of a few of the most interesting and successful institutions of\\neach kind, we will give a brief statement of the principal features of the\\ncharitable and reformatory system now in operation in these countries.\\nIn each of the cantons of Switzerland, in 1852, there were, at least,\\none rural or farm school conducted on the basis of a well regulated\\nfamily. The superintendence is ordinarily committed to a married\\nteacher, who is called the father of the family; and his wife, who assists\\nin the domestic and industrial instruction of the girls, bears the title of\\nmother. The school is open both to girls and boys, an arrangement\\nwhich, under vigilant supervision and separate dormitories, is attended\\nwith but few inconveniences, and facilitates an economy of manao-e-\\nment, and a judicious distribution of labor, both in employment and in-\\nstruction, and the diffusion of a true domestic spirit throughout the\\nwhole establishment. The number of inmates average from twenty to", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0490.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\n489\\nforty, and when the entire family exceed twenty, it is subdivided into\\nlesser ones of twelve or more, who are placed under an assistant\\nfather. The school instruction occupies three hours in summer, and\\nfour in winter; the remainder of the day being devoted to work in the\\nfield or garden, or at certain seasons of the year, and for a class of\\npupils, in some in-door trade or handicraft. Those children who show\\nan aptness to teach, and a peculiar fitness to conduct or assist in estab-\\nlishments of this class, are sent to a rural normal school, like that at\\nKrutzlingen. The subdivision into groups of families is an essential\\nfeature of the reformatory discipline in the institutions designed exclu-\\nsively for young criminals, and morally endangered children. This\\norganization in families, with a trial class, or section of six or eight of\\nthe best behaved pupils, who are allowed still larger liberty and are\\nintrusted with special duties, into which the new comers are admitted\\nuntil they can be properly classified, facilitates supervision, fosters a\\nkindly emulation, and permits the application to each child of that sort\\nof care and management best adapted to its character and disposition.\\nThe annual cost in the orphan school is about $35 per child, and in the\\npenal colonies about $50 per inmate.\\nIn Germany we find the best example of reform schools in the king-\\ndom of Wirtemberg, and at Horn, near the city of Hamburg. In Wir-\\ntemberg the large number of children who were driven by the loss of\\nfathers in the wars which ravaged all Europe from 1796 to 1816, and\\nthe scarcity of food, to beg or steal for a living, arrested the attention\\nof government; and led to the organization of benevolent societies, and\\nto the establishment of asylums for their relief under the active patron-\\nage of Q,ueen Catherine in 1819.\\nIn the reform schools of moral industry in Wirtemberg, the average\\nnumber of inmates in each is fifty -six. of whom thirty-three are boys and\\ntwenty-three girls. If the domestic character and feeling is to be main-\\ntained, it is evident that one father and one -mother can not direct\\nand supervise so large a number. But it must be added, that the age\\nfor leaving is commonly fourteen years, though in some the girls are\\nkept a year longer. The aim of the education given in these reforma-\\ntory schools is to correct vicious habits, and to form honest men. good\\nChristians, and useful members of society. Together with constant\\nrehgious instruction every opportunity is taken of inculcating habits of\\norder, propriety, and activity, and of inspiring the children with senti-\\nments of obedience, humility, truthfulness and honor. Under a vigilant\\nand continuous supervision, account is taken of their good or bad dispo-\\nsitions, of their progress and faults. In some schools the less hopeful\\nare confided to children distinguished by their good conduct, who serve\\nthem as guides to bring them back to the right path, and to form them\\nto the discipline of the school. Many, even of tender years, have con-\\ntracted bad habits, which it is necessary to root out at any sacrifice. In\\nsuch a case the head of a family takes a child particularly suspected,\\nand elicits an entire confession, which is usually followed by a promise", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0491.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "490 REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AOIUCULTCRAL COLONIES.\\nof amendment from that time his attention is awakened, and no means\\nare spared to etfect a lasting reformation. Decency is to the mind what\\npropriety is to the body, and every thing that might bring injury to the\\nformer is avoided, and a scrupulous watch kept over the latter. The\\ngirls and boys only meet at meals, in school and at religious exercises\\nat other times, during work, in play time, and in the dormitories, they\\nare entirely separate. Each child has its own bed. In each sleeping\\napartment there is a male or female overseer who never leaves, and\\nexercises an especial control over those children whom any peculiar cir-\\ncumstance points out to their attention. Through these precautions the\\nunion of boys and girls leaves no room for abuse, and all the heads of\\nestablishments agree that a too entire separation of the sexes is more\\nprejudicial than useful. The intellectual instruction comprises religious\\ninstruction, the history of the bible, reading, writing, the German lan-\\nguage, written and mental arithmetic, the history of Wirtemberg. geo-\\ngraphy, and music. Four or five hours daily are commonly given to\\nlessons, according to the seasons and the demands of the field labor.\\nThe instruction is given by the head of the family, who is chosen from\\nthe certificated teachers. Each school has its little library. Every six\\nor twelve months the children are subjected to an examination. In\\nindustrial education agriculture generally forms the basis, and the boys\\nunder the overlooker of the farm, perform all the requisite Avork. and also\\nthe heavier part of the housework. In most of the schools there are\\nalso workshops of tailors, shoemakers, joiners, weavers, bookbinders, c.\\nThe girls are principally employed in household work, sewing, and\\nknitting; but they also take part in the out-door work of the kitchen-\\ngarden, the cow-sheds, and the poultry-yard, and assist in the hay and\\ncorn harvest. In the choice of these operations it is especially designed\\nto retain them in the humble sphere in which they were born, by care-\\nfully avoiding whatever might tend to turn them against the employ-\\nments upon which they must ultimately depend for subsistence such\\nas service, whether domestic or on the farm. Each reformatory school\\nhas a separate savings bank, in which are kept the petty sums allowed\\nto the children in the character of wages, or any presents they may\\nreceive, and each child has its little book of account. On leaving, the\\nboj s are commonly apprenticed to artizans. and the girls go to service.\\nCare is taken to place them with employers of approved integrity, and\\nin Ciiristiun families.\\nThe reform school of the Rauhen-Haus. near Hamburg, has attached\\nto it the largest and perhaps the best normal school for institutions of\\nthis kind in Europe. It was founded in 1833. by a few charitable per-\\nsons, with the view of assembling and correcting the vicious and\\nmorally endangered children of the city. It was at first located in a\\nmodest thatch-covered house, whence its name is derived hut it has\\nnow ii;creased to about a dozen buildings each having its special appli-\\ncatioM which are variously dispersed in the niiilst of surrounding gar-\\ndens, and of which several have been erected by the children them-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0492.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 49 1\\npelves. The establishment consists of three divisions: 1. The reform-\\natory school, containing about 100 children, of whom two-thirds are\\nboys and one-third girls. 2. The institute of brothers, which is com-\\nposed of those assigned to the direction and superintendence of the dif-\\nferent (Umi .ies. and which serves also as a preparator}- or normal\\nschool; it comprised 34 brothers in 1847. 3. The printing and agency\\ndepartment. containing a bookseller s shop and workshop for bookbind-\\ning and stereotyping. The organization of the Rauhen-Haus has been\\nbased on that of the natural family. The children are classed in groups\\nof 12 each, forming a family, under a superintendent or father. All\\nthese are attached to their common center or father, the director, who\\npresides over the whole. The chapel, the school, and the workshops\\nalone are common to the whole, and serve as a bond of association\\namong the different families.\\nThe institute of Brothers attached to the reform school of the\\nRauhen-Haus, forms the basis of the whole organization. It was soon\\nperceived that the work of improvement among vicious and dehnquent\\nchildren could not be confined to* merely mercenary hands, and that it\\nwas a condition of success to employ persons influenced by motives of a\\nhigher nature. The brethren of the Rauhen-Haus may be compared,\\nin some respects, to the Freres de Charite and Freres de la Doc-\\ntrine Chretienne in Roman Catholic countries. To qualify for admis-\\nsion to the institute, proof must be furnished of their conduct having\\nbeen always honorable and without reproach, of the constant practice\\nof Christian duties, of being animated with the spirit of a true religious\\ncalling, of freedom from physical infirmity, of good health and a sound\\nconstitution, of knowledge of agriculture or of some trade available in\\nthe establishment, or of aptitude for acquiring one, of the possession of\\na certain amount of learning or intelligence, and of the will necessary\\nto profit by the special instruction provided in the institution. Consent\\nof parents is also required. The age of admission for brothers is usually\\nfrom 20 to 30 years of age. and notwithstanding the strictness of the\\nconditions candidates have never been deficient. The institute, like the\\nschool of reform, is supported by private subscriptions and donations.\\nIn their relations with the school of reform, the brothers have charcre\\nof every thing connected with the direction of the families and super-\\nvision of the children, who can not be out of their sight by day or nio-ht.\\nThey take their meals with them, sleep in their dormitory, direct them\\nin their work, accompany them to chapel, and take part in their recrea-\\ntions and games. They are at first attached to the families as assist-\\nants, and after a certain time of probation take the direction in their\\nturn; they visit the parents of the children, to report their conduct\\nand progress; they exercise over their pupils, after their departure\\nan active patronage, give instruction in the elementary classes, and\\nkeep up the writing and correspondence of the institution. The trans-\\nfer of the assistants from family to family every month, places each\\nbrother successively in contact with all the children, extends his indi-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0493.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "492 REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\nvidual experience, and places the experience acquired in each group at\\nthe service of all the families. The brothers have also a course of\\nspecial instruction under the director and two assistants. This occupies\\n20 hours per week, arranged in a manner to coincide with the working\\nhours of the children, and comprehends religion, sacred and profane his-\\ntory, the German language, geography, pedagogy, singing, and instru-\\nmental music; there is also a special course of EngHsh. The pupils\\nare classed in two courses. The duration of each course is two years,\\nso that the education of each brother occupies an average period of four\\nyears. At the expiration of this time they ought to be prepared for\\nbeing placed, as they usually are, in one or other of the following posi-\\ntions as chiefs and fathers of families in the reformatory schools, organ-\\nized upon the plan of the Rauhen-Haus as overseers and assistants,\\nor teachers in similar establishments; as teachers in rural schools; \u00c2\u00a3is\\ndirectors, stewards, overseers, or guardians in prisons of various organ-\\nization as directors or fathers of a family in hospitals and charitable\\nestablishments as overseers of infirmaries in the hospitals as agents\\nof provident and benevolent societies; or as foreign or home missiona-\\nries. The applications for brothers lo fill these and kindred employ-\\nments increase yearly, so that the director is compelled to extend the\\nnormal institute designed for their preparation.\\nThe reformatory schools of France, established since 1840, are not\\nonly penal but preventive in their design and discipline. They receive,\\n1. Young persons of both sexes under twenty years of age. who have\\nbeen condemned tor some crime 2. Young persons, who have been\\nacquitted of criminal charges because they acted without discernment;\\n3. Orphans and young persons, who are abandoned by their parents, or\\nwhom parental example is educating for mendacity and crime; 4.\\nChildren, who are without employment, and in a bad way, or on the\\nslippery verge of open vice and crime.\\nThe 66th and 67th articles of the penal code of France, sweeps society\\nof all the above classes of young persons, by authorizing the courts and\\nmagistrates to send them to a house of correction. Unfortunately this\\nclass of penal institutions had no independent existence prior to 1837,\\nand the young criminals or suspected persons were mingled with those\\nof greater age, and deeper depravity in the common prisons. The first\\nstep in the right direction was to remove them to a separate quarter\\nof the prison, and then to apprentice out such as showed signs of re-\\nformation and amendment. These steps were found altogether in-\\neffectual in reforming the morals, or inducing better habits in any con-\\nsiderable number of this class of persons; and two gentlemen, M.\\nDemetz and the Viscount de Bretigneres de Courteilles, both of them\\nhighly educated, and occupying positions of power and influence, the\\nformer at Paris and the latter as member of a departmental council,\\nbecame deeply interested in devising some plan for supplying a happy\\nhome and the influence of domestic relations and occupations, for the\\ndestitute, the vagrant, and criminal children of their native country.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0494.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 493\\nBoth had visited the reform school at Horn, near Hamburgh, and M.\\nDemetz had become particularly interested in the houses of refuge at\\nPhiladelphia and New York for juvenile delinquents. He was asso-\\nciated with M. Blout in 1837, in a second governmental commission to\\ninvestigate particularly the moral influence of the prison discipline and\\nprison architecture adopted in this country. Their report is a proper\\nsequel to that of Beaumont and De Tocqueville in 1830. M. Demetz\\ndirected his efforts especially to effecting a complete and wide separa-\\ntion, and distinct treatment of vagrant and even convicted youths from\\nadult criminals. Society is answerable for its neglect of these young\\npersons. They are abandoned to misery, and, therefore, to mischief\\nSociety owes it to herself and to them, rather to prevent, than to punish\\ntheir crimes. Let these juvenile delinquents be instructed in the doc-\\ntrines and motives of the Christian religion. Teach their young hearts\\nthe exceeding sinfulness of sin. Show them the woe which awaits the\\nwicked, and the infinite blessedness which will finally encircle the just.\\nDispel the ignorance, which darkens their intelligence. Bring them up\\nin habits of industry, order, and economy. Try to overcome those\\nvicious propensities, which will soon expand into full-grown crimes. Of\\nthe men who end their lives on the gibbet, experience shows that most\\nhave been depraved in childhood. No friend has checked the growth\\nof their licentious passions. They have been precocious in badness,\\nand unreproved.\\nOn this noble mission M. Demetz and Viscount de Courteilles en-\\ntered, to make a demonstration to the government and benevolent men\\nof France, of a practicable scheme of rescuing unfortunate, vagabond,\\nand depraved boys from desiruciion, and give them the power of ob-\\ntaining an honest living. Their plan involved extensive grounds and\\nbuildings, which should not present the aspect of prison-yards and\\nwalls, but the facilities of education and occupation, and the exercise\\nof the charities of a paternal home. It was to be an agricultural and\\neducational colony. For this purpose they selected an estate a few\\nmiles from Tours, within marketable reach of several large towns,\\nhealthy and fertile, not highly improved, but capable of profitable culti-\\nvation, and devoid of old and large buildings erected for other purposes.\\nThe buildings were erected gradually, as the number of inmates\\nincreased, although the plan of the whole establishment was projected\\nat the outset. It consisted in a series of houses, each of a peculiar\\nconstruction, and each adapted to a family of forty persons. Each\\nfamily has its yard, fruit trees, and kitchen-garden. The whole is not\\ninclosed by brick walls, or high palisades, but by low, green hedges,\\nover which any person could climb, and through which a boy, so dis-\\nposed, could easily creep without drawing attention. The real confine-\\nment to the spot is found in the encircling and attractive charities of\\nthe domestic life, and occupations of the institution.\\nAs soon as the estate had been secured, and the household plan of\\narrangement, instruction, and discipline determined on, the projectors", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0495.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "49^ REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\nendeavored to find, or train, intelligent and devoted teachers and assist-\\nants, who should understand thoroughly the details of the moral and\\nindustrial education which alone presents any prospect of reforming a\\njuvenile criminal, and who, possessing that personal piety, which has its\\nmotives in the principles of Christianity, can live, according to a rule of\\nmonastic strictness, and yet exercise the habits and afi ections of a free\\ndomestic life, while subjecting themselves to the shnplicity and rough-\\nness of country employment, can exhibit the courtesies which are gen-\\nerally associated with city manners, and while voluntarily adopting the dis-\\ncipline of a camp or prison, be neither jailors nor drill sergeants. The\\nraising up of such a class of foremen and teachers, for this and similar\\ninstitutions, is one of the most valuable services rendered by the pro-\\njectors of the agricultural colony of Mettray. The department of the\\ncolony for training these teachers is called the preparatory school of\\nforemen.\\nThe colonists are brought to the institution, not in prison Avagons,\\nwith guards and in chains, but by the directors themselves, who em-\\nploy the favorable opportunities of the jotirney to cultivate an intimate\\nacquaintance with the past history and disposition of the youths. They\\nare encouraged to converse freely with each other, and the new con-\\nductors, and every exhibition of truthfulness or falsehood, of vivacity or\\ndullness, o f sobriety or intemperance, of aptitude or aversion to partic-\\nular employments, is made the data for their right classification as to\\nassociates and occupation.\\nOn their arrival they are placed in the family best adapted to the\\ncharacteristics of each their deficiencies in manners and character,\\nand the facilities for cultivating better habits of life. They are made\\ncleanly in person and dress they are informed as to the rules of the\\nestablishment the chaplain addresses them solemnly on the new life to\\nwhich they are called, the advantages they will enjoy, and the practical\\nresults which that life is calculated to subserve. They are gradually\\ntaught the rights of private property and the love of the domestic\\nhearth, and become familiarized with the sentiments and the duties\\nwhich that sacred idea implies and to which most of the inmates of the\\ninstitution were strangers on their arrival. While they are taught the\\noccupations of the farm and garden, those who have an aptitude for\\nhandicraft are taught such trades as are wanted by country people, so\\nthat they can find occupation as wheelwright, harness-maker, shoemaker,\\nblacksmith, in a village, away from the great cities those seats of cor-\\nruption, want, and vice.\\nMuch attention is paid to cultivating the taste and the habit, of inno-\\ncent and rational amusement as the great safeguard of the young.\\nThe principle of all the amusements is to attach them to their own\\nhomes, and to make them in some way useful, either as teaching and\\nenabling them to do good to others, or as developing and exercising\\ntheir own bodily and mental powers. They are taught, therefore, to\\nuse the fire-engine, to swim, to save persons from drowning and to use", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0496.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 495\\nthe remedies to recover them, to cHmb a mast, to handle the sails and\\nrigging of a ship, c., and in wet weather they are allowed the use of a\\nlending library, and to play at chess, and more simple games. On spe-\\ncial occasions there are concerts and social sports.\\nThe spirit of mutual help and self-government is cultivated. The\\noccupants of each family are allowed to choose by election two of the\\ncolonists, (called freres aines, or elder brothers.) whose authority lasts a\\nmonth, and the directors judge of the condition and disposition of the\\nhouse by the parties thus selected. These, with the Sisters of Charity,\\nwhom one of the visitors to the institution designates as angels whom\\nHeaven has given to the earth, and whom the earth gives to Heaven\\nform the domestic staff of each family.\\nThe colonists are also allowed to act as a jury, fining the punish-\\nments on their companions and themselves, subject to the reversal or\\nmitigation of the directors. The effect, on the whole, has been salutary.\\nIn one of the houses a boy was forced by his companion to return a\\nbook he had received as a reward, because he subsequently miscon-\\nducted himself In another they demanded the expulsion of a colonist,\\nwho had degraded the family to which he belonged. When a portion\\nof the poorer districts of Lyons was visited by the disasters of a flood,\\nthe boys voluntary gave one of their meals to the sufferers, and one\\nof them who refused was compelled by the rest to eat his portion alone\\nat the end of the table. On one occasion, a visitor desired the boys\\nof a family to point out the three best; all eyes were turned immedi-\\nately toward the three most worthy. Tell me now, who is the worst?\\nEvery eye was lowered, and a single boy advanced from the rest and\\nsaid in a whisper, Mister, it is me.\\nThe chief reward is to be enrolled in the table of honor, which any\\none who has remained three months without punishment is entitled to.\\nMore than half of the boys are, on an average, at any one time, inscribed\\non this table, and some even for four and six times, who therefore have\\nfallen under no punishment for eighteen months.\\nOf the 1,184 children received at Mettray from its foundation to the\\n1st of January, 1850, 717 were completely ignorant; 270 had com-\\nmenced reading; 143 knew how to read; 54 only knew how to write.\\nThe greater number who have left, have been taught to read, write, and\\ncypher. Of 528 who were placed out in various situations, only 46 are\\nknown to have relapsed into crime; of these, 33 were children from\\ntowns, 19 being from Paris.\\nTo meet the great difficulty of obtaining proper moral agency for the\\nmanagement of the young by adding the motives of religion, an order\\nof the agricultural brothers of St. Vincent de Paul has been instituted\\nby M. Bazin, who, so early as 1828, founded the agricultural colony of\\nMesnil-St.-Firmin, in the depai tuient of Oise, for rearing orphan children\\nin agricultural labor. This religious corporation, composed entirely of\\nlaymen, has for its object to supply directors or assistants to agricultural", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0497.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "496 REPORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\ncolonies of pauper children, and especially of foundlings. Above all, as\\nbeing laborers, the agricultural brothers have no uniform but that of\\nlabor; and if they are distinguished from other agriculturists, it is by\\ntheir self-denial, their devotion to the common cause, and by that hope\\nof a divine reward which doubles their powers. The brothers are\\nplaced in every respect on the same footing with the boys under their\\ncharge. They take their meals with them, and have only the same\\naccommodation for rest.\\nThere is an institution at Paris of the same general character, called\\nthe society of St. Nicholas, founded on a small scale in 1827, but which,\\nsince 1846, has contained above 900 children, of very mixed origin,\\nvariously collected by charitable societies and generous patrons, and\\nmany of them only by the number assigned to each. The payments\\nare 20 francs per month for orphans, and 25 francs for other children;\\nand for this small sum the establishment provides maintenance, instruc-\\ntion, and apprenticeship to a trade. Seventy persons in charge live in\\nthe establishment, who, with twenty-five master-workmen, living out\\nof the house, make an average of one employee to every seven or eight\\nchildren, a proportion wliich insures a vigilant surveillance day and\\nnight. The teachers, called freres, are all laymen; but they extend\\ntheir care not merely to the instruction, but also to the education of the\\nchildren, and to make them honest, industrious, and able workmen. The\\nremarkable peculiarity of this school is the organization of its industry\\nin workshops, which are hired, together with the apprenticed services\\nof the children, by master-workmen of approved character in various\\ntrades, such as watch-makers, jewelers, engravers, and all the multifari-\\nous occupations, half arts, half trades, which supply the numerous arti-\\ncles of refinement specially produced at Paris; besides the ordinary\\ntrades of baker, shoemaker, tailor, and so forth. The children do not go\\nto these workshops except on the express requirement of their parents,\\nand those employed give, on the average, eight hours and a half daily\\nto work, and two to instruction in classes. The apprenticeship is for\\ntwo, three, or four years, according to the profession; and, after its\\nclose, the young people may remain in the establishment, pursuing their\\nwork, and depositing what they earn, beyond the cost of their suste-\\nnance, in the savings-bank. The employers find materials, tools, and\\nskill, and take the profits of the trade, undertaking to treat the children\\nwell, as kind and faithful masters.\\nIn Belgium, the government has undertaken the work of rescuing the\\ndestitute and delinquent children from their evil ways, and converting\\nthem into moral and productive laborers and valuable citizens. Be-\\nfore embarking in the enterprise, M. Ducpetiaux, inspector general of\\nprisons and institutions of public charity in the kingdom, was commis-\\nsioned to visit the different states of Europe, and gather their experience\\nin this class of institutions for guidance in the organization of a great\\nreformatory school at Ruysselede. There is a practical question yet", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0498.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 497\\nundecided, at least to the satisfaction of all those who are engaged in\\nthis work, whether preference should be given to large, or small agri-\\ncultural colonies. The Belgian view is, that suffirient effect can be\\nproduced only by an establisiiment large enough to permit every form\\nof experiment in the organization of a series of various works, graduated\\naccording to the capabilities and future objects of the colonists. Such\\nis the design of the reformatory schools at Ruysselede and when this\\ninstitution is. in full operation, it will remain to be decided, whether it\\nis requisite to erect otiier similar establishments on the same scale,\\nor to form branch establishments in communication with the parent\\ninstitution.\\nIn England there are three kinds of preventive and reformatory in-\\nstitutions. 1. Union or district schools for pauper children, connected\\nwith the union workhouse. 2. Ragged or industrial schools, for neg-\\nlected and vagrant children in large cities. 3. Reform schools for\\njuvenile criminals.\\nOn the 9th and 10th of December, 1851, a Conference on Preventive\\nand Reformatory Schools; was held at Birmingham, at which several\\nof the most active promoters of this class of schools attended and com-\\npared the results of their observations and experience, with a view\\nof deciding on the proper course of action to be adopted by the legisla-\\nture and individuals, to reach and reform the perishing and dangerous\\nclasses of children and juvenile offenders in England. The following\\nseem to be the results arrived at, as set forth in the report of the\\nproceedings:\\nThe children whose condition requires the notice of the conference, are\\n1. Those who have not yet subjected themselves to the grasp of the law, but\\nwho, by reason of the vice, neglect, or extreme poverty of their parents, are inad-\\nmissible to the existing school establishments, and consequently must grow up\\nwithout any education almost inevitably forming part of the perishing and dan-\\ngerous classes, and ultimately becoming criminal.\\n2. Those who are already subjecting themselves to police interference, by\\nvagrancy, mendicancy, or petty infi ingenient of the law.\\n3. Those who have been convicted of felony, or such misdemeanor as involves\\ndishonesty.\\nThe provisions to be made for these three classes, are\\nFor the fiist, free day schools.\\nFor the second, industrial feeding schools, with compulsory attendance.\\nFor the third, penal reformatory schools.\\nThe legislative enactments needed to bring such schools into operation, are\\nFor the free day schools, such extension of the present governmental grants,\\nfrom the committee of council on education, as may secure their maintenance in\\nan effective condition, they being by their nature at present excluded from aid,\\nyet requiring it in a far higher degi ee than those on whom it is conferred.\\nFor the industrial feeding schools, authority to magistrates to enforce attend-\\nance at such schools, on children of the second class, and to require payment to\\nthe supporters of the school for each child from the parish in which the child\\nresides, with a power to the parish officer to obtain the outlay from the parent,\\nexcept in cases of inability.\\nFor the penal reformatory schools, authority to magistrates and judges to com-\\nmit juvenile offenders to such schools instead of to prison, with power of detention\\nto the governor during the appointed period, the charge of mamtenance being\\nenforced as above.\\n32", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0499.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "498 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\nWe make some extracts from the remarks of the different speakers^\\nfor the sake of the facts and suggestions which they contain.\\nThe Chairman, M. D. Hill, Esq., Recorder of Birmingham, thus com-\\nments on the propositions before the conference:\\nThe perishing and dangerous classes of society consist of a numerous and in-\\ncreasing body of young persons, who are being trained in a way they should not\\ngo by some they are called the Arabs of the streets by others the outcasts\\nof society by others again, human vermin. However designated, the terms\\nemployed make it manifest that they are sometimes objects of fear, sometimes\\nof aversion, often of pity that they are not of society, but somehow for its mis-\\nfortunes interwoven with it. It is this class which forms the head -spring of that\\never-flowing river of crime, which spreads its corrupt and corrupting waters\\nthrough the land. It can not be dried up. It has never yet been puriHed. Nor,\\nindeed, have any well-directed efforts, at all commensurate with the magnitude\\nof the evil, ever been instituted. It therefore, becomes of the very deepest im-\\nportance, not only with regard to the temporal and eternal happiness of that par-\\nticular class, but for the safety of all, old and young, high and low, rich and poor,\\nthat the state of neglect and mistaken treatment in which these miserable beings\\nare found, should cease to exist. The classes in question are divided\\ninto two great and important branches those who are living in ignorance, vice,\\nor neglect, but who have not come under the animadversion of the law, and have\\nnot yet received any sentence from its ministers. These form the unconvicted\\nbranch. The other branch is composed of those who, for whatever offense, and\\nbefore whatever tribunal, have come under the grasp of the law.\\nBy respectable classes of society, I take not into consideration, when I employ\\nthe term, whether the individual is rich or poor. I call that man a respectable\\nfather, whatever may be his station, who is imbued with a right sense of respon-\\nsibility to God and his children who cares incessantly for their welfare and\\nwho, while before all things he values a religious and moral training, yet also\\ndesires instruction for them in such branches of knowledge as will enable them to\\nfight their way through the competition which besets every path in life. But the\\nclass we have in view is deeply below this. The poor but respectable man who\\ndischarges his duty to the best of his ability, is far above the negligent parent,\\nand infinitely above the perverting pai ent, who wilfully abuses his charge. The\\ndifference between the highest in the realm and the lowest is measurable but\\nthe difference between the respectable father and the man who cori-upts his child\\nie immeasurable, and consequently infinite. Now, the fact is, that these two\\nclasses can not be brought into connection in schools. It is a curious circum-\\nstance that the objection does not come so much from the higher class as from\\nthe lower. The children of that lower class will not place tlieinselves in a posi-\\ntion to be looked down upon, as they call it. Their love of education and train-\\ning is not strong enough to overcome this objection and you can not persuade\\nthem to enter the national schools. But if you could it would still be far from\\nexpedient to exert such an influence, because these poor creatures possess great\\npowers for mischief. Thrown upon their own resources they have learnt self-\\nreliance they despise all restraint, both for themselves and others and they\\nwould become the most dangerous leaders into evil courses, and the most fatal\\nseducers of the better trained children, who, brought up under the eye of their\\nparents, have not at their early age the power of self-government to resist the\\nseduction. But there is an advantage to the better class in making distinct schools\\nfor this lower branch. Take these children away from the streets let them no\\nlonger infest the path of the good man s child, and you destroy the danger which,\\nI can tell those who are unacquainted with their humbler neighbors, weighs\\nheavily on the minds of parents in the respectable class, keeps them in fear and\\ntrembling, lest their children should be corrupted by evil companions. Again,\\nthere is another advantage arising from these separate schools. We find that\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2whenever a means is given to a lower class by which it is raised in the social\\nscale, a stimulus is applied indirectly, but with great force, to the classes above it.\\nNow, let me go to the second branch, which is composed of two classes. The\\nfirst consists of those who have been convicted of some petty offense, that does\\nnot necessarily imply the loss of honesty. With this class we shall interfere to", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0500.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\n499\\nsome extent but we shall not dethrone the parent altogether. For this it is\\nproposed that schools shall be established called fe ;ding schools. And here steps\\nin the principle of coercion, which it behooves you and the public, and through\\nyou and the public, the legislature, maturely to consider. Where, either through\\nneglect or perversion, the parental tutelage has been abused, or through misfortune\\nit has failed as where the father has done his best, but the child s nature resists\\nhis authority we hold it to be the duty of society to step in and prevent the child\\nfalling into ruin. But we do not go beyond what is absolutely necessary. Wa\\nfurnish the child with food so that he may be able to attend the school and we\\ncompel his attendance by some punishment if he does not come not so much to\\noperate upon the child as upon the parent, who not unfrequently keeps the child\\nfrom school to employ him for his own purposes, sometimes to beg, and sometimes\\nto steal. I forbear to state what kind of education is to be given in these schools,\\nbeyond saying that literary and scientitic knowledge will be secondary if not ter-\\ntiary. Our object is not to make learned thieves, but plain, honest men. We\\nwill sedulously keep in view that labor is, by the ordination of Providence, the\\ngreat reformer and thus is the primal curse wrought into a blessing beyond\\nprice.\\nI pass then to the second division of the second branch, which may be termed\\na third class. There the child has been convicted of an act of dishonesty. And\\nI dwell on that oftense, not more because of its gravity, morally considered, than\\nbecause it leads to the conclusion that the child has entered on crime as a calling.\\nSo long as offenses are clear of dishonesty, as in cases of assault, and so forth, so\\nlong no criminal can make them the means of livelihood but an offender onoe\\nembarked in the practice of dishonesty will never be reclaimed, except by a long\\ncourse of reformatory discipline. His daily wants compel him to repeat his\\noffenses until not only his conscience has become indifferent to guilt, but his\\nmoral sense is gradually inverted. He prides himself on his zeal and dexterity,\\nand if, as in the case of younger criminals, he assists in the maintenance of his\\nparents and the family of which he is a member, he soon persuades himself that\\nhis pursuits are not merely blameless but laudable. Now, then, in my mind\\nand I here, as elsewhere, speak the sentiments of those I represent\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the parent\\nhas abandoned his authority, and abdication must be followed by revolution. The\\nchild must be taken under the protection of the public he must be sent to the\\nreformatory schools not, however, for two or three months only he must be\\ntreated as if he had^ what he most assuredly has a dreadful disease upon him\\nand he must be kept under treatment until cured. The parental authority is\\ngone the boy leaves the home to which he owes nothing but his existence, which\\nhas become a curse and v^ ill be retained in the school according to the sentence\\nof the judge or the magistrates by whom he was sent. Now, it would not be\\nwise for us to attempt such a violent change, as to call on the authorities so to\\nframe the sentence in its form as to authorize the conductors of the school to\\ndetain the child until he is cured but when it is felt by the public that the boy\\nis subjected to a treatment which confers an inestimable benefit on him, both as\\nto this life and that to come, then the term of sentence may be, without any\\nshock to public feeling, extended to such a period as will give reasonable expecta-\\ntion that it will be long enough to effect a thorough reformation. And now is the\\ntime to enter on the great question Is it possible to reform these offenders I\\nknow it is the belief of raany-^entertained in private, but not openly avowed\\nthat to aim at reforming thieves is to attempt impossibilities. I know a shrewd\\ngentleman, who said he would walk a hundred miles to see a reformed thief. I\\nthink I could cure him of scepticism, and furnish him, at the same time, with\\nmany wholesome excursions. I will not go far into the question myself I will\\nleave it mainly to gentlemen present, who have personal knowledge on the sub--\\nject who come here to-day as witnesses, and are ready to depose to most import\\ntaut facts. But I must not altogether pass by this vital part of our case. We\\nhave an asylum in this county, at Stretton-on-Dunsmore, which was establislied\\nin 1818, by the benevolent magistrates of Warwickshire. It has, therefore, been\\nin existence a sufficient time to enable us to speak with the confidence arising\\nfrom long experience. At ^rst, while the experiment was new, and the managers\\nfound nothing around them from which to derive instruction, the number re-\\nformed was only 48 per cent. But you must recollect that Stretton-on-Duns-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0501.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "500\\nREFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\nmore is not a prison, nor a prison disguised. There are no physical means\\nof keeping a convict at the place; and, until lately, there were no legal means\\nto bring him back if he chose to depait and even now the legal means are not\\nso easily worked as could be desired, as some of us well know. We find, there-\\nfore, that the failures are generally composed of those boys who can not be in-\\nduced to stay until they have felt and become convinced that advantage will\\naccrue to them from remaining oonsequently the boys deserting are in general\\nthe new comers. The real benevolence of his treatment becomes manifest to the\\nlad if he remain long enough (and no long period is required,) to distinguish\\nbetween kindness and indulgence. He also makes another discovery equally\\nessential to his contentment with his position. lie finds that the proiessions\\nof good-will towards him, and the strong desire to confer lasting benefits upon\\nhim, which he hears from those under whose care he is placed, are sincere. For\\nthe first time in his life, perhaps, he finds that he may safely put confidence in\\nthose around him, and then, but not till then, does he slowly, but surely, open his\\nheart to wholesome feelings of reverence and aftection. And thus alone can the\\nsoil be prepared for the good seed. He remains, then, among a race of beings\\nin whose existence he had previously no more belief than we have in that of\\nfairies and good genii he remains, and is reformed. I have said, itiat at first\\nthe reforms at Stretton were 48 per cent., or in other words, that where 48 were\\nreformed, 52 turned out ill. That proportion has, however, been gradually\\nraised, and the last time I made inquiries on the subject, the reforms had reached\\n65 per cent. I am afraid, however, that the financial position of the institution\\nreflects discredit on the county of Warwick, and especially on the town of Bir-\\nmingham, which, I grieve to say, has added more to the inmates and less to the\\nfunds of the asylum than any other district. There is another institution of\\nwhich I have some knowledge. In the year 1848 I made my way to Mettiay,\\nnear Tours, in France. I was received with the utmost kindness, and admitted\\ninto the fullest confidence by M. Demetz, the illustrious founder of the institu-\\ntion a judge who descended from the bench because he could not endure the\\npain of consigning children to a prison when he knew that their future would\\nbe made worse than their past. I examined or rather cross-examined, each de-\\npartment of the institution, with all that unamiable incredulity which thirty years\\npractice at the bar may be supposed to have generated I began with a sort of\\nprejudice a determined suspicion fighting my way backward, step by step,\\nuntil, as proofs advanced, the conclusion was forced upon me that my position\\nwas untenable. I found that at Mettray, where they possess and exercise the\\npower of compulsory retention, and where, for desertion, a boy is sent back to the\\nprison from which he had been withdrawn the amount of reformation reached to\\nwhat I at first thought the incredible proportion (but which I fully verified) of 85\\nper cent.\\nWell, if these two statements obtain your confidence in their accuracy, there\\nifi an end of the question but you shall hear the witnesses to whom I have ap-\\npealed, who, under different circumstances, and in other places, have been per-\\nsonal cognizant of facts, the relation of which will induce you, perhaps all the\\nmore readily, to put faith in those which I have laid before you. If then we take\\nthe question of the possibility of reformation as settled, at least for the present, let\\nme touch for an instant on the subject of cost; for, although in public few will\\nidententify themselves with an objection founded on expense alone, yet in private\\nthe word cost is pretty frequently heard. Let us see what is our position. We\\nhave doubtless the power of postponing our duty to the body of children to which\\nI have referred and it must be confessed that we exercise this noxious privilege\\npretty freely. We have the power of letting them grow up in ignorance, vice,\\nand crime of neglecting the plant when young and tender and of toiling to\\nmake it straight when old and stiff. But in this, as in all other debts, we pay\\nmost usurious interest for our procrastination. Let us now see what the expense\\nis of reforming a boy at Stretton-on-Dunsmore. In order fairly to ascertain that\\nexpense, you must not only take the cost of the reclaimed, but of those also who\\nare failures. Just as the carpenter, when he buys his timber, pays an equal\\nprice for that portion which he cuts away into useless chips as for that which\\nremains in his finished work so that the cost of his roof or his floor is not to be\\ncalculated simply by the quantity of wood therein found, but by the whole quan-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0502.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\n501\\ntity required in its fabrication. The cost of reforming a boy, then, under these\\ncircumstances, is from \u00c2\u00a312 to \u00c2\u00a316 a year. Or, having regard to the whole\\naverage time demanded for a cure, about \u00c2\u00a331. Now, bi t ore i contrast tliis cost\\nwith that of dealing with a criminal in later life, let me call attention to Mettray.\\nThe accounts of that admirable establishment are kept on a very perfect system,\\nand with great minuteness in such perfection that some of our merchants might\\nstudy book-keeping with advantage in the counting-house of Mettray. Well, the\\ngross cost of a boy at Mettray is \u00c2\u00a320 a year int then you must know that at\\nMettray not only the cost of those not reformed is added, but the cost of a most\\nvaluable department of the institution, namely, that of a house of refuge, where\\nthose who have gone out into the world, if employment fail them, or if they shall\\nbe placed in circumstances in which they require the care of a friendly hand,\\nmay ever find a welcome and a home. Taking, therefore, the reformed, the un-\\nreformed, and the guests, the gross cost is \u00c2\u00a320 per annum but by the produc-\\ntive labor of the boys the cost is reduced to \u00c2\u00a312, the average labor of each boy\\namounting to \u00c2\u00a38 a year. The total cost of each reformation at Mettray is, as I\\nhave before stated, \u00c2\u00a342 greatly above that of Stretton, no doubt but then it is\\nto be considered that the reformations at JMettray are 20 per cent, more numer-\\nous than at Stretton, and a little reflection will convince every one who hears me\\nthat the additional 20 per cent, implies the existence of a more powerful, and\\nconsequently more expensive, reformatory apparatus at Mettray than at Stretton.\\nThe secret lies in the employment of a far greater number of teachers and super-\\nintendents at Mettray in proportion to the number of the lads but I can answer\\nfor it that the enlightened and benevolent conductors of Stretton would, if their\\nfunds permitted, gladly pay the additional cost to obtain the additional success.\\nWe will now contrast the cost of a vigilant reformatory administration, taking\\nhold of its subject in his earliest years, with that of our established system, or\\nwant of system, by whichever tei m it maj be most appropriately designated.\\nHere the lad is left to rove abroad with very short intervals of restraint, living\\neither on misplaced and most pernicious charity, (so called,) or by depredation;\\nbut will any one, having the slightest tincture of knowledge respecting such lads,\\nfor a moment atfirm that although the cost of their subsistence and evil training\\nfinds its way into no account, and therefore does not appear in our statistical\\ntables, it is, in truth, of so small an amount as \u00c2\u00a312 or \u00c2\u00a316 a year? I know\\nthere is a prevalent fallacy that a cost which does not come out of rates or taxes,\\nor some public fund, is no cost at all. Why, when the thief comes into my\\nhouse as he did some time ago and afterwards being found in the garden, was\\nangrily thrust forth into the highway by the gardener, who did not know that the\\nintruder had \u00c2\u00a3lO s worth of silver plate in his pocket to console him for the in-\\ndignity why, when that \u00c2\u00a310 was gone, was I the less a sufferer because it nei-\\nther went in rates nor in taxes? Again, if a thief is under the control of the\\nlaw, you put him on very spare diet his beer is gone his tobacco all are gone.\\nHe is ruthlessly bereft of all his luxuries; and no creature on earth revels so\\nwastefuUy in coarse luxury as your thief Such is the burden which the thief at\\nlarge casts on the community and though we have no means of calculating its\\nexact weight, we can not fail to see that, as between the thief in freedom and the\\nthief in custody, the prison must be under prodigal management indeed if he is\\nnot less costly to the public when his rations are doled out by the gaoler than\\nwhen he is roaming at liberty and helping himself Nevertheless, his treatment\\nunder the hands of the law is, according to our present system,, a very costly im-\\npost. Of his tendencies in childhood or early youth, which lead by a sure con-\\nsequence to crime, we take little note. He wanders about the streets without\\ncontrol, he forms habits of idleness, he learns to gamble, he is precocious in de-\\nbauchery, and we let him alone. At length his acts become cognizable by law\\nbut unless he is singularly unfortunate, his career of impunity is not yet run. In\\nthe course of time, however, it comes to an end, and he appeai-s before the mag-\\nistrate for what is called his first offense, meaning thereby his fh-st detection. A\\nshort imprisopment ensues, just long enough to dissipate any unfounded horror\\nwhich he may have entertained of a jail, to blazon his name on the criminal roll,\\nto make him acquainted with the body of which he is now a full member, and to\\nturn his mind to the advantage of exercising his profession in such a manner as\\nto edpape as much as possible the taasualties inoidenl to his way of life. On every", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0503.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "502 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\ncommittal he is told to take warning, and he does take it, though not precisely in\\nthe sense in which it is given. He receives it as a warning, not against crime,\\nbut against detection, and acts accordingly. Nevertheless, in spite of all his care,\\nhe falls from time to time under the animadversion of the law. Now, I am put-\\nting aside all higher considerations, and pinning myself down to pounds, shillings,\\nand pence. Fix your attention, I beseech you, on the necessary cost of this pro-\\ncess. Ordinary individuals reqiiire only the care of a physician when the body\\nis ailing, and of a clergyman lis? their spiritual maladies but your malefactor\\ndemands the constant care of a suite of attendants belonging to neither of these\\nprofessions. He is apprehended by one or more of the police, who, having sacri-\\nficed much time and labor to obtain a satisfactory introduction to him, attend him\\nto his new home with the most watchful care. His apartment in this home, or,\\nas it is more commonly termed, his cell in the prison, is by far the most expensive\\ndwelling which he ever entered, except in the pursuit of plunder, and the num-\\nber and salaries of those who minister to his wants form an item of cost to which\\nhis private life has no parallel. When the proper hour arrives, he is handed\\ninto his carriage, and set down at the stipendiary magistrates s. And\\nnot only is the time of the magistrate employed in his affairs, but the aid of law-\\nyers is called in ^a class of men who have never been open to the reproach of\\nundervaluing their services. Now, to all the expenses of a prosecution, which\\nare paid for out of the public funds, such as the salaries of judges and recorders,\\ncounsel and attorneys, and the various officers of the court, and gratuities to wit-\\nnesses, you must add the value of the time occupied by grand juries and petty\\njuries in their public duties, avoiding, as you must do, if you desire to arrive at\\njust results, the error to which 1 have before adverted, of assuming that when an\\nexpense is borne by individuals, and is not drawn from the public funds, it may\\nbe left altogether out of estimation. At length, after the drama of apprehension,\\ntrial, conviction, warning, and short imprisonment has been repeated, until it has\\nlost all its interest either to actor or audience, the criminal arrives at the vltimum\\nsupplicium transportation, a most expensive process, as I will proceed to show.\\nA petition was presented to parliament by the magistrates of Liverpool, in the\\nsession of 1846. This petition set forth the cases of fourteen young offenders,\\nimpartially chosen, by which it appeared that the.se fourteen persons had been\\nfrequently committed to prison, none less than eight, one as many as twenty-three\\ntimes. The cost of each of these fourteen youths, in apprehensions, trials, and\\nimprisonments, was, on the average, \u00c2\u00a363, 8s. Not one of them was reformed,\\nten of them were transported, the cost of which, and their support in penal colo-\\nnies, must be added. The cost of transportation in each case would be \u00c2\u00a328.\\nThat of control and residence in the colony, \u00c2\u00a354, at the least. So that each of\\nthe ten, who were transported, have cost the country, in those expenses which\\nare chargeable on the public fund applicable to that purpose, a sum amounting to\\n\u00c2\u00a3145, 8s. Such is the cost of a hardened offender, more than three times that\\nof a reformed thief at Mettray, and almost five times as much as at Stretton-on-\\nDunsmore. And so great is even the pecuniary advantage of conversion over\\nperversion. Surely here is matter for deep and humiliating reflection\\nRev. W. C. Osborn, Chaplain of Bath Jail:\\nWhen I became chaplain of the Bath jail in July, 1843, I determined to keep\\na most accurate account of all the children who might come under my care.\\nDuring the first year there were about ninety-eight children sent to jail, of which\\nnumber no less than fifty-five were first committals. During the following years\\nI kept a strict account of these children, and the result has been of the most dis-\\nheartening character. I can show you in detail the number of committals of each\\nof those childi en during the six subsequent years, or even up to this time and\\nyou will be surprised to be informed that within six years these children appeared\\nin our jail no less than 216 times. I ventured to lay before a committee of the\\nHouse of Commons a statement of the expense of these children. I will not\\ntrouble you with the details but I may tell you that the result of the calculation\\nwas this, that having been in our jail for an aggregate period of twenty-seven\\nand a-half years, having been committed 216 times, we find that in the six years\\nsubsequent to their first committals their cost to the public by imprisonment, pros-\\necutions, plunder and destruction of property, by their maintenance in unions,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0504.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES.\\n503\\n(making a fair allowance for their supposed occasional and temporary periods of\\nhonest industry) can not be estimated at a sum much less than \u00c2\u00a36,063. They\\nhave consequently been living most expensively upon the country. In fact, they\\nhave cost us a sum of money that would have kept them at a board ino -school\\nfor the whole of the time. Aye and having lost all this money, in what position\\nare they at the expiration of the six years Fifteen of them have been trans-\\nported, live have died, five of them are living we know not how or where but\\nthere are about thirty of them in a condition which must, sooner or later, issue in\\ntheir being sent to one of our penal colonies. The children committed for the\\nfirst time in the year ending July, 1844, (pursuing the same mode of calculation,)\\nhave in five years cost about \u00c2\u00a34,000 and those committed for the first time in\\n1845, have already cost about \u00c2\u00a32,000. Now, in the returns laid before Parlia-\\nment, on the motion of Mr. Monckton Milnes, j\\\\I. P., it appears that there were\\nin 1848 and 1849, throughout the country, no less than 7,000 first committals\\nof persons under seventeen years of age. But I will take them at 5,000, and\\nassuming that Jiath presents a fair average of cost, the amount lost to the country,\\nor expended on those children alone, who are committed for the first time, is\\nhalf a million per annum. That is a startling assertion certainly but it is fully\\nborne out by the statement as to the cost of juvenile crime, made by Mr. Serjeant\\nAdams, Mr. Rushton, and other witnesses examined by the select committees of\\nthe two Houses of Parliament. In the position in which I am placed, I have\\nopportunities of knowing the condition of these children and although the sys-\\ntem adopted at Bath is, I believe, as good as, if not better than, that adopted\\nelsewhere, yet I must say, that our treatment of these poor destitute creatures\\nhas been, and is, most cruel, unjust, and unchristian. Just look for a moment at\\nthese children many so young that they can scarcely reach the top of the bar\\nwith their heads many so little that when in chapel they have to stand on the\\nseats that they may be seen children who are so unconscious of the degradation\\nof being in jail, that they will make the zebra-dress they wear supply them with\\namusement and the mode of punishing them is such as to harden, not to reform\\nand instruct them. I can not help feeling that our conduct towards them is most\\nunjustifiable, and I trust that God will not visit us with his anger for oui treat-\\nment of these poor, ignorant, sinning, yet unconsciously guilty creatures. We\\nhave given them justice justice without mercy ^justice without scales for\\nthere has been no measurement of the cruelty of our treatment of them. It has\\nbeen calculated that there are 700 orphans committed to the prisons of our coun-\\ntry every year that there are 2,000 committed of those who are deprived of one\\nof their parents so that there are nearly 3,000 children every year, who are\\nleft without their natural guardians to guide them in the paths of duty, and instill\\ninto them the practice of virtue, incarcerated in our prisons. Look at the manner\\nin which many of them become criminal. A man, hardened in crime, gathers\\nthese children round him, and makes them his agents he sends them to beg, to\\npick pockets, and teaches them how to do it such instances are known to me.\\nHe takes them to the very shops they are to rob, points out the shoes they are to\\nsteal, the gown-pieces they are to filch and being less e.xpert than the adult,\\nthey are discovered, and thrown into prison. Thus, while the older villain\\nescapes, the child begins his criminal life, which we know too frequently ends in\\nbeing sent out of the country as a transported felon. I might give you many\\ncases of this kind but I forbear. I would, however, refer for a moment to\\nwhipping in prison. It has been determined lately to introduce whipping as an\\nelement of punishment. I do not think it is attended with any good effects. It\\nis no uncommon thing to hear these children say, Oh, sir, whipping will do me\\nno good I know all about that I have had enough of it before. They have\\nbeen cuffed and knocked about their whole life long by drunken and brutal fathers\\nand mothers, so to them it is no new thing and I point to the state of our jails\\nto show that this system of whipping in our prisons is not calculated to reform\\nbut to harden. If we look at some of the crimes they are called crimes of\\nwhich these poor children are guilty, what do we see They run away from the\\nunion workhouse their home, they have no other and what is the penalty\\nThey are sent to jail. Are the children of the middle classes sent to jail when\\nthey run away from home or boarding-school A few mouths ago some orphan\\nchildren ran away from a union workhouse, and went to see the races they were", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0505.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "504 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCnOOLS.\\ncaught, brought back, and sent to prison for taking away the union clothes, which\\nthey hal on them. At the same time the son of a governor of a union lious3 ran\\naway from home for the same purpose. And when he returned was he impri-\\nsoned No I and we do not wish that he should; but vvhy, then, should we\\npunish by imprisonment in a felon s jail the fatherless ch.ld, while his dest tute\\ncondition pleads for mercy and forgiveness at our hands? Their other offenses\\nare acts of vagrancy and petty thefts sleeping in out-houses or under hay-ricks,\\nhaving no better places to lay themselves at night, when driven from their homes,\\nor while wandering over the country. As to their robberies, they are, at least at\\nfirst, of the most trifling kind, to which they are urged by hunger, temptation,\\nand e.xample. I would, before I conclude, refer for a moment to the condition\\nof these children on being discharged from jail. I need not tell many of the gen-\\ntlemen present that they are in a most deplorable state. They are often without\\nfriends, without a home, without one single soul to care for or to think of them.\\nI have said without friends but I say it with this exception, that their only\\nfriends are criminals, men who, standing at the prison door, and who have been\\nwithin those doors, welcome them back to their old haunts of guilt, to pursue\\ntheir evil courses afresh to associate with them in lodging houses and similar\\nplaces to become learned in every thing that is evil, and in every thing that is\\ndestructive to society. No wonder that we have so much to complain of in the\\ndestruction of property, and in the expense of police, when we allow these chil-\\ndren to go so long uncared for. No one will give them honest employment. A\\nperson who was once a prisoner in Bath jail, but who is now a respectable trades-\\nman, wrote to me a few days ago to send him an errand boy. This man was\\nhimself a reformed criminal but what did he say Don t send me a lad who\\nhas been in jail. Does not that speak to every one of us most strongly does\\nit not show how lamentable is the condition of the unfortunate child unfortunate\\nenough to have ever entered the prison walls, which circumstance even pre-\\nvents a reformed criminal giving him employment\\nRev. Sydney Turner, Resident-chaplain of the Philanthropic Society s\\nFarm School at Red Hill, near Reigate, Surrey, pointed out the hin-\\ndrances to the effectual check of juvenile deHnquency, in the want of\\nproper industrial, correctional, and reformatory schools, and to the want\\nof authority in magistrates to compel attendance at such schools.\\nTo illustrate these hindrances, let me refer to the reformatory school with\\nwhich I am connected, and with which I am best acquainted the Ph lanthropic\\nFarm School. The philanthropic society, by which this institution has been esUib-\\nlished, was formed upwards of sixty years ago, being the first association, as far\\nas my inquiries go, for the reformation of criminal and vagrant children in Eng-\\nland. Since its formation, in 1788, the society has had about 3,000 children under\\nits care, out of which number something hke two-thirds appear to have been\\nreclaimed from criminal habits, and permanently improved and benefitted. The\\nsociety used to carry on its operations in London. In 1848-9, however, we fol-\\nlowed the example of Mettray, and removed our school to Red Hill, in the neigh-\\nborhood of Reigate. Now, I may fairly claim for our Red Hill farm school that\\nit has proved three important truths. First, that the reformation of young\\nofF. nlers is a very possible thing, if you seek it by the right means, viz. by k.nJ-\\nn. ss, relig ous influence, and industrial occupation. Religious influence and\\nteach ng will not alone eftect it; you must add the practical illustrations of\\npatience^ gentleness^ and kindness; and even these together wdl not be\\nthoroughly eft -ctive without the help of regular and healthful labor. It has\\nproved, I say, that these agencies are at once indispensable, and tolerably certain\\nto succeed. It has proved also, that with regard to the sort of labor you employ\\nthere is none so useful, as a means of moral discipline, as country labor no re-\\nformif.on, in short, so ef{\u00c2\u00bbct.ve as a free, open, f.\\\\k.m school. The society s\\nsell oI in London did Lttie as compared w.th what has been don,:- since it was tians-\\nferre I to Red Hill, wall and gates dispensed w.th, an 1 the boys subjected to the\\nwholesome in.luence of open ai r, free diseipl.ne, eountiy associations, and i-ounti-y\\nhib ts. The phiiaulhrop c school has prjv.d another th.ng, that the boys lU-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0506.jp2"}, "507": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 595\\nstrueted in it are at no loss to find employment in the colonies. Nearly eighty\\nyoung s.ttlers have gone out I roiii the I aim school, thiity-seven last yeai and\\nthiity-t-.ght th.s year. Tbesie lads^^iave b.. en welcomed k.ndly, and have- iumui\\nrea:ly emp.oyintnt, and their conduct has been such that we have kttcis from\\ngentleman m the colonies, not to protLSt against the send.ng such lads out, but\\nrequesting us to send them some more. Eut in sp.te of all this, what is the feel-\\ning that continually depresses me and my fellow laborers in the woik We feel\\nthat we are carrying on an isolated work that what we do is so little, compared\\nwith whrtt is to be done, that our powers and resources are cramped that we\\nhave no adequate means of detention and restraint, and that we have not suf-\\nficient pteu))iary means to carry out our cffijrts on such a scale as to make them\\neconomical and largely useful. But it may be asked, What sort\\nof detention do you want I might answer, that we want some such system\\nof juvende correction as they have in France, in Belgium, in Switzerland, Hol-\\nland, and I may now add, in Piedmont also. Let us take it as a principle, that a\\nboy under a certain age shall not be treated on the same footing as an adult that\\nh.s age, the neglect or vice of his parents, and the depraving Circumstauees of his\\nchddhood, shall be taken into account. That he shall be considered as a subject\\nfor reformatory training, rather than mere punishment. That he shall, therefore,\\nat some early stage of li:s career, while yet open to better intluences, be placed in\\na position to have the better f-^elings of his heart developed, and to become a vol-\\nuntary agent I say, become a voluntary agent, because while untaught, and\\nwhile ruled by his criminal habits and assoc.ates. he is not a free agent; he is a\\nslave, and we must free him. Let him then be sent to a correctional school a\\nschool provided, let me add, by the govei ninent; for I know of no other way in\\nwh.ch the object can be obtained. But the difficulty arises that such treatment\\nof the young criminal would be, or would at least seem to be, more or less an\\nencouragement to crime. Theoretically it may appear so, but practically this\\nmight bj obviated. First, by separating the child from the parents by the power\\nof dt-teution, and sending it to a correctional school at a considerable distance.\\nSecondly, by requiring the parents to contr bute a certain am(-uut in aid of the\\nsupport of the child while deUi.ned in the school. Let this principle be reeog-\\nn zed as an essential that we can not do without, and its practical execut.on\\nenforced in every ])osSible case; it will be most efiectual answer to the objection\\nto wh.ch 1 have refeired. A thrd condition should be, that the discipline of the\\nschool should be really and efteetually corrective, so as to aftbrd no temptation to\\nthe boy to qual.fy himself for it.\\nRev. John Clay, Chaplain of the County House of Correction at Pres-\\nton, submitted some remarks on the question of compelling parents I0\\npay for or contribute to the cost of training to habits of morality and\\nindustry the children whom they have allowed to become discreditable\\nand dangerous to society.\\nOur juvenile criminals being drawn from a population (North Lancashire)\\namong whom the means of employment are abundant, it will be no matter of sur-\\nprise, though it will be of sorrow, that, in the great majority of instances, the\\nyoung creatuns who have been allowed to run into crime had parents who were\\nwell able to secure for them a su, table training to indut-trious and moral habits.\\nFor some nxniths I have kept, a particular account of the earnings of the families\\nto which our juvenile offenders belong. Tak.ng the last 50 committals as suf-\\nficient to lead us to a general conclusion on the subject, I may state that of these\\nyoung victims of parental neglect,\\n6 b.longed to famdi s most of wh ch were Irish, passing\\nthrough the neighborhood, or recently settled m it\\nearn.ng a precarious and uncertain hvel.hood.\\n5 belonged to families earning from Ids. to 2i s. weekly.\\nIS 2;ts. to 405.\\n10 41. s. to ()!is.\\n1 upwards of \u00c2\u00a3.3\\nifow, with scarcely an exception, these children had been completely neglected", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0507.jp2"}, "508": {"fulltext": "506 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nby their pnrents. Some of them objects of the jealousy and cruelty of a step-\\nfather or stjp-mothcr had had their homes made insupportable to them, or had\\nbeen actually driven from them. A few examples may serve to give an idea\\nof the elements of juvenile criminality in one part of the country. A boy of\\neleven says I came from Ireland with my parents two years ago three older\\nbrothers get Us. altogether in a factory; four of us go about begging. My\\nvareiits do no work at all. Another boy, aged fifteen, also Irish, says My\\nmother wont live with my father, he drinks so I live with my father in lodgings; he\\nlets nie do as I Lku. The earnings of this father, mother, and boy, are 26\u00c2\u00bb.\\nTwo boys, brothers, aged, respectively, sixteen and eleven, were committed for\\nthe third time for tu eaking and entering a warehouse. On the occasion of a\\nprevious committal of these children, I learned that their father had been in the\\nhab.t of readmg to them the demoralizing penny trash containing the lives of\\nTurpin and Sheppard, and that these robbers had been held up to the deluded\\nchildren as benefactors of the poor When the young culprits returned home\\nafter the expiration of their imprisonment, they found a step-mother awaiting\\nthem. The father, who, on the trial of his children, had been severely and\\njustly reprimanded by the court for his neglect of them and who seems to have\\nintended to take more care of them when they returned home only exchanged\\nhis indifference to their moral welfare for brutal harshness. The younger child\\nsaid to me, on his Itist committal My father licked me with a rope till the\\nblood ran down my back, and my step-mother was watching So much more\\nready are such parents to strike than to teach Here is a fathei and there are\\nthousands like him who first corrupts his child s moral instincts, and then\\ncruelly chastises him for the consequences of his own lessons I I must not omit\\nto mention that this man s earnings were upwards of \u00c2\u00a33 weekly I Many more\\nillustrations of the unchristian training to which mult.tudes of children are ex-\\nposed might be given, but I will pass on to the conclusion which I believe my-\\nself warranted in drawing from the flicts I have submitted that parents ought\\nto be compelled, by law, to defray part, or the whole, of the expense incurred in\\ngiving that religious and industrial education which they themselves have culpa-\\nbly neglected to give. It may be that, in many cases, the parents are unable to\\ncontribute any thing towards this expense but this inability will often be found\\nto arise from wilful idleness, drunkenness, or other vice and when such causes\\nof poverty are proved, I see no just principle which would be opposed to making\\nparents of this character liable to penalty for their misconduct towards their\\nchildren, and, as a consequence, theirs towards the community. I have, indeed,\\na strong conviction that if in justifiable cases the sins of the ignorant and\\nerring child were visited upon the neglectful or vicious parent, such a proceeding\\nwould produce benefit, by reminding or warning fathers and mothers of the\\nnecessity of paying more attention to the duties incumbent on them. Whatever\\nmay be ultimately devised for fixing upon parents a more decided responsibility\\nfor their children s conduct, it is clear proved by an overpowering mass of dis-\\ntressing evidence that measures must be taken to rescue the perishing and dan-\\ngerous classes of children from their present condition for their own sakes and\\nfor the sake of the general safety. Such measures will doubtless involve consid-\\nerable expense. I know well that I now speak in the presence of those who\\nrequire these measures to be taken from the best and highest motives who are\\nactuated by the most enlightened views and by the largest charity who remem-\\nber that the work they have undertaken is in humble and faithful obedience to\\nOne who is 7int willing that one of these little ones should perish but I\\nknow, also, that the success of the work will depend, in a very great degree,\\nupon obtaining the assent of persons who may desire to see economical advan-\\ntages in the courses proposed. Well, what would it cost, on the one hand, to\\ngive Mo or three years moral and industrial training to a neglected child, who\\nwould otherwise enter upon a course of life destructive to himself and dangerous\\nto society? Upon the Red Hill plan, which, under the zealous and untiring care\\nof Mr. Turner, has been crowned with such happy results, it would cost say for\\nthree years \u00c2\u00a375. Upon the Aberdeen plan, which seems to me admirably\\nadapted to the circumstances of a large town, and respecting which we shall hear\\nmore fully from one of its great founders the cost for three years would not\\nexceed \u00c2\u00a315 or \u00c2\u00a320. But, on the other hand, what would it cost the community", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0508.jp2"}, "509": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 507\\nto permit such a child to pursue its course through a sea of crime, until it is\\nlanded in one of our pfnnl colonies? I will endeavor to show this cost; and, in\\norder to avoid any liabil.ty to exaggerate, I take my data, as far as practicable,\\nfrom official documents. By the last report (1.5th,j of Captain Williams, inspector\\nof prisons ftir the home district, it appears that the entire number of persons sen-\\ntenced to transportation in 1849 was about 3,100. In the inspector s elaborate\\nand valuable tables the ages of the transport convicts are not given, and I there-\\nfore look to the very instruetiv.e criminal statistics published by Captain Willis,\\nthe chief constable of Manchester, and to the details which are given in the Liv-\\nerpool calendars and assuming that the ages of transpoits, generally, are repre-\\nsented in those returns, it would appear that of the 3,100 1 have mentioned, 43\\nper cent, are under twenty -one years old 1,333; 45 per cent, are between\\ntwenty-one and thirty years of age 1,395: and 12 per cent., or 372, are above\\nthirty years of age. Now, it is not taking too much ff r gi anted to say that crim-\\ninals, sentenced to transportation before they reach thirty-one years of age, have\\ncommenced their criminal career at a time of life when they should have been\\nlearning a better way. But society has ignored^^ their very existence. Let us\\nsee what society pays for it* indifference. Offenders, generally, are not sen-\\ntenced to transportation until they have appeared at the bar four or five times. I\\nwill, therefore, suppose the expense of between three and four prosecutions, at\\nassizes or sessions, to be \u00c2\u00a350. The average imprisonment of each offender before\\ntransportation may be taken at three years, and the expense of it at \u00c2\u00a365 three\\nyeais probation in separate confinement, at Parkhurst, or public woi ks, \u00c2\u00a350\\nremoval to the colonies, c., c., \u00c2\u00a335 total, \u00c2\u00a3200. So that when 3,000 sen-\\ntences of transportation are passed in a year, we may consider them tantamount\\nto. a notification to the public that a last installment of a sum exceeding half a\\nmillion sterling is about to be called for I To be as precise as the nature of this\\ninquiry will allow, the 2,728 convicts under thirty-one years of age, to whom I\\nhave already alluded as having run the career of juvenile criminality, represent a\\ncost waste of \u00c2\u00a3545,600 But let it be remembered that the felonry of this king-\\ndom and whether juvenile or adult, it belongs to this question to consider the\\nfact is not maintained, while at large, for nothing. Having investigated to a\\nconsiderable extent, the rates of income derived by thieves from their practices,\\nand having obtained estimates of the same thing from intelligent and experienced\\nconvicts themselves, I believe myself to be within the real truth, when I assume\\nsuch income to be more than \u00c2\u00a3100 a-year for each thief! Well, then, allowing\\nonly two years full practice to one of the dangerous class previous to his sentence\\nof transportation, I do not know how the conclusion can be escaped that, in one\\nway or another, the public the easy, indifferent, callous public has been, and is\\nmulcted to the amount of more than a million. sterling, by, and on account of its\\ncriminals annually transported But its criminals who are not transported\\nstill living on their dishonest gains, or in our costly prisons I We must not\\nforget them in our calculations of the cost of crime, though it will be sufficient for\\nmy present purpose merely to refer to them, and to say that I am convinced that\\ntheir cost to the community in and out of prison amounts annually to some mil-\\nlions This assertion may be somewhat startling I will only state one fact in\\nsupport of it. Some years ago a conmiittee of inquiry into the annual depreda-\\ntions of the Liverpool thieves, stated the amount of those depredations at seven\\nhundred thousand pounds Need more be said on the economical part of this\\nmomentous question Need I ask you to balance between the charge of training\\nthe young outcasts of the country to godly and industrious habits, and the waste\\nof money, time, and souLs, consequent upon our neglect of an undeniable Chris-\\ntian duty? To show the good effect of prison discipline on juveniles,\\nI can offer the direct testimony of gentlemen filling the posts of superintendents\\nto our county police, to show the same thing. My last report, which contains full\\ndetails of these police returns, is that for 1848 according to which, it appears\\nthat of sixty-three young offenders, under twenty-one years old, who had re-\\nturned to their homes after discharge from prison eleven could not be found,\\nten were no better, three were improved, and thirty-nine were more or less\\nreformed. I almost fear that I draw upon your credulity in making this state-\\nniLnt; but believe me that the law of kindness, so eloquently enloleed by the\\nlearned recorder of Ipswich, can do, by the Divine blessing, much good even in a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0509.jp2"}, "510": {"fulltext": "508\\nCONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nprison. It was not that these children stood most in need of reading and writing,\\nof learning their eatcehism, of committ ng to memory chaptei s fiom the Holy\\nScriptures tiiey stooi most in need of what had never yet approached them\\nof soMuth.iig to t.mch, soften, ami humanize their hearts and desires. I believed\\nthat, in al.nost every instance, these misled creatures had never in their lives\\nheard words or tones of kindness or affect. on that they never had dared to sup-\\npose that tyiy one cared for them, or desired, for their own sakes, that they\\nshould learn to speak and do things that are right. I endeavored to show them\\ntheir mistake that there were people who felt for them, who pitied them, who\\nloved them who earnestly desired to promote their happiness both heie and\\nhereafter. These endeavors were not unsuccessful and I found that as the\\nheart sotteued and opened, so the mind expanded and the readaig and scrip-\\ntural teaching, which, otherwise, would have been mechanical and irksome, were\\nreceived with eager thankfulness, as something conducive to the great object of\\nrepentance and amendment.\\nRev. T. Carter. Chaplain of the Liverpool Jail, spoke in reference to\\nthe inadequacy of the existing system of prison discipline to secure the\\nreformation of juvenile criminals, and the present cost to society for the\\nconviction and punishment of this class.\\nLiverpool has one of the largest jails in the kingdom. The commitments\\nduring last year were upwards of 9,300. Of that number, upwards of 1,100\\nwere juvenile offenders, under sixteen years of age; and of these the proportion\\nof recommitments amounted to more than 70 per cent. This one fact must give\\nyou some idea of the inefficiency the utter uselessness of such institutions as\\nthe Liverpool jail for the reformation of criminals. Indeed and I say it ad-\\nvisedly if it had been the object in Liverpool to devise a scheme for the promo-\\ntion rather than the prevention of juvenile crime, no contrivance could have been\\nh.t upon better calculated to accomplish that object than the Liverpool jail. And\\nyet that jail has been held up as one of the best regulated in the kingdom, under\\nthe old system and that I believe with justice and if these are the results of\\none of the best regulated, I leave you to judge what must be the case with others,\\nnot so well conducted. Now, I must invite your attention to the manner in\\nwhich these juveniles are treated. The course followed with them is to send\\nthem from the police court to the jail in the prison van, wherein they are mixed\\nwith offenders of all classes and ages. On arriving there, they are first taken\\ninto the reception room, which, I may statti, on the female side has six compart-\\nments or cells opening out from it three on each side and sometimes there are\\nas many as five persons crammed into these cells, which, when designed and\\nbuilt under the direction of Howard, were intended to hold only one. In these\\nCells, girls are mixed with adults, and remain often from tour o clock in the after-\\nnoon unt.l two next day, when they go befoi c the surgeon, in order to satisfy him\\nthat they have no disease which shall disqualify them fiom mixing with other\\njjersons. When they have passed that muster, as I may term it, the juvenile\\noffenders are sent into what is called the school class. In this class, there have\\nbeen as many as sixty girls under sixteen years of age and yet there are but\\ntwelve rooms or cells for them to sleep in, and here they are doomed to remain\\nfrom half past seven in the afternoon until seven o clock in the morning in winter,\\nso that the inmates pass the whole of that interval in a situation where they can\\nnot poss.bly be under the control or supervision of the officers, and are left to un-\\nrestricted conversation, which you can readily imagine to be of such a character\\nas not to tend to their edification. Now, it so happens, that with the best inten-\\ntions on the part of the matron and the female warders, who have tlie charge of\\nthem, it is quite impossible to prevent the mixing of the unsophisticated with\\nexperienced thieves. There are many instances in which the same cell has con-\\ntained five girls, one of whom has been under sentence of transportation two\\nothers in jail, and convicted of felony several times before while the remaining\\ntwo were novices in guilt, and young in the cai-eer of vice. Now, what must be\\nthe result of such a state of association It is right that the criminal should be\\ni-eformed because I hold that the object of improvement is not merely the pun-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0510.jp2"}, "511": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. gQg\\nishment, but the reformation of the offender. And yet the very first step we\\ntake in Liverpool, with a view to that object, is to mix up children of seven or\\neight years of age for we have one now waiting for trial who is not eight years\\nolj vvith persons who have been for a long period hardened in a career of vice.\\nWhen I tell you that I have one of my own children of the same age, I need not\\nassure you that I never look on one of those poor little saplings without feelings\\nof the deepest commiseration. These children are or have been, as dear to their\\nparents, as mine are to me, and I feel that when they are taken into jail for the\\npurpose of punishing their crimes and reforming them, you have no right I have\\nno right the country has no right to put these unfortunate little ones in such a\\nposition as must inevitably issue in their utter depravation. Such, then, is the result\\non the female side of the prison on the male side matters are no better.\\nWhat, I would ask, can it be but ruinous and disastrous, as our jail returns ex-\\nhibit I have already mentioned the proportion of recommitments and I can\\nIllustrate, from my own inquiries, the after careers of some of these offenders. I\\ntake a page, then, at random from the school register of four years ago, and I find\\nthat of the thirty whose names are upon that page not selected cases, but taken\\nin the order in which they came to jail eighteen have been transported two\\nare now in jail, having been frequently recommitted in the mean time one out\\nof the thirty is in employment one has emigrated two have died, one imme-\\ndiately after being discharged, the other shot in the streets during a public dis-\\nturbance leaving six, out of the thirty, whose history I have not been able to\\ntrace, but who, in all probability, have quitted the town and neighborhood of Liv-\\nerpool, to visit Birmingham or Manchester, or some other large town. I find,\\nalso, that the average number of times in jail of these thirty is eight and a half;\\nthe average time spent by them in jail is fifteen months the cost to the borough\\nof Liverpool^ on the average, is \u00c2\u00a332, 15s. while the further cost of transporta-\\ntion of those eighteen averages \u00c2\u00a348 the gross average expense of each of these\\nthirty criminals being \u00c2\u00a362, 7s.\\nThe cost of every young criminal to Liverpool is illustrated in a memorial of\\nthe magistrates to Parliament, asking for a reformatory school, in the following\\nstatement That the costs of apprehension, maintenance, prosecution, and pun-\\nishment, was of\\nNo. 1 \u00c2\u00a3129 5 61 No. 8 \u00c2\u00a372 1 4i\\nNo. 9 52 9 7j\\nNo. 10 64 18 9|\\nNo. 11 28 10 41\\nNo. 12 39 8 101\\nNo. 13 26 10 10-\\nNo. 14 47 7 71\\nAnd thus these offenders cost the public \u00c2\u00a3888 9 1\\nIt thus appears that the avei-age cost of these fourteen prisoners was about \u00c2\u00a363,\\n8s. while I have shown that the average cost of thirty boys, who were not\\nselected, bear in mind, as the worst cases not taken at random, but in the order\\nof their commitments, was \u00c2\u00a362, 7s. showing almost coincident results. And\\nhere I must inform you that I have not taken into account the co.st of maintenance\\nin the colonies, and the loss of property by the community. If I did it would add\\nimmensely to the calculations I have laid before you. And yet I may say, that\\nin Liverpool jail, which was referred to by the late excellent inspector of prisons,\\nMr. Hill, as one of the cheapest in expenditure in the kingdom, the average cost\\nper head of the prisoners is only \u00c2\u00a312, whereas in many other jails it is \u00c2\u00a315, and\\nin some nearly double. But great as is the expense of juvenile crime, the charge\\nentailed upon us must not be estimated solely by the expense incurred on account\\nof the offenders whilst they remain in that category. After they reach the age\\nof seventeen or eighteen, they pass out of the class of juvenile offenders, and\\nbecome adults, their habits of crime becoming more fully developed, and the ex-\\npense, of course, being greatly increased. I find that, taking forty-two individ-\\nuals male adults at this moment in Liverpool jail, who were first received\\nthere as juvenile thieves, the aggregate commitments amount to 401, or 9i times\\neach on the average. The average career in crime was five years and four\\nNo. 2\\n71 2 10^\\nNo. 3\\n74 1 10|\\nNo. 4\\n71 13 1\\nNo. 5\\n47 9 3\\nNo. 6\\n64 6 6^\\nNo. 7\\n99 2 51", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0511.jp2"}, "512": {"fulltext": "510 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nmonths. These are all known thieves, and their cases are looked on (humanly\\nspeaking) as entirely hopeless. Under present circumstances the course pursued\\ncan only have a corrupting and vitiating eft eet upon those who have not yet\\narrived at years of maturity. Of the forty-two instances to which I have referred,\\nthere are six under sentence of transportation. One first commenced his career\\nof crime at the age of nine years, and has been nineteen times in jail and when\\nI mention that, I need not bring forward any further proofs of the uselessness\\nof all attempts at reformation, so long as there is not a radical change in the\\npresent vicious arrangements. There is another of twenty years of age, who,\\nsince being sentenced to transportation, has made a violent and determined\\nattempt on the life of one of the officers of the prison. 1 will show the same\\nresults with the females. Out of twenty-six females, all of whom commenced as\\njuveniles, I find that twenty-five have been in jail, on the average, seven times\\neach the other I do not think it fair or proper to bring forward as an average\\nexample, because she has been fifty-seven times in jail. The average time each\\nis known to spend in jail is five years. Now, I think 1 have established my posi-\\ntion that the Liverpool jail, although singled out for special condemnation by the\\ninspector of prisons, is the most eflictual institution that can be devised for trans-\\nmitting and propagating crime. Such is the evil, and such its extent. What can\\nwe look to as its remedy\\nRev. Francis Bishop, Minister of the Liverpool Domestic Mission\\nSociety, submitted some remarks, which pointed out the preliminary-\\ntraining school for the young criminals of Liverpool.\\nIn four of the best streets, occupied by the honest and industrious working\\nclasses in Liverpool, there are 411 children between the ages of five and fourteen.\\nOf that number 206 go to a day school 29 to evening ragged schools; and 176\\ngo to no school at all. Now, if we look at those streets which supply the inmates\\nof the prisons the worst class of streets we find most disheartening results.\\nAn inquiry instituted about a year ago gave the following statement, which is\\nequally applicable to the present state of matters. In Eriek street, there were\\n436 children, between five and fourteen years of age, and of these only 51 went\\nto school some of them only to an evening school leaving 385 who went to no\\nschool whatever. In Crosby street, which was referred to by the reverend gen-\\ntleman who last addressed you, there were 484 children, between the ages of\\nfive and fourteen, only 47 of whom went to school, leaving 437 who received no\\neducation at all. In another of this class of streets, which is very populous, an\\ninquiry w;is made yesterday morning. The street to wliich I refer is called New\\nBird street, and it was intended to have ascertained the condition of the whole\\nof the inhabitants as regards education but it was found that the time was too\\nshort, and accordingly only the fii st three courts were taken not selected but\\ntaken in order. Well; it was found that there were 119 children between the\\nages of five and fourteen; and only 3 out of that number went to school. In-\\ncluding the front houses adjoining these courts, we found that there were 163\\nchildren between the ages I have mentioned and of that number 16 went to a\\nday school 4 to an evening ragged school and no less than 143 to no school at\\nall. Now, these are very startling facts, and I mention them merely to afford you\\na fair specimen of the educational condition of the streets of Liverpool in which\\nthe classes whose welfare we are met to promote, reside and although I believe\\nthat the juvenile population of Liverpool is somewhat worse than that of great\\ntowns generally, yt I am afraid that the condition of Birmingham, Manchester,\\nand London, is not greatly superior in this respect. My opinion is that\\nwe shall never be able to reach this class of juvenile offenders so as to operate\\neffectually in diminishing their numbers, until we make the parents feel, and that\\nthrough the pocket. They must be made to understand, by being required to\\ncontribute to the maintenance of their children, when they come within the grasp\\nof the law, that they can not throw off with impunity the sacred obligations\\nwhich the Ahnighty has imposed on every parent. I will say no more than\\nthat compulsory attendance nmst also be enforced on the vagrant class that\\nclass who are on the high road to crime by some such mode as that adopted in\\nAberdeen.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0512.jp2"}, "513": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. gjj\\nMr. William Locke, Honorary Secretary to the London Ragged\\nSchool Union, remarked:\\nIt is now about eight years since a few friends in London joined me in the\\nestablishment of the ragged school union but since then we have managed to\\nincrease the number of schools, in London alone, from sixteen to one hundred\\nand two. We have now about fifteen thou.sand children, who are being taught\\nin these schools above one hundred and sixty paid teachers and above one\\nthousand three hundred teachers who give voluntary assistance. Now, although\\nI have no wish to shrink from the work, yet I have come here to declare that we\\nare not equal depending as we do upon voluntary contributions alone to the\\ngreat task we have undertaken. It is true that in some of our schools we have\\nthe ragged now clothed, the dirty become clean, and the riotous made orderly,\\nso that many who visit us can not see the difference between these and any other\\nschools. These desirable results are brought about by collateral cases, such as\\nthe clothing clubs, the industrial classes, the mothers associations, and kindred\\ninstitutions, which come in with powerful assistance to improve the habits, ap-\\npearance, and nature of the children. But still with all that aid, we are unable\\nto cope with the great evil, or to put a check upon juvenile crime; and we feel\\nthat still there is a very large class we make little improvement upon. This class\\nconsists of vagrants, mendicants, and petty thieves, who require to be fed before\\nthey will be taught, and for whom more industrial, refuge, or feeding schools are\\nrequired than our funds can sustain. There is, in London, a very large number\\nof children coming under that category. Lord Ashley, in the House of Com-\\nmons, some years ago, said there were 30,000 of them but my opinion, at the\\ntime, was that the number was much larger. I believe that there can not be less\\nthan 200,000 of them in the entire country, and from this class, I am quite sure,\\ncome nearly all the juvenile criminals in our prisons. They are the very seed\\nplot of crime. Now, how are we to meet this mass of vice and wretchedness?\\nMany of them are starving in the streets many of them are indeed perishing\\nfor lack of knowledge as well as feed. In three points of view this great class\\nhave been considered, viz. as expensive as dangerous and as perishing but\\nthere is another point arising from these they are greatly to be pitied. With\\nregard to the expense, no one can doubt but that it is excessive, not only as\\nrespects the property they steal, but in their apprehension, their trial, their main-\\ntenance in prison, and their transpoi tation. We have information from some of\\nthese boys, who live by thieving, of the great sums of money they expend in the\\ncourse of the year, that would astonish you all, filched from the pockets, or houses\\nand shops, of the industrious classes. They are dangerous, with regard to society,\\nin disturbing the peace and morality of the neighborhood where they dwell but,\\nin another sense, tiiey are dangerous, viz. in their evil example thus shown to\\nthe better class of children, and in innoeulating others with their vicious habits.\\nBut they are also perishing, and the objects of our deep commiseration. They\\nare without education or instruction of any kind they are ignorant of all good\\nthey are criminal, in many cases, from dire necessity, and more sinned against\\nthan sinning. They are not, therefore, to be visited with the same kind of pun-\\nishment we inflict upon adult criminals. Nay, I hold it to be now an acknowl-\\nedged principle, that we should not treat as criminals those children who had no\\nsense of right and wrong and I very much doubt if we have any just right to\\npunish children for breaking laws with which we have never made them ac-\\nquainted, or for violating duties which we have never taught them to respect.\\nLook for a moment at their pitiful and forlorn condition in one night Lord\\nShaftesbury found no less than thirty-five of these poor children sleeping hud-\\ndled together under the dry arches by Field Lane, Smithfield. Night after night\\nfancy these boys or just picture to yourselves one of them herding there un-\\nwashed, unfed, uncared for by the thousands around to snatch a weary sleep;\\nand coming out from his hard, damp, comfortless bed in the mornirig it may be\\nin a cold, dull, winter s day without friends, without a home, without a single\\nsoul in all the wide world to care for or to guide him. How, I ask, is it possible\\nfor such a lad, starving for bread, to escape the commission of crime? These\\nchildren, without character and without any employment, must be vagrants or\\nthieves in order to Uve ^and therefore are they to be deeply commiserated.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0513.jp2"}, "514": {"fulltext": "512 ONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nSome of these very bo)-s we have succeeded in rescuing. Thank God for it.\\nFrom one of them (I ineiin one of those found in Field Lane) who emigrated, we\\nhave a letter stilting that he is earning 3os. a vveeii as a printer in JNIelbuurne, (a\\nmost gratifying fact,) and thanking us most heartily for all that has been done tor\\nliim. And will any body tell me that these children have not hearts, and can not\\nbe reformed I could tell of cases, not by tens but by hundreds, in which boys\\nand girls, taken out of the mire and the gutter the very sweepings of the streets\\nas it were, have become honest and useful members of society. Out of some 400\\nboys whom we have sent to the colonies from various schools, we have hardly\\nheard of a single return to criminal practices but on the contrary, we find that\\nin almost every ease they are doing well, and earning an honest livelihood.\\nAs regards those children we can not reach those who need to be fed, and even\\nlodged, ere they can be taught how can we expect to gather fruit from thistles,\\nor to draw pure water from a muddy source? We may endeavor to reform them\\nafter falling into crime, and it is our duty but the chances are that we shall only\\nbe partially successful. Would it not be far better to prevent them falling into\\ncrime at all It was truly and eloquently said by Dr. Guthrie, that it is a beauti-\\nful sight to see the life-boat dashing through the waves to save the shipwrecked\\nmariners but much more beautiful was it to behold the lighthouse beacon which\\nmight prevent the wreck altogether. I perfectly agree with the committee on\\njuvenile crime of the county of Aberdeen, a short passage from whose report I beg\\nleave to read. They assert:\\nThat the present mode of deahng with juvenile offenders has not attained the\\nend desired that neglected outcasts, for whom neither the funds of the public,\\nnor the generosity of private individuals, have cared, have been allowed to grow\\nup in the midst of a Christ an people, without any instruction in the first princi-\\nples of religion and even morality, and are not, at least in the first instance, the\\nlegitimate objects of vindictive punishment that it is just and right, before inflict-\\ning punishment, and bi anding for life with the character of a felon, to give the\\noutcast child a chance of improvement to put clearly before him the path of\\nduty; and if after this training, he wilfully depart from it, then society has done\\nits duty by him and if he incur merited chastisement, he must, in his heart, ac-\\nknowledge that he has deserved it.\\nThis being the case, it strikes me that the work will never be thoroughly done\\nby private benevolence. A great public good should be the work of the public.\\nWhen I first took up the subject of ragged schools, they were merely evening\\nschools, for gathering in fro.m the streets outcast, neglected children. Such I still\\nconsider to be the genuine r;igged school. But now, when we find it necessary\\nfor a large class to be fed, and clothed, and lodged, and cared for, and sent abroad,\\nc., c., I am inclined to say I can not undertake all this. The paris^h or gov-\\nernment must help us and it is their duty, on the score of economy, philanthropy,\\nand self-preservation, to do so.\\nA. Thompson, Esq., Chairman of the Aberdeen County Prison\\nBoard, made a short statement of the Industrial Schools in Aberdeen,\\nestablished mainly at the suggestion, and by the efforts of Mr. Sheriff\\nWatson.\\nWe have now had an experience of ten years, the first of our schools having\\nbeen established in October, 1841. We commenced that school with about\\ntwenty boys, and we gradually increased the number to seventy or eighty, which\\nis about the utmost limit our experience leads us to believe an industrial school\\never ought to be alloweil to attain. Two years afterwards we established a small\\nschool for girls; that school has since been divided into two, and in each of these\\nthere are now from sixty to seventy schi lars. But we found that, although we\\nwere able to accomplish a certain amount of good in the city of Aberdeen, still we\\nhad not by any means attained all the good we desired. We found the streets\\ninfested by little vagrants and beggars ready to commit all sorts of annoying depre-\\ndations. We therefore resolved to avail ourselves of a local act of ParJiament,\\nby which it was provided that begging and vagrancy were crimes punishable by\\nthe magistrates. You will be perhaps surprised to learn that in Scotland we have", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0514.jp2"}, "515": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 5^3\\nno vagrant act, and that vagrancy is not an offense there which, of itself, and\\nalone, can be punished, as in England but in the city of Aberdeen this power is\\npossessed by the magistrates, under the provision of the local police act, and they\\ngave the aid of their authority to the gentlemen who wished to extend the opera-\\ntion of the industrial schools to a class of children still lower in the social scale\\nthan those who were already in attendance. xVccordingly, orders were given on\\na certain day in the year 1S45, to the police, to capture every little vagrant boy or\\ngirl whom they might find in the streets, and in the course of two hours seventy-\\nfive were collected and if you can conceive seventy-five dirty ragged little chil-\\ndren, trained up in all sorts of vice and wickedness, and unaccustomed to any sort\\nof restraint, collected together in our small apartment, you may form some idea\\nof the scene of confusion and uproar which ensued. The whole of the first day\\nwas spent in endeavoring to bring them into something like order, and in furnish-\\ning them with the only thing they seemed to appreciate, viz. three good substan-\\ntial meals. When dismissed in the evening, they were informed that they might\\nreturn the next day or not just as they pleased, but if they did not come back\\nthey would not be allowed to beg in the streets. Kext morning, to the delight of\\nall interested, almost the whole of them returned, and the system has been pur-\\nsued from that day to this. When we begun this plan there were in Aberdeen\\n280 children known to the police, who hved constantly by begging and petty\\nthefts. For the last seven or eight years scarcely one had been seen, cases do\\noccasionally occur, but they are very rare. W e have almost completely succeeded\\nin extirpating the race of juvenile beggars in Aberdeen.\\nThe next step in the history of our experience is perhaps the most interesting\\nof all. Our establishment at first, of the boys and girls school, certainly cleared\\nthe streets of one part of the juvenile delinquents, but neither the worst nor the\\nmost dangerous class. Those whom we caught on the second occasion were\\nthose training up manifestly to fill our prison cells. Now what are the results as\\nto them The number of boys and girls in the schools last described are generally\\nabout Kill of those who have been at this school, seventy-one have since we\\nopened been placed in situations where they are now maintaining themselves by\\ntheir own honest industry and what is perhaps still more satisfactory, of the\\nwhole 171 who have passed, or are now passing through our hands, not one indi-\\nvidual has been taken up by the police for any offense great or small.\\nWhen the schools were first started like many other new and untried\\nschemes they met with considerable opposition, but a few resolute friends stood\\nby them. The first success was not very obvious, and after they had been opened\\nabout two years the funds fell off and we experienced that excruciating agony,\\nwant of money, which was referred to by one of the gentlemen who has preceded\\nme, and, in consequence, the number of children in the schools was reduced to the\\nlowest possible point. But by this time the scheme had begun to take some little\\nhold of- the public mind, and I am rejoiced to tell you that the working classes of\\nAberdeen came forvi ard and expressed an earnest desire that the schools should\\nnot be given up, but that if possible they should be carried on and extended. They\\noffered to raise subscriptions among themselves, and subscription papers were ac-\\ncordingly carried round, both among the higher and among the lower classes, and\\nI have to say, that of the whole amount contributed, two-thirds came ft om the hard\\nearnings of the working men and the working women of Aberdeen. By this most\\nhappy and timely addition to the funds we were enabled to get over the difficulties\\nwhich threatened us, and we have been just able to keep moving ever since. The\\ntotal number of children at all the schools is somewhere about four hundred.\\nThere are still two or three more statistical facts which I wish to place before\\nthe meeting. We were much annoyed in the county of Aberdeen by the number\\nof juvenile vagrants who came out from the city. We employed the rural police\\nto prepare returns to see what effect the juvenile schools were producing. The\\nfirst return was not thought of until the year 1845. We were then informed that\\nin that year (184.5) the rural police apprehended G 2 little children, or juvenile\\nvagrants, who were traveling alone throughout the county, begging or stealing on\\ntheir own account. In the year 1846, the number was reduced to 14 in 1847 it\\nwas further reduced to 6 in 1848 the number was again 6 in 1849 it was re-\\nduced to 1 and in 1850 it rose again to 2 so that we have pretty thoroughly\\ndisposed of that class of offenders.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0515.jp2"}, "516": {"fulltext": "514 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nIt is a practice with us, as it is I believe in England, for women to go out beg-\\nging through the country, attended by children, sometimes their own, and some-\\ntimes hired, with the sole end and object of exciting compassion, and obtaining\\nadditional alms. In 18-41 the rural police stopped in the county of Aberdeen 1,2U3\\nof these persons. That number was gradually reduced year by year, until, in\\n1850, there were only 387 less than a third of the number we had nine years\\nbefore.\\nThere is another test which, with your permission, T shall furnish you. In the\\nyear 1841, before the schools were opened in Aberdeen, the juvenile commitments\\nto the Aberdeen prison amounted to 61. In the year 1850, the number was re-\\nduced to 14. But I can give you a still more striking evidence of the value of\\nthese schools. In 1845 we were obliged, in a great measure, to close the doors\\nof our schools, for the reasons which 1 have already mentioned. I have stated that\\nin 1841 there were 61 juvenile delinquents; in 1842 the number was reduced to\\n30 and in 1843, when the schools were partly closed, the number rose again to\\n63. Now here, I think, is correct evidence of how the schools are working. Open\\nthe schools, and keep the children in regular attendance, and the juvenile vagrants\\ndisappear; juvenile crime is diminished shut the doors, and they immediately\\nreappear, flourish, and increase.\\nWe have, in addition to our proper schools, what we term a child s asylum, and\\nthis is an essential part of the system. It is a place to which any child found wan-\\ndering or deserted is conveyed in a friendly manner by the police. It is attached\\nto the House of Refuge, and the directors of that establishment give every possible\\nfacility for superintending the management of the children. The children are kept\\nhere until the committee meet. Formerly thej met every day, but now it is not\\nnecessary to do so they are summoned when required. Each case is investi-\\ngated most minutely; if it appears that the parents are able to take charge of the\\nchildren, or that they ought to do so, they are sent for and remonstrated with, and\\ninduced, if possible, to do their duty. If it appears that they have a claim upon\\nany parish, then a coi respondence takes place between the committee and these\\nparochial authorities, and the child is sent to its parish but in the greater number\\nof eases the child is placed at once in one of our industrial schools. The object of\\nthis minute scrutiny is to prevent improper persons getting upon our very limited\\nfunds. We wish to keep these funds sacred for the persons who are really suita-\\nble objects, and who belong to the city. In all our schools the system is the same.\\nAs a general rule, the children learn about four hours lessons in the day, four to\\nfive hours work, one to one and a half hours play, and three good substantial\\nmeals. Much has been said to-day, and the importance of the question can not\\nbe denied, as to the policy of compelling the children to attend these schools.\\nHitherto our experience has shown us that no compulsion is necessary beyond the\\nattraction of the three substantial n)eals. Most of them were previously unaccus-\\ntomed to a regular supply of wholesome food they soon learn its value, and re-\\nquire no other inducement to return daily to their work and lessons and I ven-\\nture to say that the attendance of these poor children, the very outcasts of society,\\nat these schools, is more regular than among schools of a higher class. With re-\\ngard to time, I may state that they come in summer at seven and in winter at eight\\no clock in the morning there is then an hour or an hour and a half s religious and\\nmiscellaneous instruction, such as geography, facts in natural history, and occa-\\nsionally a singing lesson. The children then spend a short lime in play, and after-\\nwards breakfast. From ten to two they work. At two o clock they dine, and\\nafter some recreation they work from three to four, and from four to seven they\\nhave lessons suited to their different ages, and at seven they have a plain substan-\\ntia! supper, and a short religious exercise follows after which the whole are dis-\\nmissed to their homes. Now this plan of sending them back to their homes is a\\npoint upon which we have had many an.xious consultations. The propriety of\\nallowing them to return to their degraded and debased parents was questioned by\\nmany as being calculated to destroy the moral influence which the school exercised\\nover them. But our e-xperience tends to show that the reverse is the case. I\\nfrankly admit that it is a doubtful question, and many exceptional cases may occur\\nbut we know also instances in which the saving knowledge of truth obtained at\\nschool has been communicated to the outcast parents through the httle child. We\\nthink, then, that we have been successful in Aberdeen to a great extent, and, in-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0516.jp2"}, "517": {"fulltext": "CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 5I5\\ndeed, even beyond the extent we hoped to obtain when these schools were first\\nestablished. The two great principles which we have endeavored to act upon are\\nthese to show the children from the first that we really and truly love them, and\\ndesire their good, aud that all our exertions, whether in the way of teaching, or\\nfeeding, or remonstrating with them against evil conduct, are solely and only with\\nthe desire of doing them good, and that lesson the children themselves seem to\\nhave learned. But above and beyond this, we have sought to base our every step\\nupon God s revealed word. We have been told truly to-day of the\\nexpense the public are put to in keeping the youthful convict in prison. If I re-\\nmember aright, the lowest estimate was \u00c2\u00a318 or \u00c2\u00a320 a year. That is precisely\\nour own experience in Scotland. But when we get hold of these children, and\\ninstead of sending them to prison, bring them to our industrial schools, we find the\\nwhole expense of teaching and feeding them is under \u00c2\u00a35 a year. And of that\\nexpense, on an average, about \u00c2\u00a31, 5s. is saved to the school by the work, of the\\nchildren. So that we can bring up children so far as man can do it honestly,\\nand industriously, and religiously, at an expense of \u00c2\u00a33, 15\u00c2\u00ab. per annum. Whereas,\\nif you send them to the poor-house, they cost about \u00c2\u00a310 per annum each with us, and\\nI believe a larger sum in this country. If they are sent to prison, we know that\\nthe expense is from \u00c2\u00a31S to \u00c2\u00a325 and if we send them upon the distant voyage to\\nAustralia, we know that the cost altogether amounts to a sum not much, if at all,\\nunder \u00c2\u00a3300 sterling. Upon an average of cases, we find that five years training\\nin the industrial schools is sufficient to make the child a useful member of society\\nand suppose the expense to amount to \u00c2\u00a35 per annum, we have then the choice of\\nmaking one of these children an honest and virtuous member of society for \u00c2\u00a325,\\nor of sending him ultimately into a penal settlement, at a cost, including his previ-\\nous training in crime, of about \u00c2\u00a3300. It appears to me that there can be little\\nchoice to a wise man in the matter. Sir, I have often thought, when I have passed\\na little ragged urchin in the street, one of the numerous class who are being\\ntrained up to a life of crime and misery, My poor little fellow, you are just a bill\\nof exchange for two or three hundred pounds sterling, drawn upon the public of\\nGreat Britain, and the last farthing of that sum you will certainly cause us to pay\\nbefore your career is ended. Much has been said to day of the expense of our\\nprisons, but that is, after all, trifling compared with the enormous expense, and the\\nserious loss the country is put to, by the depredations these persons commit. A\\nsingle instance was alluded to, in which a large amount of plunder was carried off;\\nand you yourself, Mr. Chairman, alluded to a case that had occurred in your own\\nfamily. But it is not the plunder from the rich, and the quantity of plate, jewelry,\\nand money, that is so taken, that creates the greatest amount of inconvenience\\nbut it is the extreme suffering caused to the working and industrious classes by\\nhaving their hard-earned property taken from them. If you look at the records\\nof trials and convictions before judges, and in police offices, you will find that a\\nlarge number of cases occur in which the property is stolen from this class. Many\\nof them, too, are afraid to appear to prosecute, and no small part of those crimes\\nare committed against the poorer classes of society, which never appear at all.\\nRev. H. Townsend Powell, Chairman of the Warwick County\\nAsylum, (who has given, without fee or reward, his time, attention,\\nand talent, to the institution for twenty-six years.) gave the following\\naccount of the earliest reformatory institution of England, which is sit-\\nuated at Stretton-on-Dunsmore in the county of Warwickshire\\nThe institution commenced its operations in 1818, and in 1827 it was clearly\\nascertained that up to that period forty-eight per cent, of the whole number who\\nhad been subjected to the experiment had been permanently reformed. It was\\nalso made clear that a saving had been effected in the county expenditure, result-\\ning from the diminished number of prosecutions, the cost of which was charged\\non the county rates. Under the second master, the proportion of reformations\\nwas 58 per cent, of those who had quitted the institution. Under the present\\nmaster, it has risen to 64 per cent and, if we take the latter part of his time\\nonly, since the last improvement in management has been introduced, it has risen\\nto G3 per cent.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0517.jp2"}, "518": {"fulltext": "5ig CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS.\\nThe system adopted is a system of kindness and persuasion, blended, neverthe-\\nless, with salutary coercion and correction. Xhis is effected by daily\\nsetting before him the comforts of a well-ordered family by occupying and inter-\\nesting his mind by sending him on little embassies of confidence, and exciting in\\nhim a feeling of respect for himself and his own character, and inducing him to\\nparticipate in that esprit du corps which regards the honor of the institution, of\\nwhich he is a member, as if it were his own. It is acknowledged by\\nall that evil communications corrupt good manners and therefore all ai o\\nanxious to separate uncontaminated juveniles from old offenders; but it is not so\\ngenerally acknowledged that association is no less availing for the propagation of\\ngood than evil. I adopted the conclusion that association is no less\\navailing for the purpose of reformation than it is for the purpose of contamina-\\ntion, and that the difference is this where the preponderating moral influence is\\nin favor of evil, there evil will increase on the contrary, where the preponderat-\\ning moral influence is in favor of virtue and religion, there virtue and religion will\\nflourish and abound. This principle has been invariably borne in mind in con-\\nducting the institution at Stretton-on-Dunsmore, and I can not help thinking that\\nif it were in a more favorable locality, and a power of detention, but without bars,\\nand gates, and walls, were given us by law, we should be able to exhibit a yet\\nmore favorable result than any which has yet appeared. But, if we are to carry\\non our experiment on a larger scale, I would still urge the adoption of the sugges-\\ntion contained in the memoir of 1827, viz. that the institution should consist of\\none or more establishments, under the same general surveillance, but varying in\\nstrictness of discipline so that the return of the criminal to honesty, should be\\naccomplished by a coresponding return of liberty.\\nIn pursuing this subject, we will introduce a particular account of the\\norganization and management of several of the institutions referred to\\nin the foregoing discussion, and will begin with the Rauhen-Hause at\\nHorn, near Hamburgh, which may be regarded as the pioneer and\\nmodel of all the others.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0518.jp2"}, "519": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL OF THE RAUHEN-HAUS.\\nHORN, NEAR HAMBURG.\\nThe Redemption Institute, or Rauhen-Haus. at Horn, four or five\\nmiles out of the city of Hamburg, was established by an association of\\nbenevolent individuals, aided by a legacy of Mr. Gercken, in 1833, for\\nthe reception of abandoned children of the very lowest class. From\\nthe beginning it has been conducted by Mr. T. H. \\\\A ichern who has\\nmade it the mission of his life, to reclaim this class from habits of idle-\\nness, vagrancy, and crime, by making them teel the blessing of a Chris-\\ntian and domestic life, and the pleasure of earning their own bread, and\\nof doing good to others, by their own industry. His first step was to\\nprocure a plain dwelling, and to remove every thing from without or\\nwithin which gave it the appearance of a place of punishment or cor-\\nrection and in this house he has resided with his own family. Into the\\nbosom of his own family he received three boys of the worst description,\\nand in the course of a few months, nine others of the same stamp, mak-\\ning them feel at home, and yet with full liberty to go away if they wished,\\nbut recognized by him, and his wife, and his sister, as members of the\\nsame household, and fellow-laborers in the garden and the farm. By\\nforgetting or forgiving the past, and encouraging every effort on the\\npart of these depraved outcasts of society, to form better manners and\\nhabits, by addressing them always in the look and tone of heartfelt in-\\nterest in their welfare, bj^ patient and long suffering forbearance with\\ntheir short comings, by touching exhibitions, at appropriate times, of the\\ncharacter and teachings of Christ, by regular instruction in the branches\\nof an elementary education, by alternate recreation and employment, of\\nwhich they receive the return not only in their own comfortable lodging\\nand support, but in small but constantly accumulating savings. Mr.\\nichern succeeded in working remarkable changes in the character of\\na large majority of all who became inmates of his family.\\nBy degrees the establishment has been extended from a single house\\nto nine, on the original plan of not increasing the size of each, so to im-\\npair its domestic character, and to make each family to some extent an\\nindependent community, having its own house father and mother, its\\nown garden, table, fireside, ^nd family worship and yet all the lamiliea\\nuniting in larger meetings and operations, as neighbors and a community,\\nand all looking to Mr. Wichern as the patriarch of the whole estab-\\nlishment. The following account of the institution is taken from the Re-\\nport of M. Ducpetiaux, inspector general of prisons to the minister of jus-\\ntice, preparatory to the organization of the reform school of Belgium.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0519.jp2"}, "520": {"fulltext": "518 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nThe reform school of the Rauhen-llaus, at Horn, near Hamburg, was founded\\nin 1833, bj a society of charitable persons, and by the aid of private contributions,\\nfor the purpose of receiving and reforming vicious and unfortunately situated chil-\\ndren. Commenced in a modest building roofed with thatch, from which it has\\ntaken its name, it now occupies about tvventy-tive acres of ground, upon which\\nhave been built, as they have been needed, a dozen houses, more or less spacious,\\neach one of which has its proper destination. These houses are,\\n1. The old thatched house, the cradle of the institution, serving for the dwell-\\ning of a family composed of twelve children and their chief. It contains, besides,\\nthe apartments of one of the principal instructors, a preparatory department for\\nchildren entering, and the business otlice, of which more will be said below.\\n2. The bakery building, with the storehouse for grain containing also the gar-\\ndener s lodgings, and those of five apprentices and a printing assistant.\\n3. The 8wiss house, occupied in the lower story by the printing office, and\\nabove by the boys infirmary and the store-room for paper.\\n4. The working house, containing in the first story a number of workshops for\\ncarpenters, tailors, shoemakers, spinners, wooden-slioe makers, c., and above,\\napartments for a family of boys and a number of brothers.\\n5. The bee-hive is occupied in the first story by a family of boys, and above by\\nthe lodgings of a number of brothers and the teacher of an elementary class.\\n6. The girls house, accommodating two families of little girls, one of which oc-\\ncupies the lower story and the other the upper.\\n7. The tower building containing the chapel or oratory, the library, the school-\\nrooms, tlie preparatory department for girls, sundry rooms used by the children\\nand bi-others, the apartments of the second head instructor, c.\\n8. The mother house, containing, besides the apartments of the director and his\\nfamily, the kitchen, the laundry and store-room of provisions, lodging for some\\ngirls, the chambers for strangers, and some other premises for the use of the es-\\ntablishment.\\n9. The stables, the horse stables, store-room of farming tools; together with\\nthe apartments of the farming overseer, and the sheds serviiig for barns and store-\\nrooms.\\n10. The bookbinding and stereotyping shop.\\n11. The fi.sher s cabin lodging a family of boys and a group of brothers.\\n12. The shepherd s cabin containing in the first story a division of new comers\\nwith their overseer above the brothers infirmary, and the apartments for pupils\\nre-entering the establishment.\\n13. The wash-room and its appurtenances.\\nAll these buildings are scattered and grouped picturesquely about, among the\\ngardens belonging to the establishment. Several of them have been built by the\\nchildren, with the help of the brothers overseeing them. There are three divis-\\nions in the establishment.\\n1. The reform school for children which contains on an average 100 pupils, of\\nwhom two-thirds are boys, and one-third girls.\\n2. The institute of brothers, including the officers of the institution and assistants\\nand which serves also as a preparatory or normal school for the young men intend-\\ning to join the inner mission founded by M. Wichern. The inner mission is\\nintended, among other things, to train chiefs of families, overseers for reform\\nschools, prisons, charitable institutions, hospitals, agents for Christian associations,\\n(Eible societies, mutual aid societies.) working missionaries for home and colonics,\\ne. The institute contained 34 brothers in 1847 at which period 20 had left\\nthe establishment, and were acting in some of the above capacities, in Germany,\\nSwitzerland, and America.\\n3. The printing establishment and business office, including a bookseller s, a\\nbookbinder s, and a stereotyper s shop.\\nThese three departments, although attached to a common center, have each\\ntheir separate existence, accounts and appropriations. They all originate from the\\nprivate association, and are sustained by subscriptions, gifts, and legacies. The\\nreform school has chiefly a local character, and draws its support principally from\\nthe city of Hamburg. The institute of brothers is of a more general cliaracter, and\\nIS accordingly principally supported by beneficent persons elsewhere. The print-\\ning office and business establishment was organized by a stock company, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0520.jp2"}, "521": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 519\\nits profits are applied in certain proportions to the two other sections of the es-\\ntablishment.\\nThe pupils of the reform school are classed in groups of 12 children. Each\\nfamily under the supervision of a brother or sister, according to the sex of the chil-\\ndren, occupies, as we have seen, a separate habitation, consisting of a sitting-room\\nand a common sleeping-room. There are five families of boys, and two of girls\\nand besides a preparatory department for new comers, before their admission and\\nregular location in families.\\nTo each family is attached a group of brothers, of whom one fills the place of\\nchief or father, and the others a.ssist him or supply his place in regular order.\\nThe officers, e., employed in the govei nment supervision, and other services\\nof the establishment, are, 1. the director and his family. This post has been filled\\nsince the origin of the institution, by M. W ichern, with remarkable distinction\\nit is chiefly to his efforts and persevering zeal that the Rauhen-Haus owes its com-\\npletion and prosperity 2. three instructors 3. three or four foremen or assist-\\nants 4. brothers, whose nun)ber is various and increasing 5. two sisters or as-\\nsistants 6. twelve workmen in the printing and business establishment, merely\\npaid wages, and not lodged on the premises.\\nThe instruction given to the pupils does not differ from that given in good Ger-\\nman primary schools. The labor performed is of various kinds, and executed by\\nseparate families and pupils. They include the domestic labors, the housekeeping\\nand hnuse-vvork, fiild and garden culture, and certain industrial occupations, whose\\nprofits are added to the resources of the establishment.\\nUnder the first class of occupations are, shoe-making,^ making and mending\\nclothes and bedding, carpentry, wooden-shoe making, woolen thread-spinning, in\\nwhich the young children are employed, baking, masonry and painting, house-\\nkee|jing, cleaning house, furniture, c.\\nThe farming work is directed by a farming overseer. The land is principally\\ncultivated by the spade and the large kitchen-garden furnishes abundance of\\nlegumes (beans or peas) for the consumption of the establishment. There are\\nseveral head of cattle on the farm. Tliere has been established a basket-making\\nshop, which employs a number of children during winter.\\nThe workshops proper are the |n inting shop, the bindery, lithographing shop,\\ncoloring shop, stereotypery, and wood-engraving shop. A silk-weavers shop has\\nalso been in operation since I84fi.\\nThe girls are chiefly busied in the household, and fill the places of servants,\\ncooks, washerwomen, ironers, laundry-women, and seamstresses. The younger\\nassist the elder they pick legumes, make and mend coarse linen, knit and mend\\nstockings, and keep the rooms in order. They all keep in order and mend their\\nown clothes.\\nAll this work, except the printing and bookbinding, is performed under the di-\\nrection and supervision of brothers or sisters, who, as a general rule, are expected\\nto understand, at entering the establishment, some one of the occupations prac-\\nticed there.\\nThe physical ti-aining of the Rauhen-TIaus is at once simple and healthy. Noth-\\ning is neglected as to care of bedding, clothing, neatness, and sanitary regulations.\\nAlthough the establishment is very healthy, a physician visits the establishment\\nregularly. The food is frugal, but abundant. It usually consists, at breakfast, of\\nsoup thickened with buckwheat flour cooked in milk at dinner, of sf)up of various\\nkinds, rice, barley, beans and others, with potatoes to which are added in sum-\\nmer, green legumes, and meat regularly twice a week at supper, of a piece of\\nbread and a glass of beer, or of the remains of dinner. The children are not put\\non allowance, and may eat as much as they please. The brothers eat at their own\\nordinary, except at supper, when they dine at a common table, presided over by the\\nwife or mother of the director, at which also sit children whose birthdays are\\ncelebrated.\\nThe children are admitted at from eight to ten years of age, and remain at the\\nestablishment until after their confirmation, or until they can be placed in good sit-\\nuations, or returned to their families without inconvenience. In 184.5, of 82 chil-\\ndren, four (girls) were from 8 to 10 years old 31 from 10 to 14 29 from 14 to\\n16, and 18 from 18 to 23 years. No child, unless orphan or abandoned, is re-\\nceived without the oonsent of it parents.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0521.jp2"}, "522": {"fulltext": "520 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nDuring ten years after the foundation of the establishment, the average age of the\\nchildren, at the moment of their entrance, was 12 years and 6 months and a half,\\nand at the time of their dismission, 17 years, two months, and two-thirds. It follows\\nthat the average duration of their stay, was 4 years, 2 months, and J^ths. From\\nISol to 47, there were 120 admissions. Pupils wlio can not re-enter their fami-\\nlies, are usually apprenticed to masters carefully selected from among honest and\\npious artizans. There is no difhculty in getting these situations, and the apprentices\\nfrom the Rauhen-Ilaus are even sought after, on account of the education and\\npractical training which they have received at the establishment. The institution\\ncontinues to exercise a beneficiary patronage over its graduates. Apprentices in\\nthe neigliborhood are regularly visited every week or every fifteen days, according\\nto the distance, by the brothers, who carry them good advice, and converse with\\nthem on subjects interesting to tliem. Every fifteen days they meet in the after-\\nnoon or evening, in summer at the Rauhen-Haus, and in winter in the town,\\nunder the presldence of the director. They attend also at the festivals celebrated\\nfrom time to time at the establishment. As active a correspondence as possible is\\nmaintained with the elder pupils who are at distant ]aces or in strange countries.\\nThe existence of tiie institute of brothers, and its extension within the last few\\nyears, as well as the situation of the brothers in different parts of Germany, facili-\\ntate reports, and contribute to maintain, outside the establislnnent, the spirit which\\nreigns within.\\nThe girls are usually placed at service.\\nThere is established a patronage fund, vv hich pays expenses of apprenticeship,\\nc., occasioned by procuring situations.\\nAt the beginning of 1844, of 81 children who had left the establishment, 33\\nwere apprenticed to artizans or mechanics, 7 entered at service as farm-laborers or\\ndomestics, 7 had become day-laborers, 11 (girls) had become servants, 9 became\\nsailors, 3 entered the army, 1 prepared himself for the university, 5 continue at the\\nschool the occupation of 3 is unknown, and 2 children belonging to a family of\\nvagrants have not been able to be kept to any regular occupation. Of this num-\\nber, 27 including the sailors, eillier have no fixed residence, or are living at a dis-\\ntance 16 have returned to their families, and consequently have ceased to sustain\\nregular relations with the establishment 38 remain in regular and more or less\\nfrerjuent communication with it.\\nAccording to information very carefully collected about the conduct of these 81\\nchildren, (i or 7 only are conducting ill two of these were impixsoned for theft;\\nall the others, 74 or 75, have given no cause for complaint, and some have distin-\\nguished tliemselves by activity in labor and sound morality. A result so favora-\\nble would be very satisfiietory in ordinary life it therefore testifies much more\\nstrongly in favor of the organization and discipline of the Rauhen-IIaus, which, as\\nwe have already said, receives only vicious or condemned children, or those whose\\nprimary instruction has been entirely defective.\\nAt first sight, the organization of the Rauhen-Haus establishment present noth-\\ning fault even might be found with the confusion of the buildings, scattered here\\nand there, and an absence of centralization which would seem calculated to cause\\ndifhculties in supervision, and to be contrary to economy. But these apparent\\nfaults disappear upon studying the interior organization of the institution, and upon\\nconsidering the purpose of its creation. This purpose was to restore a family to\\nthe children to place them vi ithin a sphere of relations, duties and affections\\ncalculated to change their habits, to reform their character, and to elevate their\\nsouls. The organization of the Rauhen-Haus hjis therefore been modeled upon\\nthat of the natural family. The children are classed in groups of 12 each group\\nforms one family over each family is one overseer, who fills the place of a father.\\nAll the families besides, are gathered about a common center, and are under the\\nauthority of a common father, the director who presides over the entire institution\\nand watches over its general interests.\\nEach family occupies a separate tenement. This is usually in the lower story it in-\\ncludes a common sitting-room, furnished with benches, tables, and cupboards, and\\nhaving on one side a sleeping-room, and a small apartment serving for washing-\\nroom, and for a depository for housekeeping utensils. These apartments are distin-\\nguished only by neatness and plainness they have no ornaments, except gifts pre-\\nsented by friendly bauds. Eaoh dwelling has a yard for exercise, more or less", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0522.jp2"}, "523": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITDTE AT HORN. 521\\nshady, and a small garden in which the children raise the beans and peas needed\\nfor their own consumption. AH these little gardens are inclosed within the prin-\\ncipal garden of the establishment, and form with it a whole by no means destitute\\nof beauty and harmony.\\nThe chapel, school, and workshop, are common to all, and serve as a common\\nbond between the members of different families, who meet each other in them at\\ncertain intervals.\\nIn the morning, in summer at 4 past 4, and in winter at 5, the bell rings, as the\\nsignal to rise. The brother or sister repeats a short prayer the children make\\ntheir beds, wash and comb themselves, and usually, in summer, the boys run and\\ntake a bath in a small river running through the middle of the estate. Each\\nfamily then puts its house in order the rooms are cleaned, the furniture dusted.\\nIf there be time to spare, it is used in study and reading, or in working in the gar-\\nden. At 6 the bell rings again, and each family, under the conduct of its overseer,\\nproceeds, Bible under arm, to chapel, to attend domestic divine service. This\\nservice which is performed with soleiimity, lasts about an hour, at the end of\\nwhich time each family returns home, where it finds breakfast ready. Half an\\nhour is allowed for this, during which the brother reviews and explains, as may be\\nnecessary, the preceding instruction. From half past seven to twelve, the families\\ndisperse and form new groups. This time is occupied in school (usually for an\\nhour,) and in manual labor in the gardens and workshops. At 12, all the mem-\\nbers of each family meet again for dinner one of the children has set the table\\ntwo others have been to the central establishment for provisions the meal is\\nbegun and ended with a short prayer repeated by the brother, who partakes of the\\nsame frugal fare with the children, and takes advantage of this intercourse to put\\nliimself on familiar terms with them. After dinner comes play-time the children\\nplay, take care of their flowers, or read the servants wash and set away the\\ncooking and eating utensils. At one the bell gives the signal for returning to\\nwork which is continued till half past four. From half past four to five, supper\\nand rest. From five to seven, the time is again divided between labor and study.\\nFrom seven to eight each family is within its own habitation, where it may busy\\nitself in rela.xation or in whatever manner it pleases. At eight comes the evening\\ndivine service, which, like that in the morning, calls all the members of the institu-\\ntion together in the chapel. Bedtime is from eight to half past nine, and the day\\nends as it begun, by a short prayer i-epeated by the brother who lodges in the\\nsame dormitory with them, but who sits up much longer than they.\\nThe occupations of Saturday are in some measure different from those of the\\nother days of the week, 2 or 3 children are designated in each family, to clean up\\nthe house completely from 5 to 6, the whole family together puts the yard and\\ngarden in order, so that all may be neatly arranged for Sunday. From six to\\nseven, the brother or sister presides at a conference, where are discussed the events\\nof the past week, and matters of interest to the family the arrangement of\\nlabor for the next week is made, and the children in charge of them selected the\\nservants for the time being restore the utensils which they have had in charge,\\nand which are committed, after examination, to their successors, who become re-\\nsponsible for them in their turn. This species of rotation maintains the activity\\nand stimulates the emulation of the children, at the same time that it accustoms\\nthem to domestic occupations, and gives them a taste for, and habits of, order and\\nneatness.\\nSunday is consecrated to worship and rest. Except while in chapel, each family\\nremains together during the whole day. In the morning, at a proper time, the\\nchildren change their linen, and put on their festival clothes, which generally differ\\nfrom each other in form and color. The family appointed for that purpose, according\\nto a succession previously designated, goes, with spades and rakes, to the burying-\\nground of the children who have died in the establishment, to put in order, to re-\\nplace flowers and shrubs, and to keep it in good condition. In the afternoon, after\\nhaving attended divine service, each family, if there is time, goes to walk with its\\noverseer. This walk has usually an object sometimes to visit a teacher or a far-\\nmer in the neighborhood, sometimes to see some remarkable site, monument, or\\nestablishment. These excursions are varied by games or singing. Sunday is also\\nthe day for visits from parents and some children whose conduct is good, receive\\nby way of reward, permission to visit their families, in the town or vicinity. And", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0523.jp2"}, "524": {"fulltext": "522 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nall the school, meeting together again, attends evening service, vs^hich concludes the\\nday.\\nEvery day after morning service, the director holds a short meeting, at which\\nthe children and the assistants attend. At this meeting faults committed the day\\nbefore are noticed, and the director admonishes or punishes the particular ar-\\nrangements of the day are announced necessary directions to the assistants given,\\nand a review made of the children, to see that they are clean and neat, and their\\nclothes in good order.\\nEvery Monday, the director holds a meeting of the assistants, at which special\\nreference is made to every child the director listens to the observations of the\\nbrothers, and gives them instructions.\\nLastly, on Saturday evening there is held a special meeting for the discussion of\\nmatters pertaining to labor, economy, supervision of workshops, o.\\nThe two head teachers assist the director, and occupy his place, if needed.\\nThey have charge in particular of the supervision of families and workshops. All\\nthe premises are also visited once or oftener, every day. In each vestibule are two\\nregisters on one of them is an inventory of the furniture, and on the other the\\ninspector enters whatever remarks his visit may have suggested.\\nThe organization of the Rauhen-Haus is so contrived, as we have remarked, as\\nto attach the pupils to the institution, and to unite them and their overseers\\ntogether, as if they were members of the same family. To appreciate the influence\\nexerted for this purpose, we must, so to speak, descend into the depths of the es-\\ntablishment, and investigate the little events which vary its existence. We will\\nonly mention, under this head, the festivals at which the pupils and assistants meet\\nseveral times a year. These are of two kinds one confined to a single family, as\\nthose which celebrate the birthday and baptism of pupils or brothers, the arrival\\nor departure of one of them, c. the others are the general festivals at which all\\nthe families and assistants meet, together with the friends and benefactors of the\\nestablishment. i\\\\t these, which take place monthly, the boxes intended to receive\\nvoluntaiy gifts are ornamented with flowers, and carried solemnly to the chapel\\nby two little girls. They are opened before the assembly, and prayer is offered for\\nthose persons whose charity contributes to the support of the institution. The an-\\nniversary of the foundation of Rauhen-Haus is celebrated every year, with solem-\\nnity but of all these solemnities, the most remarkable are those at Advent and at\\nChristmas. We shall be thanked for giving, on this subject, some details which\\nwe find in the tenth report of the director, (184.5,) and which give, at the same\\ntime, an idea of the spirit reigning within the establishment, and of the artless char-\\nacter of its members.\\nFrom the commencement of autumn may be discerned the symptoms of joy at\\nthe approach of Christmas. A new life seems to animate the families of boj-s and\\ngirls. All is excitement one is thinking of the gift which he expects, another of\\nthat which he means to give imagination is active plans fail and succeed when\\nall arrangements are in good train, each family is hard at work within its own par-\\nticular circle every body is carefully keeping a secret the brothers and sisters\\nhelp the children at their work. As the important day approaches, activity\\nredoubles not a leisure moment is lost the weekly evening which each family\\nhas at its disposal, is especially devoted to these mysterious preparations. What is\\ntheir design To prepare Christmas presents wherewith to surprise the director\\nand his family. Sometimes they are models of the Rauhen-Haus buildings some-\\ntimes of religious edifices or pictures in relief of scenes from the Bible. Some\\nof these models are five or six feet high, and executed with remarkable care and\\naccuracy in the chapel may be seen the altar, the pulpit, the organ, the stalls,\\nthe bells the workshop is supplied with all its tools, the chamber with its furni-\\nture, beds, chairs, tables, stoves, c. All these articles are carefully hidden until\\nthe day of their solemn exhibition. Meanwhile, at Advent, begins the religious\\ninstruction introductory to the coming festivals by which their minds and hearts\\nare both prepared. The Christmas songs are practiced and soon are in every\\nmouth those lately arrived learn them from the elder their meaning and relig-\\nious signification is explained. During the last week of Advent, joy resounds\\nfrom all sides. On the Sunday before Christmas, each family, under the direction\\nof the brother its supervisor, goes about the neighborhood to invite to the feast the\\nrespectable poor, with whom the establishment has constant connection. These", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0524.jp2"}, "525": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 623\\ngood people must also have their gifts and the pupils take upon themselves this\\nresponsibility, and appropriate to this purpose their small savings. In these visits\\nthey sometimes see wretched spectacles but a picture before their eyes serves to\\nput good thoughts and useful remembrances into their minds.\\nAt last the holy day is come. All is properly prepared the day passes it is\\nevening. The large vestibule of the ^Mother House is opened, and each family\\narrives in procession, carrying the gift which it has patiently prepared. All the\\narticles, whose bulk is sometimes considerable, are arranged in the middle of the\\nroom, and are ornamented with wroaths and evergreens the Christmas tapers\\nare lighted, and when all is in complete order the director and his family are in-\\nvited to behold the spectacle prepared for them. Their arrival is greeted with\\nshouts and songs the hall glitters with lights all gather in groups and admire\\nthe result of the labor of each family paintings, transparencies, inscriptions, tes-\\ntify to the sincere alFection of the children towards their benefactor and certainly,\\nto him, this testimony is not the least precious of their gifts. During the same\\nevening, the assistants and brothers receive the gifts designed for them. The pro-\\ngramme of the rejoicings of the next day is communicated to the assembly, the\\nChristmas songs which have been printed are distributed, and after having re-\\nturned thanks to God by hymns and prayer, the families return in the same order\\nto their respective dwellings.\\nNext day the bell proclaims the grand festival. All arise in haste by lamp-\\nlight the children put on again their festive garments and gather at the Mother\\nHouse, where was held the joyous meeting of the preceding evening. All sing\\nthe hymn of the day, and after having returned thanks to God, they return home\\nto breakfast. Divine service takes place as usual. Meanwhile the kitchen is in\\nunusual activity. At noon, all members of the establishment take their places at\\na large table, and partake of a repast, whose most delicate dishes have been sent\\nas presents by friends from the town and neighborhood. Some of these friends,\\nsome former pupils, some parents, seat themselves among the children, and become\\nwith them members of one large family. There is joy in every heart singing\\nsucceeds and before the feast is finished, come the poor invited several days\\nbefore by each family. All rise, in a few minutes every thing is put away in its\\nplace, and every trace of the repast has disappeared. Each family, with its guests,\\nreturns to its well-warmed home, to familiar entertainment where the children\\nsing their prettiest songs, to do honor to their visitors. About half-past two, there\\narrive from every direction the friends of the institution, who, for the sake of at-\\ntending this ceremony, have often traveled several leagues in inclement weather,\\nand in the depth of winter. The bell rings anew, and the families proceed to the\\nchapel, conducting their poor visitors, who at their arrival take their seats at a\\ntable spread expressly for them. The chapel ornamented with foliage and ever-\\ngreens, looks like a thick grove. Although of considerable size, it can scarcely hold\\nthe numerous audience assembled at the solemnity. The director reads the gos-\\npel for the day, between whose verses are sung hymns appropriated to the occa-\\nsion. A discourse chiefly addressed to the poor and to visitors from abroad,\\nreviews the purpose, origin, and progress of the institution. Then come forward\\nthe schools of the neighborhood, with their instructors at their head one offers a\\nprayer and sings a hymn in memory of the pupils dismissed from the Rauhen-\\nHaus another invokes the protection of God for poor and abandoned children\\nanother implores pity upon all prisoners all then unite their voices in a conclud-\\ning hymn, after which each school deposits its modest offering in the box appointed\\nfor receiving gifts to the establishment.\\nIt is time to proceed to the decoration of the feast to the memory of absent\\nfriends. This is the moment which is awaited with so much impatience by the\\nchildren from the beginning of the Advent. From the commencement of this\\nperiod, all the school meets at noon to listen to the reading of those passages of\\nscripture which announce the coming of the Messiah which is followed by the\\nsinging of a hymn. The chandelier of the chapel is furnished with as many can-\\ndels as there are days in Advent every day one more of these is lighted, so that\\nthe number of lights constantly corresponds with the approach of the festival.\\nWe left all the members of the institution in the chapel. No sooner have the\\nceremonies above described terminated, than is commenced the lighting of all the\\ntopers in the ohandelier, a^d also of a multitude of wax candles skillfully arranged", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0525.jp2"}, "526": {"fulltext": "524 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nthroughout the building, which quickly glitters with light. This illumination is\\ngenerously furnished by the friends of the establishment. The appearance of the\\nchapel, with its tapers, its candles, its green boughs and ornaments, is truly mar-\\nvellous. The spectator, especially if for the first time, is overpowered by the en-\\nthusiasm of the pupils and the guests. As the illumination proceeds, the singing\\nconcludes when it stops, the director, amidst profound silence, reads the follow-\\ning passage from St. Matthew When the Son of Man shall come in his glory,\\nand all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory,\\nc. After this reading the pupils come forward by families towards the poor\\nguests, and give them the little presents which they have prepared for them then\\neach family in succession sings another song, and the ceremony concludes with a\\nprayer and concluding chant, in which all the assistants join.\\nThe poor return home, carrying salutary impressions and joj ful recollections\\nthe children return to their homes until 6 in the evening, when another signal\\ncalls them to the chapel. Some of the friends of the institution, present in the\\nafternoon, have departed but others have arrived to be present at the ceremony\\nof the evening. In the interval, tables are arranged in the chapel, on which are\\nput the Christmas gifts for the families and the children which gifts also are\\nsupplied by the inexhaustible kindness of the benefactors of the institution. These\\ngifts are of all descriptions books, images, wall-cards, (cartes murales.) little arti-\\ncles of furniture, tools, etc. they are accommodated to the wants, and commonly\\nsatisfy the desires of each. It is delightful to see the pleasure which is afforded by\\nthe sight of this little exhibition. Scarcely is the saloon opened, when all, small\\nand great, pupils and visitors, hurry in, crowding together as if in a fair, where\\neach selects the article which pleases him best. Thus ends the day, which, of all\\nthe days in the year, is most ardently desired, and leaves the .most delightful\\nimpressions.\\nThis day has more to-morrows than one each family renews its own memory\\nof it, within itself Let us transport ourselves to one of these renewals, some\\nweeks after Christmas. It is Sunday evening, a new comer would imagine that\\nthe festival had been postponed for that family, and that it was celebrating it for\\nthe first time. Evergreens and green pyramids ornament the saloon, and upon\\nthe table the presents are arranged. The organ, the violin, and the flute, accom-\\npany all kinds of singing the joy is as great and as uncontrolled as at the gen-\\neral feast. The guests have not been forgotten and an invitation to the private\\nfestival of a family is never neglected. The day before, the children sent written\\ninvitations to comrades in other families, who are present at the designated time.\\nAmong them is a newly admitted pupil, who must be shown the manner of keep-\\ning Christmas. The director s family has also been invited, and comes, bringing\\nChristmas cakes or other little presents of the same kind, which are the more wel-\\ncome as they are more unexpected. While all are rejoicing, the door opens and\\nthere enters, accompanied by a dozen pupils and a brother, a messenger in strange\\ncostume, carrying an immense game-bag, and a feathered hat. There is surprise\\nin every face, for nobody expected any such apparition. Meanwhile the messen-\\nger comes forward, and delivers to each member of the family a large letter ad-\\ndressed to him. All hasten to open them and after removing several envelopes,\\nit appears that each letter contains a small present. Who was the messenger, and\\nwhence come these tokens of friendship Another family got news of the festi-\\nval, and promptly determined to contribute to it; and so each of its members\\nselected from his own property a gift to a comrade in the other family. One pupil\\nwas appointed to take charge of the gifts, and all accompanied him to enjoy\\nthe surprise of their brothers, and to partake in their joy. It is unnecessary to say\\nthat the impromptu visitors receive a cordial welcome they take seats at the table\\nand partake of the modest supper which is prepared the singing goes on, and the\\nfestivities of the evening prolonged to a later hour than usual, end, as always, by\\nprayer to God.\\nThe institute of the brothers of the Rauhen-Haus, like the school of foremen at\\nMettray, forms an essential part of the organization. M. Wiehern, like M. M.\\nDemetz and de Bretigneres, has perceived that the work of reforming vicious and\\ncondemned children could not be intrusted to mercenary hands and that it was\\nnecessarj to accomplish it, to use motive higher than those of temporal interest.\\nThe brothers of the Rauhen-Haus are to a certain extent similar to the brothers of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0526.jp2"}, "527": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 525\\ncharity, and brothers of Christian doctrine, in Catholic countries. To be admitted\\nto the institute, they must furnish procjf that their conduct has always been honor-\\nable, and safe from all reproach that they have always done the duty of a good\\nChristian, and that they have truly a religious vocation that they have no infir-\\nmity, and enjoy good health and a robust constitution that they understand farm-\\ning, or some trade useful in the establishment, or at least that they have sufficient\\nmechanical talent to learn some one of these occupations that they have a certain\\namount of education, or the intelligence and disposition necessary to profit by the\\nspecial course of instruction intended for them in the institution. They are also\\nrequired to have the consent of their parents to their entering the proposed career,\\nand the certificate of their exemption from military service. Their age at admis-\\nsion is usually from twenty to thirty years. Notwithstanding the strictness of\\nthese conditions, candidates are never wanting, and their number is usually even\\ngreater than that of disposable places.\\nThe institute of bi others is supported, like the reform school, by subscriptions\\nand private gifts, and has its own separate treasury, finances, and accounts.\\nThe brothers, in their connection with the reform school, have charge of the di-\\nrection of families, and of the supervision of pupils confided to their care. They\\nkeep them in sight, night and day; they eat with them, sleep in their dormitory,\\ndirect their labor, accompany them to chapel, partake in their recreations and\\nsports. Attached at first to families, as assistants, after a certain time of appren-\\nticeship, they undertake, in rotation, the direction. They visit the parents of the\\nchildren, and report to them tlieir conduct and progress exercise an active and\\nbeneficial supervision of the pupils, after their departure from the school teach\\nthe elementary class assist the director in religious instruction and in the writing\\nand correspondence of the estiiblishment. The monthly enrolment or rotation of\\nbrothers in each family brings each brother successively in contact with all the\\npupils, enlarges their experience, facilitates their apprenticeship and assists in teach-\\ning practical knowledge, and as it were, brings into contact with all the families\\nthe experience acquired in each.\\nBesides these duties, the brothers in turn attend a special course of instruction\\npresided over by the director, with the assistance of the two head teachers. This\\ncourse occupies twenty hours a week, so distributed as to correspond with the\\nworking hours of the children, and including religion, sacred and profane history,\\nGerman, geography, pedagogy, singing and instrumental music there is also a\\nspecial course in English. The brothers are classed in two divisions, an upper\\nand lower, each directed by one of the teachers. Each course lasts two years, so\\nthat the complete instruction given to each brother occupies, on an average, four\\nyears. At the end of this time, the brothers should be prepared to fulfill the duties\\nof the Inner Mission, whose agents they are. These duties, as we said at the\\nbeginning of this account, are as various as the needs which the mission under-\\ntakes to satisfy. The brothers, accordingly, at leaving the institute, are usually\\nplaced in one or the other of the following positions\\nChiefs or fathers of families in reform schools organized like that of the Rauhen-\\nHaus overseers and assistants for moral discipline, in establishments for children;\\ninstructors in the same instructors in agricultural schools directors, stewards,\\noverseers, or vv atchmen in prisons of different kinds directors or fathers of fami-\\nlies in hospitals and charitable institutions overseers of infirmaries agents of\\nbenevolent or mutual aid societies missionaries and preachers in colonies to Amer-\\nica; missionaries within the country, for journeymen and traveling apprentices,\\nc., c.\\nThe number of demands for brothers for these different purposes, or other simi-\\nlar ones, increases every year so that the director is continually trying to extend\\nthe normal institute intended for their preparation.\\nThe printing office, the bookselling shop, and their dependencies, attached to the\\nestablishment in 1842, contribute the double purpose proposed by the founders;\\nthey furnish occupation for a number of children during their stay at the Rauhen-\\nHaus, at the same time that it teaches them an occupation which they can practice\\nafter leaving and also serve as a means of propagating the principles and views\\nwhich liave governed the work undertaken by M. Wichern with such unusual per-\\nseverance and so much success. Here is published yearly a double report on the\\nsituation of the reform school, and the condition and progress of the institute of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0527.jp2"}, "528": {"fulltext": "526 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nbrothers and of the Inner Mission. There is also issued a review, appearing twice\\na month, under the title of Flying Leaves, (Fliegende Blatter,) which is in-\\ntended not only to inform the public of matters concerning the Rauhen-Ilaus, but\\nalso to give news of charitable establishments and operations at home and abroad.\\nWe have not examined the spirit governing these publications, and extending\\nthroughout the establishment, and consequently have not formed opinions on it.\\nSome term it exaggerated for our own part we are pleased to see there the ex-\\npression of a sincere and profound conviction, and of a true Christian sentiment of\\ncompassion for evils and miseries requiring prompt relief.\\nThe accounts of the different sections of the Rauhen-Haus are kept by the di-\\nrector, under the control of the administrative committee of twenty members,\\nchosen from among the founders and benefactors of the establishment. Each sec-\\ntion has its separate treasury and accounts. The treasuries are eight in number,\\nnamely\\n1. Treasury of Iho reform scbool.\\n2. iiisritufe of brothers.\\n3. printing office.\\n4. business establishment, and book shop and dependencies.\\n5. childrens savings, where account is kept with each, of expenses and\\nreceipts.\\n6. brothers savings.\\n7. patronage of the institution.\\n8. private gifts for particular purposes.\\nThe accounts of 1844-45, fix the receipts and expenses of the school as follows\\nRECEIPTS.\\nFrom subscriptions $2,107 40\\nvoluntary gifts, 632 80\\npayments for board, 1,186 80\\ncharity box, 165.68\\nsundry receipts, 35.42\\nTotal, 4,828.08\\nThis amount does not include farming produce, receipts from workshops, private\\ngif\\\\s for particular purposes, nor gifts in kind, which make every year a considera-\\nble sum, and diminish by so much the receipts of the establishment.\\nEXPENSES.\\nMaintenance and repairs of buildings, $365. 14\\nInsurance against fire, 25.70\\nExpenses of pupils leaving 13.70\\nBoard, 2,110.00\\nOil and light, 119 42\\nFuel 323.70\\nWashing, 100.84\\nExpenses of onler\u00e2\u0080\u0094 supervision, 78.84\\nClothing of children 178.00\\nPhysician and drugs 47.14\\nExpenses of supervision, 208 56\\nSalary of director, 428.56\\nFarming and other tools, 48 28\\nFurniture and cooking utensils, 220.56\\nSalaries, 143 70\\nExpense of school, 24 00\\nExpense of cultivation, 224 00\\nCattle, 78.5(i\\nRents 59 42\\nExpense of receiving children, 3. 14\\nPresents to children, 4.56\\nPrinting and postage, 7.42\\nSundry expenses, 14.84\\nTotal, 4,828.08\\nThere were in the school in the same year, 100 persons 86 children, and 14\\nofficers. The expense per head was therefore $51.71 or counting children only,\\n$60.00.\\nThe capital of the establishment, at the same time, was $4,178.46 and its in-\\nventory of buildings and real estate, represents a value of $6,538.10.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0528.jp2"}, "529": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 62V\\nWe append the following notices ot this excellent institution by two\\ndistinguished American educators.\\nProf. Stowe. in his Report on Elementary Public Instruction in\\nEurope, selects the establishment at Horn, asatibrding a striking exam-\\nple of the happy influence of moral and religious instruction in reclaim-\\ning the vicious and saving the lost.\\nHamburgh is the largest commercial city of Germany, and its population is ex-\\ntremely crowded. Though it is highly distinguished for its benevolent institutions,\\nand for the hospitality and integrity of its citizens, yet the very circumstances in\\nwhich it is placed, produce, among the lowest class of its population, habits of deg-\\nradation and beastliness of wliich we have but few examples on this side the At-\\nlantic. The children, therefore, received into this institution, are often of the very\\nworst and most hopeless character. Not only are their minds most thoroughly\\ndepraved, but their very senses and bodily organization seem to partake in the\\nviciousness and degradation of their hearts. Their appetites are so perverted, that\\nsometimes the most loathsome and disgusting substances are preferred to whole-\\nsome food. The superintendent, Mr. Wichern, states, that though plentifully sup-\\nplied with provisions, yet, when first received, some of them will steal and eat\\nsoap, rancid grease, that has been laid aside for the purpose of greasing shoes, and\\neven catch May-bugs and devour them and it is with the utmost difficulty that\\nthese disgusting habits are broken up. An ordinary man might suppose that the\\ntask of restoring such poor creatures to decency and good morals was entirely\\nhopeless. Not so with Mr. Wichern. He took hold with the firm hope that the\\nmoral power of the word of God is competent even to such a task. His means are\\nprayer, the Bible, singing, affectionate conversation, severe punishment when una-\\nvoidable, and constant, steady employment, in useful labor. On one occasion,\\nwhen every other means seemed to fail, he collected the children together, and\\nread to them, in the words of the New Testament, the simple narrative of the suf-\\nferings and death of Christ, with some remarks on the design and object of his\\nmission to this world. The effect was wonderful. They burst into tear.s of con-\\ntrition and during the whole of that term, from June till October, the influence\\nof this scene was visible in all their conduct. The idea that takes so strong a hold\\nwhen the character of Christ is exhibited to such poor creatures, is, that they are\\nobjects of affection miserable, wicked, despised as they are, yet Christ, the Son\\nof God, loved them, and loved them enough to suffer and die for them and still\\nloves them. The thought that they can yet be loved, melts the heart, and gives\\nthem hope, and is a strong incentive to reformation.\\nOn another occasion, when considerable progress had been made in their moral\\neducation, the superintendent discovered that some of them had taken nails from\\nthe premises, and applied them to their own use, without permission. He called\\nthem together, expressed his great disappointment and sorrow that they had\\nprofited so little by the in.structions which had been given them, and told them\\nthat, till he had evidence of their sincere repentance, he could not admit them to\\nthe morning and evening religious exercises of his family. With expressions of\\ndeep regret for their sin, and with promises, entreaties, and tears, they begged to\\nhave this privilege restored to them but he was firm in his refusal. A few e;ve-\\nnings afterwads, while walking in the garden, he heard youthful voices among the\\nshrubbery and, drawing near unperceived, he found that the boys had formed\\nthemselves into little companies of seven or eight each, and met, morning and eve-\\nning, in different retired spots in the garden, to sing, read the Bible, and pray\\namong themselves; to ask God U: forgive them the sins they had committed, and\\nto give them strength to resist temptation in future. With such evidence of re-\\npentance, he soon restored to them the privilege of attending morning and evening\\nprayers with his family. One morning .won after, on entering his study, he found\\nit all adorned with wreaths of the most beautiful flowers, which the boys had ar-\\nranaed there at early daybreak, in testimony of their joy and gratitude for his\\nkindness. Thus rapidly had these poor creatures advanced in moral feeling, relig-\\nious sensibility, and good taste.\\nIn the spring, Mr. Wichern gives to each boy a patch of ground in the garden,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0529.jp2"}, "530": {"fulltext": "528 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nwhich he is to call his own, and cultivate as he pleases. One of the boys began to\\nerect a little hut of sticks and earth upon his plot, in which he niipht rest during\\nthe heat of the day, and to which he might retire when he wished to be alone.\\nWhen it was all finished, it occurred to him to dedicate it to its use by religious\\nceremonies. Accordingly, he collected the boys together. The hut was adorned\\nwith wreaths of flowers a little table was placed in the center, on which lay the\\nopen Bible, ornamented in the same manner. He then read with great serious-\\nness the 14th, 1.5th, and 24th verses of the exviiith Psalm\\nThe Lord i.s my strength ami my song, and is become my salvation.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Thevoice of rejoicing and salvation is heard in the tabernacle of the righteous.\\nThis is the day which the Lord hath made. We will rejoice and be glad in it.\\nAfter this, the exercises were concluded by singing and prayer. Another boy\\nafterwards built him a hut, which was to be dedicated in a siinilar way but when\\nthe boys came together, they saw in it a piece of timber which belonged to the es-\\ntablishment, and ascertaining that it had been taken without permission, they at\\nonce demolished the whole edifice, and restored the timber to its place. At the\\ntime of harvest, when they first entered the field to gather the potatoes, before com-\\nmencing the work, they fortned into a circle, and, much to the surprise of the su-\\nperintendent, broke out together in the harvest hymn\\nNow let us all thank God.\\nAfter singing this, they fell to their work with great cheerfulness and vigor.\\nI mention these instances, from numerous others which might be produced, to\\nshow how much may be done in reclaiming the most hopeless youthful offenders\\nby a judicious application of the right means of moral influence.\\nHon. Horace Mann in his Educational Tour, thus describes his\\nvisit to the Rauhen-Haus.\\nIt was opened for the reception of abandoned children of the very lowest class,\\nchildren brought up in the abodes of infamy, and taught not only by example but\\nby precept, the vices of sensuality, thieving, and vagabondry, children who had\\nnever known the family tie, or who had known it only to see it violated. Ham-\\nburgh, having been for many years a commercial and free city, and, of course,\\nopen to adventurers and renegades from all parts of the world, has many more of\\nthis class of population than its own institutions and manners would have bred.\\nThe thoughts of Mr. Wichern were strongly turned towards this subject while yet\\na student at the university but want of means deterred him from engaging in it,\\nuntil a legacy, left by a Mr. Gercken, enabled him to make a beginning in 1833.\\nHe has since devoted his life and all his worldly goods to the work. It is his first\\naim that the abandoned children whom he seeks out on the highway, and in the\\nhaunts of vice, shall know and feel the blessings of domestic life that they shall\\nbe introduced into the bosom of a family for this he regards as a divine institu-\\ntion, and therefore the birthright of every human being, and the only atmosphere\\nin which the human affections can be adequately cultivated. His house, then,\\nmust not be a prison, or a place of punishment or confinement. The site he had\\nchosen for his experiment vvas one inclosed within high, strong walls and fences.\\nHis first act was to break down these barriers, and to take all bolts and bars from\\nthe doors and windows. He began with three boys of the worst description and\\nwithin three months, the number increased to twelve. They were taken into the\\nbosom of Mr. Wichern s family his mother was their mother, and his sister their\\nsister. They were not punished for any past offenses, but were told that all should\\nbe forgiven them, if they tried to do well in future. The defenseless condition of\\nthe premises vvas referred to, and they were assured that no walls or bolts were to\\ndetain them that one cord only sliouid bind them, and that the cord of love. The\\neffect attested the all but omnipotent power of generosity and affection. Children,\\nfrom seven or eight to fifteen or sixteen years of age, in many of whom early and\\nloathsome vices had nearly obliterated the stamp of humanity, were transformed\\nnot only into useful members of society, but into characters that endeared them-\\nselves to all within their sphere of acquaintance. The education given by Mr.\\nWichern has not been an aesthetic or literary one. The children were told at the\\nbeginning that labor was the price of living, and that they must earn the? wn", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0530.jp2"}, "531": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 529\\nbread, if they would secure a comfortable home. He did not point them to ease\\nand affluence, but to an honorable poverty, which, they were taught, was not in itself\\nan evil. Here were means and materials for learning to support themselves but\\nthere was no rich fund or other re.sourees for their maintenance. Charity had\\nsupplied the home to which they were invited their own industry must supply\\nthe rest. Mr. NMchern placed great reliance upon religious training but this did\\nnot consist in giving them dry and unintelligible dogmas. Pie spoke to them of\\nChrist, as the benefactor of mankind, who proved, by deeds of love, his interest in\\nthe race, who sought out the worst and most benighted of men, to give them in-\\nstruction and relief, and who left it in charge to those who came after him, and\\nwished to be called his disciples, to do likewise. It is strange that, enforced by\\nsuch a practical exemplification of Christian love as their fatherly benefactor gave\\nthem in his every-day life, the story of Christ s words and deeds should have sunk\\ndeeply into their hearts and melted them into tenderness and docility Such was\\nthe effect. The most rapid improvement ensued in the great majority of the\\nchildren and even those whom long habits of idleness and vagabondry made it\\ndifficult to keep in the straight path, had long seasons of obedience and gratitude,\\nto svliich any aberration from duty was only an exception.\\nAs the number of pupils increased, Mr. Wichern saw that the size of the family\\nwould seriously impair its domestic character. To obviate this, he divided his\\ncompany into families of twelve, and he has erected nine separate buildings, sit-\\nuated in a semi-circle around his own, and near to it, in each of which dwells a\\nfamily of twelve boys or of twelve girls, under the care of a house-father or house-\\nmother, as the assistants are respectively called. Each of these families is, to\\nsome extent, an independent community, having an individuality of its own.\\nThey eat and sleep in their own dwelling, and the children belonging to each look\\nup to their own particular father or mother, as home-bred children to a parent.\\nThe general meeting every morning, at first in the chamber of Mr. ^V ichern s\\nmother, but afterwards, when the numbers increased, in the little chapel, and their\\nfrequent meetings at work, or in the play-ground, form a sufficient, and, in fact, a\\nvery close bond of union for the whole community. Much was done by the chil-\\ndren themselves in the erection of their little colony of buildings and in doing\\nthis, they were animated by a feeling of hope and a principle of independence in\\nproviding a dwelling for themselves, while they experienced the pleasures of be-\\nnevolence in rendering assistance to each other. Mr. Wichern mentions, with\\ngreat satisfaction, the good spirit of the architect who came upon the premises to\\ndirect in putting up the first house. This man would not retain a journeyman for\\na day or an hour, who did not conduct with the utmost decorum and propriety\\nbefore the children who were assisting in the work.\\nInstruction is given in reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, and drawing, and, in\\nsome instances, in higher branches. Music is used as one of the most efficient in-\\nstruments for softening stubborn wills, and calling forth tender feelings and its de-\\nprivation is one of the punishments for delinquency. The songs and hymns have\\nbeen specially adapted to the circumstances and wants of the community, and it has\\noften happened that the singing of an appropriate hymn, both at the gatherings\\nin the mother s chamber, which were always more or less kept up, and in the little\\nchapel, has awakened the first-born sacred feeling in obdurate and brutified hearts.\\nSometimes a voice would drop from the choir, and then weeping and sobbing\\nwould be heard instead. The children would say, they could not sing, they must\\nthink of their past lives, of their brothers and sisters, or of their parents living in\\nvice and misery at home. On several occasions the singing exercise had to be\\ngiven up. Frequently the children were sent out to the garden to recover them-\\nselves. An affecting narrative is recorded of a boy who ran away, but whom Mr.\\nWichern pursued, found, and persuaded to return. He was brought back on\\nChristmas eve, which was always celebrated in the mother s chamber. The\\nchildren were engaged in singing the Christmas hymns when he entered the\\nroom. At first they manifested strong disapprobation of his conduct, for he was a\\nboy to whose faults special forbearance had been previously shown. They were\\nthen told to decide among themselves how he should be punished. This brought\\nthem all to perfect silence, and after some whispering and consulting together, one,\\nwho had formerly been guilty of the same fault of ingratitude, under still less ex-\\ncusable circumstances, burst out in a petition for his forgiveness. All united in it,\\n84", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0531.jp2"}, "532": {"fulltext": "530 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nreached out to him a friendly hand, and the festival of the Christmas eve was\\nturned into a rejoicing over the brother that had been lost but was found. The\\npardon was not in words merely, but in deeds. No reference to the fact was after-\\nwards made. A day or two after, he was sent away on an errand to the distance\\nof half a mile. He was surprised and affected by this mark of eontidence and\\nfrom that time never abused his freedom, thouoh intrusted to execute ei)nimiss:ons\\nat great distances. But he could never after hear certain Christmas hymns with-\\nout shedding tears and long subsequently, in a coiiKdential communication to Mr.\\nVYichern, respecting some act of his former life, (an unburdening of the overladen\\nconscience, which was very common with the inmates, and always voluntary for\\nthey were told on their arrival, that tiieir past life should never be spoken of unless\\nbetween them and himself,) he refei-red to the decisive effect of that scene of lov-\\ning-kindness, upon his feelings and character.\\nOne peculiar feature of this institution is, that the children are not stinmlated by\\nthe worldly motives of fame, weahli, or personal aggrandizement. The superin-\\ntendent does not inflame them with the ambition, that if they surpass each other\\nat recitation, and make splendid displays at public examinations, they shall, in the\\nend, become high military officers, or congress-men, or excite the envy of all by\\ntheir wealth or fame. On the other hand, so far as the world s goods are con-\\ncerned, he commends and habituates them to the idea of an honorable poverty;\\nand the only riches with which he dazzles their imaginations are the riches of good\\nworks. He looks to them as his hope for redeeming others from the sphere\\nwhence they themselves were taken and there have been many touching in-\\nstances of the j eformation of parents and families, for whom the natural affection\\nfirst sprang up in these children s hearts, after they had learned the blessings of\\nhome and what the ties of nature really are.\\nOne of the most interesting effects of this charity is the charity which it repro-\\nduces in its objects; and thus it is shown that, in the order of nature, the actions\\nof good men^provided they are also wise not less than good seed, will produce\\nthirty, or sixty, or a hundred fold of beneficent fruit. Mr. Wichern makes a great\\npoint of celebrating Christinas, and the friends of the school are in the habit of\\nsending small sums of money, and articles of various kinds to adorn the festival.\\nThis money has often been voluntarily appropriated by the children, to charitable\\npurposes. They frequently give away their pennies, and instances have happened\\nwhere they have literally emptied their little purses into the hands of poverty and\\ndistress, and taken off their own clothes to cover the naked. On one occasion, six\\npoor children had been found by some of the scholars, and invited to the Christ-\\nmas festival. There they were clothed, and many useful and pleasing articles,\\nmade by the givers, were presented to them. One of the boys read a passage\\nfrom the history of Christ, and the Christmiis songs and other songs of thanks-\\ngiving and praise were sung. To the sound of the organ, which a friend had pre-\\nsented to the little chapel, some verses welcoming the strangers, succeeded. The\\nguests then departed, ble.ssing the house and its kind inhabitants; but who can\\ndoubt that a voice of gladness, more precious than all worldly applauses, sprang up\\nunbidden and exulting in the hearts of the little benefactors\\nBut among numerous less conspicuous instances of the change wrought by wise\\nand appropriate moral means, in the character of these so lately abandoned chil-\\ndren, the most remarkable occurred at the time of the great Hamburgh fire, in\\nMay, 1842. In July, 1843, I saw the vast chasm which tlie conflagration had\\nmade in the center of that great city. The second day of the fire, wlien people were\\ndriven from the city in crowds, and houseless and half frantic sufferers came to the\\nRauhe-Haus for shelter, the children, some of whom had friends and relatives in\\nthe city, became intensely excited, and besought Mr. Wichern for leave to go in\\nand make themselves useful to the sufferers. Not without great anxiety as to the\\nforce of the temptations for escape or for plunder that might assail them in such an\\nexposed and tumultuous scene, he gave permission to a band of twenty-two to ac-\\ncompany him, on condition that they would keep together as much as possible, and\\nreturn with him at an appointed time. Tliis they readily promised nor did they\\ndisappoint him. Their conduct was physically as well as morally heroic. They\\nrushed into the greatest dangers to save life and property, and though sometimes\\npressed to receive rewards, they steadily refused them. At stated intervals they\\nreturned to the appointed place to reassure the confidence of their superior. On", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0532.jp2"}, "533": {"fulltext": "REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 53 1\\none occasion, a lad remained absent long beyond the time agreed upon, but at last\\nhe appeared, quite exhausted by the labor of saving some valuable property. Mr.\\nWichern afterwards learned from the owner, not from the lad, that he had steadily\\nrefused the compensatinn offered to, and even urged upon him. When the com-\\npany returned home at the ap|)oiuted time, he sent foi-th another band under the\\ncare of a house-father, and these exerted themselves in the same faithful and effi-\\ncient manner. This was done as long as the necessity of the case required. From\\nthis time the Rauhe-Haus was the resort of the poor and homeless, and not for\\ndays only, but for weeks. The pupils shared with them their food, and even slept\\nupon the ground to give their beds to the destitute, sick, and injured. I can hardly\\nrefrain from narrating many other facts of a similar character connected with this\\ninstitution, for if the angels rejoice over a rescued sinner, why should not we par-\\ntake of that joy when it is our brotlier who is ransomed\\nIn his report for 184. Mr. Wichern says, the institution was actually so im-\\npoverished by the demand made upon it at that time, and the demands upon pub-\\nlic chai-ity have since been so great in that unfortunate city, that the inmates have\\nbeen almost reduced to suffering from the necessaries of life, particularly as he was\\ninduced to receive several children rendered homeless by that calamity. To this\\nobject, however, even the children of the house were ready and willing to con-\\ntribute portions of their wardrobe, and they submitted cheerfully to other priva-\\ntions. Mr. Wichern regretted above all other things the necessity of refusing\\nmany applications, and it is but doing ju.stiee to the citizens of Hamburgh, to state,\\nthat on an appeal made by him for iunds to erect a new building, they were gen-\\nerously and promptly raised by those who had such unusual claims upon their\\ncharity.\\nA single remark, I must be allowed to make. When an individual effects so\\nmuch good, it seems to be often thought that he accomplishes it by virtue of some\\ncharm or magic, or preternatural influence, of which the rest of the world can not\\npartake. The superintendent of the Rauhe-Haus is a refutation of this idea.\\nLaboriously, perseveringly, unintermittingly, he uses mkans for the accomplish-\\nment of his desiied ends. VN hen I put to him the question, in what manner he\\nproduced these transforming effects upon his charge, his answer was, Ry active\\noccupations, music, and Christian love. Two or three things should be stated in\\nexplanation of this compendious reply. When anew subject comes to the Rauhe-\\nHaus, he is first received into Mr. Wichern s own family. Here, under the\\nwise and watchful guardianship of the master, he is initiated into the new life of\\naction, thought, feeling, which he is expected to lead. His dispositions are\\nwatched, his character is studied and as soon as prudence allows, he is trans-\\nferred to that one of the little colonies whose house-father is best qualified to man-\\nage his peculiarities of temperament and disposition. Soon after the opening of the\\nestablishment, and the increase of its numbers, Mr. Wichern found that it would\\nbe impossible for him to bestow the requisite care and oversight upon each one of\\nhis pupils which his necessities demanded. He oast about for assistance, and\\nthough he was able to find those in the community who had enough of the spirit\\nof benevolence and self-sacrifice to undertake the difficult labor to which his own\\nlife was devoted, yet he soon found that they had not the other requisite qualifica-\\ntions to make their benevolent purposes available. He could find enough well-in-\\ntentioned persons to superintend the workshops, gardens, e., but they had not\\nintellectual competency. So he could find schoolmasters who could give good\\nlessons, but they were not masters of anj handicraft. He was therefore driven, as\\nhe says, to the expedient of preparing a class of teachers, to become his auxiliaries\\nin the work. For this end, he has superadded to his original plan a school for the\\npreparation of teachers first to supply himself, then to send abroad to open other\\ninstitutions similar to his own, and thirdly to become superintendents of prisons.\\nThis last object he deems very important. Questions about prison-architecture, ht\\nsays, have given a new literature to the world but as yet, nothing, or but little,\\nis done to improve the character or increase the qualifications of prison-keepers.\\nI have often felt the force of th s remark, in the numerous continental prisons\\nwhich I have visited. Though the masters of the prisons have generally appeared\\nto be very respectable men, yet the assistants or deputy-turnkeys have very often\\nseemed to belong to a low order of society, from whose manners, conversation, or\\ntreatment of the prisoners, no good influence could be expected.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0533.jp2"}, "534": {"fulltext": "532 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN.\\nThis second institution of Mi Wichern is in reality a normal school, which the\\nnecessities of his situation suggested, and forced him to establish.\\nDuring the ten years of the existence of this institution, there have been one\\nhundred and thirty-two children received into it. Of these about eighty were\\nthere on the 1st of July, 1843. Only two had run away, who not either volunta-\\nrily returned, or, being brought back, had not voluntarily remained. The two\\nunreclaimed fugitives committed offenses, fell into the hands of the civil magistrate,\\nand were imprisoned.\\nWho can reflect upon this history, where we see a self-sacrificing man, by the\\naids of wisdom and Christian love, exercising, as it were, the evil spirits from more\\nthan a hundred of the worst children whom a corrupted state of society has en-\\ngendered who can see this, witliout being reminded of some case, perhaps within\\nhis own personal knowledge, where a passionate, ignorant and perverse teaeher,\\nwho, for the sake of saving a few dollars of money, or from some other low mo-\\ntive, has been put in possession of an equal number of fine-spirited children, and\\nhas, even in a short space of time, put an evil spirit into the bosom of them all\\nWhat is most remarkable in reference to the class of institutions now under con-\\nsideration, is the high character of the men, for capacity, for attainments, for soci;il\\nrank, who preside over them. At the head of a private orphan house in Potsdam,\\nis the venerable Von Tiirk. According to the laws of his country. Von Turk is a\\nnobleman. His talents and acquisitions were such that at a very early age, he\\nwas elevated to the bench. This was, probably, an office for life, and was attended\\nwith honors and emoluments. He officiated as judge for fourteen years but in\\nthe course of this time, so many criminal cases were brought before him for adjudi-\\ncation, whose only cause and origin were so plainly referable to early neglect in\\nthe culprit s education, that the noble heart of the judge could no longer bear to\\npronounce sentence of condemnation against the prisoners for he looked upon\\nthem as men, who, almost without a parado.x, might be called guiltless offenders.\\nV^ hile holding the office of judge he was appointed school inspector. The para-\\nmount importance of the latter office grew upon his mind as he executed its duties,\\nuntil, at last, he came to the full conception of the grand and sacred truth, how\\nmuch more intrinsically honorable is the vocation of the teacher, who saves from\\ncrime and from wrong, than the magistrates who waits till they are committed,\\nand then avenge them. He immediately resigned his office of judge, with its life-\\ntenure and its salary traveled to Switzerland, where he placed himself under the\\ncare of Pestalozzi and, after availing himself for three years of the instructions of\\nthat celebrated teaeher, he returned to take charge of an orphan asylum. Since\\nthat time he has devoted his whole life to the care of the neglected and destitute.\\nHe lives in as plain and inexpensive a style as our well-off farmers and mechanics,\\nand devotes his income to the welfare of the needy. I was told by his personal\\nfriends that he not only deprived himself of the luxuries of life, but submitted to\\nmany privations in order to appropriate his small income to others whom he con-\\nsidered more needy and that his wife and family cordially and cheerfully shared\\nsuch privations with him for the same object. To what extent would our own\\ncommunity sympathize with, or appreciate the act, if one of the judges of our\\nhigher courts, or any other official dignitary, should resign an office of honor and\\nof profit to become the instructor of children.\\nEven now, when the once active and vigorous frame of the patriarchal man is\\nbending beneath the weight of years, he employs himself in teaching agriculture, to-\\ngether with the branches commonly taught in the Prussian schools, to a class of or-\\nphan boys. What warrior, who rests at last from the labors of the tented field, after\\na life of victories what statesman, whose name is familiar in all the courts of the civi-\\nlized world what orator, who attracts towards himself tides of men wherever he\\nmay move in his splendid course what one of all these would not, at the sunset\\nof life, exchange his fame and his clustering honors, for that precious and abound-\\ning treasury of holy and beneficent deeds, the remembrance of which this good\\nold man is about to carry into another world Do we not need a new spirit in our\\ncommunity, and especially in our schools, which shall display only objects of vir-\\ntuous ambition beiore the eyes of our emulous youth and teach them that no\\nheight of official station nor splendor of professional renown, can equal in the eye\\nof Heaven, and of all good men, the true glory of a life consecrated to the welfare\\nof mankind", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0534.jp2"}, "535": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE,\\nMETTRAY, NEAR TOURS, IN FRANCE.\\nThe institution or colony of Mettray, four miles from Tours, was\\nfounded by M. Demetz and M. le Vicomte de Bretigneres de Courteilles,\\nboth gentlemen of wealth and high social position, who, associating them-\\nselves with other philanthropists, founded in 1837 a society, whose\\nobject is thus expressed\\n1. To exercise a benevolent superintendence over children of tender\\nyears, who have been acquitted of crimes in consequence of their youth,\\nand which may be confided to their care by the State to procure for\\nthese children, placed in an agricultural institution, a moral and relig-\\nious education, as well as an elementary instruction to teach them a\\ntrade; to accustom them to the healthy toils of agriculture, and to pro-\\ncure them situations at the expiration of their term, in the country, at\\nthe homes of artizans, or small farmers.\\n2. To watch over the conduct of these children, and to give them all\\nthe aid of their patronage as long as they shall need it, or for three\\nyears.\\nThe founders of Mettray accepted the sublime doctrine of Christianity,\\nwhich authorizes a belief in the possibility of regeneration, and permits\\nnot to despair of the most abandoned human being; and they have\\nmade religion the fundamental principle of their system. On religion,\\nwrites De Tocqueville, one of its founders, depends the future of all\\npenitentiary reform.\\nThe practice of religion, the love and habit of labor, the spirit of\\nfamily association, the emulation of example, the cultivation of honor,\\nthe habitual obedience to law, and a self-imposed restraint on the use of\\nliberty these grand and simple ideas embrace all the reforming in-\\nfluence, all the moralizing power of Mettray. Placed here with a view\\nto their restoration to society as freemen and productive laborers, they\\nare here ingeniously indoctrinated with the spirit of the family, habit-\\nuated to social duties, a self-regulated liberty, and to the constant occu-\\npation of their choice. No armed police, no walls, no bolts, no keys,\\nhonor alone preserves at once discipline and freedom. Why, said a\\nvisitor, do you not escape Because there are no walls, and it\\nwould be disgraceful, replied the colonist of Mettray.\\nThe details of organization, instruction, employment, and administra-\\ntion^ and the results, economical and reformatory, of this interesting\\nenterprise, will be found clearly set forth in the following report of a\\nvisit made by M. Ducpetiaux in 1849, and included in his Report to the\\nMinister of Justice in Belgium.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0535.jp2"}, "536": {"fulltext": "534 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\nThe following account of the school of Mettray is taken from notes\\nmade during a visit there in September. 1849. with special reference to\\ncertain matters of organization, administration, discipline, and statistics;\\nIts purpose was altogether practical for which reason, it enters into\\ndetails which are usually overlooked in visiting such an estabhshment,\\nonly to form a more or less complete idea of it, or to write a description.\\nThere was another purpose, in addition to this, namely: to observe\\nthe effects of the revolution in France of 1848 upon the school of Met-\\ntray, and to judge of the strengtii and vitality of an enterprise com-\\nmenced by private efforts. Our fears on this subject have been quite\\nrelieved. Mettray has resisted both the political and financial crisis;\\nand notwithstanding the decree which, by suppressing mechanical labor\\nin the prisons, has broken up its workshops and confined its pupils en-\\ntirely to agriculture, and the material reduction in its resources, we found\\nit in its usual prosperity, and under its usual admirable discipline.\\nThe peculiar character of this establishment is owing to the qualities of its\\notficers. There are there two men M. Demetz and Viscount de Courteiljes\\nbearing titles, and enjoying all the advantages of fortune and high social position,\\nwho devote themselves exclusively to an unobtrusive and wearisome employment.\\nTheir virtues and their example have gathered around them a band of young\\nmen animated with the same spirit, and who have sacrificed unhesitatingly their\\nown interests to that of the work in which they are associated. Unfortunately,\\nthis number has recently been diminished by the necessity of retrenching the\\nexpenses of the establishment within the bounds of the strictest economy. The\\nreform in this direction has only operated upon the corps of officers. Some,\\nthinking their number too great, thought it might be reduced without inconven-\\nience. This, however, was not the opinion of the committee sent in 1849, by\\nthe committee on labor of the national assembly, to visit the school of Mettray.\\nThis commission declared in its report, that the school was a great source of\\ngood, and would save to society a still greater sum of evil and ended by say-\\ning that the government could receive nothing but honor from taking the school\\nof correction at Mettray under its protection. Hon. M. Gillon, representative\\nfrom the department of the Meuse, spoke with regard to the officers, as follows\\nThe large expense at Mettray is owing to the number of persons employed;\\nbut this large number is required by the plan of the school, which is, to use moral\\ninfluences, and to use them so well that the children will remain honest people\\nall their lives. It is of great importance to them to leave the school witii health\\nimproved, mind educated, and knowing an occupation which puts them above\\nwant but moral reformation, the social affections, the principles of honesty and\\nreligion, good habits and qualities of heart, are a thousand times more important;\\nand these it is impossible to bestow upon the children without costly and numer-\\nous preparations. It would be possible, instead of building a separate house for\\nforty only, to lodge them in large rooms like barracks instead of placing a head\\nof a family over every forty children, an overseer might take charge of eighty or\\na hundred but in that case the personal influence of the directors or of their\\nsubordinates, coming from a more distant point and extending over a greater sur-\\nface, would be less deep and thorough, and the effects less salutary and lasting.\\nNature gives only a few children to one father.\\nThat cheaper arrangements might have been made, we do rot deny but it\\nis difficult to believe that in that case such complete and satisfactory results would\\nhave followed. Certainly those which we actually witnessed at Mettray do not\\nappear to have been too dearly purchased.\\nNotwithstanding the justice of these observations, an imperious necessity forced\\nthe directors to dismiss twenty assistants by which a saving was made of $3,585.\\nAfter this reduction, the officers and assistants of the school and their salaries\\nwere, at our visit in September, 1849, as follows.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0536.jp2"}, "537": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 5^5\\nTwo directors, without salary.\\nOne assistant direclor, willnouf salary.\\nOne general agent at Paris, witliout salary.\\nOne ctia()la n. S36U. and lodging\\nOne principal secretary, S400, lodging, board,\\nand uniform at 612 per annum\\nA. Officers.\\nOne treasurer, $400. and same.\\nOne book-keeper and chashier, $240, and\\nsame.\\nOne head teacher, $200, and same.\\nOne head overseer of labor, $240, and same.\\nEleven chiefs of families, $100, lodging, board, I One singing-master, (employed also as clerk,)\\nand uniform at $12 per annum. $100, and same.\\nB. Chiefs op Families\\n00, lo\\nanni\\nOne jailor, $100, and same.\\nC. Sub-Chiefs op Families.\\nTwelve sub-chiefs of families, 40 dollars,\\nD. Foremen of Mechanical Workshops.\\nOne master tailor, $60, with board and lodg-\\ning.\\nOne master blackmith, $230. and lodging.\\nOne master wooden-shoe maker, $180, and\\nlodging.\\nOne master wheelright, $180, and lodging.\\nOne foreman of painting, glazing, and lighting,\\n$120. and lodging.\\nOne master carpenter, $140. and lodging.\\nOne master rope-maker, $140, anil lodging.\\nTwo masons, paid by the day, at (1 Ir. 75c.)\\n35 cents.\\nE. Agricultural Foremen.\\nTen agricultural foremen, $60, with board and I Two gardeners, paid by M. Courteilles, but\\nlodging. I whose labor is given to the school.\\nF. Teamsters.\\nOne head wagoner, $80, with board and lodg- I Three drivers two at $60, one at $50, with\\ning. I board and lodging.\\nG. Other Assistants.\\nOne watchman, $120. I One farm watchman, $60, with board and\\nOne domestic, $60. with board and lodging. lodging.\\nOne messeiiger, .$60, with board and longing. One miller, $200, in full.\\nAll those in lists B, C, D, E, F, and G, have also a uniform, except the gard-\\neners and the miller.\\nH. Sisters of Charity.\\nSeven sisters of charity, $30, with lodging and maintenance, except clothes\\nOf the seven, one is the superior the others respectively have charge of ex-\\npenditure, cooking, washing, work-room, infirmary, and pharmacy.\\nThe medical supervision is intrusted to a physician of Tours, who visits daily\\nthe sick of the school.\\nThe entire number of officers and assistants, paid and unpaid, is 65, besides\\nsisters of charity. Their proportion to the number of the pupils, is one to seven.\\nThe amount of salaries is $6,410 of other allowances, $4,565, namely\\nBoard of maintenance of 55 assistants, at 20 cents a day,\\naverage, $4,015\\nUniform of same, at average of $10 per annum, 550\\nTotal, $4,565\\nThe whole expense for personal services is therefore $10,975; that is, for 522\\npupils, an expense of $21 a year each.\\nEach individual employed may have twelve days vacation a year, which are\\narranged according to his own convenience and that of the establishment, but so\\nthat not more than two are absent at the same time.\\nThe preparatory or training school of foremen continues to answer the purpose\\nof its creation it is an actual seminary from which the establishment draws its\\nbest and most devoted officers.\\nAdmissions to the preparatory school are not allowed, except for very particular\\nreasons, before the age of sixteen years they are much more frequently at sev-\\nenteen and eighteen.\\nNo fee is demanded for the instruction the school provides for them, and gives\\nthem an education in the knowledge requisite for overseers, teachers, and farmers.\\nThey occupy a separate location, in the building with the infirmary. Tliey occupy,\\nin case of need, the places of the lieads and sub-heads of families, act as substi-\\ntutes generally, and serve as clerks. After a certain period of probation, those\\nwho have not the necessary qualities or capacity, are sent home to their femiliea.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0537.jp2"}, "538": {"fulltext": "536 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, Al METTRAY.\\nOf 157 pupils admitted to the preparatory school, up to 1st January, 1849, 36\\nare still at Mettray, where they fill the places of secretary, treasurer, cashier,\\nteacher, store watchman, conductor of labor, chiefs and sub-chiefs of families;\\n9 have left Mettray, to enter the profession of teaching 14 are engaged in dif-\\nferent occupations, (roads and bridges, railroads, insurance offices, trades 10\\nhave entered the army 5 are farming overseers; 31 are practicing industrial\\noccupations; 51 have left the school for want of capacity 1 is dead.\\nTlie school of foremen has now 12 pupils, of whom several intend to teach,\\nand the others to practice horticulture or agriculture.\\nNUMBER ADMITTED.\\nThe school proper has increased only slowly and progressively. During the\\nten years since its foundation, its numbers have enlarged as follows\\nDecember 31, 1840, 77\\n1841, 134\\n1842, 176\\n1843, 221\\n1844, 339\\nDecember 31, 1845, 376\\n1846, 425\\n1847, 528\\n1848, 526\\n1849, 560\\nThe last reports on the condition of the school, in 1848 and 1849, furnish some\\ninteresting statistics, from which an opinion can be formed upon the actual condi-\\ntion of the school, and the results up to this time of the arrangement and disci-\\npline introduced there.\\nOne thousand one hundred and eighty-four children have been admitted into\\nthe school, from its establishment in June, 1839, to December 31, 1849. In\\n1849 alone, there were 144 admissions.\\nOf this number were present, January 1, 1850, 546. In November, 1849, the\\nnumber of pupils was 563 the greatest since the opening of the school.\\nOf 1040 children admitted up to 1st January, 1849, 237 were illegitimate, 742\\nborn of a first marriage, 61 were of parents married a second time.\\nDuring the same time there entered 13 children under 7 years old, 222 imder\\n12 years old, and 805 over 12.\\nThe 560 scholars who composed the school in the end of 1849, were occupied\\nas follows: 336 farming, 71 gardening, 141 learning trades, 12 cooks, lamp-\\nlighters in infirmary, c.\\nThe occupations learned at Mettray are almost all connected with the labors of\\nthe field. Such are the trades of the wheelwright, blacksmith, farrier, carpenter,\\nmason, wooden-shoe maker, shoemaker, tailor, rope-maker, sail-maker. The pupils\\nhave not made any additional clearings but they have dug a hundred acres\\nof land, eighteen inches deep. They have also made and repaired all the roads\\nof the school and the farm. The soil of the latter, although presenting some dif-\\nficulties on account of the boulders scattered over it, is nevertheless, in general,\\nfertile. It produces gi-ain of all kinds, wine, cider, various fruits, legumes, fodder,\\nmadder, c.\\nThe decree of the Provisory Government which put an end, in the beginning\\nof 1848, to labor in the prisons and benevolent institutions, forced the authorities\\nof Mettray to close half their workshops, and to send the hands to agricultural\\nlabor which explains the large number of pupils employed there.\\nThis change has not taken place without great embarrassments, and difficulties\\nof daily occurrence. All peculiarities and characters are not fit for agricultural\\nlabor. The apprentice to a carpenter, a wheelwright, or blacksmith, who was\\njust about becoming a journeyman, regretfully remembers his trade becomes\\ndisgusted with the labor of the farm and murmurs, and is dissatisfied at the\\ngovernment which condems him to involuntary labor. It is not now, as formerly,\\nthe preference or the talent of the children which must be consulted, but the ne-\\ncessities of the new situation of the school.\\nNotwithstanding these difficulties, the conduct of the pupils has continued good,\\nas is shown by the register of honor. The average number of names in this re-\\ngister, during 1849, has been 224 of whom are registered\\nFor the first time, 56\\nFor the second time, 29\\nFor the third time, 18\\nFor the fourth time, 22\\nFor the fifth time, 19\\nFor the sixth time, 16", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0538.jp2"}, "539": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 537\\nFor the seventh time, 12 I For the eleventh time, 5\\nFor the eighth time, 1 For the twelfth time, 4\\nFor the ninth time, 9 P or the thifteenth time, 4\\nFor the tenth time, 8 For the fourteenth time, 5\\nAnd one, each of the following numbered times fifteenth, sixteenth, seven-\\nteenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first.\\nIn 1847, of 509 pupils, were registered 226 names; in 1848, of 522 pupils,\\nwere registered 257 names and the same year 46 names were erased. The\\nchildren remain in the school, in general, for a period of not more than tliree\\nyears and as the register of honor is written up every three months, it is easy\\nto see why the number of names entered more than twelve times, is very small.\\nSince the opening of the school, 528 pupils have been put in situations, 105 of\\nwhom were placed during 1849. Of these 528 150 are in military service,\\neither by conscription or voluntary enlistment 127 in the army, and 23 in the\\nnavy 17 are married, and most of them have children 150 have remained of\\nirreproachable deportment 26 have conducted moderately well 6 have run\\naway from their guardians 46 have relapsed. Of these last, .33 arc from towns,\\nand 19 from Paris the remaining 11 from the country. Their number may at\\nfirst sight appear painfully large, but on considering the condition in which these\\nchildren have been placed, it seems surprising that it is not greater for, of 528\\nchildren leaving during ten years, 43 were foundlings 46 are of parents re-\\nmarried, (step-children;) 222 have neither father or mother; 106 are illegiti-\\nmate 18 are of parents living in concubinage 142 are of families of bad repu-\\ntation 77 are of parents now in prison.\\nWith such parentage, was there not good reason to fear for their future?\\nAt Mettray, as at most otlier schools of the same class, it is often noticed that\\nthe children sent from the towns show repugnance to agricultural labor. Of 200\\npupils from the department of the Seine, 9 only have finally settled in that em-\\nployment. These children belonged mostly to families of mechanics, who spoke\\ncontemptuously, in their letters, of rural occupations. The children born in the\\ncountry fortunately have different feelings.\\nThe annual reports furnish interesting details of the nature and results of the\\npatronage extended to the dismissed pupils, and of the efforts made to find them\\nsituations. The success of these operations in 1848 and 1849, has surpassed the\\nexpectation of the directors. The number of pupils in situations increases year!}\\nand forms a numerous outside population, constituting really a second school, out-\\nside the first. The correspondence of the officers with these young people is\\ndaily, and requires special agents and continual care. There is, in truth, almost\\nno end to the assistance given to the pupils of Mettray. The establishment sus-\\ntains to-day more than 509 pupils, whom it has really adopted, and whom it\\nwatches vigilantly and this number Is Increasing dally. But this occasions no\\nfears to the authorities of the school, because they are convinced that for so good\\na work, there will never be any lack of sympathy.\\nThe pupils are permitted, when out of work, and until there is a good situation\\nfound for them, to re-enter the school and take their place temporarily in the\\nfamily of which they formed a part. This receives them like a brother, and\\ndivides its food with them.\\nThe pupils who continue to conduct themselves well for two years after leaving\\nMettray, receive from the directors a symbolic ring with the device, Faithful-\\nness surpasses all, (Loyaute passe tout.)\\nThe penalty of continued misconduct is the replacement of the pupil in the\\ncentral establishment. This was inflicted during 1848 but three times twice for\\ninnnorality, and once for assisting in an attempt to run away.\\nThe sanitary condition of the school is very satisfactory, and the number of\\ndeaths has been very small. From its foundation in 1840 to 1849, during 10\\nyears. It has lost only 59 children. The number and per centage of deaths during\\nthat period has been as follows\\nYear.\\n1840\\nNumber.\\n2\\n7\\n1\\nRate.\\n1 to 51\\n1 to 26\\n1 to 40\\n1 to 47\\n1 to 144\\nPer cent.\\n2\\n4\\n2A\\n2\\\\\\nYear.\\n1845\\nNumber.\\n4\\nRate.\\n1 10 84\\n1 10 76\\n1 to .50\\n1 to 51\\n1 to 134\\nPer cenl.\\n1841\\n1842\\n1846\\nmr\\nVS48\\nlSi9\\n7\\n10\\n17\\n3\\n2\\n1843\\n1844\\n3\\n5\\n5\\nS", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0539.jp2"}, "540": {"fulltext": "538 REFORM SCHOOL. OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\nOf the 17 pupils deceased in 1848, thirteen were diseased with pulmonary\\nconsumption, one with typhoid ftver, one with tuberculous meningitis, one with\\nscrofulous consumpt.on, and one with dropsy. In 1849, of four deaths, two were\\nfrom pulmonary consumption, one from typhoid fevei and one from scrofula.\\nThis small mortality is the more surprising, because cholera and dysentery made\\ngreat ravages in 1849 in Tours and the vicinity.\\nThe amount of mortality depends especially upon the health of the children\\nwhen they arrive at the schools. According to the reports of tlie physicians em-\\nployed at Mettray, that place is perfectly healthful. The pupils liave up to this\\ntime escaped all the epidemic maladies which have ravaged the country. Inves-\\ntigation of the register shows that the number of children admitted to the infirm-\\nary decreases in proportion to the increase of the length of their stay in the\\nschool which proves that their constitutions are invigorated under the regimen\\nthere established.\\nOf 1184 children admitted at Mettray, up to December 31, 1849, 717 came\\ncompletely ignorant; 270 had some notions of reading; 143 knew how to read 5\\n54 only knew how to write.\\nThe pupils have 14 hours of school instruction a week, divided as follows Re-\\nligious instruction, 2 hours; reading, writing, and arithmetic, 10 hours; vocal\\nmusic, 2 hours. The chaplain also teaches the catechism an hour every day, to\\nthose children who have not received their first communion^generally 9-lOths\\nof the whole. The elementary instruction given to the pupils is equivalent to\\nthat received by the mechanics in the towns. The classes are formed in each\\nfamily under the direction and supervision of the head instructor. The cliiefs\\nand sub-chiefs have assistants chosen fi om among the pupils, and who receive daily\\na special lesson two hours long from the head instructor. At certain peiiods of\\nthe year, each family selects six of its best scholars who, together with those se-\\nlected by the other families, write compositions. These exercises are followed by\\nthe delivery of prizes. By this double arrangement, of the daily classes in the\\nfamilies, and the meeting of them all, is secured all that emulation which springs\\nfrom the strife of many competitors.\\nOne of the general inspectors of primary schools, who was recently sent to\\nMettray by the minister of public instruction, sums Up as follows the amount of\\ninstruction given at the time of his visit\\nThe pupils are children deprived, for the most part, until they come to Met\\ntray, of all instruction, moral or intellectual. All that is indispensable for them\\nis the first rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and instruction in re-\\nligion. In addition to this, however, have beeh taught to the more intelligent,\\nlinear drawing and singing church music. Lessons in vocal and instrumental\\nmusic are given to the best pUpils, by way of reward.\\nUpon the whole, I am of the opinion that the school of Mettray deserves the\\ntestimony of your highest good wishes, and that it will be proper to grant to it a\\nsubsidy from the public funds, for the increase of the joint school established\\nthere for foremen and pupils.\\nBesides the practical instruction resulting from the employing of the pupils in\\nagriculture, they attend, once a week, a course of lessons in agriculture, horticul-\\nture and veterinary practice. The directors of Mettray propose to adopt for this\\ncourse the course of study of the agricultural schools they also intend to estab-\\nlish a special agricultural school for young persons other than the members of the\\nschool pi-oper, who may wish to study such a course, regarding for this purpose\\nthe usual course of cultivation in the neighborhoods\\nThe division of the pu|)ils into families is a characteristic of the discipline at\\nMettray each family occupies a separate building, containing its dormitory, re-\\nfectory, and school. This house is 39 feet long by 2U feet wide, and containing\\na basement and two stories. The outer room of the basement serves for a work-\\nshop in some of the houses it is divided into compartments by a partition low\\nenough to permit a single overseer in the middle, to inspect all the divisions, and\\nhigh enough to prevent the children, when seated, from seeing each other, or com-\\nmunicating. The air circulates in the open space above, so as to keep all the com-\\npartments at the same temperature, whatever the number of children employed\\nin each. The first and second stories are each thrown into one spacious room,\\nwliich, by an ingenious arrangement, serves in turn as dormitory, refectory, play-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0540.jp2"}, "541": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 539\\nroom in bad weather, and school -room. Two beams, fixed by a hinge at one end,\\nare erect d against the wall, one on each side of the door. To arrange the refec-\\ntory, these are lowered and resled on uprights; in vvh.eh posit. on they separate\\nthe room into two diV:sioiis, leaving a passage in the niiddie fur the overseers\\nboards are la.d crosswise the room, upun the beams, resting npDii them and the\\nwall, and the refectory is ready. To prepare the dornn tory, nisiead of the boards\\nate arranged haminocks, stowed along the walls, which are taken down and hung\\nto the beams. These hammocks are slung parallel to each other, but so that of\\nevery two children, the head of one is toward the wall, and of the other toward the\\nbeam. This arrangement hinders talking, and facilitates supeivisinn. Above eaclr\\nis a cupboard containing the effects of the pupil, which he isreijuired to keep very\\nneatly.\\nAt one end of the room is a small alcove shut in from it by blinds, permitting\\nthe occupant to look tlirough without being seen. Here the chi^f of the family\\nsleeps. He has the supervision of two sections of 20 children each, and is assisted\\nby a sub-chief and two elder brothers, chosen from among the pup.ls.\\nThis arrangement is the same for all the houses except two, one of wli.oh serves\\nfor the lodging of the chaplain, and the other contains the business oftices of the\\nschool. The space of 33 feet, wh cli separates the houses from each other, is oc-\\ncupied by sheds which serve as depositories for farming, and for shelter from rain.\\nThe house where the youngest of the children are lodged has been placed, by a\\ntouching inspiration, under the protection of Mary, the patron of the altiicted and\\nof the motherless. The other houses have carved upon their fronts the names o(\\nthe individuals or towns whose l.berality contributed to the foundation of iMettray.\\nThe ten houses are arranged upon two sides of a spacious court, planted with\\nshrubs and covered with turf Atone end of it is the church, a siinple and ma-\\njestic structure, rustic yet elegant at the other is a pavilion which serves as a\\ndwelling house for M. de Metz, one of the directors. In front of this are erected\\nthe mast and spars of a ship, with their rigging and sails. This apparatus, wh ch\\nis quite perfect, is to be used for the exercises of the naval apprentices. It was\\npresented to the school by the niinister of marine.\\nTo the right and left of the church are two buildings containing a large school-\\nroom, a store-room of farming tools and models, lodgings for assistants behind it\\nis the house of correction, surrounded with a walled court-yard. This is a small\\nprison consisting of cells, built so as to form a prolongation to the church so that\\nthe children when shut up may attend divine service, and s?e the priest at the\\naltar, without leaving their cells, or seeing one another. This is arranged simply\\nby drawing a screen.\\nAround the house of correction are arranged the farm-yards and buildings, a\\nhandsome range of stables for cattle, barns, a piggery, horse-stables, a dairy, c.\\nand a little further the cemetery. The principal stable, which can accommr)date\\nfifty head of cattle, is divided lengthwise by a wide passage, on both sides of which\\nare arranged the mangers.\\nNear the entrance to the establishment, but a little on one side, is a separjite\\nbuilding containing the infirmary, the laundry, the school of foremen, the apart-\\nments of the sisters of charity, the kitchen, the wash i oom, the bakery, the shop,\\nc. before it is the gymnasium and its apparatus behind it, the kitchen-garden.\\nAll the buildings have been erected after the plans of the architect M. Hlouet,\\nwho has himself directed the operations in the most honorably disinterested man-\\nner. From the accounts which we have seen, it appears that each house for pupils\\ncost $1,520; the cow-house $.5,089.40, and the chapel and prison, .$18,934.20.\\nAdding to the price of each house the sum of .$480 for movables and other ex-\\npenses, we have a total of $2,000 equal to an annual expenditure of $100 for\\neach family, and of $2.50 per pupil.\\nThe cemetery which stands some distance from the buildings, forms a parallelo-\\ngram, where the graves are arranged in regular order. At the head of each is\\nplanted a cypress in the middle of the cemetery is erected a cross. The elder\\nbrothers have the care of the cemetery. All the children attend the funerals and\\nthe directors, on the.se occasions, address them in simple and touching words,\\nwhich make upon their minds the impression which the funeral ceremony makes\\nupou their imagination.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0541.jp2"}, "542": {"fulltext": "540 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\nThe expenses of the school are so calculated as to furnish each pupil with neces-\\nsaries, but with no superfluities.\\nThe bedding consists of a simple hammoelc, a small grass mattress, a pillow, a\\npair of sheets, and one or two coverlids, according to the season.\\nThe wardrobe given to each pupil at his admission, contains,\\n1 shirt, $1 .2 2 blouses, $1 .34 3 pair pantaloons, $2.07 2 pair gaiters, $0.30\\n1 cap, $0.40 1 straw hat, ,$0 25; 1 pair shoes, $1.20; 1 pair wooden shoes,\\n$0.23; 2 blacking-brushes, $0.10 1 hair-brush, $0.0.3 1 comb-brush, $0.05\\n1 comb, $0.05; 1 black neckcloth, $0.20; 1 red do., $0.15; 1 woolen blouse\\n$1.21 1 woolen waistcoat for winter, $1.00 1 pair drawers of fustian for winter,\\n$0,40; total, $10.20.\\nThe shirts, and washed clothes in general, are owned in common and are\\nchanged often enough to obey the requirements of neatness. These clothes in-\\nclude for each child 3 shirts, 3 handkerchiefs, and 2 pair winter stockings.\\nAt leaving, the pupil also receives a complete wardrobe, viz., 2 pair pantaloons,\\n2 blue blouses, 1 waistcoat, 1 cap, 1 pair suspenders, 3 cotton shirts, 2 cravats, 3\\npocket-handkerchiefs, 3 pair under stockings, 1 pair shoes of which the expense\\nis estimated at $ti.OO.\\nThe labor and age of the children require substantial nourishment, which is fur-\\nnished as follcjws\\nTwo days per week.\\nBread, 26^ lb. (7.50 gr.,) costing, $0.03.6\\nDinner meiit, four-tenths of a pound, legumes, bread, and soup,... 0.02\\nSupper potatoes and butter salt and onions, 0.01\\nDrink, 0.00.4\\n$0.07\\nFive days per week.\\nBread, 26i lb $0.03.6\\nDinner; beans or other legume, butter, salt, onions, 0.00.6\\nSupper legumes, butter, 0.01.6\\nDrink, 0.00.4\\n$0.06.2\\nThe weekly board of each pupil at Mettray cost, September, 1849, $0.45 at the\\nreform school of Ruysselede, at the same time, it was not over $0.28.\\nThe daily arrangement of time varies with the seasons. [See appendix.]\\nAt entering the school, the pupil is intei rogated as to his birth, the condition of\\nhis family, the fault which brought him before the court, and in short all the de-\\ntails of his short and often sad history. This information is entered in a register,\\nwhere also is written afterwards v^ hatever concerns each pupil, his stay at the school,\\nhis conduct and situation after his departure. An examination of this moral\\naccount is very interesting it shows the good effect of the management and dis-\\ncipline of the establishment. We made minute investigations into the elements of\\nthese modest annals, for the purpose of preparing a similar S3 stem, which we have\\nintroduced into the reform school at Ruysselede.\\nAfter having been examined, the pupil is placed in a family, and set at work\\neither on the farm or in a workshop, in a manner suitable to his age and strength,\\nand as much as possible, to his individual fitness. It has been considered proper\\nto teach or continue the child in the occupation of his family, if it have an honest\\none, for the pupil, at the expiration of his term,, should naturally return to his\\nparents, and render them his services. This very practical considei-ation demands\\nrespectful attention.\\nThe classification by families establishes among the pupils who compose them a\\nsort of community of interest and bf)nd of brotherhood. All feel under obligations\\nto each, and each to all. Interest and emulation are excited among the pupils with\\nas much skill as propriety. Part of the work is given out by tasks and the self-\\nrespect of the pupils urges them to show themselves worthy of this mark of confi-\\ndence. They are taught to consider it honorable to be useful to their comrades,\\nand especially to their masters and accordingly none are employed in detached\\nservices for cooking, baking, in the kitchen-garden and infirmary, in waiting\\nupon the foremen s table, except those whose conduct has been good. From time\\nto time are held general meetings of the pupils in the workshops the children\\ndecide on each others merits, and the highest receive a small individual reward.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0542.jp2"}, "543": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 54 1\\nwhich is placed in the savings-bank. No regular wages are ever given for labor.\\nNeither the payments nor prizes, of which we have spoken, are given, except to\\npupils whose names are upon the register of honor. The distribution is made once\\na week for the school, and once a month for the workshops the amount may\\naverage $5.00 per pupil. The elder brothers have a special payment of !$0.20 a\\nmonth, besides a ration extra on Sunday, and for them, likewise the payments\\nmade for labor and good conduct are doubled.\\nThe classification of the pupils by families, as above remarked, is the peculiar\\ncharacteristic and the pivot of the discipline of the school. The families are formed\\nby means of a nucleus, around which are arranged and aggregated the new pupils.\\nThis plan allows of the preservation of the family feeling, and of its peculiarities and\\nassociations. The regulations inserted after this notice give complete information\\nas to the organization and discipline of the famiUes, and the privileges and duties\\nof the chiefs, sub-chiefs, and elder brothers.\\nThe elder brothers, chosen by the pupils within each family, can not inflict pun-\\nishments they only note marks for ill conduct. These bad marks are read by a\\ndirector, on Sunday, in the general meeting of all the officers and pupils. In this\\nsame meeting, the director gives a detailed account of the situation of each family,\\ndistributes penalties and rewards, gives news from pupils gone and in places,\\nreads extracts from their correspondence, and communicates all matters of interest\\nto the school.\\nEach chief of a family makes a special report on the conduct of the pupils\\nthis is read at the meeting of the chiefs of families and officers, which takes place\\nevery Saturday afternoon. At this meeting, over which a director presides, is\\narranged the outline of the report for the general meeting on Sunday, tlie list of\\nrewards and punishments, c.\\nThe punishments are as follows\\n1. Public admonition; 2. standing still deprival of play; 3. dry bread for\\none or two meals 4. being shut in a cell on Sunday 5. imprisonment in\\nlighted cell 6. ditto, in dark cell, (the duration of this imprisonment is never\\ntold, but it is not generally more than two or three days. The imprisoned pupils\\nperform two hours exercise a day, at an ordinary step, and at the gymnastic step,\\nin the yard around the house of correction. During these exercises, the more\\nculpable wear handcuffs 7. dungeon for not more than three days 8. erasure\\nfrom register of honor 9. replacement in the central establishment.\\nSome offenses are adjudicated by the pupils themselves, who are appointed a\\njury for that purpose; the directors reserving only the power of moderating tha\\nverdict. When a gross offense is committed, the foreman sends the offender to\\nthe hall of reflection, an isolated apartment, where he remains some time\\nbefore being visited by a director. During this interval, the child recovers from\\nhis auger, the director then hears his story, and punishment, if necessary, is never\\ninflicted on him while irritated.\\nRewards are individual and collective. The latter are bestowed upon families,\\nand consist of public eulogies, and of presents and tokens of remembrance, which\\nare preserved with care. The others consist of eulogies, public likewise, gifts of\\narticles of daily usefulness, rewards for labor and for application while in school, and\\nfavors of different kinds. But the principal encouragement, and that most valued,\\nis registration in the register of honor, which is granted only to pupils who have\\nbeen three months without punishment, and who have, besides, distinguished\\nthemselves for good conduct.\\nAll these ingenious details, showing the high order of intelligence which pre-\\nsides at Mettray, and also a profound knowledge of the character of children,\\nhave been more or less imitated in most of the other reform schools, and espe-\\ncially at that of Petit-Bourg, where we find the elder brothers under the name\\nof monitors, the jury of pupils, the weekly meeting of officers, the register of\\nhonor, c.\\nWe have seen that the industrial organization at Mettray received a rude blow\\nby the decree of the provisional government (in 1849) above-mentioned. At the\\ntime of our visit, however, the workshops were beginning to be re-established.\\nOf the 11 families in the school, 7 were more especially occupied in agriculture;\\nthe 4 others, although furnishing a certain number of agricultui ists and horticxil-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0543.jp2"}, "544": {"fulltext": "Winter wheat, 150\\nSpring 7^\\nWinter oats, 52\\nSpring 8l(\\nMangel wurtzel, lit\\nPeiis 3-\\nIn(Jian curn 10\\nPotatoes 8J\\nBeans 7^\\n542 REFORM SCHOOL. OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\nturists, were chiefly employed in the workshops, at wheelwrighting, blacksmith-\\ning, locksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, rope and sail-making.\\nTo have the right of changing to another woikshop, the pupil must rank among\\nthe fii st three of his family, and be registered in the register of honor.\\nThe school cultivated, at first, only 80 acres it has now extended its improve-\\nments to more than 500 acres. Of this extent it owns about 37 acres the re-\\nmainder is leased from neighboring proprietors.\\nIn 1847, the division as to crops was as follows\\nAcres. Acres.\\nWinter vetches, 20\\nSpring 15\\nGrnpe vines, 20\\nMeadow 62J\\nHemp 3\\nKilohen-garden 22J\\nJerusiileni artichokes, 2i\\nClover, sant oin, 23\\nWood 10\\nTotal 49H\\nThere are, moreover, 15 J acres, occupied by play-grounds, roads, buildings,\\nunderwood, and pastui e, making a total of 505 acres, the entire domain of the\\nschool.\\nNumerous springs rise from the slopes. A small river and a brook flow the\\nwhole length of the farm, from northeast to south. The brook is used to irrigate\\nan extent of 37^ acres. The river can not b^^ used for that purpose, being used\\nby a number of mills, very near each other. The school has no manufacturing\\nestablishment but it owns a grist-mill with three run of stones, to which miglit\\nbe added a cleaning machine, or a machine for cutting woolen rags. The farm-\\ning apparatus is sufiicient.\\nThree families of pupils live on three farms worked by the school. A fire\\nwhich occurred upon the farm of Gaud.eres, but which was soon put out, occa-\\nsioned this arrangement. It was supposed that one watchman was not sufficient\\nduring the night. Providence, as it always does, brought good out of evil aux-\\niliary schools have thus been founded, which may serve as models for establish-\\nmjnts smaller than ftjjttray. We know that this system of small schools has\\nlong existed in Switzerland and Germany, where it lias produced the best results.\\nIt has been advocated in France by the lion. M. de Rainneville, who has put it\\nin practice on his farm of Allonville, near Amiens. M. Achille Duclesieux has\\nalso devoted himself enthusiastically to its introduction into Brittany, having suc-\\ncessfully established an experimental school at Saint Ilan, (Morbihan,)\\nBesides the chief and sub-chief of the family occupying it, there is attached to\\neach farm at Mettray a farming overseer and a female liousekeeper. Each farm\\noccupies from 75 to 100 acres. The buildings are so arranged as to contain,\\nbisides the barn and stable, the necessary room for the housekeeping and lodging\\nof the family. There is a common kitchen, and a separate room for the chief.\\nThe apartment of the pupils is arranged so as to serve in turn for sleeping room,\\nrefectory, school-room, and covered play-ground. It is usually from 45 to 52 feet\\nlong, and from 23 to 26 feet wide. For securing a healthy atmosphere are used\\nventilators, in the ceiling. The furniture consists of a hammock for each pupil,\\nthree pair of tables, twelve benches, shelves along the wall for stowing property,\\ntwo cupboards, the sub-chiefs bed, and the cooking apparatus and farming tools,\\nAn inventory is given in appendix F. The cost of furnishing the establishment,\\nand putting it in working order, may be estimated at (1,100 to 1,200 francs)\\n$220 to $240. The school furnishes provisions for, and directs the administra-\\ntion of the three farms, although each of them has its separate accounts, kept by\\nthe chief of the family.\\nIn other respects, the regulations and discipline of the detached families upon\\nthe farms, are quite the same as those of the families resident at the central\\nestablishment. In case of sickness, the pupils are carried to the central infirmary\\nand treated there. Every Sunday the detached families pass the day at the cen-\\ntral school, and join in the exercises, meetings, and sports of the other families,\\nThus is maintained the common bond among them.\\nAgricultural labor is the principal occupation at Mettray now, and the existing\\nworkshops can be considered only as dependencies upon the agricultural establisljr", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0544.jp2"}, "545": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\n543\\nment. This state of thinjEfs demands the greatest care ia cultivation, which unfor-\\ntunately is by no means in a satisfactory condition. Being pressed by circum-\\nstances, and by the necessity of extending the ai ea of cultivation in proportion to\\nthe growing number of inmates, the direotoi-s at Mettray have had to struggle\\nwith great local difficulties. Much of the land hired requires labor, long, costly,\\nand difficult for children to perform. Many large stones must be moved before\\nthe plow or spade can be used. Tliis slow operation is hardly performed before\\nthe leases expire. The school, therefore, probably does not recover its advances,\\nand the proprietors of the land, aind not the school itself, receive the advantage\\nof its severe labors. Add to this the frequent change of the farming overseers,\\neach using a different system and diflerent processes, and it is easy to account for\\nthe unfavorable pecuniary result of the agricultural operations of Mettray. In\\n1848. this branch of the establishment incurred a considerable debt, which has\\nprobably now been paid but the necessity is demonstrated of a radical and intel-\\nligent reform in this department. The directors are seriously occupied about this\\nmatter if we might offi. r them our advice, it would be, to inquire in the first\\nplace if it would not be best to limit cultivation to the land already cleared and in\\ngood condition, and to turn the rest, if possible, into meadows. By concentrating\\nupon the former the labor and the manure which have proved insufficient for too\\nextended an area, there would no doubt be obtained crops better, and relatively\\nmore abundant. The kitchen-garden in particular should be so enlarged as not\\nonly to answer the demands of the establishment, but to yield a surplus, which\\nwould probably find a market in the neighborhood and at Tours.\\nThe school at Mettray has ever since its its origin enjoyed lively sympathies,\\ncommanded not only by its object and its usefulness, but also by the personal\\ncharacter of its founders. General and municipal councils, courts of appeal, civil\\nand commercial tribunals, royal and private families, all have hastened to its aid.\\nJuries have made collections for it. M. Leon d Ourches has given to Mettray\\n$32,000. Others, instead of giving money, have generously provided the school\\nwith farming tools, clothes, books for the library, pictui cs, vases, and ornaments\\nfor the church. These unostentatious ofTerings have been considerable. The\\ngovernment has not confined itself to paying all the personal expenses of the\\nchildren confined there, but has also assisted the establishment with considerable\\nannual appropriations,\\nThe ordinary expenses from 1839 to 1848, were $117,519.74\\nE.xtraordinary do., 96,297.38\\nTotal expenses, $213,817.12\\nReceipts from without, $187,365.98\\nat home, 12,071.27\\nTotal receipts,\\nBalance of expenses over receipts,.\\n$199,437.25\\n$14,379.87\\nThe annual expense for maintenance of pupils, assistance of dismissed pupils,\\nschool of foremen, and advancement of cap tal, (amortissement du capital,) divided\\nby the number of pupils at Mettray, gives ihe following results\\nYear.\\n1840\\nPopulntion.\\n.57\\n113\\nper\\nExpense\\nhead per day.\\n$0,46,1\\n21.4\\nYear.\\n1845,\\nPopulation.\\n34.5,...\\nper\\nExpense\\nhead per day.\\n\u00c2\u00ab0.26 9\\n1841\\n1846\\n1847,\\n400,\\n.27.9\\n1842\\n160\\n.20.9\\n.28 3\\n459,...\\n.26.1\\n1843,\\n188,....\\n1848\\n509,...\\n.20.1\\n1844\\n289\\n.26.3\\n1849\\n536,...\\n.19.\\nIt appears that the expense has regularly decreased, according to the increase\\nof the population. This diminution has continued through 1848 and 1849, in\\nspite of the breaking up of the workshops and of the consequent decrease of\\nprofits on labor. This result is due to the economy introduced by the directors\\ninto different branches of the service. By persevering in this course, reorganize\\ning its mechanical labor, and adopting a system of agriculture which shall put an\\nend to deficits and bring in a profit, the school of Mettray will undoubtedly suc-\\nceed, in a short time, in overcoming the difficulties which it has hitherto encoun-\\ntered, and in settling its organizjition upon a firm financial basis. This is the\\nmore necessary, since the government, after 1849, pays oply 14 cents a day,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0545.jp2"}, "546": {"fulltext": ")44\\nREFORM JSCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\ninstead of 16, for each pupil, and only $14.00, instead of $16,00, for wardrobe at\\nentrance.\\nAPPENDIX.\\nA. Employment of Time.\\nSummer\\nSUNDAYS AND FEAST-DATS.\\nHours.\\nWORKINO DATS.\\n5. Rise, make beds.\\n5^. Dress, wash, c.\\n5j. Distribution of work.\\n7|. Breakfast, and play.\\n84. Distribution of work.\\n12|. End of work.\\n2. Sciiool begins.\\n3i. Distribution of work.\\n6i. Instrumental band practice.\\n1%. End of work put up tools.\\n8. Supper.\\n8J. Prayer evening singing.\\n9- Bedtime.\\n10. Curfew.\\n5. Rise, arrange beds, and clothes, c.\\n5J. Dressing, washing, c. prayer.\\n6. General cleaning up.\\n7. Breakfast, and play hours.\\n8. Mass.\\n94. General meeting for discipline.\\n104. Play.\\nllj. Military exercise exercise with fire-\\npump.\\nDinner and play.\\nVespers and benediction.\\nGymnastics.\\nMoral lesson, by director, or school.\\nBaths, or play.\\nSupper.\\n7j. Prayer, singing, and arrange property.\\n84. Bedtime.\\n10. Curfew.\\nNote.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Elder brothers are chosen the first Sunday of each month\\nWinter Season.\\nSUNDAYS AND FEAST-DAYS.\\nHours.\\nC. Rise, make bed order, effects.\\n6A. Dress, wash, c. prayer.\\n6J. General cleaning of house, c.\\n7i. Breakfast, and play.\\n8. Mass.\\n9i. General meeting for discipline, c.\\nlOi. Play.\\nHi. Exercises; military, and with fire\\nengine.\\n1. Dinner, and play.\\n2. Vespers, and benediction.\\n3. Gymnastics.\\n5. Moral instruction, or school.\\n6. Reading class.\\n7. Supper.\\n7J. Prayer, singing oraermg, effects.\\n8J. Bedtime.\\n10. Curfew.\\nNote. Elder brothers are chosen on the first Sunday of each month.\\nB. Regvlatwns of Infirmary.\\n1. The infirmary is directed by a sister of charity it is a place of quiet and repose\\nsilence must always be observed there; order and propriety must always reign there\\nchildren making troulile will be marked the first time, and punished by the sister, if\\nthey renew their disorderly conduct, they will be removed to a cell, where their med-\\nicSil treatment will be continued.\\n2. The police regulation of the infirmary belongs to the superior of the sisters of\\ncharity, and to the sister having charge there. The pupils must treat them with obedi-\\nence and respect failure to do which would be ungrateful.\\n3. Each bed is numbered.\\n4. Each pupil entering the infirmary will be taken thither by the chief of the family,\\nwho will deliver him directly into the hands of the sister in charge. The sister\\nwill enter in a register opened for the purpose, the pupil s name, the letter of his family,\\nthe number of the bed he occupies, and the date of his entrance.\\n5. At the first visit of the physician shall be entered, if practicable, in a special\\ncolumn, the nature of the disease.\\n6. Two registers shall be opened, one for the entrance and discharge of pupils, and\\nthe number of days passed in the infirmary, and the other for prescriptions and medical\\nobservations.\\nHours.\\nWORKING DATS.\\n6.\\nRise, make beds.\\n6i.\\nDress, wash, c.\\n6.V.\\nDistribution of work.\\n11\\nBreakfast, and play.\\n84.\\nDistribution of work.\\n12-45.\\nEnd of work.\\n1.\\nDinner, and play.\\n2.\\nDistribution of work.\\n6.\\nSchool.\\n7.\\nSupper.\\n1%.\\nPrayer, singing.\\n8.\\nBedtime.\\n10.\\nCurfew.\\nInstrumental music three times a week,\\nat noon.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0546.jp2"}, "547": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 545\\n7. A journal shall also be kept by the sister, of the conduct of the children in the\\ninfirmary, in which she shall enter the punishments inflicted by her, and the offenses\\nrequiring severer penalties. The foreman on guard shall come for this journal every\\nSaturday, and carry it to the council, where it shall be read, and shall carry it back,\\nevery Sunday morning.\\n8. In the absence of the sister, the pupils shall obey the pupil in charge, who shall\\nmake note of all offenses, and report them to the sister.\\n9. Each pupil shall come to the infirmary dressed in a cap, neckcloth, blouse, panta-\\nloons, and shoes, and shall have his comb and hair-brush. The sister shall give the\\nchief of the family a receipt for the linen and other effects brought by the pupil. If\\nany pupil shall come without the above articles, the pupil in charge of the infirmary\\nshall get them from the chief of the family alone.\\nJO. Every pupil discharged from the infirmary shall be delivered to the foreman on\\nguard, to wliom the sister shall send word by the pupil in charge, at a quarter before\\neight in the evening, on Monday and Friday, when he goes to supper. The foreman\\non auard, at his return lo duly, shall send the pupil to the chief of his family. To\\nfacilitate this service, the sister shall give the list of pupils leaving, daily, to the over-\\nseer of labor, who shall insert it in hi.s report.\\n11. The coming of the physician shall be announced by a signal. The fiupil in\\ncharge of the infirmary shall touch the bell, upon which the foreman on guard shall\\ncause the trumpet to sound. This visit takes place twice a week, on Monday and\\nFriday.\\n12. The chief of the house of correction shall report to the physician, at each visit,\\nthe sanitary condition thereof\\n13. No pupil shall be taken to see the doctor without-the written certificate of the\\nchief of his family. The night guard is especially charged to take them to the doctor,\\nupon proof that they have such certificate.\\n11. There shall take place a dressing (pansement) every day at half-past eleven, for\\nsick pupils. The foreman on guard shall conduct them to it regularly, with an elder\\nbrother, so that the pupils shall be at the infirmary at iialf-jiast eleven.\\n15. Any pupil falling sick during working hours, shall be put forthwith under charge\\nof the chief of his family, who alone shall have authority to conduct him to the infirmary.\\nIn his absence, the sub-chief shall perform this duty in his [)lace.\\nIG. The treatment ordered for pupils sick at the familj shall be explained by a note\\nwhich the sister shall send to the chief of the family, who shall superintend the execu-\\ntion of the directions.\\n17. Whenever the directors shall enter the infirmary, all pupils not confined to their\\nbeds shall place themselves at the foot of their beds, and remain there until the gen-\\ntlemen go out.\\nC. \u00e2\u0080\u0094Regulations for Chief of Family.\\n1. The school is divided into families of 40 children. Each of them is directed by a\\nchief, who is under the immediate supervision of the head secretary.\\n2. The insignia of the chief of a family are two ornaments worked upon the sleeves,\\nand black velvet on the cap. He has authority over all officers of a grade lower than\\nhis own.\\n3. The chief of a family has under his orders a sub-chief and two elder brothers,\\nwho assist him in the supervision of the family. He reads, every month, to his sub-\\nchief and elder brothers their duties.\\n4. The chief of a family has charge of the education of its children. He oversees\\ntheir primary instruction, under the direction of the teacher. He has charge of their\\ndress and support, attends to their wants, corrects their faults in a word, he is the\\nfather of the family, and is to fulfill all the duties of the station to the children, as if he\\nwere so in every respect.\\n5. The chief of the family keeps the journal and all papers belonging to the family.\\nHe has charge of the correspondence of those who can not write, but he is forbidden to\\nmail them until they have been left unsealed at the business office of the administration.\\n6. He is responsible for all the property and keeping of his house, linen, furniture,\\nbedding, clothing, lighting, in short every thing upon the inventory of the family.\\n7. The chief of a family should understand the platoon exercise, for the purpose of\\nmanaging his family the better during general meetings. He presides over all the\\nsports and movements of the family, watches over its order, and its work, the good\\ncondition and neatness of his house, and all his children. He makes an inspection of\\nproperty daily, and one of clothing weekly.\\n8. He lives all the time with his family. He rises first, and goes to bed last. He\\nkeeps at hand the keys of his doors and cupboards, shuts the house at night after curfew,\\nduring religious services, Sundays and feast-days.\\n9. The chief of a family inflicts punishment upon his children, conducts to the parlor\\nthose who have committed a grave offense, and to the infirmary those who are sick.\\nHe sends to the night-guard, with a written certificate, all children of his family whom\\nthe doctor should see, and who are not permitted to be so seen without such certificate.\\n35", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0547.jp2"}, "548": {"fulltext": "546 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AORICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\n10 He is to visit at least twice a week, those of his children who are in the cells or\\nthe infirmary, and to report such visits to the directors.\\n11. Every Saturday he receives from the sister having charge of the washing, the\\nclean linen, and every Monday he delivers her the dirty linen. He is forbidden to\\nretain any thing. He receives also for safe keeping all articles given to the good pupils.\\n12. Whenever the chief of the family is not at the same time foreman of a work-\\nshop, he is occupied during working hours in some of the business offices.\\n13. He directs a division in school, attends the music class, gymnastics, baths, and\\nall the meetings of the whole school.\\n14. He performs in his turn the service of day and night watchman, and of waiting on\\nvisitors.\\n15. The chief of a family has leave of absence for a day every month, and every\\nyear a vacation. Whenever he wishes to be absent from the school, he will notify the\\nsecretary the evening before, who will report the same to the directors.\\n16. The chief of the family is allowed to be up, in his room, until curfew at which\\ntime every one else in the house must be in bed.\\n17. The chief of the family is recommended not to have any thing about which may\\ntempt the pupils.\\n18. The chiefs of the families will send all the children to the foremen of the work-\\nshops, and the latter will send the children, at their return, to the chiefs; during these\\nmovements, the pupils should always be in their ranks. The chiefs of families will not\\ndetain any pupil from his work, or call him off from it, without having received written\\norders therefor.\\n19. If the chief of a family finds its impossible to perforin his duty, from sickness\\nor any other valid reason, he will immediately notify the secretary, who will fill his\\nplace.\\n20. The chiefs of families will call the children down from their meals by sound of\\ntrumpet, for the purpose of sending the sick to receive the physician s visit, or the\\ndressinif, every day at 25 minutes past one at latest.\\n21. For communications relating to their duties, the chiefs of families are to report\\nthemselves at half-past ten every morning to the director, who will attend to their\\nrequisitions, and give his personal attendance at their families, if it should be\\nrequired.\\nD.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Regulations of Sub-Chief of Family.\\n1. Each family is divided into two sections. The sub-chief commands one of them,\\nunder direction of the chief\\n2. The insignia of the office of sub-chief are a lace sewed upon the sleeve. He\\ncommands all officers of a grade below his own.\\n3. The sub-chief is under the immediate orders of the chief, and should pay him\\nobedience and respect.\\n4. The sub-chief assists the chief in supervision, and in taking care of the pupils\\nduring play-hours, in the sleeping and eating rooms, and whenever the family is\\ntogether.\\n5. He fills the place of the chief, when the latter is absent. He should understand\\nthe theory, and be able to command the manoeuvres, of the platoon exercise.\\n6. The sub-chief notes all offenses committed by the pupils, and reports them to the\\nchief, who alone has power to inflict punishments.\\n7. The sub-chief keeps the attendance roll of the family, by letters and numbers.\\nHe calls the roll three times a day, and keeps himself constantly certified of the\\npresence of the pupils. He marks all the effects of each pupil with his matriculate\\nnumber.\\n8. He has speciaf supervision of the pupil in waiting, and of those whose duty it is\\nto clean up after every meal, and on Sundays.\\n9. The sub-chief teaches one division of pupils. He should be present at music\\nclass, exercises, gymnastics, baths, and all times when the school is together.\\n10. He performs in his turn the duty of day and night watch, of waiting on visitors,\\nand of filling the place of foreman of a workshop.\\n11. The sub-chief is allowed to sit up in his room at night until curfew, when all\\nothers in the house must be in bed.\\n12. From the first distribution of work until breakfast, the sub-chief may attend in\\nthe monitor s class, to compilete his education.\\n13. The sub-chief will not be absent on any pretext, without having notified his\\nchief.\\n14. The sub-chief has a day s leave of absence every month, and a vacation every\\nyear. Whenever he may wish to be absent from, the school, he will notify the secre-\\ntary in writing the evening before, who will report the request to the directors.\\n15. The sub-chiefs are recommended not to have any article about them, which may\\ntempt the pupils.\\nIG. Whenever from sickness, or other valid reason, the sub-chief can not perforo)\\nhis duties, he will forthwith notify the secretary, who will supply his place.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0548.jp2"}, "549": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLOME AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 547\\n17. The sub-chief will not join in any of the plays of the pupils. He is forbidden\\nto read or write, during the hours of recreation, with his colleagues, or any one else.\\nNote. The best chief is not he who speaks loudest ami punishes ol tenest, but he who gives\\njust commands, whose words are concise, persuasive, and such as to command respect, and\\nwho punishes seldom.\\nThe intelligent chief should study the character of his children, so as to be able to adapt\\nhis words and manner to the age and peculiarity of each.\\nE Rebilatio.ns for the Elder Brothers.\\n1. The elder brother is chosen by the pupils, by secret ballot. He must be chosen\\nfrom among the names on the register of honor. If the director approves the choice\\nwhich has been made, he announces the appointment for one month, gives him an\\nembrace, and attaches to his sleeve the lace which i.s the ensign of his office. The\\nelder brother will merit the title and the confidence bestowed upon him, by exemplary\\nconduct,\\n2. The elder brother may be re-elected.\\n3. There are to be two elder brothers in each family.\\n4. At the first sound of the trumpet the elder brother will rise, will order the rest to\\nrise, will dress himself promptly, assist the young children, and help the chief and\\nsub-chief in the supervision of the dormitory, and of washing and dressing.\\n5. In the family and workshoji, in all the exercises within the house, and wherever\\nhe may he, the elder brother will assist his chiefs in supervision, will see that all move-\\nments from place to place, within the house, are made with propriety, silence, order,\\nand regularity. He will reprimand pupils committing the slightest error, and will mark\\nin a book used for that purpose, those who do not obey his first admonition.\\n6. When the family is together, the first elder brother carries the colors, and stands\\nat the right hand of the first rank the second behind him, in the rear rank. They will\\ndress the ranks of the pupils, and should learn to direct the manoeuvres of the piatooa\\nexercise.\\n7. The elder brother will assist the chief and sub-chief in supervision of sports. It\\nis there that he is to occupy himself earnestly in preventing disputes, imprudence, and\\nimpropriety, in rejiroving gross expressions, and lorbidding dangerous games.\\n8. It is the special duty of the elder brother, through the pupil in charge, to maintain\\nthe dormitories, the interior of the house, and the sheds, in constant neatness.\\n9. The elder brother, under direction of the chief and sub-chief, will announce bed-\\ntime, and will see that the proper movements are orderly made.\\n10. The elder brother, who shall see any grave violation of rules, shall immediately\\nreport it 10 the chief of his family, or the loreman of his workshop.\\n11. An elder brother is designated every day in turn, to assist at the dressing (at the\\ninfirmary.)\\n12. The elder brother is exempt from all extraordinary services.\\nWe can not better close this extended account of the Mettray jnsti-\\ntution, than by quoting the published opinions of an English and Amer\\nlean observer.\\nM. D. Hill, Esq., recorder of Birniingham, thus speaks of a visit to\\nMettray in 1848: In the year 1848 I made my way to Mettray, near\\nTours, in France. 1 was received with the utmost kindness, and ad-\\nmitted into the fullest confidence by M. Demetz. the illustrious founder\\nof the institution a judge who descended from the bench because he\\ncould not endure the pain of consigning children to a prison when he\\nknew their future would be made worse than their pasl. 1 examined,\\nor rather cross-examined, each department of the institution, with all\\nthat unamiable incredulity which jhirty years practice at the bar may\\nbe supposed to have generated; 1 began with a sort of prejudice a\\ndetermined siispicion fighting my way backward, step by step, until,\\nas proofs advanced, the conclusion was forced upon me that my position\\nwas untenable. I found that at Mettray. where they possess and exer-\\ncise the power of compulsory retention, and where, for desertion, a boy\\nis sent back to the prison from which he had been withdrawn the\\namount of reformation reached to what I at first thought the incredible\\nproportion (but which I fully verified) of 85 per cent.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0549.jp2"}, "550": {"fulltext": "548 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY.\\nMr. Coleman, in his European Agriculture, after giving a brief de-\\nscription of Mettray, as an agricultural institution, remarks: When\\none looks at the innumerable herds of children, turned, as it were, adrift\\nin a great city, not merely tempted, but actually instructed, stimulated,\\nand encouraged in crime, and observes them gradually gathering in and\\nborne onwards on the swift current with increasing rapidity to the pre-\\ncipice of destruction, until escape becomes almost impossible, how can\\nwe enough admire the combined courage, generosity, and disinterested-\\nness, which plunges in that it may rescue some of these wretched vic-\\ntims from that frightful fate which seems all but inevitable? 1 do not\\nknow a more beautiful, and scarcely a more touching, passage in the\\nHoly Scriptures than that which represents the angels in Heaven as.\\nrejoicing over a repenting and rescued sinner. It is, indeed, a ministry\\nworthy of the highest and holiest spirits, to which the Supreme Source\\nof all goodness and benevolence has imparted any portion of his Divine\\nnature.\\nIf we look at this institution even in a more humble and practical\\nview, as atibrding a good education in the mechanical and agricultural\\narts, its great utility can not be doubted and much good seed will be\\nsown here, which, under the blessing of God, is sure to return excellent\\nand enduring fruits.\\nI should have said before, that there is connected with the institu-\\ntion a hospital which was a model of cleanliness, good ventilation, and\\ncareful attendance all the services of which were rendered by those\\nindefatigable doers of good, the Sisters of Charity.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0550.jp2"}, "551": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL\\nPETIT-BOURG.\\nThe Agricultural school of Petit-Bourg was founded in 1844, by the society for\\nassisting poor children and youth, foundlings, abandoned children and orphans, in\\nFrance, and especially within the department of the Seine and Seine-et-Oise.\\nThe society of which Count Portalis was president, is located at Paris and the\\nschool occupies the ancient property of M. Aquado, at Evry-sur-Seine which\\nincludes a large chateau and its dependencies, and a park of about 150 acres,\\nbounded partly by walls, partly by the railroad of Oorbeil. The estate is beauti-\\nfully situated upon sloping ground on the river Seine. Water is brought to it by\\nextensive works, from a distance of several miles. It is conducted plentifully into\\nthe kitchen-garden, (ten acres, inclosed with high walls and intersected with\\nten other low walls for montreuil espaliers,) after which it enters large basins which\\nserve for swimming-baths, and to supply the wash-rooms and other domestic uses.\\nPaved or sanded yards, alleys of horse-chesnuts. ploughed land, large and beauti-\\nful meadows, and copses, afford opportunities for exercise, sufficient for all\\npurposes.\\nIn the kitchen-garden are a poultry-yard, a small piggery, and a building with\\neleven front windows, containing good cellars, and in the basement story, apart-\\nments used in the working of the kitchen-garden, and for workshops for trades\\nnot noisy. The first story is occupied by the laundry, the drug shop, the room for\\nconvalescents, the infirmary, containing 16 beds and warmed by a stove, and by\\napartments for sundry persons employed in the institution. In the upper story are\\nseveral cells for punishment.\\nWithin the same garden, a large building, formerly used as an orangery, has\\nbeen fitted up for the use of the pupils it contains a spacious dormitory, which\\nwill contain, if necessary, 160 children there are also two school-rooms, one for\\nthe assistants and the other for the pupils, and a wardrobe. The large apartment\\nis arranged to serve successively for a sleeping-room, school-room, refectory, and\\ncovered play-ground. By a simple, easy, and rapid manoeuvre, all the furniture of\\nthe room disappears as if by enchantment the tables rise close to the ceiling, and\\nwhile the movable posts supporting them are placed in receptacles where they do\\nnot obstruct the room, the hammocks which were near the windows are moved\\nclose up to the wall, and those in the middle of the room rise to hide and ventilate\\nthemselves in the garret, by means of trap-doors. The idea of this arrangement\\nwas borrowed from the agricultural school at Mettray, and is to be found in the\\nschool of Val d Yevre and in other establishments of the same kind.\\nThe dormitory contains four rows of hammocks, and two aisles, at the ends of\\nwhich are the more elevated hammocks of the overseers who by this means can\\nsee all that passes in all the beds of the children without trouble. It is lighted dur-\\ning the night, and ventilated by apparatus hke that used in most of the prisons of\\nBelgium.\\nAbove the dormitory is a garret which serves for a drying-room and con-\\nnected with the same building is a shed, which is used as a repository for farming\\ntools, and for stables and cow-house.\\nThe chateau is occupied in the basement by apartments for schools and for the\\nfamily of the director.\\nThe first story is partly occupied by sleeping-rooms for the pupils.\\nThe kitchen and its appurtenances, the pantry, the wash-room, the milk-room,\\nc., are in the cellars, which are of great extent.\\nAt the time of our visit, (September 2, 1849,) the number of scholars was 130.\\nIt was about being increased to 250, by receiving a number of ytning criminals,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0551.jp2"}, "552": {"fulltext": "550 HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETITBOURG.\\nacquitted in court as having acted without discernment, but detained under the\\n66th article of the penal code. This addition has since been made the young\\nprisoners have taken the place of poor and orphan children, and consequently the\\nestiiblishment at Petit-Bourg must now be reckoned among the reform schools.\\nThe information collected by us relates to the first period of organization which\\nfact should be recollected in reading what follows.\\nThe scholars at Petit- Ijourg may be divided into two classes 1 poor children and\\norphans, placed here by the hospitals and asylums at an expense of $24 a year,\\nbesides clothes 2. boarders, paying $70 the first year, and $50 for each subse-\\nquent year, always besides clothes. The number of this last class is 30.\\nThe age of admission is generally set at eight years the time of staying in the\\nschool may be as long as 5 yeai s. This length is required, in fact, by the interest\\nboth of pulpit and school by imparting mechanical skill to the former, and thus\\nenabling him to repay part of the expense borne for him by the latter.\\nThe ofliicers of the school are fourteen, viz.\\nA director without salary, having only lodging, board and fuel, washing, c.,\\nfor himself and family. This place is filled by M. Allier, who may be considered\\nas the real originator and founder of the institution.\\nA book-keeper, paid $160.00\\nA teacher, 200.00\\nAn overseer of farming, 200.00\\nA gardener, 140.00\\nA horticulturali.st,\\nA cutler and blacksmith,\\nA carpenter,\\nA wagon-maker,\\nTwo farm laborers,\\nA cook,\\nTwo overseers, one {It $80, and one at $40.00.\\npaid from $80.00 to $100.00\\nSeveral women are also employed in different capacities, in the laundry, wash-\\nroom, infirmary, on the farm, e.\\nAll these persons receive lodging, board, and general maintenance. They wear\\nno particular costume, and may be married.\\nThe pupils arrive at half-past four in summer, and at half-past five in winter.\\nTheir bedtime is, nine in summer, and eight in winter.\\nEach pupil has his own wardrobe, marked with his number. The dress is a\\nblue blouse for work, a Scotch blouse for Sunday, and gray linen pantaloons in\\nsummer. In winter, the pantaloons are of cloth of the color of yellow earth, and\\nunder the blouse, a waistcoat with sleeves, of the same material with the panta-\\nloons. Instead of wooden shoes are worn, in summer, laced boots, and in winter,\\nclogs with wooden soles. The cap is of felt, varnished on the top only, and with\\nthe words Petit-Bourg in front. Each pupil has also a woolen overcoat for\\nsevere weather. Recently pantaloons have been introduced, made of two different\\ncolors, to prevent escapes as much as possible.\\nThe bedding consists of a hammock, containing a mattress and small pillow of\\ngrass, a sack, instead of sheets of linen or cotton, one cotton coverlid in summer,\\nand two in winter. In the infirmary, the pupils have, upon an iron bedstead, a\\ngrass mattress, a woolen mattress, a coverlid of cotton and another of gray woolen,\\ntwo common sheets, and a pillow of feathers.\\nBesides the dormitory, there are other sleeping rooms, containing from 15 to\\n20 pupils. Each sleeping-room, is lighted all night, and has its monitor, who is\\nchosen from among the pupils, and charged to preserve o7-der and silence. Besides\\nthese overseers, an overseer on guard passes continually through all the sleeping-\\nrooms in succession, during the night.\\nAt eight o clock in the morning the pupils have a piece of bread for breakfast;\\nat noon and at night, soup, and one dish besides. They have meat three times a\\nweek, including Sunday salt meat twice, and fresh meat once. Their only drink\\nis water.\\nThe elementary instruction given to the pupils comprehends reading, writing,\\nspelling, and arithmetic. There is added a little land-surveyinsr, geography, linear\\ndesign, singing, gymnastics, swimming, and use of fire-engine. There is also a\\ncourse of agriculture and horticulture for those pupils intending to become farmers.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0552.jp2"}, "553": {"fulltext": "HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT BOURG. 55 1\\nThe religious instruction is given by the priest of the commune, who acts as\\nchaplain. The pupife attend the village churcli, which is situated within the park\\ninclosure.\\nAs soon as the pupils arrive at the school, they are employed for about a fort-\\nnigTit in the kitchen-gardens, or in the fields, to allow thein to gain health and\\nKtreiiglh, in which they are often deficient. They are then admitted to the work-\\nshops their occupation being selected as nearly as possible with reference to their\\nespecial aptitude for it.\\nSeveral workshops have been established of tailors, shoemakers, locksmiths,\\ncarpenters, cabinet-makers, house-painters.\\nAccording to the agreements made with the foiemen of these workshops, the\\nlabor of the children is disposed of to them by contract, and they account to the\\nschool for it, at a fixed pricre per day for each pupil.\\nThis price varies of course, according to the nature of the occupation but it\\nought during the first year, to amount to an income averaging $16.00 for each\\npupil, and equal to one-third of the expense of their board and maintenance.\\nThis income the second year, ought to average $46.00 and to cover the entire\\npersonal expenses of the pupil.\\nAfterwards, to the end of the apprenticeship, this income should increase so as\\nto bring to the school a net profit equal at least to the advances of the first year.\\nA part of this income should be laid up for a reserve fund for the pupil. The\\namounts applied to this fund should be entered in a book in the saving s bank, and\\nit was supposed that the society would be able to add to it, from beneficiary funds,\\na greater or less amount, according to the conduct of the pupil in the workshops,\\nhis capacity, and his devotion to his fellow-pupils and to the school.\\nAll sums thus entered in the bank-book, should draw interest at 3 per cent.,\\nand should not become the property of the pupil unless he have observed punctu-\\nally the agreement made between the society and his family. Departure before\\nthe time agreed upon, besides giving a right of civil action against the family,\\nshould deprive the pupil of all his rights to any sum in bank, and of participation\\nin all other favors which the society might bestow upon him at the time of his\\ngoing, such as wardrobes, tools, pocket-money, nomination of a patron, c.\\nThese ingenious contrivances to receive the apprenticeship of the pupils, reim-\\nbursement of their expenses to the society, and provision for their future welfare,\\ndo not appear to have answered the expectations of their originators. The con-\\ntractors have failed, or have not accepted the conditions attempted to be imposed\\non them. Consequently, except a few workshops of small importance, working\\nentirely for the institution, agriculture is the principal and almost the only occupa-\\ntion of the pupils. At the time of our visit, the employments were arranged a\\nfollows\\nFarmers, 86; gardeners, 11; horticulturists, 5; tailors and menders, 10;\\nshoemakers, 3 carpenters, 3 cutlers, 3; painters, 2; cooks, 2; clerks in offices,\\n3 in infirmary, 1 in steward s office, 1 total, 250.\\nThe domain includes about 250 acres, of which 10 are in meadow; about 100\\nacres besides are leased, at $30 per year per acre. There have usually been about\\n25 horned cattle but a murrian which recently appeared among them has obliged\\nthe administration to sell them. There are 12 horses. The most lucrative and\\nmost useful branch of cultivation is that of the kitchen-garden, part of whose pro-\\nduets are sent to market. The garden itself, which is a large one, seems to be\\nwell laid out. Irrigation is practiced in it, as by the market-gardeners at Paris.\\nThe sale of flowers, fruit, and legumes, furnish a principal revenue of the establish-\\nment. There are handsome green-houses, containing over 14,000 pots.\\nThe moral and disciplinary regulations of the school, are described in the report\\nof M. Allier, the director, to the general assembly of May 1 1th, 1845, at the Hotel\\nde Ville of Paris, contain some excellent provisions. Unfortunately the absence of\\nthe director at the time of our visit, and the shortness of our stay, rendered it im-\\npossible for us to ascertain whether this excellent system had been exactly followed.\\nBut below is such information as we have extracted from the above-mentioned\\nreport, or received from the assistant who directed our visit.\\nThe pupils are classed according to their conduct, in four divisions, viz.\\nDivision of probation. I Division of reward.\\namdicration. punishment,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0553.jp2"}, "554": {"fulltext": "552 HORTICFLTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT-BOtTRG.\\nAs a means of stimulating their emulation while at work, %,sub-classification has\\nbeen adopted, which cons.sts in arranging the pupils, in each workshop, into first,\\nsecond, and third divisions. Each of these divisions has a little flag of a particular\\ncolor. To belong to the first division is the highest ambition of the members of the\\nother divisions. The same amount of work considering their relative strength,\\nhaving been distributed to the pupils, and the time necessary for performing it\\nbeing carefullj calculated, the pride of each little group is set in action, and there\\nresults a pleasant strife to conquer in the game, which is silent as a game of chess,\\nand as absorbing, and which, besides the honor of victory, does not lack material\\ninducements for a certain prize is delivered at the end of every month to the first\\ndivision, and encouragement to the second.\\nIt is pleasant. says the reporter, to see with what earnestness and good-will\\nthe children ply tiie plane, the hammer, the file, the spade, the rake, and look\\naround to see where their comrades and adversaries are for not only is there a\\nstruggle between two divisions, but also between the individual members of each\\ndivision, for the first, second, c., place in the division. The first in each divis-\\nion is the standard bearer.\\nIn this manner the hours pass rapidly away without punishment. At the end\\nof the task, joy shines in the eyes of the victors, and the shame of the vanquished\\nseems impatient for the revenge which shall give them the standard or the place\\nof honor.\\nAt each judiciary meeting, good marks are also given to those who have done\\ntheir work quickest and best, and bad ones to those who have labored ill or slowly.\\nIt often happens that the children gain an hour or two, by finishing their tasks\\nbefore the appointed hour this time they may dispose of at pleasure, in play, in\\nworking in other shops, in reading or drawing, c. but they usually ask for\\nmore work, or kindly assist their slower comrades, for the purpose of preventing\\nthe bad marks to which the latter are liable for where the honorable rivalry of\\nlabor ends, there brotherly love begins.\\nThis system, which puts into action the powerful motives of interest and pride,\\nwhile it preserves fraternal friendship, needs no commentaries. It is simple and\\ntrue, because it is taken from nature. To judge of it, all that is necessary is to look\\nat one s own heart and to question one s self\\nThe pupils assemble once a month for the special purpose of electing by ballot\\nthe monitor-general of the school and the monitors of the separate workshops.\\nThis operation is performed without any intriguing, and it has been remarked that\\nthe best scholars are chosen unanimously, or by an immense majority. The di-\\nrector, however, reserves a veto upon this choice although he has very seldom\\nbeen obliged to use it. Tlie appointment of monitors by their peers is copied from\\nthe appointment of elder brothers at Mettray as is also the appointment of a jury\\nto try offenses committed by the pupils. The pupils usually accuse themselves,\\nand affix, according to circumstances, the maximum or minimum of punishment.\\nThese spontaneous condemnations are submitted to the approval of their brothers\\nthe monitors, who revoke or confirm them and are then carried before a supreme\\ntribunal, of the officers, assistants and foremen of workshops, who give a judgment\\nin the last resort.\\nAlthough a little new and prompt, says the report formerly quoted, our\\njustice is none the less real justice, and tends daily to lessen the number of cul-\\nprits and of those condemned more than once. It has this advantage that the\\nguilty can not claim to be innocent, nor to be too severely punished for both\\nmonitors and we ourselves most often interfere to mitigate penalties, and some-\\ntimes to pardon, limiting ourselves to a reprimand.\\nMeanwhile, if (which is very rare) any pupil denies the accusation brought\\nagainst him, then public information becomes the duty of all pupils having cogni-\\nzance of the fact charged that no culprit may escape who aggravates his offense\\nby a lie, and that no innocent person may be punished. In this case an inquest is\\nheld, before which the overseers and witnesses are heard. Accu.sers and defend-\\ners arise for the occasion among the pupils, and from monitors and assistants who\\ndecline voting upon the judgment pronounced in first instance by the monitors, and\\nfinally by the tribunal of assistants.\\nThe punishments are as follows, in the order of their severity\\n1. Simple reprimand.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0554.jp2"}, "555": {"fulltext": "HORTICULTimAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT BOnRG. .5.53\\n2. Detention, with or witliout labor, from the recreations of the week-\\n3. Detention from the recrc-ations of the Sunday.\\n4. Dry bread for one or more meals.\\n5. Passage from a higher to a lower division.\\n6. Lighted cell, witli labor.\\n7. Dark cell, without labor.\\n8. Erasure of name from register of honor.\\n9. Loss for one or more months of votership and of eligibility.\\n10. Inability for one or more months to receive letters of pardon.\\n11. Inability for one or more months to partake or be present at distributions of\\nalms.\\n12. Inability to see and embrace one s parents at the visit next after con-\\ndemnation.\\n13. Inab lity for one or more months to carry the standard.\\n14. Inablity for one or more months to assist sick companions.\\nL5. Inability during one or more months to be chosen to assist at family\\nfestivals.\\nAll these punishments are dreaded most on account of the shame accompany-\\ning them. It is likewise to be noticed that the severest are those which are of a\\npurely moral character. Expulsion from the school is only inflicted upon pupils\\nconsidered wholly incorrigible.\\nThere is a similar gradation of rewards, based upon the same principle, as\\nfollows\\n1. Honorable mention. This is a public complimentary notice, addressed to the\\npupil deserving it, to encourage him to do still better in future.\\n2. Passage to a higher division.\\n3. Registration in the register of honor. This registration is for two months\\nand is the privilege of the division of reward only.\\n4. Encouragements. These are small books.\\n5. A. crown over the place occupied by the pupil, in the school, or shop, or both,\\nas he has deserved it in one, or the other, or both.\\n6. Tools of honor. These are offered and gained as prizes.\\n7. Prizes. These are usually books useful in the occupation of the pupil, moral\\ntales, liistory, books of piety, c.\\n8. Becoming standard-bearer of division.\\n9. Selection by their comrades to attend the family festivals. Once a month,\\nthe officers, assistants, and foremen, meet in the evening of Sunday around a table\\nfrugally furnished, as usual, but with one additional dish. The monitors are, ex\\nofficio, invited. .After the desert, the singing master assembles the pupils present,\\nand sings with them rt-ligious, moral, or national songs. After the singing, all\\nseparate, promising to endeavor to make the worst scholars worthy of attending at\\nthese modest feasts.\\n10. Letters of pardon. These letters, which are only given with great reserve,\\nempower those holding them to pardon pupils undergoing punishment, except in\\ncertain grave cases, of which the director is judge.\\n11. Permission to watch with the sick. This also is a rare privilege, and cul-\\ntivates among the pupils sentiments of benevolence and of fraternal affection.\\n12. Honor of carrying and bestowing the alms of the school. The alms-chest\\nis replenished in several ways. 1. One Sunday a month, all the officers, assist-\\nants, foremen, and pupils, go without meat, and the consequent saving is deposited\\nin the alms-chest. 2 Once a month there is taken from the amount credited to\\neach pupil in the savings-bank, 4 cents that is, 48 cents a year. A monthly\\ncollection is also made among the officers, a-ssistants, and foremen, and the amount,\\nalong with that taken from the deposits for the pupils, also put in the chest.\\nWith this money the pupils of the division of reward, or those who have per-\\nformed some laudable action, are enabled to go, on the first Sunday of each month,\\nto carry to the aged poor of the village, sometimes garments, sometimes bedding,\\nsometimes medicine, but never money.\\nNothing has been neglected which might awaken the moral sense in the chil-\\ndren of th(\u00c2\u00bb school, or contribute to elevate their souls. For the same purpose the\\nwalls in ditFerent places are covered with such phrases as the following:\\nSilenoe.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0555.jp2"}, "556": {"fulltext": "551 HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT-BOURG.\\nGod sees us.\\nIdleness impoverishes and degrades.\\nHe \u00c2\u00abho will not work should not eat.\\nLabor enrielies and honors.\\nLet us be brothers.\\nBenevolence elevates man.\\nChildren, grow up by labor. Men, some time labor will make you great.\\nReligion is goodness, every where and always.\\nTo love the poor is to love God.\\nEvening and morning, after the usual prayer, the pupils address another to God\\nfor their instructors and benefactors.\\nOnce a year a mass is sung for the repose of the souls of such instructors or\\nbenefactors as are dead after which ceremony, flowers are laid upon the graves\\nof dead pupils.\\nThere was much difficulty, particularly at the beginning, in finding competent\\nand active assistants, and such as would be devoted to the success of the undeitak-\\ning. Frequent changes in consequence occasioned great embarrassments. To\\nencourage the agents of the school, they were given an interest in its profits, by\\nI eserving to them a percentage upon the produce of labor and of the workshops.\\nThe amount thus voluntarily distributed is retained by the society, and entered in\\na book called the book of division of profits. No one is permitted, on any pretext,\\nto draw any or all of these funds and if any assistant or foreman leaves the\\nschool improperly, or is sent off for ill conduct, the amount so credited to him on\\nbook becomes the property of the other assistants and foremen, being divided\\nequally among them.\\nA second book, cal .ed the savings-bank book, is also keptfor entering the reten-\\ntion of 5 per cent, on all salaries. It is not permitted to draw this deposit but at\\nthe departure of the assistant or foreman, for whatever reason, it is paid to him,\\nunlp.\u00c2\u00abs retained by the society as indemnity for damages due from him, for this\\nbook is kept to habituate the assistants to economy, and to put a sort of caution-\\nmoney into the hands of the society. The same use is made of funds entered upon\\nthe book of division of profits, in case of malversation or loss. The amounts\\nentered on the savings-bank book pay 3 per cent, to the depositor. The sums\\nentered in th se two books, together with the savings which some of the assistants\\nare able to lay by, form considerable reserve funds.\\nSaturday evening every week, all the ofhcers, assistants, and foremen, meet in\\na family council, and consider all the praiseworthy or reprehensible actions of the\\npupils under their ordirs. By this means no fault, however small, and no good\\naction, however insignificant, can happen during the week, in school-room, court,\\nworkshop, dormitory, or play-ground, without being noticed. While the teacher\\nfor instance, praises a scholar for his conduct and progress in study, the foreman\\nof his workshop may find him stupid and lazy. By such contradictions attention\\nis drawn to the child all watch him to better advantage, and after a few weeks\\nof study and minute observation, the true character of the child is discovered, and\\noften his good qualities are brought out even by means of his faults.\\nThis meeting has another purpose, to arrange a line of conduct for each pupil, to\\nbe followed out next day at an assembly called the meeting of emulation at which\\nthe ofheeis, assistants, and foremen of workshops are present, as well as the pupils\\nand visitors. At this meeting are performed the duties of the jury above-men-\\ntioned, and rewards and punishments are distributed. The idea of this meeting\\nwas copied from the school of INIetlray, which, although there seems to be some\\nunwillingness to avow it, has served as the type of the organization not only of the\\nschool of Petit-Bourg, but also of most other establishments of the same kind\\nerected in France within a few years.\\nPetit-Bourg has not a school of foremen like that at Mettray, but it endeavors in\\na similar manner to form among the pupils a seminary for assistants who may suc-\\ncessively fill vacant places.\\nThe patronage of the scholars on leaving the school is nearly on the same basis\\nin the two establishments. A patron is named for each pupil, who, in concert\\nwith the establishment, endeavors to find him a good situation.\\nTo understand the financial condition of the school of Petit- iBourg, we have ex-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0556.jp2"}, "557": {"fulltext": "HORTICULTITRAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETTTBOURG. 555\\namined the accounts and estimates of the few last years, and have arrived at the\\nfollowing results\\nIII 1M5. for 118 pupils, the expenses were $15,032.80 being $127.57 each,\\nper year, and 25 each, per day.\\nIn 1846, for 123 pupils, the expenses were $.17,631.12, after deducting income\\nof farming and workshops. The items of this expense are as follows\\nBoard of pupils, $00.10.4 per day each, $1,661.08\\nClothing, 12.48 year, 1 ,535.03\\nBedding, J.24.2 152.73\\nWashing, 1.95.2 240.07\\nFuel, 58.2 71.74\\nLight 2.93.8 361.32\\nMending clothes, 5.(12 617.76\\nSchool expenses, 39 47.95\\nSundries 80.21\\nRent, taxes, insurance, 1 ,554.41\\nRepairs. c., furniture and buildings, 746.65\\nExpenses of ofHees and management, 2,678.05\\nSalaries and maintenance of assistants, 6,880.38\\nEntire expense, 19,627.38\\nIncome from cultvation and shops, 1,996.26\\nNet expense, 17,631.12\\nThe expense for each pupil, during 1846, therefore was $143.34 or .$0.39 per\\nday.\\nIn 1847. the estimates for an average number of 125 pupils presented the fol-\\nlowing valuations\\nSalaries and maintenance of officers, c., $6,720.00\\nMaintenance of pupils, $60 each, 7,500.00\\nFuel, lights, washing 800.00\\nTaxes, repairs of buildings 640.00\\nExpense of management, freight, traveling, 2,320.00\\nShops, cattle, manure, c., 1,000.00\\nContingencies, 400.00\\n19,380.00\\nT, Kitchen-garden, $1,000.00) o nnn nn\\nReceipts, rp-,, t j t ,^nn i\\\\n t 2,000.00\\nTilled land, woods, C.. 1,000.00 _J\\nNet expense, 17,280.00\\nThe expense per pupil, in 1848, was therefore $139.04, or .$0.38 per day, not\\nincluding rent.\\nIn 1849, the expense was diminished by the increased number of pupils to\\n$94.67 or $0.25 each, per day. The school purchased the estate of Petit- Bourg,\\nin 1846, for ,$54,t 00, raised by the grand lottery established for the school at that\\ntime, the net accruing from which, was more than $100,000.\\nConnected with the prison of La Roqtiette, in Paris, is an institution called\\nthe Patronage Society, which has been formed voluntarily by benevolent indi-\\nviduals. Its object is to guide and provide for young prisoners on their liberation.\\nEach boy has a patron who exercises an influence over him, even during his\\nconfinement, by counsel and exhoi tiition. On his being set at liberty, his\\npiitron comes or sends for him, and places him in some situation for which he\\nhas fitted himself in the workshop of the penitftitiary. Instead of being thrust\\nout of the gates with rags on their backs, with whch they entered them, and\\nwith just .suificient money to lead them into temptation, as was formerly the case,\\nthe poor lads are at present furnished with decent clothes, and gain at once an\\nemployment ;md a respectable livelihood. Their patrons visit them fVequ ntly,\\nsuperintend their conduct, and by the aftletionate sympathies they show them,\\nencourage and confirm thern in a virtuous course of life. They call them their\\nchildren, and the reciprocal affection wliich often springs up between the little", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0557.jp2"}, "558": {"fulltext": "55(5 PRISON OF LA ROQUETTE, IN PARIS.\\noutcasts and their protectors is really very beautiful. Numerous cases have oo-\\ncuiTfii where youthful vagabonds and thieves have become exemplary characters\\nthrough the parental kindness of the gentlemen who have adopted them. One\\ninstance is mentioned, in the society s reports, of a former inmate of La Ro-\\nqut-tte having formed an attachment to an amiable and industrial girl, when not\\nliaving money to meet the expenses of his marriage, his patron gave him the\\nmeans, was present himself at the wedding, and furnished the lodging of the\\nnew-married couple with chairs, tables, a bedstead, and some linen. The most\\nunequivocal proof of the value of the society s exertions consists in this, that\\nbefore its existence, out of 217 youths that were liberated between the years 1831\\nand 1833, 99 were recommitted several times and for grave offenses; whereas\\nsince the association has entered upon its mission, out of 269 lads tiiken under\\ntheir charge only 51 were again sentenced to a second term of imprisonment.\\nAnd it is to be observed that the 99 recommittals above specified were merely\\nthose wh.ch took place in Paris, under tlie real names of the offenders how\\nmany more happened in the provinces, and under false names, can not be ascer-\\ntained. But all who are pos. lively recommitted, whilst under the superintend-\\nence of the society are known, as they can not quit their situations without the\\nfact being oonmiunicated to their patrons. A report of the society affirms that\\nof those who have been guilty of no fresh transgression against the law, 58 were\\nnot ordy laborious, economical, and submissive to their masters, but join to those\\nqualities virtues which must gain them general esteem that 124, without being\\nso remarkable, are nevertheless excellent young men, and good workmen, who\\ngive every kind of satisfaction to their employers and protectors; so that out\\nof 2fi9 juvenile delinquents there are 182 thoroughly reformed, who are the joy\\nand glory of the society.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0558.jp2"}, "559": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL\\nRUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nThe following account of one of the most interesting educational in-\\nstitutions of Belgium, is mainly a translation from a Report* by M.\\nDucpetiaux, Inspector General of Prisons and Charitable Institutions, to\\nthe Minister of Justice, on Agricultural Colonies, Rural Schools, and\\nSchools of Reform, for indigent vagrant and mendicant children and\\nyouth, in 1851.\\n1. Purpose of the Reform Schools; preliminary measures basis of organi-\\nzation.\\nThe attention of government has long been directed to the condition of the poor\\nyouth, beggars, and vagrants, who are sheltered in the alms-houses and imprisoned\\nby the courts. From the misfortunes which have of late years fallen upon the\\npopulation both of East and West P landers, the number of these cliildron and\\nyouth has rapidly increased. According to a return made in 1848, this increase,\\nfor the three years preceding, was as follows\\nYOUTH REGISTERED. 1845. 1846. 1847. TOTAL.\\nIn prisons, 2,575 5,886 9.352 17,813\\nIn alms-houses, 1,823 2,914 3,697 8,434\\nTotal, 4,398 8,800 13,049 26,247\\nThus, in the short space of three years, 26,247 children and youth of both sexes\\nwere registered as admitted into the prisons and alms-houses. There are un-\\ndoubtedly repetitions in this number the same children are recorded twice, thrice,\\nor even oftener, on the same register. But on the other hand this estimate did\\nnot include children admitted into prisons with their parents numbering, during\\nthe same period, some thousands.\\nIt is to be remarked, besides, that the principal alms-houses, being entirely filled\\nduring the crisis of distress, were obliged to limit or even to suspend admission.\\nHence a great part of the increase in the number imprisoned. Shut out from the\\nalms-houses, many of these unfortunate people, to escape from hunger, cold, and\\ndeath, asked admission into the prisons, and even committed small misdemeanors\\nin order to gain the right of such admission.\\nSo wretched a spectacle has shown the necessity of energetic measures to oppose\\na barrier to this invasion of poverty, and to snatch this mass of unfortunate youth\\nfrom influences which, by perpetuating their degradation and their misery, expose\\nsociety to incessant perils and increasing expense.\\nThe department of justice repared a plan, chiefly with this design, for the es-\\ntablishment of special reform schools, for poor youth, beggars, and vagrants of both\\nsexes. This plan was presented to the Chamber of Representatives, Nov. 17,\\n1846 and was thoroughly examined by a committee of the central section, {section\\ncentrale,) which reported on it, May 6, 1847. The government prepared a new\\nplan, based on this report, which it submitted to the Chamber of Representatives,\\nColonies Agricoles, Ecoles Rurales et Ecoles de Reforme pour les indijrents, les mendiants\\net les vagabonds, et spfcialement pour les enfants des deux sexes, en Suisse, en Allemagne,\\nen France, en Angleterre, dans les Pays-Bas et en Belgique. Rapport address^ a M. Tesch,\\nMinistr0*de la Justice, par M. Ducpetiaux, Inspecteur G^ngral des prisons, iic. Bruzelles,\\n1661.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0559.jp2"}, "560": {"fulltext": "558 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nFeb. 28, 1848. This having been thoroughly discussed by both Chambers, was\\npassed into a law concerning alms-houses and reform schools, April 3, 1848.\\nThe fifth article of that law enacts that the regular alms-houses shall be used ex-\\nclusively fur the reception of adult paupers, beggars, and vagrants. That the gov-\\nernment shall erect special establisliments for young paupers, beggars, and\\nvagrants of botli sexes, under sixteen years of age.\\nThe.se establishments shall be so oi ganized as to employ the boys, as much as\\npossible, in agriculture, and to instruct them in such labt)r as may be profitably\\npracticed in the fields. The two sexes shall always be placed in distinct and sepa-\\nrate establishments.\\nBy article 7, the expense of support to be paid by the communes for the youth\\nadmitted into these establishments is never to exceed, for the communes of each\\nprovince, the expense of support of the inmates of the alms-houses of each province.\\nThe oi-ganization, management, and discipline of these establishments are de-\\ntermined by royal decrees, vviiich are not to issue without hearing the permanent\\ndeputations of the provinces in which they are situate d.\\nSix hundred thousand francs (about $12(1,000) is appropriated for the land and\\nbuildings for these establishments, and for fittings, furniture, and other necessary\\nexpenses.\\nThe government is to make an annual report to the legislature, of all action\\nunder the above law, and of the condition of the institutions established in confor-\\nmity with it.\\nGovernment engaged actively in the execution of the law of the 3d of April,\\n1848. The necessary preparatory investigati(jnsand operations occupied a porti( n\\nof that year and on the 8th of March, 1849, a royal decree ordered the establish\\nment of two reform schools in the commune of Ruysselede, (West Flanders;)\\none to receive .500 boys, and the other for 400 girls and young children of from\\ntwo to seven years old.\\nSeparate buildings are to be used for these two institutions, so as strictly to pre-\\nserve the separation of the .sexes. These, liowever, are to be so arranged as to\\nadmit of a Common direction, to combine their labor economically, and to render\\nceitain mutual services, so as to reduce the expense of management and house-\\nkeeping.\\nThe former of these establishments may be regarded as definitely organized\\nit will soon be able to receive its entire complement. The erection of the second\\ndepends at present upon the extension of the estate, of which we shall have occa-\\nsion to speak below.\\n2. General arrangement of the agricultural reform school for hoys.\\nThis establishment occupies the premises of a sugar-house erected some years\\nsince, which came into the hands of the government, in the beginning of 1849,\\nand has been altered and enlarged for its present use. The ftirm which belonged\\nwith them has been so much enlarged, as to bring it into convenient business com-\\nmunication with an estate of some 200 hectares, (about 500 acres a road has\\nbeen built to open a direct cf mmunication witli the canal, and with the railroad\\nfrom Gand to Bruges the transhipment and transport of manure has been facili-\\ntated by the construction of a whai f and of a large cistern at the edge of the canal\\nlastly, a steam-engine of five horse power has been erected for milling grain, rais-\\ning water, heating the main building, and cooking for the workmen and cattle\\narrangements are in progress for connecting with it an elevator, a thi ashing ma-\\nchine, a straw-cutter, a turnip-cutter, c. All these machines will economize\\nlabor, and will enable the managers to employ to the best advantage the strength\\nand skill of the laborers, instead of employing them in turning wheels and in\\nother purely mechanical and monotonous labor.\\n3. Arrangement of the buildings of the school and farm.\\nThe buildings of the reform school are regularly arranged, and may be consid\\nered under two heads, viz., the school proper, and the farm.\\n1. The .school comprehends all the necessary buildings for the offices the opera-\\ntions, and the accommodation of the officers which occupy the two wings toward\\nthe road. The central building contains, in the lower story, the dining-room of\\nthe pupils, furnished with tables seating 500 children, two school-rooms, the princi-\\npal office for business and the dining-room of the officers in the secona story,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0560.jp2"}, "561": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 559\\nfour large dormitories, each furnished with a hundred and twenty-four cots, a su-\\nperintendent s chamber, and wash-stands for the pupils. In the garret is a large\\nreservoir tilled by the steam-engine, which distributes water to all parts of the es-\\ntablishment. The rooms on the first floor are warmed by a furnace.\\nTo the right of the central building, facing from the road, are the kitchen of the\\npupils, the bakery, the steam-engine with its appurtenances, the pantry ajid the\\nstore-rooms to the left, the kitchen of the officers, a plunge-bath or swimming-\\nbath, baths, a fire-pump, and in the second story, the infirmary of the pupils with\\nits dependencies. Lastly, the play-ground of the pupils is bounded on three sides\\nby a building of one story, over wliich are ample granaries in this building are\\nthe workshops, the forge, carpenter s shop, spinning and weaving rooms, the tailor s,\\nshoemaker s and sti-aw-weaver s shops, e., as well as a temporary wash-house, to\\nserve until the completion of the girls school. The chapel stands at one corner\\nit is built in a style at once simple and elegant and near it, as in the reform school\\nat iMettray, is a small cell for such young beggars and vagrants as are sent to the\\nschool for punishment, and for the pupils in such aggravated or exceptional cases\\nas require such quarantine or discipline.\\n2. The farm buildings, standing near the school, comprehend a dwelling-house\\nfor the farmer and the farm laborers, stables for from 80 to 100 head of cattle, a\\ndairy, two stables for 12 horses, two piggeries, a sheep-fold, a poultry-yard, two\\ncovered receptacles for manure, a roomy barn, and a large carriage house for\\nvehicles and farming tools, over which are lofts for hay. A watering place for the\\ncattle, and large cisterns for liquid manure and for drainings complete these ar-\\nrangements which on the whole and in detail, furnish a real model farm.\\nAll the buildings which we have enumerated, together with the two court-yards\\nof the school and the enclosure around which sUmd the mills and wood-houses,\\nform nearly a regular parallelogram, of 135 metres long, and 200 wide, (about\\n450 feet by e.iO.)\\n4. Extent and division of the estate.\\nThe property of Ruysselede contains 126 hectares, 89 ares, 10 ceiitiares, (about\\n320 acres;) it forms an isosceles triangle with the vertex to the northwest and\\nthe base to the southeast. It is bounded on one side by the new road laid out by\\nthe establishment, and on the others by public roads, so that it is quite separated\\nfrom the estates adjoining. It is divided into squares, chess-board-wise, generally\\ncontaining froni 1 to 3 hectares (2^ to 7^ acres) each, and separated by rows and\\navenues of larch, fir, and wild cherry, which last serve for cart-paths, c. The\\nsoil is a gray sand, without any mixture of clay, and therefore light, friable, and\\neasily worked. But it also, to become productive, requires careful cultivation, and\\nlarge quantities of manure, especially liquid manure. For this reason the au-\\nthorities of the school have concluded an arrangement with the jail (maison de\\nforce) at Gand, for the annual delivery of about 10,000 hectolitres (about 4,200\\nhogsheads) of solid and liquid manure.\\n5. Measmes of organization decrees and instructions.\\nThe department of justice, which has jurisdiction over the reform school, has\\nsuccessively t-aken different measures for their organization. The royal decree of\\nMarch 8, 1849, determines the number, duties, and salaries of the officei s, and ap--\\npoints a committee of from three to five members of the legislature for the inspec-\\ntion and supervision of the reform schools. The decree of May 7, 1849, com-\\npleted this arrangement by determining the mode of filling vacancies and the\\njurisdiction of the committee.\\nThe continued imprisonment by the commissioner of beggary and vagrancy\\ncausing much inconvenience, the decree of February 28, 1850, ordered their im-\\nmediate transfer to the reform schools, where they will serve out their terms in\\nseparate quarters.\\nA royal decree of the same date with the last, extends the provisions of the\\ndecree of December 14, 1848, for the assistance of liberated convicts, to young\\npaupers, beggars, and vagrants, at their dismissal from the reform schools. There\\nis to be opened in each of these establishments a register of the offers which may\\nbe made by farmers and other employers, to hire, on certain conditions, such of\\nthe pupils as may p(issess the requisite qualifications.\\nThe mmisterial circular of March 2, 1850, calls the attention of public proseca-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0561.jp2"}, "562": {"fulltext": "560 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\ntors to the purpose of the refi)rm schools, and furnishes invariable rules for the\\narrangement of transfers to, and among them. Another circular, of the same\\ndate, sends similar instructions to the governors of provinces.\\nLastly, the royal decree of July 3, 1850, specifies the conditions and forms of\\nadmission to the reform schools, and of dismission from them.\\nBy this decree, and by the law of April 3, 1848, the reform schools are especially\\ndesigned.\\n1. For young paupers, under sixteen years of age, who present themselves vol-\\nuntarily for admission, with a certificate from the municipal authority of their place\\nof settlement, or from the municipal autliority of the neighborhood where they\\nhappen to be, or where their usual residence is.\\n2. For young paupers liolding a certificate from the permanent deputation, from\\nthe gdvernor if the province, or from the commissary of the district (arrondisse-\\nment) in which the place of settlement of such paupers, their residence, or casual\\nlocality, may be.\\n3. For children and youth sentenced by the commissioner of beggary or\\nvagrancy.\\n4. For children acquitted by him, but retained under the penal code to be\\neducated, up to a certain age, in a house of correction.\\n5. For children not guilty of any misdemeanor, indented with farmers, artisans,\\nor charitable institutions.\\n6. Numbers entries. ^c.\\nThe first pupils entered in March, 1849, shortly after the purchase of the prop-\\nerty and the conmiencement of the preparatory work. There were admitted at first\\n19 children from the alms-house of Bruges, then 15 from that of Combre a little\\nafter these were a Imitted i 3 young beggars and vagrants acquitted by the courts as\\nhaving acted without knowledge, but detained under the 66th article of the penal\\ncode, who had been placed in the juvenile penitentiary of Saint Hubert, for want\\nof any proper receptacle. These, with 24 received singly during the same time,\\nmake a total of 121 pupils on the 1st of January, 1850.\\nFrom that time to January 1st, 1851, the number has been as in the following\\ntable\\nAcquitted by the courts, but detained by law in a house of correction, 92\\nSentenced on application of communes, 156\\nSent by benevolent institutions, 3\\nTotal, 251\\nYoung paupers entering the reform schools voluntarily, are kept for at least six\\nmonths the first time and for at least one year, if they have been in the school\\nbefore, or if they have before been inmates of an alms-house. At the end of that\\ntime, the civil authority of their place of settlement, their family, or atiy responsi-\\nble person, may claim their dismission, upon engaging to provide for their educa-\\ntion, apprenticeship, and support. Demands for such purpose are to be addi-essed\\nto the permanent deputation of the council of the province to which such\u00c2\u00bbpupils\\nbelong directly, if made by the civil authority of their place of settlement if by their\\nfamily, or by strangers, then through the civil authority which would have juris-\\ndiction in the case. The deputation determines upon the security ofTered, and au-\\nthorizes or refuses the dismissal of the pupils. In the absence of any claims made\\nas above, the deputation, after consultation with the inspecting committee and with\\nthe director of the schools, may authorize the dismissal of the pupil, provided he\\nis in a condition to earn his own living. The dismissal of children and youth sen-\\ntenced by the commissioner of beggary or of vagrancy, is ordered by the gover-\\nnor of the province in which is their place of settlement, or if that can not be\\nfound, by the minister of justice.\\nSuch dismission alwaj s depends on these conditions, viz. that the pupil has\\nremained at least two years in the reform school, if sent there for the first time\\nand at least four years, if he is an old offender and, that he is in a condition to\\nearn his own living, or at least is claimed by the civil authority of his place of set-\\ntlement, by his family, or by some responsible person, under a guaranty that he\\nshall not return to begging or vagi ancy, and that he shall be furnished either with\\nwork or with sufficient support. The acceptance or refusal of this guaranty is", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0562.jp2"}, "563": {"fulltext": "AGKICULTDRAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGITM. 56 1\\nleft to the governor and to the minister of justice, respectively. The minister or\\nthe governor may always authorize a dismissal before the time fixed, if their be\\nspecial reasons for it. Before such authorization, however, the minister or gover-\\nnor is to advise with the committee of inspection, the director of the establishment,\\nand the civil authority of the place of settlement of the pupil.\\nThe time of dismission of children acquitted by the commissioner of beggary\\nand vagrancy, is determined by the sentence under which they are placed in the\\nschool.\\nThere are even children in these establishments, under the decree of September\\n29, 1848, in order that it may not be rendered necessary, by their bad conduct or\\notherwise, to imprisou them again. The authorities of the reform schools, in such\\ncases, are to suggest such arrangements as the circumstances shall indicate.\\nThe pupils at It-aving the schools, are informed by the director what consequen-\\nces will follow their recommitment to the school.\\nThe committee of inspection of the reform schools returns to the minister of\\njustice, at the beginning of each year, a list of those pupils whose term has passed\\nthe limits fixed above, with the rea.sons of such prolongation. The minister, if\\nproper, then orders their dismission. The committee al ^o returns annually to the\\nminister a list of the names of those pupils who have arrived at their eighteenth\\nyear, with any opinions or advice in the premises.\\nAmong the 18 pupils who left in 1850, there are,\\n2 who ran away, one eight days after entering, and the other after a stay of\\nabout three months. The conduct of this last had been satisfactory, and he ap-\\npeared to tiike pleasure in the care bestowed on him. One Sunday he received a\\nvisit from his parents, and the next day he disappeared. He has not been dis-\\ncovered up to the present time, although active search was made 2 who were\\nsent home at the end of eight days, as the civil authority of their respective places\\nof settlement was unwilling to consent to their final admission 1, who was sent\\nto the alms-house at Bruges, on account of serious disease. The following shows\\nthe length of the abode of 13 others in the school two for 1 year, 7 months, 15\\ndays two for 1 year, 4 months, 7 days one for 1 year, 3 months, 3 days two\\nfor 1 year, 2 months, 16 days two for 1 year, 1 month, 20 days two for 1 year,\\n15 days; one for 11 month^, 15 days one for 8 months, 20 days; the average\\ntime is 1 year, 2^ months.\\nAt their departure, two were 16 years old; seven were 15 years old; two\\nwere 13 years old two were 10 years old two had been sentenced by the com-\\nmissioner of beggary, and were returned to their parents under the guaranty of\\nthe local authority of their communes the 11 others belong to the class of chil-\\ndren detained under the 66th article of the penal code. They were claimed im-\\nmediately upon the expiration of their judgment term, by the communes of their\\nplaces of settlement 8 were taken by their parents, under the supervision of the\\nlocal authority the other 3 were placed under the care of the committees of em-\\nployment (comites de patronage) of Gand, of Ninove, and of Audenarde.\\n8. Age of the pupils.\\nThe age of the 269 pupils, January 1, 1851, was as follows\\n21 aged less than 10 years.\\n45 from 10 to 12 years.\\n94 12 to 14\\n80 14 to 16\\n29 over 16 years.\\n9. Civil and social condition.\\nIn respect to their civil condition they may be classed as follows\\n28 illegitimate children.\\n42 without father or mother.\\n43 father.\\n88 mother.\\n64 having both parents.\\n8 foundlings.\\n1 abandoned child.\\nSuch is the social position of the unfortunate youths most of them deprived of\\nfamily relations and the parents of those who have them are, for the most part, to\\nbe found in the alms-houses or prisons, gg", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0563.jp2"}, "564": {"fulltext": "562 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\n10. Committee of supervision.\\nThe supervision and inspection of the school are entrusted to a committee of\\nthree, by the decree of March 8, 1849. These three gentlemen, who have con-\\ntributed powerfully from the beginning to the success of the school, by their zeal\\nand their efforts, are the Chevalier Ernest Peers-Ducpetiaux, Frederic Van der\\nBruggen, and Henri Kervyn, provincial inspector of primary instruction at Gand.\\n11. Persons employed^ salaries^ einoluments.\\nThese are,\\nFrancs. Dollars.\\n1 director, 4.000 about 800\\n1 chaplain 1.200 240\\n1 treasurer, 1.200 240\\n1 secretary, 600 120\\n1 supernumerary,\\n1 physician 600 120\\n2 teachers, at 600 fr...... 1,200 240\\n1 chief overseer, 000 120\\n3 overseers, at 450 fr., 1,330 270\\nI occasional overseer, 40U 80\\n1 head farmer, 600 120\\nFrancs. Dollars.\\n1 gardener, 400 about 80\\n1 assistant gardener, 300 60\\n4 laborers, for teams,\\nstables, and farm 800 160\\nwork, at 200 fr.,\\n1 cook 200 40\\n1 miller and baker,\\nand 1 housekeeper, 250 50\\nboth,\\nTotal, 21\\nThese officers receive, besides their salaries, the emoluments specified in the\\ndecree of March 8, 1850, viz. board, lights, fuel, washing, furniture, and medical\\nattendance in sickness, except that tlie dii eetor, who lieeps house does not receive\\nboard, washing, or furniture. The overseers have, besides, a uniform valued at\\n50 fi ancs, (10 dollars,) and the laborers, each a suit of clothes valued at 20 francs,\\n(4 dollars.) There are two tables for the officers one for the officers proper, pre-\\nsided over by the chaplain, the other for the farm laborers, at the head of which\\nis the farmer. All those employed, except the director, are single; a condition\\nrendered necessary by the arrangements of the establishment, and the impossibility\\nof accommodating families in it. At some future time it will be proper to exam-\\nine the practicability of preparing some tenements for families. Having started in\\nthe present footing, (a partir du present exercice,) there will be room for the em-\\nployment of some additional officers, and particularly for an increase in the num-\\nber of overseers, proportionable to that in the number of pupils. These overseers\\nshould be chosen, by preference, from among practical mechanics, and should have\\nthe direction of some of the workshops. The remaining shops may be entrusted,\\nas at present, to the oversight of paid workmen such as those vi hom the estab-\\nlishment lias already engaged as a locksmith and blacksmith, a machinist and\\nfireman for the steam-engine, a wheel-vvright, c.\\nThe officers, before receiving a definite nomination or engagement, are taken on\\ntrial, and undergo a sort of noviciate, which test their zeal and their aptitude.\\nThis plan has succeeded perfectly.\\n12. Plan for erecting school of foremen.\\nDuring the investigations pending the establishment of the reform school, it had\\nbeen suggested to connect with it a special school for foremen, like that of Mettray\\nand at the Rauhe-Haus at Hamburg but it was abandoned as difficult, compli-\\ncated, and expensive. But although it has not been thought practicable to gather\\nfrom elsewhere the material for a seminary of capable and faithful workmen, it has\\nbeen understood that the institution would endeavor to educate within itself such\\nsubordinate agents as it might require. Tliis furnishes an opening to those pupils\\nwho may be distinguished by good conduct or capacity and already, after scarcely\\neighteen months of operations, there took place, at the beginning of the present\\nyear, the formal emancipation of one of them, a young man of activity and intelli-\\ngence, and quick at all kinds of work, who has taken his place among the labor-\\ners upon the farm. Others will surely follow his example, and under its stimulus\\nwill be ambitious of the honor of serving such an establishment where tliey have\\nfound (so to speak) a new existence, and the certain prospect of ultimate success.\\n13. General dietetics.\\nThe diet of the pupils has been assimilated as much as possible to tliat of agri\\ncultural laborers. It is simple but abundant plain, but healthful.\\n14. Provisions.\\nThe food is furnished according to a bill of fare at the average expense, accord-\\ning to the price current of about 21 centimes (4 cents) a day for each pupil. This\\nexpense is certainly less than in any other similar establishment, in this or any", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0564.jp2"}, "565": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 563\\nother country. The pupils nevertheless have meat twice a week for which pur-\\npose hogs are killed on the farm, and their flesh served up alternately with beef.\\nThe bread is rye, unbolted. The grain, potatoes, legumes, milk, and butter, are\\nthe productions of the establishment, which diminish the amount of actual expen-\\nditure. With the extension and improvement of the present cultivation, these\\ncrops will increase, and ultimately, when there shall be as much land under culti-\\nvation as will be required by the full number of pupils, it is to be hoped that the\\nestablishment will itself furnish all the essentials for its own consumption,\\nlo. Clothing.\\nEach pupil receives at entering the following articles 5 shirts, 2 pair panta-\\nloons, 2 pair working pantaloons, 1 vest, 2 blouses, 2 neck cloths, 2 pocket hand-\\nkerchiefs, 1 btlt, 1 cap, 1 straw hat, 2 pair understockings, 1 pair shoes, 2 pair\\nwooden shoes, (sabots,) 2 towels, I comb, and 2 brushes, (1 for clothes, 1 for shoes.)\\nThe expense of this wardrobe does not exceed from 32 to 5 francs, ($6.50 to\\n$7.00,) according to size. Most of these articles have hitherto been furnished\\nfrom the workshops in the jail of Gand but as soon as the workshops of tiie\\nreform school are organized, it will make and finish, as far as possible, all the ne-\\ncessary clothing and bedding for its inmates. The tailors and menders shop is\\nalready in operation even the youngest of the children make straw hats the\\nspinning and weaving shops are begun, and will be in action before the end of the\\nwinter. The shoemakers shop is i!i a like state of forwardness. The only diffi-\\nculty is in finding foremen capable of directing the young operatives but the\\nactivity of the director will undoubtedly soon remedy it.\\n16. Sleeping arrangements.\\nThe bedsteads are of iron, with a press for clothing the bedding consists of a\\nstraw mattress, a pillow, a pair of linen sheets, and one, two, or three cotton cover-\\nlids, according to the season. The bedsteads, which are manufactured at the jail\\nof Gand, cost only 22 to 23 francs ($4. .50 to $4.75J each, including the press,\\nwhich is also of iron. They are arranged in four rows in the dormitories. These\\nare lighted all night, and besides that, the overseer can see from his chamber, at a\\nglance, all that passes a night watch has been organized. An overseer, attended\\nby two pupils, passes through all the premises, and especially through the dormi-\\ntories, to see that all is in good order.\\n17. Fire and light.\\nThese are put upon the most economical footing. The entire first story of the\\ncentral building, including the eating room and the schools, is warmed by the\\nsteam-engine. Lamps are used for lights, and the colewort (colza) cultivated on\\nthe farm furnishes part of the oil. The temporary wash-room is managed by pupils,\\nin anticipation of the organization of the school for girls, who will take charge of\\nthe washing and laundry departments of both establishments.\\n18. Health.\\nThe healthy conditir)n of the school gives a testimony in favor of the regimen in-\\ntroduced. Many of the children, at their entrance, were infected with diseases\\nmore or less severe, with rickets or scrofula. But both diseases and symptoms\\nhave rapidly disappeared before pure air, field labor, and regular living. This is so\\ntrue, that it is easy at a glance to distinguish by their appearance pupils lately ad-\\nmitted from those who have been inmates for a longer time. The latter are gener-\\nally strong and active they are rosy, and their whole appearance denotes health.\\nIn 1849 no infirmary was opened in fact, there was no case of distinct disease,\\nand cor\u00c2\u00bb|equently no death and the medical department, including the visits of the\\ninspecting physician, cost only 95fr., 34c.. (about $20.00.)\\nIn 18.50, from a number of pupils averaging 1 71, there were only 12 admissions\\nto the infirmary. The number of days under treatment was 72, giving an aver-\\nage of 6 days to each patient. The whole expense for drugs and materia medica\\nof all kinds, both for the pupils and for such laborers as were hurt or bruized dur-\\ning the building, was only 48fr. 94c., (about $10.00.) There was no death.\\nChildren sick with severe or incurable diseases, and consequently unfit for all\\nlabor, are sent to the infirmary of the alms-house at Bruges, by an arrangement\\nmade with that institution. The reform school pays for their support and treats\\nment at the rate of 50 centimes (about 10 cents) a day each.\\n19. Moral training.\\nThe moral training has been the object of more paternal care, if possible, than", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0565.jp2"}, "566": {"fulltext": "564 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nthe physical. It has been supposed that the poor children sent to the reform\\nschool needed food for the soul, no less than for the body that it was designed\\nnot only to snatch them from misery, disease, and death, but to change their\\nhabits, to correct their vices, to teach them their duties, to relieve them of their\\nalmost hereditary degradation, and to elevate them in their own estimation, as\\nwell as in that of society. Notwithstanding the difficulties inseparable from an\\nentirely new organization, and the embarrassments occasioned by building, from\\nthe first entrance of the first pupils they have been held under a strict but kindly\\nsupervision and up to this time there has occurred no act of insubordination of a\\nnature seriously to interfere with the steady discipline of the establishment.\\n20. Successive admission of pupils.\\nThe successive admission of pupils, a few at a time, has contributed much to\\nthis result, by facilitating the work of the officers it has also resulted in the for-\\nmation of a class in which the newly arrived pupils are enrolled.\\n21. Classification.\\nThe school is divided, at present, into 5 divisions of from 50 to 60 pupils each,\\narranged as much as possible according to age. There is an overseer to each\\ndivision. Each division is separated into two sections over each section is a cap-\\ntain (chef) and assistant, (sous-chef,) selected by the director from among such\\npupils as distinguish themselves for good conduct and industry. Each division\\nhas also a trumpet, (clairon.)\\n22. Exercises of the day.\\nThe division of time is so regulated as to occupy every moment of the pupils, to\\nprevent fatigue by variety and frequent succession of exercises, and to prevent\\nthem from escaping supervision. It varies somewhat, according to the season\\nand is at present arranged as follows, for summer and winter, Sundays and feast-\\ndays\\n1. Summer.\\nHOURS.\\nHOURS.\\n5 Rise.\\nI to\\n5.i Working hours.\\n5 to 5J Prayers, washing, (soins de pro-\\n4J\\n5i\\nCatechism for children not having\\npretre,) bed-making, roll-call.\\nreceived their first communion.\\n5^ 6J Exercise and maneuvres.\\n5J\\n5J Supper.\\n6| 6J Breakfast.\\n51\\n7i\\nSchool instruction.\\n6| 7 Arrangement of labor.\\n7i\\nSJ Gymnastics.\\n7 11 Workina; hours.\\n8J\\n9\\nRoll-call, reports.\\n11 12 Singingclass, practice by the band,\\n9\\nPrayers, bed-time.\\n(repetition pour la fanfare.)\\nSaturday, 5 to 8, cleaning work-\\n12 12:J Dinner.\\nshops, baths, c.\\n12i 1 Play.\\n2. W\\ninter.\\nHOURS.\\nHOURS.\\n5 Rise,\\n1 to\\n2\\nGymnastics and military exer-\\n5 to 5J Prayers, washing, c., bed-mak-\\ncises.\\ning, roll-call.\\n2\\nWorking hours.\\n5| 6J Singing class.\\n4i\\n5|\\nCatechism for children not having\\n6J 7 Breakfast.\\nreceived their first communion.\\n7 7^ Arrangement of labor\\n5J\\n6\\nSupper\\n7i 12 Working hours.\\n6\\n8\\nSchool instruction.\\n11 12 Practice by the band, (rgpgtition\\npour la ianfare.)\\n8\\n8i\\nRoll-call, report.\\n8i\\nPrayer, bed time.\\nSaturday, 1 to 4^, cleamng work-\\n12 12i Dinner.\\n124 1 Play.\\nshops, baths, c.\\n3. Sundays and feast-days all the year.\\n5\\n54\\nI\\n8?\\n9]\\n11\\n12\\n13i\\nto 5i\\n7J\\nRise, prayer, washing, fec.\\nClothes inspection, bed, dsc., do.\\nBreakfast.\\nPlay.\\nMass, sermon\\nSinging class.\\nPlay, games, (recreation, jeux.)\\nDinner.\\nPlay, games.\\n4 Catechism and religious instruc-\\ntion.\\n5J Gymnastics, military exercises, or\\nwalk.\\n6 Supper.\\n8 School instruction.\\n8J Roll-call, report.\\nPrayers, bed-time.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0566.jp2"}, "567": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 565\\nThe results of this arrangement may be stated as follows\\nLabor, 84 8i\\nSchool instruction, IJ 2\\nMusic, Vocal and instrumental, 1 1\\nGymnastics, manoeuvres and military exercises 2i 1\\nMeals J i\\nPlay,. J i\\nRising, retiring, virashing, roll-call, c 1 IJ\\nSleep, 8 Si\\nAn hour s catechism for pupils not having received their first\\ncommunion, which is subtracted from working hours\\n2.3. Physical training, gymnastics, military mancevvres, and exercises.\\nIt will be observed that gymnastics, manceuvres, and military e-xercises, espe-\\ncially in the summer, occupy a considerable portion of the day. To understand\\nthe necessity and good effect of these exercises, it would be necessary to see the\\ndeplorable condition of the majority of the children at their entrance, and the fa-\\nvorable change which appears in their appearance and health, after staying some\\ntime in the institution. Rickets, scrofula, want of elasticity in the limbs, difficulty\\nof walking, all rapidly disappear under the drill of the manoeuvres which tend not\\nonly to confirm the health and to increase the strength and activity of the children,\\nbut also to accustom them to discipline, to awaken their power of attention, and to\\nfurnish them an agreeable variety of employment, while preparing them for dif-\\nferent useful occupations. The fatigue of these exercises, while not amounting to\\nexhaustion, predisposes the pupils to sleep, and may perhaps be considered a\\nmost effective safeguard against the shameful habits and secret vices induced by\\nsedentary life, which are only too frequent in public and educational institutions,\\nbut which are fortunately being destroyed in the beginning at Ruysselede.\\nUnder the very zealous and skillful direction of the director of gymnastics, the\\nexercises are performed with very remarkable interest and accuracy. The school\\nbattiilion manoeuvres with almost as much precision as the best battalions of the\\narmy a platoon, armed with condemned carbines, marches at the head and\\nmarks time the bayonet exercise and skirmishing are as good as play to the\\nchildren and those among them who shall go into military service will have\\nalready passed through all the drill of the conscripts.\\n24. School of naval apprentices.\\nTo complete this department of instruction, of which we presume no one will\\ndeny the utility, it is sought to connect with the gymnasiutn a school of naval ap-\\nprentices, for the war and merchant marine. Such an establishment, which the\\nminister of the interior lately mentioned as promising materially to alleviate the\\ndistress in Flanders, by opening a new occupation to the laboring population,\\nmight be advantageously and economically attached to an existing institution,\\nwhose inmates, consisting principally of abandoned children, beggars, and va-\\ngrants, seem well adapted to become sailors. In several pauper schools in Eng-\\nland, and recently in France also, at the school of Mettray, there have been es-\\ntablished classes of naval apprentices, several of the graduates of which have im-\\nmediately found employment in the sea-port towns. Imitation of this example\\nwould doubtless produce a similar result. For this purpose it would be sufficient,\\nas at Mettray and at Norwood, near London, to add to the gymnastic apparatus\\nthe masts and spars of a brig, with their sails and rigging, and to procure the at-\\ntendance of a seaman twice a week, to direct the manceuvres. According to the\\nestimates which have been made, the necessary apparatus would cost about\\n$2,000, which would be reduced to $1,200 or $1,600 if it could be procured at\\nsecond hand.\\n25. Provision made for intellectual., moral, and religious education as devel-\\noped in the following articles.\\n26. School organization.\\nThe course of study, which was only outlined in 1849, has been completely or-\\nganized during 1850. The pupils are divided into two classes, each subdivided\\ninto sections. Over each class is a teacher, assisted by a certain number of moni-\\ntors chosen from among the pupils, for whom is arranged a special daily course,\\nto prepare them for their business. Among these monitors are some who exhibit", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0567.jp2"}, "568": {"fulltext": "566 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\ndispositions and skill quite remarkable and who may probably become distin-\\nguished instructors.\\n27. Course of study.\\nThe studies, pursued alternately in French and Flemish, are reading, writing,\\ngrammar, dictation, intuition, exercise of memory, arithmetic, mental and written,\\nthe legal system of weights and measures, general geography, the history of the\\ncountry, the rudiments of linear drawing, and vocal and instrumental music. This\\ncourse can hereafter be extended, according to the progress of the pupils, so as to\\nembrace all the knowledge useful to a workman, and which can contribute to his\\nintellectual, moral, and professional accomplishment. At the beginning it was\\nnecessary to limit the course to the most elementary rudiments.\\n28. Method of teaching.\\nThe method followed is that of M. Braiin, professor of pedagogy in the normal\\nschool at Nivelles, (intuitive method.) To acquaint the instructors of the school\\nat Ruysselede with this method, they were sent for several months to the normal\\nschool at Nivelles, where they studied with success the course in methodology.\\nIn consequence of these preparatory studies, these officers are thorough masters\\nof their business they display both zeal and perseverance and fiom this time\\nforward the schools at Ruysselede will rank among the first institutions of the\\nkind in the country.\\n29. Older of exercises. Winter.\\nWeek Days. Hours, P. M. 2nd Class (beginners.)\\nfS to 6i Articulation and writing.\\nI 6i 7 Reaiiiiig.\\nI 7 7J Weights and measures.\\n17^ 8 Do. practically applied.\\n(6 6i Articulation and writing.\\n1 6A 7 Reading.\\nI 7 7J Anttimetic, mental.\\nI 74 8 written.\\nf6 6i Articulation and writing.\\nJ 6i 7 Reading.\\nI 7 74 Reading, (intuition.)\\n1.74 8 Exercises in memory.\\n(6 6^ Articulation and writing.\\n64 7 Reading.\\nj 7 74 Arithmetic, mental.\\n(_7A 8 written.\\nSlTNDAY\\nMOND.\\nTWBS.\\nWbd.\\nWeek Days. Hours, P. M. 2n(l Class (beginners.)\\n6 to 6i iVrticulat ion and writing.\\n7 Reading.\\n74 Weight.s and measures.\\n8 Same, applied.\\n64 Articulation and writing.\\n7 Reading.\\n74 Arithmetic, mental.\\n8 written.\\n64 Articulation and writing.\\n7 Reading.\\n74 Arithmetic, mental,\\nwritten.\\nThurs.\\nFriday\\nSathr.\\n17\\nr^\\n164\\n7\\n7,i\\n6\\nSunday\\nMON.\\nTubs.\\nWed.\\n7\\n7*\\n6\\n6i\\n(7\\n6\\nWeek Days. Hours, P. M. 1st Class (beginners.)\\n6 to 64 Geography.\\nfv! 7 History of the country\\n7 7k Arithmetic, mental.\\n74 8 written.\\n64 Weights and measures.\\n7 Written application of do.\\n8 Reading. French.\\n1 6 7 Grammar.\\n7 8 Drawing from a model.\\n(6\\n(7\\nWeek Days. Hours, P. M. 1st Class (beginners.)\\n;6 to 7 Writing.\\n74 Arithmetic, mental.\\n8 written.\\n64 Dictation. Flemish.\\n7 orrection of do., spelling.\\n8 Reading, Flemish.\\n64 Dictation, French.\\n7 Correction of above.\\n8 Reading, French,\\n6V E.vplanations of forms of\\nletters.\\n7 Letters written in blank\\nbook.\\n74 Oral translation.\\n8 Writing phrases dictated.\\n30. Instruction m Singing.\\nA solfeggio lesson is given every morning from six to seven to the second class,\\nand one in singing at the same time to the first class. The method used is that\\nof Galin-Paris-Cheve, partly combined with the ordinary method by notes. Some\\nof the more advanced scholars are also learning church music, and can already\\nsing the service of the mass.\\n31. Instrumental music military hand.\\nIn March 1850, a military band was organized of fifteen instruments of copper,\\n(on the plan of Sax,) namely 1 small bugle in c flat, 3 tenor bugles in 6, 2 alto\\nbugles in e, 2 cornets a piston, 1 small key trumpet, 2 cylinder trumpets, 2 cylin-\\nder trombones, 1 tuba in h flat, 1 base tuba in A master attends twice a week\\nfrom Bruges, and notwith.standing that none of the children knew a single note, a\\nfew months since, he has trained thirty young musicians who are equal to most of\\nthose of the regimental bands. The band plays at exercises, and marches at the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0568.jp2"}, "569": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGinitf. 567\\nhead of the scholars when they walk in the neighborhood it amuses them on\\nSunday, and tigures in all the solemnities of the establishment. There are,\\nbesides, 8 trumpets, which sound for roll-call, and fill the place of bells in the\\npublic offices. Tile instruction of the pupils in the use of wind instruments will\\ndoubtless furnish some of them with useful and lucrative occupation all those\\nwho are capable of it will be admitted to the musical corps of the army, on their\\ndismissal.\\n32. Apparatus and furniture library.\\nThe school-rooms are spacious, well lighted, and provided with all the neces-\\nsary furniture and apparatus desks, seats, platforms, tables, maps, weights and\\nmeasures, models, c. A library of the best books, moral, instructive, and\\namusing, is in process of formation for the use of the officers and pupils.\\n33. Mental acquirements of pupils at entrance.\\nOf 245 pupils, January 1, 1851, at their entrance were: 42 knew how\\nto read and write 22 knew the alphabet 181 completely ignorant. Those\\nchildren who had acquired some degree of instruction, had received it at the\\nschool of the penitentiary at Sai nt- Hubert those from the alms-house of Cambre\\nand Bruges, were mostly quite as ignorant as the young beggars and vagrants who\\nentered the school from time to time.\\n34. Instruction actually given to the pupils.\\n35. Religious department.\\nThe want of accommodations and the small number of pupils did not allow, at\\nfirst, of the appointment of a chaplain to the school all that could be done was to\\nerect a temporary altar in a sufficiently large room, and by the kindness of the\\ncurate of Ruysselede, every Sunday and feast-day, one of the vicars of the com-\\nmune attended to say mass and to give religious instruction. This temporary ar-\\nrangement lasted until June, 1850. At that time, the appointment of the Abbe\\nBruson to the place of chaplain, caused the school as it were to enter upon a\\nnew phase of existence. The all-powerful influence of religion has united with\\nthat of the discipline and supervision, to realize the work of reformation to which\\nall the efforts of the faculty are directed. The worthy ecclesiastic to whom hiis\\nbeen confided the work of instructing these poor children, has become their\\nfriend and father they all love and respect him. Constantly among them, he\\nstudies their characters, inquires their wants, and does not spare good advice.\\n36. Religious condition of the children at their entrance and after their stay\\nat the school report of the chaplain.\\nThe result of the inquiries made at their entrance, and of the examination made\\nby the chaplain, shows that the great majority of the children sent to the reform\\nschool, are ignorant of the essential truths of religion. Of 245 pupils present at\\nthe end of 1850, 142 had, it is true, received their first communion but of this\\nnumber only 13 knew the whole catechism, and only 11 of these answered satis-\\nfactorily. The others had only begun the principal lessons, and had almost en-\\ntirely forgotten them. But let us hear the chaplain himself, who, in a report ad-\\ndressed to the committee of inspection at the close of 1850, reviews all the relig-\\nious condition of the institution.\\nAs to the children who have not partiiken of their first communion, some on\\naccount of their youth, and some on account of the sadly neglected condition in\\nwhich they have vegetated, it would be fortunate, so far as these last are con-\\ncerned, if they knew their prayers and the most important religious truths.\\nThere are among them 35 from 13 to 16 years of age, of whom 1 1 scarcely know\\ntheir prayers, and 12 have only begun to learn two or three lessons in the cate-\\nchism. All the pupils are obliged to attend mass on Sundays and feast-days,\\nduring which they receive a short lesson. So far as circumstances permits, divine\\nservice is performed with singing and music and when the new chapel shall be\\nfinished, I see no reason why there should not be, as in parish churches, the sol-\\nemn celebration, by singing, of matins, high mass, vespers and benediction. Pray-\\ners are said at rising and going to bed, and before and after meals. I think it\\nwould also be useful if the teachers should see that the recitations are begun\\nand ended with a short prayer, or at least with the sign of the cross.\\nThe pupils who have not yet received their first communion, recite daily for an\\nhouf in the catechism. They learn the letter of the book simultaneously, and the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0569.jp2"}, "570": {"fulltext": "668 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OP RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nsense is afterward explained to them. Every day are added new questions and\\nanswers, and the former ones are repeated. Thus they make rapid progress.\\nThe religious instruetion is given in Flemish, whieh is the language of the great\\nmajority of the pupils. By their continual intercourse with each other, they\\nlearn both French and Flemish rapidly enough but as a precaution, and not to\\ngive any excuse for wrong doing, care is taken to repeat, to the Walloons espe-\\ncially, in French, the instruction which has already been given in Flemish.\\nI desire here to express my hopes for the future of all these poor children, whom\\na judicious charity has lifted from a miserable, ignorant, and brutish degradation.\\nThe regularity of their conduct, the excellent spirit which animates them, the\\ngood order existing continually and every where, the good examples which they\\nfurnish to one another, the good habits which they acquire, the willing regularity\\nwith which they perform their religious duties, the aid, support, and advice which\\nthey continually receive from instructors interested in and devoted to their work,\\nand above all the excellent character of the principal authority of the school,\\nwhich is the soul of the whole institution, and which is above all praise, are not\\nonly presages of a better future, and foundations for hope they give convincing\\nassurances that from the reform schools of Ruysselede shall come laborious, hon-\\nest, moral, religious, and therefore happy men.\\n38. Order and discipline.\\nIn the absence of any other set of rules, the inspector-general of charitable in-\\nstitutions, who has special supervision of the organization of reform schools, in\\nconjunction with the committee of supervision and inspection, and the director, has\\nmade the necessaiy regulations to insure the discipline and good order of the\\nestablishment.\\n39. Moral accountability.\\nA system of moral accountability has been established upon a basis at once sim-\\nple and complete. For each pupil there is a file of papers, in whieh are preserved\\nthe examination at his entrance, the statement of his condition before entrance,\\nhis conduct and progress during his stay, his condition at leaving and afterwards.\\nThis file contains also other documents concerning the pupil judgments, certifi-\\ncates, letters, and all information which may inform the authority of the school as\\nto his standing and as to the results of his education in the reform school. These\\npapers will furnish invaluable information for the exercise of judicious patronage.\\n40. Book of conduct.\\nThe head overseer has charge of a book, in which he enters regularly the com-\\nmunications daily made him as to the standing of the pupils, by the overseers,\\nforemen of the workshops, captains of sections, c. At the end of each month\\ntlie director reviews these entries, and makes out the good and bad marks, for 1.\\ngeneral conduct 2. order and neatness 3. school studies 4. religious duties\\n5. work.\\n41. Class and register of honor.\\nThose pupils who have received no punishment during three consecutive months,\\nand have during each of those months received a fixed maximum of good marks,\\nare admitted into a class of honor, from which the director selects the captains\\nand assistants of sections. The names of those in this class are written upon a\\nregister which hangs in one of the principal rooms.\\n42. Rewards.\\nThe distribution of rewards is the duty of the director. They are entered in\\nthe running account with each pupil, in the reports of moral accountability which\\nare submitted to the inspector-general and to the members of the committee\\nof inspection, at each of their visits. The rewards are, 1. honorable mention;\\n2. public eulogy 3. admission to certain confidential employments 4. appoint-\\nment as captain or assistant of section; 5. registration in the register of honor\\n6. permission to learn to play some instrument, and to become a member of the\\nband 7. walks, short journeys, visits home, c.\\n43. Names on the register of honor, January 1, 1851.\\nThe register of honor was made up for the first time, January 1 1 850. At\\nthe end of that year, it contained the names of 164 pupils, of whom 58 were re-\\ngistered once 39 twice 50 three times 17 four times.\\n44. Erasures from the register of honor in 1850.\\nNo favors are granted except accordingly as the name of the pupil appears on", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0570.jp2"}, "571": {"fulltext": "For stealing; fruit, eegs, cnrrols, ic 5\\naiding anti ahcttmg the above, 1\\nrunning away 1\\nTotal, 23\\nAGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 569\\nthe register of honor. A single fault or bad mark is sufficient to cause the era-\\nsure of a name. The number erased during the year is 23, namely\\nFor insubordination, 7\\ndirtiness, 4\\niillentiss 2\\nindecent proposals, 1\\nfalse accusation, 1\\ngluttony, 1\\n4.5. Punishments.\\nWhile good conduct and praiseworthy actions are rewarded, crimes and faults\\nare punished with more or less severity. The punishments used are the follow-\\ning 1. reprimand; 2. detention during play-hours; 3. forced marching, with\\nor without hand-cuffs, and with or without diet on bread and water 4. loss of\\nplace of captain, or assistant of section 5. dismission from certain confidential\\nemployments 6. deprivation of musical instrument and dismission from band\\n6. erasure of name from register of honor 7. the prison.\\nNo punishment is inflicted except by decision of the director. The captains of\\nsections report to the overseers of divisions, they to the chief overseer, he to the\\ndirector. Overseers may give a reprimand, and may put the pupils uuder deten-\\ntion from play-hours.\\n46. Punishments inficted in 1850.\\nThe punishments are entered in a book, and carried to the account of the pupils\\nwho have incurred thtm. Their number, and the causes, are as foTlows\\nBlasphemy, 3\\nIndecent proposals, 2\\nFalse accusation, 1\\nTheft of carrots, fruit, eggs, fec., 13\\nAssisting in above, 4\\nQuarrels, 4\\nViolent assaults, 5\\nLaziness, 27\\nDirtiness 35\\nInsubordination, 25\\nNegligence, 14\\nTurbu lence 15\\nRefusing to work, 3\\nGluttony, 5\\nTrying to run away, 8\\nRunning away, 4\\nTotal 163\\nIt has generally been sufficient to administer a public reprimand. In other\\ncases, recourse has been had to the condemned squad, sometimes with hand-euffs,\\nrarely with diet on bread and water. There has been no use, hitherto, of the\\nprison. One captain of section has been degraded. All the others have felt the\\nhonor of their position, have been justly proud of their distinction, and have de-\\nserved to retain it.\\n47. Preservation of morals and manners.\\nAs we have already observed, the preservation of the morals and manners of\\nthe pupils is the object of daily and hourly care among the means used for this\\npurpose, are the following uninterrupted supervision the nature of the work,\\nwhich is performed mostly in the open air gymnastic and military exercises\\ncorrection of habits of position -as, hands on tables in school, in dining room, cfcc.\\ninspection and lighting of sleep-rooms\u00e2\u0080\u0094 there is a watchman in each room, and\\nthe overseer on guard makes frequent rounds education, intellectual and relig-\\nious warnings and advice of the chaplain and director provisions for special\\nsupervision.\\n48. Meetings and conferences of pupils and officers.\\nOn the first Sunday of each month, after mass, the officers and pupils all gather\\nto a general assembly, under the presidency of the director. He then addresses\\neulogiuins and admonitions to those deserving them, publishes rewards and pun-\\nishments, appoints the captains and assistants of sections, and discourses upon the\\nproceedings of the past month, with the purpose of keeping the pupils within their\\nduty, of stimulating their zeal, and of rousing within them good sentiments and\\nnoble thoughts. These meetings, which hitherto have had a most salutary influ-\\nence, will hereafter take place every week.\\nFurther, the director proposes every Saturday afternoon to meet the principal\\nofficers for the purpose of advising with them upon any necessary matter, and to\\ndiscuss the interests of the pupils, and the measures necessary to the continued\\nand increased success of the establishment. There will also be kept a book of\\nregulations and a journal of events at the school.\\n49. Slate of feeling in Ike school; results of syste?n.\\nThe state of feeling in the school is at present excellent. The children are", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0571.jp2"}, "572": {"fulltext": "570 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nobedient, respectful to their superiors, polite and obliging to each other disputes\\nare rare the brotherly feeling prevailing among them is continually strengthened.\\nThey are attached to the inst.tution they have its reputation at heart, and when\\none of them does any thing wrong, his severest penalty is the disapprobation of his\\ncompanions, and the solitude in which they leave him. This interdict, put by the\\ngood upon the bad, is remarkable it is a powerful assistance to discipline and\\nmore than one child upon whom the warnings and counsels of the officers had\\ntaken no hold, has yielded to the moral pressure and salutaiy power of the public\\nopinion of the school.\\nDuring the year now closing, there have been several opportunities to estimate\\nthe influence of the system of education introduced in the establishment. The\\nagricultural and industi ial exhibition at Bruges, September, 1850, where the\\nretbrm school attended with its car, bearing the symbols of agriculture, the band,\\nand the armed company the distribution of medals for the same exhibition,\\nwhich took place a little after, at the commune of Ruysselede, and where the\\npupds attended to receive the premiums given to their collective labor the agri-\\ncultural decoration granted to the head farmer for his good and faithful services\\nthe ceremonies of the jubilee at Bruges, in which those pupils took part whose\\nnames are in the register of honor all these have been powerful incitements of\\nencouragement and emulation. By coming thus in contact with society, by see-\\ning themselves surrounded with the evidence of so much care, the pupils have\\nseen that their reinstatement therein was commenced. The wretched little beg-\\ngar, the young vagabond without home or country, begins to experience the rec-\\nognition, the love, and the understanding of the dignity, of humanity. The proofs\\nof this transformation are numerous; we will cite a few at hazard.\\nDuring the past summer the chiefs of sections, with an overseer, went to Bruges\\nto bring a number of children from the alms-house there they were busy all the\\nforenoon m washing them, changing their clothes, and preparing them to depart\\nat dinner-time, being invited to take their meal with the others, they all, without\\nconcerted agreement for one reason or another, refused. On coming liome at\\nevening, fetigued with their journey, the director asked them the reason of that\\nrefusal. We were hungry enough, said they, but we had rather fast than\\neat beggars soup. During the festivals at Bruges, several persons, pleased\\nwith the good appearance of the pupils, offered them money they all refused but\\none, who accepted a five frane piece ($1.00) which he placed in a box containing\\naid for children leaving the school. At the distribution of medals at Ruysselede,\\nthe burgomaster who presided, offered to one of the pupils a piece of silver.\\nThank you, sir, said he, we have all that we need we should not know\\nwhat to do with the money please give it to some one more unfortunate than\\nwe. During December last, the chaplain, at divine service, delivered a sermon,\\ntaking for h s text the two first words of the Lord s prayer Our Father. This\\ntouching address made a deep impression upon the pupils, wlio spontaneously\\nwaited for the chaplain to come out from the chapel, saluted him with unanimous\\nacclamations, and testified their gratitude and affection by an actual ovation. At the\\nNew Year it was the director s turn the pupils had prepared an agreeable sur-\\nprise for him. At the moment when the clock struck the expiration of the old\\nyear, and the coming in of the new, the whole school came together to present to\\nhim their congratulations and regards, and to give him a serenade. Some days\\nafterwards there happened the formal emancipation of one of the best pupils, who\\nwas placed among the laboi ers on the farm. On this occasion the director pro-\\nnounced a feeling discourse, which was heard with religious attention, and which\\ndoubtless left useful impressions on their minds. We mention these things,\\nbecause they appear to us to be the symptoms, we might even say the certain evi-\\ndence, of a true reform. TVHien we compare the present condition of the pupils\\nwith that in which they were at their arrival, we may measure with justifiable\\npride the distance between those periods, and the progress made in less than\\neighteen months.\\nThe preceding details will show that the establishment at Ruysselede is not a\\nprison a place of penitence but actually a true reform school, as its title indi-\\ncates. The pupils enjoy a liberty limited only by rules to which they submit\\nalmost spontaneously, and with good will all idea of constraint is avoided there\\nare neither walls, barriers, grates, nor bolts so that if the children remain in the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0572.jp2"}, "573": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 57 1\\ninstitution, it is because they are contented and choose to. The small number of\\nescapes wh.ch have taken place, demonstrates the advantage of a sj^stein based\\nupon confidence and parsuasion. The officers do not hc sitate when a pupil\\nbehaves well, if he belongs to a respecttible family, to allow him to visit his parents,\\nif in the neighborhood these permissions have never been abused, and the pupils\\nto whom they- have been given have always returned at the hour prescribed.\\nThey can also grant other diversions by way of favor, as a reward of good con-\\nduct, and an incentive to more on certain festival days the most meritorious pu-\\npils may be allowed to sit at table with the officers during winter evenings they\\nmay be allowed to put oft going to bed, and to employ themselves in such study\\nor reading as they please, or to take part in familiar conversations upon instruc-\\ntive and amusing subjects. Games may be played, such as shooting with bow\\nand arrow, bosvl.ng, skittles, c. The institution, lastly, of annual festivals, as in\\nthe German schools, and especially the anniversary of the scliool, contribute to\\ngive variety and animation to the daily life of the pupils, to rivet the bonds of grati-\\ntude and affection between them and their benefactors, and to furnish agreeable\\nreminiscences of their stay in the school.\\n50. Agricultural organization employment of the pupils on the farm.\\nThe reform school of Ruysseledc, according to the plan on which it was founded,\\nis especially an agricultural establishment. The whole organization of labor is\\nbased upon agricultural and kindred occupations, such as may be performed in\\nthe fields. The pupils work in the earth, sow and plant the younger hoe or\\npull weeds the older and stronger are employed in harvesting and thrashing.\\nOne brigade is specially attached to the farm, where its members in regular rota-\\ntion are employed at the stables, the hog-pens, the poultry-yard, the manure\\nheaps, the dairy, c. Another brigade is employed in the kitchen-garden, under\\nthe direction and supervision of the gardener and his assistant. During these\\ntwo first years, it has been necessary to employ laborers from without the school,\\nto assist the inexperience of the children, and to perform some work too difficult\\nfor them but after this year, the establishment can undoubtedly supply all its\\nown labor.\\n51. Combination and alternation of agricultural and mechanical labor.\\nDuring the season of cultivation, it is estimated that the farm work will regu-\\nlarly occupy from 250 to 300 children these are sel.jcted in preference from\\namong the country pupils, orphans, and abandoned children the town children,\\nwho at their dismission are to return to their families, will find employment in the\\nworkshops already organized, or shortly to be so; these same workshops will also\\nfurnish occupation for the farm-laborers during the winter, and whenever out-door\\nwork is necessarily suspended.\\n52. Choice and nature of occupation., according to the circumstances of the\\nchildren.\\nIn the selection of occupations it has been requisite to harmonize the interests\\nof the two classes of pupils, town and country children, so as to give them equal\\nadvantages for whatever situation they may take on leaving the school. This\\nobject has been carefully considered by the instructors, who, without coming to\\nany very definite resolution on this point, have considered the following occupa-\\ntions as satisfying more or less the conditions required.\\nBlacksmithing, locksmithing, making and repairing farming tools, edge-tool\\nmaking, trellis making, machinist s work. The erection of the steam-engine\\nallow of instructing pupils in managing it, and in the duty of fireman, c.\\nCarpentry, joiner-work, wheel-wrighting, cooperage, wooden-shoe making, turn-\\ning, carving in wood saddle and harness making snoe-making and repairing;\\ntailoring and mending; painting, glazing, masonry, hod-carrying, brick-making,\\nplastering, c. basket-making, straw-plaiting, hat, mat, and broom-making, c.\\nnail-making, brush-making making toys and chains making various woven\\narticles carpets, slippers, c. manufacture of fla.x breaking, hatcheling, spin-\\nning, winding, weaving, c. milling, baking, cooking domestic labor; educa-\\ntion as musicians, soldiers, sailors, c.\\n53. Occupations already introduced into the reform school.\\nSome of the above-named employments are already introduced into the school.\\nThe workshops of the blacksmith and locksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, coop-\\ners, tailors, basket- makers, and straw-weavers, are already in operation the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0573.jp2"}, "574": {"fulltext": "572 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\nspinning and weaving shop is entirely fitted up, and contains 60 spinning-wheels,\\n6 twisting machines, 9 bobbin machines, 1 reel, and 1 warp machme. It is wait-\\ning for a foreman, to be put in operation. The tailors shop is directed by an over-\\nseer over the others are placed good workmen, paid by the day or the month,\\nwho work themselves while directing the pupds under them. It has been the\\npractice to choose overseers from among workmen skillful enough to direct the\\nprincipal workshops of the school. By thus combining supervision and direction of\\nwork, strict economy will be conjoined with strict disciphne. There are already\\namong the overseers a laborer, a gardener, and a tailor, exercising these duplicate\\nfunctions.\\n54. Number of pupils in different occupations.\\nThe 245 pupils present at the beginning of 1851, were occupied as follows\\nA. Farm, and garden.\\n1. Kitchen-sarden, 30 1 4. Stables 4\\n2 Thrashing 12 5. Farm, various operations, 20\u00e2\u0080\u009470\\n3. Teams, 4\\nB. Workshops.\\n6. TaDors and menrler.o, 30 l 12. Plumber s apprentices, 1\\n7. Ji iiitr. and carpenters 13 13. Strawplaiters, hat and basket\\n8. Blacksmiths and locksmiths, 8| weavers 40\\n9. Wheelwright s apprentices 2 14. Mending roads with gravel, break-\\n10 Coopers 2 ing stone, 28\u00e2\u0080\u0094125\\n11. Machinist s l|\\nC\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -Domestic service.\\n15. Baker s assistants, 2\\n16. Washernui 11\\n17. Oo(]ks and pickers, 12\\n18. Monitors of neatness, 15\\n19. Waiting on officers, 2\\n20. Cooking lor officers, 3\\n21. In Infirmary, 1\\n22. Acting as porter 1\\n23. Trumpeter on guard, 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n24. Sick in infirmary,\\nTotal, 2\\nIt will be seen that all the pupils are occupied, notwithstanding the winter\\nthere is no want of work and if the number of arms were greater, it would not\\nbe difficult to use them. About sixty of the children are under 12 years old.\\nThese are employed in the easiest and least fatiguing work they plait straw and\\nmake hats for the whole school. The older and stronger are set at work requir-\\ning more strength and intelligence. But whenever weather permits, or an emer-\\ngency demands, they all leave the workshops for the fields, where they render\\nwhatever assistance they are able. There are several advantages in this change\\nof occupations the succession and variety satisfy the curiosity of the children,\\nsustain their activity, and preserve them from the inevitable fatigue of monoto-\\nnous and uniform labor; allow of consulting their preferences and aptitudes, and\\nwill have the general effect of giving them simultaneous practice in different occu-\\npations, which will be of assistance to them hereafter.\\n55. Inducements to labor absence of pay.\\nThe pupils receive no wages before being paid for their work, they should\\nmake up the expense of their maintenance, education, and apprenticeship. Be-\\nsides, an alms chest has sufficed to supply the necessary outfits at their depar-\\nture. For pecuniary emolument have been substituted elevation to higher classes\\nemulation moral encouragements praises bestowed upon industry and progress.\\nThe plan has perfectly succeeded. The pupils labor with gaiety and good will, and\\nthey do not even dream of money, which indeed they would not know what to do\\nwith while remaining in the establishment.\\n56. Condition of property at occupation extension of clearing and cultiva-\\ntion kitchen-garden., nursery, and orchard.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0The agricultural operations have gone on as usual during the past year. At\\nthe occupation of the land, in the end of 1848, the fields presented a most de-\\nplorable aspect. Neglected, exhausted, overgrown with weeds, and with couch-\\ngrass, which still persists in growing, in spite of care and repeated hoeings, they\\nseemed to defy the most persevering eff orts. During 1849, nevertheless, about\\n63 hectares (1 60 acres) were put under cultivation. In 1850, the clearing has\\nbeen continued, and cultivation extended, in the whole, over about 98 liectares\\n(245 acres.) A kitchen-garden has been laid out, occupying about 4| hectares", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0574.jp2"}, "575": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OP RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 573\\n(10 acres,) arranged in the best manner; the walks are bordered with fruit trees,\\nand it is surrounded with a hedge of gooseberry and raspberry bushes, and mul-\\nberry trees. One side of the kitchen-garden is a small nursery of fruit, forest, and\\nornamental trees, intended to furnish material for plantations and for the instruc-\\ntion of the pupils. For the same purpose there has been laid out an experimen-\\ntal field, where grain and seeds of dift erent sorts and of the best varieties are\\nplanted. Thus will be discovered those best adapted to the soil of the establish-\\nment, and whose cultivation will present most chances of success. The orchard\\nwas infected with an unhealthy blight and contained only a few mangy and\\nwithering apple trees. It has been renovated, and now serves for a pasture for\\nyoung cattle.\\n57. Manure.\\n(Method of procuring manure, during early part of farming operations.)\\n58. Rotation of crops.\\n(Area in diftVrent crops rotation used.)\\n59. Lost harvest estimate of value of property.\\n(Items of calculation in estimating totals of ^ming expenses.)\\n60. Agricultural accounts.\\n(Reference to appendix for details.)\\n61. Balance of receipts and expenses.\\n(Summary of expenses and returns from farming operations.)\\n62. Average product per hectare.\\n(Names, quantities per hectare, and value of crops.)\\n63. Experiments in cultivation necessity of proportioning cultivated land\\nto amount of labor and of required provisions.\\n(Outline of experiments made need of enlarging cultivated area stated.)\\n64. Number of cattle.\\n(Names and number of stock.)\\n65. Farm apparatus.\\n(Names and number of vehicles and hnplemeuts.)\\n66. Inventory of provisions in store.\\n(Value of provisions on hand.)\\n67. Revenue of property in 1848 and 1850, compared,\\n(Condition of establishment, and revenue, at those dates.)\\n68. Medals received by the reform school at the agricultural exhibitions of\\nGhent and Bruges.\\nNotwithstanding its recent organization, the reform school sent specimens of its\\nproductions to the exhibition opened at Ghent, September, 1849, where it received\\na silver medal for its flax, which was remarkably good. In 1850, at the agricul-\\ntural exhibition of Bruges, it took seven new medals, besides the agricultural\\ndecoration of the second class, bestowed upon the head farmer. These remuner-\\nations compensated labor and the remembrance of them will not fail to stimulate\\nthe zeal and activity of both pupils and officers.\\n69. During the three years, 1848, 49, and 50, there have been made to the school\\nappropriations amounting in all to 602,500 francs (120,500 dollars,) as follows:\\nFrancs. Dollars.\\n1848, 4,000 800\\n1848, 171,500 34.300\\n1849, 195,000 39,000\\n1850, 232,000 46,400\\nTotal, 602,500 120,500\\n70. Summary and classification of expenses.\\nPreparation, maintenance, clearing, building, c., $2,900.00\\nPrice of property building, c., 61,936.77\\nAgricultural expenses, 4,780.07\\nWorkshop expenses, 18.61\\nSalaries and paid wages, 4,464.55\\nTotal.\\n74,100.00\\n27,656.90\\n6,170.08\\n485.96\\n12,087.06\\n46,400.00\\n$2,900.00\\n89,593.66\\n10,950.16\\n504.57\\n16,551.61\\n120,500.00", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0575.jp2"}, "576": {"fulltext": "5*74 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\n71. Receipts.\\nDuring the last two years, the receipts of the establishment have amounted to\\n118,152 francs, 25 cents. (.$23,630.45 of which $11,210.67 has been paid into\\nthe trea.sury for board of pupils and from sales of produce, and $12,419.77 were\\nin kind, bein^ value of produce raised and consumed in the establishment.\\n72. General financial results.\\nThe result of the financial summary, omitting the expenditures for farming and\\nfor workshops, which are more than balanced by existing values of property, cat-\\ntle, machinery, tools, raw material, and provisions in store, is as follows\\n1. There has been expended from the sum of 600,000 francs, ($120,000,) ap-\\npropriated to the reform school by the law of April 3, 1848, 447,968 fr., 34 cts.,\\n($89,593.67,) in the organization of the school for boys.\\n2. There therefore remains, available for establishing the school for girls,\\n152,032 fr., ($30,406.40.)\\n3. The expense of management and support of the boys school for 1849 and\\n1850, was 82,758 fr., ($16,551.60.) The number of days maintenance of pupils\\nfor the same time, vvas 89,508 the average expense per day was therefore 90\\ncentimes, (18 cents.) But in this estimate are included the expenses of furniture,\\n(fcc, bedding and clothes for 500 children which are in fact advances, not prop-\\nerly charged to the account of ordinary expenses for the two seasons for which\\nthe estimate is made. After deducting these extraordinary expenses from the ex-\\npenditure for 1850, as well as personal expenses carried to the farming account,\\nthe actual expense for the year, of the boys school is as follows\\nFrancs, c. Dollars.\\n1. Board of officers, 9,483.32 1,896.66\\n2. Other housekeeping expenses of officers, 6,172.81 1,034.56\\n3. Sleeping expenses of officers, 177.00 35.40\\n4. Uniforms of overseers, 119. 06 23.81\\n5. Board of pupils, 13,676.65 2,735.33\\n6. Wardrobes of pupils, 2,025.00 405.00\\n7. Sleeping expenses of pupils, 640.00 128.00\\n8. Heating of establishment, 287.21 57.44\\n9. Lights for establishment, 1,403.76 280.75\\n10. Apparatus for personal neatness, 198.59 39.72\\n11. Wa.shing, 651.74 130.35\\n12. Office expenses, 188.77 37.75\\n13. School expenses, 731.60 146.32\\n14. Religious expenses, 200.40 40.08\\n15. Infirmary expenses, 48.94 9.78\\nTotal, 35,004.85 7,000.97\\nThe number of days maintenance being 62,462, there follows\\nfr. c, cts.\\nDailly expense per head for board, 0.21.89 0.04.38\\nother .0.34.15 0.06.83\\nGiving daily expense of support, 0.56.04 0.1 1.21\\nThe expense of board and maintenance of the officers may be stated as follows j\\nfrancs, o. Dollars.\\n1. Board, 4,560.88 912.17\\n2. Cook s wages, 206.50 41.30\\n3. Washing, 355.59 71.12\\n4. Fuel for cooking, 49.84 9.97\\nTotal, 5.172.81 1.034.56\\nNumber of days maintenance, including cook s, 4,667 consequently,\\nFr. c. cu.\\nDaily expense of board, per head, 0.97.72 0.19.54\\nother 0.10.56 0.02.11\\nWhole daily expense of board and housekeeping, 1.08.28 0.21.65", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0576.jp2"}, "577": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUVSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 5^5\\nLastly, the farm household has cost as follows\\nFrancs, c. Dollars, cu.\\n1. Board, 2,424.19 484.84\\n2. Lights, 70.00 14.00\\n3. Heating, 35.00 7.00\\n4. Washing, 246.18 49.23\\n5. Clothing for laborers, 27.36 5.47\\nTotal, 2,802.73 560.54\\nThe number of days maintenance is 3,301 5 consequently,\\nFr. c. CIS.\\nDaily expense per head, of board, 0.73.43 0.14.69\\nother, 0.11.47 0.02.29\\nDaily expenses per head, of all, 0.84.90 0.16.98\\nIf it has been possible, dm-ing 1850, to reduce the daily expense each of the\\npupils to 56 centimes (11 cts.,) it may be hoped that this rate will be reduced yet\\nmore when the school shall be enlarged to its full extent, and when the general\\nexpenses of officers and government shall be apportioned upon a greater number.\\nThe high rate of expenses for the former years resulted from the necessity of\\nbuying in market or in trade the greater portion of the provisions, fodder, and\\nmanure, used in the establishment. The production of these articles will not be\\nupon its true economic footing, until the school shall provide for all its essential\\nneeds from the produce of its own cultivation and its own workshops. To accom-\\nplish this purpose, we repeat, that it is indispensable to put at least 200 hectares,\\n(500 acres) under cultivation that is, at the rate of one hectare (2-| acres) to five\\nsouls, of a total population of about 1,000. It will otherwise be difficult or im-\\npossible to reduce the expenses to the amount to be paid by the communes, and\\nmuch more to 20 or 25 centimes (4 or 5 cts.) a day, as desired.\\n73. Expenses for 1851.\\n74. Estimate for 1S52.\\n75. Erection of school for girls.\\n76. Filling of complement of hoys school.\\n77. Insufficiency of the school, necessity of an auxiliary establishment.\\nAccording to the statements of the alms-houses, the number of boys from 6 to\\n18 years old, in those establishments, January 1, 1848, had arisen to 542. Since\\nthat time there has been a slight decrease, but there are now nearly 500, includ-\\ning the young beggars who have been transferred from the alms-houses of Bruges\\nand Cambre to Ruysselede. Besides, this last institution is destined to receive\\ncertain classes of children who have not heretofore been sent to the alms-houses.\\nIf now we consider that the period of remaining at Ruysselede is longer than that\\nusually passed in the alms-houses, it is evident that the reform school is altogether\\nincompetent to receive all that class of population for whom it was intended.\\nHence the necessity of attaching to the school at Ruysselede an auxiliary school\\ncapable of containing from 100 to 150 children. The reason of recommending\\nsuch a subordinate school is the considerable expense necessary for a new sepa-\\nrate establishment while an auxiliary school, like the detached farms at Mettray,\\nwould cause only comparatively a small one. This auxiliary, situated as near as\\npossible to the principal school, would be under the same government with it. It\\nwould be sufficient to erect upon the farm leased or bought, a building large enough\\nfor sleeping-room, sitting-room, refectory and school-room, with two or three\\napartments for the overseers. The housekeeping could be done at the farm-house.\\nIn matters of religion, the pupils might be associated with the people of the village.\\nPerhaps an an angement could be made with the village schoolmaster to give a\\ndaily lesson. Before being sent to the branch school, the pupils should stay long\\nenough at the central school to acquire the necessary discipline and education.\\nEvery Sunday, if the distance be not too great, they might go to that establish-\\nment, and engage in the ordinary exercises there.\\nThis arrangement is evidently as simple as economical. Under good direction,\\nwith land enough (60 to 80 hectares\u00e2\u0080\u0094 150 to 200 acres,) the auxiliary school, in-\\nstead of causing extra expense, would cause an actual saving to the principal\\nBchool.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0577.jp2"}, "578": {"fulltext": "5*76 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\n78. Conclusion.\\nTo judge of the reform school at Ruysselede, and to appreciate the results ob-\\ntained there up to this time, it is necessary not to lose sight of the date of its es-\\ntablishment, and the short time since the entrance of the first pupils. Its experi-\\nence is hardly begun the foundations are laid, but they are yet to be submitted\\nto the test of daily practice. If the expectations of government have hitherto\\nbeen realized and even surpassed, in some respects, this result must chiefly be\\nattributed to the devotion and zeal of the committee, the director, of the officers\\ngenerally but it is far from this point to definitive success and to attain this\\nv^ ithout miscarjiage, requires a steady perseverance which nothing can discourage,\\nand the firm resolve to overcome the difficulties and obstacles which can not fail\\nto present themselves.\\nWhen the agricultural department shall be on a thorough footing, it will be\\nproper to extend and perfect it so as to bring the amount of production up to the\\ndemands of the population. The stable, the dairy, the piggery, the poultry-yard,\\nshould furnish regular profits. The inexperience of the young beggars w^ho had\\nnever handled a tool before in their lives, their idleness, which great pains were\\nnecessary to overcome, their vicious and enfeebled constitutions which had to be\\nbuilt up, were so many obstacles which must be taken into account. But now\\nthat these embarrassments are in great part removed, that the school and the farm\\nhave a definite organization, that the pupils have acquired, with the habit of dis-\\ncipline, a degree of strength and skill, undoubtedly the attention of the authorities\\ncan be more particularly directed to financial matterSj and can take cognizance of\\nmany details hitherto necessarily neglected.\\nThe workshops in process of organization will also help to lessen the expense of\\nthe establishment. The combination of mechanical and agricultural labor will\\nafford opportunity to vary occupation and to distribute them accordingly to the\\nfitness and future intei-ests of the pupils. Each of these should learn at least one\\ntrade completely, and the rotative method at present introduced in the farm-work\\nis accommodated to this design of the apprenticeships.\\nThe department of insti uction should be completed. The children should do\\nno work without having it explained to them. A purely mechanical and entirely\\nuniform occupation brutifies the workman, while varied and intelligent labor in-\\ncreases his power and elevates his mind. Already, during the past spring, the\\nhead gardener has held classes at which he has explained to the pupils under his\\ncharge the theory of the operations which they are called to practice in the ground\\nthese might be arranged likewise for other departments of labor. There will be\\nalso a permanent course of linear di awing, for the benefit of carpenters, lock-\\nsmiths, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, c. All the pupils will be taught the funda-\\nmental rules of arithmetic which will enable them to make the calculations con-\\nnected with their work, and to keep the simple accounts required in it.\\nAfter providing for present exigencies, it is necessary to care for those of the\\nfuture. The extension of assistance to the pupils at leaving the reform school,\\nmay be very advantageously used in prescribing certain conditions of apprentice-\\nship or hire. Among these conditions will be a stipulation for the sending back\\nto the school, in certain cases of pupils guilty of misconduct, or not possessing the\\nqualifications requisite for the business they have undertaken. This arrangement\\nwill have the double advantage of facilitating the finding of places, and of preserv-\\ning over the pupils, after their dismission, a guardianship, the want of which is\\nnow felt as a defect. It will also be proper that the authorities of the school\\nshould have the privilege of putting out the children, on proper occasions, without\\nwaiting for the prescribed time of dismission, as well as that of prolonging their\\nstay, when there is no opportunity of finding places for them. Later, when the\\nreform school shall have come into complete operation, and shall have been fully\\ndeveloped, the means may be sought of favoring the emigration of those pupils\\nwho are not bound to their country by family ties, and who may find abroad,\\nmeans of occupation and of success in life unattainable in Belgium. To this class\\nbelong foundlings, abandoned children, orphans, children of those condemned to\\ninfamous punishments, c. But it should be clearly understood that the patron-\\nage and protection of government will follow these young emigrants to their new\\ncountry, and that a return is always open to them if their hopes abroad should fail.\\nThe reform school will thus become a sort of nursery of material for colonization,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0578.jp2"}, "579": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM.\\n511\\nboth at home and abroad. Thus prepared, pursued by young and vigorous men,\\nanimated with a lol ty sentiment of devotion, the work of colonization, which would\\nsurely fail if intrusted to a few miserable artizans, men generally weakened by\\nprivations, idleness and vice, would, we are confident, be crowned with full success.\\nThe pupils sent from our preparatory schools would accomplisli a mission analo-\\ngous to that of the hardy pioneers who patiently laid the foundations of the gran-\\ndeur of the United States, by opening to the population which followed in their\\nfootsteps abundant sources of labor and of gain.\\nOne of the greatest difficulties in tlie organization of reform schools is undoubt-\\nedly the finding of capable and devoted officers, willing to associate in the reform\\nundertaken by government. To overcome this difficulty it has already been con-\\ntemplated, as has been mentioned above, to estiiblish at Ruysselede a school of\\nforemen and overseers, like the institutes of Mettray and of Horn, and the nor-\\nmal schools of Switzerland. Economical consideration caused the postponement\\nof this plan, which however might sliortly be resumed by the help of the advanta-\\nges of this institution, \\\\yithout additional expense. The captains and assistants of\\nsections, and the monitors of the workshops and schools, already form a sort of\\npreparatory class of all necessary classes of officers whose members might be\\nemployed not only at Ruysselede, but also at any auxiliary or similar establish-\\nments hereafter to be created. To assist and encourage this arrangement, the\\nmost capable and deserving members of this class might be admitted to attend the\\ncourse of instruction in the normal schools, or in the agricultural, arboricultural,\\nor horticultural schools recently erected under the patronage and with the assis-\\ntance of government. This would prove a valuable stimulant and reward of emu-\\nlation, and one from wliich the reform school would reap a rich return. This\\nobject, held out to legitimate ambition, would be the crowning feature of the sys-\\ntem which we are seeking to apply a system which aims at the reformation and\\nreinstatement in society of the numerous population of young pariahs who have\\nscarcely any other prospect in life than an alms-house, a prison, or an early death.\\nThe arrangement for prolonging the stay of the children in the reform schools\\nwill not only tend to insure their reformation, but will also secure the return, by\\ntheir labor, of part at least of the expenses of their education and apprenticeship.\\nIts result will be that these expenses will be strictly limited within the amount of\\nthe public appropriations. We have already seen that in 1852, the finances of\\nthe school had been established upon a footing so economical as to require the ad-\\nministration of the institution to use its own income to cover its expenses. If, as\\nwe hope, this requirement has been satisfied, the economical problem of the es-\\ntablishment of reform schools may be considered solved. Henceforward these in-\\nstitutions may be established upon a satisfactorily stable foundation, and there\\nneed be no hesitation in aUowing them all the development of which they are\\ncapable.\\n3V", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0579.jp2"}, "580": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM\\nJUVENILE CRIMINALS, AT RED HILL, NEAR REIGATE.\\nThe Reformatory School and Farm, at Red Hill, near Reigate, in\\nthe county of Surrey, was established in 1849, by the Philanthropic So-\\nciety, the oldest association in England, and one of the earliest of its\\nclass m Europe, having been founded at London in 1788, to provide a\\nrefuge, and the means of industrial, moral, and intellectual instruction\\nfor juvenile criminals, and the destitute offspring of convicted felons.\\nThe first step taken by the society was to collect in a hired house, in the\\nneighborhood of London, known as St. George s Fields, some dozen chil-\\ndren, under a master-workman and his wife, whose duty it was to over-\\nseer their labor in some simple branch of handicraft industry. Gradu-\\nally the plan was enlarged so as to embrace three houses, under the\\ncharge of a master^workman one devoted to shoemaking, the second\\nto tailoring, and the third to carpentry, until the whole was merged into\\none great establishment, surrounded by a high wall, with a chapel, resi-\\ndences for tiie officers, and workshops for tailors, shoemakers, brush^\\nmakers, basket-makers, printers, carpenters, c. The destitute and\\ncriminal youth at first of both sexes, but afterwards the girls were ex-\\ncluded were here received and instructed in some useful trade, as well\\nas in the elementary branches of education, and then bound out as ap-\\nprentices to master-workmen in the city. The institution, by its meas-\\nure of success, demonstrated the practicability of making a favorable\\nchange in the personal, industrial, and moral habits of neglected and\\ncriminal children, but it did not adopt from time to time modifications of its\\nsystem, and especially, did not supply the deficiencies of family discipline\\nand influence, in which the worst habits of this class of children have\\ntheir origin. As the population of the city spread to and around the\\npremises, its location became unhealthy, and objectionable on other\\ngrounds.\\nIn 1846, Mr. Sidney Turner, now the resident chaplain, and mana-\\nger, came into the active management of the institution, and gradually\\neffected a change in its plan of operation. In company with Mr.\\nPaynter, a police magistrate, and Mr. William Gladstone, the treasurer\\nof the society, he visited the Mettray colony near Tours, as well as other\\nindustrial schools on the same general model and on their return, a plan\\nwas devised for a reformatory school, in which farm-labor should be the\\nprincipal, and the trades and handicrafts the secondary occupations of\\nthe inmates. After some difficulty in procuring an eligible situation, an\\nestate of about 140 acres, known as the Red Hill farm, near Reigate, in", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0580.jp2"}, "581": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL ANP FARM. AT RED HILL 579\\nthe county of Surrey, on the Brighton Railway, was obtained on a lease\\nof 150 years, with the privilege of purchase at any time, on speci-\\nfied terms. Buildings werfe erected for a dwelling-house for the director.\\na farm-house and appurtenances, a chapel, school-room, and two lodg-\\ning houses, each capable of accommodating fifty-six children and their\\noverseers.\\nThe school at Red Hill was commenced in April, 1849, by the admis-\\nsion of three lads and in the course of two months of fifteen more, mostly\\nabove fourteen years of age, and from country districts. At the close of\\nthe year there had been admitted sixty-five boys, including those which\\nwere at the institution in London. The following sketch of a visit to\\nRed Hill within a year after it was opened, which was originally pub-\\nlished in Chambers Journal, will throw light on the organization and\\npractical working of the institution.\\nOn alighting at the Red Hill station, we were received by a neat young groom,\\nwho drove us in a small vehicle, very carefully and well, over a mile and a-half\\nof rougliish road to the chaplain s residence, into which we were politely ushered\\nby another youth, who announced us to our host.\\nSurely, I said when that gentleman arrived, neither of those lads were ever\\nconvicts\\nYes, was the reply one was convicted once the other, who is from Park-\\nhurst, twice but they are both so thoroughly reformed, that we trust them as\\nfully as we do any of our other servants some times with money to pa\\\\ small\\nbills.\\nOn advancing to a sort of balcony to look around, we found ourselves on the\\ntop of one of that low range of eminences known as the Surrey Hills, with, if not\\nan extensive, a cheerful and picturesque landscape to look upon. Immediately to\\nthe left stood a pretty group of buildings, comprising the chapel, a school-7-oom,\\nand two houses, each to contain sixty boys the foundation-stone of the first hav-\\ning been laid by Prince Albert no longer ago than the 30th of April. These un-\\npretending but tasteful Gothic edifices, relieved, as they were, by a back-gi-ound\\nof thick foliage, which stretched away at intervals to the boundaries of the estate,\\ngave a sylvan, old-English character to the scene, vi hieh will doubtless be en-\\ndeared to the memory of many an emigrant when laboring out his niission in the\\nAntipodes. In front, in a dell, beyond a cuttiner through which the South- Eastern\\nRailway passes, and half-hidden by tall trees, the farm-house in which the boys, now\\non the farm, are accommodated, partially revealed itself; while beyond, a cottage,\\nin which the bailiff of the estate lives, was more plainly seen.\\nDotted about the farm of which our terraced point of view afforded a perfect\\nsupervision were groups of juvenile laborers steadily plying their tasks. One\\nsmall part} were grubbing a hedge, their captain or monitor constructing a fire-\\nheap of the refuse a detachment of two was setting up a gate, under the direc-\\ntion of a carpenter a third group was digging a field of what we afterwards\\nfound to be extremely hard clay and a fourth was wheeling manure. We could\\nalso see flitting to and fro, immediately about the farm-house and offices, several\\nsmall figures, employed in those little odd jobs that the minding of poultrj the\\nfeeding of pigs, the grooming of horses, and the stalling of oxen, entail upon the\\ndenizens of a farm-steading. The systematic activity which pervaded the whole\\nestate, and the good order in which every thing appeared, bespoke rather an old--\\nestablished than a recently-entered farm.\\nHaving been gratified with this scene, we descended, under the guidance of our\\nreverend host, to take a nearer view of the operations. On our way, he informed\\nus that the extent of the farm is no more than 140 acres; but that, small as it is,\\nhe hoped, with some additions readily obtainable, that as many as 500 boys would\\nbe eventually trained upon it. It appears to have been admirably chosen for the\\npurpose. These acr.es include every variety of soil, from light sand to the stifFest\\nof clay, the generality of it consisting of ferruginous marl, the color of which", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0581.jp2"}, "582": {"fulltext": "o80 REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL.\\ndoubtless gave the name to the hill over which it is chiefly spread. The more\\nstubborn part of the estate will not only supply what is chiefly required labor\\nbut will also be th^^ means of instructing the pupils in the proper method of culti-\\nvating consolidated soils while tlu modes of dealing with lighter land will be\\nexemplified in the more f.iible sandy earths.\\nWhile approaching the nearest knot of young laborers, it happened that the\\nrecollection of a visit I had paid some years ago to the town-house of the society\\narose vividly in my mind. I rememb. red well, that although generally heathy,\\nsome of the boys seemed pale, and when you addressed them, answered furtively,\\nand did not look straight into your face. But the ruddy, smiling countenance\\nwhich was now turned up to return the pastor s greeting, formed a striking con-\\ntrast to what I had noticed on the previous occasion. It beamed with health and\\npleasure the first due to a free life in the country, changed from a pent-up ex-\\nistence in town; and the latter to the aftable kindness of his treatment. The boy\\nwas puddling (ramming earth round the foundation of) a gate-post, and replied\\nto certain suggestions respecting his mode of doing his task in a frank, fearless,\\nbut perfectly respectful manner. We passed on to the hedge-grubbing. Th.s is\\nhard work, and the boys were plying away manfully. Will lent force to every\\nstroke of the pick, and every incision of the ax. The moment the director came\\nin sight, a smile rose to every face. A large, spreading, obstinate root was giving\\na couple of the young grubbers a vast deal of trouble, and the superior, supposing\\nthe boys were not going about their task in the best manner, suggested an altera-\\ntion in their plan. It was pleasing to see, instead of a servile or a dogged acqui-\\nescence in this hint, that the elder lad at once gave his reasons for the mode he\\nhad chosen for unearthing the root. A short argument ensued between the mas-\\nter and pupil, which ended in the decision that the latter was right. This showed\\nthe terms on which these two individuals who might be described as antipodes\\nin station, in morals, and in intellect^ stood towards each other. The law of\\nkindness (the only code practiced here) had brought both into perfect rapport.\\nNo restraint existed, exc pt that imposed by pi opriety and respect. The monitor\\nor captain of this group was also drawn out by oui cicerone to explain the\\nmeans by which he kept up ventilation in the burning heap which he was repkn-\\nishing with refuse. This he did not manage very scientifically, but in a manner\\nwhich showed he thoroughly understood the principles of combustion, and that\\nhis mind, as well as his hands, were engaged in the task.\\nAt Red Hill free intercourse is cultivated and courted. No discipline is en-\\nforced which involves punishment so severe as to be much dreaded, and not the\\nslightest restraint upon personal liberty is imposed. Any boy is free to leave the\\nfarm if he chooses to make his escape there is neither wall, nor bolt, nor bar to\\nhinder him. Five instances only of desertion have occurred since the school has\\nbeen in actual operation. Of these misguided youths, who were all of the young-\\nest class of inmates, three have i-etui-ned of their own accord, begging to be again\\nadmitted two others were sent back by their friends, the desire of seeing whom\\nwas the motive of their elopement. Although the labor is severe, the clerical\\nchief has managed to instill into those under his charge a patient endurance, if\\nnot a love of it, and a tolerance of the restraints it imposes, far superior to the\\ntemplat ons of the miserable lawless liberty of their previous careei of crime. It\\nshoull, however, be remarked, that the lads in the Farm School have all suffered\\nfor th ir ofF ns:;s, by imprisonment, or some other penalty, b.-fore their admission\\nto it, and come mostly as volunteers under the impulse of repentance, and a de-\\nsire to do better for themselves. The colons of Mettray, on the contrary, are\\nall detenus are literally convicts still under the sentence and restraint of law.\\nThose boys whom we have left, I remarked, are possibly the best-disposed\\nm the school, and never were deeply dyed in crime\\nOn the contrary, was the reply, among them are youths who have not only\\nbeen frequently convicted and imprisoned for felonies, but were, before coming\\nhere, hab tually addicted to faults which the laws do not punish. They seldom\\nspoke without an imprecation, were frequently intoxicated, and were guilty of\\nother vices, which one would imagine their youth precluded them from indulging\\nin. Yet you now find them expressing themselves with propriety, and conduct-\\ning themselves quite as well as most of the farm-boys in this parish.\\nAt the extremity of the estate, beyond the bailiff s house, was a party of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0582.jp2"}, "583": {"fulltext": "REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL. ggl\\nyounger boys digging a field of obstinate clay nearly as hard as unbaked brick.\\nThe superintendent, who directed their operations, gave them a good character\\nfor perseverance, and added, that he was some times surprised at the aptitude\\ndisplayed by the boys wlien farm-tools were first put into their hands. Although\\ntheir previous mode\u00c2\u00bbof life proved they could never before have been used to\\ndelving, draining, trimming hedgerows, etc., yet the intelligence many of them\\ndisplayed when set about such work for the first time caused their instructor\\nwhose former experience had lain among country parish apprentices to marvel\\ngreatly. The truth is, the schemes and contrivances criminal though they\\nwere in which these lads were forced to engage to relieve the miseries of their\\nold mode of life, have a tendency to sharpen their wits and brighten their intel-\\nlects. As the most hardened metal takes the highest polish, so these youths, when\\nthoroughly reformed and trained, are most often the brightest workmen.\\nTo each their benignant pastor gave a kind word, even if it were one expres-\\nsive of disapprobation for some fault of which he pointed out the evil consequen-\\nces with such plain and convincing reasoning, that the delinquent expressed con-\\ntrition either in words or by a more expressive, because more spontaneous, look.\\nHe had manifestly tried to study each character, and adapted his alignments to\\nsuit its peculiarities, using such means of cure as were most efficacious for the\\nspecial moral diseases under which the patient happened to labor.\\nIn this lies the true secret of all reformatory efforts undertaken for the j oung.\\nAs in medicine, so in morals nuieh depends upon adapting the remedies to the\\ncharacter and kind of disease. To bring every sort of mental obliquity under one\\nmode of treatment, or one set of rules, is as irrational as if a physician were to\\ntreat his patients in classes, and administer to each class the same physic. Noth-\\ning can be more plain, than that, to cure immorality, the moral sentiments must\\nbe addressed and this is impossible, or at most ineffectual, where the peculiari-\\nties of each moral ailment is not studied, and where any system of general routine\\nis followed.\\nConversing on this topic, we arrived at the farm-house, where we saw the\\nscholars engaged in a variety of home duties from baking and storing bread to\\nmending stockings, in which useful avocation we detected two juniors in an out-\\nhouse.\\nIn the evening, at six, the boys were assembled in the school-room for instruc-\\ntion and prayers. An additional interest was occasioned by the circumstance of\\nthe resident chaplain having only the day before returned from a second visit to\\nMettray. After a prayer, and the reading and exposition of an appropriate chapter\\nfrom the Testament, he gave the assembly an account of what he had seen, and\\nread the answer to an address he had taken over to the Mettray boys from them-\\nselves, which we translate as follows\\nThe Boys of the Agricultural Colony at Mettray to the youths of the\\nPhilanthropic Farm-School.\\nDear Friends and Brothers in the Lord Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Turner,\\nyour respected directors, have come to visit our colony, and we can hardly tell\\nyou how much pleasure we felt when Mr. Gladstone, after speaking to us about\\nthe farm-school, read to us your address.\\nThanks, dear friends, for this generous impulse of your hearts. You have\\nwell understood our feelings. Yes, we are we shall always be your brothers.\\nThe same love, of what is good animates us both.\\nTears of joy and thankfulness glistened in our eyes as we heard your kind\\nwishes for us; and our honored and excellent directors, the Viscount de Cour-\\nteilles and M. Demetz, have been equally moved by them. Your sentiments are\\nindeed noble and Christiali.\\nDear brothers, we all owe much to God, who has directed the honored friends\\nby whom both we and you are superintended. Do you pray let us pray for\\nthe founders of both our schools. Let us pray for their happiness, and for the\\nwelfare of the asylums which they have opened. When you kneel down each\\nnight before God, think of us in France, who, on our part, will add to our peti-\\ntions a prayer for you in England.\\nLike us, you say you have erred you have known trouble. But like us, too,\\nyou have resolved to have done with your past life of disorder. You will suooeed", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0583.jp2"}, "584": {"fulltext": "582 REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL\\nin this, dear friends, for the providence of God has sent you enlightened and\\nChristian friends. You have found in Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Turner what we\\nhave found in our worthy founders and directors. Let us follow their lessons.\\nSo shall we march among the foremost in the path of honor and virtue in which\\nthey lead us.\\nDear friends, we form this day an affectionate alliance with you\u00e2\u0080\u0094 one that shall\\nlast. The ring which our directors send will be the substantial symbol of this\\nunion of our hearts with yours. You will see these words engraved on it, God,\\nhonor, union, recollection words which are our motto. Let them be also\\nyours. Let us be grateful. Let us join together in strife against what is evil.\\nLet us support one another in what is good. Let us love each other to the end.\\nDear friends and brothers, health and happiness to you all.\\n(Signed by the elder brothers and monitors,)\\nLanos, Bellonet, Angey, Mauchin, Guy, Josset.\\nMari, Collot, Souvigne, Hebert, Chevalier.\\nThis was, the bearers of it were assured, the veritable composition of the sub-\\nscribing boys. It was read on this occasion amidst the most profound attention.\\nWhen the assembly broke up, the lads separated to their play-ground in an or-\\nderly manner. The young groom, however, departed for the sUible to prepare\\nthe vehicle for our departure for our most interesting visit was nearly over.\\nIn a parting conversation with the resident chaplain, he told us that thirty-six\\nreformed boys had already been sent to Algoa Bay and that, despite the storm\\nof disaft ection raised in Cape Colony against the introduction of convicts, the lads\\nwere well received. They had scarcely stepped on shore, before every one of\\nthem was engaged, and the accounts since received of them were highly favor-\\nable.\\nAlthough the important results which will assuredly flow from this experiment\\ncan only be carried out by the extension of its plans, yet large numbers of pupils\\nin such estiiblishments would, for the reasons we have given, be an evil. Cen-\\ntralization and generalization would be as inevitable as they are much to be\\ndreaded. To do any good, the mind of each boy must be influenced separately;\\nand in a large school, this would be impossible for one superintendent to accom-\\nplish. The Philanthropic School is now within manageable bounds, and the chap-\\nlain knows each lad almost as intimately as he does his own children but when\\nthe establishment is extended to 500 pupils, as is contemplated, much of his influ-\\nence over individuals will cease. To obviate this, it is intended to make each\\nfamily consist of sixty individuals, guided by a master (with an assistant) and\\nhis wife. The softening restraint instinctively imposed by the mere presence of\\na woman setting aside her higher influences will be most beneficial. Much\\nall, we may venture to say will, however, depend upon the taet, temper, de-\\nmeanor, and patience of these most important functionaries. It is here, indeed,\\nthat the point of diflnculty in etFecting the reformation of vicious habits and im-\\npulses in the young presents itself Jf early all reformatory systems have failed\\nfrom the unskilfulness, from the want of long-suftering forbearance, and of prompt\\nbut kindly firmness, on the part of those to whom the task of reformation has been\\nconfided. It is the possession of these qualities by the reverend principal, in an\\neminent degree, which has brought about the pleasing state of things we have\\ndescribed at the Red Hill Farm, and we look with some anxiety to the time when,\\nnotwithstanding his general supervision, the smallest of his functions will have to\\nbe delegated.\\nAs we arrived at the Red Hill railway station for our return journey some time\\nbefore the train stai ted, we employed the interval in making inquiries as to the\\ncharacter the Philanthropic boys bore among their neighbors, who, we were pre-\\nviously informed, had at first looked upon the new colony with dread.* Every\\naccount we received was, we are happy to find, favorable the ex-criminals had\\nnot occasioned a single complaint.\\nA bargain bad nearly been concluded at one time for a farm to the north of the metropo-\\nlis but so ^reat was the horror of the contiguous gentry, that one of them actually presented\\nthe society with a donation ot JEIOOO, on condition that the scene of reformatory operations\\nshould be removed and accordingly it was shifted to Surrey.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0584.jp2"}, "585": {"fulltext": "BELGIUM.\\nIn the educational history of Belgium, the advocates of the right and\\nduty of the Stale to interpose its authority to aid parents, neighbor-*\\nhoods, and municipal bodies in establishing schools of different grades,\\nand subjecting them to constant, vigilant, and intelligent supervision,\\nand thus protecting itself against incompetent teachers and the conse-\\nquences of parental and municipal neglect, can find abundant, if not\\nwholly conclusive arguments against the claims of the church on the one\\nhand, and of the unabridged and unaided liberty of parents in the educa-\\ntion of children on the other. Certain it is, that at no period of the his-\\ntory of Belgium, has education been made at once so comprehensive\\nand universal as while under governmental organization and inspection.\\nDuring the undisputed supremacy of the Catholic church and no coun-\\ntry in Europe has remained so firm to its traditional faith and the\\nauthority of the church of Rome while itf njoyed the advantages which\\nresult from the doctrine and example of a learned and pious clergy, and\\nfrom numerous monastic and other religious institutions there was a\\nlarge body of the people uninstructed. On the union of the territory\\nwhich now constitutes the kingdom of Belgium, with Holland, under the\\ndesignation of the kingdom of the Netherlands, the king undertook to\\ne^rtend over it the system of public education which was commenced\\nin Holland under the auspices of the Society for the Public GoocV\\nin 1784, and adopted by the government in 1806, and which had re-\\nsulted in diffusing over the whole country a high degree of popular\\nintelligence.\\nThe new system of public schools began to operate in the Belgic pro-\\nvinces in 1817, when a Normal school was established at Liege, and\\nduring the twelve years from that time to 1829, the progress and quality\\nof popular education was greater than at any former period, and greater\\nthan in the twelve years following, during which the system was broken\\nup, and the church and the voluntary system again prevailed. The\\nnumber of children who attended the elementary schools in the winter\\nof 1817, was 152,898; and in the winter of 1828, they amounted to 247.496,\\nbeing an increase of 94,589. In 1817 the salaries paid by the govern-\\nment to teachers in the rural communes, was 157,580 francs; in 1828,\\n488,150 francs, showing an increase of 330,570 francs During this", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0585.jp2"}, "586": {"fulltext": "5g4 PUBLIC maxRUCTioN in Belgium.\\nperiod, 1,146 school-rooms, and 668 houses for teachers were erected, or\\nthoroughly repaired and fitted up. Well organized schools, under coni-\\npetent teachers, were established in nearly every commune, and the\\nwhole were subjected to a vigilant and intelligent inspection, and im-\\nprovement was rapidly and universally extending. Antiquated and\\nawkward routine was replaced by rational and pleasing methods of teach-\\ning; uniformity of class-books was introduced; normal classes and\\nassociations of teachers were established for the professional training\\nof all who applied to teach in the popular schools in short, the whole\\nplan of proceeding was regular, thorough, and responsible, through a\\nsystem of inspection, examination, reports, and full publicity.\\nThe popularity of the system of elementary schools was destroyed by\\nthe efforts of the government to control the institutions of secondary and\\nsuperior education, and especially by the measures adopted to enforce a\\nProtestant influence from Holland into institutions supported by the\\nCatholics, who constituted a large majority of these provinces.\\nIn 1816 the king issued a decree for the organization of the upper\\nbranches of public instruction. By this decree three universities were\\ncreated at Louvain, at Ghent, and. Liege each to possess the five\\nfaculties, of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, mathematical and phys-\\nical sciences, philosophy and letters.\\nIn 1822, an edict was published forbidding all persons to exercise the\\nfunctions of schoolmaster in the higher branches of education who had\\nnot been authorized by the central board of instruction and by a decree\\nof 1822, this edict was extended to all associations, civil and religious,\\nand all persons were forbidden to take vows in any religious fraternity,\\nwithout permission of the government.\\nIn 1825 all independent schools and seminaries were suppressed, and\\na philosophical college was established at Louvain, in which all who\\nwere destined for the ecclesiastical state were required to pass two\\nyears in study as a necessary condition for admission into any episcopal\\nseminary.\\nThis movement was followed by a loud demand for liberty of instruc-\\ntion, of the press, and of worship on the part of the Catholics, and finally\\na concordat was concluded with the court of Rome and the government\\nof Holland, in virtue of which the episcopal theological seminaries were\\nagain opened, and the bishops left at liberty to provide at their own dis-\\ncretion for the instruction of the pupils.\\nIn 1830 the Nassau dynasty was banished from Belgium, and a con-\\nstitutional monarchy was formed, under which the equal liberty of all\\ncreeds and religious communities was guarranteed, and the entire lib-\\nerty of instruction proclaimed.\\nThe practical adoption of this principal was productive of great im-\\nmediate injury to primary education. The best schools in all the large\\ncities, which had grown up under the fostering care of the government,\\nand the stimulus of constant and intelligent inspection, and the exclusion\\nof incompetent teachers, were broken up. and their places supplied by a", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0586.jp2"}, "587": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 585\\nlarge number of private and parochial schools, too small in the attend-\\nance of pupils to admit of a thorough system of classification as to age\\nand proficiency, and too limited in resources to command the services\\nof well qualified teachers. The societies of teachers and friends of ed-\\nucation which had sprung up for the encouragement and improvement\\nof the profession, and for the production and use of good books, were\\ndiscontinued, and a period of public apathy succeeded, in which broken\\ndown tradesmen, and men who had proved their unfitness for otlier\\nwork requiring activity and culture of mind, found employment as\\nteachers, and especially in sciiools where there was no longer any or-\\nganization enforced by the local authorities as a test of qualificattSn for\\nthe business of instruction. In ten years, said one of the most intelli-\\ngent school officers in Brussels in 1840, education has gone back in\\nthis country one hundred years. The contrast between Holland, as\\nit now is, and Belgium, in educational matters is striking remarks an\\nintelligent traveller in 1842. Nothing can be more deplorable than\\nthe mockery of education, which the people in the rural districts are sat-\\nisfied to let teachers, or those who profess to be teachers, practice.\\nSo rapidly was Belgium sinking below its former position, and in the\\nscale of European nations, in the condition of popular education, ihat the\\nattention of government was arrested, and the well-directed eflbrts of\\nindividuals were enlisted to apply the remedy. The public mind was\\nused by a series of popular tracts on the condition of primary instruction\\nand the necessity of improvement, from the pen of M. Ducpetiau.x, who\\nalso published in 1838 an elaborate work on primary instruction in which\\nthe schools of Belgium were contrasted with those of Prussia, Saxony,\\nHolland, France, and Switzerland. A course of normal instruction was\\nprovided in connection with a private seminary of M. Vandermaelon in\\n1839, and societies of teachers were again formed to assist in establishing\\na system of public schools. So thoroughly were a portion of the Cath-\\nolic bishops satisfieil that the contest which had arisen between the\\nultra liberal and the ultra church party the one excluding all religious\\ninstruction and all clerical officials from the schools, and the other not\\nonly making religion an element in family and school education, but\\nmaking every teacher an ecclesiastic, and subjecting the schools entirely\\nto clerical inspection and control as a part of the organization of the\\nchurch, was highly detrimental both to the cause of religion and edu-\\ncation that in 1842 tiiey gave in their adhesion to an orgatiic law, which,\\nwhile it secures to the whole people a sound secular education, provides\\nfor religious instruction, and guarrantees to the clergy a high degree\\nof Influence in the schools.\\nThe system of public instruction in Belgium embraces,\\n1. Primary schools, including day schools for children of the usual\\nschool age in other countries, infant schools or asylums, and Sunday\\nschools and evening classes for adults, whose early instruction has been\\nneglected.\\n2. Superior primary or high schools in all the large towns.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0587.jp2"}, "588": {"fulltext": "586\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM.\\n3. Secondary or intermediate schools, called athenaea, preparatory to\\nthe university.\\n4. Normal schools, to qualify teachers both for elementary and second-\\nary schools.\\n5. Superior schools or universities, with faculties, of theology, law,\\nmedicine, and philosophy.\\n6. Special schools for industrial education, and particular classes.\\n1. Primary Instruction.\\nThe system of primary instruction established in 1842, embraces three\\nclasses of schools primary, superior, and normal. Every commune (the\\nsmallest territorial and civil subdivision of the State) must have at least\\none public elementary school, unless the instruction of all the children is\\nprovided for to the satisfaction of the government, in private endowed,\\nor denominational schools. These schools^must be free to the poor, and\\ncan be made free to all, by vote of the communal council.\\nThe studies in the primary or elementary school, includes religion\\nand morals, reading, writing, the scheme of weights and measures as\\ndefined by law, the elements of arithmetic, geography, and the French,\\nGerman, or Flemish language, according to the locality of the school.\\nInstruction in religion and morality is placed under the direction of min-\\nisters of the sect to which the majority of the pupils belong. Children\\nbelonging to other communions need not attend during such instruction\\nif their parents object.\\nThe schools are establi.shed and managed by the communal council,\\nor administrative authorities of the villages and cities, subject to the\\nsupervision of the government, through cantonal and provincial in.^\\nspectors.\\nAn inspector is appointed by the king, through the minister of public\\ninstruction for each canton or judicial district, on the nomination of the\\nprovincial council, whose duty it is to visit at least twice in every year\\nall the schools in the district, and furnish a detailed account of them to\\nthe provincial inspector. The cantonal inspector holds his office for\\nthree years, and is paid a per diem sum for his services. He must keep\\na regular journal of his visits, in which he must enter the results of his\\nobservation. He must also hold a conference of all the teachers in his\\ndistrict once in three months, for examination and discussion of their\\nmethods of teaching, and text-books used.\\nAn inspector is also appointed for each of the nine provinces, whose\\nduty it is to visit all the schools of the province once in the year, preside\\nat the c*antonal conferences of teachers, make an abstract of the journal\\nor register of the cantonal inspectors, and submit a complete report\\nof the condition of primary instruction in the province to the minister\\nof the interior at Brussels. The provincial inspectors assemble once a\\nyear as a central commission, under the presidency of the minister of the\\ndepartment.\\nThe teachers must be chosen from among candidates, who have for", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0588.jp2"}, "589": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 587\\ntwo years at least, and with approval, pursued the studies of a normal\\nschool, either of the State or, ii private, of one that has submitted to the\\ninspection provided for in the law. Every teacher must receive a cer-\\ntificate of quahfication from a board consisting of a lay and clerical\\nmember, the former appointed by the State, and the latter by the eccle-\\nsiastical authorities. He may be dismissed by the provincial inspector\\non consultation with the communal council.\\nThe cost of the primary schools is borne by the communes, and in-\\ncluded in their taxation. The provinces only interfere when the appro-\\npriation made by the commune is equal to the product of two centimes\\nper cent, of the sum paid in direct taxes. The grants of money by\\nthe legislature are specially designed for establishing infant, Sunday,\\nevening, and apprentices schools. When the government is satisfied\\nthrough the provincial inspector, that tlie instruction given by endowed,\\nor private schools, is adequate to the wants of tiie commune, it may\\nrelieve the commune from the obligation of supporting a public school.\\n2. Superior Primary Schools.\\nThe law of 1842 provides for a superior elementary school in every\\nlarge city, which, by the act of 1850, were connected directly with the\\nnext higher grade of schools in the system of public instruction. In\\n1846 there were twenty-six of these schools; in one of the best in each\\nprovince, a normal course was provided for teachers of the schools\\nbelow.\\n3. Secondary, or Intermediate Schools.\\nPrior to 1850, in most of the cities and large towns, there were one or\\nmore institutions, known as athenaeum. Latin school, gymnasium, c.,\\nsome of them public and some private, some under lay and others\\nunder ecclesiastical control, some for day and others for boarding pupils,\\nand all designed to supply a middle course of instruction between the\\nprimary school and the university. In 1850 a law was passed to pro-\\nvide a class of public schools under the name of atheneeum and second-\\nary schools, to meet the double purpose, of preparation for higher literary\\nstudies, and for the practical pursuits of life. The schools are of two\\ngrades, higher and lower intermediate schools. The higher grade,\\nknown as athenaeum, includes two sections, one for classical and the\\nother for industrial instruction. Pupils, destined for collegiate studies,\\nhave a course of six years, in which prominence is given to the ancient\\nand modern languages, and studies wliich are preliminary to the lec-\\ntures and professional studies of the university. This course is similar to\\nthat of the gymnasia of Germany. Pupils destined for either of the four\\nspecial schools of arts, engineering, mines, or war, have a course of four\\nyears, which include, in the lower grade, linear and mechanical draw-\\ning, surveying, and other applications of geometry; and in the higher,\\nmathematics, mechanics, chemistry, and the elements of industrial\\neconomy. This course resembles that of the real schools of Germany,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0589.jp2"}, "590": {"fulltext": "588 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM.\\n4. Superior Instruction.\\nHigher instruction is dispensed by four universities; two supported\\nby tiie Slate, ai Ghent and Liege; two being free of all governmental\\ncontrol, one at Louvain, avowedly and intensely Catholic in its tone and\\nmanagement, and the other at Brussels, founded by an association, and\\nprofessedly free from all denominational bias the religious instruction\\nof the pupils being left to parents, and the ministry of the several de-\\nnominations, with which the pupils are connected. Each university is\\ncomposed of four faculties law, medicine, science, philosophy and let-\\nters; to these, at Louvain. there is a faculty of theology and canonical\\nlaw. In 1850 there were about 1,400 students in the several departments\\nof ihe four universities.\\nThere are two academical degrees that of candidate and doctor^\\nwhich are bestowed, not by the university, but by a board of exam-\\niners, composed of men eminent for learning and science; eacii faculty\\nor department having its separate sub-board, which is appointed by the\\nking annually, two being nominated by the senate, two by the lower\\nhouse, and iliree by the ministers of the government. This board hold\\nits session at Brussels, and awards after a public examination, [concour)\\ncertificates and titles to those who are possessed of the greatest scien-\\ntific and literary knowledge, without reference to the place, institution,\\nor teachers, when this knowledge and ability has been acquired. The\\ndegree of doctor is accessible only to those who pursue the professional\\nstudies of law, medicine, or theology, and can not be conferred on any\\none who has not received the degree o\\\\ cqndidate.\\n5. Inuubtrial and Special Instruction.\\nIndustrial instruction is given in institutions of three grades; higher\\ninstruction in the special schools of arts and manutiictures and mines,\\nattached to the university of Liege, those of civil engineering and\\nof arts and manufactures annexed to the university of Ghent, and the\\nsuperior institute of commerce at Antwerp intermediate instruction in\\nthe industrial departments attached to all the athenaja and high schools\\nprimary instruction in the industrial schools for workmen.\\nThe preparatory school at Liege is intended to qualify pupils for the\\nspecial schools for public service. The course of study, occupj ing two\\nyears, includes all the studies necessary for preparing mining engin-\\neers, practical chemists, and mechanics. The course in the special\\nmining school, occupying three years, inclqdes courses in applied me-\\nchanics, mineralogy and geology, industrial inorganic chemistry, indus-\\ntrial natural philosophy, exploration and working of mines, assaying,\\nmetullurgy, industrial architecture, mining, legislation and industrial\\neconomy. A diploma of mining engineer is delivered to those who pass\\nthe requisite examinations, and the pupils of the school are first exam-\\nined for vacant places in the corps of engineers. The special sciiool\\nof arts arid manufactures is divided into two sections, one for instruction\\nin tlie applications of science to chemistry and mineralogy, and the other", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0590.jp2"}, "591": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. g89\\nfor the construction of machines. The course of study in the former\\noccupies four years, and in the latter, three. Pupils pass^ing the re-\\nquired examination receive the diploma of civil engineer of arts and\\nmanufactures, or of engineer and machinist. The number of pupils in\\nall these schools, lor the academic year 1852-3, is 84; there being 42 in\\nthe preparatory school, 11 in the mining school, 16 in the school of arts\\nand manufactures, 15 others, pursuing different courses.\\nThe special school of arts and manufactures at Ghent is organized\\nsimilarly to that at Liege, but is not yet in operation.\\nThe superior institute of commerce at Antwerp, is also not yet in\\noperation. It is intended to teach the science and art of commercial\\nbusiness.\\nYouth are prepared for the higher special instruction in the indus-\\ntrial department of the higher intermediate schools, or in the lower in-\\ntermediate schools; with which two grades, the Ibllowing institutions\\nmay also be classed, namely: the industrial schools of Ghent, Liege,\\nVerviers and Huy the provincial special school of commerce, industry,\\nand mines, of Hainault; the provincial special school for master miners,\\nattached to the college of Charleroi the industrial and literary school\\nof Verviers; the State veterinary and agricultural school alCureghem-\\nlez-Bruxelles, and the schools of navigation at Antwerp and Ostend.\\nHere may also be classed the intermediate agricultural and horticul-\\ntural schools established by government in 1849 and 1850, either by\\narrangements with municipal authorities for connecting special depart-\\nments with the existing schools, or by agreements with private persons\\nto convert farms or gardens into special schools. These are of two\\nclasses 1, those designed to instruct the sons of land-owners, farmers,\\nc., in agricultural science and 2, those designed to train good master-\\nworkmen.\\nOf the first class, are\\nNumber of pupils.\\nThe, agricultural department of the school at Tirlemont, 15\\nChimay, 27\\nindustrial school at Leuze, 39\\nu u u Verviers, 16\\nla Trapperie, 22\\nBergen-op-Zoom, 30\\nthe school at Oostacker, 25\\nhorticultural school at Genelbrugge-lez-Gand, 27\\nOf the second class, are\\nThe practical horticultural school at Vilvorde, 29\\nagricultural Ostin 22\\nRolle, 25\\nschool for making farm tools at Hain-Saint-Pierre, 12\\nWhole number of pupils, 289\\nThe total expense of these schools is $24 923.31, of which they receive\\nfrom the State, $21,445.33.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0591.jp2"}, "592": {"fulltext": "590\\nPUBLIC INCSTRUTION IN BELGIUM.\\nPrimary industrial instruction is given in the following schools:\\n1. The school of arts and trades at Tournay, to which children are\\nadmitted to the number of about 80, at 12 years of age and upwards,\\nand where they are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, and at the\\nsame time the beginning of a trade. There are for this purpose five\\nworkshops of carpentry, weaving, construction, founding, and hose-\\nmaking.\\n2. The manufacturing or working schools, 740 in number. Lace-\\nmaking alone is taught in 586 schools; lace-making, knitting, and sew-\\ning, in 135, and other trades in 19. In 479 of them, the pupils receive\\nprimary literary instruction, with the industrial training,\\n3. The apprentice schools, numbering 78. Their design is either to\\nintroduce new improvements into ihe trades of weaving and spinning,\\nor to introduce new branches of industry, and thus to obviate the diffi-\\nculties arising from the introduction of spinning machinery into the\\ncountry, where a large portion of the population were accustomed to\\nsupport themselves by spinning by hand.\\nThe military school is one of the most important military establish\\nments in Belgium, and is for the purpose of training officers of all arms.\\nThe instruction is given by a corps of not less than 18 professors, 14\\ntutors, and 6 masters. The pupils, whose number varies from 100 to\\n125, are divided into several sections, as follows: 1. Infantry and cav-\\nalry sections, (course two years.) composed of subalterns and young\\nmen admitted on public examination. 2. School proper, (course two\\nyears,) composed of pupils admitted by the minister of war, after exam-\\nination. 3. School of application, (course two years.) of sub-lieutenants\\nof engineers or artillery, wlio have been through a two years course in\\nthe school. 4. Section of artillery and engineer officers, (course two\\nyears,) of lieutenants of artillery and engineers not having studied in\\nthe school, and placed there to complete their studies. 5. Section\\nof Turkish pupils, comprises young officers of ditferent arms of the\\nTurkish army.\\nThe military school corresponds with the three schools in France,\\ncalled the school of Saint-Cyr, the polytechnic school, and the school\\nof application (at Metz.)\\nMilitary schools of lower grade are: 1, the school for soldiers chil-\\ndren at Lierre, (course occupying five years, besides preparatory class,)\\ncomposed of legitimate children of officers, subalterns, soldiers, and\\nassistants in the war department, intended to furnish graduates fitted to\\nbecome subalterns in the army; 2, regimental schools organized from\\nthe staft-officers, and forming part of the regimental battalion of reserve.\\nThese schools are of two grades, and are for the instruction of ignorant\\nsoldiers. There also exist regimental evening schools, for subalterns,\\ncorporals, and soldiers.\\nThus the Belgian army has a social organization, quite as fit for\\npeace as for war. The officers who leave their military employment\\neasily find civil occupations. Veteran subalterns, on account of their", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0592.jp2"}, "593": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIIM. eQj\\nhabits of order and discipline, are in request, as policemen, on railroads,\\nas postmasters, and town tax-gatherers; the countrymen who return\\nhome after two years of service, carry with them the benefits of the\\nprimary course of instruction. Thus the army, a means of security in\\nwar, becomes an element of improvement in peace.\\nThere are two veterinary schools, one at Brussels and the other at\\nLiege. The school at Brussels embraces a complete course of instruc-\\ntion in agriculture.\\nThe government supports three conservatories of music, the oldest\\nat Liege, with an average attendance of 250 pupils; a second at Ghent,\\nwith 300 pupils; and the largest at Brussels, with 400 pupils. Every\\nthird year a concour is held for competition in musical composition, in\\nwhich the successful competitor receives 10,000 francs for the purpose\\nof a four years tour in other countries. Besides these national schools,\\nthere are several local schools of music, by which a taste for this de-\\nlightlAil art is made general.\\nThere are over fifty schools and halls of drawing, painting, sculpture,\\nand architecture, supported or aided by the government, with over\\n7,000 pupils. A national exhibition is held every three years, at which\\nnumerous prizes and premiums are offered for competition.\\nA national observatory is maintained at Brussels, and learned socie-\\nties for the cultivation of science, literature, and the arts, are hberally\\npatronized by the government. The geographical institute of M. Van-\\ndermaden has largely contributed to the advancement of this branch\\nof useful knowledge.\\nIn 1848 there were (burteen public libraries, each having over 10,000\\nvolumes, and all comprising 509,100 volumes.\\nThe government supports two schools for deaf mutes, one for the\\nblind, six for orphans, and three for young criminals.\\nNormal Instruction.\\nNormal in.struction commands much and increasing attention from\\nthe Belgian government. Besides two normal schools for teachers and\\nprofessors in the secondary and superior schools, there exist for primary\\nteachers the following public normal schools, so called because entirely\\nor partly supervised and supported by the government\\nTwo government normal schools, established and supported by the\\nState.\\nSeven normal departments annexed to higher primary schools, estab-\\nlished and assisted by government.\\nSeven episcopal normal schools, established and maintained by the\\nCatholic bishops, but which have been placed under government super-\\nvision and regulation.?, and are assisted by its funds. Besides these\\npublic normal schools, there are others not officially recognized as pub^\\nlie schools, viz. the remaining episcopal normal schools, and private\\nestablishments.\\nThere are also periodical meetings ol public primary teachers, which", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0593.jp2"}, "594": {"fulltext": "292 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM.\\nresemble the teachers institutes of the United States, and which are\\ncalled conferences. They are conducted by government officials, and\\npartly at its expense, except a few which have been established by the\\nteachers themselves.\\nTeachers Conferences. These are held quarterly during vacations,\\nand conducted by the provincial or cantonal inspectors. Their sessions\\nare short, generally occupying only one day, and never more than three.\\nThey are held within and tor certain specified districts, the public pri-\\nmary teachers within which are legally bound to attend them. Instruc-\\ntion is given by the presiding officers, and by the teachers themselves,\\non various educational subjects; the inspectors usually presenting theo-\\nretical and scientific matter, and the teachers explaining their various\\nmethods. tSc-c. The subjects to be discussed at each conference are\\nannounced at the close of the preceding one, and each teacher is ex-\\npected to prepare himself on them at home. Private teachers and non-\\nprofessional persons are not allowed to attend the meetings, unless for\\nspecial reasons. An allowance of from twenty to thirty cents a day is\\npaid to each member.\\nEach teacher is required, after his return home, to prepare an account\\nof the proceedings of the meeting, and to forward it to the inspector,\\nwho selects the best for registration, as the public record of the meeting.\\nLibraries for the use of the teachers belong to each conference, furn-\\nisiied generally in the first instance by the government, and sometimes\\nincreased by the contributions ol teachers and other friends of education.\\nThe number of works in these libraries in 1848, was 5,908, in 9,352 vol-\\numes, estimated to be worth about $2,700.\\nThe number of teachers conferences held in Belgium was, in 1846,\\n349 in 1847, 460 and in 1848, 635. The average length of their busi-\\nness sessions was five or five and a half hours.\\nThe exercises at one of these conferences were as follows, according\\nto the record made by one of the teachers present:\\nThe session commenced at 10 A. M., with the signing an attendance-roll by\\nthe teachers, and a short prayer by th\u00c2\u00a7 religious inspector. The civil inspector,\\nwho with his ecclesiastical brother presided over the meeting, proceeded to com-\\nplain that sundry teachers had failed to present their reports of the previous\\nmeeting, and caused them to promise to do it. Several reports of that meeting\\nwere then read.\\nAt this point the provincial inspector, M. Courtois, arrived, and assumed the\\ndirection of the business.\\nThe order of the day being the best methods of teaching writing, M. Daulie\\ngave an account of his method. His first lessons are for the position of the body\\nand of the pen, and then follows the tracing of straight lines, curves, and ovals,\\nfrom copies upon the blackboard.\\nM. Chevalier d Herchies exhibited his method at the board it consists in\\ndrawing various ovals, from which he forms the different letters.\\nM. Courtois, the inspector, recommended the use of pasteboard slates for young\\npupils, as a means of teaching them early to write, and of keeping them occupied\\nand still. He further remarked that instruction in writing might be divided into\\nthree parts; 1, formation of straight lines, curves, and ovals; 2, formation of\\nletters, and of words in large and half text 3, writing fine hand, and formation\\nof different characters and forms of letters.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0594.jp2"}, "595": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 593\\nThe session was suspended at twelve, and recommenced at half-past two.\\nThe provincial inspector notified the teachers that they must keep school all\\nthe year and it would become his duty to take rigorous measures with those who\\nshould not fulfill this obligation. In reply to M. JDeltombe, who said that some-\\ntimes there were no scholars, he said that he could not admit that there was a\\ntotal want of scholars, that such a case was impossible.\\nM. Miissou explained his nietliod of teaching the catechism. He uses the sim-\\nultaneous and individual methods, with explanations from time to time.\\nThe ecclesiastical cantonal inspector, M. Brohez, said that these explanations\\nshould be prepared under the direction of the priest. He also directed the atten-\\ntion of the teachers to the pronunciation of the catechism and of the prayers.\\nAn exercise followed in teaching French, and another in grammar, the latter\\nbeing a method of distinguishing between the verbal adjective and the present\\nparticiple, illustrated upon the board.\\nCantonal inspector Dubois gave instructions in agi iculture and gardening, and\\nrecommended the teachers to communicate such instruction to their pupils.\\nThe provincial inspector .stated a curious fact with regard to transplanting the\\nbeet. It has two rows of roots, always pointing to the east and west, which in\\ntransplanting must be set in the same direction, otherwise the growth of the plant\\nis much retarded.\\nInspector Dubois informed the meeting that the next conference would take\\nplace October 19, 1848, and that the subjects for discussion would be methods\\nof teaching arithmetic, and the first three centuries of Belgian history.\\nNormal Schools.\\nThe inspection, management, and instruction of the State normal\\n6chools, the normal departments annexed to the higher primary schools,\\nand the episcopal normal schools, are substantially alike in the three\\nclasses of institutions.\\nAll candidates for entrance are examined by a jury, composed\\npartly of government inspectors and partly of the instructors. The\\ncourses of study occupy three years. The pupils are usually required\\nto board and lodge upon the school premises. The regular graduates\\nhave the first right of examination for vacant situations as public teach-\\ners; and government, besides the assistance given to the normal schools\\nby erecting buildings and bearing part of the current expenses, appro-\\npriates about $12,500 annually in sums usually of about $40 each, to\\nthe assistance of a number of the more meritorious pupils.\\nSchools of application are annexed to all the normal schools, being\\nthe primary schools of the neighborhood. The following account of the\\ngovernment normal school at Lierre will give a fair general representa-\\ntion of these schools.\\nNormal School at Lierre.\\nCandidates for admission to the normal school at Lierre, are first exam-\\nined by the provincial inspectors of primary instruction, who are charged\\nin particular to see that none are admitted who are inflicted with any\\ndeformity or infirmity incompatible with the occupation of teaching.\\nIf suitable, they are then examined by a committee or jury of two\\ninspectors and three of the faculty of the school, in reading, writing,\\nreligion, and morals, the grammar of their own and of the French lan-\\nguage, the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, the legal system\\nof weights and measures, the elements of geography, particularly\\nof Belgian geography, and the principal facts of Belgian history.\\nS8", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0595.jp2"}, "596": {"fulltext": "594 PUBLIC INSTRUCnON IN BELGIUM.\\nThe course of study at Lierre, occupying three years, embraces the\\nfollowing subjects, viz: religion and morals; sacred and church history;\\nreading, writing, and book-keeping; grammar and composition; geogra-\\npliy and hislory, especially of Belgium; arithmelic. and its business\\napplications elements of theoretical geometry, and of mapping, land\\nmeasuring, and leveling; elementary algebra; portions of the natural\\nsciences applicable toevery-dayhfe; agriculture and horticulture, graft-\\ning and pruning; theory of education, pedagogy and methodology; hy-\\ngiene, !is applicable to children and schools; elements of constitutional\\nlaw knowledge of the constitution and laws of Belgium, and of the\\nmost usual forms under them, church and school laws singing and plain\\nchant, playing the organ, harmony and accompaniment drawing,\\nlinear, ornamenal, and architectural. During the third year of the\\ncourse, the pupils are required to teach the different classes in the\\nschools of application or practice annexed to the normal schools, under\\nthe direction of the professors of pedagogy and methodology.\\nThe instructors are a director and sub-director, who are ecclesiastics,\\nnine professors, an adjunct professor, and a gardener-demonstrator; the\\nfull complement of pupils being 150.\\nThe pupils board and lodge within the institution, and the entire ap-\\nportionment of their time, occupations, and recreations, is under the con-\\ntrol of the school authorities. The whole establishment is under the\\nhygienie supervision of a physician, who directs any measures necessary\\nfor the health of the inmates.\\nThere is a library of educational works, which receives a co])y of every\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0work published by government, or by its assistance, and some philo-\\nsophical and chemical apparatus, maps, and models for drawing.\\nThe entire expense of the school at Lierre, for 1848, was $6,943.22,\\nof which S5,395.33 was paid for salaries.\\nThere is an examination at graduation, according to the result of\\nwhich three grades of diplomas are given. At present (1848) all the\\ngraduates of the normal schools are employed in teaching. The gov-\\nernment continues the bounty above mentioned, for three years after\\ngraduation, to such recipients of it as do not find their salaries, as public\\nteachers, sufficient for their support.\\nFemalk Normal Education.\\nThere are fifteen religious establishments and boarding-schools for\\nfemales designated by government, to a certain number of pupils in\\nwhich a bounty is paid similar to that given to male normal pupils.\\nThese institutions are under government inspection, and the beneficia-\\nries in them are employed as public teachers after their graduation.\\nThe course of study is substantially similar to that of the normal schools\\nfor males, some studies, as geometry, agriculture, horticulture, and con-\\nstitutional law, being omitted, and needlework and the application of\\ndrawing to the cutting and fitting of dresses being added.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0596.jp2"}, "597": {"fulltext": "HOLLAND.\\nThe first impulse to improved primary instruction in Holland was\\ngiven by some benevolent citizens of Groningen, who, in 1784, founded\\nthe Society for the Public Good. They were encouraged and\\nsupported b)^ the government, in their efforts to prepare school books,\\ntrain schoolmasters, and excite attention to tiie state of schools. In 1806\\nthe various edicts and regulations, published from time to time, were\\ndigested into a law, by M. Van der Ende, and were generalized for the\\nguidance of the country at large. The French invasion curtailed the\\nmeans applied to education still the Dutch system was, as early as 1812,\\nthought worthy of a special inquiry by Commissioners deputed from the\\nUniversity of Paris, at the head of which was M. Cuvier, who reported\\nwith no small admiration respecting it. On the restoration of peace in\\n1814. the first care of the king was directed to the state of public educa-\\ntion, which by the law of that year was restored to the footing of 1806.\\nEvery province was divided into educational districts, and- a school in-\\nspector was appointed to each district. A provincial School Commis-\\nsion was named from among the leading inhabitants of each province to\\nco-operate with the inspectors, and a sum was charged on the budget for\\nthe educational outlay, from which the traveling expenses of the commis-\\nsioners were to be defrayed.\\nThe governments of the towns and provinces were charged with the\\ncost of maintaining the schools, for which they provide in their local bud-\\ngets. Teachers were classified into four ranks, according to their qualifi.\\ncations and acquirements, and received their appointments from Govern-\\nment. A sum was also destined for the encouragement of associations of\\nteachers, who were to meet to confer on school management, to visit each\\nother s schools, and to study in common the duties incumbent on their\\nprofession.\\nThe best known methods of instruction were sought and tried, and a\\ncatalogue of the best school books was prepared and pubhshed in the\\ncourse of the year 1814.\\nIn 1825. a prize was offered by the Society for the Public Good, for the\\nbest essay on the advantages and disadvantages of the monitorial sys-\\ntem, and the simultaneons or class system of instruction. The prize was\\nawarded to a dissertation by M. Visser, Inspector of Primary Schools in\\nFries-land. In this essay, the system of monitorial instruction is analyzed.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0597.jp2"}, "598": {"fulltext": "596 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND.\\nand proved to be unsound on every point which bears upon education in\\nthe best sense of that term. This essay was published and widely distrib-\\nuted by the society, and contributed to form and strengthen the opinion\\nwhich prevails in Holland, against the method of mutual instruction.\\nIn 1S16 the Normal School at Haarlem was established, to supply a\\ndeficiency which was felt for the training of teachers, through the influ-\\nence of M. Van der Ende, who is esteemed, the fither of education in\\nHolland. A similar institution had previously been commenced on a\\nsmall scale at Groningen, by the Society of Public Good. Up to the es-\\ntablishment of the Normal School at Groningen, teachers had been trained\\nin Holland, by serving a sort of apprenticeship from the age of 14 to 16 or\\nIS, as assistants in the larger schools, during the day, and receiving a\\ncourse of special instruction, for one hour every evening. This, as far as\\nit goes, is a cheap and excellent mode of professional training. But the\\nexperience of fifteen years satisfied her statesmen and educators, that\\nthis was not sufficient. It made good schoolmasters, but not inquiring and\\ncreative teachers. It produced rather routine than intelligent teaching,\\nand arrested the progress of improvement, by perpetuating only the meth-\\nods of those schools in which the young teachers had been practiced as as-\\nsistants. To obviate this tendency, and to give to teachers a broader\\nand firmer basis of attainments and principles, Normal Schools were es-\\ntablished. The two modes are now continued together,* and in connec-\\ntion with the stimulus of the severe examination through which all teach-\\ners must pass, and of the direct and constant inspection to which all schol-\\nars are subjected, they have made the elementary schools of Holland\\ninferior to none other in Europe. President Bache, in his Report on Edu-\\ncation in Europe, pronounces them superior to those of the same class in\\nany of the European states.\\nThe attendance of children is not made compulsory on parents, but,\\nwhat is equivalent to such an enactment, it is provided by law, that out-\\ndoor relief shall not be administered to any family, where children are al-\\nlowed to run wild in the streets, or grow up as vagrants, or are employed\\nin any factory without a previous elementary training.\\nThe schools are not made free to parents by governmental contribu-\\ntion or local taxation, although both of these modes of supporting schools\\nare resorted to. The schools are in the first place made good, by pro-\\nviding for the employment of only well-qualified teachers, and then the\\nschools, thus made good, are open to all parents without exception or dis-\\ntinction, and all are required to pay a tuition fee, which the government\\nprovides shall not be large in any case. The result is universal educa-\\ntion throughout Holland. In Haarlem, with a population of 21,000 in\\n1840. there was not a child of ten years of a,ge, and of sound intellect, who\\ncould not both read and write, and this is true throughout Holland, accord-\\ning to the testimony of intelligent travelers, and is borne out by the fol-\\nlowing official table, (page 60S,) as to the school attendance in 1846.\\nSpp page S44", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0600.jp2"}, "599": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IX HOIXAND. ggY\\nThe superiority of public elementary instruction in Holland, is attribu-\\nted, by her own edQcators, and by intelligent foreigners, who have visited\\nher schools in the rural districts, as well as in the large towns, to that\\nsystem of special inspection, combined with specific and enforced prepa-\\nration of all candidates for the office of teacher, and subsequent gradation\\nof rank and pay, according to character and skill, which has now been in\\noperation nearly half a century, ever since the first school law of the Ba-\\ntavian Republic, in 1806, drawn up by that wise statesman, M. Van der\\nPalm. The following extracts will give at once this testimony, and an\\nintelligent account of the system of inspection.\\nBaron Cuvier, in his Report to the French Government on the estab-\\nlishment of Public Instruction in Holland, in 1811, after speaking with\\nspecial commendation of the system of inspection, remarks\\nThe government is authorized to grant to each province a certain\\nsum to meet the compensation, and the expenses of travel, and meetino-\\nof the inspectors. The mode of choosing them is excellent; they are\\ntaken from clergymen, or laymen of education, who have signalized them-\\nselves by their interest in the education of children, and skill in the local\\nmanagement of schools from the teachers who have distinguished them-\\nselves in their vocation and in the large towns, from the professors of the\\nUniversities and higher grade of schools.\\nMr. W. E. Hickson, now Principal of the Mechanics Institute in Liver-\\npool, in an Account of the Dutch and German ScAooZs, published in\\n1840, remarks\\nIn Holland, education is, on the whole, more faithfully carried out\\nthan in most of the German States, and we may add that, notwithstand-\\ning the numerous Normal Schools of Prussia, (institutions in which Hol-\\nland, although possessing two. is still deficient.) the Dutch schoolmasters\\nare decidedly superior to the Prussian, and the schools of primary instruc-\\ntion consequently in a more efficient state. This superiority weattribute\\nentirely to a better system of inspection. In Prussia, the inspectors of\\nschools are neither sufficiently numerous, nor are their powers sufficiently\\nextensive. JNIr. Streiz, the inspector for the province of Posen, coniessed\\nto us the impossibility of personally visiting everyone of the 1.635 schools\\nin his district, and admitted that he was obliged, in his returns, to depend\\nto a great extent upon the reports of local school committees. In Hol-\\nland, inspection is the basis upon which the whole fabric of popular in-\\nstruction rests.\\nThe constitution of the Board is well worthy of attention there can be\\nno judges of the qualifications of teachers equal to those whose daily em-\\nployment consists in visiting schools, and comparing the merits of differ-\\nent plans of instruction. But the power given to the inspector does not\\nend here: by virtue of his office he is a member of every local board, and\\nwhen vacant situations in schools are to be filled up, a new examination\\nis instituted before him into the merits of the different candidates. It is\\nupon his motion that the appointment is made, and upon his report to the\\nhigher authorities a master is suspended or dismissed for misconduct.\\nThrough his influence children of more than ordinary capacity in the\\nschools he visits, are transferred, as pupils, to the Normal Schools, in or-\\nder to be trained for masters; and througli his active agency all improved\\nplans or methods of instruction are diffused throughout the various insti-\\ntutions of the country.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0601.jp2"}, "600": {"fulltext": "598 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND.\\nM. Cousin, in a Report to the minister of Public Instruction in France,\\nin 1836, on the state of Education in Holland, wliiie giving a prefer-\\nence to the school law of Prussia, in its provision for Normal Schools, and\\nthe classification of pubhc schools, and especially for the support of the\\nhigher class of primary schools, assigns the palm to Holland, in the mat-\\nter of school inspection.\\nThe provincial boards of primary instruction, with their great and various\\npowers, constitute, in my mind, the chief superiority of the Dutch over ihe Prus-\\nsian law. They resemble the Sckid-collegium, which I onns a part of every pro-\\nvincial consistory in Prussia; but they are far better, for the Schtd-rolkginm is\\nnot composed of inspectors. It sends out some of its members to inspect, as\\noccasion requires, but inspection is not its function. It judges from written\\ndocuments, and not from ocular proof, and is generally obliged to rely upon\\nthe sole testimony of the member sent to inspect; whereas in Holland, the\\nboard, being both inspsctors and judges of inspections, are on the one hand\\nbetter judges, in consequence of the experience they have acquired in a con-\\nstant routine of inspection and, on the other hand, they are better inspectors,\\nby what they learn at the board, when acting as judges and governors, a com-\\nbination eminently practical, and uniting what is almost every where sepa-\\nrated.\\nEvery inspector resides in his own district, and he is bound to inspect every\\nschool at least twice a year, and he has jurisdiction over the primary schools of\\nevery grade within the district. Without his approval no one can either be a\\npublic or a private teacher and no public or pi ivate teacher can retain his situa-\\ntion, or he promoted, or receive any gratuity for no commissioner has any\\npower in his absence, and he is either the chairman or the influential member\\nof all meetings that are held. He is thus at the head of the whole of the pri-\\nmary instruction in his particular district. He is required to repair three\\ntimes a year to the chief town of the province, to meet the other district inspec-\\ntors of the province, and a conference is held, the governor of the province\\npresiding, which lasts for a fortnight or three weeks, during which time each\\ninspector reads a report upon the state of his district, and brings before the\\nmeeting all such questions as belong to them. As each province has its own\\nparticular code of regulations for its primary schools, tbunded upon the law\\nand its general regulations, the provincial board examines whether all the pro-\\nceedings of the several inspectors have been conlbrmable to that particular code;\\nthey look to the strict and unilbrm execution of the code they pass such\\nmeasures as belong to them to originate, and they draw up the annual report\\nwhich is to be presented to the central administration, and submit such amend-\\nments as appear to them necessary or useful, and of which the central adminis-\\ntration is constituted the judge. Under the Minister of the Interior there is a\\nhigh functionary, the Inspector-general of Primary Instruction and from time\\nto time a general meeting is summoned by the government, to be held at the\\nHague, to which each provincial board sends a deputy and thus, from the In-\\nspector-general of the Hague, down to the local inspector of the smallest dis-\\ntrict, the whole of the primary instruction is under the direction of inspectors.\\nEach inspector has charge of his own district, each provincial board has charge\\nof its province; and the general meeting, which may be called the assembly\\nof the states-general of primary instruction, has charge of the whole king-\\ndom. All these authorities are, in their several degrees, analogous in their\\nnature; for all are public functionaries, all are paid and responsible officers.\\nThe district-inspector is responsible to the provincial Board of Commissioners\\nand they are responsible to the Inspector-general and the Minister of the In-\\nterior. In this learned and very simple hierarchy the powers of every member\\nare clearly defined and limited.\\nMr. George Nicholls, in a Report on the condition of the Laboring\\nPoor in Holland and Belgium to the Poor Law Commissioners of\\nEngland, in 1838, remarks:\\nThe measures adopted in Holland to promote the education of all classes,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0602.jp2"}, "601": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND 599\\nhave apparently resuited from the conviction that the moral and social charac-\\nter of the people, their intelligence, and their capacity lor increasing the resour-\\nces of tlie country, must in a great measure depend upon the mani.er in which\\nthey are trained for the fulfillment of their several duties. The state has not\\nrendered education actually obligatory upon the municipalities, neither has it\\nrequired evidence of the education of the children of the j:ojrer classes by any\\neducational test; for a sense of the importance of education pervades the entire\\ncommunity it is sought by the poor for their children, with an earnestness simi-\\nlar to that observed in the more wealthy classes in other countries; and in\\nHolland, the direct interference of government is confined to regulating the\\nmode of instruction, by means of an organized system of inspection.\\nThis system, however much it may interfere with the liberty of the subject,\\nhas certainly some advantages. The poor, who have no means of judging for\\nthemselves, have, in the ceitificale given 10 e\\\\ ery schoolmaster, some sort of\\nguarantee that the person to whom they send their children is not an ignorant\\ncharlatan, professing to teach what he has never learned, and in the next place\\nit secures to those who devote themselves to the profession a much higher rate\\nof remuneration than they would receive if, as with us, every broken-down\\ntradesman could open a school when able to do nothing else. This exclusion\\nof absolute incapacity is also a means, and a verj powerful one, of raising the\\ncharacter uf the profession in popular estimation. With us, any man can be-\\ncome a schoolmaster, as easily as he can a coal-merchant, by simply putting a\\nbrass plate on his door; but in Holland, (and the same .system is very general\\nin Germany,) .some degree of study is rendered indispensable, and the whole\\nclass, therefore, stand out from the rei t of the communit} as men of superior at-\\ntainments, and enjoy that consideration which men of cultivated minds every-\\nwhere command, when not surrounded by coadjutors below rather than above\\nthe common level.\\nIn Holland, there is no profession that ranks higher than that of a school-\\nmaster, and a nobleman would scarcely, if at all, command more respect\\nthan is paid to many of those who devote their lives to the instruction of youth.\\nThe same personal consideration is extended to the assistant teacher or usher.\\nWe were much struck with the difference in the position of persons of this class\\nabroad, from their lot at home, when we were visiting a school for the middle\\nclasses at Hesse-Cassel. The school contained 200 children, and was supported\\npartly by the town and the government, and partly by the payments of the schol-\\nars. The charge for daily instruction was from Is. 8d. to 5s. per month. The\\nchildren were distributed in six classess to each class a separate master or as\\nsistant teacher. We were conducted over the establishment by the head mastei\\nor director of the school, and the first thing which drew our attention was the ex\\ntreme ceremony with whfch we were introduced to each of the assistant mas-\\nters, and the magy apologies made by the professor for interrupting them, although\\nbut for a moment, in their important labors. We saw those treated as equals,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0who are in England often estimated as only on a rank with grooms or upper\\nservants.\\nThe most important branch of administration, as connected with education,\\nis that which relates to school inspection. All who have ever been anxious either\\nto maintain the eihciency of a school, or to improve its character, vvill appre-\\nciate the importance of the frequent periodical visits of persons having a knowl-\\nedge of what education is, and who are therefore able to estimate correctlv the\\namount and kind of instruction given. Let a school established by voluntary\\nsubscriptions be placed to-day upon the best possible footing, if no vigilance be\\nexercised by its founders, and if the master be neither encouraged nor stimula-\\nted to exertion by their presence, his salary will speedily be converted into a\\nsinecure, and the school will degenerate to the lowest point of utility.\\nProfessor Bache, in his Report on Education in EuropeP in 18(38, to\\nthe Trustees of Girard College, remarks:\\nThe system of primary instruction in Holland is particularly interestingr to\\nan American, from its organization in an ascending series; beginning with the\\nlocal school authorities, and terminating, after progressive degrees of represen-\\ntation, as it were, in the highest authority; instead of emanating, as in the cen-\\ntralized systems, from that authority. A fair trial has been given to a system", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0603.jp2"}, "602": {"fulltext": "600 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND.\\nof inspection which is almost entirely applicable to our country, and which has\\nsucceeded with them.\\nThe school .system of Holland consists of a brief law, of only twenty-three\\narticles, drawn up by M. Van der Palm, the distinguished Oriental schol-\\nlar, in ISOl, and modified by M. Van der Ende, in 1806, and a series of\\nRegulations drawn up by the slate department having charge of this sub-\\nject, to carry out the provisions of the laAV. The law was so Avisely framed,\\nand was so well adapted to the spirit, customs and habits of the people,\\nthat it has survived three great revolutions first, that which converted the\\nBatavian Republic into a kingdom, at first independent, but afterward\\nincorporated with the French empire next, that which dethroned Louis,\\nrestored the house of Orange, and united Holland and Belgium in one\\nmonarchy and lastly, the revolution which again separated the two\\ncountries, and restricted the kingdom of the Netherlands to its former lim-\\nits. During these thirty years, the law of 1806 was never interfered\\nwith it could only be altered by another law, and when the government,\\nin 1829, in order to please the Belgian liberal party, brought forward a\\nnew general law. which made some very objectionable changes in that of\\n1806, the chambers resisted, and the government were obliged to with-\\ndraw the bill.\\nThe following provisions will show the spirit and scope of the law, and\\ngeneral regulations.\\nIX. The school inspector of the district is authorized, in concert with the\\nlocal authorities, to intrust one or more known and respectable persons with a\\nlocal inspection, subordinate to his own, over the school or scliools, and also\\nover all the teachers of both sexes in the place, whether village, hamlet, or oth-\\nerwise, and lor each separately.\\nX. In all the more considerable towns and places, the parochial authorities,\\nin concert with the school inspector of the district, shall establish a local su-\\nperintendence of the primary schools, which shall consist of one or more per-\\nsons, according to local circumstances, but so as each member shall have a\\nparticular division, and all the schools in that division shall be confided to him\\nindividually. These persons shall collectively constitute, with the school in-\\nspector of the district, the local school board.\\nXVII. No one shall be allowed to become a candidate for a vacant school, or\\nto establish a new one, or to give private lessons, without having first obtained\\na certificate of general admission. In like manner, no one shall be allowed to\\nteach any other branch than that for which he shall have received a certificate\\nof general admission.\\nXXII. The instruction shall be conducted in such a manner, that the study\\nof suitable and useful branches of knowledge shall be accompanied by an exer-\\ncise of the intellectual powers, and in such a manner that the pupils shall be\\nprepared for the practice of all social and Christian virtues.\\nXXIII. Measures shall be taken that the scholars be not left without instruc-\\ntion in the doctrinal creed of the religious community to which they belong;\\nbut that part of the instruction shall not be exacted from the schoolmaster.\\nXXX. The provincial* and parochial authorities are recommended to take\\nthe necessary steps\\nThe constitution of Holland is somewhat singular, and would seem at first sight to be founded\\nupon what perhaps may one day be recognized as the true theory of representative government, that\\nof progressive, intermediate elections. The rate-payers elect the Kiczers, the Kiciers elect the Hand\\nor town council, the town council elect a certain proportion of the members of the provincial govern-\\nments, and the provincial governments elect the lower chamber of the fitates General, or House of\\nCommons.\\nThe States-General consist of two chnmliprs. The upper chamber is somewhat of a House of\\nLords, but not ljereilit;,iy. J lic niemlier^ fifty in number, receive 250i. per ammm for traveling ex-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0604.jp2"}, "603": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 601\\n1. That the emolnmentsof the teacher (principally in rural parishes) be set-\\nlied in such a way that his duties, when creditably performed, may obtain for\\nhim a sufficient livelihood, and that he be rendered as little dependent as possi-\\nble, bv direct aid, upon the parents of the children who frequent his school.\\n2. That attendance at the schools be strictly enforced, and that they be kept\\nopen throughout the year.\\nREGUL.4TI0NS RESPECTING THE EXAMINATION OP THOSE WHO DESIRE TO BECOME\\nTEACHERS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS.\\nI. The teachers shall be divided into four classes, or grades, according to the\\namount of knowledge required, and according to the examination which they\\nshall have passed.\\nVII. In ihese examinations, the object shall be to ascertain not only the ex-\\ntent of knowledge of the candidate in the branches he is proposing to leach, but\\nalso his power of communicating that knowledge to others, and especialh^ to\\nchildren.\\nVIII. Before proceeding to the examination properly so called, the examin-\\ners shall endeavor to ascertain, in conversation with the candidate, his opin-\\nions on morals and religion the sphere of his attainments, both with regard to\\nthe most indispensable parts of primar}^ instruction, and to foreign languages\\nand other branches which he proposes to teach; together with his aptitude to\\ndirect, instruct, and Ibrrn the character of youth.\\nIX. The subjects of examination shall be as follows\\n1. Reading from different printed and written characters; and whether with\\na good pronunciation and a proper and natural accent, and with a knowledge\\nof punctuation.\\n2. Some words and phrases designedly wrong shall be shown to the candi-\\ndate, to ascertain his knowledge of orthography.\\n3. To ascertain his acquaint. ince with the grammatical structure of the Dutch\\nlanguage, a sentence shall be dictated to him, which he shall analj^ze, and point\\nout the parts of speech; and he must give proofs of a familiar acquaintance\\nwith the declensions snd conjugations.\\n4. The candidate shall write some lines in large, middle, and small hand,\\nand shall make his own pens.\\n5. Soine questions in arithmetic shall be proposed to him, confinin? this\\nespecially to such as are of common occurrence, and which shall be sufficient\\nto show the dexterity of the candidate in calculations, both in whole numbers\\nand in fractions. Questions shall be ]nil to him on the theoretical parts, and\\nespecially on decimal arithmetic.\\n6. Some questions shall be proposed on the theory of singing.\\n7. DilTerent questions shall be proposed relative to history, geography, nat-\\nural philosophy, mathematics, and such other branches of knowledge as the\\ncandidate proposes to teach.\\n8. A passage in French, or in any other language in which the candidate\\nwishes to be examined, shall be given to him to read and translate. A pas-\\nsage in Dutch shall be dictated to him. to be translated by him, either in writ-\\ning or viva voce, into the language which forms the subject of the examination.\\nHe shall be required to give, de improriso, in the same language, a composition\\nin the form of a letter or narrative, (tec, all for the purpose of a.=;certaining\\nthe degree of acquaintance he possesses with the language in question, in or-\\nthography, grammar and punctuation.\\npenses. The lower chamber, hefore the Revolution, consisted of 110 members, now but of fifty-five.\\nThe provincial governments are\\nNorth Brnbnnt, 42 members. Friesland .54 members.\\nGnelderlund, 90 Overvssel 5.T\\nHolland 90 Groningen, 36\\nZenland, 40 Dreuthe, 24\\nUtrer.lit 36\\nTlie members of these provincial governments are not elected bv the town ronncils, but by the no-\\nbility; the town councils, and Kiezers of the country districts, nearly in equal proportions. General\\nbusiness affecting more than one province, is referred to one or other of tw6 committees, or provincial\\ncabinets, elected by the members of the provincial governments. On these committees one member\\nsits for each province.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0605.jp2"}, "604": {"fulltext": "602 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND.\\nX. The examination upon the acquirements of the candidate havinisr been\\ncompleied, the ex;nniners shall proceed to inquire inro bis capacity for teach-\\ning; thej shall question him as t(j the manner of teachins children to know\\nthe letieis, figures, and the first principles then reading, wrilirg, and arithme-\\ntic. The^ sliall then require him to relate .some story or poj tion of history, in\\norder to discover the degree of talent he po?sesses to present things to children\\nwith clearness and precision care shall he taken, if there be a convenient op-\\nportunity, and if it he thought advisable, to have some children present, of dif-\\nierent ages, and of different degrees of attainment, in order to ascertain more\\nparticularly his skill in practical leaching.\\nXI. Finally, the examiners shall propose some questions upon the principles\\nto be followed in rewards and ptiuishments; as also in general on the best meth-\\nods to be adopted, not only to develop and cultivate the intellectual faculties of\\nchildren, but most especially to bring them up in the exercise of the Christian\\nvirtues.\\nXII. When the examination is concluded, the examiners shall deliver to the\\ncandidate, who desires to obtain a general admission as a master, and has given\\nproof of sufficient ability, a deed of that admission, according to the extent of\\nhis ability; and in this shall be stated, as distinctly as possible, the extent and\\nthe nature of the talents and of the acquirements of the candidate, as proved by\\nhis examination and it shall declare the rank he has obtained, if it be in the\\nfirst, second, thiid, or fourth class, and consequently such a. general admis-\\nsio.i as shall giVi him a right to apply for the situation of a master, accord-\\ning to the rank which has been assigned to him. .Finally, the said deed shall\\ndeclare the branches of education, and the languages for which he shall have\\nobtained the general admission.\\nXIII. The schoolmistresses or teachers of languages who shall have passed\\nan examination, and have given sufficient proofs of their ability, shall also re-\\nceive a deed which shall contain, besides a declaration of the extent and amount\\nof their acquirements and talents- as proved by the examination, a general ad-\\nmission either for the oihce of schoolmistress or teacher of languages. That\\ndeed shall moreover expressly declare the branches of study and the languages\\nwhich the person examined shall be entitled to teach.\\nXIV. All the deeds mentioned in the iwo preceding articles shall be alike\\nthroughout the whole extent of the republic, both in the matter and the foim.\\nIf they are issued by a provincial board of education, they shall be signed by\\nthe president and secretary, and the seal of the board shafl he affixed to theni.\\nThe deeds issued by an inspector, or by a local board, shall be signed by the in-\\nspector only, or bv the secietary of the local board.\\nXV. The certificates for the first and second class, issued by a provincial\\nboard, shall entitle those who obtain them to be masters in all primary schools,\\npublic as well as private, of the two classes in all places throughout the repub-\\nlic, without exception whereas the deeds. issued by a local board shall confer\\nno privilege beyond that locality.\\nXVI. The certificates for the third class, as Avell as those for the fourth or\\nlowest class shall confer the privilege of becoming teachers, except in schools\\nestablished in places whose wants are proportioned to the rank and capacity of\\nsuch masters, and which are .situated within the jurisdiction of the provincial\\nboard.\\nXVII. In order that the provisions contained in the two preceding articles\\nmay be more easily carried into efl^ect, the schools in small towns and less con-\\nsiderable places, more fully described in Art. 9 of regulation A, shall be classed\\nby the different inspectors and by the provincial boards, into higher, middle,\\nand lower schools, upon a principle hereafter provided. Tliis classification,\\nwhich shall be submitted to the provincial authorities for approval, shall be\\nsolely for the purpose of preventing the principal school falling into the hands\\nof incompetent masters; while, at the same time, it leaves the power of placing\\na very able master over the smallest school.\\nXVIII. In the towns or places of greatest importance, no master of the fourth\\nor lowest class shall be eligible to either a public or a private school. The\\nlocal boards are even recommended to take care, as much as possible, that the\\ntuition in the schools of their towns shall not be entrusted to any other than\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2maslers of Ihe first or serond clo.ss.\\nXXIV. A list containing the name, the rank, the nature, and the extent of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0606.jp2"}, "605": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 603\\nthe abiliiies of each of those who shall have obtained deeds of general admis-\\nsion as master, mistress, oi teacher of languages, shall be published in the peri-\\nodical work entitled Bydragen tot den btaal, ifcc, (which is still pub-\\nlished./\\nIt is impossible not to see that the stimulating effect of a series of ex-\\naminations of this character, before a tribunal composed of qualified\\njudges, must produce a class of teachers for the work of primary instruc-\\ntion uneciualed in any other part of the world. But the soul of the whole\\nsystem is inspection, or in other words, active and vigilant superintend-\\nence.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ^intelligent direction, and real responsibility, all of which are in-\\nvolved in the system of inspection carried out in Holland. Without\\ninspection there can he no competent tribunal for the examination of\\nteachers without inspection, local school committees and conductors of\\nschools would be irresponsible to public opinion, inert and negligent\\nwithout inspection there would be no person constantly at hand suiiiciently\\ninformed upon the state of education to suggest the measures required\\nibr the promotion of its objects; without inspection there Would be no dif-\\nfusion of new ideas, no benefiting by the experience of others, no rivalry\\nin improvement, no progress. Tiie tbllowing extracts will show the man-\\nner in which the duties of inspection are provided for.\\nKEOULATIONS FOR SCHOOL INSPECTORS, AND FOR THE BOARDS OF EDUCATION IN\\nTHE DIFFERENT PROVINCES.\\nII. Each inspector shall make himself acquainted with the number and\\nsituations of the primary schools, and also with the state of primary instruction\\nthroughout the whole extent of his district. It shall be his duty tosee that, be-\\nsides the necessary number of ordinary schools, there shall be a sutficient num-\\nber of schools for children of tender age. organized in the best possible manner,\\nand also schools of industry. Finally, he shall take care, that proper instruc-\\ntion in all branches of primary education may be obtained, according to the\\ncircumstances and wants of the different parishes.\\nIII. He shall make it his business to become personally acquainted with the\\ndifferent masters in his district, and with the extent of their fitness, and shall\\nkeep a note thereof\\nIV. He shall make it his special business to excite and maintain the zeal of\\nthe masters and for that purpose, he shall at fi.xed periods require a certain\\nnumber of them to meet him, either at his own house or in other parts of bis\\ndistrict, and as frequently as possible.*\\nV. The inspector shall be bound Lo vk t twice, a year all the schools in his\\ndistrict, which are directly subject to his supervision. He is hereby e.xhorled\\nto repeal those visits at different times, either when a particular case calls for\\nit, or for the general good.\\nVI. In visiting the schools which are under his direct supervision, he shall\\ncall upon the master to teach the pupils of the ditferent classes in his presence,\\nthose which are in different stages of progress, in order that he ma v judge as to\\nthe manner in which the instruction is given and regulated. He shall also in-\\nquire if the regulations concerning primary instruction, as M-ell as the regula-\\ntion tor the internal order of the school, are duly observed and executed and\\nhe shall pay attention to every thing which he believes to be of any importance.\\nAt the CLinclusion of the visit, the in.spector shall have a private conversation\\nwith the master or mistress, upon all he has observed: and according as the\\ncase may be, he shall express approbation, give them advice, admonish, orcen-\\nsure them, upon what he may have seen or heard. Every school inspector\\nIn compliance with the spirit of this nrticle, societies of schoolmasters have been formed, under\\nthe nusjiices of the inspectors, at different times, in the districts of eiich province, which keep up a\\nrivalry of improvement. They meet at stated times, generally every month.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0607.jp2"}, "606": {"fulltext": "604 PRIMARY Sf HOOI.S IN HOLLAND.\\nshall keep notes of all remarks and observations which he shall have made in\\nthe course ofliis visits, to be used in the manner hereinafter provided.\\nIX. They shall pay parlicnlar attention to improve the school-rooms; to the\\neducation of the children of the poor, and esjecially in the villages and ham-\\nlets; to regulate and improve the incomes of the masters; and to the schools\\nbeing kept open and attended without interruption, as much as possible, during\\nthe whole year.\\nXVIII. The ordinary meetings of the boards shall be held in the towns where\\nthe provincial authorities reside, at Ifeast three times a year; the one during\\nEaster week, the other two in the second week of .Inly and Oclolier.\\nXXIV. At each ordinary meeting, each member shall give in a written re-\\nport:\\n1. Of the schools he has visited since the last meeting, staling the time of his\\nvisit, and the observations he then made regarding the state of the schools, in\\nall the ditiererit particulars.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22. Of the meetings he has held of the schoolmasters for the purpose of com-\\nmunicating Avith them respecting their duties.\\n3. Of the examinations which have taken place before him of masters of the\\nlowest class, and of the higher classes.\\n4. Of the changes and other events which shall have taken place in his dis-\\ntrict, relative to any school or sclioolmaster, since the last meeting, and es-\\npecially all vacancies of masterships, the deljvery of deeds of call, nomination,\\nor special appointment of every degree and of every class, setting forth the\\nmost important circumstances connected with them: the appointment of local\\ninspectors in jilaces of minor extent; the changes that may have occurred in\\nthe local schoril boards; the inspection of a new primary school or school of in-\\ndustry; the admission of any teacher of languages; the drawing up of any\\nrules for the internal order of schools the introduction of schiol books, other\\nthan those contained in the general list of books, in the private schools of both\\nclasses; the measures that have been taken to regulate and improve the incomes\\nof the masters; the measures that have been taken to secure the schools being\\nuninterruptedly kept open and attended; any difficulties they may have en-\\ncountered the encouragement or otherwise which the masters may have met\\nwith and the examinations of pupils in the schools. The inspector shall fur-\\nther point out the particular parts which he wishes to have insetted in the\\nabove mentioned monthly publication, {Bydragen.)\\nXXV. From these written documents and other private information, as well\\nas from the written reports of the local school boards, (as mentioned in the fol-\\nlowing article,) every school inspector shall draw up annually, previous to the\\nmeeting held in Easter week, a general report on the state of the schools and of\\nprimary instruction throughout his district. -He shall state therein the reasons\\nwhy he has not visited, or has not visited more than once, any particular school\\nin the course of the preceding year. He shall state such proposals as appear\\nto him deserving of attention, and which may tend to the improvement ofpri-\\nmarv instruction.\\nXXVI. In order that the school inspectors may not omit to mention, in their\\nannual report, any of the particulars stated in the preceding article, the local\\nscliool boards, or their individual members, in so far as concerns the schools\\nplaced under their individual inspection, shall draw up a report in Avriting, simi-\\nlar to that required from the school inspectors, before the end of Februarv at\\nlatest.\\nXXIX. At the conclusion of the ordinarj meeting held in Easter week, each\\nboard shall forward, or cause to be forwarded within the space of four weeks, to\\nthe Secretary of State for the Home Department, besides the documents men-\\ntioned in the preceding article,\\n1. One of the two authentic copies of the annual general summary.\\n2. The originals of the general reports of the different members of the\\nboards.\\n3. The originals of the annual written reports of the different local boards.\\n4. A detailed statement, taken from the report f)f each of the members, of the\\nproposals which each board shall be desirous of bringing under the considera-\\ntion of the next annual general meeting, or which it has been resolved to lay\\nbefore the provincial authorities.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0608.jp2"}, "607": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. i]U5\\nREGULATIONS RESPECTING THE GENERAL ORDER TO BE OBSERVED IN THE PRIMARY\\nSCHOOLS.\\nI. The primary schools shall be open without intermission the whole year,\\nexcept during the times fixed for llie holidays.\\nII. During the whole time devoted to the lessons, the master shall be present\\nfrom the beginning to the end he shall not be engaged in any thing which is\\nunconnected with the teaching, nor absent himself from school, except for rea-\\nsons of absolute necessity.\\nIII. The master shall take care that the pupils do not unnecessarily go out of\\nschool and especially that they be quiet and attentive; and, when in the play-\\nground, that they always conduct themselves in a peaceable, respectable, and\\nmotlest manner.\\nIV. When the number nf pupils shall exceed seventy, measures shall be\\ntaken for providing a second master or an under master.\\nV. The pupils shall be entered, as much as possible, at fixed terms in the\\ncourse of the year.\\nVI. At the opening and at the breaking up of each class, a Christian prayer,\\nsolemn, short, and suitable to the occasion, shall be said daily or weekly. At\\nthe same time, a hymn, adapted to the circumstances, may be sung.\\nVII. The pupils shall be divided into three classes, each of which shall have\\nits distinct place; and on every occasion when the school meets, each shall\\nreceive the instruction that belongs to it.\\nVIII. The instruction shall be communicated simultaneously to all the pu-\\npils in the same class and the master shall take care that, during that time,\\nthe pupils in the two other classes are usefully employed.\\nIX. The instruction in the different classes, and in the different branches\\ntaught, shall be as much as possible conveyed by the use of the black board.\\nX. When the master shall think it advisable, he shall reward the most ad-\\nvanced pupils l)}^ employing them to leach some parts of the lessons to the\\nbeginners.\\nXI. The master shall take care that the pupils be at all limes clean in their\\ndress, well washed and combed, and he shall at the same time pay the strictest\\nattention to every thing that may contribute to their health.\\nXII. The school-rooms shall be at all times kept in proper order; for that\\npurpose they shall be ventilated in the intervals of school hours, and cleaned\\nout twice a week. f\\nXIII. An^xamination of each school shall take place at least once a ear.\\nUpon that occasion the pupils of a lower class shall be passed to a higher; and\\nas far as circumstances will allow, rewards shall be given to those M ho have\\ndistinguished themselves by their application and good conduct.\\nXIV. When a pupil at the end of the course of study shall leave the school,\\nif he shall have distinguished himself hy the progress he has made and by his\\ngood conduct, a certificate of honor shall be presented to him.\\nXV. A code of regulations shall be drawn up lor each particular school, and\\nthis, whether written or printed, shall be pasted on aboard, hung up in the room,\\nand from time to time read and explained by the master.\\nXVI. The said codes shall be issued by the authorities over each school;\\ntheir object shall be, to regulate the hours of teaching and how these shall be\\ndivided among the three classes.\\nAs the masters were prohibited from leaching any particular reh gious\\ndoctrine in the schools, the government, through the Secretary of State\\nfor the Home Department, addressed a circular letter to the ditferent\\necclesiastical bodies in the country, inviting them to take upon them-\\nselves, out of school hours, the whole instruction of the young, either by\\nproperly-arranged lessons in the catechijmi, or by any other means. An-\\nswers were returned from the Synod of the Dutch Reformed church and\\nother ecclesiastical bodies, assenting to the separation of doctrinal from\\nthe other instruction of the schools, and pledging themselves to extend", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0609.jp2"}, "608": {"fulltext": "606 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND.\\nthe former through their ministers of the different rehgious communions.\\nOn the reception of these answers, the government authorized the pro\\nvincial boards of education\\nTo exhort all schoolmasters to hand a complete list, every six months,\\nof the names and residences of their pupils belonging to any religious\\ncommunion to such as should apply for it and to take care that their\\npupils attend to the religious instruction provided for them.\\nTo invite the governors of orphan asylums and workhouses and simi-\\nlar establishments, to second the measures which the authorities of the\\ncommunion shall take in reference to religious instruction.\\nTo exhort the school inspectors, and through them the local school\\nboards, to co-operate, as far as possible, with the consistories and minis-\\nters in their efforts to give instruction in the doctrines of their religion, so\\nlong as they confine themselves to their special province, and do not inter-\\nfere with the business of the schools or the authority of the persons in-\\ntrusted with their management by the government.\\nThus did the Batavian Republic provide that the children should be\\nprepared for i/ie exercise of all the social and Christian virtues well\\nknowing, that if the schools did no more than impart a knowledge of the\\nmaterial world, there might be profound ignorance of the good and the\\nbeautiful, and of the true destiny of human nature.\\nOn the practical operation of the provisions for religious and moral\\neducation, we adduce the following testimony. Mr. Kay remarks\\nThe law of 1801 proclaims, as the great end of all instruction, the exercise of\\nthe social and Christian virtues. In this respect it agrees with the law of Prussia\\nand France but it diiFers from the law of these countries in the way by which it\\nattempts to attain this end. In France, and all the German countries, the schools\\nare the auxiliaries, so to speak, of the churclies foi- whilst the schools are open\\nto all sects, yet the teacher is a man trained up in th% particular doctrines of the\\nmajority of his pupils, and required to teach those doctrines during\u00c2\u00abertain hours,\\nthe cliildren who differ from him in religious belief, being permitted to absent\\nthemselves from the religious lessons, on condition that their parents provided\\nelsewhere for their religious instruction. But, in Holland, the teachers are re-\\nquired to give religious instruction to all the children, and to avoid most carefully\\ntouching on any of the grounds of controversy between the different sects.\\nMr. Nieholls says: As i-espects religion, the population of Holland is divided,\\nin about equal proportions, into Catholic, Lutheran, and Protestants of the re-\\nformed Calvinislic Church and the ministers of each are supported by the state.\\nThe schools contain, without distinction, the children of every sect of Christians.\\nThe religious and moral instruction afforded to the children is taken from the\\npages of Holy Writ, and the whole course of education is mingled with a frequent\\nreference to the great general evidences of revelation. Biblical history is taught,\\nnot as a dry narration of facts, but as a store-house of truths, calculated to influ-\\nence the affections, to correct and elevate the manners, and to inspire sentiments\\nof devotion and virtue. The great principles and truths of Christianity, in which\\nall are agreed, are likewise carefully ineulcaled but those points, which are the\\nsubjects of difference and religious controversy, form no part of the instructions of\\nthe schools. This department of religious teaching is confided to the ministers of\\neach persuasion, who discharge this portion of their duties out of school; but\\nwithin the schools the common ground of instruction is faithfully preserved, and\\nthey are, consequently, altogether free from the spirit of jealousy or proselytisra.\\nWe witnessed the exercise of a class of the children of notables of Haarlem,\\n(according to the simultaneous method,) respecting the death and resuri-ection of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0610.jp2"}, "609": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 607\\nour Saviour, by a minister of the Lutheran church. The class contained children\\nof Catholics, Calvinists, and other denominations of Christians, as well as Luther-\\nans, and ail disputable doctrinal points were carefully avoided. The Lutherans\\nare the smallest in number, the Calvinists the largest, and the Catholics about\\nmidway between the two but all appear to live together in perfect amity, with-\\nout the slightest distinction in the common intercourse of life and this oircum-\\nstance, so extremely interesting in itself, no doubt facilitated the establishment of\\nthe general system of education here described, the effects of which are so appa-\\nrent in the highly moral and intellectual condition of the Dutch people.^\\nBaron Cuvier, in his report to the French government in 1811, says:\\nThe means devised for the religious instruction of all persuasions are extremely\\ningenious, and at the same time highly appropriate, without involving them in\\ndangerous controversy. The particular doctrines of each communion are taught\\non Sundays, in the several places of worship, and by the clergy. Tlie history\\nof the New Testament, the life and doctrines of Jesus Christ, and those doctrines\\nin which all Christians agree, are taught in the schools on Saturdays, the day on\\nwhich the Jews do not come to school, on account of their sabbath. But those\\ntruths which are common to all religions, pervade, are connected with, and are\\nintimately mixed up with every branch of instruction, and every thing else may\\nbe said to be subordinate to them.\\nMr. Chambers, of Edinburgh, in describing a visit to the public\\nschool of Rotterdam in the Edinburgh Journal, observes\\nInstruction is given in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history of Hol-\\nland, Bible history, and singing. I made inquiry of the head master, if any relig-\\nious (dogmatic) instruction was given in the school, and he answered there was\\nnot. The children belong to different religious bodies and attend their respective\\nclergj men on stated occasions, for instruction in the doctrines and principles of\\nreligion. The Bible history which is taught in the schools comprises only parts,\\nin the truth of which all parties agree. The great regularity and silence which\\nprevailed, the extent of the gratuitous instruction conferred, and the harmonious\\ncongregating together in one school of so many children of different religious\\ncreeds, were circumstances which I could not pass over unmoved my only wish\\nthat the mass of my countrymen could conveniently have been mtroduced to\\nenjoy the scene.\\nAll the children of Holland may not, indeed, be at school at any given time,\\nbut every one goes to school at some time, and therefore there are none without\\neducation. This result is sensibly observed in the aspect of the Dutch towns.\\nYou see no bands of loose and disorderly children in the streets, such as offend\\nthe eye in the lower parts of almost every laige town in Britain.\\nIn all of the Dutch schools, habits of propriety, cleanliness, and order,\\nare, not only in, but out of doors, strictly enforced, as well as prac-\\ntically illustrated in the manners of the teacher. Mr. Chambers quotes\\nin a note tlie remark of a correspondent of the London Standard, that\\nin no country is the mass of the people so religious, showing that the\\nmode of education has not hurt religion.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0611.jp2"}, "610": {"fulltext": "603\\nPRIMARY EDUCATION IN HOLLAND.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2S5DUJS\\\\(T\\naoijoads\\n-uijo -on\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2B[Ooqos\\nS =-5 3\\n02 O.S 3\\n0: O00C:i\u00c2\u00bbO ^crCi^ ^-I\\nM\u00c2\u00abDC liOi^aiC0-\u00c2\u00bbi CM\\n3 CCD\\nCO O O 0: CO I\\nO CM J O CO\\nco^cTc^ir^i-ro (M C3 05 CO o\\n(^l Ol CO CM i-l i-H N T-l r-t r-t\\nOit\u00e2\u0080\u0094 COOCOOGOT-HQOCirH\\ni -cO ^i-Hioicioco-\u00c2\u00ab*io:)i\u00e2\u0080\u0094 I\\nCOOO-^COCOr-HO^OiOOCO\\ni-HCOiOCMiOi-HlCOlOdt\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nCO Co u:r r-T r-T\\nOC5 rJ 0(MCO ^l -lLCOC:\\noo^^^cccMooccG iir-o\\nC^iCOOit-^^OlG^i\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tCOr-lO\\nr-T-^jTio r-T r-Tl^T r-T\\nCO\u00c2\u00bb\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tCi=J5lOI -i\u00e2\u0080\u0094 llCTjHi^CO\\nJr^CM OOCOi\u00e2\u0080\u0094 IC3\u00c2\u00ab\\nI CD 0 Oi O CO I\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tjl\\nJ r-H CO CS 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CO OS\\nco^oT I i-T\\nM Cft 00 CO H^ t-\\nCO o5_^ 05\\nco c^\\nCO CO i CO _- _-\\nCOO lr-OO \u00e2\u0080\u00a2J -0000t-lOi\\noocooi-^t-cocMt-corHas\\nrHQOcOOii--i-*CO-^i -t-,-H\\nrH--0 lCOCOOiiOC l-^CM\\nlo oT oT lo~i^-^ lo^ ccT lo co io i\\n05 o t^ b- i\\nCO CO G 1 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094 I\\ncDcoi ^C: Ir^i\u00e2\u0080\u0094 \u00e2\u0080\u00a2C l ^cocs\\nO -:t^ t^ Ci \u00c2\u00bbft\\ncrrco co cC o CO c^ i CO\\nilMG l^Mi\u00e2\u0080\u0094 iT-H G li-(i-l\\n(M CO Ol CM 1\\n1 O lO 00 tH\\nI o oi (M crv\\n(M T-H tH T-r\\n_\u00e2\u0080\u009e^-. .C000st:-^0 ^C01:^\\nCM O\\nCO t- 1\\n_ CO -rJH\\ncooot\u00e2\u0080\u0094 t\u00e2\u0080\u0094 c: \u00e2\u0096\u00a0^ooc:\u00e2\u0096\u00a0--\\no^,-^\u00e2\u0096\u00a0ri^^J~a^ ^co M a5 1\u00e2\u0080\u0094 t CO\\nOt-cocoi/tiiC-^-\u00e2\u0080\u0094 tcoooo\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^C0iO-^r-)r-i M(Mr-l (M\\nirf\\nE\\n-t^ t^ a\\no o 5\\n8:cD\\na\\nCO y\\nr-T\\n(U\\nffl CD\\na\\nOS g\\n4) 0)\\nft\\ngco\\na cp\\na\\nt5\\n3 2\\na\\n9. a,\\nc a\\n\u00c2\u00a7a\\nag\\ns g\\nsi bo\\na a oj\\nca =3 S\\n.:ii a\\n1^\\no o\\nE O t.\\no bn\\n,a.a\\nw a\\n5\\nft5\\ni^\\nTS o\\n;as\\nIII\\nG fee\\nO o si\\n2S\\nST?\\na 12\u00c2\u00b0\\n^3\\na\\no\\nQO\\n-3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0H\\nt\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1\\noo\\na\\nO\\nJ:-\\nCO\\nt3\\na\\nC3\\na\\no\\nS\u00c2\u00a3\\n05\\n3 2\\nOl\\no\\nO\\no\\na2\\nri\\nCO\\nft\\no\\no\\nrt\\nft\\na\\na\\nft\\nIB\\no\\n.a\\n2\\n3\\no\\n2\\n2\\nH\\nt;\\no\\n(H\\na;\\n3\\no\\noS\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a\\na\\nr^\\nc\\n3\\na\\nS\\na\\noj o\\nn3\\n03\\n13\\na\\na\\ns\\ntn\\no\\n0\\na\\nft\\nuw\\nfto\\no\\n43", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0612.jp2"}, "611": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOL\\nTHE HAGUE, HOLLAND.\\nThe following description of a Primary School at the Hague, with\\nsome remarks on the classification of public schools is copied from\\nBache s \u00e2\u0096\u00a0Report on Education in Europe.^\\nThe definition of a primary school, as given in one of the regulations issued to\\ncomplete the law, covers a wide field. According to it, a primary school is one\\nin which youth is instructed in the first principles of knowledge, such as reading,\\nwriting, arithmetic, and the Dutch language, or the more advanced branches, such\\nas the French, or other modern languages, or the ancient languages, geography,\\nhistory, and other subjects of that description. There are several different kinds\\nof schools, corresponding to different grades of instruction in these branches.\\nInfant school instruction is included in the primary department, but it is not yet\\nfully developed.\\nThe lowest schools are those for the poor, (armen-scholen) and which are\\nentirely gratuitous. The children enter at from six to seven, and from twelve to\\nfourteen. As supplementary to them are evening schools, principally intended\\nfor revising former courses, and which should be attended until sixteen or\\neighteen years of age. As the attendance in these latter schools is not obligatory,\\nthe proportion of those who receive instruction in them, varies much in different\\nlocalities.\\nThe next are called intermediate schools (tusschen-scholen) in which the pupils\\npay a trifling fee.* Both these are, in general, public. Some have been estab-\\nlished by the school committees, and after a few years have become self-supporting.\\nThe grade of instruction is rather higher than in the schools for the poor, but as\\nthe law does not prescribe any particular programme, it varies much in the dif-\\nferent parts of Holland a school which would be called intermediate in a small\\ntown, ranking below one of the gratuitous establishments for the poor, in one of\\nthe chief cities. The amount taught, depends, other circumstances being the\\nsame, upon the average age to which the children remain at school, and therefore\\nvaries also in different parts of the kingdom.\\nThe next grade, or burgher school, (burger school) is, in general, a private\\nestablishment. It is distinguished from both the classes just enumerated by a\\nlarger fee,t and in general, by a higher grade of instruction but while, in a\\nsingle town or district, it is easy to perceive this gradation, yet it is scarcely pos-\\nsible to observe it on a comparison of the country at large. In some places, the\\nlast mentioned school is called the Dutch school, to distinguish it from the fol-\\nlowing class.\\nThe school denominated the French School, is the highest of the primary\\ndivision, and is, in general, a private establishment, though frequently of the kind\\nclassed by law with private schools, but superintended in reality, by the local\\nschool committee itself. Besides the branches taught in the other schools, the\\ncourses of this embrace the French language, of which the pupils acquire a gram-\\nmatical knowledge, and which they are enabled to speak with considerable\\nfacility. These schools prepare their pupils for entrance into active life, and serve\\nalso in some degree as feeders to the grammar or Latin schools. The instruction\\nFor example, in an intermediate school at Rotterdam, which I visited, eight cents a\\na week.\\nt The school fee at the burgher school at Haarlem is between eix and seven dollars a year.\\n39", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0613.jp2"}, "612": {"fulltext": "610 PRIMARY SCHOOL AT TilK HAGUE.\\nin French is not, however, an exclusive mark of this grade of institution, as the\\ndescendants of the French emigrants, constituting the Walloon congregations,\\ncontinue the teaching of this language in the gratuitous schools for the poor, con-\\nnected with their churches.\\nWhile, in point of fact, there is not the regular fourfold division of primary\\ninstruction which thus appears, it is difficult to draw a separating line. The inter-\\nmediate school connects the school for the poor, and the burgher school, while, in\\nthe burgher schools, the same branches are studied as in the French schools,\\nexcept the French language. The less number of children under the charge\\nof one master, the greater age to which the children in general remain at\\nschool, the generally greater capacity of the master, from the higher salary which\\nhis talents command, the greater family cultm-e of the children before coming into\\nand while in the school, render the average progress in the burgher school of a\\ngiven place, superior to that in the intermediate school, and in this latter higher\\nthan in the school for the poor. I must say, however, that in more than one\\ncase, in the same place, I could detect no difference in the school itself, between\\nthe intermediate and the burgher school, except in the greater comfort of the\\naccommodations of the latter and I have already remarked that, in comparing\\nthe establishments of different places, the name is not an accurate guide to the\\ngrade of the school.\\nA sketch of the arrangement of the primary schools themselves would, I have\\nthought, be rendered more compendious, without injury to its fidelity, by select-\\ning for particular description one of the schools for the poor, which, as a class, rank\\nhigher in Holland than in any other of the European States, and engrafting upon\\nthe account of this, remarks on the methods of other schools concluding by a\\nbrief statement of the particulars in which the intermediate, burgher, or French\\nschools differ, in general, from the assumed type, or from each other.\\nBefore doing so, however, there are some points fixed by the school regula-\\ntions, which require notice. The first is, that the system of instruction must be\\nthat called simultaneous, or in which all the pupils of a class take part at once.\\nIn practice, this requires to be varied by questions adapted to individuals, and the\\nclasses, therefore, must not be too large. In the intermediate schools I found,\\nmore commonly, classes of from thirty to fifty, the lesser number being well\\nadapted to the method. With a well trained master, and a class of moderate\\nnumbers, this kind of instruction is the most lively that can be imagined, and\\nwhen judiciously varied, by questions put to all, but which only one is permitted\\nto answer, it is also thorough.\\nThe method of mutual instruction is not at all favored in Holland. A very\\ndecided and general opinion against it, appears early to have been brought about\\nby the comparison of the English schools with their own. A prize was offered\\nfor the best dissertation on the subject, by the society for public utility, and taken\\nby M. Visser, inspector of primary schools in Freesland. This excellent disser-\\ntation, which was published and widely distributed by the society, no doubt con-\\ntributed to form or strengthen the opinion which prevails at this day.\\nThe only approach to the monitorial system in the schools of Holland, is, that\\npupils who have an inclination to teach and who will probably become teachers,\\nare put in charge of the lower classes of a school. Thus, also, some of the best\\nmonitors of the Borough-road School in London, are boys who are likely one day\\nto follow the career of teaching. There is, however, a very wide difference\\nbetween the use of a few apprentices to the profession, and that of a large num-\\nber of monitors to give instruction. I had occasion to observe, however, that in\\nmany cases there was a want of life in the younger classes entrusted to these\\ninexperienced teachers. If they are to be used, it would be better to employ\\nthem in classes which have some training, even though nearer the teacher s age\\nand attainments.\\nThe next point is in regard to religious instruction in the schools. There is\\nunbounded toleration of religious creed in Holland, and while the necessity of\\nreligious instruction in the schools has been strongly felt, it has been made to stop\\nshort of the point at which, becoming doctrinal, the subjects taught could inter-\\nfere with the views of any sect. Bible stories are made the means of moral and\\nreligious teaching in the school, and the doctrinal instruction is given by the pas-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0614.jp2"}, "613": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE. 611\\ntors of the different churches on days appointed for the purpose, and usually not\\nin the school-room.\\nThe last point is in regard to the choice of school books. The publication of\\nthem is not left to open coaipetition. Every book, before it can be used in a pub-\\nlic school, must be submitted to the examination of the minister of the interior,\\nacting, of course, by deputy, and if approved, is admitted to the list of books\\nwhich may be used in the schools. PYom this list, the provincial board of pri-\\nmary schools select those which they consider best to be used in their province,\\nand from their list the teachers choose such as they approve. In private schools,\\nthe teacher selects his own^ books, but he must report a list of them to the\\ninspector.\\nThere are two normal schools for the education of teachers for the primary\\nschools, one at Groningen, established by the society for public utility, the other\\nat Haarlem,* by the government. Formerly, all instructors were prepared in the\\ndifferent primary schools. They began to teach as early as twelve years of age,\\nattending the evening school to make up their loss of time during the day. At\\nsixteen, they had served their apprenticeship, and were admissible to the fourth\\ngrade of teachers. This method prevails still to a considerable extent, but as it\\nhas been found to produce rather routine than intelligent teaching, the two nor-\\nmal schools have been established to supply the defect.\\nThe material of elementary intellectual instruction consists in most countries,\\nof reading, writing, arithmetic, and a knowledge of the mother tongue, to which\\nthe geography of the country, and sometimes general geography, natural his-\\ntory, linear drawing, and vocal music are added. Special exercises of the per-\\nceptive and reflective faculties are also included in the more improved intellectual\\nsystems. While the material is thus nearly the same, nothing can be more dif-\\nferent than the results produced by the schools, according to the use which is\\nmade of it. In some, the means are mistaken for the end, and if the pupil is\\nenabled to read, write, and cipher mechanically, the school is supposed to have\\ndone its duty. In others, these branches are employed as the means of develop-\\ning the intellect, as well as for the communication of u.seful knowledge accord-\\ning as one or the other view is taken, the instruction is arranged in conformity\\nwith it. In Holland, the intellectual methods of Pestalozzi have taken deep root,\\nand the enlightened state of public opinion, in regard to elementary education,\\nprevents, in a great degree, a mechanical system of teaching\\nThe plan of the school for the poor at the Hague, to which I now proceed, will\\njustify this remark. To render it clear, I shall, even at the risk of dwelling\\nrather long upon it. present first the essential features of the instruction next\\nshow the chief steps in the entire course, from which a just idea of the character\\nof the whole of it can be formed, appending to this, some remarks upon the\\nmethods of teaching, and the text books. Then, by separating the exercises of\\nthe classes, and attaching to each the number of hours devoted to it per week, I\\nshall show that this is no theoretical programme, but one formed for practice\\nand this will further appear, by stating, in conclusion, some of the results which I\\nwitnessed at an examination of the pupils.\\nThis school, I should remark, though ranking with tlie best of those which I\\nsaw in Holland, is not distinguished above several others of its class, and in its\\nintellectual character, seemed to me decidedly below many of the intermediate\\nschools, where the pupils are less numerous. It is therefore no exaggerated state-\\nment of what is obtained between the ages of six and twelve or fourteen. The\\nsubjects of instruction, including intellectual and moral, are\\nExercise of the perceptive and reflective faculties. Learning to read acccordins to Prin-\\nsen s method, inchidinsr the spelling of words and the analysis of words and simple sen-\\ntence.s. The composition ofsimple sentences with irinted letters A knowledge of the dif-\\nferent kinds of printed and written letters. Writing from dictation for orthograpny. Cor-\\nrect reading of prose and poetry. Grammar of the Dutch language. Geography of Hol-\\nland. History of Holland, including its chronology. Writing, beginning and ending with\\nwriting on th^ blackboard. Linear drawing. Arithmetic by indnction. Mental and written\\narithmetic, with a knowledge of the Roman numerals. Practical Arithmetic, to decimal\\nfractions inclusive. The theory of numbers. Moral and religious instruction. Vocal music.\\nEstablished in 1816.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0615.jp2"}, "614": {"fulltext": "612 PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE.\\nAs natural history does not appear either in this programme or in others of\\nprimary schools, I was at the pains to ascertain if any thing was taught in relation\\nto a branch so eminently calculated to promote early religious impressions, and\\nfound that incidentally information was given on the habits of animals, and some\\nof the phenomena of the physical world. It will be observed that in this school,\\nas in general, physical training forms no part of the system. In Holland, the\\ngymnastics, so popular in Northern Germany, have never been permanently intro-\\nduced, even in the boarding-schools.\\nThe nature and extent of the instruction in the branches enumerated above\\nwill be best understood by the folllowing list of progressive exercises\\n1. Exercises of thought, reason, and inteUigence.\\n2. Rkading. Prinsen s Reading Tables. Vowels and consonants from the Jettter-box.\\nComposition of words on the reading-board. Explanation of words and simple sentences.\\nSpelling from memory. Exercises in reading different printed and written characters.\\nSimultaneous reading from a series of books graduated to the capacity of the class. Expla-\\nrialion of words met in reading. Composition of sentences on the reading-board. Writmg\\n(rom dictation for orthography. Correct reading. Composition of simple sentences.\\n3. Grammar practically. Conjugation of verbs, tc. Parsing.\\n4. History of Holland and chronology.\\n5. Geography of Holland.\\n6. Writing. Elements of writing on the blackboard. Writing on slates. Writing of\\nnumbers. Linear drawing. Writing on paper. Writing capital letters and large hand.\\nExercises of writing on the blackboard.\\n7. Arithmetic by induction Mental arithmetic. Reading Roman numbers. Practical\\nArithmetic. Tables of moneys. Exercises in reading numbers. Decimal fractions. Tables\\nof weights and measures. Theory of arithmetic. Elements of form.\\n8. Moral and religious instruction. Bible stories, c.\\n9. Singing.\\nIn giving a short explanation of the exercises just enumerated, I shall not con-\\nfine myself to the methods followed in this particular school, with all of which\\nindeed I am not acquainted, but give them as in most general use, especially as I\\nsaw them practiced in the schools of Haarlem, which have the advantage of imme-\\ndiate contact with the seminary for teachers there, and the use of its pupils as\\nsub-teachers.\\nThe exercises of perception and reflection in frequent use, are those recom-\\nmended by Ewald, and consist of a selection from various authors, as vacII as of\\nmany subjects on which the teacher is expected to be informed. The instruction\\nis given orally, according to the following outline The child is taught to observe\\nand to speak correctly, by referring to objects which are about him. Knowledge\\nof colors. Of some varieties of form, as round, square, c. Naming of words\\nof similar and contrary significations. Meaning of verbs in common use. Nu-\\nmerating by cubes. Knowledge of coins of the country, and their relative\\nvalues. Division of time. To tell the time by a watch. To distinguish the true\\nfrom the false. Questions on nature and art. Qualities of resemblance and dis-\\ntinction. Compound expressions, as good day, besides, c. Witty say-\\nings. Points of the compass. Lessons on weights and measures. On different\\nmetals. Articles of furniture in common use. Different daily occupations. The\\nfour ages of man. Different ranks of society. Proverbs and phrases. Riddles\\nand charades. Fables. Honorable and dubious actions. Explanation of words.\\nSystems, in my opinion better than those of Lohr, are in use in Germany, but\\nthis enumeration shows what in general these exercises are in the Dutch schools.\\nThe arrangements for teaching reading, according to Prinsen, are a spelling\\nand reading-board, to be presently described, reading tables or progressive lessons\\nprinted and pasted upon boards, and a series of reading books, beginning with the\\nsimple vowel sounds, and rising to stories for children, who have a facility in read-\\ning. There is a manual also for the teacher to guide his lessons. The reading-\\nboard consists of a center-piece with horizontal grooves, or raised ledges forming\\ngrooves between them, into which small wooden prisms, having letters marked,\\nor printed letters pasted upon them, may be placed. The vowels are arranged in\\ncompartments on one side of the center-piece, and the consonants on the other.\\nThe letter prisms have the same letter in different characters, capitals and small\\nletters on four faces of the prism. This reading machine admits of a great\\nvariety of exercises in the mechanical arrangements concerned, in which the\\npupil takes part, such as composing simple words and sentences, and forming\\nwords from the letters composing them, which have been purposely disarranged.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0616.jp2"}, "615": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE. 6X3\\nThe reading tables of progressive lessons are for the purposes of varying the\\nexercises, of employing a number of children actively at the same time, and for\\nhabituating themselves to letters of the ordinary size. 1 hey are nine in number,\\nbeginning with single vowels, and terminating with words containing several com-\\npound sounds. All the combinations of letters used form words, as in i\\\\Ir.\\nWood s plan, and the teacher is careful to require an explanation of every word,\\nas it occurs. Prinsen s Primer enables the teacher to exercise the intelligence of\\nhis pupil, and to give a pleasing variety to his instruction. There are pictures\\nattached to each letter, representing some object or action, the word referring to\\nwhich contains the vowel sound to be taught. The teacher draws from the pupil\\na description of the object or action, and when he has obtained the right word,\\nmakes the child remark the sound of the letters. Of course, these sounds are\\nnot the arbitrary names of the letters, and hence, this method, to distinguish it\\nfi om the spelling method is called Phonic, (lautir.) The reading-machine and\\nprimer are used in conjunction. When the pupil has reached the first reading-\\nbook, the teacher reads aloud, that the former, by following, may receive ideas\\nof emphasis. The reading-books contain stories entirely adapted to the compre-\\nhension of children, giving them ideas of common trades and operations, of moral\\nsentiments, of nature, of the biographies of the worthies of Holland, familiar\\nletters, c. They contain various forms of printed and written alphabets.\\nIn learning to write, beginning upon the slate or board, one of the pupils com-\\nposes a word upon the reading-board, with written letters then, all name the\\nsounds, and copy the forms upon their slates. In some schools, elementary\\nforms are first taught, and the letters of large hand next written. In others,\\nsmall hand is made the basis and in the school for the poor, at the Hague, the\\nteacher has ingeniously sifted out the elements of a current small hand, and\\nbegins with them. From the best examination I could give these methods, it\\nappeared to me that the hand begun by small letters was not so good as that\\nbegun by large ones.\\nA specimen of the method of teaching geography will be seen by following\\nthe outline of Prinsen s description of Haarlem, used as a guide to the teachers\\nof that place. It begins with the elementary notions of the manner of repre-\\nsenting a country on_ a map, the points of the compass, c. Then follows the\\nposition of the town, its size, and the character of its environs, number of its\\ninhabitants, most remarkable buildings, the divisions ot the town, the gates, prin-\\ncipal canals and streams, principal streets, and particulars relating to remarkable\\nbuildings in them, and minute descriptions of the more important places in the\\nseveral wards, from the first to the sixth. After thus becoming acquainted with\\nthe geography of the town and its environs, that of Holland follows. In some\\nschools, the old method is .still in use.\\nArithmetic is chiefly taught according to Pestalozzi s method, cubical blocks\\nbeing used for numeration. These^have been superseded in some countries, by\\nthe arithmetical frame spoken of before, which answers the same purpose of\\naddressing the eye, while its use is more convenient than that of the cubes. The\\nmethod is by induction. The first lesson teaches to combine three units, vari-\\nously, by addition. The second, to reckon these forward or backvi ard. The\\ntliird, to name them from the middle. Then, ideas of comparison, as of greater\\nor less numbers, up to three units. Of differences, of how many times unity\\nmust be repeated to make two or three, or elementary ideas of snbstr.action, of\\nmultiplication, and of division. The same course of lessons is repeated, increasing\\nthe number of cubes (units) up to ten.. Next follow ideas of even and uneven\\nnumbers, and of the result of their combination, reaching as high as fifteen.\\nCounting by units, by twos, by threes, and following the same steps as in the\\nearlier lessons, counting by twos and threes, by ones and threes, c., and always\\nrepeating the same train. A similar course is followed in reckoning up to twenty,\\nadding counting by fours, by threes and fours, by twos and fours, by ones and\\nfours, and a similar series by fives. This course is kept up as long as necessary,\\nand from the insight it gives, from the very beginning, into the theory of arith-\\nmetic, a judicious teacher will be amply repaid for the somewhat tedious repeti-\\ntion of the earlier steps, by the facility of the latter progress. The various exer-\\ncises in arithmetic are fully detailed in the programme of the Hague school,\\nalready given. The elements of form are also taught according to Pestalozzi.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0617.jp2"}, "616": {"fulltext": "614\\nPRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE.\\nThe results of the moral and religious instruction, communicated in and out of\\nschool, are fully shown m the character of the people of Holland and these must\\nbe deemed, satisfactory. Sectarian instruction is carefully kept out of the schools,\\nwhile the historical parts of the Bible and its moral lessons are fully dwelt upon.\\nThere are various collections of Bible stories for this purpose, which are com-\\nmented on by the teacher, and all the incidental instruction, so important in a\\nschool, has the same tendency. Doctrinal instruction is given, according to an\\narrangement made with the churches of the various denominations when the\\nschool law was promulgated this instruction is imparted out of the school, on\\nthe half-holidays and Sundays. Sometimes, when, as at the Hague, the pupils\\nnearly all belong to one communion, a catechist attends at the school but even\\nthen, only those children whose parents wish it are present at the exercises.\\nMusic is taught by note, and most of the schools have a blackboard, with the\\nledger lines painted in white or red upon it, to assist the teacher. The songs are\\nof very various characters, as moral, religious, patriotic, grave, gay, and loyal\\nand very considerable attainment is made in vocal music.\\n1 return now to the school of the Hague, to give an account of the manner in\\nwhich the various exercises are accomplished, within the si.x or eight years de-\\nvoted to elementary instruction. As the law requires but three classes in each\\nschool, these are sub-divided. Each division is, in fact, a separate class, with a\\ndistinct course of study, and an industrious pupil can pass through one division\\neach year. The number of hours marked, are those devoted per week to the\\nseveral subjects.\\nFIRST, OR LOWEST CLASS.\\nFIRST DIVISION.\\nHours.\\nExercises of thought and reason, 2\\nPrinsen s Tiihles, 6\\nVowels and consonants from the letter-box,.\\nComposition of words on the reading-board,. 3\\nGeneral exercises with the letter-box, 1\\nSpelling from memory, 1\\nExplanation of words and sentences, 2\\nSimultaneous reading from books, 4\\nHours.\\nIndividual reading, 1\\nReading different printed characters, 1\\nMental arithmetic, 1\\nExercises in arithmetic, 2\\nLearning Roman and Arabiac numerals, 1\\nSitting quiet, 1\\nExercises of thought and reason, continued,. 2\\nVowels and consonants from the letter-box,\\ncontinued, 1\\nSpelling from memory, continued, 3\\nExplanation of words and sentences, contin-\\nued 3\\nSimultaneous reading from books, continued,. 7\\nComposition of sentences on the reading-\\nboard, 1\\nSECOND DIVISION.\\nReading written characters, 2\\nWriting on the blackboard, 1\\nArithmetic by induction, continued, 1\\nMental arithmetic, continued, 1\\nWriting and reading numbers 2\\nReading Roman numerals, 1\\nElements of form, 1\\nSitting quiet, 1\\nTHIRD DIVISION.\\nExercises of thought and reason, continued,.. 2\\nS|)elling from memory, continued 1\\nExplanation of words and sentences, con-\\ntinued 1\\nSimultaneous reading from books, continued,. 7\\nComposition of sentences on the reading-\\nboard, continued 1\\nWriting on the blackboard, continued, 1\\nRending written characters, continued, 1\\nGrammar, the conjugations, 1\\nWriting on slates 1\\nWriting out verses to learn hy rote, 1\\nLinear drawing\\nArithmetic by induction, continued, 1\\nMental arithmetic, continued, 1\\nPractical arithmetic, 1\\nWriting and reading numbers, continued, 2\\nReading Roman numerals, continued, 1\\nElements of form, continued 1\\nTable of coi.ns, 1\\nCatech ism 1\\nSECOND CLASS.\\nFIRST DIVISION.\\nExercises of thought and reason, continued,. 2\\nAnalysis of sentences 1\\nExplanation of words and sentences, contin-\\nued, 1\\nComposition of sentences continued, 1\\nSimultaneous reading, continued, 5\\nCorrect reading 1\\nParsing 1\\nWriting on slates, 2\\nWriting small hand on paper, 6\\nMental arithmetic, continued, 1\\nPractical arithmetic, continued, 2\\nTHble of coins, continued,\\nElements of form, continued,\\nLinear drawing, continued\\nMoral and religious instruction, continued,.\\nSinging,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0618.jp2"}, "617": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE.\\n615\\nSECOND DIVISION.\\nExercises of thought and renson continued....\\nSimultnneniis reading from books, continued.\\nCorrect reading, continued\\nComposition of sentences, continued,\\nWriting on the slate, continued,\\nWriting on paper, continued,\\nWriting capital letters\\nLinear drawing, continued,\\nHistory of Holland,\\nHour*\\nGeography of Holland 1\\nArithmetic by induction, continued 1\\nINIental arithmetic, continned, 1\\nPractical arithmetic, continued 3\\nRules of arithmetic, 1\\nDecimal tractions, 1\\nElements of form, continued, J\\nMoral and religious instruction, continued,.. 1\\nVocal music, continued, 1\\nTHIRD CLASS.\\nWriting on blackboard 1\\nMental arithmetic, continued 1\\nPractical do. do. 4\\nRules of do. do 3\\nSystem of weights and measures, 1\\nTheory of numbers, 1\\nMoral and religious instruction, continued,. I\\nCatechism, continued, 1\\nVocal music, continued, 1\\nExercises of thought and reason, continued,. 1\\nSimultaneous reading, continued 1\\nCorrect rending of prose and poetry, 1\\nWriting from dictation, for orthography, 2\\nGrammar, continued, 1\\nHistory of Holland, continued,\\nChronology of Holland 1\\nGeography of Holland, 2\\nWriting of small hand from copy slips, 2\\nWriting capital letters and figures, 1\\nThe half-yearly examination of the pupils, at which I was present, enabled me\\nto hear their progress in arithmetic with the cubes, in reading and spelling, in\\nforming words and sentences, in numerating written numbers, making Roman\\nnumerals, in higher reading, in the elements of form, in higher arithmetic, in\\nmental arithmetic, in the geography of Holland, and in vocal music. Their\\nattainments in these branches were, in general, quite respectable, and in some\\nof them very satisfactory indeed.\\nThe system of weights and measures is taught in the schools of Holland, not\\nonly by learning tables, but by reference to the standards themselves, a complete\\nset of copies of which is expected to be preserved in every school. The advan-\\ntages of this method are very great.\\nThe branches taught in the schools for the poor, are carried further in the\\nburgher schools. Thus the course of grammar is extended, and general history\\nand geography are added. The essentials are, however, the same, and there is no\\nnew train of study.\\nThe instruction in the so called, French schools, may be illustrated by that in\\nthe one established by the school committee of Utrecht. This school consists of\\nthree divisions two for boys and one for girls. Of those for boys, the first is a\\nDutch elementary school, which takes its pupils at about five years of age, and\\ncarries them through a course very similar to that already described.* At from\\nten to eleven, they pass to the French school. Here they make further attain-\\nments in the Dutch language, study general geography and history in detail, carry\\ntheir arithmetic further, and begin algebra, continue the course of geometry, make\\ngreater progress in the theory and practice of music, and above all, study the\\nFrench language grammatically, and by using it as the language of recitation,\\nand learning much of the other branches through its medium, acquire a great\\nfacility in speaking it. In some of these schools, physics and natural history are\\ntaught, and Latin is begun by those who intend to enter the gi ammar school.\\nI was much pleased to see the method of teaching geography, by delineating maps on\\nthe blackboard in use in this school. The master himself must be practiced in the art, in\\norder that the pupils may learn by imitation.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0619.jp2"}, "618": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0620.jp2"}, "619": {"fulltext": "PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL*\\nAT HAARLEM, IN HOLLAND.\\nThis school is peculiar in regard to instruction, practice in teaching, and\\ndiscipline. It is intended to prepare for at least the second grade among\\nprimary teachers, which, it will be remembered, qualifies for the mastership\\nof any primary school, the first class being an honorary grade. The age of\\nadmission, the time of continuance, and the courses of instruction, are regu-\\nlated accordingly.\\nThe director! is the head of the institution, and controls absolutely all its\\narrangements. His principle, that a teacher in such a place should be left\\nto study the character and dispositions of his pupils, and to adapt his in-\\nstruction and discipline to them, dispenses with rules and regulations, or\\nconstitutes the director the rule.J To carry out this principle, requires that\\nthe school should not be numerous, and it is accordingly limited to forty\\npupils. There is an assistant to the director, who shares in the general in-\\nstruction with him, and upon whom the religious teaching of the pupils spe-\\ncially devolves. The school is visited periodically by the inspector-general,\\nwho examines the pupils personally, and notes their general and individual\\nproficiency.\\nTo be admitted, a youth must be over fifteen years of age, and have\\npassed an examination upon the studies of the elementary school, satisfactory\\nto a district-inspector, who recommends him for admission. He is received\\non probation, and, at the end of three months, if his conduct and proficiency\\nare satisfactory to the director, is recommended to the minister of public in-\\nstruction, who confirms his appointment.\\nThe course of theory and practice lasts four years in general, though, if a\\npupil have the third lower grade of public mstruction in view, which is at-\\ntainable at eighteen years of age, he is not required to remain connected\\nwith the institution beyond that age, and indeed may leave it, on his own\\nresponsibility, before the close of the regular course. The second grade is\\nonly attainable at the age of twenty-two, and hence it is not usual for pupils\\nto enter this school as early as the law permits. The theoretical instruction\\nis composed of a review and extension of the elementary branches, as the\\nDutch language, geography, arithmetic, elementary geometry, the history of\\nthe country, natural history, religion, writing, and vocal music, and also of\\ngeneral geography and history, natural philosophy, and the science and art\\nof teaching. This is communicated in the evenings, the pupils meeting at\\nthe school for the purpose. During the day they are occupied in receiving\\npractical instruction, by teaching under the inspection of the director in the\\nelementary school already spoken of, attached to the normal school, and oc-\\ncupying its rooms, or in teaching in some other of the elementary schools of\\nthe town of Haarlem. They pass through different establishments in turn, so\\nas to see a variety in the character of instruction. The director, as inspector\\nof primary schools in this district, visits frequently those where his pupils\\nare employed, and observes their teaching, and also receives a report from\\nFrom Bache s Education in Europe.\\nMr. Prinson, one of a class of teachers who adorn this profession in Holland.\\nj When M. Cousin, in his visit to Haarlem, invited Mr. Prinsen to communicate to him the\\nregulations of his school, and then to show him how they were carried out, first the rule, thenth\u00c2\u00ab\\nresults, the director replied, I am the rule.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0621.jp2"}, "620": {"fulltext": "61 R PRIM VRY NOR Ar. PCHOOI. AT If AARI.F.M.\\nthe misfers. Tiie ob -crvntions nnd ronorts are turned to r.cconiit j sn^^^f-\\nquent meetinnfs with his class.\\nThe pupils do not board togetiier in the normal school, but are distributed\\nthroujjli ihe town, in certian f,.miiies selected by the direcior. They form a\\npari of these families during iheir reddenee with them, being respon^dble to\\nthe he. d for the time of their absence from the house, their hours, and con-\\nduct. They take their meals with the f imilies, and are furnished with Ji\\nstudy and sleeping-room, tire, lights, c. The director pays the moderate\\nsum required for iliis accommodation from the annual stipend allowed by\\ngovernment.* The efficiency of such a system depends, of course, upon the\\nlinl/its of f nuily life of the country, and upon the locality where the school\\nis established. In Holland and Haarlem the plan succeeds well, and has the\\nadv.intage that the pupils are constantly, in a degree, their own masters, and\\nmust control themselves, and tliat they are never placed in an artificial state of\\nsocie.y or kind of life, which is the case when they are collected in one estab-\\nlishment. The director m .kes frequent visits to these f nnilies, and is in-\\nformed of the home eharicter of his pupils. The discipline of a normal\\nschool is, of course, one of the easiest tasks connected wish it, for impro-\\nprieiies or levities of conduct are inconsistent with the future calling of the\\nyouth. Admonition by the assistant and by the director are the only coer-\\ncive means resorted to, previous, to dismission. The director has authority\\nto dismiss a student without consulting the minister, merely reporting the\\nfact and case to him. Though this power may be important in increasing\\nhis influence, yet it has been necessary to exercise it but three tir s in\\ntwenty years. There are two vacations of from four to six weeks each,\\nduri ig which the pupils, in general, return to their friends. The school has\\na lending library of books relating to teaching, and of miscellaneous works.\\nThis useful institution supplies for the primary schools, every year, from\\neigh+ to twelve well-prepared masters, who propagate throughout the coun-\\ntry the excellent methods and principles of teaching here inculcated.\\nThis annual stipend is ninety dollars. Puppoaina; that a student has an entire bursary, he\\nwill reciuire some additional lumis lo support him while at the school; for his board, lodgina;,\\nc., cost iwo dollars per week, which, for the forty-two weeks of term-lime, amounts to eighty-\\nfour dollars, leaving him but six dollars for incidental expenses.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0622.jp2"}, "621": {"fulltext": "DENMARK.\\nPublic instruction has long received much attention in Denmark. It\\nis necessary to be able to read respectably, and to have received some\\nreligious instruction, in order to be admitted to the communion of the\\nLutheran church and such admission is substantially indispensable to\\napprenticeship, or other industrial employment, and to marriage, so that\\nthe people are better instructed than those of most countries in Europe.\\nAt the time of the reformation, there existed in every town, and in\\nconnection with the religious houses, a large number of Latin schools,\\ncontaining in some cases from 700 to 900 pupils, in which also were\\nclasses for elementary instruction. Various royal ordinances were pro-\\nmulgated, from 1539 down to the present day, extending or modifying\\nthe provisions for public education which existed prior to that date.\\nThe present school system, however, dates from 1814, at which time an\\nordinance was published, reorganizing the system of primary and sec-\\nondary instruction.\\n1. Each parish must furnish and maintain sufficient schools and teachers\\nfor the primary instruction of all children within it, in reading, writing,\\narithmetic, and the Lutheran catechi.sm, to which are often added gram-\\nmar, history, and geography. The emoluments of the teachers, although\\nsmall, support them comfortably, as living is cheap. They commonly\\nreceive from $200 to ^250, a small part of it in money, and the rest in\\nprovisions, besides the occupancy of a house and several acres of land.\\nSimilar but larger schools exist in the cities. There are 4,700 primary\\nor parochial schools with about 300,000 pupils.\\n2. The secondary schools are the high or grammar schools, about 30\\nin number, in the cities and large towns. Of these the most eminent is\\nthe academy at Soro, established in 1536, from the funds of a Cistercian\\nmonastery, founded about 1150 by Archbishop Absalon. In these\\nschools are taught Latin and Greek, French and German, mathematics\\nnatural sciences, geography, history, and all the branches of a thorough\\nhigh school education. There are also about 30 real schools of a simi-\\nlar grade, but giving instruction more adapted to commercial pursuits.\\nHere may also be classed the higher burgher schools of the cities.\\nFemale schools of this grade exist, but they are mostly private indeed,\\nthere are many private schools, both for boys and girls.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0623.jp2"}, "622": {"fulltext": "620\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DKNMARK.\\n3. Above these schools are the two universities, for Danish students,\\nat Copenhagen, founded in 1479, and for German students, at Kiel,\\nfounded in 1665. The university of Copenhagen contained, in 1841,\\nabout 1.260 students, and 40 professors and instructors. Its revenue is\\nabout $72,000 a year, and its Hbrary contains about 110,000 volumes.\\nThere is annexed to it a polytechnic institute, or school of arts, in\\nwhich instruction is given in the application of science to industrial\\noccupations. The university of Kiel contained at the same time about\\n390 students, and about fifty professors and teachers. It receives a\\nrevenue from the State of about $30,000 a year, and has a library of\\n70,000 volumes. Besides the above-mentioned university revenues, the\\nstudents at both pay fees to the professors, whose lectures they attend\\nat Copenhagen, after the rate of from two to four dollars for a course\\nof lectures, (one a week for six months,) and at Kiel, about a dollar for\\nthe same.\\n4. There are eight normal schools, in which the course of instruction\\noccupies three years, and includes Danish, mathematics, natural sci-\\nences, writing, pedagogy, history, geography, gymnastics, and drawing.\\nThe Lancasterian system of instruction, which was very generally\\ntried and rejected in Germany, succeeded much better in Denmark. It\\nwas permissively introduced in 1822, and actively advocated by M.\\nD Abrahanson, aid-de-camp to the king, and by others, and spread with\\n60 much rapidity that in three years it was used in 1,707 schools, and in\\n1830 in 2,673, of all grades. It has, however, been considerably modi-\\nfied, and as now used is called the reciprocal or Danish system, to dis-\\ntinguish it from the original mutual, or Lancasterian.\\nThe royal chancery is the highest board of educational inspection.\\nThe baliff and provosts of each town inspects its schools, and the pastor\\nand school palroons those of each parish. The school patroons are\\nall having a revenue, estimated, to equal or exceed 32 tuns, or 1,520\\nbushels of corn.\\nThe institutions of special instruction, besides those already men-\\ntioned, are a medical school, a pharmaceutical school, a foresters school,\\na military high school, a land-cadets academy, a sea-cadets academy,\\n(lower schools for sea and land military service,) an academy of fine\\narts, a school for the blind, and one for deaf mutes.\\nConsiderable funds are used in paying pensions to teachers widows,\\nand to retired or invalid teachers.\\nIceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, with a population of\\n70,500, is remarkable for the universality with which elementary in-\\nstruction is diffused, not by schools, but by the family. The only school\\non the island is a gymnasium for the higher studies at Bessestad, which\\nwas endowed in 1530.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0624.jp2"}, "623": {"fulltext": "SWEDEI.\\nThe system of Public Instruction in Sweden, consists ol^\u00e2\u0080\u0094 I. Two\\nUniversities; II. Secondary Scliools, Grammar Schools, and Practical\\nSchools III. Primary Schools, or schools for the people.\\nI. There are two universities, Upsula, with an average attendance\\nof 1000 students, and Lund, with about 450 students. At the head of\\neach university is the Chancellor, who is always a person of rank,\\nelected by the professors and confirmed by the king. The present\\nCrown Prince holds this otfice in both institutions. The professors em-\\nbrace the four faculties theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. To\\neach faculty belong a number of stipendiary professors and assistant\\nlecturers. Attendance on the lectures is not compulsory on the stu-\\ndents, nor are they required to remain for any specified lime. Every\\ncandidate for any degree conferred by the university, must pass a satis-\\nfactory exammaiion.\\nII. Secondary instruction is given in Schools of Learning (Lar-\\ndams Skola) and Gymnasia. The former, is a lower grade of Gymna-\\nsium. Both are classical schools; and in the two, the pupils are\\ninstructed m religion, geography, history, writing, mathematics, Latin\\nand Greek, the German and French languages, and the elements of\\nnatural history. Besides these, there is a class of schools, called Apolo-\\ngist Schools, in which the course of instruction is as thorough as in the\\nGymnasium, except in the classics. According to an official report in\\n1843, there were twelve Gymnasia, tbrty-one Schools of Learnmg, forty\\nApologist Schools, and two Cathedral Schools, connected with the uni-\\nversities. All these institutions are almost entirely supported by the\\nState the government appropriating nearly $100,000 a year for sala-\\nries of teacher s. In these schools the children of the gentry, govern-\\nmental officials, and professional families, are educated, but are not\\nclosed to any child qualified to enter.\\nIII. T ne government as early as 1684, in order to make tne lowest\\nform of instruction universal, ordered that before any person could be\\nadmitted to the rite of confirmation, (which was necessary to marriage.)\\nthe curate should be satisfied of his or her ability to read and up to\\n1822. the peasantry of Sweden was tnought to be the most intelligent\\nin Europe. But in consequence of inquiries instituted about that time\\nby a voluntary association, it was found that home and parochial school", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0625.jp2"}, "624": {"fulltext": "622 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN.\\neducation had been for a quarter of a century neglected, and in 1825 a\\na general system was introduced; but up to 1842, the establishment\\nof schools had gone forward so slowly, that it became necessary to pass\\na law making it compulsory for every district to erect at least one school\\nwith an a])proved teacher.\\nEvery parish is divided into districts, and whenever a districts does\\nnot contain population or wealth enough to maintain a permanent\\nteacher, it is visited by an itinerating teacher, who is permanently em-\\nployed by the school board of the parish, to teach at ditferent periods of\\nthe year in ditierent localities of the parish.\\nThe school board consists of a chairman and committee elected by\\nthe district, whose duty it is to provide a school-house, and elect and\\nemploy teachers. Each teacher is entitled to a minimum salary, con-\\nsisting of sixteen barrels of corn, lodging, firewood, pasture, food for one\\ncow, and small piece of land to cultivate for a garden. If the district\\ncan not furnish this, the government makes a grant in aid..\\nThe course of instruction comprises religion, geography, Swedish and\\nuniversal history, mathematics, geometry, natural history, music, and\\ngymnastics. All children between the ages of nine and fifteen must\\nattend school, unless it can be shown that they receive instruction at\\nhome. The Lancasterian, or mutual method of instruction, is very\\nwidely adopted.\\nThe inspection of all the schools, belongs to the bishop and the chap-\\nter of the Cathedral. The school board of each district, makes an an-\\nnual report of the state of the schools to the cathedral chapter of the\\ndiocese, by which body a report is forwarded every three years to the\\ngovernment. According to the last triennial report, (July, 1850.) the\\npopulation of Sweden was 3,358,867 and of this number, the following\\nchildren of the legal school age (over nine and under fifteen years)\\nwere receiving instruction as follows:\\n1. In Primary Schools stationary, boys, 81,422\\ngirls, 62,104\\n2. In Primary Schools ambulatory, boys. 67.120\\ngirls, 59.058\\n3. Secondary Schools, boys, 6,223\\n4. Private Institutions, boys, 7,087\\ngirls, 10,377\\n5. Educated at home, boys, 55,827\\ngirls, 73,169\\n6. In Sunday Schools, boys, 13.177\\ngirls, 12,541\\nThe number of masters employed by the school board in stationary\\nschools, was 2,107 and in ambulatory schools 1,351, of whom 218 were\\nclergymen, and 690 church organists.\\nBy the act of 1842, a Normal Scnool or Seminary for the training of\\nteachers was instituted. The pupils receive a fixed saiary for their\\nsupport from the government, in consideration of which, they obligate\\nthemselves to teach for at least three years m the primary schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0626.jp2"}, "625": {"fulltext": "NORWAY.\\nEducation is very generally diffused in Norway. The existing\\nBchool system much resembles that of Denmark, and was established\\nat the same time with it, in 1814. The parishes are obliged to maintain\\ngood school-houses. Jind to pay the salaries of the teachers. These sal-\\naries usually afford a comfortable support, and are paid partly in money,\\nand partly in produce the use of a house being often added. Ability to\\nread tlie Bible, and a certain amount of rehgious knowledge, are prere-\\nquisites to confirmation. The law, moreover, as in Prussia, enforces\\nattendance at school for a certain period. And almost all Norwegians\\npossess a competent knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, Bible\\nhi.slory, and the catechism, to which some acquaintance with geogra-\\nphy, grammar, and history, is often added.\\nThe educational institutions of Norway may be described as follows:\\n1. A university at Christiana, founded in 1811. This contains, gen-\\nerally, about 28 professors and 700 students. It has a library of 50,000\\nvolumes, a botanic garden, and a museum.\\n2. Colleges preparatory to the university. These exist in Christiana,\\nand in most of the large towns, and usually possess libraries and mu-\\nseums. There are also in Christiana schools of drawing and archi-\\ntecture, and a school of commerce and navigation.\\n3. Twenty-one citizens schools, in the large towns, with 1.079 pupils.\\nIn these are taught, besides the usual studies before named, mathe-\\nmatics, English, French, German, and Latin.\\n4. Fifty-five schools for laborers, with 6 602 pupils.\\n5. One hundred and eighty-three permanent country schools, with\\n13,693 pupils.\\n6. One thousand six hundred and ten itinerating schools, with 133,362\\npupils. These are taught in the thinly peopled districts, a month or two\\na year each, where the people are too poor to support permanent schools.\\n7. An asylum for deaf mutes, at Drontheim.\\n8. Sunday schools exist in all the principal towns.\\n9. Libraries are maintained in most of the parishes by the Society of\\nPublic Good.\\nIn 1837, one seventh of the population were receiving instruction in\\nthe public schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0627.jp2"}, "626": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0628.jp2"}, "627": {"fulltext": "RUSSIA.\\nThe first school in Russia was established in 1017, at Kief, by Valde-\\nmir the Great, for the instruction of the clergy, and placed under the care\\nof the bishop. A few years later, (1031,) Jaraslaff, the son of Valdemir,\\nestablislied a school at Novgorod for the education of 300 sons of the\\nclergy and nobility. The following directions are handed down as hav-\\ning been given by the bishops of Kief, to the masters of his schools\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nand. whether so given or not, are worthy of the serious attention of\\nevery teacher.\\nInstruct the children in trutli and virtue, in book science, good manners, and\\ncharity in the fear of the Lord, which is the beginning of wisdom, and in purity\\nand humiUty. Instruct them not in anger and severity, but with joj and art ec-\\ntionate treatment with sweet precepts and gentle consolation that they may\\nneither become weary nor Weak. Teach them diligently and frequently and give\\nthem tasks according to their powers, so that they may not faint and droop but\\nabove all things, instruct them assiduously out of the law of the Lord, for the ad-\\nvantage of both soul and body and restrain them from foolish and improper\\nlanguage.\\nPrevious to 1700, education in Russia was confined to the clergy and\\na few noble families, and the only seminaries for this purpose existed in\\nconnection with religious houses, and were taught and managed by the\\nclergy. Peter the Great, was the first to establish schools to educate\\nyouth for the civil and military services of the empire, and by degrees a\\nlarge number of scientific and literary institutioiis, and a well-organized\\nsystem of public instruction, have been established limited however in\\ntheir benefits to the government, to the higher interests of science and\\nliterature, and mainly to the children of nobles and official functionarie.\u00c2\u00ab,\\nand the higher class of merchants and all based on the cardinal ideas\\nof Russian policy, that all the moral and intellectual forces of society\\nmust be merged in the will of the Czar.\\nPeter I. founded the first naval school, and school for engineers at St.\\nPetersburg, and schools in which navigation was taught, at Pskow, Nov-\\ngorod, Moscow, Jaraslaw, and Wologda. The number of the cloister\\nschools were increased, and the nobles were commanded to send their\\nchildren to school\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and the privileges of these schools were extended to\\nother cla.sses of people. In 1724, before his death, he projected the\\nplan of the imperial academy of sciences, which was opened by his\\n40", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0629.jp2"}, "628": {"fulltext": "g26 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA.\\nsuccessor in the following year. Peter also invited a large number of\\nlearned men to teach in his schools at St. Petersburg, and particularly\\nto instruct Russian youth to take charge of schools in other parts of the\\nkingdom thus introducing the plan of normal instruction. By his pur-\\nchases and encouragements to professors, he founded the museum of\\nnatural history, the museum of fine arts, and the school of mines.\\nThe Empress Anna, founded the first corps of cadets, a military\\nacademy for young nobles, at St. Petersburg, and forbade all promotion\\namong soldiers, and subordinate officers, who could not read. She also\\nibunded schools at Astrachan for the Calmucks, and at Kasan for the\\nTartars, and directed one of the officers of the government to report to\\nher annually on the condition of public instruction.\\nThe Empress Elizabeth, imposed fine.? on all nobles and public func-\\ntionaries, who did not educate their children at home, or in the church,\\nor public seminaries. She founded the university of Moscow, in 1755,\\nand the academy of arts in 1757.\\nPaul III. increased the number of military schools, and educated at\\nthe e.v pense of the government in these schools, the sons of the poorer\\nnobles. He also fbundeij schools for the orphan children of military men,\\nand founded an institute in St. Petersburg for the sons of private sol-\\ndiers, and subordinate officers, in the garrisons of the city.\\nCatharine U., applied her vigorous mind to extending the educational\\npolicy of the government. During her reign, and at her suggestion, the\\nimperial free economical society was founded in 1765, by Count Woron-\\nzow, and other noblemen, for promoting scientific and useful knowledge.\\nUnder the patronage of successive emperors, it has grown up into one\\nof the most important educational institutions of Russia. It has estab-\\nlished an agricultural school with a model farm a collection of draw-\\nings and models of machines, tools and implements used in every depart-\\nment of labor instituted and aided experiments to perfect industrial\\nmethods; held public exhibitions of domestic industry; sent out indi-\\nviduals to study the workshops, factories, and farms of other countries;\\npublished a large number of useful didactic tracts on agriculture, and\\nother occupations, and diffused a large amount of information on public\\nhealth, c. Catharine was instrumental in founding the academy of\\nSt. Petersburg, for the cultivation of the Russian language and litera-\\nture. She projected in 1783 a system of public schools of two grades,\\nstyled upper and Lower the former for the capital of every district, and\\nthe latter for every family in every large city. In the lower schools\\nwere to be taught reading, writing, the catechism, and sacred history;\\nin the upper, in addition, drawing, mathematics, the history and geogra-\\nphy of Russia, natural history and philosophy, and the Latin and. Ger-\\nman languages. She commenced her system in St. Peter.\u00c2\u00abburg, and\\ninvited Jankevitch de Marievo, an eminent teacher and school officer\\nin Austria, to superintend the work. So successful was he, that in 1790\\nthe system had been introduced in one hundred and seventy towns.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0630.jp2"}, "629": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 627\\nThe inspection over them was confided to the governors of provinces,\\nand a regular appropriation of the provincial funds was made towards\\ntheir support. This empress founded the normal gymnasium, which is\\nnow the imperial normal school of St. Petersburg, two marine schools, a\\nschool of commerce, and a school of mines, and several female semina-\\nries, one of which still bears her name at the capital.\\nAlexander, on assuming the government, declared that he regarded\\npublic instruction as the first condition of national prosperity. To him\\nbelongs the credit of the more thorougn organization of the public\\nschools, by the appointment of a minister of public instruction in 1802.\\nUnder the regulations of this olhcer, and by the direction of the Czar, the\\nschools were divided into four grades, viz. 1. Universities. 2. Gov-\\nernment schools, or gymnasia. 3. District schools. 4. Parish schools.\\nThe whole empire was divided into seven circles or districts, to each of\\nwhich was assigned a university. The oHicers of the univeisily circle\\nhave the supervision of the schools of tlie three lower grades, viz., a\\ngymnasium or classical high school, in the capital of each province or\\ngovernment the district school, in the capital of each subdivision of a\\nprovince and the schools in each parish in every city and village.\\nThe results of this system of public schools in bringing children of dif-\\nferent classes and creeds together, and in stimulating inquiries into the\\norganization of society, and the operations of government was thought\\nto bode no good to the stability of things as they were, and during the\\nreign of the present emperor, as well as during the later period of his\\npredecessors, while much attention and large appropriations were be-\\nstowed on education\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the aim has been to educate children of each class\\nin society by themselves, to repress freedom of discussion in the univer-\\nsities, and to multiply special schools to train up oificers to fill ditierent\\ndepartments of the public service with an intense national spirit, as will\\nbe seen in the following summary of educational institutions drawn from\\nvarious recent authorities.\\nI. Public schools or iuslitutions, under the ministry of public instruc-\\ntion. There are 6 universities, 1 head normal school at St. Petersburg,\\n3 lycea, with a course of instruction almost as extended as that of a uni-\\nversity, 77 gymnasia, 433 district schools, 1,068 town, and 592 pensions,\\nor boarding-schools established with the permission of the minister,\\nbesides schools of the above grades in Poland. All of these schools in-\\nclude about 200,000 pupils.\\nII. Military schools. These institutions receive the special attention\\nof the emperor, and a large portion of the appropriations for educational\\npurposes. There are three classes: 1. School of cadets or military col-\\nleges, nominally under the direct management of the emperor, which\\nhe delegates^ to the Grand Duke, heir apparent. The emperor visits\\nthem frequently in person, and looks into all the details of discipline\\nand instruction. There are about 9,000 military cadets. 2. Schools\\nunder the direction of the navy board studying to become ollicer.s,\\npilots, and master-workmen in the navy yards. There are about 4,000", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0631.jp2"}, "630": {"fulltext": "628\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA.\\npupils of this class. 3. Schools for children of soldiers in service, or\\nwho died in war under the minister of war. These schools are scat-\\ntered throughout the empire, and number 170.000 children.\\nIII. Ecclesiastical schools. Several of this class of schools are\\namongst the oldest of the empire, dating back to the introduction of\\nChristianity, and were mainly instrumental in maintaining any degree of\\nintelligence in the Russian clergy. Peter I. increased their number,\\nand improved their condition by degrees and they still constitute an\\nimportant educational agency in the State, not only as theological\\nschools for educating the clergy, but for elementary instruction gener-\\nally. In respect to management, they are divided into two classes:\\nthose which belong to the Greek church under the holy synod and a\\ncommittee of the body, and those which belong to other forms of wor-\\nship, which are under the direction of tlie minister of the interior, and\\nthe consistory of each denomination. The ecclesiastical schools are of\\ntwo grades. The higher seminaries are strictly theological schools, of\\nwhich there are 21 belonging to the Greek church, 13 to the Catholic,\\n14 to the Armenian, 8 to the Lutheran, 11 to the Mohammedan, and 2\\nto the Jews, Avith over 4.000 students. Besides these^ there are elemen-\\ntary schools for the sons of the clergy, viz.: 407 belonging to the Greek\\nchurch, 275 to other denominations with over 70,000 pupils in attendance.\\nIV. Schools under the minister ofjinance, These comprise, 1. school\\nof mines, which are of three grades, inferior, middle, and superior semi-\\nnaries\u00e2\u0080\u0094the latter only being strictly schools for teaching the art.\\nThese schools receive mainly the children of miners thus perpetuating\\nthe occupation from father to son. There are 5,000 children in the gov-\\nernment schools of mines, and about half the number in schools sup-\\nported by proprietors of private mines. 2. Schools of commerce, a\\npractical institute of technology, a forest institute, and a school of land\\nsurveying and design, numbering in all about 3.000 pupils. The\\nschools under the minister of finance, employ 461 teachers, and instruct\\nabout 8,000 pupils.\\nV. Schools under the minister of the interior. These are schools of\\nmedicine, surgery, and pharmacy, all independent of the university fac-\\nulties rural schools for the cultivation of the vine, and for agriculture\\nin general; schools for some of the subaltern officers in the civil service,\\nand schools for orphans and poor children. These schools include over\\n15,000 pupils.\\nVI. Schools under the minister of domains of the crown. These in-\\nclude several agricultural colleges, and 2,696 village schools for children\\nof the peasants, giving instruction to 14.064 males and 4,843 females.\\nVII. Schools under the general direction of 7 oads and bridges. These\\ninclude two schools of civil engineering, and one for conductors and\\nmanagers of roads instructing 665 pupils.\\nVIII. Schools under the minister of justice. These include three law\\nschools independent of the faculties of law in the universities, with 600\\nstudents.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0632.jp2"}, "631": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 629\\nIX. Schools under the minister of the emperor s household. These in-\\nclude the academies of the fine arts at Moscow and St. Petersburg, a\\nscliool of arcliitecture, a school of music containing in all over 1,000\\nstudents.\\nX. Schools under the minister of foreign affairs. These include\\nschools of modern languages, and one especially to train interpreters in\\nthe Asiatic tongues. These schools instruct over 800 students.\\nXI. Schools under the reigning empress. These include the found-\\nling hospitals, the boarding-schools for young ladies in St. Petersburg,\\nMoscow, Odessa, and schools for daughters of indigent and invalid offi-\\ncers, besides several houses of industry, schools for the deaf and dumb,\\nan^ blind. In all of these schools there are over 90,000 children.\\nXII. Schools aided by the government, but not including in the above.\\nAmong these are schools in the German colonies, in Tartary, c.,\\nnumbering in all over 50,000 pupils.\\nThe above classes of schools, mainly supported by the government,\\nand, to a large extent, devoted to educating young men for different de-\\npartments of the public service, are instructing about 600,000 of the\\npopulation. This number is exclusive of the number of children who\\nare receiving a home education, which is estimated by M. de Krusens-\\ntem at 597,000, making an aggregate of about 1.200,000 of the youthful\\npopulation under instruction, a much larger number than is generally\\nconceded.\\nIndependently of the institutions occupied directly in the education\\nof youth, Russia has her academies of science, learned societies, pub-\\nlic libraries, museums, and galleries of the fine arts. Her public libra-\\nries include nearly 1,000,000 volumes.\\nThe following notice of the system of public instruction in Russia,\\nappeared in the Annuaire des deux mondes, for 1851-52.\\nTwo principles seem to preside over the system of instruction in Russia, the\\nuniversities are not open to all, nor liave they the power of teaching in all branches\\nof learning. It is mainly since 1848, that the young generation has been re-\\nstricted by the measures taken to keep it isolated from contact with the opinions\\nthat have extended over the other countries of Europe. The Russian government\\nmakes no secret of this, and the report presented to the Emperor in 1851 upon\\nthe condition of public instruction in 1 850, does not conceal the intention of the\\nsupreme power. This official report assumesas basis the emperor s own idea, that\\nreligious teaching constitutes the only solid foundation of all useful instruction.\\nBesides the plans adopted by the Holy Synod and by the Minister of the Interior,\\nto carry out this principle, the ministry of public instruction aids it in various ways.\\nThe chief inspector of religious teaching is aided by an adjunct charged with the\\nduty of visiting monthly, and examining the scholars in the schools and gymna-\\nses of St. Petersburg, in their religious studies, and every month he must make\\nto the minister a report upon the progress and tendencies of this teaching. Eccle-\\nsiastical inspectors have been established at Kiew, Kharkof, and Kasan, as they\\nwere at Odessa in 1848. Upon these functionaries devolves the task of supervising\\nthe teachers and their mode of instruction. In conformity with the will of supreme\\npower, the Holy Synod has directed all ecclesiastical schools to frame for religious\\nstudy a plan similar to that of the university, the superior normal schools and the\\nIj ceums of Richelieu, Demidoff, and Prince Bezboradko. This plan includes\\ndogmatic and moral theology, and church history. In that of the universities there\\nis also included a course of ecclesiastical jurisprudence. Religious studies in sec-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0633.jp2"}, "632": {"fulltext": "g30 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA.\\nondary schools and gymnases are also regulated by a special plan. To complete\\nthis system, the emperor has ordered the suppression of instruction in philosophical\\nlearning by lay professors in the universities of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkof,\\nKasan and Kiew, in the lycea of St. Petersburg, and the Richelieu lyceum at\\nOdessa, and professors of theology have been nominated for these establishments,\\nto fill the chairs of logic and experimental psychology. The plan for instruction\\nin these branches has been arranged by concert between the Holy Synod and the\\nState. In the university of Dorpat, all philosophical teachinff is restricted to this\\ncourse of logic and psyehologj which has been confided to a theological professor.\\nThe faculties of philosophy, formerly divided into two sections, have now been re-\\nsolved into special departments, one of history and philology, the other of physics\\nand mathematics. In order to maintain the teachers in the new spirit of this sys-\\ntem, there is in each university attached to the department of history and philology,\\na class of normal instruction obligatory upon all the students of that department,\\nupon all pensioners of the crown who aspire to the position of teachers in gymna-\\nses, or in district schools, and upon all paying students who are being prepai ed\\nfor private teachers. It is also in furtherance of these pi-iiieipals that the emperor\\nhas, since 1849, limited to 300 the number of paying students, admissible to the\\nuniversities, no exceptions to this restriction being made except for the course of\\nmedical study, and for that of theology in the universities of Dorpat. To com-\\nplete these meiisures, says the official report, his majesty has deigned to per-\\nmit that henceforth, among the student candidates for admission, the prefei ence\\nshall be given to those, who being equally with others fitted by preparatory in-\\nstruction and good conduct, may, by their rank and by existing regulations, have\\nthe right to enter the civil service. Here we see the prevailing ideas of instruc-\\ntion and the mode of its restraint, so injurious to philosophical studies, and how it\\nhas become a peculiar privilege of the youth who by birth are admissible to em-\\nployment by the State.\\nUniversity education is divided into 8 districts or circles St. Petersburg, Mos-\\ncow, Kharkof, Kiew, Kasan, Dorpat, Odes.si, Wilna, Warsaw.\\nThe university of St. Petersburg, has now three faculties, each subdivided into\\ntwo sections the faculty of history and philology, composed of the sections of\\nuniversal and oriental literature that of physics and mathematics, of those of\\nmathematical and natural sciences, that of law, divided into the sections, juridicial\\nand commercial. In 18.50 this university had fiG professors and employees, with\\n386 students, of whom 288 were sons of nobles, ecclesiastics or government func-\\ntionaries. The circle of St. Petersburg, embraces the 8 provinces of St. Peters-\\nburg, Novgoi-od, Pskow, Vologda, Archangel, Olonetz, Moliilew, and Witepsk. It\\ncontanied in 1850, 13 gymnases, 64 district schools, (of which 5 ft)r nobles exclu-\\nsively,) 96 parish schools, of which 17 belonged to parishes of worship other than\\nthe Greek 2 model boarding-schools for young girls, 9 boarding-schools attached\\nto gymnases and 1 to a district school, and 192 private institutions. The whole\\nnumber of pupils of both sexes was 20,162, of whom 11,474 were children of\\nnobles, ecclesiastics, notable burgesses, and merchants.\\nThe circle of Moscow embraces the 9 provinces of Moscow, Vladimir, Kalouga,\\nKostroma, Riazau, Smoleusk, Tver, Toula, and Taroslav. The university of Mos-\\ncow, has four faculties, history with philolog;^-, physics with mathematics, law and\\nmedicine. The circle of Kharkof includes the provinces of Kharkof, Koursk, Vo-\\nronega, Orel, Tambof, and the territory of the Don Cossacks.\\nThe university of Kharkof has the same number of faculties as that of Moscow,\\nwith like subdivisions. So also is organized the university of Kiew. This circle\\ncontains the provinces of Kiew, Volhynia, Podolia, Tchernigov and Puttawa.\\nThe university of Kasan, has 4 faculties, and its circle extends over the provin-\\nces of Kasan, Nijui, Novgorod, Peuza, Astracan, Saratof, Simbirsk, Orembourg,\\nPerm, and Viatka.\\nThe university of Dorpat is one of the most important in the empire, although\\nwithin its circle a smaller extent of territory is embraced, it includes only the three\\nprovinces, Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland but these are the most intelligent and\\nenlightened in the Russian empire. This university has 5 faculties, theology, law,\\nmedicine, history with philology, physics with mathematics.\\nThe provinces of Ekatherinoslaw, Cehersou, Taurida, Bessarabia, the cities of\\nOdessa and Tagauray, with their suburbs and dependencies, constitute the circle of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0634.jp2"}, "633": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA, g31\\nthe university of Odessa. The Richelieu lyeeuni, which presides over this circle,\\nhas 3 feeulties of law, commercial and financial course, and physics with mathe-\\nmatics, attached to it is an institute for study of Oriental languages.\\nThe provinces of Wilna, (jrodno, Minsk, and Kowno. have a distinct adminis-\\ntration under the name of the circle of Wilna, although that city has in fact no\\nuniversity. Wilna was formerly an intellectual center of Poland its university\\ninvolved in the final catastrophe of Polish nationality was suppressed in 1832.\\nSuch also is the position of the circle of Warsaw, it has no university it is com-\\nposed of the provinces of Warsaw, Radom, Ploek, Lublin, and Augustovo. The\\ninstitutions forming it are of two classes, the first includes the institute for nobles\\nat Warsaw that of agricultural science at Marimont, the gymnasse of industrial\\nscisnce at Warsaw, and the school of fine arts attached to it, the institute for teach-\\ners of elementary schools at Radzimine, 3 liigher professional schools of technology,\\n6 district industrial schools, 97 Sunday schools for apprentices and the Rabbinical\\nschool of Warsaw. In the second class are six gymnases, 18 district classical\\nschools, 1,259 elementary, of which 5 are .Jewish. There are also schools main-\\ntained by private support of these there are -54 higher and 113 primary, some\\nfor boys or girls separately, and others for both sexes. Public instruction in Poland\\nis continually the object of most minute precauticm. In 1850 three classes for\\nhigher instruction were commenced in the Warsaw gymnase, but under closest\\nrestrictions. Only pupils who, by force of existing regulations, have the right to\\nenter the gymnase, and whose parents live in the city or its environs are admitted\\nto these classes. The governor-general of the kingdom can alone make any ex-\\nception. Each class is limited to 50 scholars, who pay each an annual fee of 45\\nsilver roubles. From the terms of the official report we understand them to be\\nsubjected to the strictest supervision. Two gymnases were, in 1850, suppressed\\nand replaced by district classical schools. The report adds that, to prevent an\\nunsuitable crowding of pupils at the gymnase of industrial science at Warsavi^ the\\nadministration has found it necessary to, 1st. Found in tliat capital two separate\\ndistrict industrial schools; 2d. To increase to 20 roubles the fee paid by each pupil\\nof the gymnase without exception. 3d. To impose upon the candidates a stricter\\nexamination, and only to admit from among those applying from the provinces\\nthose in whose favor there may be important reasons for making exceptions. 4th.\\nTo organize branches attached to the two government elementary schools for the\\npurpose of withdrawing from district schools the children of poor parents.\\nSiberia possesses some educational establishments, yet in their infancy. The 4\\ngovernments of Tobolsk, Torusk, Yeunisseisk, and .Tukoutsk, have 3 gymnases.\\nThe emperor decided, in 1850, that in those of Tobalsk and Torusk, the study of\\nGreek should be replaced by that of Tartar, at the option of pupils. A history\\nof the Old and New Testament, translated into IMongolian by IVI. Kovalewski,\\nprofessor of the university of Kasan, has been printed by order of the government\\nfor distribution among the still heathen population of some regions of Siberia.\\nBesides these institutions for Christians of various creeds, Russia has .also a cer-\\ntain number of schools for Jews exclusively, they still maintaining in this empire\\ntheir exclusive existence.\\nTo sum up, the higher institutions comprise the normal schools of St. Petersburg,\\n6 universities, 3 lyceums, having in all 3,521 students, (233 less than in 1849.)\\nThe secondary institutions of the empire number 2,149 with 116,936 pupils, (3,656\\nmore than in 1849,) and in the kingdom of Poland they are 1,561 with 82,942\\nscholars, (1,2T9 more than in 1849.) Private schools do not flounish of these\\nthere are in the empire but 2,260 male and female teachers.\\nThe censorship belongs to the university of public instruction. It underwent\\non the 19th of July, 1850, a new organization, more suitable to the requirements\\nof the age. By virtue of another decision, sanctioned by the council of the em-\\npire, efficient measures have been adopted to prevent the fraudulent introduction\\nof prohibited books from foreign countries. A temporary commission (for two\\nyears) has been constituted as experimental, to examine all books designed for in-\\nstruction of youth. Its report states that the whole number of volumes imported in\\n1850, is 641,123. In Poland, the censorship authorized the publication of 327\\nworks; the importation being 58,141 volumes, forming 15,986 works.\\nThe military schools are under district administration which the emperor long\\na^o took under his personal direction, delegating it to the Grand Duke, Michael", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0635.jp2"}, "634": {"fulltext": "632 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA.\\nPaulovich, who retained it until his decease, (September, 1849,) and it is now\\namong the powers of the Grand Duke, heir apparent. The progress and improve-\\nment in these has been considerable according to the Abridged statement of the\\nconduct and condition of the military schools, during the twenty-five years of the\\nreign of his majesty the emperor. The military schools are now divided into three\\ncircumscriptions, those of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the West. The circumscrip-\\ntion of St. Petersburg includes 12 institutions, the corps of the emperor s pages, the\\nschool of ensigns of the guard, first and second corps of cadets, that of Paul, of\\nCount Araktoheef of Novgorod, of Finland, of Alexander, (childrens,) of Georgia,\\nand the regiment of nobles.* The second circumscription, that of Moscow, con-\\ntains 11, the first and second corps of Moscow cadets,t that of Alexandria for\\norphans, those of Bakletine at Ords, of Alexander at Toula, of Michael at Voronega,\\nof Tambof. of Neplinef at Orenburg, and that of Siberia. The report mentions the\\ncorps of Kasan as projected. The corps of cadets of Polotsk, of Peter at\\nPultawa, of Alexander at Brzie.sc-Litevvski, and of Wladimir at Kiew, compose the\\ncircumscription of the West. The number of schools is 27, of which 23 were in\\ncomplete operation, 3 in process of organization, and one projected in 1850,\\nthey had 9,504 pupils. Numerous and important improvements had been intro-\\nduced into military instruction, both in scientific and practical study, and in moral\\ninstruction. Their administration has by no means lost sight of its guiding princi-\\nple, respect for throne and altar. It is this principle that, since 1849 and 1850,\\ngoverns, more absolutely than ever, the Russian universities. If it is the basis of\\ncivic order, it is a fortiori the foundation of military discipline which insures the\\nrepose of Russian society. Thus all the material and military strength developed\\nin Russian society, are concentrated in the hands of government. Religion gov-\\nerning public instruction, and the Czar in turn goj erniug the clergy, all the moral\\nforce of the land obeys a single movement.\\nThe higher schools of engineering and artillery Michael s, are independent of the cir-\\ncumscription,\\nt To the first corps is attached a branch for children.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0636.jp2"}, "635": {"fulltext": "GREECE.\\nThe modern kingdom of Greece, as created by a convention of the\\ngovernments of France, Great Britain, and Russia, and tiie king of Ba-\\nvaria, in 1832, occupies a considerable portion of the ancient Greek states,\\nformerly the primitive seat of European civilization. Amid the noblest\\nruins of the ancient world, the Greeks had preserved a distinct existence\\nas a people, and something of the purity and richness of their beautiful\\nlanguage. From 1750 to 1800, many Greek youth resorted to the uni-\\nversities of Europe, and returned to establish schools, and diffuse a love\\nof learning among their countrymen. About the beginning of the pres-\\nent century, schools were commenced at .Athens, Saloniki, Scio. Rusa,\\nTschesne, Athos, Cydonia, and other large towns, by which a spirit of\\nliberty was breathed into the youth of the nation, which resulted in the\\nopening of the war of independence, in 1821. Many of these high\\nschools were closed adraid the din and devastations of the war but it\\nwas one of the leading features in the policy of the provincial govern-\\nment and of the dictatorship of Capo d Istrias to establish elementary\\nschools from 1826 to 1831. During the period of the regency, and before\\nthe arrival of king Otho, through the efforts of Mr. Maurer, one of the\\nregents, a system of national education was commenced. The fol-\\nlowing statistics will indicate that the progress already made, is not\\ninconsiderable.\\nThe public educational institutions of Greece and their statistics, for\\n1851-2, are as follows\\nUniversity of Athens, 39 professors, 590 students; classed as follows:\\nof philosophy (sciences and belles-lettres,) 66; theology, 10; law, 109;\\nmedicine, 278 pharmacy, 37. Of the 590 students, 281 are from the\\nkingdom of Greece, and 309 from other Greek provinces. The annual\\nexpense of this institution is $23,560.\\n7 Gynmasia (classical high schools,) with 43 professors and 1,077\\npupils, of whom 847 are from independent Greece.\\n79 Secondary schools (called Hellenic, because based upon the study\\nof Greek.) with 133 professors and 3,872 pupils 4 private institutions\\nand three supported by the communes, with 25 professors and 511 pupils j\\nI seminary, with 4 professors and 30 students.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0637.jp2"}, "636": {"fulltext": "634 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GREECE\\n1 Normal school for training teachers for the cornmunal schools, with\\n7 professors and 60 students.\\n338 Communal. schools for boys, with 366 teachers and 33 864 pupils.\\n31 Communal schools tor girls, with 40 teachers, and 4 380 pupils 17\\nprivate schools for girls, with 25 teachers and 1,479 pupils the school\\nof the Philecpaideutic Society for the higher instruction of girls, with\\n13 professors and 464 pupils.\\nOne agricultural school at Tiryns, with 20 scholars.\\nOne military scliool, with 20 professors and 64 pupils.\\nThere are also, at Athens, a school called the polytechnic school, being\\nthe beginning of a school of arts and trades, a library of about 70.000\\nvolumes, a rich cabinet of natural philosophy, a museum of natural his-\\ntory, an anatomical museum, a museum of pathological anatomy, an\\nobservatory, a medical society, a society of natural history, an archeol-\\nogical society, a society of the fine arts, and a botanic garden.\\nAccording to statistical returns of the kingdom of Greece for 1853, the\\npopulation is 1.002,112. Of this number, from 700 to 750 are teachers\\nor professors, and about 47,000 pupils, of whom about 6 250 are females.\\nThe number of young Greeks studying in the universities of France,\\nGermany, and Italy, is from 350 to 400. Of these, 31 having finished\\ncourses of study in Greece, are maintained at the expense of the Greek\\ngovernment 11 of them are studying medicine, 6 fine arts, 6 literature,\\n1 law, 1 physical and mathematical science, and 6 theology.\\nIonian Islands.\\nBy the treaty of Paris in 1816, the seven islands Corfu, Cephalonia,\\nZante, Santa Maura, Ceeigo, Ithaca, and Paxo, having in 1840 a popula-\\ntion of 200.000, were declared a single, free, and independent state,\\nunder the protectorate of the sovereign of Great Britain, who is repre-\\nsented by an officer, called the Lord High Commissioner. Under the\\ndirection of the government, a system of public schools exists, consist-\\ning of,\\n1 University at Corfu, with\\n2 Gymnasia with\\n6 Superior district schools with\\n1 Agricultural School and Model Farm, with,\\n100 District schools with,\\n78\\npupils\\n140\\nC(\\n300\\n80\\n6,000", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0638.jp2"}, "637": {"fulltext": "ITALY.\\nItaly comprises,\\n1. The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, with 5,068,000 inhabitants.\\n2. Tlie kingdom of Sadinia, 5.292,000\\n3. The Duchy of Parma, 479,900\\n4. The DucliyofModena, 490,000\\n5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 1,752,000\\n6. Tlie Republic of San Marino, 8,200\\n7. The State ofthe Cliurch, 2,970.000\\n8. Tlie kingdom of Naples, 8,373,000\\nIn all of these States there is legal provision made for public education,\\nbesides a large number of schools connected with religious houses and\\ncharitable institutions. The institutions and endowments for charitable\\npurposes exceed in number and amount those of any other portion of\\nEurope.\\nI. Lombardy and Venice.\\nThe system of public instruction in the Austrian dominions in Italy, is\\nsubstantially the same as in Austria proper. It embraces, 1. elementary\\nschools of two grades 2. technical schools; 3. gymnasiums 4. lyceums;\\nand 5. universities. The following caccount of the system and the schools,\\nis taken from a valuable work on Italy and the Italians, by Frederic\\nVon Raumer.\\nAccording to the principal law on the subject of schools of an inferior order,\\nthere are two gradations of elementary schools, from those with one class to those\\nwith three or four. To these are added what are called technical schools. In the\\nlower elementary schools the first principles of religion are taught, together with\\nreading, writing, and ai ithmetic. The higher elementary schools are intended for\\nthose who purpose devoting themselves to the arts or sciences. The teclini((al\\nschools are chiefly intended to prepare youth for commerce and agriculture. The\\nlaw compels parents to send their children to school between the ages of six and\\ntwelve, and a fine of half a lira per month is incurred by those who neglect to do\\nso; but is not enforced in Lombardy. Mlierever circumstances allow of its being\\ndone, the education of boys is separate from that of girls. x\\\\. building for school,\\nand the necessary supply of desks, forms, c., must be provided by the commune.\\nIn the cold and mountainous districts only are the school-rooms warmed in winter.\\nThe books prescribed for these schools vary in price from forty-two centesimi to a\\nflorin. In the higher elementary schools, religion, orthography, Italian grammar,\\nthe elements of Latin, mathematics, natural philosophy, geography, and natural\\nhistory, are taught. In the technical schools instruction is given in modern Ian-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0639.jp2"}, "638": {"fulltext": "g36 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY.\\nguages, English, German, and French. The clergy are recommended, not\\nmerely to give religious instruction; but also to take charge of some other of the\\nlessons. The general superintendence of religious instruction, is committed to the\\nbishcips. For opening a private school, an express permission must be obtained\\nfrom government.\\nThe elementary schools in Lombardy* amounted\\nIn number, in 1835 1836 1837\\nto 4,422 4,470 4,531\\nincluding private schools, 701 995 726\\nIn 1837, there remained only 66 communes without an elementary school for\\nboys, so that, if the education be not general among children, the fault must arise less\\nfrom the want of public institutions than from the want of good-will. The outlay\\nfor elementary schools amounted, in 1837, to 507,000 florins. Of this 21,000\\nflorins were derived from endowments, 423,000 were contributed by the com-\\nmunes, and 63,000 wei-e defrayed by the State. Of every 100 schools, 84 were\\npublic, and of every 100 pupils, 59 were boys and 41 girls. About three-fifths of\\nthe children of a suitable age attend school and of those that do so, 91 per cent,\\nattend public, and 9 per cent, private schools. The teachers (including 2,226\\nclei gymen, directoi s, and school authorities) amount in number to 6,284. The\\ninfant schools are attended by 2,026 children, and directed by 93 teachers their\\nyearly revenues amount to about 16,000 florins. Thus we every where perceive\\nthe cause of education advancing, and the several communes n)anifest their praise-\\nworthy sympathy by constantly increasing votes for the support of schools.\\nIn immediate connection with the higher order of elementary schools are the\\ngymnasiums, of which some are public, some communal, some in immediate de-\\npendence on the bishops, and other private institutions. In Lombardy, in 1837,\\nthere were 10 imperial gymnasiums, with 96 teachers and 2,865 pupils; 8 com-\\nmunal, with 1,291 pupils. The private gymnasiums were attended by about 1,168\\npupils. None but teachers who have been strictly examined are allowed to give\\nlessnns in a private gymnasium, the pupils must all be entered on the list of a pub-\\nlic school, to which they are bound to pay a yearly contribution of two florins, and\\nat which they nmst submit to periodical examinations. Private gymnasiums must\\nadopt the course of study prescribed for public institutions, and must not allow\\ntheir pupils to remain less than the regulated period in each class. Those in-\\ntended for the church, for the medical profession, or for that of architecture, must\\nbe educated at a public school, and those intended for the law are subject to a\\nvariety of stringent rules.\\nAll the elementary schools of Lombardy are placed under an inspector, and an-\\nother officer has the gymnasium under his control. All vacancies for teachers\\nare thrown open to public competition, and it is only after examination that they are\\nconfirmed in their appointments by a government order. To every gymnasium\\nare in general attached a rector, a religious teacher, four professors of grammar,\\nand two of humanity, {d^ vmanitd.) To limit the number of those who crowd into\\nthe learned professions, it has of late years been prescribed that no pupil shall be\\nreceived at a gymnasium before his tenth or after his fourteenth year. From this\\nregulation, however, constant exceptions are made, as it has been found that a rigid\\nenforcement would have the effect of excluding the cleverest and most industrious\\nchildi cn.\\nCorporal punishments have every where been abolished. On Sundays all the\\npupils of a gymnasium attend church. Not more than 80 pupils must be included\\nin the same class. Thursday is always a holiday. On eacli of the other five days\\nthere are only four school hours. The holidays, in addition to those on occasion\\nof the church festivals, last from the 9th of September to the 1st of November.\\nThe regular couse of study in each gymnasium last six years, during which the\\npupil has to pass through four classes of grammar and two of humanity. In the\\nfirst grammatical class are tauoht Italian, the rudiments of Latin, arithmetic,\\ngeography, and religion. In Jhe second class, the same course is continued, but\\nRoman antiquity, and the geography and history of the Austrian monarchy, are\\nadded. In the third grammatical class, Greek is added and in the fourth, Latin\\nIn 1834. there were in the Venetian part of the kingdom 1,438 schools, with 81,372 pupils,\\nand 1,676 male and female teachers.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0640.jp2"}, "639": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. gSY\\nprosody. In the first humanity class are taught rhetoric, poetry, algebra, geogra-\\nphy, history, and religion in the second, the same subjects continue to employ the\\npupil. A pupil who does not intend to study medicine, or to go into the church,\\nmay obtain a dispensation from Greek.\\nIll every branch of study, the school-books are prescribed by the higher au-\\nthorities. Latin and Greek are taught exclusively through the medium of anthol-\\nogies and selections, in which there are difhcult extracts intended for the more\\nadvanced pupils.\\nA new law was promulgated in 1838 on the subject of technical or commercial\\nschools. These are intended to prepare the future trader and mechanic, and are\\ntherefore to give a practical direction to their studies, always keeping in view the\\ninterests of the Austrian monarchy and those of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom.\\nThe towns in which these schools are established must furnish a suitable building\\nand all the requsite furniture, c. the rest of the charge is defrayed by govern-\\nment. Each teacher gives from 4 to 15 lessons weekly, and their salaries vary\\nfrom 400 to SOti florins. Each school is divided into three classes, into the junior\\nof which a boy may pass from the grammatical first class of a (gymnasium. In\\nthe fii st class of a technical school, (the first class always means the lowest,) the\\npupil is obliged to attend weekly 2 lessons of religion, 3 of Italian grammar, 3 of\\ngeography, 4 of mathematics, 3 of zoology, 6 of drawing, 4 of writing, in all 25\\nlessons, of an hour each in addition to these, there are 2 lessons of German, and\\n2 of French, the attendance on which is optional. In the second class, botany is\\nsubstituted for zoology. In the third class are given 2 lessons of religion, 3 of\\nItalian style, 7 of natural philosophy, 3 of mineralogy, in all 15 obligatory lessons.\\nIn addition to these, there are 5 lessons of chemistry, 5 of commercial science, 5\\nof book-keeping, and 3 of commercial correspondence. Of these the pupil may\\nchoose whether he will attend the lessons of chemistryand one of the other three\\nsubjects, or whether he will attend the last three without chemistry.\\nThere is also a special school for\\nVeterinary surgery, with 5 teachers, 41 pupils, and an expenditure of 71,643\\nIJre!\\nChemistry, with 3 teachers, 15 pupils, and an expenditure of 6,750 lire.\\nMidwives, with 3 teachers, 71 pupils, and an expenditure of 24,432 lire.\\nThis last institution is in connection with the lying-in and foundling hospitals.\\nFor future theologians, on leaving the elementary schools, distinctinstitutions are\\nprovided in the episcopal seminaries, of which there is one attached to every see.\\nThe largest, at INIilan, in 1837, contained 403 pupils; the smallest, at Crema, only\\n10. In these the teachers are appointed by the bishop, but satisfactory proof of\\ntheir capacity must be given to the temportil authorities.\\nMr. Von Raumer adds the following remarks\\nIn the first place, the elementary instruction is so simple, and the natural\\nprogress so evident, that there appears in this respect, to be no very important\\ndifference between the German system and that of Lombardy. The only thing to\\nbe wished for is, that the number of good teachers may increase in proportion to\\nthe number of pupils. To the credit of the clergy be it said that, in addition to the\\nregular hours of religious instruction, they sometimes take charge of one or two\\nother branches, a course perfectly consistent with the duties of their profession.\\nSecondly the limited number of school-hours at the gj mnasiums is explained\\nby the work which the children are expected to do at home, and the incompati-\\nbility of an Italian temperament with long confinement. The work to be done at\\nhome is, however, much less considerable than at a public school in Germany\\nand the vivacity of the Italian temperament might just as reasonably be adduced\\nas a motive for subjecting to a more strict and continuous discipline, besides, in\\nother parts of Italy, we shall see that the number of school-hours is greater. On\\nother grounds, therefore, must be decided the question, whether an increase in the\\nnumber of lessons be desirable or not and also, whether it would not be better to\\ngive two lialf-holidays in the week, as with us, than to sacrifice one whole day out\\nof six, as is done in Lombardy.\\nThirdly I have to observe that under the word grammar is included not only\\nLatin, but every instruction in the native language. Greek is thi own too much", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0641.jp2"}, "640": {"fulltext": "638\\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY.\\ninto the back-ground and, however laudable it may be to attend to the geog-\\nraphy and history of Austria, it may be much doubted whether it be well judged to\\nassigu to them so marked a precedence before every other kind of historical\\ninstruction.\\nFourthly the reading nothing but fragmentary collections is defended on the\\ngi ound that it is expedient to make a pupil acquainted with a variety of authors,\\nand with the different kinds of Latin and Greek. It must be owned that, in our\\nGerman schools, where a contrarj system prevails, many a young scholar becomes\\nacquainted with all the delicacies of one author, without being able even to con-\\nstrue another, with whose particular style he happens not to be acquainted. It\\nwould perhaps be better to combine the two systems, and not to make the acquire-\\nment of dead languages the main object, where the student is in point of fact in-\\ntended for some more active pursuit otherwise, the student, instead of having\\nhis character strengthened and his judgment improved by the full impression of\\nancient greatness, is likely to conceive a disgust of all classical studies, and never\\nto take a Greek or Roman into his hand again, when once he has left school.\\nWho will deny that such is with us the rule, and the contrary the exception\\nFifthly It may be doubted, perhaps, whether it be advisable to draw the future\\ntheologian, like other students, into the full current of temporal affairs and it is\\njust as doubtful whether it is advisable to detach him completely from the world,\\nand yet require him, when he comes to mingle in it, to understand, to estimate,\\nand to guide it.\\nSixthly Whether our public schools in Germany are not more efficient, and\\nwhether they do not prepare the student better for the university than those of\\nLombardy are questions that do not admit of a doubt. On that very account,\\nhowever, the lyceum and the course of philosophy have been established.\\nSeventhly to a most important point, namely, that in the Lombardo- Venetian\\nkingdom all public instruction, whether in the elenientaiy schools, or at a gj m-\\nnasium, a lyceum, or a university, ]s altogether gratuitous. lam auare of the\\nmotives by which the demand of payment is usually justified nor do I require to\\nbe told that what is given away rarely fails to be undervalued nevertheless, there\\nis something gratifying in the idea of education without any cost to the parents\\nmuch anxiety is thus prevented, as well as many little selfish manoeuvres.\\nThe following notice is given of the lyceums and universities.\\nIt is generally thought that the gymnasium affords but an insufficient prepara-\\ntion for the study of divinity, law, or medicine, and even for those who, without\\npurposing to devote themselves to either of those professions, intend to compete\\nfor appointments to certain public offices. For such students, therefore, a two\\nyears course is opened at the lyceum, or in the philosophical faculty of a university.\\nBefore completing this course, a student can not be entered for either of the three\\nother faculties. In Prussia we have no corresponding regulation. The subjects\\nhere treated of at the lyceums are with us either attended to at the public school,\\nor may be studied at the university simultaneously with divinity, jurisprudence, or\\nmedicine. Here no student can enter a lyceum without a certificate of maturity\\nfrom the gymnasium nor can he be entered for either of the three faculties, without\\na certificate to show that he has passed through the intermediate two years course,\\nwhich is never curtailed, though, with respect to some of the lectures, it is left to\\nthe option of the students to attend them or not, as they please. The discipline\\nunder which they are kept is tolerably strict. They must not go to a theater, ball,\\nor any place of public amusement, without express permission, nor are circulating\\nlibraries allowed to lend them novels or the Conversations- Lexicon. On Sun-\\ndays they must go to church, and six times a year they must confess and receive\\nthe communion. There are in Lombardy seven imperial lyceums, one civic at\\n-Lodi, and eight episcopal, connected with the seminaries. They are attended by\\n1,600 students. The imperial lyceums cost the government about 1.37,000 lire\\nannually.\\nIn the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom there are two universities, those of Padua\\nand Pavia, where the course of study is under the control of the directors of the\\nseveral faculties, who in their turn are responsible to the governor of the province.\\nThe directors propose candidates to fill up vacancies, suggest modifications in the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0642.jp2"}, "641": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 539\\ncourse of study, see that the professors arrange their lectures in a suitable manner,\\nthat they do not wander away from their subjects, and that they lead a moral\\nlife the directors are also to examine class-books and academical discourses, to be\\nfrequently present at the lectures, to take part in the deliberations of the senate, to\\ncall the faculties together, and to superintend the election of a dean.\\nThese directors, who are not professors, are said to have all the real power in\\ntheir hands, the rector being a representative without influence, and the functions\\nof the dean being confined to the care of some matters of a purely scientific char-\\nacter. Every thing belonging to discipline and the maintenance of order is also in\\nthe hands of the directors.\\nAn ordinance relating to the university of Padua, dated the 8th of April, 1825,\\ndeclares that institution to be immediately under the gubernium. A general\\nassembly includes not only the directors, deans, and professors, but likewise all\\ndoctors who have graduated at Padua, and reside in the city. Tiie rector is\\nelected annually from the different faculties in succession, and not only the pro-\\nfessors but also each of the doctors just mentioned has a voice in the election, and\\nis himself eligible to the dignity. The senate selects three candidates from the\\nfaculty next in s lceession, alter which a majority of votes determines the election,\\nsubject to the confirmation of the government. The rector calls the senate\\ntogether twice a year, when a report is read of all that has been done by him dur-\\ning the interval. His power, however, in this respect, is greatly cramped, espe-\\ncially by means of the directors. The dean must be a doctor of the faculty to\\nwhich he belongs, but, in that of law or medicine, must not himself be a professor.\\nIn the other faculties, professors are eligible to the dignity of dean. The dean is\\nto keep an historical chronicle of every thing relating to the faculty. All lectures\\nare gratuitous, with the exception that twelve lire are paid by the higher order of\\nnobles on entering their names, nine by the inferior nobles, six by a wealthy citizen,\\nand three by any other student.\\nWith respect to the relation between doctors and professors, the law says the\\nfaculties are considered as academical corporations, distinct (separati) from the\\nprofessors. Although the doctors, therefore, do not belong to the body of instruc-\\ntors, they have a central point of union, to consult together, and place their sug-\\ngestions before the authorities. They likewise serve the state, as an assembly of\\nwell-informed men, whose opinion may be consulted and listened to.\\nThe university of Padua has the four customary faculties. The senate consists\\nof the following persons the rector, four directors, four deans, and four ancients\\namong the professors. There are six ordinary professors of divinity, eight of law,\\ntwelve of medicine, nine of the philosophical sciences, besides a few deputies and\\nassistants, but not, as with us, a set of extraordinary professors and private tutors.\\nThe general assembly, including the doctors, consists of twenty-four theologians,\\nfifty-seven jurists, twenty-four physicians, and thirty philosophers.\\nThe university course, for divinity in law, lasts four years for medicine and\\nsurgery, five and for those who study surgery only, three or four years. Every\\nhalf-year the students are examined. At the end of two years they obtain the\\ndignity of bachelor, and at the end of three, that of a licentiate. The dignity of\\ndoctor is not conferred before the end of the fourth year, nor till after a general\\nexamination. The candidate must publicly defend a Latin thesis, but no mention\\nis made of any essay required to be printed.\\nThe university of Pavia has no theological faculty, but in every other respect the\\nsame constitution as that of Padua. There are at present thirty-eight professors,\\nthree adjuncts, and eleven assessors. Of these eleven professors and two adjuncts\\nbelong to the ])hilosophical faculty four professors and one assessor to the mathe-\\nmatical division of the faculty eight professors and one adjunct to the legal and\\nfifteen professors and ten assessors to the medical faculty.\\nThe mathematical division of the philosophical faculty is chiefly intended for the\\neducation of land-surveyors and engineers. A student fean enter it on completing\\nhis course of philosophy.\\nI will only add a few brief remarks as when treating of schools, by way of insti-\\ntuting some comparison between the German and Italian universities.\\nIn the first place, the lyceum and the course of philosophy owe their institution\\nevidently to a consciousness that a blank existed between the degree of information\\nacquired at a gymnasium and that necessary for prosecuting the study of either of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0643.jp2"}, "642": {"fulltext": "640 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY.\\nthe other three faculties but here a doubt suggests itself, whether it would not be\\nsimpler, more economical, and more beneficial, to assign to the gymnasium a part\\nof the instruction afforded by the lyceum, and the remainder to the university itself.\\nI scarcely think it well-judged to compress all these subjects into the space of two\\nyears, and then to confine the student entirely to matters connected with his in-\\ntended profession, without allowing him the relief of variety. Would it not be\\nbetter to permit the young men, as is done at our German universities, to attend\\nphilosophical and historical lectures, simultaneously with those on theology, medi-\\ncine or law It is true that, owing to the greater liberty allowed to our students,\\nthey frequently absent themselves from all lectures but those connected with the\\npursuit on which their future livelihood is to depend. In such eases it is not to be\\ndenied that the stricter regulations of Italy may be preferable.\\nThe director of a faculty is an officer wholly tmknovvn with us, and the object\\nof liis appointment is evidently the maintenance of a stricter discipline. The en-\\nlargement of the faculty by the admission of resident doctors is another arrange-\\nment unknown in Germany. It may have the effect of avoiding nmch partiality\\nand e.xclusiveness but it may be questioned whether, on the other hand,^ it does\\nnot tend to weaken the corporation.\\nMany objections might be made to the number and succession of the lectures,\\nand certainly our better universities in Germany present greater variety and more\\ncompleteness. The Italians, on the other hand, might argue, that this variety is\\ncarried much too far with us, breaking up the course of study into a multitude of\\nfragments, in a manner quite unsuitable to the student s advancement.\\nA new law was promulgated on tbe 6th of September, 1838, for the foundation\\nor restoration of two academies of arts and sciences at Venice and Milan, and\\nmeasures are now in progress to effect the realization of this plan. Each eeademy\\nis to comprise three classes: real members, honorary members, and correspon-\\ndents. The first are to receive salaries of 1,200 lire, and the further assistance to\\nbe afforded has, for the present, been fixed at 45,000 lire.\\nII. Sardinia.\\nThe system of public education embraces, 1. elementary schools in\\neach commune, in which reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious in-\\nstruction is given. 2. Upper schools in the large towns under the direc-\\ntion of the clergy. 3. Four univer.sities. 4. Special schools of agricul-\\nture, of arts and manufactures, of civil engineering, c. We have no\\nrecent statistics respecting these schools. The following notice of higher\\ninstruction is taken from the Anmiarie des deux Mondes, for 1851.\\nPublic instruction under the regime of the old monarchy was not without its\\nfame. The university of Turin, founded so long ago as the 15th century, was\\nfully organized by the middle of the 1 6th, and gradually became the center for\\nstudents from all northern Italy. It owes its rapid progress much to the careful\\nsolicitude of Victor Amadeus II. In 1720, it had but 800 students in 1730, two\\nthousand. This university was the focus of intellectual activity in Piedmont, the\\nother institutions for instruction having been but slowly developed.\\nThe system of exclusive privileges, the varying laws, the influence of a hier-\\narchy which mainly governed the elementary schools, all the assemblage of feudal\\nand ecclesiastical institutions embracing government and society, naturally caused\\ngreat confusion in the organic principles of instruction.\\nA serious and fundamental reform was attempted in 1 847 by the royal decrees\\nof 30th November. The old administration of the university was abolished, and\\na special ministry of public instruction created. The formation of a high council\\nto assist the minister completed on the 27th December, following this effort of the\\nState to centralize the system by placing it under uniform and stricter supervision.\\nBut the present orgaiiization only dates from the law of 4th October, 1848,\\nwhich, inspired by the recent revolution in the principles of political legislation,\\nimprinted upon the institutions for public instruction, of every grade, a new type.\\nThe duties of the ministry and of the various councils destined to act Under its\\norders were fixed by this law. All the universities, secondai y and elementary", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0644.jp2"}, "643": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. Q^l\\nschools of the kingdom, are placed under the control of the minister of public in-\\nstruction. Schools for the deaf and duiab, those of agriculture, of arts and man-\\nufactures, of veterinary medicine, forests, civil engineering, of the marine and a\\nfew other special schools, are the only exceptions to the rule laid down by this new\\nlaw. Subsequent legislation has developed these principles. The high council\\nconsists of nine regular members appointed for life, and five transient whose term\\nof service is three years. Both classes are chosen by the king among professors\\neither retired or in service, of the various faculties of the kingdom, excepting two\\nof the regular councillors who must be selected among the savans or distinguished\\nliterary men. Each university, and each faculty, is directed by a council. In each\\nuniversity exists a permanent board, chosen out (if its council, charged with direc-\\ntion and supervision of the institutions for secondary instruction. Every college\\nthat has a professorship of philosophy has also its council. Elementary instruc-\\ntion is dii eeted by one general council for the whole kingdom whose authority is\\nin the island of Sardinia delegated to the university councils, aided by a board of\\ne1euient;u-y instruction in each province.\\nIn all the pnivinccs, the State is represented by a sort of rector ho is entitled\\nregio proveditore. But the movement of this system is derived from the minis-\\nter and his high council. The resemblance of this to the former high council of\\nthe universities in France is obvious. The Piedmontese council prepares and\\nexamines projects of laws and regulations relating to public instruction, it\\narranges a general plan for studies, it examines and appi oaches the outlines of\\nthe courses of study presented to it by the university boards, and also the class-\\nbooks. The reports of inspectors of schools and scientific institutions, those of\\nthe university boards and of the provincial councils presiding over elementary in-\\nstruction, are also submitted to examination by the high council. Among the\\nmost important duties of this body, we may number the obligation of presenting\\nto the minister, once in three years, a general report upon the condition of instruc-\\ntion in the kingdom, and among its most important powers, that of deciding upon\\nquestions of discipline, and upon charges preferred against professors of universi-\\nties and secondary schools, and elementary inspectors, the accused party to be\\nheard.\\nThere are in the kingdom four universities, for Piedmont one at Turin, and one\\nat Genoa for the island of Sardinia two others, one at Cagliari, the other at\\nSassari. These universities confer the higher academic degi-ees. The university\\nschools (\u00c2\u00bbf Chamberi and Nice, dependencies of the Turin university, have profes-\\nsorships of law and medicine, and students of medicine can pass two years of the\\nrequired course in them. Each royal college established at an episcopal see, has\\na faculty of theology for instruction of youth designed for the priesthood. Nearly\\nall the chief provincial towns have a professorship of civil law for those intended to\\nbe notaries or advocates.\\nUniversity instruction is divided into five faculties, theology, law, medicine and\\nsurgery, belles-lettres and philosophy, physical and mathematical science. These\\nare subdivided nearly as in the French plan. The most important difl:erences are\\nthat of the study of canon law, a branch of the law faculty, and that of the some-\\nwhat confused organization of teaching in philosophy. A distinction is made be-\\ntween rational and positive philosophy. The course of positive philosophy which\\noccupies three years includes but one year of philosophy properly so called, moral\\nthe other three are devoted to various branches of exact sciences. Embraces\\nwith geometry, general chemistry, mineralogy, zoology and physics, ancient lit-\\nerature and modern Italian.\\nMr. Von Raumer. in his Italy and the Italians, remarks\\nA collection of laws for tliL- regulation of schools was printed in 1834. Ac-\\ncording to these, the instruction given in the elementary schools is gratuitous.\\nThe lessons begin and end with prayer. The gymnasiums (collegi) are divided\\ninto six classes: three junior, one of grammar, one of humanity, and one of\\nrhetoric. The branches of instruction and class-books are prescribed. Besides\\nthe ordinary teachers, every gymnasium has a prefect, who is often changed, and\\nwhosL duty it is to enforce discipline among teachers and scholars, and a spiritual\\ndire. Under the last named, the following exercises occur daily. Every morn-\\ning; 1. a quarter of an hour of rehgious reading; 2. the hymn, Veni creator;\\n41", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0645.jp2"}, "644": {"fulltext": "g42 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY.\\n3. according to the season, the Anibrosian hymn, and other extracts from the\\nUfficio delta beata Vergine 4. mass 5. hymn of the litanies of the holy vir-\\ngin 6. spiritual instruction 7. the psalm Laudate Dominum^ and a prayer for\\nthe king. In the afternoon 1. a quarter of an hour of religious reading; 2.\\nhymn and prayer 3. three quarters of an hour explanation of the catechism.\\nThe school lasts 3i hours in the forenoon, and 2^ hours in the afternoon. Thurs-\\nday is a whole holiday. Where the funds of the school are insufficient, a boy in\\nthe three junior classes pays 15 francs a year, and in the upper classes, 20 francs,\\nbesides 8 or 12 francs on being promoted from one class to another. The salaries\\nof the teachers are paid partly by the government and partly by the towns, and\\namount to from 750 to 1,200 lire per annum, with some trifling addition in case\\nof long service. The retiring pensions also depend on the period of service, but\\nthe highest pension never exceeds the lowest salary. Where the ability is the\\nsame, clergymen are always to be preferred. No teacher must cause any thing to\\nbe printed either in or out of the kingdom without submitting his manuscript first\\nto the ordinary censorship, and to the censorship of the riforma. The magistrato\\ndi riforma is a kind of ministry of public instruction, and has a consiglio di\\nriforma under it in every province. Among its other duties, occurs that of pre-\\nscribing what books shall be used in instruction, although, in the episcopal semi-\\nnaries, and some others under the guidance of ecclesiastical orders, such as the\\nJesuits, the Barnabites, e., it has little influence.\\nThe scholars of the gymnasiums are not allowed to read any books which have\\nnot been either given or furnished by the prefect. They are forbidden to swim,\\nto frequent theaters, balls, coffee or gaming houses to perform in private plays,\\nand the like and it is the business of the police to see these prohibitions at-\\ntended to.\\nThere is in Turin one head university, with four faculties and thei e are sec-\\nondary universities (universitd secondarie) in Chamber!, Asti, Mondovi, Nizza,\\nNovara, Salu zzo, and Vercelli, either for the study of medicine alone, or for medi-\\ncine and jurisprudence together. The universities have no legal right to make\\nproposals for the appointment to vacant places, and there is consequently no can-\\nvassing. This is by some regarded as an advantage, though it is stated on the\\nother band that hasty and partial nominations are more frequent on this system.\\nThere are three academical degrees, those of bachelor, licentiate, and laureate;\\nand the holidays are on the whole more frequent than with us.\\nThe students are not only under strict scientific superintendence, but also under\\nthe close surveillance of the police. No student is allowed to choose his dwelling\\nor leave it without permission of the prefect, who often appoints the place where\\nhe is to lodge and board.\\nWhoever wishes to receive students into his house must undertake the respon-\\nsibility for* their observance of the laws which regulate their going to mass and\\nconfession, fasting, and even their clothing and their beards. Neglect of these\\nrules is punished by exclusion from the examinations, or from the university\\nitself.\\nWith respect to the great abundance of devotional exercises, I may be per-\\nmitted to remark that, though the reference to piety and devotion, as to that\\nwhich should mingle in all sciences and in every action of our lives, be undoubt-\\nedly praiseworthy, and for Catliolics it is right to prefer Thomas a Keiflpis to\\nOvid as a school-book, I can not help doubting if the constant repetition of these\\nprescribed forms be really advisable. Without considering that many must re-\\ngard them as mere loss of time, it would be scarcely possible to avoid one of two\\nerrors either that of an over-estimation of mere external observances, and a\\nconsequent disregard of true inward holiness, or an indifference and disgust easily\\nexcited in young minds, when the highest and holiest subjects become matters of\\ndaily and mechanical routine.\\nIn the second place, that the school instruction should devolve wholly on Cath-\\nolic clergymen may have one advantage in an economical point of view, since,\\nbeing without families, they are better able to maintain themselves on a small in-\\ncome but it can scarcely escape the objection of bestowing onl}^ of one-sided\\neducation, or avoid the danger of having many branches of instruction under the\\nsuperintendence of those who are themselves little instructed unless ecclesias*\\nrics should be obliged to devote themselves to studies foreign to their vocation.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0646.jp2"}, "645": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 643\\nThe existence of a lurking wish to extend and strengthen by this means the\\npower and dominion of the church is the more evident, as establishments for edu-\\ncation are daily arising, which are entirely withdrawn from tempwral influence.\\nI repeat that such a system as this appears to me quite as one-sided and disad-\\nvantageous as the opposite one.\\nIn the third place, what is called the philosophical course, is here, still less than\\nin the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, such as to afford any compensation for the\\nmeagerness of the education afforded at the gymnasium. How, for instance, can\\na single lesson or lecture a week in Greek grammar make amends for many years\\nacademical study of that difficult language, or afford any preparation for the\\nstudies of the university, in themselves meagre enough Besides, there is merely\\na choice offered to the quasi-student, whether he will learn Greek or history.\\nShould he prefer history, he must renounce Greek altogether,\\nFourthly, much might be said against the subordinate universities above-men-\\ntioned. They were established at a time when the unquiet dispositions of the\\nTurin students had turned towards politics, and occasioned much trouble to the\\ngovernment, which endeavoi-ed to weaken them by scattering them thus over the\\ncountry. It may be doubted, nevertheless, whether this lasting resource against\\na merely temporary evil has proved really effectual.\\nIt is at all events likely that the number of ignorant students has been thereby\\nincreased, and the instruction deteriorated from the diminution of the number of\\nlearned professors. The German universities sometimes exhibit the dangers of\\ntoo much liberty, those of this country the evils of too much restraint. The time\\nmust come in a young man s life when even paternal authority must ceascr^much\\nmore, then, the discipline of a school.\\nIII. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany.\\nThe means of education provided by the central government, munici-\\npal authorities, or charitable endowment are: 1. infant schools, of\\nwhich, in 1850, there were 22, numbering over 2,000 children. 2, Ele-\\nmentary schools, of which there is at least one supported by the com-\\nmune, and a number of schools of mutual instruction supported by vol-\\nuntary associations. In these schools, there is no charge for tuition. 3\\nSchools for secondary education embracing 4 colleges for nobles. If\\ngymnasiums or classical schools. 16 seminaries or boarding schools foi\\ngirls, called conservatori. The seminary at Florence, has 600 boarders.\\nIn all of these schools there are over 5.000 students. 4. Three univer^\\nsities. viz.: at Pisa, (founded in 1138.) with 580 students; at Siena,\\n(founded in 1331,) with 300 students; and at Florence, (called the\\nacademy, and founded in 1428.) with 230 students.\\nMr. Von Raumer, remarks In so highly polished a land as Tus-\\ncany, the value of education and instruction has by no means escaped\\nthe attention of the government and of individuals yet much still re-\\nmains to be done, and schools and universities appear to be very scanty\\nin comparison with the number and revenues of the clergy and espc\\ncially of the monks. Indeed, the Italians do not acquire knowledge by\\nmeans of their universities, but in spite of them and how can govern^\\nments be surprised if many, both old and young, have eitherno ideas at\\nall, or false ones, of passing events, of social relations, states, constitu-\\ntions, and governments, since every genuine avenue to science and ex-\\nperience is cut ofTli-om them by the perverse one-sidedness and silly ap-\\nprehension of their rulers", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0647.jp2"}, "646": {"fulltext": "g44 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY\\nIV. States of the Church.\\nThe Roman, or Papal States, or States of the Church are divided\\ninto 21 provinces, of which those lying west of the Apennines are styled\\nLegations, while that of Rome bears the name of Comarca. This ter-\\nritory was at various times, most of it from 755 to 1273 donated to the\\nHoly See. The general supervision of ail the educational institutions\\nis committed to a Commissioner of Studies, while the local management\\nof the elementary schools is assigned to a committee of which the parish\\npriest is one. The means of elementary education are very geneyally\\nprovided either by parish schools, or by schools conducted by various reli-\\ngious orders. Higher education is dispensed by seven universities,\\nseveral of which are among the oldest in the world.\\nThe institutions for elementary education in the city of Rome are:\\n1. Orphan asylums. Of these there are a large number richly en-\\ndowed and well regulated, of which some are for boys and others for girls.\\nThe San Michael, is supported by the government, and furnishes in-\\nstruction not only in the elementary studies but in various trades, to\\nover 400 orphans of both sexes- In this class of institutions there are\\nabout 2,000 boys and girls.\\n2. Parish schools ibr poor children established by the rector of the\\nparish, assisted by the commission of charitable subsidies. There were\\nin 1847, eleven of these schools with about 1,000 scholars, between the\\nages of 5 and 12 years.\\n3. Schools conducted by religious orders, devoted by their vows to\\nteaching.\\ni. Schools conducted by a religious order established by Calasanzio,\\na native of Spain, who opened a free school in Rome, in 1597. which at\\none time numbered over 1.000 poor children in one of the poorest districts\\nof the city. He died at the advanced age of 92 years, after his Con-\\ngregation to the poor had been erected into a religious order, by #ie\\npope, the members taking in addition to the vows of poverty, chastity\\nand obedience, the vow of instruction. The members are called Padri\\nScolapi, and the schools Scolapi, (contracted from schole pie.) or pious\\nschools, of which there are now three, with over 1.000 pupils.\\nii. Schools of the Fathers of the Christian doctrine or teaching. This\\nreligious congregation, devoted to teaching, is composed of a fraternity\\nestablished by Cesare de Bees in 1592, (Congregazione degli Agaiisti,)\\nand another founded by two priests in 1559. They have two houses, and\\neducate about 700 pupils.\\niii. Schools of the Brothers of the Christian doctrine, a fraternity con-\\nnected with the order of teachers established by De Lasalle in 1684, in\\nFrance, and transferred to Rome in 1702. As they profess to teach only\\nthe elementary studies, they are sometimes called the Ignorantelli.\\nThey have three houses and instruct about 1,200 children without fee\\nor reward.\\nIn these schools, much time is given to religious instruction and ob-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0648.jp2"}, "647": {"fulltext": "PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. g45\\neervances, and the methods which were once in advance of other schools,\\nate now antiquated and formal, to which these fraternities adhere with\\nthe tenacity of religious faith.\\n4. Elementary schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor girls. In\\none of these, the cojiservatori^ sixty girls are boarded, lodged, and in-\\nstructed and as soon as they are of suitable age, are taught to spin,\\nweave, make gloves, and other profitable handicrafts.\\n5. Regional or district schools. Rome is divided into wards, or dis-\\ntricts, in which are maintained, partly at the expense of the gov-\\nernment, and partly by a small charge on the parents, 246 district or\\nregional schools, (scholae regionarie,) with about 5,000 children. These\\nschools are of three grades\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Jij-st, those which receive boys and girls\\nunder five years second^ those which receive only girls, in which they\\nare taught, besides the elementary studies, to sew, knit, and embroider\\nthird, those which receive only boys over five years. In a few of the\\ntwo last grades of schools, the course of studies is extended so as to em-\\nbrace the studies of our public high schools.\\n6. Schools established by individuals and associations such as the\\nschool of Prince Massieno in one of the poorest districts of Rome the\\nevening schools established by Casaglio, an engraver in wood, in 1816.\\nand extended by others.\\nThese schools belong to the primary grade, and are intended mainly\\nfor the poorer classes.\\nV. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.\\nA system of public instruction was established for this kingdom dur-\\ning its occupancy by the French, embracing the three grades of schools\\n1. primary 2. secondary 3. superior.\\n1. The law requires at least one elementary school in every commune,\\nfor reading, writing, arithmetic^ and the catechism. This provision is\\nnot very generally enforced. There are a number of primary schools\\ntaught by religious congregations, such as the Christian Brothers, and\\nthe Fathers Scolapi. In 1847, there were 2,500 primary schools.\\n2. Secondary instruction is supplied by 780 gymnasia, or classical\\nschools, besides 4 lycea. which confer degrees. There is a large semi-\\nnary for girls at Naples, and another at Palermo, besides a number of\\nconventual seminaries for female education.\\n3. Superior education is dispensed by 4 universities: at Naples,\\n(founded in 1224;) at Catania, (founded in 1445;) at Palermo, (founded\\nin 1447;) at Messina, (founded in 1838,) with an average attendance\\nof about 2,300 pupils.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0649.jp2"}, "648": {"fulltext": "PORTU AL.\\nThe direction and supervision of public instruction in the kingdom\\nof Portugal, is committed to the minister of the home department.\\nThe system is as follows\\n1. Primary instruction is given through 1,190 elementary schools;\\nsome of them conducted on the monitorial, and others on the simultane-\\nous, method. To train teachers for these schools there is one normal\\nschool, at which the government supports thirty students.\\n2. Secondary instruction is imparted through a class of institutions\\ncalled Lycea, (of which there were 27 in 1850,) in which the Portuguese\\nand Latin languages, mental and moral philosophy, rhetoric, history\\nand geography in reference to the commerce of the country, arithmetic,\\nand geometry in their applications to the arts and manufactures. In\\nsome of the Lycea, located in the principal cities, there are classics\\nof theology, the German and Hebrew languages, and commercial law,\\nincluding particularly, insurance, exchange, c. while in those located\\nin the country, rural economy is introduced. Besides these there are\\n350 classical schools.\\n3. Superior instruction is given in the university of Coimbra, founded\\nin 1279, in which there are five faculties, viz. of theology, law. medi-\\ncine, mathematics and philosophy, and a library of 60,000 volumes.\\n4. Special instruction is given in a polytechnic academy, a naval\\nacademy, a military school, a school of mines, three schools of medicine,\\na school of civil architecture, a school of painting, and several schools\\nof design.\\n5. There are several institutions for the encouragement of science\\nand arts. Among these are, the royal academy at Lisbon, the historical\\nsociety, the national library at Lisbon with 80,000 volumes, the conserv-\\natory of arts, twelve museums of coins, antiquities, and specimens of\\nmineralogy, and other departments of natural science, an academy of\\nmusic, and seven botanic gardens.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0650.jp2"}, "649": {"fulltext": "SPAII.\\nAmid the revolutions of the government and of the country for the\\nlast half century, the friends of popular education have not been able,\\ntill within a few years past, to make much progress in organizing\\na system of elementary schools. The universities, and high schools,\\n(many of them in connection with the religious orders) have with diffi-\\nculty been kept open for the children of the rich and noble. In 1839,\\nunder the auspices of an association, including among its members\\nand patrons several of the noblest names of Spain, a normal school for\\nthe training of masters in the Lancasterian system, as pursued in the\\nBorough Road School, in London, was established in Madrid. Through\\nthe agency of teachers trained in this school, many new schools were\\nopened in different parts of the country, and new life was infused into\\nmany schools for poor children connected with convents. In 1849, on\\nthe representation of the Minister of Instruction and Public Works,\\nrespecting the desirableness of giving a new organization to the Nor-\\nmal Schools of Elementary Instruction, and in view of the need that\\nexists of forming suitable inspectors for this branch of education, the\\nfollowing royal decree was promulged, which we copy from a recent re-\\nport of the British and Foreign School Society.\\nROYAL DECREE RELATIVE TO EDUCATION. (1849.)\\nT\\\\tle I. Of Normal Schools.\\n1. The normal schools of elementary instruction shall be limited to\\nthe following, namely the central school of Madrid nine superior\\nschools twenty elementary schools in the Peninsula, and two in the\\nBalearic and Canary Islands.\\n2. The central normal school shall preserve its actual object and organ-\\nization, and shall also form the superior school for the university district\\nof Madrid. The other university districts shall each have its superior\\nschool stationed in the town where the university exists but in case\\nthis should be impracticable, it may be established in another place near\\nto it. The towns in the Peninsular where elementary schools are to be\\nplaced are the following: Alicante, (or, instead of it, Orihuela,) Bada-\\nioz, Burgos, Caceres, Ciudad Real, Cordova. Cuenca, Gerona, Guada-\\nlajara, Huesca, laen, Leon, Lerida, Lugo, Murcia, Orense, Pamplona,\\nSantander, Soria, and Vittoria.\\n3. The central normal school shall communicate directly with the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0651.jp2"}, "650": {"fulltext": "648 NOHMAL PfHOOLS IX SPAIN.\\ngovernment; the superior schouis shall be under the care of the rectors\\nof the universities and the elementary schools under the directors of\\nthe institutes, as delegates of the rectors.\\n4. The instruction which is to be given in the superior normal\\nschools shall continue for three years, and shall embrace the following\\nmatters Religion and morals reading and Avriting the grammar of\\nthe Spanish language, together with some idea of rhetoric, poetry, and\\nSpanish literature arithmetic in its full extension, with the legal system\\nof weights and measures; the elements of algebra; the principles of\\ngeometry, with their application to the uses of common life the\\nindustrial arts, and agriculture; geography and history, especially of\\nSpain those principles of natural philosophy, chemistry, and natural\\nhistory, which are indispensably necessary for forming a general knowl-\\nedge of the phenomena of the universe, and for applying them to the\\nmore common uses of life a practical knowledge of agriculture peda-\\ngogy, or the general principles of education, and methods of teaching.\\n5. In the normal elementary schools the period of teaching shall be for\\ntwo years, and the following matters shall be embraced: Religion and\\nmorals; reading and writing Spanish grammar; arithmetic, with the\\nsystem of weights and measures; the elements of geometry lineal\\ndrawing the principles of geography, and a sketch of the history of\\nSpain some ideas of agriculture and knowledge of the methods of\\nteaching.\\n6. The programme of studies in the superior schools shall be formed\\non a plan to meet, as far as possible, the convenience of those who have\\nstudied two years in the elementary schools, so that they may pass\\ntheir third year in them.\\n7. In the superior schools there shall be both internal and external\\npupils; the elementary schools shall only have external pupil.=!. The\\nage of entering in reference to becoming a candidate for a mastership\\nin the normal schools shall not be under seventeen, nor over twenty-five.\\n8. There shall be in each superior normal school a head master, with\\nan annual salary of 10.000 rials, (\u00c2\u00a3100*;) a second master, with 8,000\\nrials; and a third, with 7,000 a director of the practical school, with a\\nsalary corresponding to that of a superior master, according to the\\nroyal decree of the 23d of September, 1847 an assistant or usher to\\nthe director, with half the salary assigned to the said master; an eccle-\\nsiastic intrusted with the instruction of morals and religion, with 2,000\\nrials of gratification, and the assistants that may be required.\\n9. In the normal elementary schools there shall be a chief master,\\nwith 8,000 rials a year of salary; a director of the practical school and\\nhis ushers, with the same salaries as those with the same names as\\nalready mentioned for the normal superior schools the ecclesiastic for\\nthe instruction of religion and morals, with a salary of 1,500 rials\\nand the necessary assistants.\\n10. The appointment of masters shall be by the government, through\\nmeans of a public exhibition or trial, giving, notwithstanding, a prefer-\\nence to those now actually holding these situations. The directors of\\nthe practical schools, and their assistants, shall be appointed by the\\nseveral town councils, according to the form prescribed for the ordinary\\nschools.\\n11. In order that the instruction in agriculture may be conveniently\\ngiven in the normal superior schools, and may be extended afterward\\nto the other schools in a uniform manner, the masters that may be\\nnamed for this object shall come in the first place to Madrid, with the\\n100 reales de vellon are about equal to jEl, or $5,00.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0652.jp2"}, "651": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCFIOOLS IN SPAIN. g49\\nenjoyment of their salaries in the Ibrm of a pension, in order that tiiey\\nluiiy, for the time judged necessary, make a special study of lliis science,\\nand acquire the otlier branches of knowledge connected with it, unless\\nthey should previously possess all the knowledge required in this par-\\nticular branch.\\n12. By the 11th article of the law, dated 21st July, 1838, all the\\nprovinces of the kingdom are under obligation to contribute to the sup-\\nport of these normal schools, and also a certain sum is assigned lor tiie\\nsame purpose in the general budget of the state. Tlie respective quotas\\nof the expenses incurred by these establishments shall be as follows:\\nThe province of Madrid shall contribute 12,000 rials annually; the\\nprovinces of tlie first class 8,000 those of tlie second class, 7,000 and\\nthose of the tliird, 6,000 The government shall contribute a sum\\nequal to the salaries of the directors and second masters of the supe-\\nrior schools, together with all tlte costs of the central school. Each\\nprovince shall contribute tor the support of two pupils in the superior\\nschool of their respective districts, a sum equal to that contributed by\\nthe government to each eslablislunent, according to their re.spective\\nlocalities. The expenses of school materials and attendants shall bo\\npaid by the })rovinces severally where the schools are settled, wlielher\\nsuperior or elementary. To aid in these expenses, each establishment\\nsliall be entitled to the matriculation fees of the students, and the con-\\ntributions of the children. The practical schools attached to the nor-\\nmal schools shall continue to be supported as they hitherto have been,\\nby the several town councils. The preservation of the buildings in\\nproper repair shall be the duty of the same councils.\\nTitle II. Of the Conditions and Examinations for obtaining the\\niSitiialion of a Master.\\n13. Every candidate for the situation of master in the elementary\\nschools must have studied two years in some one of the normal schools\\nof the two classes.\\n14. Every candidate for the situation of master in the superior schools\\nmust have studied a third year in one of the schools of the same class.\\n15. Every candidate for an elementary school, the salary of which\\nascends to 4.000 rials, must obtain the title of a superior master.\\n16. In future the examinations lor a superior school shall take place\\nonly in schools of this class. Those for an elementary school shall be\\nheld as hitherto, in any of the provinces.\\nTitle Of Inspectors.\\n17. In each province there shall be a school inspector, named by the\\ngovernment. Candidates for this otfice must have studied three years\\nin the central, or in one of the superior schools, and have acted as a\\nmaster for at least five years. At present all the directors and masters\\nof the existing or suppressed normal schools shall be eligible tor this\\nsituation.\\n18. The salaries of the inspectors shall be, in the provinces of the\\nfirst class, 10,000 rials in those of the second class, 9.000 and in those\\nof the third, 8.000 they shall also be paid traveling expenses, and\\nthese shall be considered equal to one-third of their annual salary.\\nBoth the salaries and the traveling expenses of the inspectors shall be\\npaid by the provinces, and shall be included in their budgets.\\n19. The provincial inspectors shall be, ex-offcio, members of the\\nSuperior Commission of Primary Instruction in their respective provinces.\\n20. The said inspectors, in those provinces where a normal elementary\\nschool is situated, shall be uridfr obliiiation to teach in the same, at", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0653.jp2"}, "652": {"fulltext": "650 SCHOOL INSPECTION IN SPAIN.\\ncertain times of the year, such branches as shall be assigned to them.\\nThey shall also supply the places of directors during their absence or\\nillness.\\n21. There shall be likewise six general inspectors, named and paid by\\nthe government, having each the salary of 12.000 rials. To obtain the\\noffice of inspector-general the candidates must have held the situation\\nof director of a superior normal school, or that of master in the central\\nschool.\\n22. The principal object of the general inspectors shall be to visit\\nthe normal schools, and the ordinary schools in the capitals of the prov-\\ninces. They shall also attend to all the commissions intrusted to them\\nby the government for the general ad vancementof elementary instruction.\\n23. The inspectors. botTi general and provincial, are prohibited from\\nholding either a public or a private school, or of acting as masters in\\nany establishment, except as is stated in Article 20.\\nTitle IV. Of the Secretaries of the Superior Commissions of Ele-\\nmentarij Instruction.\\n24. The secretaries of the superior commission of elementary\\ninstruction shall be appointed, as vacancies occur, from the masters who\\nhave obtained the title to a superior school. The government shall\\nname them from a list of three proposed by said commissioners. Their\\noffice shall be considered incompatible with any other employment,\\nincluding that of a master in any of the schools.\\n25. The salaries of the secretaries shall be, in Madrid, 12,000 rials in\\nprovinces of the first class. 9,000 in those of the second. 8,000; and in\\nthose of the third, 7,000. They shall defray the costs of their own sta-\\ntionery, but not those of postage or f rinting. These salaries and com-\\nmission expenses shall be, as heretoicre, a provincial charge.\\n26. In extraordinary cases, and when demanded by authority, or the\\nprovincial commission, the secretaries may be employed to visit any par-\\nticular school, but so as to be absent not more than fifteen days.\\n27. Regulations and special directions shall be made to fix the rou-\\ntine of the schools, the powers and duties of the inspectors, and all\\nother necessary points for the suitable fulfillment of this decree.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0654.jp2"}, "653": {"fulltext": "SCOTLAND,\\nThe parochizJ schools of Scotland have been the pride of her own peo-\\nple and the admiration of enlightened men in all countries. The founda-\\ntions of the system were laid in 1494. In that j ear it was enacted by\\nthe Scotch Pnrliament, that all barons and substantial freeholders\\nthroaghout the realm should send their cliildren to school from the age\\nof six to nine years, and then to other seminaries to be instructed in the\\nlaws; that the country might be possessed of persons properly qualified\\nto discharge the duties of sheriffs, and to fill other civil offices. Those\\nwho neglected to comply with the provisions of this statute vVere sub-\\njected to a penalty of \u00c2\u00a320. In 1560, John Knox and his compeers hold\\nthe following memorable language, in the First Book of Discipline, pre-\\nsented to the nobility.\\nSeeing that God has determined that his kirk here on earth shall be taught,\\nnot by angels, but by men and seeing that men are born ignorant of God and\\nof godliness; and seeing, also, that he ceaseth to illuminate men miraculously,\\nof necessity it is, that your honors be most careful for the virmous education\\nand godly lip-bringing of the youth of this realm. For as they must succeed to\\nus, so we ought to be careful that they have knowledge, and erudition to profit\\nand comfort that which ought to be most dear to us, to wit, the kirk and\\nspouse of our Lord Jesus Christ. Of necessity, therefore, we judge it, that\\nevery several kirk have one schoolmaster appointed such an one, at least, as\\nis able to teach grammar and the Latin tongue, if the town be of any reputation.\\nAnd further, we think it expedient, that in every notable town, there should be\\nerected a coll-ge, in which the arts at least of rhetoric and logic, together with\\nthe tongues, be read by sufficient masters, for whom honest stipends must be\\nappointed; as also that provision be made lor those that are poor, and not able\\nby themselves or their friends, to be sustained at letters.\\nThe rich and potent may not be permitted to sutTer their children to spend\\ntheir youth in a vain idleness, as heretofore they have done but they must be\\nexhorted, and, by the censure of the kirk, compelled to dedicate their sons by good\\nexerci ^es to the profit of the kirk, and commonwealth and this they must do,\\nbecause they are able. The children of the poor must be supported and sus-\\ntained on the charge of the kirk, trial being taken whether the spirit of docility\\nbe in them found, or not. If they be found apt to learning and letters, then may\\nthey not be permitted to reject learning, but must be charged to continue their\\nstudy, so that the commonwealth may have some comfort by them and for this\\npurpose, must discreet, grave, and learned men be appointed to visit schools, for\\nthe trial of their exercise, profit, and continuance; to wit, the ministers and\\nelders, with the best learned men in every town. A certain time must be ap-\\npointed to reading and learning the catechism, and a certain time to grammar\\nand to the Latin tongue, and a certain time to the arts of philosophy and the\\nother tongaes, and a certain lime to that study in which they intend chiefly to", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0655.jp2"}, "654": {"fulltext": "652 ELEMENTARY EnilCATION IN SCOTLAND.\\ntravel for the profit of the commonwealth which time being expired, the chil-\\ndren should either proceed to further knowledge, or else they must be set to\\nsome handicraft, or to some other profitable exercise.\\nIn 1615, an act of the Privy Council of Scotland empowered the bish-\\nops, along with the majority of the landlords or heritors, to establish a\\nschool in every parish in their respective dioceses, and to assess the\\nlands for that purpose. This act of the privy council was confirmed by\\nan act of the Scotch Parliament, in 1633 and under its authority, schools\\nwere established in the lower and the more cultivated districts of the\\ncountry. But the system was still far from being complete and the\\nmeans of obtaining elementary instruction continued so very deficient,\\nthat it became necessary to make a more complete and certain provision\\nfor the establishment of schools. This was done by the famous act of\\n16G6, the preamble of which states, that Our Sovereign Lord, consider-\\ning how prejudicial the want of schools in many places has been, and how\\nbeneficial the establishing and settling thereof will be to this church and\\nkingdom, thereibre, his Majesty, with advice and consent, c. The act\\nwent on to order, that a school be established, and a schoolmaster ap-\\npointed in every parish and it further ordered that the landlords should\\nbe obliged to build a school-hou.?e, and a dwelling-house for the use of\\nthe master and that they should pay him a salary, exclusive of the\\nfees of his scholars which should not fi^ll short of 5Z. lis. Id. a year, nor\\nexceed 111. 2s. 2d. The power of nominating and appointing the school-\\nmaster was vested in the landlords and the minister of the parish and\\nthey were also invested with the power of fixing the fees to be paid him\\nby the scholars. The general supervision of the schools was vested in\\nthe presbyteries in which they are respectively situated who have also\\nthe power of censuring, suspending, and dismissing the masters, without\\ntheir sentence being subject to the review of any other tribunal.\\nIt has been usually expected that a Scotch parish schoolmaster, be-\\nsides being a person of unexceptionable character, should be able to in-\\nstruct his pupils in the reading of English, in the arts of writing and\\narithmetic, the more common and useful branches of practical mathematics,\\nand that he should be possessed of such classical attainments as might\\nqualify him for teaching Latin and the rudiments of Greek.\\nIt would be no easy matter to exaggerate the beneficial effects of the\\nelementary instruction obtained at parish schools, on the habits and indus-\\ntry of the people of Scotland. It has given to that part of the empire an\\nimportance to which it has no claim, either from fertility of soil or amount\\nof population. The universal diffusion of schools, and the consequent\\neducation of the people, have opened to all classes paths to wealth, honor\\nand distinction. Persons of the humblest origin have raised themselves\\nto the highest eminence in every walk of ambition, and a spirit of fore-\\nthought and energy, has been widely disseminated.\\nAt the period when the act of 1696 was passed, Scotland, which had\\nsuffered greatly from misgovernment and religious persecutions under the\\nreigns of Charles II. and his brother, James II., was in the most unprosper-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0656.jp2"}, "655": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 653\\nous condition. There is a passage in one of the discourses of the cele-\\nbrated Scotch^ patriot, Fletcher of Saltoun, written in 1698, only two\\nyears after the act for the establishment of parochial schools had been\\npassed, that sets the wretched state of the country in the most striking\\npoint of view.\\nThere are, at this day in Scotland, besides a great many families very\\nmeanly provided for by the church boxes, with others who, by living upon bad\\nfood, fall into various diseases, two hundred thousand people begging figm door\\nto door. These are not only no way advantageous, but a very grievous burden\\nto so poor a country. And although the number of them be, perhaps, double to\\nwhat it was formerly, by reason of this present great distress, yet in all times\\nthere has been about a hundred thousand of these vagabonds, who have lived\\nwithout any regard or subjection, either to the laws of the land, or even those\\nof God and nature. No magistrate could ever discover which way one in a\\nhundred of these wretches died, or that ever they weie baptized. Many mur-\\nders have been discovered amongst them and they are a most unspeakable\\noppression 10 poor tenants, who, if they do not give bread, or some kind of pro-\\nvision, to perhaps forty such villains in a day, are sure to be insulted by them.\\nIn years of plenty many thousands of them meet together in the mountains,\\nwhere they feast and riol for many riays; and at country weddings, markets,-\\nburials, and other the like public occasions, they are to be seen, both men and\\nwomen, perpetually drunk, cursing, blaspheming, and fighting together. These\\nare such outrageon,s disorders, that it were better for the nation they were sold\\nfor the gallies or the West Indies, than that they should continue any longer to\\nbe a burden and a curse upon us.\\nNo country ever rose so rapidly from so frightful an abyss. In the au-\\ntumn circuits or assizes for the year 1757, no one person was found guilty,\\nin any part of the country, of a capital crime. And now, notwithstandinor\\nthe increase of population, and a vast influx of paupers from Ireland,\\nthere are very few beggars in the country; nor has any assessment been\\nimposed for the support of the poor, except in some of the large towns,\\nand in the counties adjoining England and even there it is so light as\\nscarcely to be felt. This is a great and signal change. We can not, in-\\ndeed, go quite so far as those who ascribe it entirely to the establishment\\nof the parochial system of education. It is, no doubt, most true, that this\\nsystem has had great influence in bringing about the change but much\\nmust also be ascribed to the establishment of a regular and greatly im-\\nproved system of government to the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions.\\nby the act of 1748 and to the introduction of what may. in its applica-\\ntion to the vast majority of cases, be truly said to be a system of speedy,\\ncheap and impartial justice. Certainly, however, it was the diffusion of\\neducation that enabled the people to avail themselves of these advan-\\ntages and which has, in consequence, led to a far more rapid improve-\\nment; than has taken place in any other European country.\\nThe General Assembly of the Church of Scotland has ever taken an\\nactive interest in the parochial schools. Immediately after the passage\\nof the act of 1696. the Presbyteries were instructed to carry it into effect,\\nand Synods, to make particular inquiry that it was done. In 1704, the\\nAssembly undertook to supply schools to such part of the highlands and\\nislands as could not be benefited by the act of 1696. In 1705, ministers\\nwere ordered to see that no parents neglected the teaching of their chil-", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0657.jp2"}, "656": {"fulltext": "654 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND.\\ndren to read. In 1706, it was recommended to such as settled schoolmas-\\nters, to prefer men who had passed their course at colleges and univer-\\nsities, and have taken their degrees, to such as have not. In 1707,\\nSynods and Presbyteries were directed to send into the General Assem-\\nbly returns of the means and condition of the parochial schools.\\nThe internal dissensions of Scotland and other causes, however, Avith-\\ndrew the public attention from the schools; and the advance of society in\\nother respects, and the want of a corresponding advance in the wages of\\nteachers, and the internal improvement of the schools, all combined to sink\\nthe condition of parochial education. In 1794, the General Assembly be-\\ncame roused to the subject. Visitation of the schools was enjoined on the\\nclergy and they were particularly instructed to inquire into the qualifi-\\ncations of the teachers. In 1802, the Assembly issued the following dec-\\nlaration, c.\\nThat parochial schoolmasters, by instilling into youth the principles of reli-\\ngion and morality, and solid and practical instruction, contribute to the im-\\nprovement, order, and success of people of all ranks and are therefore well\\nentitled to public encouragement: That from the decrease in the value of money,\\ntheir emoluments have descended below the gains of a day laborer: That\\nit has been found impossible to procure persons properly qualified to fill paro-\\nchial schjols That the whole order is sinking into a state of depression hurt-\\nful to their usefulness That it is desirable that some means he devised to hold\\nforth inducements to men of good principles and talents to undertake the office\\nof parochial schoolmasters: And that such men would prove instrumental in\\ncounteracting the operations of those who may now, and afterward, attempt to\\npoison the minds of the rising generation with principles inimical to religion,\\norder, and the constitution in church and state.\\nIn consequence of this declaration by the Church of Scotland, and of the\\ncomplaints which were sent up from all parts of the country. Parliament,\\nin the course of the next session, passed the famous act of 1803, which or-\\ndains as follows:\\nThat, in terms of the act of 1696, a school be established, and a schoolmas-\\nter appointed in every parish, the salary of the schoolmaster not to be under\\nthree hundred marks, (16/. 135. 4d..) nor above four hundred, {221. 4s. 5d. That\\nin large parishes, where one parochial school can not be of any effectual benefit,\\nit shall be competent lor the heritors and minister to raise a salary of six hun-\\ndred marks, (33^. 6s. 8d.,) and to divide the same among two or more schoolma.s-\\nters. as circumstances may require That in every parish the heritors shall\\nprovide a school-house, and a dwelling-house for the schoolmaster, together\\nwith a piece of ground for a garden, the dwelling-house to consist of not more\\nthan two apartments, and the piece of ground to contain not less than one-\\nfourth of a Scots acre; except in parishes where the salary has been raised to\\nsix hundred marks, in which the heritors shall be exempted from providing\\nschool-houses, dwelling-houses, and gardens That the foregoing sums shall\\ncontinue to be the salaries of parochial schoolmasters till the end of twenty-five\\nyears, when they shall be raised to the average value of not less than one chal-\\nder and a half of oatmeal, and not more than two chalders; except in parishes\\nwhere the salaries are divided among two or more schoolmasters, in which case\\nthe whole sum so divided shall be raised to the value of three chalders and so\\ntoties quoties at the end of every twenty-five years, unless altered by parliament:\\nThat none of the provisions of this act shall apply to parishes, which consist of\\na royal burgh, or part of a royal burgh That the power of electing schoolmas-\\nters continue with the heritors and minister, a majority of whom shall also de-\\ntermine what branches of education are most necessary and important for the\\nparish, and shall from time to time fix the school-fees as they shall deem expe-\\noient: That the presbyteries of the church shall judge whether candidates for", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0658.jp2"}, "657": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. 555\\nschools possess the necessary qualifications, shall continue to superintend paro-\\nchial schools, and shall be the sole judges in all charges against schoolmas-\\nters, without appeal or review.\\nIn the year 1828, as the statute had provided, a small addition was\\nmade to the emoluments of the parochial schoolmasters, the maximum\\nsalary having been increased to 34i. As. Ad., and the minimum to\\n251. 13s. 3d.\\nThe deplorable scenes of outrage and murder, which occurred in the\\nstreets of Edinburgh on the 1st of January, 1812, made the city clergy\\nanxious to devise some means for diminishing the mass of crime and\\nmisery which was then brought to light. The scheme first proposed, and\\ncarried into execution, was to establish sabbath schools in all the parishes\\nwithin the royalty, to which they gave the name of the Parochial Institu-\\ntions for Religious Education. It was soon found, however, that the use-\\nfulness of these institutions was greatly limited, in consequence of a very\\ngreat number of the children, for whose benefit they were intended, being\\nunable to read. It was therefore proposed that, in connection with the\\nsabbath schools, a day school should be established, which was accord-\\ningly opened on the 29th of April, 1813. This day school took the name\\nof the Edinburgh Sessional School, from the circumstance of its being\\nsuperintended by a minister or an elder from each kirk-session* in the city.\\nThe object of this school is to give instruction to the children of the poor\\nin reading, writing, and arithmetic. Five gratis scholars may be recom-\\nmended by each kirk-session but the charge to all the others is sixpence\\nper month. For many years the average attendance has been about\\n500; so that the school-fees, together with occasional donations, and a\\nsmall share of the collections made annually at the church doors for the\\nparochial institutions. h ive hitherto been sufficient to meet the ordinary\\nexpenses of the school. At first, no particular regulations were laid\\ndown for conducting the Sessional School but afier some years, the\\nsystem of Dr. Bell was partially introduced. In the year 1819, circum-\\nstances led Mr. John Wood, Sheriff-deputy of the county of Peebles, to\\ntake an interest in the institution and that benevolent individual began\\nby degrees to give so much of his time and attention to it, that it soon be-\\ncame almost identified with his name. Under his superintendence, a\\nlarge and commodious school-house was erected, and the system of\\nteaching entirely re-modeled. In the latter department of his meritori-\\nous labors, Mr. Wood did not adopt the particular views of any one wri-\\nter on education, but collected from all what he thought useful, and ar-\\nranged it into a method of his own. So judicious is this plan of tuition,\\nthat it has not only been crowned with complete success in the Sessional\\nA kirk-se.ision is the lowest ecclesiastical court in Scotlnnd. and consists of the clergymen of\\neach congregation, with a small number of lay elders it generally meets on Sunday, after public\\nworship. The next court, in point of judicial authority, is the presbytery, which consists of nil the\\nclergymen within a certain district, with a lay elder from each congregation this court meets once\\na month. All the presbyteries within given bounds, form a still higher court, called a synod, which\\nmeets twice in the year. The General .Issemhly is the supreme judicial and legislative court of\\nthe Church of Scotland it consists of clerical and lay representatives from the several presbyteries,\\nof a lay elder from each royal burgh, and of a Commissioner to represent bis Majesty, and holds itf\\nsittings at Edinburgh, once a year, for about a fortnight.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0659.jp2"}, "658": {"fulltext": "656 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND\\nSchool, but has been introduced, either partially, or entirely, into many\\nother public and private seminaries, and has, in fact, given a new im-\\npulse to the work of elementary instruction throughout Scotland.\\nIn 1837 the Sessional School was, with the approbation of Mr. Wood,\\nconstituted the Normal School of the General Assembly, and persons in-\\ntending to offer themselves as teachers in schools aided by Ihe Education\\nCommittee, were iurnished with opportunities of conducting classes daily,\\nand of being instructed Avith pupils of the same standing with themselves.\\nPrevious to this movement, in 1835, the Educational Society of Glasgow\\nhad been formed, among other purposes, for the training of teachers for\\njuvenile schools. In 1842, both of these institutions were placed under\\nthe direction of the Educational Committee of the Chvjrch of Scotland,\\nand the Committee of Council on Education, in that year, made a grant of\\n$50,000 toward providing a new building for the Normal School at\\nEdinburgh, and completing a building already commenced for the Nor-\\nmal School at Glasgow. The two buildings cost about $130,000. In the\\nsame year the General Assembly appointed a superintendent to visit the\\nschools aided by the education committee, and voted to aid in the erection\\nof not less than five hundred new schools in connection with destitute\\nparishes.\\nIn 1841. William Watson, Sheriff-substitute of Aberdeenshire, com-\\nmenced a system of Industrial Schools in Aberdeen, which embraced\\nwithin its comprehensive grasp, all classes of idle, vagrant children, and\\nin its beneficent operation, cleansed in two years a large town and county\\nof juvenile criminals and beggars. Out of this experiment has grown\\nthe system of Ragged and Industrial Schools, which are now found in\\nmany of the large towns of England, Scotland and Ireland.\\nThe permanent support of public, and in some cases, free schools, is\\nprovided for in certain localities by the income of funds left by will or do-\\nnation for this purpose. It has been estimated that the annual income\\nof these funds amounts to near $100,000.\\nThere are a number of local societies, such as that for Propagating\\nChristian Knowledge, founded in 1701, the Gaelic School Society, that of\\nInverness, Ayrshire, c., instituted for the purpose of supplying destitute\\nparishes with schools, and of aiding those already established. The sums\\nannually appropriated by the societies, amount to about $75,000.\\nThe Church of Scotland and the Free Church of Scotland, together,\\nappropriate, out of permanent funds and contributions collected in the\\nchurches for this purpose, the sum of $50,000 in aid of schools in destitute\\nparishes, and in educating teachers for the parochial schools generally.\\nIn 1836, the sum of $50,000 was voted by Parliament in aid of private\\nsubscriptions for the erection of school-houses, and the establishment of\\nModel Schools.\\nNotwithstanding all these efforts, the extension of the system of p8U o-\\nchial schools has not kept up with the growth of the population, espe-\\ncially in the manufacturing towns, and the quality of the education given\\nhas not met the demands of educated and wealthy families.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0660.jp2"}, "659": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. 657\\nOne of the most interesting facts in the history of parochial schools in\\nScotland, wherever they were adequately maintained, was the attend-\\nance in them of children from families widely separated in outward cir-\\ncumstances the rich and the poor, the laborer with his hands and the\\nlaborer with his head. The presence of the children of the better edu-\\ncated and wealthier classes gave importance to the school in the estimation\\nof the poor, and raised the whole tone and standard of manners and intel-\\nlectual culture within the school and village. It created, too, a bond of\\nunion in society, which is thus beautifully noticed by Lord Brougham,\\n(then Henry Brougham,) in some remarks at a public dinner in Edin-\\nburgh, in 1825.\\nA public school, like the Old High School of Edinburgh, is invaluable, and for\\nwhat is it sol It is because men of the highest and lowest rank in society\\nsend their children to be educated together. The oldest IViend 1 have in the\\nworld, your worthy Vice President, and myself, were at the High School of\\nEdinburgh together, and in the same class along with others, who still possess\\nour friendship, and some of ihem in a rank of life still higher than his. One of\\nthem was a nobleman, who is now in the House of Peers; and some of them\\nwere sons of shopkeepers in the lowest parts of the Cowgate of Edinburgh\\nshops of the most inferior description and one or two of them were the sons of\\nmenial servants in the town. There they were, sitting side by side, giving and\\ntaking places from each other, without the slightest impression on the part of\\nmy noble friends of any superiority on their pans to the other boys, or any ideas\\nof inferiority on the part of the other boys to them; and this is my reason for\\npreferring the Old High School of Edinburgh to other, and what may be\\ntermed more patrician schools, however well regulated or conducted.\\nAnother distinguished pupil of this school remarks: Several circum-\\nstances distinguished the High School beyond any other which I attended\\nfor instance, variety of ranks for 1 used to sit between a youth of a\\nducal family and the son of a poor cobler. This fact will distinguish\\ngood public schools of a superior grade, provided they are cheap, every\\nwhere. The High School, like the parochial schools of Scotland, gener-\\nally is not a I ree school, but the quarterly charge for tuition is small as\\ncompared with the actual cost of instruction in private institutions of the\\nsame grade. The fees payable in advance are \u00c2\u00a31. Is. per quarter. The\\ncourse of instruction embraces all the branches of the liberal education\\nsuitable to boys, from eight to sixteen years of age.\\nIn connection with this mention of the High School of Edinburgh, Ave\\nwill introduce a few historical facts, which point back to a very early\\nperiod for the origin of the system of parochial schools in Scotland. The\\nfunds out of which the edifice now occupied by the high school Avas built,\\nand which was completed in 1829. at an expenseof \u00c2\u00a334.199, were derived,\\nin part, from endowments belonging to the Abbey of Holyroocj. founded\\nby David I., in 1236, with which this school was connected as early as\\n1500. The school came into the management of the magistrates of\\nEdinburgh in 1566. Prior to that, a grammar school had existed in the\\nCannongate, under the charge of the friars of the same monastery, past\\nthe meraorie of man, as is stated in a memorial to the privy council, in\\n1580. In the year 1173, Perth and Stirling had their school, of which\\nthe monks of Dumfernline were directors. Authentic records introduce\\n42", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0661.jp2"}, "660": {"fulltext": "66R ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND.\\nUS to Similar institutions in the towns of Aberdeen and Ayr. The .schools\\nin the county of Roxburgli were under the care of the monks of Kelso\\nas early as 1241 those of St. Andrew, in 1233 and those of Montrose, in\\n1329.\\nThe success of the school system of Scotland is to be attributed to their\\nbeintj erected on a permanent and conspicuous foundation, and to that\\nparticular constitution which made the situation of the teacher desirable\\nto young men of education, for its competent salary, permanence, and so-\\ncial consideration. Of the tliree modes of providing ibr popular instruc-\\ntion, that in which the scholars pay every thing, and the public nothing\\nthat in which the public pay every thing by a tax on property, or by\\navails of permanent funds, and the scholars nothing and that in which\\nthe burden is shared by both, the latter was adopted in the original plan\\nof the Scotch schools. The existence of the school was not left to chance\\nor charity, but was permanently fixed by law on every parish. The\\nschool edifice and the residence of the teacher were to be provided for by\\npublic assessment, as much as the church, or the public road, or bridge.\\nThe salary of the teachers was so far fixed by law, that it could not sink\\nbelow the means of a respectable maintenance according to the standard\\nof living in a majority of the country parishes.\\nDr. Chalmers, in his valuable Considerations on the System of ParO\\nchial Schools in Scotland, thus notices some of the peculiarities of the\\nsystem\\nThe nniversfility of the habit of education in our Lowland parishes, is cer-\\ntainly a very striking fact nor do we think that the mere lowness of the price\\nforms the whole explanation of it. There is more than may appear at first\\nsight, in the very circumstance of a marked and separate edifice, standing vis-\\nibly out to the eye of the people, M ith its familiar and oft-repeated designation.\\nThere is also much in the constant residence of a teacher, moving through the\\npeople of his locality, and of recognized office and distinction amongst them.\\nAnd perhaps there is most of all in the lie which binds the locality itself to the\\nparochial seminary, that has long stood as the place of repair, for the successive\\nyoung belonging to the parish; for it is thus that one family borrows its prac-\\ntice from another and the example spreads from house lo house, till it embraces\\nthe whole of the assigned neighborhood and the act of sending their children\\nto the school, passes at length into one of the tacit, but well-undei:stood propri-\\neties of the vicinage and new families just fall, as if by infection, into the habit\\nof the old ones so as. in fact, to g:ive a kind of firm, mechanical certainty to\\nthe operation of a habit, from which it were violence and sin^ulaiitv lo depart,\\nand in virtue of which, ediication has acquired a universality in Scotland,\\nwhich is unknown in the other countries of the world,\\nThe best minds of Scotland are at this time directed to a re-construc-\\ntion of the system of parochial schools, or to such an extension of its bene-\\nfits, as will reach at once, the wants of the large towns, and of the spar.-=!ely\\npopulated parishes. Among the plans set forth, we have seen nothing\\nmore complete than the following, which is signed by some of the most\\ndistinguished names in Scotland.\\nThe subscribers of this document, believing that the state of Scotland and\\nthe general feeling of its inhabitants justify and demand the legislative estab-\\nlishment of a comprehensive plan of national education, have determined that\\nan effort shall be made to unite the friends of this great cause on principles at\\nonce so general and so definite as to form a basis for practical legislation and", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0662.jp2"}, "661": {"fulltext": "El-EMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. ^59\\nwith this view, they adopt the following resolutions, and recommend them to the\\nconsideration of the country\\n1. That while it might be difficult to describe, with a near approach to sta-\\ntistical precision, the exact condition of Scotland at this moment in regard to\\neducation, there can be no doubt that, as a people, we have greatly snnk from\\nour former elevated position among educated nations, and that a large propor-\\ntion of our youth are left without education, to grow up in an ignorance misera-\\nble to themselves and dangerous to society; that this slate of matters is the\\nmore melancholy, as this educational destitution is found chiefly among the\\nmasses of our crowded cities, in our manufacturing and mining districts, and\\nin the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, where the people are not likely spon-\\ntaneously to provide instruction for themselves; that the quality of education,\\neven where it does exist, is often as defective as its quantity; and that this is a\\nstate of things requiring an immediate remedy.\\n2. That the subscribers hold it to be of vital and primary importance that\\nsound religious instruction be communicated to all the youth of the \\\\und by\\nteachers duly qualified; and they express this conviction in the full belief that\\nthere will never be any enlargement of education in Scotland, on a popular and\\nnational basis, which will not carry with it an extended distribution of religious\\ninstruction; while, from the strong religious views entertained by the great\\nmass of the people of this country, and the interest which they take in the mat-\\nter of education, the subscribers can see in the increase of knowledge only an\\nenlargement of the desire and of the capacity to communicate a full religious\\neducation to the generation whose parents have participated in this advantage.\\n3. That the parish schools of Scotland are quite inadequate to the educa-\\ntional wants of the country, and are defective and objectionable in consequence\\nof the smallness of the class invested with the patronage, the limited portion of\\nthe community from which the teachers are selected, the general inadequacy\\nof their remuneration, and the system of management applicable to the schools,\\ninferring as it does the exclusive control of church courts; that a general sys-\\ntem of national education, on a .\u00c2\u00abound and popular basis, and capable of com-\\nmunicating instruction to all classes of the community, is urgently called for;\\nand that provision should be made to include in any such scheme, not only all\\nthe parish schools, but also all existing schools, wherever they are required by\\nXhi necessities of the population, whose supporters may be desirous to avail\\nthemselves of its advantages.\\n4. That the teachers appointed under the system contemplated by the subscri-\\nbers should not be required by law to subscribe any religious test that Normal\\nSchools for the training of teachers should be established that, under a general\\narrangement for the examination of the qualifications of schoolmasters, the pos-\\nsession of a license of certificate of qualification should be necessary to entitle\\na teacher to become a candidate for any school under the national system and\\nthat provision should be made for the adequate remuneration of all teachers\\nwho may be so appointed.\\n5. That the duty and responsibility of communicating religious instruction to\\nchildren have, in the opinion of the subscribers, been committed by God to their\\nparents, and through them to such teachers as they may choose to intrust with\\nthat duty; that in the numerous schools throughout Scotland, which have been\\nfounded and supported by private contribution, the religious element has al-\\nways held a prominent place; and that, were the power of selecting the masters,\\nfixing the branches to be taught, and managing the schools, at present vested\\nby law in the Heritors of Scotland and the Presbyteries of the Established\\nChurch, to be transferred to the heads of families under a national system of\\neducation, the subscribers would regard such an arrangement as affording not\\nonly a basis of union for the great mass of the people of this country, but a far\\nbstter security than any that at present exists both for a good secular and a\\ngood Christian education.\\n6. That m regard to a legislative measure, the subscribers are of opinion,\\nwith the late lamented Dr. Chalmers, that there is no other method of extri-\\ncation. from the difficulties with which the question of education in connection\\nwith religion is encompassed in this country, than the plan suggested by him\\nas the only practicable one,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 namely, That in any public measure for helping\\non the education of the people, government [should] abstain from introducing\\nthe element of religion at all into their part of the scheme, and this, not because", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0663.jp2"}, "662": {"fulltext": "660 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND.\\nthey held the matter to be insignificant the contrary might be strongly ex-\\npressed in the preamble of their act but on the ground that, in the present di-\\nvided state of the Christian world, they would lake no cognizance of, just be-\\ncause they would attempt no control over, the religion of applicants for aid\\nleaving this matter entire to the parties who had to do with the erection and\\nmanagement of the schools which they had been called upon to assisi. A\\ngrant by the State upon this footing might be regarded as being appropiiately\\nand exclusively the expression of their value for a good secular education.\\n7. That in order to secure the confidence of the people of Scotland generally\\nin a national system of education, as well as to secure its efficiency, the following\\nshould be its main features: 1st, That Local Boards should be established,\\nthe members to be appointed by popular election, on the principle of giving the\\nfranchise to all male heads of families being householders; and with these\\nBoards should lie the selection of masters, the general management of the\\nschools, and the right, without undue interference with the master, to direct the\\nbranches of education to be taught. 2d, That there should be a general su-\\nperintending authority, so constituted as to secure the public confidence, and\\nto be responsible to the country through Parliament, which, without supersed-\\ning the Local Boards, should see that their duties are not neglected prevent\\nabuses from being perpetrated through carelessness or design check extrava-\\ngant expenditure protect the interests of all parties collect and preserve the\\ngeneral statistics of education and diflTuse throughout the country, by commu-\\nnication with the local boards, such knowledge on the subject of education,\\nand such enlightened views, as their authoritative position, and their command\\nof aid from the highest intellects in the country, may enable them to commu-\\nnicate.\\nWere such a system adopted, the subscribers are of opinion that it would be\\nquite unnecessary either for the legislature or any central authority to dictate\\nor control the education to be imparted in the National Schools, or to prescribe\\nany subject to be taught, or book to be used and should a measure founded on\\nthese suggestions become law, not only would the subscribers feel it to be their\\nduty, but they confidently believe the ministers and religious communities in\\nthe various localities would see it to be theirs, to use all their influence in pro-\\nmoting such arrangements as, in the working of the plan, would effectually se-\\ncure a sound religious education to the children attending the schools.\\nIn September, 1847, on the invitation of an educational association of\\nGlasgow, a large meeting of teachers from various parts of Scotland was\\nconvened in the High School of Edinburgh, and the Educational Insti-\\ntute of Scotland was formed. The following is the preamble of the\\nconstitution\\nAs the office of a public teacher is one of great responsibility, and of much\\nimportance to the welfare of the community; as it requires for its right dis-\\ncharge, a considerable amount of professional acquirements and skill; and as\\nthere is no organized body in Scotland, whose duty it is to ascertain and cer-\\ntify the qualifications of those intending to enter upon this office, and whose at-\\ntestation shall be a sufficient recommendation to the individual, and guarantee\\nto his employers; it is expedient that the teachers of Scotland, agreeably to the\\npractice of other liberal professions, should unite for the purpose of supplying\\nthis defect in the educational arrangements of the country, and thereby of in-\\ncreasing their efficiency, improving their condition, and raising the standard of\\neducation in general.\\nAmong the modes of advancing the objects of the Institute, are speci-\\nfied the dissemination of a knowledge of the theory and practice of\\neducation by means of public lectures, and the institution of libraries.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0664.jp2"}, "663": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS\\nEDINBURGH AND GLASGOW\\nThe Normal School at Edinburgh originated in 1826, when the Educa-\\ntion Committee of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland\\nplaced a few teachers appointed to their schools in the Highlands, at one\\nof their best conducted schools in Edinburgh, for a short course of prepar-\\natory training. In 1838. the Sessional School of Tron Parish, was trans-\\nferred to that Committee, to enable them to pursue this plan with more\\nconvenience and effect.^It was the best model elementary school in Scot-\\nland, and it was used, as much as possible, to all the intents of a normal\\nseminary for teachers, under the care of the Assembly Committee, down\\nto the year 1845, when the new building in Castle Place, built expressly\\nfor a Normal School, was occupied for the same purpose, with a model\\nschool constituted of children from the immediate neighborhood.\\nIn the mean time, an Institution had been established in Glasgow,\\nmainly through the efforts of Mr. Stow, and an association, called the\\nGlasgow Education Society, for the purpose of training a class of teach-\\ners who should be qualified to afford to the neglected children of the poor\\nin that city, much of that moral education which was wanting to them at\\nhome. The attempt to erect a suitable building for the accommodation of\\nthe Normal and Model schools, embarrassed the Society, and about the\\nyear 1840, the institution was transferred to the General Assembly s\\nCommittee; and in that year the Committee of Council on Education\\nmade a grant of 10,000L to the same Committee, to enable them to com-\\nplete the building at Glasgow, and erect a new edifice at Edinburgh, on\\ncondition that 5.000Z. should be raised for the latter purpose by the Gene-\\nral Assembly.\\nThe circumstances out of which these institutions arose, are thus noticed\\nby Mr. Gordon, her Majesty s Inspector of Schools for Scotland, from\\nwhose Report for 1847, the following account is compiled\\n1. It was seen that a considerable part of the lower population, whether because\\nschools were wanting, or ill conducted, or ill attended, had received little or no ed-\\nucation; and it was judged that, if more attention were bestowed upon the prepa-\\nration of teachers, an improvement in tins respect would take place, not merely from\\nthe abler tuition so provided, but from that better inclination to be instructed, which\\nfollows in general the appearance of intelligent and zealous masters. It was sup-\\nposed, also, that such a preparation of the teachers, at once more liberal and more\\nspecially directed to their profession, would help to the attainment of their proper\\nplace in the community, and so benefit the education of the country for if the in-\\ncreased resort to schools should do little for their advantage in respect of income,\\nsome advantage of the kind would be the more apt, with every addition to their\\nmerits, to arise from other quarters if not, the benefit would remain, of their pos-\\nsessing as much intelligence as would itself prove a source of enjoyment and re-\\nBpectalMlity.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0665.jp2"}, "664": {"fulltext": "662 EDINBXniGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS.\\n2. In the next place, the population had so far outgrown the means of education\\nprovided by law, th^it the unendowed schools were more than three times the num-\\nber of the endowed, while their masters were generally inferior to those of the\\nlatter class, and often so unequal to the duty they had undertaken, as to sugge-t\\nforcibly the need of their being somehow enabled to come to it with more of the\\nrequisite qualification. And this appeared the more needful, as the nonparoeJiial\\nteachers were not subject to the same legal test of qualification as those ofthees-\\ntabhshed schools, wliile the want of such a test in their case might be, in some\\nmeasure, supplied by a system of preliminary training.\\n3. The opportunities of employment opened up by the extension of commerce,\\nmanufactures, mining, and other kinds of industry, had indirectly tended to lower\\nstill more the qualification of tho-^- wlio wore left ti pursue the business of teaching.\\n4. Another effect of the extension of tlie national industry in these departments\\nwas to withdraw from school a great proportion of the children of tiie laboring\\nclasses at a very early age and it was plain that the shorter the period of educa-\\ntion, so much the more need that the masters should be competent to employ it to\\ngood account.\\n5. It was observed that there is a tendency in the occupations connected with\\nsome of the branches of industry now mentioned, to impair the character of do-\\nmestic education among the laboring classes and the remedy was looked for in the\\nschool. The school came, on this account, to he considered, rather more than it had\\nbeen, as a place not merely of instruction, but of general education as appropi-i-\\nating, in fact, somewliat more of the office of the parent. It followed that the\\ngeneral cliaracter and manners of the masters became to the promoters of schools\\na matter of still greater interest than beft)re and the same could be. at once, dis-\\ncovered and formed, or in some degree influenced, in the Normal School.\\n6. There was another and more special reason for the ostiiblishment of schools\\nof this sort, in the improvements which had been recently introduced upon the\\nmethods of elementary instruction, and this chiefly in the Sessional School, Market\\nPlace, Edinburgh. To establish a normal seminary might well be considered as\\ntiie readiest mode of diff using a knowledge of such improvements; and according-\\nly the Sessional School now mentioned was among tlie first, if not the first in Scot-\\nland, which came to be employed for normal purposes.\\n7. It became more commonly known than before, that institutions of the kind had\\nbeen tried in Prussia, Germany, and France, and with results that might well tempt\\nthe experiment elsewhere.\\nThese circumstances suggested the formation of a seminary for the preparation\\nof teachers, in the hope of thereby amending much of what was seen to be amiss\\nin the state of education throughout the country and accordingly the education\\nBouglit aid of the Committee of Council, which was granted to tlie extent of 10,-\\n000/. for building purposes, and 1,000/. annually, towards the current expenses of\\nthe two institutions. the sums to be divided equally between them, and the Gene-\\nal Assembly obligating itself to appropriate a like sum to the same objects.\\nEach seminary is superintended by a Sub-committee of the General As-\\nsembly s Education Committee, who appoint the masters, regulate the\\nexpenditures, the rate of school-fees, the terms of admission, and other\\nmatters.\\nEach seminary has a fund applicable to its uses of 1,000/. besides a\\nrevenue from school fees, amounting to about 250/. more. Both are open\\nto candidates of all religious denominations, and to students who do not\\nreside, as to those who do reside in the institution. About one-half of the\\nstudents are admitted free, (their expenses of board and tuition are paid\\nout of the permanent resources of the Committee)- one quarter reside\\nin the institution at their own expense, and one quarter reside out of the\\ninstitution and pay their own board, and an admission fee of one guinea.\\nThe average number in attendance is fifty.\\nThe board of instruction consists of a Rector, a first, second and third\\nmaster, who give their time wholly to their respective seminaries, and\\nthree other masters who teach only for certain hours in each day.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0666.jp2"}, "665": {"fulltext": "EDINBiniGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. 663\\nThe opportunities of instruction in the arts of teaching arid of school\\nmanagement, which form the distinguisliing object of tliese schools, have\\nbeen provided in three different ways- by piactice, by example, and by\\nlecture. The students are appointed to teach, and to observe the teaching\\nof the masters in the model or practising schools, which are constituent\\nparts of the seminaries, and which, though intended at the same time for\\nthe instruction of the children of the poor, must be regarded mainly as\\nsubservient to the normal office of the institutions with which they are\\nconnected.\\nTlie attendance at each school amounts to about 550.\\nThe methods employed in the practising schools are not distinguished\\nfrom those which are common in other schools of tlie better class. Normal\\nschools may be expected to teach something of the nature of all methods\\nof any recognised value but their practising departments must be con-\\nducted on some single, congruous system. The simultaneous method,\\naccordingly, is practised in both schools, but v*ith that care to ascertain\\nthe impression made upon the minds of individuals, without which that\\nmode is incomplete. The monitorial plan is not employed in cither school,\\nsimply becavise the aid it furnishes is not there needed but a semblance\\nof it is presented in the teaching of the students. The Glasgow school has\\nstill some features of the system on which it was originally conducted\\nthe gallery exercises, among which is the admirably conducted Bible\\nlesson, frequent singing, much precision in the movements of the classes,\\nregulated gymnastics, a style of interrogation that supplies great part of\\nthe answer, and that negation of all distinctions by means of places or\\nreward, which has been noticed as marking with less questionable\\npropriety, the order of the students when classed together for their separate\\ninstruction.\\nIn the Edinburgh school, each student is occupied in instructing a section\\nof the pupils two hours daily. One section of the children is placed un^er\\ncharge of two students, who teach that section alternately for the space of\\nfourteen days. Another section in a diflerent stage of- progress then\\nsucceeds, and remains under the same charge for the same length of time\\nand so on, till, in the course of two months, an occasion of teaching has\\nbeen given to each, in all the branches and in every stage of progress.\\nMeantime, their manner of conducting their respective sections is observed\\neither by the rector, who is present in the practising school for this\\npurpose one hour and a half daily on an average, or by one or other of the\\nmasters, who employ tw^o hours daily in like manner, each master,\\nhowever, confining himself to a distinct section of the school. The\\nstudents are thus under direct observation, during the greater part of the\\ntime they are employed in teaching and afterwards, in their private class\\nthey receive the remarks which the rector and the masters may have made\\nupon the manner in which they severally appeared to have performed their\\ntasks.\\nThey are, next, allowed to see the masters teach daily, for a certain\\nlength of time, amounting on an average to one hour and a half. On these\\noccasions, all the students are present at the same time, and all the\\nbranches are taught in rotation, upon the days specified in the Time-table\\nappended. They are required to mark closely everything in the masters\\nmode of conaucting the different lessons, and to note down their remarks\\nfor their own benefit afterwards. The notes are subsequently examined\\nand it is soon perceived, in the character of their own succeeding practice,\\nhow far they had profited from the example of the masters.\\nLastly, they have all, both male and female, an opportunity of attend-\\ning a weekly lecture delivered by the rector upon the theory and art of", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0667.jp2"}, "666": {"fulltext": "664 EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS.\\nteaching, the design of -which is described as being to counteract the ten-\\ndency of the practical engagements of the elementary school to degenerate\\ninto mere routine and a copy of the superintending master. The course\\nconsists of twenty lectures, occupied with the various topics set forth in\\nthe appended Syllabus.\\nIf the object of the common school be not merely to instruct, but to\\neducate not merely to inform the understanding, but to cultivate the\\nentire character, the object of the normal school is assuredly no less com-\\nprehensive. The schoolmaster, it is always to be remembered, is a moral\\nteacher, and mu.st be prepared expressly for that delicate and difficult\\noffice. The normal t^ohools accordingly provide for communicating this\\nqualification.\\nEach hour in the day, from 6 a. m. to half-past 10 p. m., has its allotted\\noccupation, fixed by rules which are unvarying, and, so far as could be\\nperceived, invariably observed. Half an hour is set apart in the morning\\nfor devotional exercises, and half an hour for the same in the evening.\\nOn Sabbath one hour and a half is employed, under the rector, in exercises\\nupon Bible history and Christian doctrine public worship is attended in\\none or other of the churches of the city and in the evening, written\\nabstracts of the discourses heard during the day are prepared and\\nsubmitted to the rector s inspection. These arrangements mark a due\\nsolicitude for the moral well-being of the students, and a sense of its\\nessential connection with the professional qualification of a school-master.\\nAt the same time, the general culture of the students at the Normal\\nschool almost necessarily receives a bent to their future calling and this\\nfrom the proper influences of tlie place, in particular from the fellowship\\n^of so many engaged in the same studies, brought together after a common\\ntrial, looking forward to the same pursuit, and entertaining the same\\nhopes, anxieties, and ambitions. A society so formed begets a bias to the\\nprofessed object so decided, that there is less hazard than might have been\\nexpected of the superior instruction of a normal school tempting to aspire\\nbeyond the schoolmaster s calling.\\nThe following is the plan on which both schools are now conducted\\nThe Directors have considered, in the first place, that schools for the cliildren of\\nthe poor, if they do not need to afford moi-e than a limited elementary education,\\nbehove to afford the same by masters as competent within their range as any\\nmasters intiusted with a more extended cliarge nay, tliat there are difficulties in\\nthe management of sucli schools, from the short and broken attendance of the\\npupils, that require in the teachers somewhat more than the usual ability and\\ndevotion to their duty. They have considered, further, that a more advanced educa-\\ntion is sought at many schools, the teacliers of which arc not qualified, and have\\nhad no means of being qualified, to supply it. For these reasons they have pro-\\nposed\\n1. That two distinct classes of teachers shall be educated at the normal seminaries one for\\nelementary schools, the oiher for those of a higher or mixed kind, such as the parochial schools.\\nThe examinations for admission are now conducted by those who, from their\\noffice, may be fairly presumed competent and, at the same time, disinterestec^ in\\nthe absence of all relation to the candidates. But the case is somewhat altered\\nwhen the student appears for a final examination for tlien, though the compe-\\ntency may be still the same, he has been the pupil of those who are now to judge\\nof his proficiency in other words, of tlie success witli wliich his studies have been\\nconducted, and, by inference, of the skill with which these studies have been\\ndirected. The following rule has, therefore, been laid down\\n2. That the first examination shall be conducted by the General Assembly s Committee and\\nthe rectors and masters the final examination by the same parties assisted by a professor in thft\\nUniversity and by a master in the High School of Edinburgh or Glasgow.\\nIt is further proposed to extend the range of study at the institution for the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0668.jp2"}, "667": {"fulltext": "EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. ^65\\nteachers of both classes, and, above all, to impart to them a fuller and more exact\\nknowledge of the subject with which, from the beginning, they had been partiiilly\\nacquainted. In this, the Directors liave proceeded upon these views tliat if a\\nteacher s knowledge should considerably exceed what he is called on to impart,\\nthere is no prejudice, but the reverse, to his ability for teaching, those who have\\nbeen educated in higher things being commonly found to excel in the lower paths\\nof iu-structiun that the estimation and authority of a teacher always rise with his\\nattainments: that a general intelligence beyond tjie limit referred to bears\\ndirectly upon that part of the work of education wliich is distinguished from mere\\ninstruction that the more promising youth have the better chance of being brought\\nforward under such a master and, moreover, that to the master himself the pos-\\nsession of a fund of hberal knowledge is hkely to prove a source at once of comfort\\nand of energy. For these reasons,\\no. The students, before leaving the institution, are to prove a qualification of defined extent in\\ntiie branches under noted\\nFirst Class. 1, English reading 2, loriting 3, English graimaar, elemen-\\ntary manual, and an enlarged course (c. g. Latham s), Vv-ith etymology; 4, English\\ncomposition ab=;tracts and original essays 5, arithmetic theory and practice, a\\nfull course, with mental arithmetic, book-keeping 6, elementary geography,\\nfollowed by a course of physical geography and use of globes 1, general history,\\nwith at least one portion of particular history e. g. that of Great Britain or the\\nperiod of the Reformation) S, natural liistory 9, singing; linear drawing\\nW, pedagogy 12, religious knowledge (a) Bible doctrine (Confession of Faith\\nand Shorter Catechism) (6) Bible analysis (examination of a given portiim of the\\ntext (f) history of the Old and New Testaments, followed by {d.) outhnes of\\necclesiastical history and the evidences of revealed religion.\\nSecond Class. All tlie branches of the preceding class, with 13, Latin Livy,\\nVirgil, Terence, themes, English rendered into Latin, Roman aniiquities, syno-\\nnymes, fec. 14, Greek Analecta Minora, Greek Testament, two books of the\\nAnabasis, two books of Homer; 15, mathematics a full course of f^uclid, practical\\ntrigonometry, mensuration of surfaces and sohds, laud-surveying, algebra to cubic\\nequations, elements of mechanics.\\nThe Directors are well aware that this course of study is not to be completed in\\na short time and moreover, that the number of the teachers sent forth must\\ndiminish, as the term of their attendance is extended. Nevertheless, they prefer\\na distinction for the seminaries rather in the accomplishment of a few to that\\nextent, than in the slightest preparation of many and consider that they thus\\nafford to the normal syS tenr a better chance of attaining its due estimation and\\nsuccess. They do not, in the mean time, fix the utmost length of the attendance,\\nbut they prescribe\\n4. That the least period of attendance for students of both classes shall be eighteen months.\\nAt the same time, precautions will be taken to insure that the individuals\\nfavored with this prolonged, invaluable opjDortunity of study are not such as shall\\ndisappoint expectation afterwards.\\n5. At the end of three months from the periodical admission of students, the rectors shall report\\nto the directing Committees on the general conduct of the students, the progress they have made\\nand the capacity they have shown during that time. The report to be engrossed in the minutes\\nof the institution.\\nThese regulations apply to all students admitted on the footing of free main-\\ntenance and to those, also, who are not so f\\\\ivored, but who are willing to comply\\nwith the rule fixing the least period of attendance. There is, however, another\\nclass of persons who seek admission, consisting of those who could not venture to\\ncompete for the benefit of free maintenance, and have not the means tif maintain-\\ning themselves for even the least appointed term of those, also, who can afford\\nbut little time from other charges with which they are already occupied and of\\nthose who, having completed a curriculum of literature and philosophy at some\\nuniversity, require no more of the normal institutions than what they afford of\\ninstruction upon the arts of teaching and school management. It is therefore\\nproposed", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0669.jp2"}, "668": {"fulltext": "(566 EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS.\\n6. To admit students at their own expense at any time without examination, except by th\u00c2\u00ab\\nrector, upon evidence of respectable character, and for such period as they may find convenient to\\nremain and to L .tl ord ihem ^iii examination at any time upon their professing the qualification\\nrequired of the regular studen.tsat the termination of their course.\\nIt has been further arraiv^ed that, to give a fair opportunity to the student.s of\\nmastering the required qualification, not only the term of the attendance shall be\\nprolonged, but tliat moie time than heretofore shall be allowed for their own\\nstudy and instruction. This time is to be taken from their occupation in the\\npracticing schools where it is not thought necessary they should be employed so\\nmuch as heretofore, nor quite so macli at one pei iod of the course as at another.\\nAccordingly\\n7. One hour daily its alloted to the students for teaching in the practicing schools during the first\\nhilf of the term, and two hours during the second.\\nAt the same time, to maintain the due importance of this practice, and to give\\nthe advantage of cariying it on with mutual aid and under mutual observation, it\\nis appointed\\n8. That one hour daily shall be devoted to the teaching of a class by one student in presf-nce of\\nall the rest, each having the same oliice in rotation on sncce.ssive days and to hearing the re-\\nmarks of all upon the manner in which tha ta.sk has beeu performed the rector presidin\\nThe practicing schools having now less aid than formerly from the services of\\nthe students, the want will be supplied by the employment of assistant teachers\\nand apprentice-pupih. At the same time, the attendance will be reduced to an\\namount more suited to the extent of the accDnmiodation, to 351) in the one institu-\\ntion, and 500 in tJie other. In short, the Directors have proposed to remodel this\\ndepartment, and have resolved\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n9 That the practicing school is to-be considered as mainly subservient to the normal school;\\nand to be so formed as to atfoid to the students opportunities of teaching all parts of au elemen*\\ntary course, and if possible the elements of some brjnches more advanced.\\nThese arrangements have led to others of less moment, which it is unnece.ssary\\nhere to describe. For one thing, they have occasioned another distribution of\\ntime for the occupation of the rectors and the masters in the settling of whicli,\\nthe geneial principle has been held in view, that the in4ruction of the students\\nshould be intrusted as much as possible to the rector and the mathematical tutors;\\nwdiile tlie masters will liave charge of the practising schools, and the superinten-\\ndence of the students when teaching. The regulation on this head is\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\n10. That the students shall be under the rector four hours daily for instruction in the bratiches\\nthey are required to stuity, except the mathemaiical, which will be conducted by the tutor for\\none hour ami a half i:i the i V\u00c2\u00abning; that they shall also, while ieaching in the practicing school,\\nbe under the oc ;,i-ional supervision of the rector, as well as that of the masters.\\nAfter all, it is not by any organization, however carefully or well contrivedj that\\nthe excelUmce of a school is to be secured everything still depending on the\\ngenius of the master. And if this be true in regard to common schools, it is .still\\nmore so in regard to those, which have the exemplification of good methods for\\ntheir distinguishing obect. The Directors liave therefoi-e signified that tlieir main\\nreliance is upon the devotedness and skill of the rectors and the masters whom\\nthey have appointed to find for these institutions their jjroper position in the edu-\\ncational system of the country.\\nIt is not forgotten that a normal school, though perfect in all respects, would\\nnot present a model for exact imitation in all cases, and that the application of its\\nmethods to the management of common schools must be left, in great part, to tlie\\njudgment of the masters of the latter. No school, h)deetl, can be the very pattern\\nfor others that exist under different circumstances alid the normal scliools are,\\nfrom their very nature, singular in some of their conditions. It is eiiougli that in\\nthem, so far as they are normal, the general principles of method are taught, exem-\\nplitied, and practiced. To the masters it may be reserved, in mere deference to\\ntheir self respect to form the plan of then- own schools, according to\\ntheir own knowledge of what the locality requires or permits, and according to the\\ngennral notions of method which they have received. In short, it is as little desir-\\nable as it is practicable, that the normal scliools should be altogether such as to\\nafford an absolute rule and exact model for the guidjuice of the pupil, in the con-\\nstruction and management of his owa", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0670.jp2"}, "669": {"fulltext": "EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. 667\\nDepartment for Female Teachers,\\nFemale School of I nduxt ry .^--T here is a description of schools which is\\nnow rapidly increasing in Scotland, and extending to a lower class of the\\npopulation than had been wont to have or to consider tliein as at all need-\\nful the Female Schools of Industry. This is mainly the consequence of\\nelementary education, in general, having taken more of a practical char-\\nacter than formerly; for the male children, somewhat modifying the\\ncourse of literary instruction^ and occasionally attempting a specific pre-\\nparation for some particular calling or handicraft. The same tendency\\nwoulil have led, of it.seU to an instruction of the other se\\\\ in the usual\\nart.s of domestic industry but it was aided by this, that, while tlie period\\nof school attendance was the same for both sexes, it was not requisite for\\ntlie female to proceed so far in the different literary branches as the other,\\nand so the opportunity arose of attemling to those things that form the\\nproper objects of a female .\u00c2\u00abchool. The promoters of such schools are\\ncommonly benevolent ladies, who are no strangers to the cottages of the\\npoor, and who would endeavor by in.struction of this sort to improve their\\ndomestic condition. It is not unusual, too, for the proprietors of public\\nworks, maiuifacturing or mining, to favor the people in their service with\\ninstitutions of the kind. The Directors have, in these circumstances,\\nattached to each of their normal seminaries a df partment for instruction in\\nneedlework and knitting, and have opened it freely to female students\\ndesirous of undertaking the charge of schools of this description.\\nThis division of the seminary is conducted by the matron of the estab-\\nlishment at Edinburgh, and at Glasgow by a mistress engaged for that\\nsingle purpose. All the female children above seven years of age at the\\npractising schools are, in both cases, permitted to attend in this department,\\nwithout additional fee; and nearly all avail themselves of the i)rivilege,\\neach class attending for one hour daily. Their attention is wholly con-\\nfined to the different sorts of work mentioned, and from the mistresses they\\nreceive neither literary nor religious instruction. The female students\\nattend in this division during the whole time it is assembled that is, for\\ntwo hours and a half daily and they are employed mainly in directing\\nthe classes, or attending to the directions of the mistress; and are them-\\nselves instructed, during a portion of the time, by the mistress at the\\nGlasgow school, in the more ditFicult kinds of work. In the general model\\nschool for the children of both sexes, they are employed four hours daih\\nhalf the time occupied, under the ma,ster s eye, in teaching the female\\nclasses; the other half, in observing how the masters teach. Two hours\\ndaily, they are themselves under instruction in reading, religious know-\\nledge, and the elements of grammar and geography.\\nFemale students are admitted under the same regulation which has\\nbeen formed in regard to those of the other sex who have not the benefit of\\nfree maintenance, and who do not engage to remain for any certain period.\\nThey are examined upon their knowledge of the elementary branches,\\nbefore entering, only by the rector, and few have been at any time rejected.\\nThe admission fee is \u00c2\u00a31 for the first four months, .5s for each of the next\\nfour months, and no further payment is required for the remainder of the\\nterm, the duration of which is optional. Admission is allowed at any time\\nof the year.\\nNo regular examination is undergone by the female students upon leav-\\ning the seminary; and far the greater number have left it to enter on the\\ncharge of schools to which they had been recommended by the Directors,\\nnot more than four leaving the Edinburgh School, without any certain\\nengagement.\\nIt is not proposed, in the mean time, to place this department of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0671.jp2"}, "670": {"fulltext": "668 EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS.\\ninstitution under any stricter regulations than the follo-w-ing; 1. To with-\\nhold certificates from those who have attended for a shorter period than\\nthree months; and, 2. To grant certificates to those who have proved a\\ncertain qualification in the elementary branches, after a formal examination\\nby the superintending Committees, assisted by the rectors and masters.\\nSyllabus of the Rector s Lectures on the Theory and art of Teaching, ad\\ndressed to the Studeiits of the Normal Institution, Edinburgh.\\nIntroductori/.\\n1. Tlie importance of education most needful in every view practicable\\nhopeful and encouraging.\\n2. Moral requisites and qualifications of the educator (a) A correct view of his\\noffice (6) Proper motives (c) A well regulated temper and disposition [d] A\\nwell Stored mind (c) Aptitude to teach An irreproachable life.\\nI Man, the subject of Education.\\nKnowledge of this an essential preliminary mental philosophy has not afforded\\nthe practical aitl tliat might have been expected.\\nThe ordi. r, mode, and extent of the development of the human powers considered,\\nwith a practical reference. 1. Physical histoiically first nature requiring the\\nmain share of time for sleep and recreation mental exertion, short and diversi-\\nfied instincts to be regulated.\\n2. Moral powers awake nearly at the dawn of existence should be early\\naddressed and practically exercised impressed with the idea of God and account-\\nability to Him charity, purity, and uprightness inculcated.\\n3. Intellectual Intuitive developed through the perceptive powers truths\\nand f icts impressed by attention, recalled by memory, combined by conception\\nimportance of educating the senses and training the powers of observation through\\nobject-lesson? (6) O^evAW ^ii^-imderstartding inve-tigates truth jmlgnient traces\\nits relations and tendency (c) Cieative\u00e2\u0080\u0094- imagination reason controlling all.\\nXL The End and Object of Education.\\nThe comprehensive and harmonious development of the powers in due place and\\nproportion errors arising from the excess, deficiency, or misapplication of any\\nelement detinitions of different writers.\\nIII. The Means for attaining the End.\\nPedagogy, education (properly so called) extending to every department\\nthrougliout--(l) childhiKvl; (2) youth; (3) manhood from the houseliold to the\\nschool, from the school to the world and church.\\nPedentics, uistruction or schooling that department which is jiroper to the in-\\ntermediate period, youth, when the faculties are made conversant with facts,\\noccurrences, objects, and otherwise exercised for their due development.\\nA. The parties by whom the field in which this should be carried out.\\nHosijital, public school, or private education considered.\\nB. The subject-matter of instruction: {a) From the existence of man speech\\nand song {b) From the existence of space and matter mathematics and form\\n(paiuting, sculpture, (fee.) (c) From the relation of man to God Christianity {d)\\nTo the world political economy (e) To animals natural history To sul\\nstances chemistry, c.\\nThe due place and comparative importance of the subjects of elementary and\\nsuperior instruction. Reading, the key to all\\nOrgans of speech origin and import of speech invention of writing alpha-\\nbet, printing on teaching the alphabet Lancaster Jacotot Pillans.\\nElementary reading 1st. The dogmatic system overburdens the memory 2nd.\\nThe scientific, difficult to accomplish in English; 3rd. Intellectual, the sense help-\\ning the sound.\\nTheory of explanation and interrogation, elliptical and suggestive methods con-\\nsidered treatment of answers received moral enforcing application of lesson\\nread.\\nExamination of manuals for reading, and instructions in the proper way of\\nteaching them.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0672.jp2"}, "671": {"fulltext": "EDINBUKGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOL. Q{jQ\\nClass method individual, monitorial, simultaneous class conducted by single\\nexamination.\\nMethod not much apart from the man consideration of the different subjects of\\nschool instruction method of treating and art of imparting them, viz. spelling,\\ngrammar, reUgious instruction, geography, writing, drawing, arithmetic.\\nSchool organization\\nArrangement of classes tripartie division school furnishing.\\nDiscipline\\nTheory of rewards and punishments.\\n(N ote.) The design of these lectures is to counteract the tendency of the prac-\\ntical engagements of the elementary school to degenerate into mere routine, or a\\ncopy of the superintending master. Tlie subject discussed in the connected series\\nis proposed as a theme for a weekly exercise, and is found highly beneficial, not\\nonly as regards the proficiency of the students in English composition, but like-\\nwise as it engages their best thoughts in giving their own views of the different\\ntopics, and imparts an elevated tone to their professional pursuits.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0673.jp2"}, "672": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0674.jp2"}, "673": {"fulltext": "NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL\\nAT\\nEDINBURGH, IN CONNECTION WITH THE CHURCH.\\nThe Normal Training School at Edinburgh, in connection with the\\nFree Church of Scotland, was establisiied in 1843, soon after the Reces-\\nsion of that Church from the Established Church, and as a part of its\\neducational scheme. In 1848, the Education Committee, appointed by\\nthe General Assembly of the Free Church, purchased the premises\\nknown as the Moray House, in the neighborhood of the Holyrood,\\nand erected a new hall, and fitted up the whole at an expense of about\\n\u00c2\u00a39,000, ($45,000) for the accommodation of the Normal School, and\\nthe Practicing Department.\\nPupils are admitted, on passing in a satisfactory manner an enirance\\nexamination, to the privileges of the institution, which embrace not only\\na thorough course of normal training, but also direct pecuniary aid as\\nbursaries, or exhibitions. Those bursaries are to be competed for from\\nyear to year, and to be awarded to those only, who, havmg successfully\\npassed the entrance examination, are willing to devote themselves to\\nteachmg. and to declare, at the same time, that but for this assi.\u00c2\u00abtance,\\nthey could not afford the means requisite to prepare them, fully and\\nsatisfactorily, for their important work.\\nAlthough persons of both sexes, and of all religious denominations,\\nare received to the entrance examination, the subjects of examination,\\nand the course of study afterward entered upon, are determined and\\nregulated mainly with a view to the benefit of those who Intend to\\ndevote themselves to teaching in connection with the Free Church. It\\nis conducted by means of printed papers, and generally occupies a\\nweek. These examination-papers have always been drawn by distin-\\nguished practical teachers, intimately acquainted with the subjects\\nintrusted to them and the written answers of the candidates for admis-\\nsion, after being carefully reviewed by the same gentlemen, are handed\\nfor revision to the rector and tutors of the institution, who again make\\nknown the results to the education committee, with whom rests the\\nfinal decision as to those who are qualified to enter, with advantage,\\nupon the prescribed course of study and training.\\nThe conditions of the competition for bursaries are stated in the fol-\\nlowing regulations\\nI. Candidates must not be less than seventeen years of age, and shall be required\\nto declare, before entering on the competition, that it is their wish and intention to\\ndevote themselves to the profession of teaching.\\nII. Each candidate must produce a certificate of his moral and religious character\\nfrom the minister of the congregation to which he belongs. Such certiticnte shall also\\nset forth his attainments in scholarship, the degree of aptitude for practical teaching\\nwhich he may seem to possess, and any circumstances in his history with which the\\ncommittee ought to be acquainted.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0675.jp2"}, "674": {"fulltext": "672 NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL AT EDINBURGH\\nIII. Each candidate must be in attendance at the seminary on the morning of Sat-\\nurday, 26th September, for the purpose of bema, enrolled as a candidate.\\nIV. The competition will be chiefly conducted by written questions, and the exam-\\ninators will be guided in awardmg the bursaries by the comparative results of the\\nexamination, the certificates of the ministers, and the report of the rector of the nor-\\nmal school in regard to aptitude for practical leaching.\\nV. The committee will not defray the travelinj: expenses of unsuccessful candi-\\ndates, but they would strongly urge, that when necessary, these expenses should be\\ndefrayed by local parties acquainted with and interested in the young men recom-\\nmended.\\nVI. The bursaries shall consist of three classes, for which sums of lOl., 15Z., and\\n201., shall be set apart respectively.\\nVII. The bursers shall give regular attendance in the normal school from the begin-\\nling of October until the end of July, and shall during that period be in all respects\\nsubject to the discipline and arrangements of that institution. The bursaries shall be\\npayable in monthly installments, and the committee reserve to themselves full power at\\nany time to withhold further payments on considering the periodical reports made to\\nthem by the rector and tutors regarding the conduct and progress of the liursers.\\nN. B. There must be throughout the church many under the age of seventeen,\\nwhom it is highly desirable to aid and encourage m their preparatory studies. Dea-\\ncons courts and presbyteries are earnestly recommended to use every exertion in their\\npower for bringing forward such youths, until they have arrived at the stage which will\\nbring them within the scope of the committee s scheme of encouragement by bursaries.\\nThe following are the subjects of the entrance examination for the\\nthree classes of bursaries\\nCLASS I.\\nEnglish literature and grammar.\\nGeography, especially that of Europe and Palestine.\\nHistory. British history, with the elements of general history.\\nArithmetic\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PmpciTlion with vulgar and decimal fractions.\\nLatin. Rudiments; grammatical exercises, large print; and Cornelius Nepos\\nLife of Miltiades.\\nScripture Knowledge. Bible and shorter catechism.\\nN. B. A knowledge of Gaelic will be regarded as equivalent to this amount of attain-\\nments in Latin.\\nCLASS 11.\\nAll the branches of the preceding class, and Latin.\\nLatin. Caesar, book i. eclogues of Virgil and grammatical exercises.\\nG^eek. Greek grammar; Xenophon s Anabasis, chapters, first, second, and third,\\nof book i.\\nAlgebra. The elementary rules, fractions and simple equations.\\nCLASS III.\\nAll the branches of the preceding classes, and\\nLatin. Virgil, vi., Book of iEneid Sallust s Catilinarian Conspiracy, and Mair s\\nIntroduction.\\nGreek. Xenophon s Anabasis, books i. and ii. gospel of Matthew.\\nAlgebra Involution, evolution, surds, quadratic equation.\\nGeometry. Euclid s Elements, first six books.\\nText BooJt.?.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Chamber s History of English Literature Reid s English Grammar\\nReid s Geography; Chamber s History of the British Empire; White s Elements\\nof Universal History, or Tyiler s Elements of General History.\\nThe following works are recommended for perusal and study Chamber s Cyclo-\\npsedia of English Literature; Allan and Cornwall s English Grammar; Malte Biun\\nand Balbi s System of Geography Professor Thompson s Arithmetic Vincent s\\nExposition of the Shorter Catechism Tract Society s Companion to the Bible; and\\nAbridgment of Horn s Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures.\\nThe course of instruction upon which the students enter, after having\\npassed this examination, embraces BibUcal instruction, Engheh litera-\\nture and grammar, history and geography, arithmetic, algebra and\\ngeometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, practical mathematics\\nand mechanics, Latin, Greek, and the elements of Hebrew, drawing\\nand music, chemistry, botany, vegetable physiology, and cottage\\ngardening, with the theory and practice of the art of teaching.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0676.jp2"}, "675": {"fulltext": "NORMAL TRAIMNC; Blf.lIOOL AT nDINUIiIlGIl. g 73\\nA careful examination ol tlie table, in wliicli are recorded the\\nresults of the entrance examination, enables the rector and tutors to\\ndetermine, with almost perfect precision, the place which each student\\nshould occupy, and the studies to which his attention should be chiefly\\ndirected. The attainments of the young men in Biblical knowledge,\\nin English literature and grammar, in geography and history, are not\\nso unequal as to render necessary or desirable a separate classification,\\nwhile prosecuting the study of these branches. Nor has it been found\\nexpedient to arrange the students in different sections, when engaged\\nin the study of French, chemistry, drawing, and music and both in\\nthe practice of leaching, and ig listening to the exposition, by the rec-\\ntor, of the various methods and systems, or to his criticism of the mode\\nin which particular lessons have been communicated by particular stu-\\ndents, no separate classification has been made.\\nBy the Time Table, drawn up for the regulation of the students in\\n1849, it appears that five hours weekly (one hour a day) are devoted\\nto Biblical instruction four hours to English literature and grammar;\\ntwo hours to history and geography two hours to lectures, in con-\\nnection with recitations in a text book, in chemistry two hours to\\ndrawing three to French and two hours to instruction in music, with\\npractice at intervals every day. In the higher departments of study,\\nLatin, Greek, geometry, algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry,\\nwith their practical applications, the students are arranged into divi-\\nsions, junior and senior. The proficiency in these branches is not very\\ngreat, although the stimulus of competition for the bursaries is showing\\nitself in drawing to the institution a large number of right-minded, and\\nproperly-prepared candidates, and in a more comprehensive and\\nthorough course of instruction during their connection with the institution.\\nA knowledge of the history, principles, and practice of education, is\\ngiven as follows:\\nFirst, The rector expounds, conversationally, but with a degree\\nof minuteness and care that shows how fully he appreciates the impor-\\ntance of this department of his labors, the methods that are employed\\nin the model schools of the institution, in teaching the various\\nbranches. He himself exemplifies the application of every principle\\nthat may seem in the least recondite, gives its philosophy, and shows\\nhow it may be applied in conducting the work of the school-room. In\\nthis way it may be said, that every method deserving examination, as\\nbased upon any philosophical principle, is not only elaborately examined\\nand minutely expounded, but skillfully exemplified in the presence of the\\nstudents.\\nSecond. Essays are prescribed to be written on subjects, embracing\\nthe whole theory of teaching, and requiring, for their discussion, a good\\nextent of reading and study. The best of these essays are afterward\\nread in the hearing of the assembled body of students, and their merits\\nand defects carefully pointed out.\\n48", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0677.jp2"}, "676": {"fulltext": "074 NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL AT EDINBURGH.\\nThird, A systematic analysis and examination of all the leading\\neducational works in onr own language is made during tlie session. A\\nparticular work is assigned to each student, in turn, who is charged\\nwith the preparation of a careful analysis and examination of its con-\\ntents. This paper is read before the rector in the presence of all the\\nstudents, who express their opinion generally, and specify what they\\nconsider to be most valuable in the views presented in it. The rector\\nsums up by an exposition of what appears to him to be its real char-\\nacter and value.\\nIn this way the students have an opportunity, during the session, of\\nacquiring a tolerably satisfactory knowledge of the principles and his-\\ntory of teaching, of the various methods which deserve examination, as\\nwell as of all the details of school organization and management.\\nThe practical instruction of the normal pupils is obtained through\\nthe model schools attached to the institution. These schools contain\\nupward of five hundred children, arranged in six classes, under ten\\nteachers, and nineteen pupil teachers, acting under the personal direc-\\ntion of the rector, who has the immediate charge of the first class.\\nIn these model schools the students have an opportunity of seeing all\\nthe branches usually pursued in the Elementary school of Scotland,\\ntaught by skillful and experienced masters, and, in their observations of\\nthe methods practiced, have the advantage of the personal direction and\\nsuperintendence of the Rector. The means by which they themselves\\nare trained to skill in the communication of knowledge are twofold.\\nFirst, They are employed two hours weekly in teaching, in the\\nmodel schools, under the superintendence of the rector, together with\\nthe master of the department in which they are practicing.\\nSecond, One hour, weekly, is set apart, for the purpose of hearing\\na certain number of the students give lessons, in the presence of the\\nrector and the other students, on particular and previously prescribed\\nsubjects. These subjects are varied m such a manner, that, ere the\\nend of the session, each student has had frequent opportunities, both of\\nhimself conducting each educational process, and of seeing it conducted\\nby his fellow students. While these lessons are being given by those\\nappointed to this work, their fellow students are busy observing the\\nmanner in which the various processes are conducted, and marking in\\ntheir note-books any thing that may seem to deserve or call for com-\\nment. An opportunity is afterward afforded them of expressing their\\nopinions, in regard to the manner in which the various lessons had been\\ngiven, and of criticising minutely the whole process gone through by\\nthe students, who had been engaged in the business of the class-room.\\nAn hour is devoted to this work of public criticism.\\nThe teachers consisted in 1852 of a rector, who has special charge of\\nBiblical instruction, and the theory and practice of teaching, a mathemat-\\nical tutor, a classical tutor, a teacher of drawing, a lecturer on chem-\\nistry, and a music master.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0678.jp2"}, "677": {"fulltext": "IRELAND.\\nThe checkered experience of Ireland, its dark and its bright sides,\\nforms one of the most instructive chapters in rhehistory of popular educa-\\ntion. It commences, according to the testimony of the earliest chroniclers,\\nwith institulions of learning, not only of earlier origin, but of higher repu-\\ntation, than any in England or Scotland, institutions which were resorted\\nto bj English youth for instruction, who brought back the use of letters\\nto their ignorant countrymen. According to Bede and William ot\\nMalmesbury, this resort commenced even so early as the seventh century,\\nand these youth were not only taught, but maintained without service or\\nreward. The great college of Mayo was called -the Mayo of the Sax-\\nons, because it was dedicated to the exclusive use of English students,\\nwho at one time amounted to no fewer than 2000. Bayle, on the author-\\nity of the historian of the time, pronounces Ireland the most civilized\\ncountry in Europe,* the nursery of the sciences from the eighth to the\\nthirteenth century, and her own writers are proud of pointing to the\\nmonastery of Lindisfarne, the college of Lismore, and the forty literary\\ninstitutions of Borrisdole, as so many illustrative evidences of the early\\nintellectual activity and literary munificence of the nation. But Ire-\\nland not only abounded with higher institutions, but there were connected\\nwith monasteries and churches, as early as the thirteenth century, teachers\\nexpressly set apart for teaching poor scholars gratis. When the coun-\\ntry was overrun by foreign armies, and torn by civil discord, and governed\\nby new ecclesiastical authorities, set up by the conquerors, and not in\\nharmony with the religion of the people, a change certainly passed over\\nthe face of things, and there follows a period of darkness and educational\\ndestitution, for which we find no relief in turning to the history of English\\nlegislation in behalf of Ireland. Indeed there is not a darker page in the\\nwhole history of religious intolerance than that which records the action\\nand legislation of England for two centuries, toward this ill-fated country,\\nin this one particular. Even the statute of Henry VIII., which seems to\\nbe framed to carry out a system of elementary education already existing\\nbefore the new ecclesiastical authorities were imposed upon the country,\\nwas intended mainly to convert Irishmen into Englishmen. By that\\nThese facts are stated on the authority of a speech of Hon. Thomas Wyse, in the House ol\\nCommons, in 1835.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0679.jp2"}, "678": {"fulltext": "676 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nstatute, every archbishop and bishop was bound to see that every clergy-\\nman took an oath to keep, or cause to be kepi, a school to learn English^\\nif any children of his parish came to him to learn the same, taking for the\\nkeeping of the said school such convenient stipend or salary as in the said\\nland is accustomably used to be taken and both higher and lower\\nauthorities, archbishops and their beneficed clergymen, are subjected to a\\nfine for neglect of duty. The fatal error in this and in all subsequent\\nlegislation and associated eifort for education in Ireland, until the last\\ntwenty years, was its want of nationality the schooJs were English and\\nProtestant, and the people for whom they were established were Irish and\\nCatholics, and every effort, by legislation or education, to convert Irishmen\\ninto Englishmen, and Catholics into Protestants, has not only failed, but\\nonly helped to sink the poor into ignorance, poverty and barbarism, and\\nbind both rich and poor more closely to their faith and their country.\\nEvery system of education, to be successful, must be adapted to the in-\\nstitutions, habits and convictions of the people. If this principle had been\\nregarded in the statute of Henry VIII., Ireland, which had the same, if\\nnot a better foundation in previous habits and existing institutions, than\\neither Scotland or Germany, would have had a system of parochial schools\\nrecognized and enforced by the state, but .supervised b^ the cfergy. This\\nwas the secret of the succesa of Luther and Knox. What they did was in\\nharmony with the convictions and habits of the people. So strangely was\\nthis truth forgotten in Ireland, that until the beginning of this century, Cath-\\nolics, who coiistilnted four-filths of the population, were not only not permit-\\nted to endow, conduct, or teach schools, but Catholic parents even were not\\npermitted to educate their own children abroad, and it was made an\\noffense, punished by transportation, (and if the party returned it was\\nmade high treason,) in a Catholic, to act as a schoolmaster, or assistant\\nto a schoolmaster, or even as a tutor in a private family. Such a law as\\nthat in operation for a century, coupled with legal disabilities in every\\nform, and with a system of legislation framed to benefit England at the\\nexpense of Ireland, would sink any people into pauperism and barbarism,\\nespecially when much, if not most, of the land itself was held in fee by\\nforeigners, or Protestants, and the products of the soil and labor were\\nexpended on swarms of church dignitaries, state officials, and absentee\\nlandlords. But even when these restrictions on freedom of education and\\nteaching were removed in 1785, the grants of money by the Irish and Im-\\nperial Parliaments, down to 1825. were expended in supporting schools\\nexclusively Protestant. Upward of $7,000,000 were expended on the\\nProtestant Charter Schools, which were supported by a society which\\noriginated in 1733. on the alleged ground --that Protestant English\\nschools, in certain counties inhabited by Papists, were absolutely neces-\\nsary for their conversion. By a bv-law of this society, the advantages\\nof the institutions were limited exclusively to the children of Catholic\\nparents. On the schools of the Society for Discountenancing Vice.\\nwhich originated in 1792, and which was soon converted into an agency", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0680.jp2"}, "679": {"fulltext": "NATIOXAT. EDTTCATION IN IRELAND. g^Y\\nof proselytism, the government expended, between 1800 and 1827, more\\nthan a half million of dollars. In 1814. the schools of the Kildare Place\\nSociety, began to receive grants from the Parliament, which amounted\\nin some years to \u00c2\u00a350,000, and on an average to $25,000, and in the aggre-\\ngate 10 near $2,000,000; and yet the regulations of the Society, although\\nmore liberal than any which preceded it. were so appUed as practically\\nto exclude the children of Catholics, who constituted, in 1S30, 6,423,000,\\nout of a population of 7,932,000.\\nIn 1806 commissioners were appointed by Parliament to inquire into\\nthe state of all schools, on public or charitable foundations, in Ireland who\\nmade fourteen reports In their last report, in 1812, they recommend the\\nappointment of a board of commissioners, to receive and dispose of all\\nparliamentary grants, to establish schools, to prepare a sufficient number\\nof well-qualified masters, to prescribe the course and mode of education,\\nto select text-books, and generally to administer a system of national\\neducation for Ireland. To obviate the difficulty in the way of religious\\ninstruction, the commissioners express a confident conviction that, in the\\nselection of text-books, it will be found practicable to introduce not only\\na number of books in which moral principles should be inculcated in such\\na manner as is likely to make deep and lasting impressions on the youth-\\nful mind, but also ample extracts from the Sacred Scriptures themselves,\\nan early acquaintance with which it deems of the utmost importance, and\\nindeed indispensable in forming the mind to just notions of duty and sound\\nprinciples of conduct and that the study of such a volume of extracts\\nfrom the Sacred Writings would form the best preparation tor that more\\nparticular religious instruction which it would be the duty and inclination\\nof their several ministers of religion to give at proper times, and in other\\njplaces. to the children of their respective congregations.\\nIn 1824. another commission was instituted to inquire into the nature\\nand extent of the instruction afforded by different schools in Ireland, sup-\\nported in whole or in part from the public funds, and to report on the best\\nmeans of extending to all classes of the people the benefit of education.\\nThis commission submitted nine reports, concurring generally in the\\nrecommendations of the committee of 1805.\\nIn 1828, the reports of the commissioners were referred to a committee\\nof the House of Commons, who made a report in the same year, in which\\nthey state their object to be to discover a mode in which the combined\\neducation of Protestant and Catholic might be carried on, resting upon\\nreligious instruction, but free from the suspicion of proselytism. The\\ncommittee therefore recommend the appointment of aboard of education,\\nwith powers substantially the same as possessed by the former commis-\\nsioners. The following resolution presents their views on the matter of\\nreligious education\\nThat it is the opinion of this Committee, that for the purpose of carrying into\\neffect the combined hterary and the separate religious education of the scholars,\\nthe cinrse of study tor four fixed days in the week should be e.v^l i^ively moral\\n\u00c2\u00abnd literary; and that, of the two remaining days, the one t;) if, a;); lop.i.jU", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0681.jp2"}, "680": {"fulltext": "678 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nsolely to the separate religious instruction of the Protestant children, the other\\nto the separate religions instruction of the Roman Catholic children. In each\\ncase no literary instrnciion to be given, or interference allowed on the part of\\nthe teachers, but the whole of the separate religious instruction to be given under\\nthe superintendence of the clergy of the respective communions. I hat copies\\nof the New Testament, and of such other religious books as may be printed in\\nthe manner hereinafier mentioned, should be provided for the use of the children,\\nto be read in schools, at such times of separate instruction only, and under the\\ndirection of the attending clergyman: the established version for the u.se of\\nthe Protestant scholars, and the version published with the approval of the\\nRoman Catholic bishops for the children oftheir communion.\\nIn 1830, the subject was again considered by a select committee of the\\nHouse on the state of the poor in Ireland, and the hope expressed that no\\nfurther time would be lost in giving to Ireland the benefit of the e.xpen-\\neive and protracted inquiries of the commissioners of 1805 and 1825, and\\nof the committee of 1828. In September. 1831. Mr. Wyse, author of the\\nable volume entitled Educational Reform, a member of the House\\nfrom Ireland, brought in a bill to establish a system of national education\\nfor Ireland, but it was not acted upon on account of the adjournment.\\nIn October, 1831, Mr. Stanley, then Secretary for Ireland, announced,\\nin a letter to the Duke of Leinster, Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the inten-\\ntion of the Government to appoint a Board of Commission of National\\nEducation. The Board were soon after appointed, consisting of the Duke\\nof Leinster, the Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, the Catholic Arch-\\nbishop of Dublin, Rev. Dr. Francis Sadleir. Rt. Hon. A. R. Blake, and\\nR. Holmes, Esq., three Protestants, two Catholics, one Presbyterian,\\nand one Unitarian.\\nThe Board of Commissioners have now been in existence about\\neighteen years. During that time they have encountered bitter opposi-\\ntion from able but ultra zealots in the Protestant and Catholic churches\\nbut. sustained by the Government under the administration of all political\\nparties, they have gone on extending their operations, and accomplishing\\nresults which are worthy of the attentive study of every statesman and\\neducator. The fruits of their labors are already visible, but they will be\\nread of all men when another generation comes on the stage.\\nThe following are among the results oftheir measures\\nI. The Board have succeeded in establishing a system of National\\nEducation, or have made the nearest approach to such a system, which\\nknows no distinction of party or creed in the children to whom it proffers\\nits blessing, and at the same time it guarantees to parents and guardians\\nof all communions, according to the civil rights with which the laws of the\\nland invest them, the power of determining what religious instruction the\\nchildren over whom they have authority shall receive, and it prohibits all\\nattempts at enforcing any, either on Protestant or Roman Catholic chil-\\ndren, to which their parents or guardians object.\\nFor nearly the whole of the last century, the Government of Ireland labored\\nto promote Protestant education, and tolerated no other. Large grants of fub-\\nlic money were voted for having children educated in the Protestant faith,\\nwhile it was made a transportable offense in a Roman Catholic (and if the party\\nreturned, high treason) to act as a schoolmaster, or a.ssislant to a schoolmaster,", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0682.jp2"}, "681": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 679\\nor even as a tutor in a private family.* The acts passed for this purpose contin-\\nued in force from 1709 to 1783. The\\\\ were then repealed, but Parliament con-\\ntinued to vole money for the support only of schools conducted on principles\\nwhich were regarded by the great body of the Roman Catholics as exclusively\\nProtestant, until the present sysiem was established.\\nThe principles on which they were conducted rendered them to a great ex-\\ntent exclusive with respect either to Protesiants or to Roman Catholics Rt^man\\nCatholic schools being conducted on Roman Catholic principles, were, of\\ncourse, objectionable generally to Protestants while Protestant schools, being\\nconducted on Protestant principles, were equally objectionable to Roman Cath-\\nolics and being regarded by Roman Catholics as adverse establishments, they\\ntended, when under the patronage of Government, and supported by public\\nmoney, to excite, in the bulk of the population, feelings of discontent toward the\\nstate, and of alienation from it.\\nFrom these defects the National Schools are free. In them the importance of\\nreligion is constantly impressed upon the minds of the children, through works\\ncalculated to promote good principles, and fill the heart with a love of reHgion,\\nbut which are so compiled as not to clash with the doctrines of any particular\\nclass of Christians. The children are thus prepared for those more strict reli-\\ngious exercises which it is the peculiar province of the ministers of religion to\\nsuperintend or direct, and for which stated times are set apart in each school,\\nso that each class of Christians may thus receive, separately, such religious\\ninstruction, and from such persons, as their parents or pastorsmay approve or\\nappoint.\\nThe following Regulations will show the manner in which the Board\\nhave aimed to avoid the difficulty of religious instruction in schools com-\\nposed of different denominations, as well as the prejudices of political\\nparties\\nAs to Government of ScJwols loith respect to Attendance and Religious Instruction.\\n1. The ordinary school business, during which all children, of whatever\\ndenomination they may be, are required to attend, is to embrace a specified\\nnumber of hours each day.\\n2. Opportunities are to be afforded to the children of each school for receiving\\nsuch religious instruction as their parents or guardians approve of\\n3. The patrons of the several schools have the right of appointing such reli-\\ngious instruction as they may think proper to be given therein, provided that\\neach school be open to children of all communions; that due regard be had to\\nparental right and authority that, accordingly, no child be compelled to receive,\\nor be present at, any religious instruction to which his parents or guardians\\nobject; and that the time for giving it be so fixed, that no child shall be thereby,\\nin effect, excluded, directly or indirectly, from the other advantages which the\\nschool affords. Subject to this, religious instruction may be given either during\\nthe fixed school-hours or otherwise.\\n4. In schools, toward the building of which the Commissioners have contrib-\\nuted, and which are, therefore, vested in trustees for the purposes of national\\neducation, such pastors or other persons as shall be approved of by the parents\\nor guardians of the children respectively, shall have access to them hi thcschool-\\nro-rin, for the purpose of giving them religious instruction there, at convenient\\ntimes to be appointed for that purpose, whether those pastors or persons shall\\nhave signed the original application or otherwise.\\n5. In schools NOT vestiod, but which receive aid only b) way of salary and\\nbooks, it is for the patrons to determine whether religious instruction shall be\\ngiven in tke school-room or not: but if they do not allow it in the school-room,\\nthe children whose parents or guardians so desire, must be allowed to absent\\nthemselves from the school, at reasonable times, for the purpose of receiving\\nsuch instruction elsewhere.\\n6. The reading of the Scriptures, either in the Protestant authorized, or Douay\\nversion, as -well as the teaching of cat. chisms, comes within the rule as to reli-\\ngious instruction.\\nSee 8th Anne, c. 3, andOtli Willium III. c. 1.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0683.jp2"}, "682": {"fulltext": "680 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\n7. The rule as to religious instruction applies to public prayer and to all\\nother religious exercises.\\n8. Tiie Commissioners do not insist on* the Scripture lessons being read in\\nany oCthe nalional schools, nor do they allow them to be read during ihe time\\nof secular or literary instruction, in an y school attended by childien whose\\npaients or guardians object to their being so read. In such case, the Commis-\\nsioners prohibit the use of them, except at the times of religious instruction,\\nwhen the persons giving it may use these lessons or not. as they think pro) er.\\n9. Whatever arrangement is made in any school lor giving religious instruc-\\ntion, must be public y notifie I in the school-room, in order that those children,\\nand those only, may be present whose parents or guardians allow them.\\n10. If any other books than the Holy Scriptures, or the standard books of ihe\\nchurch to which the children using them bek ng, are employed in communica-\\nting religious instruction, the title of each is to be made known to the Commis-\\nsioners.\\n11. The use of the books published by the Commissioners is not compulsory;\\nbut the titles of all other books which the conductors of schools intend for the\\nordinary school business, are to be reported to the Commissioners and none\\nare to be used to which they object but they prohibit such only as may appear\\nto them to contain matter objectionable in itself, or objectionable for con -mon\\ninstruction, as peculiarly belonging to some particular religious denomination.\\n1 2. A registry is to be kept in each school of the daily attendance of the schol-\\nars, and the average attendance, according to the form furnished by the Coin-\\nmissioners.\\nII. The Board have done much to improve the hterary quahfications,\\nand professional knowledge, and skill of teachers, as well as their pecuniary\\ncondition, and by a jiKlicious system of classification in salaries, and re-\\nwarding cases of extraordinary fidelity and success, to diffuse a spirit of\\nself-education throughout the whole profession. The main defect in the\\nschools of Ireland at the institution of the Board was the incompetency\\nof the teachers. They were in general extremely poor, many of them\\nwere very ignorant, and not capable of teaching well even the mere\\nart of reading and writing; and such of them as could do so much, were\\nfor the most part utterly incapable of coinbining instruction in it with\\nsuch a training of tlie mind as could produce general information and im-\\nprovement. One of the first and main objects of the Board was, and con-\\ntinues to be, to furnish an opportunity to deserving persons of the right\\ncharacter, to qualify themselves properly for teaching, and then, by a fair\\nprospect of remuneration and advancem.ent, to devote themselves to the\\nbusiness for life, with a holy national and catholic spirit. A brief notice\\nof the successive steps by which the present system of training and aid-\\ning teachers in Ireland was reached, will be appropriate to the design of\\nthis work. The earliest indication of any movement in the educational\\nhistory of Ireland, for the professional training of teachers, was in 1812.\\nIn their thirteenth annual (for 1812) report, the Commissioners for in-\\nquiring into the state of all schools on public or charitable foundations in\\nIreland, recommend the appointment of a Board of Commissioners as the\\nfirst step in a system of National Education, with power to establish a\\nnumber of additional or supplementary schools to those already in exist-\\nence, and that they be directed and required to apply themselves imme-\\ndiately to the preparing a sufficient number of well-qualified masters to\\nundertake the conduct of such supplementary schools as they should from\\ntime to time proceed to endow.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0684.jp2"}, "683": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. gRl\\nWe have already adverted to the deplorable want of such qualification in a\\ngreat majority of those who now leach in th; common schools, and to the f erni-\\ncioas consequences ari.^ing fiom it; their ignorance, we have reason lo believe,\\nis not seldom their least disqualiticatiiin and the want of proper books often\\ncombines with their own opinions and propensities in introducing into their\\nschools such as are of ihe worst tendencv. l^.ven for schools of a suj erior de-\\nscription, and underbetter control, there is a general complaint that [ropermas-\\nlers can not lie prjcurei without much dilhculty and we are persuaded that a\\nmore essential service could not be rendered lo the State than by carrying into\\netfeci a practicable mode nf supplying a successionofwell-quaiified instructors\\nfor the children of the lower classes.\\nThe recommendatioii.s of the ^Commission were not acted upon, but\\nannual grants were subsequently made to the Kildare Place School So-\\nciety, which were applied in estahlishing two Model Schools in Dublin,\\nin which teachers, intended for their employment, were practised in the\\nmechanism and methods of the particular system of teaching encouraged\\nby that society. The period of instruction, or rather of observation and\\npractice, was brief and the instruction itself amounted to but little more\\nthan a knowledge of the forms and evolutions of the monitorial system of\\nDr. Bell.\\nIn 1828, R. J. Bryce, Principal of the Belfast Academy, in a pamph^et\\nentitled Sketch of a Plan for a System of National Education for Ire-\\nland,^ pp. 58, presents a very elaborate argument in favor of legislative\\nprovision for the education of teachers, as the only sound basis on which\\na system of public instruction for Ireland could be raised. He sums up\\nhis discussion of this branch of the subject in the following manner:\\n1. It is commonly supposed, that a man who understands a subject must be\\nqualified to teach it, and that the only essential attribuie of an instructor is to\\nbe himself a good scholar.\\n2. Even those who are aware that theie often exists a difference between two\\nteachers as to their power of communicating, conceive this diflerence to be of\\nmuch less importance than it really is; and if ever they take the trouble to\\nthink of itscauoe, they ascribe it to some mechanical hueck, or t^ome instinctive\\npiedisposition.\\n3. On the contrary, we maintain, that when a man has acquired the fullest\\nand most pmfound knowledge of a subjecl, he is not yet half qualifie I to teach\\nit. He has lo learn how to communicate his knowledge, and how to train the\\nyoung mind to think for itself And, as it usually happens that children ate\\nplaced under the ins|cction of their instrur-tors. who become in a great measure\\nresponsible for their morals, every teacher ought also to know how to govern\\nhis pupils, and how to form virtuous habits in their minds. Am/ this sldli in\\ncomvmiiicalins knovde li^e, and in managing the mind, is by far the v tost important\\ngualijica ion of a teacher.\\nh. Every teacher, before entering on the duties of his profession, ought there-\\nfore to make hirnself acquainted with the Art of Edv.atioib that is. with a\\nsystem of rules for communicating ideas, and forming habits; and ought to ob-\\nThe nuttior thus refer? to nn article in No. .54 of the North American Review, devoted to Mr.\\nCarter s Essay, whirh will be found in nnnther part of this work.\\nThe necessitv of some re?nlar provision for instructing teachers in the Art of Teachinsr, has be?nn\\nto be felt by nil those who tnl e nn enlarjed and raticmnl view of the snliject of ednrntion. The first\\nrnde essnv was made in the model schools of Rell and Lancaster. Bnt reflecting perplesoon saw -he\\nultor inefficiency of this mere mechanical trnininj, which hears the same re ntion to a trne and\\nrational system of professional edncation for teachers, that the steam-engine of the Mnrqii s of Wor-\\ncester bears to the steam-engine of Watt Hints to this pnrpcse we have met with in vnrions places;\\nbut tlie first reiular publication on the subject that we have heard of, is i;ne by Mr. .1. G. Carter, an\\nAmerican writer, svith which we are acquainted only through a short article in No. I.IV. of the\\nNorth American Review.\\nIn short we recommend the whole of this article to the careful perusal of the friends of real editca-\\ntian. in Britain and Ireland.", "height": "3285", "width": "1958", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0685.jp2"}, "684": {"fulltext": "682 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\ntain such a knowledj^e of ihe philosophy of mind, as shall enable him to under-\\nstand the reasons of those rules, and to apply them with judgment an i discre-\\ntion to the great diversity of dispositions with which he will meet in the course\\nof his professioaal labors.\\n6. No man is qualifled for the delicate and difficult work of managing the\\nyouthful mind, unless his own mental faculties have been sharpened and invig-\\norated by the exercise afforded to them in the course of a good general edu-\\ncation.\\n7. Therefore, a legislature never can sxicceed in establishing a good system of\\nnational education, without making some provision for insuring a supply of\\nteachers possessed of the qualifications specified in the two last articles; in\\norder to which, it is indispensably necessary, that Professorships of the Art of\\nTeaching be instituted; and that students, placing themselves under the care\\nof such professors, be required to have previously attained a good general edu-\\ncation, and, ill particular, a competent knowledge of the philosophy of the hu-\\nman mind.\\nIn 1831, the Board of Commissioners of National Education in Ireland\\nwas established. In a letter from Hon. E. G. Stanley, Chief Secretary\\nfor Ireland, explaining tlie powers and objects of the Board, one of the\\nobjects is declared to be the establishing and maintaining a Model\\nSchool in Dublin, and training teaciiers for country schools. and it is\\nmgide a condition on which pecuniary aid shall be granted to any teacher,\\nthat he shall have received previous instruction in a Model School to\\nbe established in Ireland.\\nIn April. 1833, two Model Schools, one for males and one for females,\\nwere established by the Board, and two courses of instruction provided\\nfor teachers in each year, to continue three months each. In 1834, steps\\nwere taken to extend both the Model Schools and the Training Estab-\\nlishment, as set forth in their Report for 183.5.\\nIf we are furnished with adequate means by the State, not only for training\\nschoolmasters but for inducing competent persons to become candidates for\\nteacherships, through a fair prospect of remuneration and advancement, we\\nhave no doubt whatever that a new class of schoolmasters may be trained,\\nM hose conduct and influence must be highly beneficial in promoting morality,\\nharmony, and gaod order, in the country parts of Ireland.\\nIt is only through such persons that we can hope to render the National\\nSchools successful in improving the general condition of the people. It is not,\\nhowever, merelv through the schools committed to their charge that the benefi-\\ncial effc-cts of their influence would be felt. Living in friendly habits with the\\npe.iple not greatly elevated above them, but so provided for as to be able to\\nmaintain a respectable station; trained to good habits; identified in interest\\nwith the State, and therefore anxious to promote a spirit of obedience lo lawful\\nauthority we are confident that they would prove a body of the utmost value\\nand inpirtaace in promoting civilization and peace.\\nFormerlv, nothing was attempted in elementary schools further than to com-\\nmunicate the art of reading writing, and arithmetic, with some knowledge of\\ngrammar, geography, and history. Latterly, teachers have made use of the\\nreading lessons to convey information. Writing has been made subservient to\\nthe teaching of spelling, grammar, and composition, and also to the fixing of\\ninstruction on the memory. Arithmetic, instead of being taught by unexplained\\nrules, has been made the vehicle for conveying the elements of mathematical\\nknowledge, and training the mind to accuracy of thinking and reasoning.\\nReading-books have latterly been compiled on these principles, the lessons\\nbeing so selected as to convey the elements of knowledge on a variety of .sTjb-\\njects. And this introduction of intellectual exercises into the teaching of these\\nelementarv arts, has been found to produce a reflex effect upon the progress of\\nthe pupils in learning the arts themselves. Children are found to be more easily\\ntaught to read when, while they are learning to pronounce and combine sylla-\\nbles and words into sentences, thev are receiving information, Their writing", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0686.jp2"}, "685": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 683\\nproceeds better when, while they are learning the mechanical art, they are\\nlearning the use of it; and they become belter aritlimelicians when the princi-\\nples on which arithmetical operations are founded are gradually developed to\\nthem.\\nTo teach upon this principle, it is absolutely necessary that the teacher not\\nonly be able to read, and spell, and write well, and be a good practical ariilime-\\ntician, but that he be a person of general intelligence, having an extensive and\\naccurate knowledge of the subjects treated of in the reading lessons. Be must\\nknow much more than is expres. ~ed in the lessons themselves, or he will be\\ntotally unable to explain them familiarly, to correct the mistakes into which\\nhispiipils fall, and answer the innumerable questions that will be put to him as\\nsoon as the understanding of his pupils begins to be exercised on any subject. _\\nIt is therefore necessary that teachers should not merely be able to teach their\\npupils to lead, write, and to conduct schools upon an approved system of disci-\\npline, but that they be able to aid in forming the minds of children, and direct-\\ning their power of reading into a beneficial channel. The power of reading is\\nfrequently lost to children, and even becomes a source of corruption and mis-\\nchief to them, because they have never been directed to the proper use of it and\\nit is consequently of the highest importance that, while they are taught to read,\\ntheir thoughts and inclinations should have a beneficial direction given to them.\\nTo etlect this, manil estly requires a teacher of considerable skill and intelli-\\ngence.\\nTo secure the services of such persons, it is material that suitable means of\\ninstruction should be provided for those who desire to prepare themselves for the\\noffice of teaching, and that persons of character and ability should be induced\\nto seek it by the prospect of adequate advantages.\\nWith these views, we propose establishing five Profe.ssorships in our training\\ninstitution. I. Of the art of leaching and conducting schools. The professor\\nof this branch to be the head of the institution. II. Of composition, tnglish\\nliterature, history, geography, and political economy. III. Of natural histoiy\\nin all iis branches. IV. Of mathematics and mathematical scienre. V. Of\\nmental philosophy, including the elements of logic and rhetoric We propose\\nthat no person shall be admitted to the training institution, who does noi pievi-\\nously undergo a satisfactory examination in an entrance course lo be appointed\\nfor thai purpose and that each peison who may be admitted shall siudy in it\\nfor at least iwo years before he be declared fit to undertake the charge of a\\nschool; that during this time, he shall receive instruction in the different\\nbranches of knowledge already specified, and be practised in leaching ihe model\\nschool, under the direction of the professor of teaching.\\nWe are of opinion that, in addition to the general training institution, thirty-\\ntwo district Model Schools should be established, being a number equal to that\\nof the counties of Ireland; that those Model Schools sliould be under the direc-\\ntion of teachers chosen for supeiior attainments, and receiving sui erior remu-\\nneration to those charged with the general or Primary Schools; and tliat, here-\\nafter, each candidate for admission to the training establishments should undergo\\na preparatory training in one of them.\\nWe think the salary of the teacher of each Model School should be ^100 a\\nyear, and that he should have two assistants, having a salary of X50 a year\\neach.\\nWe consider that the teacher of each Primary School should have a certain\\nsalary of \u00c2\u00a325 a year; and that the Commissioners for the time being should be\\nauthorized to award annually to each a further sum, not exceeding X5. provided\\nihey shall see cause for doing so in the Inspector s report of his general conduct,\\nand the character of the school committed lo him. We are also of opinion\\nthat each teacher should be furnished wiih apartments adjoining the school.\\nBy the parliamentary grants of 1835 and 1836, the Board were enabled\\nto proceed with the erection of suitable buildings, and the establishment\\nof the Model School, and Training Department, in Marlborough street,\\nDublin, which were completed in 1838. To this, in 1839, was added a\\nModel Farm, and School of Agriculture, at Glasnevin, in the neighbor-\\nhood of Dublin, where the male teachers are lodged, and where they\\nreceive a course of instruction in agricultural science and practice.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0687.jp2"}, "686": {"fulltext": "684 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nThe training department was at first intended for schoolmasters but\\nin 1340, through the munificent donation of \u00c2\u00a31000, by Mrs. Drummond,\\nfor this special purpose, and an appropriation of a like amount by the\\nGovernment, a suitable building was erected in connection with the Model\\nSchool in Marlborough street, for the training of female teachers. In\\naddiiion to the ordinary course of instruction in the theory and practice of\\nleaching, schoolmistresses are instructed in plain needlework, in the\\nart of cutting out and making up articles of female wearing apparel, in\\nthe arts of domestic economy, such as cottage cookery, washing, ironing,\\nmangling, and other useful branches of household management.\\nThe Commissioners have recently erected in Dublin subsidiary Model\\nSchools, where temporary courses of instruction are given to teachers\\nalready connected with National Schools.\\nIn connection vvilh.and in extension of the plan of the central Training\\nEstablishment, a system of Primary Model Schools in each district into\\nwhich the country is divided, is commenced. To several of these schools\\na residence for the teacher, and land for a Model Farm, are annexed. It is\\nin contemplation to make these District Model Schools the residence of\\nthe inspector, and depots for a supply of school books, apparatus, and\\nrequisites for the schools of the district. Respecting these Model Schools\\nand Training Department, the Board remark in 1818\\nOur training establishment continue in a prosperous ,\u00c2\u00abtate. We have\\ntraineJ, during ihe year, and sup,c)rted at the public expense, 224 national\\nteachers, of whom 137 weie males and 87 were temales. We also trained 14\\nteachers noi connected wJih National Schools, ami who maintained ihernsielves\\nduring theii attendance at the Model Schools. Of the 224 teachers of National\\nSchools trained duiing the year, 9 were of the Established Church, 37 Presby-\\nterians. 3 Dissenters of other denominations, and 175 Uoman Catholics. The\\ntoial number of male and female teachers trained from the commencement ol\\nour proceedings to the 3 1st of December, 1847, is 2 044. We do not include in\\nthis number those teachers who are not connected with National Schools.\\nWith reference to the training of teacheis we have to observe, that the expe-\\nrience of each successive year s,rengLhens our conviction of its importance. It\\nis vain to expect that the National schools, established in all parts of Ireland,\\nwill ever be effectively conducted, or the art of communicating knowledge ma-\\nterially improved, until a sufficient number of well-paid masters and mistresses\\ncan be supplied, thoroughly qualified, by previous training, to undertake the\\noffice of teachers, and feeling a zealous interest in promoting the great objects\\nof their profession.\\nWe have observed, with satisfaction, a marked improvement in the appear-\\nance, manners, and attainments of every successive class of teachers who come\\nup to be trained in our Normal establishment. With refeience to the two last\\nclasses, we have ascertained that 34 teachers in the last, and 73 in the present,\\nhad been originally educated as pupih in National Schools. It is from this de-\\nsciiption of persons to whom the practice of instructing others has been familiar\\nfrom their childhood, that we may expect to procure the most intelligent and\\nskillful teachers, to educate the rising generation of Ireland.\\nIt is a gratifying fact, that the good feeling which has always prevailed\\namongst the teachers of different religious denominations residing together in\\nour training establishment, has suffered no interruption whatever during the\\nlast year of extraordinary public excitement.\\nWhilst every attention has been paid to the improvement of thp children in\\nour Model Schols in the various branches of their secular education, the par-\\namount duty of giving to them, and the teachers in training, religious instruc-\\ntion, has not been neglected by tho.se intrusted with that duly. Upon this sub-\\nject we deem it expedient to republish the statement made in our Report of last", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0688.jp2"}, "687": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. ggS\\nyear, which is as lollows: The arrangements for the separate religious in-\\nstruction of the children of all persuasitms attending these schools, and also of\\nthe teachers in training, continue to be carried inio effect every Tuesday, under\\nthe respective clergymen, with punctuality and saiisfaction. Previously toihe\\nai rival of the clergymen, each of the teachers in training is employed in giving\\ncatechetical and oiher religious instruction to a small class of children belong-\\ning to his own communion. These teachers attend their respective places of\\nworship on Sundays; and every facility is given, both before and after Divine\\nservice, as well as at other times, for their spiritual improvement, under the\\ndirections of their clergy.\\nIII. They have not only increased the number of ordinary elementary\\nschools, but they have established and aided a number of special schools\\nof different grades, pre-eminently calculated to benefit the people of Ire-\\nland.\\n1. Ecening Schools. The experiment was commenced at Dublin,\\nunder the direct inspection of the Board, and was conducted to their satis-\\nfaction. They thus refer to the subject in their report for 1847\\nThe average attendance of the Evening School on our premises in Marlbo-\\nrough street. Dublin, during the past year, was about 200, composed partly of\\nboys who cuuld not attend school during the day, and partly uf adults.\\nThe anxiety evinced by boys, and by young men from eighteen to twenty -five\\nyears of age, toparticipate in the advantages afforded by this school, coLfiims\\nour opinion that such institutions, if well conducted, will be of incalculable\\nbenefit to the working classes and that, if established in large towns, or in\\npopulous localities adjoining them, they will form an important step in the edu-\\ncation of tlie artisan between the common National School and the Mechanics\\nInstitution. After the toils of the day, the humble laborer and the tradesman,\\nwill find in Evening Schools the means of literary and moral improvement, and\\na protection against temptations to which, at their age, this class of persons are\\npeculiarly exposed.\\nWe received during the year numerous applications for aid to Evening\\nSchools, the majority of which we rejected, 1 eiiig of ojinion that our giants for\\nthis purpose should as yet be confined to large towns, in which trade and manu-\\nfactures are extensivelv carried on. and wheie alone we at present possess the\\nmeans of inspL ction. We made grants to twelve Evening Schools in the course\\nof the year. It is probable that the number of applications for assistance will\\ngradually increase. Should this be the case, we shall take the necessary steps\\nto ascertain that the Evening Schools are properly conducted, and that the sys-\\ntem ofeducation carried on in them is adapted to the varied occupations of the\\nartisans, mechanics, and others, who are desirous of obtaining the special in-\\nstruction which their several trades and avocations require.\\n2. Workhouse Schools. The children of families provided for in work-\\nhouses, under the Poor Law Commissioners in Ireland, are gathered into\\nschools under the care of the Board. In 1847 there were 104 of these\\nschools, for which the Board propose the following vigorous measures of\\nimprovement\\n1. That the minimum rate of salary to male teachers, in addition to apart-\\nments and rations, shall be \u00c2\u00a330 a year; and to feinale teachers \u00c2\u00a325, exclusive\\nof any gratuity from the Commissioners of National Education.\\n2. That noteacher shall be required to undertake the instruction of more\\nthan froin 80 to 100 children and that assistant teachers be piovided, at lower\\nsalaries, when the daily average attendance considerably exceeds 100.\\n3 That in female schools, when the number of pupils considerably exceeds\\n100, a work-mistress be engaged, in addition to the principal teacher, to instruct\\nthe children in the various branches of plain needlework, and in the art of cut-\\nting out, and making up articles of female wearing apparel.\\n4. That the whole time of the teachers shall be devoted to the literary, moral,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0689.jp2"}, "688": {"fulltext": "686 NATIONAL EDDCATION IN IRELAND.\\nand industrial education of the children, and to the superintendence of them,\\nduring the hours of recreation and manual labor.\\n5. That Evening Schools be opened for the instruction of the adult paupers,\\nand of such of the pupils of the day schools, as it may be practicable and desir-\\nable to have in attendance for two hours each evening. The Evening Schools\\nto be conducted by the teachers of the day schools.\\n6. That the number of children to be accommodated in each school-room be\\nso regulated, as that a space of at least six square feet be allowed for each\\nchild.\\n7. That every Workhouse School, in connection with the Commissioners of\\nNational Education, be supplied with suitable furniture and apparatus, accord-\\ning to models to be furnished by ihem.\\n8. That each Workhouse School, on its coming into connection with the\\nCommissioners of National Education, be gratuitously supplied with a com-\\nplete outfit of bjoks, maps, stationery, ;c., and that a further supply be granted\\nafterward, at stated periods.\\n9. That two of the local Guardians be requested to visit the schools weekly,\\nand report once a month to the Board of Guardians. This duty might be ren-\\ndered less onerous, if undertaken by ihe members of the Board in rotation.\\n10. That in order to provide industrial training for pauper-children a suffi-\\ncient quantity of land be annexed to each Workhouse, to be cultivated as farms\\nand gardens by the pupils of the schools; and that, for this purpose, Agricultur-\\nists be appointed, to the most deserving of whom ihe Commissioners of National\\nEducation will award gratuities not exceeding -\u00c2\u00a315 each.\\n11. That it is advisable, under particular circumstances, to consolidate two\\nor three Unions, and to establish a Central Agricultural School, to be attended\\nby the children of each.\\n3. Industrial Schools. The Board have extended aid to a class of\\nschools which gather in children who can not ordinarily be induced to\\nattend the regular day schools, and who need special care and training.\\nThe results are shown in the following extracts from the Reports of the\\nInspectors appointed by the Board\\nCInddah Fishing Schout, County Galway. The attendance has been, sometimes, over\\n500, and ihe average for six months has been nearly 400. I regret that the apparatus re-\\nquisite forgiving an extensive course of instruction on prat-tice of navigation has not\\nbeen provided, and that there are no funds available for this purpo.\u00c2\u00abe.\\nSince the opening of the female schools, 36 girls have been employed in the indtistrial\\nroom at spinning and net. making and in providing materials and making trifling dona-\\nticms to children, \u00c2\u00a366 \\\\s. 6d. have been nearly expended. The schools are in a much\\nbetter state than I expected them to be, the merit of which must be attributed to the\\npraiseworthy assiduity and attention of the manager, and rev. gentlemen of the Caddah\\nconvent.\\n4. Agricultural Schools. In accordance with the wise policy which\\nhas characterized all the measures of the Board, of trying all new exper-\\niments under their own inspection, and of exhibiting a working plan, the\\nBoard first established a Model Farm and Agricultural School at Glas-\\nnevin, in connection with the Training Establishment in Dublin, und\\nafterward attached an ordinary National School to the establishment at\\nGlasnevin. to ascertain to what extent industrial training suited to the\\nwants and circum,=5tances of the locality, could be united with literary\\ninstruction. As to the results the Board remark\\nIt has proved that literary instruction and practical instruction in garden-\\ning, together with some knowledge of agriculture, may be successfully commu-\\nnicated to boys in a National School by one master, provided he be zealous and\\nskillful. No difficulty has been experienced in inducing a limited number of\\nthe advanced boys to work in the garden two hours each day. after the ordinary\\nschool business. The scholars composing the Industrial class are paid six-\\npence a week each for their labor and the produce of the garden is valued to", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0690.jp2"}, "689": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 687\\nthe Commissioners, at the current market prices, for the use of the teachers\\nand doniesiics, in the male and female training establishments: an account is\\nkept by the teacher t)f the receipts as well as of the expehses of cuJiivation.\\nOur mas ers in training have thus an opporluiiiiy of seeing a model of what a\\nsmall village school ought to be in a rural flistiict, and how far it is practicable,\\nunder one and the same master, to unite literary and industrial education.\\nThe boys employed in cultivating the garden attend daily, together with the\\nteachers in tiaining,a course of lectures on the elementary principles of agricul-\\nture, as well as of gardening. The practical information they thus acquire,\\nand the habits of industry to which they become accustomed, can not fail to be\\nhighly serviceable to them in after life. It will be a .subject for futuie consid-\\neration, whether this arrangement for the regulation of the labor of the garden\\nmight not be so altered, as to place under each of the pupils a small alloiment,\\nwhich he shall be required to cultivate, being permitted to receive a portion of\\nthe profit derived from his industry.\\nWe conceive that no greater boon could b^onferred upon Ireland than the\\nestablishment of similar schools in every coumry paiish. They would not only\\nbe conducive to the improvement of the laboring classes themselves, but would\\ntend materially to remove the prejudices existing amongst many respectable\\nfarmers against the mere literary education of the peasantry. Schools of this\\ndescription would prove, by the combination of intellectual with industrial\\ntraining, that not only are the understandings of the young developed by this\\nspecies of education, but their bodies formed and disciplined to habits of useful\\nand skillful labor.\\nAfter training up teachers competent to conduct Agricultural Schools,\\nand showing them a working model of such a school, and also of an ordi-\\nnary school in which agriculture was introduced as a study and an exer-\\ncise, the Board proceeded to establish Model Agricultural Schools, pub-\\nlish Agricultural Class Books, and promote the study of agriculture in all\\nthe schools under their care, in appropriate situations. In their Report\\nfor 1847 they remark\\nWe had in operation on the 3lst of December, 1847, seven Model Agrif^ul-\\ntural Schools; and we have made building grants of i;200 each to ten others of\\nthis class, some of which are in progress. In addition to those schools, there\\nare twelve other Agricultural Schools to which small portions of land are\\nattached; and to the masters of these we pay an additional salary of \u00c2\u00a3b per\\nannum for their agricultural services; and other emoluments are secuied to\\nthem by the local managers. Since the commencement of the present year,\\nseveral applications have been received for aid both to Model and ordinary\\nAgiicultural Schools; so that we hope to announce, in our next Report, the\\nestablishment of a greater number.\\nWe have pabli hed an Agricultural Class Book for the u.se of the advanced\\npupils attending the National Schools, which it is intended shall be read by all\\nthe pupils capable of understanding its contents. The otject of this little work\\nis to explain, in as simple language as possible, the best mode of managing a\\nsmall farm and kitchen garden. Appended to it are introductory exercises, in\\nwhich the scholars should be examined by the teachers. In order to render the\\nlessons attractive, they have been thrown into the foim of a narrative, calcula-\\nted to arrest the attention of young readers. This reading book is not. however,\\ndesigned as an agricultural manual for our teachers. We propose to supply\\nthis want by the publication of a series of agiicultural woiks, lising from ihe\\nsimplest elementary book, to scientific teaching of a high character, and com-\\nprehending various branches of practical knowledge, tearing u| on the snlject\\nof agricultural instruction. We distributed last year, amongst our teachers, a\\nvariety of cheap and useful tracts, relating to the best modes of cultivating the\\nsoil, and providing against the dearth of food and we are now engaged in cir-\\nculating-, among. t our masters, several other elemeniarv treatises on husbandr\\\\\\nrecently published under the direction of the Royal Agricultural Society, and\\ncontaining much valuable information.\\nIn a limited number of large National Schools, situated in rural districts, we\\nintend to introduce agricultural instruction, subject to the following conditions", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0691.jp2"}, "690": {"fulltext": "6 g NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nIf the manager of a National School of this description, or any respectable\\nperson of whom he approves, shall annex to it a farm of eight or ten acres, and\\nerect the necessary farm buildings thereon, without reqaiiing any grant from\\nus toward building, repairs, the purchase of slock, or the payment of rent, we\\npropose in such cases to pay the Agricultural teacher a salary not exceeding\\n\u00c2\u00a330 per annum.\\nWe shall leave the appointment of the teacher and the superintendence of the\\nfarm to the proprietor of the land, or to the manager o( the school, should he\\nalso be the owner ol the land. All we siiall require will be, that the teacher be\\ncompetent, in the opinion of our Agricultural Inspector, to manage the farm\\naccording to the most improved system; and that he shall instruct daily in the\\ntheiry and practice of agriculture, a sufficient number of advanced buys, who\\nshall be in attendance at the adjoining National School. Our Agiicullural\\nInspector will be required tcf report half-yearly whether the farm has been con-\\nducted to his satisfaction, and whether the regulations which we shall presciibe\\nfor ihe agri jultural instruction o^he pupils have been strictly adhered to.\\nThe plan we have now explai^d can not be effectually worked by our ordi-\\nnary inspectors. It will be necessary, therefore that our Agricultuial Schools,\\ninciu ling our Model Farm at Glasnevin, should be under the superintendence\\nof a person, practically conversant with agricultural operations, with phins of\\nfarm buildings, and the best method of keeping farming accounts; and who\\nshall be cjmietent to examine and report on the sy. tem of agricultural in-\\nstruction adopted in schools of this description. We have, accordingly, deter-\\nmined upon appointing an officer !o discharge those important duties. With\\nhis assistance, we shall in future be able to make full and satisfactory reports to\\nParliament of the agricultural branch of our system.\\nIn order to supply the demand for persons qualified to conduct farms and Agri-\\ncultural Schools, we have resolved upon increasing from twelve to tvveniy-lour,\\nthe number of agricultural pupils, who compose the free class, at our Model\\nFarm, Glasnevin also, upon increasing to the same extent the number of agri-\\ncultural teachers at our training establishment there. We shall thus have a\\ntotal of forty -eight pupils and teachers, who will be all under instruction at the\\nsame time.\\nOur agricultural pupils are selected from the best qualitied of our pupils\\nattending our several Agricultural Schools throughout Ireland; and our agri-\\ncultural teachers who come up to be trained, are chosen from among the masters\\nof ordinary National Schools. This arrangement is calculated to accelerate\\nthe diffusion of agricultural instruction throughout our schools, and, generally,\\namongst our teachers.\\nThiuiL h convinced that, by means of these and other arrangements, we may\\nbecome instrumental in promoting the cause of Agricultural liducation in lie-\\nland, we teel bound to state that we can accomplish little, unless our effiiits be\\ncordially sustained by the co-operation of the landed propriet( rs of the country.\\nThe Agricultural Schools must, in almost all cases, be created by them, and\\nconducted under their directions. It will be necessary for them to expend\\nmuch monev, and bestow constant care upon them. The salaries, training, and\\ninspection, furnished by the state, are indispensable; but they wijl be unavail-\\ning if local expenditure and exertions do not supply the groundwork upon which\\nthe assistance of Government is to be brought into operation.\\n5. School Libraries. From the following extracts, it will be seen thai\\nthe Board are about to adopt the educational policy of New York and\\nMassachusetts in extending the means of self-education out of school\\nhours, and beyond the period of school attendance.\\nThe want of School Libraries for the use of the children attending our\\nschools has been long felt. To compile a series of instructive and entertaining\\nworks adapted to this purpose, would occupy a verv considerable time, and\\nrequire the assistance of many individuals well qualified for compiling books\\nsuited to the minds of children. Under these circumstances, we have adopted\\nthe necessary steps for the selection of a sufficient number from those alreaay\\npublished. Care will be taken that they are unobiectionable in all respects, to\\nthe meinbers of every religious denomination. We shall buy them from the\\npublishers at the lowest cost, and sell them at reduced prices to such of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0692.jp2"}, "691": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. ggg\\nmanagers of our schools as may approve of their being lent to their pupils.\\nWe shall also frame regulations for managing the ISchool Libraiies when\\nfoimed, which will insure a regular delivery and return of the books.\\nIV. Tlie Board have aided in the erection and fitting up of more than\\n3000 school-houses in different parts of Ireland, by contributing an amount,\\nnot more in any case tlian two-thirds of the sum actually expended. The\\nexpenditure in Ireland for school-houses, in connection with the Board, up\\nto 1S50, has been estimated at $2,500,000. The Commissioners must be\\nsatisfied as to the site, size, furniture, material, and workmanlike manner\\nof the work done, before the payment of any grant.\\nV. The Board have succeeded in publishing and introducing a valua-\\nble series of text books, maps and school re\u00c2\u00ab[uisites, prepared with great\\ncare, and furnished for a first supply, and at the end of every four years\\ngratuitousltj to each school, and at other times below cost. Great pains\\nhave been taken to exclude from all books published or sanctioned by\\nthem, every thing of a sectarian or party character, the upper and the\\nnether millstone between which Ireland has been for two centuries\\ncrushed. The publication of this Irish National Series of School\\nBooks. has had the effect already to reduce the price of all school books\\nin England and Scotland, and to lead to the revision of most of the stand-\\ning text books, in order to compete with this new competitor in the market.\\nIn their Fourteenth Report (for 1847) the Board remark\\nWe have the gratification to state that the demand for our school-books, in\\nEngland and Scotland, is progressively increasing. Many of our colonies,\\ntoo, have been supplied during the year with large quantities and in some of\\nthem a system of pabiic instruction for the poor, similar in its general charac-\\nter to that of the national system in Ireland, as being equally adapted to a pop-\\nulation of a mixed character as to their relijjioiis persuasions, is likely to be\\nestablished. We have sent books and requisites to Australia, British Ouiana,\\nCanada, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Gibraltar, and Malta.\\nA complete series of our National school-books was also sent to Loid Seaton,-\\nthe Governor of Corfu; and it is not improbable that they will be translated, at\\nno distant period, into the Greek language, for the use of children attending\\nschools in the Ionian Islands.\\nVI. The Board have subjected their schools to a system of thorough,\\nperiodical and intelligent inspection, by which all abuses and deficiencies\\nare detected, and at once corrected or supplied, and a stimulus of the most\\npowerful character is brought to bear on all of the teachers in any way\\naided by the Commissioners.\\nBesides three head inspectors residing at Dublin, for local duties and\\nspecial business abroad, there are thirty-four district inspectors, who de-\\nvote their whole time to the services of the Board, under the following\\nregulations\\n1. The commissioners do not take the control or regulation of any school,\\nexcept their own model schools, directly into their own hands, but leave all\\nschools aided by them under the authority of the local conductors. The in-\\nspectors, therefore, are not to give direct orders, as on the part of the Board, re-\\nspecting any necessary regulations, but to point out such regulations to the\\nconductors of the school, that they may give the requisite orders.\\n2. The commissioners require that every National School be inspected by the\\ninspector of the district, at least three times in each year.\\n44", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0693.jp2"}, "692": {"fulltext": "690 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\n3. The district inspector, on each inspection, is to communicate with the\\npatron or correspondent, for the purpose of affording information concerning\\nthe general state of the school, and pointing out such violations of rule, or de-\\nfects, if any, as he may have observed; and he is to make such suggestions as\\nhe may deem necessary.\\n4. He is to examine tlie visitors book, or daily report book, and to transmit\\nto the commissioners copies of any observations made therein which he may\\nconsider to be of importance.\\n5. He is not to make any observation in the book except the date of his visit,\\nthe time occupied in the inspection of the school, showing the precise time at\\nwhich it commenced and the precise time at which it terminated and also the\\nnumber of scholars present.\\n6. Upon ordinary occasions, he is not to give any intimation of his intended\\nvisit; but during the middle term of the year, fiom the 1st of May to theSlstof\\nAugust, when the inspection is to be public, he is to make such previous\\narrangements with the local managers, as will facilitate the attendance of\\nthe parents of the children, and other persons interested in the welfare of the\\nschools.\\n7. He is to report to the commissioners the result of each visit, and to use\\nevery means to obtain accurate information as to the discipline, management^\\nand methods of instruction pursued in the school.\\n8. He is to examine all the classes in succession, in their different branches\\nof study, so as to enable him to ascertain the degree and efficiency of the in-\\nstruction imparted.\\n9. He is to examine the class roils, register, and daily report book and to\\nreport with accuracy what is the actual number of children receiving instruc-\\ntion at the school, and what is the daily average attendance.\\n10. He is to receive a monthly report from the teacher of each school, and\\nalso to make one quarterly himself to the commissioners, in addition to his or-\\ndinary report upon the school after each visit.\\n11. He is also to supply the commissioners with such local information as\\nthey may from time to time require from him. and to act as their agent in all\\nmatters in which they may employ him but he is not invested v/ith authority\\nto decide up in any question affecting a National School, or the general business\\nof the commissioners, without their direction.\\n12. When applications for aid are referred to the district inspector, he is to\\ncommunicate with the applicant so as to insure an interview, and also with\\nthe clergymen of the different denominations in the neighborhood, with the view\\nof ascertaining their sentiments on the case, and whether they have any, and\\nwhat, objections thereto. He is also to communicate personally, if necessary,\\nwith any other individuals in the neighborhood.\\n13. The district inspector is to avoid all discussions of a religious or political\\nnature; he is to exhibit a courteous and conciliatory demeanor toward all\\npersons with whom he is to communicate, and to pursue such a line of conduct\\nas will tend to uphold the just influence and authority both of managers and\\nteachers.\\nVII. They have, by their wise and successful measures, induced the\\nBritish Parliament to increase their annual appropriation in aid of Na-\\ntional Education in Ireland. The sum appropriated in 1831 was \u00c2\u00a34.328\\nin 1835. \u00c2\u00a33.5,000 in 1840, \u00c2\u00a350,000 and in 1847, \u00c2\u00a390,000. The whole\\nsum expended by the Board in 1847 was \u00c2\u00a3102,318. To the amount re-\\nceived from the Treasury was added the sum of \u00c2\u00a38,500. realized from\\nthe sale of books, published by the Board. The sum appropriated by\\nthe Board is made the condition and inducement of a still larger sum\\nbeing raised by local and parental effort. The following account of the\\nexpenditures of the Board for 1847, will indicate the objects wliich they\\naimed to accomplish", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0694.jp2"}, "693": {"fulltext": "NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\n691\\nTHE DISCHARGE.\\nNormal Establishment\\nSalaries and Wages,\\nGeneral Expenditure,\\nMalk Training Department, Glasnevin\\nSalaries and Wages,\\nMaintenance and Traveling,\\nGeneral Expenditure\\nMale Training Department, Great Georok s-strbet:\\nSalaries and Wages,\\nMaintenance and Traveling,\\nGeneral Expenditure,\\nMale Temporary Department, 27, Marlborouoh-street,\\nFemale Training Department;\\nSalaries and Wages,\\nMaintenance and Traveling,\\nGeneral Expenditure,\\nModel School Department,\\nEvening School, Marlbokough-street,\\nModel Farm Department, including the Board and Lodg-\\ning of Agricultural Pupils and Teachers, Rent, Permanent\\nImprovements, Salaries, Wages, c.,\\nPurchase of Farm Stock and Agricultural Implements, from Mr.\\nSkilling, in November,\\nGlasnevin National School Completion of Building, Fit-\\nting-up, c\\nGlasnevin Evening School,\\nBuilding, Fitting-up, Repairing, c.. School-houses,\\nDo. Do. Agricultural, Industrial and oth-\\ner Schools,\\nSalaries to Teachers and Monitors,\\nDistrict Model Schools\\nPurchase, Rent, toward Building, Furnishing, c.,\\nSalaries and Allowances to teachers,\\nGeneral Expenditure,\\nInspection,\\nBook Department\\nHer Majesty s Stationery Office, for one year ending 31st March,\\n1847, for Paper, Printmg, Binding of National School Books,\\nincluding Slates, Pencils, and other School Requisites,\\nFor Books and Requisites purchased from Publishers, and sold\\nto the National Schools at reduced prices, Salaries, c.,\\nOfficial Establishment in Marlborough-street,\\nRepairs and Works at Marlborough-street, including Pur-\\nchase of ground in Rere, for New Male Training Establishment,\\nBuilding and Fitting-up New Book Stores,\\nSundry Repairs and Alterations in various Departments,\\nMiscellaneous\\nRates, Ta.\\\\es, and Insurance,\\nCoals, Candles, Gas, ,c.\\nPostage,\\nStamps,\\nLaw Costs, JB424 13 2 t\\nSundries, 165 8 3\\nIncidents,\\nGratuities to Monitors, from Model School Fund,\\nJames Claridoe, Jlccomptant.\\ns. d.\\n861\\n23 9 10\\n126 2 4\\n1,218 15 5\\n312 16 8\\n119 7\\n928 12\\n248 7\\n307 16\\n183\\n1,139 8\\n306 1 8\\n852 19 10\\n101 9 10\\n021 19 8\\n916 2 7\\n744 18 9\\n21 16 6\\n3,956 7 10\\n399 8 9\\n520\\n232 13\\n14,064 8 5\\n3,339 4 9\\n1,100\\n1,500\\n1,412 4 2\\n30] 11 6\\n435 9\\n380 5\\n136 15\\n589 15 5\\nX. s. d.\\n9,333 17 7\\n4,355 16 7\\n50,209 6 1\\n752 13\\n9,322 I 7\\n17,403 13 2\\n4,961 3\\n4,012 4 2\\n1,843 15 11\\n124 2\\n102,318 14 5\\nVIII. The success which has attended the efforts of the Board even\\nunder the extraordinary and pecuUarly difficult circumstances of Ireland,\\nhas had a powerful influence on the cause of educational improvement in\\nEngland, and other parts of the British Empire.\\nMuch has been done within five years past, and more is now doing in\\nthe Province of Upper Canada, by the Government, to establish a system\\nof common schools than in any one of the American States, not excepting\\neven New York, or Massachusetts. The action of the enlightened and\\nindefatigable superintendent of schools, the Rev. Egerton Ryerson, D. D.,\\nhas been guided more by the experience of the National Board of Ireland\\nthan that of any other State.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0695.jp2"}, "694": {"fulltext": "g92 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nThe following extracts from the Eighteenth Report of the Commis-\\nsioners of National Education for Ireland, exhibit the practical opera-\\ntions of the system at the close of the year 1852:\\nOn the 3lst December, 1850, we had 4,547 schools in operation, which were\\nattended by 511,239 children. At the close of the year 1851, the number of\\nschools in operation was 4,704, and of pupils on the rolls 520,.401. showing an\\nincrease in the schools in operation of 157, and an increase in the attendance for\\nthe year 1851, as compared with the year 1850, of 9,162 children. The total\\nattendance in 1851 of 520,401 children, in the 1,704 schools in operation, gives\\nan average on the rolls of lOOi to each school.\\nAccording to returns prepared at our request by the managers of the national\\nschools, we have ascertained that of 5,822 male and female teachers, assistants,\\nmonitors, c., in the service of our board on the 31st of March, 1852, there\\nwere members of the Established Church, 360 Presbyterians, 760 other\\nProtestant Dissenters, 49 total Protestants of all denominations, 1,169 Roman\\nCatholics, 4.653. The number of schools in operation on the 1st of November,\\n1852, was 4,795. Of these, 4,434 were under 1,853 separate managers, and 175\\nunder joint management. There were 141 connected with workhouses or jails,\\nand 45 of which the commissioners are the patrons, making in the whole 4,795\\nschools. Of 434 schools, 1,247 were under the superintendence of 710 man-\\nagers of the Protestant, and 3,187 under the 1,143 managers of the Roman Catholic\\ncommunion. The number of managers, members of the Established Church, was\\n296, clerical 67, lay 229, of schools 554 Presbyterians 398, clerical 247, lay\\n151, schools 670 Protestant Dissenters 16, clerical 4, lay 12, schools 23. Total\\nProtestant managers of all persuasions 710, and of schools under them 1,247.\\nRoman Catholics 1,143, clerical 957, lay 186, schools 3,187.\\nThese returns show that the various religious denominations are rep-\\nresented in the management, instruction, and attendance of the schools,\\nabout in proportion to their population. Still it is to be regretted that\\nthis system is assailed with great bitterness by ultra Protestants and\\nultra Catholics, each claiming that the schools are administered to tiie\\nspecial benefit of the other side. The Commissioners remark:\\nWe beg to assure your Excellency, that we have no other object in bringing\\nunder your notice these statements than to prove that the benefits derived from\\nthe system of national education have not been confined almost entirely to the\\nRoman Catholic population (as has been incorrectly stated in various publications)\\nbut that it has been found acceptable to a large proportion of the Protestant com-\\nmunity. Twenty years have elapsed since the introduction of the system of na-\\ntional education into Ireland. After a careful review of its progress, and of the\\ndifficulties which it has had to encounter, we are convinced that it has taken deep\\nroot in the affections of the people, and that no other plan for the instruction of\\nthe poor could have been devised, in the peculiar circumstances of this country,\\nwhich would have conferred such inestimable blessings on the great majority of\\nthe population. Every passing year strengthens our conviction that the intel-\\nlectual and moral elevation of the humbler classes in Ireland will be effectually\\npromoted by a firm adherence to the fundamental principles of the system, and by\\nliberal grants from Parliament towards its support.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0696.jp2"}, "695": {"fulltext": "TRAINING DEPARTMENT AND MODEL SCHOOLS\\nOP THB\\nCOMMISSIONERS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION FOR IRELAND.\\nThe Commissioners for National Education in Ireland, provided in\\n1839, in Marlborough street, Dublin, a Normal Establishment for trainintr\\nteachers, and educating persons who are intended to undertake the\\ncharge of schools.\\nThe establishment consists of spacious accommodations for class and\\nlecture-rooms for th6 Normal pupils^ school-rooms for three model schools\\nin Marlborough street for the instruction of 800 pupils, and a boarding-\\nhouse and model farm at Glasnevin. in the neighborhood of Dublin.\\nThe following extracts from the Regulations of the Board reo-ardino-\\nthe appointment and classification of teachers, the course of instruction,\\nc., will give a good idea of the establishment, and at the same time\\nsuggest many useful hints to the friends of educational improvement at\\nhome.\\nADMISSION OF PUPILS INTO THE MODEL SCHOOLS.\\nParents are requested lo observe the following rules\\n1. Parents wishing their children to be admitted into these schools must ap-\\nply to the head teacher of the respective schools, on anj morning of the week\\nexcept Monday, from half-past nine till ten o clock. The names, residences\\nc. of the children will then be registered in a book kept for the purpose and\\nas vacancies occur, they will be sent for in the strict order of their respective\\napplications except in the case of pupils %oho have been dismissed for irregularity\\nof attewiancc, loho are iwt lobe received again till after all the other applicants\\nshall have been admitted.\\n2. The doors are closed every morning precisely at ten o clock, and the\\nchildren are dismissed at three, except on Saturdays, when the schools close at\\ntwelve o clock.\\nAn opportunity for separate religious instruction is afforded every Tuesday,\\nfrom ten till half-past twelve o clock.\\n4. If a child be absent on any day. he must bring a ticket to school, as a token\\nthat the absence was unavoidable, and by the consent of the parents. Three\\nAbs iuce tickets will be given to the parents on application to the heads of the\\nrespective schools.\\n5. If any child be frequently absent, or absent five days successively,\\nand the cause be not made known to the teachers before the expiration of the\\nfive days, such child will be discharged from the school. If the parents wish\\nthe child to be re-admitted, they must gel the name entered in the application\\nbook as at first and vjait till after all the children vjho have applied for the first\\ntime shall have been admitted.\\n6. The payment is a penny per week, to be paid the first day in each week\\nthe child attends and should any child be unavoidably absent, the penny\\nmust nevertheless be paid weekly so long as the parent wishes the name of the\\nchild to remain on the roll.\\nGENERAL LESSONS TO BE INCULCATED IN THE MODEL SCHOOLS AND TRAININQ\\nDEPART.MENT, AND IN ALL SCHOOLS OF THE BOARD.\\nChristians should endeavor, as the Apostle Paul commands them, to live\\npeaceably with all men, (Rom. ch. xii. v. 18,) even with those of a diferent\\nreligious persuasion.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0697.jp2"}, "696": {"fulltext": "694 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND.\\nOur Savior, Christ, commanded his disciples lo love one another; he\\ntaught them to love even their enemies, to bless those that cursed them, and to\\npray for those who persecuted them. He himself^rayed for his murderers.\\nMany men hold erroneous doctrines, but we ought not lo hate or persecute\\nthem. We ought to seek for the truth, and to hold fast what we are convinced\\nis the truth but not to treat harshly those who are in error. Jesus Christ did\\nnot intend his religion to be forced on men fey violent means He would not\\nallow his disciples to fight for him.\\nIf any person treats us unkindly, we must not do the same to them for Christ\\nand his apostles have taught us not to return evil for evil. If we would obey\\nChrist, we must do to others, not as they do to us, but as we should wish them\\nto do to us.\\nGluarreling with oUr neighbors, and abusing them, is not the way to con-\\nvince them that we are in the right, and ihey in the wrong. It is more likely\\nto convince them that we have not a Christian spirit.\\nWe ought to show ourselves followers of Christ, who, when he was reviled,\\nreviled not again, (1 Pet. ch. ii. v. 23,) by behaving gently and kindly to\\nevery one,\\nTEN PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE TEACHERS OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS.\\nI. To keep at least one copy of the General Lesson, or a Lesson of similar\\nimport, suspended conspicuously in the school-room, and to inculcate the prin-\\nciples contained in it on the minds of their pupils.\\nII. To exclude from the school, except at the hours set apart for religious in-\\nstruction, all catechisms and books inculcating peculiar religious opinions.\\nIII. To avoid fairs, markets, and meetings but above all, political meet-\\nings, of every kind and to do nothing either in or out of school which might\\nhave a tendency to confine it to any one denomination of children.\\nIV. To keep the register, report book, and class lists, accurately and neatly,\\nand according to the precise forms prescribed by the Board.\\nV. To classify the children according to the national school books; to study\\nthose books themselves; and to teach according to the improved methods, as\\npointed out in their several prefaces.\\nVI. To observe themselves, and to impress upon the minds of their pupils,\\nthe great rule of regularity and order a time and a place for every thing,\\nAND EVERY THING IN ITS PROPER TIME AND PLACE.\\nVII. To promote, both by precept and example, cleanliness, neatness, and\\nDECENCY. To effect this, the teachers should set an example of cleanliness and\\nneatness in their own persons, and in the state and general appearance of iheir\\nschools, They should also satisfy themselves, by personal inspection every\\nmorning, that the children have had their hands and faces washed, their hair\\ncombed, and clothes cleaned, and, when necessary, mended. The school apart-\\nments, too, should be swept and dusted every evening; and white-washed at\\nleast once a year.\\nVIII. To pay the strictest attention to the morals and general conduct of their\\npupils and to omit no opportunity of inculcating the principles of truth and\\nhonesty the duties of respect to superiors, and obedience to all persons placed\\nin authority over them.\\nIX. To evince a regard for the improvement and general welfare of their\\npupils; to treat them with kindness combined with firmness; and to aim at\\ngoverning them by their affections and reason, rather than by harshness and\\nseverity.\\nX. To cultivate kindly and affectionate feelings among their pupils to dis-\\ncountenance quarreling, cruelty to animals, and every approach to vice.\\nadmission to training department.\\n1. The appointment of teachers rests with the Local Patrons and Commit-\\ntees of Schools. But the Commissioners are to be satisfied of the fitness of\\neach, both as to character and general qualification. He should be a person\\nof Christian sentiment, of calm temper, and discretion he should be imbued\\nwith a spirit of peace, of obedience to the law, and of loyalty to his sovereign\\nhe should not only possess the art of communicating knowledge, but be capa-\\nble of moulding the mind of youth, and of giving to the power which education", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0698.jp2"}, "697": {"fulltext": "NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND. 695\\nconfers a useful direction. These are the qualities for which patrons of\\nschools, when making choice of teachers, should anxiously look. They are\\nthose which the Commissioners are anxious to find, to encourage, and to re-\\nward.\\n2. The Commissioners have provided a Normal Establishment in Marlbo-\\nrough street. Dublin, for training teachers and educating persons who are in-\\ntended to undertake the charge of schools; and they do not sanction the ap-\\npointment of a teacher to any school, unless he shall have been previously\\ntrained at the Normal Establishment or shall have been pronounced duly qual-\\nified by the Superintendent of the district in which the school is situated.\\n3. Teachers selected by the Commissioners for admission to the Normal Es-\\ntablishment must produce a certificate of good character from the oificiating\\nclergyman of the communion to which they belong. They are to be boarded\\nand lodged at an establishment provided by the Board for the purpose at Glas-\\nnevin, in the immediate neighborhood of Dublin, to which an agricultural de-\\npartment is attached. They are to receive religious instructions from their re-\\nspective pastors, who attend on Thursdays at the Normal Establishment; and\\non Sundays they are required to attend their respective places of worship and\\na vigilant superintendence is at all times exercised over their moral conduct.\\n4 They are to attend upon five days in the week at the training and model\\nschools, where lectures are delivered on different branches of knowledge, and\\nwhere they are practised in the art of teaching. Thej^ are to receive instruction\\nat Glasnevin, particularly in agriculture, daily, and they attend on Saturdays\\nat the farm, which is conducted under the direction of the Commissioners, and\\nwhere they see theory reduced to practice. They undergo a final examination\\nat the close of their course, and each will then receive a certificate according\\nto his deserts. The course of training at present occupies a period of four\\nmonths and a half, and for a considerable time previous tc) their being sum-\\nmoned, they are required to prepare themselves for the course.\\n5. Teachers of schools unconnected with the National Board, if properly\\nrecommended, are also admitted to attend the Normal Establishment, as day\\npupils, without any charge for tuition but such persons maintain themselves\\nat their own expense.\\nDAILY OCCUPATION IN THE TRAINING DEPARTMENT.\\nThe Lectures of the Professors commence in the first week of February and August\\nin each year, and continue for between four and five months.\\nDAILY OCCUPATION OF THE TEACHERS* TIME AND SUBJECTS TAUOHT.\\nMondays, Wednesdays and Fridays.\\n10 to 11 Mr. Sullivan Principles of Teaching Systems of Popular Education\\nand Lectures on School-keeping.\\n11 to 12 Mr. M Gauley Arithmetic, Elements of Algebra, Geometry, and Mechanics.\\n12 to 12J Hullah s System of Singing, under Mr. Gaskin, in the Gallery.\\n12Jto 1 Relaxation in Play-ground, under Mr. Rintoul.\\n1 to 14 Mr. Sullivan Recapitulation and Examination.\\nIJto 2 Mr. M Gauley Steam Engine, Elements of Chemistry, and subjects con-\\nnected with them.\\n2 to 3 Practice of Teaching in Model School under Mr. Rintoul, Mr. Keenan,\\nand superintendence of the Professors.*\\n3 to 4 Lecture on Agriculture from Mr. Donaghy.\\nTiusdays.\\n10 to U Hullah s System of Singing under Mr. Gaskin, in the Gallery.\\n11 to 12i Religious Instruction, under their respective Clergymen.\\n12ito 1 Relaxation in Play -ground, under Mr. Rintoul.\\n1 to 2 Mr. Sullivan Books of the Board, Grammar, Easy Lessons on Reasoning,\\nand Elements of Political Economy taking Archbishop Whateley s\\nEasy Lessons on Money Matters as the basis and touching only on\\nthose topics which are plain, practical, and corrective of popular prejxulieea,\\n2 to 3 Mr. M Gauley Same as early Lecture on Mondays.\\n3 to 4 Lecture on Agriculture from Mr. Donaghy.\\nDuring these hours a portion of the teachers in roUtion attend the Infant Model SchodL\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0nder Mr. Younf.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0699.jp2"}, "698": {"fulltext": "696 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OP IRELAND.\\nThursdays.\\n10 to 11 Mr. Sullivan Geography, and Elements of Astronomy.\\n11 to 12 Mr. M Gauley Same subjects as early Lecture on preceding days.\\n12 to 12J Hull.ih s System of Singing, under Mr. Gaskin.\\n12ito 1 Relaxation in Play-ground, under Mr. Rintoul.\\n1 to 2 Mr. Rintoul Preparation for Teaching in the Model School.\\n2 to 3 Practice of Teaching in Model School, under Mr. Rintoul, Mr. KeenaN.\\nand superintendence of the Professors.*\\n3 to 4 Lecture on Agriculture from Mr. Donaghy.\\nSaturdays.\\n10 to 12 Mr. Donaghy At the farm for practical Instruction in Agriculture.\\n12 to 2 Mr. GiLSON Surveying.\\n2 to 3 Mr. Campbell Horticulture.\\nspecial class.\\nThe Junior Division attend with the General or Ordinary Class, as above.\\nThe Senior Divison, or those who have attended two courses of Lectures, are em-\\nployed in the Model School, under Mr Keenan, except at the periods in which the O-cn-\\neral Class learn the practice of Teaching under Mr. Rintoul. At these periods the\\nSpecial Class receive extra and special instruction from one of the Professors. For the\\npresent, Mr. M Gauley will take them on Thursdays, at the hour in which the men\\nwill he in the Model Schools for the practice of Teaching and also, from 2 till half-past\\n2 o clock on Mondai/s, Wednesdays and Fridays Mr. Rintoul will also give them spe-\\ncial instruction on Tuesdays, from 10 till 1 1 o olock and Mr. Sullivan will mark out a\\ncourse of reading for them, and examine them from half-past nine to 10 o clock on Tues-\\ndays, on the hooks recommended he will also give them exercises to write on the sub-\\nject of Education and School-keeping.\\nfemale class of teachers in training.\\nMondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays.\\n94 to 10} Mr. Rintoul Writing, Arithmetic, Elocution, and Writing and Spelling, by\\nDictation.\\n11 to 12 Mr. Sullivan Geography, Grammar, Principles of Teaching, and Lectures\\non School-keeping. t\\n12 to 12i Relaxation in Play-ground.\\n12jto 3 Female Model and Infant Schools.\\n3 to 4 Miss Byrne For Singing.\\nTuesdays,\\n9jto lOJ Mr. Rintoul Same subjects as on Mondays.\\n10 to I2i Separate Religious Instruction.\\nRelaxation in Play-ground.\\nMr. M Gauley Arithmetic.\\nMr. Rintoul Practice of Teaching.\\nMiss Byrne For Singing.\\nSaturdays.\\n10 to 12 Female Model School.\\n12 to 124 Miss Byrne For Singing.\\nclassification and salaries op teachers.\\nTeachers of national schools are divided into three classes, to which the fol-\\nlowing salaries are attached:\\nFirst Class. First Division males, \u00c2\u00a330; females, \u00c2\u00a324. Second Division:\\nmales, \u00c2\u00a325 females, \u00c2\u00a320, Third Division males, \u00c2\u00a322 females \u00c2\u00a318 per\\nannum.\\nSecond Class. First Division males, \u00c2\u00a320; females, \u00c2\u00a315. Second Division\\nmales, \u00c2\u00a318; females, \u00c2\u00a314 per annum.\\nThird Class. First Division males, \u00c2\u00a316; females, \u00c2\u00a313. Second Division\\nmales, \u00c2\u00a314; females, \u00c2\u00a312 per annum.\\nProbationary Teachers. Males, \u00c2\u00a310; females, \u00c2\u00a39 per annum.\\nAssistant Teachers. Males, \u00c2\u00a310; females, \u00c2\u00a39 per annum.\\nMistresses to [.each Needle Work. \u00c2\u00a36 per annum.\\nIn order thiit the tenchers in training mny see the Model School in all its phnses, we i-hnnse\\nthe hours of our Lectures every Thursdny, no ns to enable them to attend the first Thursday in liie\\ncourse from 10 to ii o clock, the second from II to 12, and so on.\\nExcept from 11 tiU 12 o clock on Tburadays, which they spend in the Female Model School.\\n12jto\\n1\\n1 to\\n2\\n2 to\\n3\\n3 to\\n4", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0700.jp2"}, "699": {"fulltext": "NOnMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OP IRELAND.\\n697\\nMasters of agricultural model pchools, with farms of eight or ten acres an-\\nnexed, who are compeient to conduct both (he liieraiy and agiiculinral depart-\\nments, are to receive \u00c2\u00a310 per annum, in addiiion to the salary of the class in\\nwhich they may be placed.\\nMasters of national schools with a small portion of land annexed, consisting\\nof from two to three acres, for the purpose of affording agricultural instruction,\\nwill leceive \u00c2\u00a3o per annum, in addiiion to the salary of iheir class, provided\\nih?y are competent to conduct both the literary and agricultural departments,\\nand that the commissioners thall have previously approved of agriculture being\\ntaught in the school.\\nThe cDmmi.ssioners will not grant salary to an assistant teacher, or to a\\nteacher of nee lie work, unless they are satisfied that the appointment is necessary\\nand such teachers, even though they may be classed, will not be paid any higher\\nrate o^.^alary than the amiant awarded to them as assistant teachers, lir teach-\\ners of needlewo)k, until promoted to the rank of principal teacher, with the\\nsane ion of the commissioners.\\nThe commissioners have determined upon a course of study for each class,\\nin which the teachers are to be examined as a test of their fimess for promo-\\ntion b lt their s^ ueral conduct, the condition of their respective schools, their\\nmethod of c )nd icting them, and the daily average attendance of pupils, will\\naho be taken i.ato consideration.\\nEvery national teacher will be furnished with a copy of the program of the\\ncourse of study above referred to.\\nThe commissioners require that a further income to the teachers be secured,\\neither by local subscriptions or school fees. This rule will be strictly enforced.\\nS.\\\\t,ARIES PAID TO MONITORS.\\nMf7lFs and Femahs. For the first year, \u00c2\u00a3i for the second year, \u00c2\u00a3b for the\\nthird year, .65 for the fourth year, \u00c2\u00a31.\\nFor the present the number of paid monitors is limited to four males and two\\nfemales in each district, selected from among the best pupils in the national\\nschools, and arpointed upon the recommendation of the district inspectors.\\nWhen the district model schods are established, candidates for the othce of\\npaid monitor must undergo a public examination by the inspectors, in a pre-\\nscribed course, to be held in those schools.\\nGENERAL, CONDITIONS FOR PROMOTIONS.\\nAll newly appointed teachers, who have not previously conducted national\\nschools, are considered as Prohali oners, and must remain as such for at least\\none year, at the expiration of which time, they will be eligible for clas.sificati(!n,\\nand may be promoted, even before being trained, to any class exc-pt I he first\\nif promoted, they will receive the full ammmt of salary to which, they may b ome\\nenlit e-I from th^ commenemcnt of thz second year of their servicr under the Board.\\nAll teachers must remain at least one year in a lo\\\\^er division of any class,\\nbefore ihey are eligible fir promotion to a higher division of the same ard they\\nmust remain tvvo years in a lower class before they are eligible for promotion\\nto a higher class.\\nThis regulation does not apply to probationary teachers, nor to teachers ho\\nmay be promotel on the recommendation of the professors at the termination of\\nthe course of training.\\nNone but teachers trained at the Normal School of the commissioners are\\neligible for promotion lo any division of fhi first class, and only upon the recom-\\nmendation of the professors, or of a hoard of inspectors.\\nExaminations are to be held, at specified times, by the inspectors, with the\\nview of promoting meritorious teachers, or of depressing others who may have\\nconducted themselves improperly, or in whose schools the attendance has con-\\nsiderably decreased.\\nNo leather will bs admilt^ d to examiva ion with a vieto to promotion, on whose\\ns:hool a decidedly unfavorable report has been made by the district inspector within\\nth^. pr^ i^inus year.\\nTeachers will not be eligible for promotion unless, in addition to satisfactory\\nansweiing in the course prescribed for the class to which they aspire, it appears\\nfrom the reports of their respective district inspectors that their schools are pro-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0701.jp2"}, "700": {"fulltext": "698 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND.\\nperly organized and well conducted that adequate exertions have been made\\nby them to keep up a sufficient average attendance; that their junior classes\\nare carefully taught, and that a fair proportion of the pupils of the higher\\nclasses, besides being proficients in the ordinary branches of reading, spelling\\nand writing, are possessed of a respectable amount of knowledge in, at least,\\ngrammar, geography, and arithmetic. In female schools it will be further re-\\nquisite that instruction in plain needlework, including sewing, knitting, and\\ncutting-nut, be given to all girls capable of receiving it, and that they exhibit a\\ndue proficiency in this department.\\nIt must also appear from the reports of their inspectors, that their school ac-\\ncounts have been regulaily and correctly kept, that their schools and school\\npremises have been pieserved with neatness and order, and that cleanliness in\\nperson and habits has been enforced on the children attending them.\\nNone can be appointed as assistant teachers whose qualifications are not\\nequal to those lequired of probationers.\\nSatisfactory certificates of character and conduct will be required of all can-\\ndidates.\\nSCALE OF PREMIUMS TO THE MASTERS AND MISTRESSES OF NATIONAL SCHOOLS.\\nThe sum of \u00c2\u00a310 to be allocated to each of the school districts, to be divided\\ninto six premiums^one of je3; one of .\u00c2\u00a32; two of .\u00c2\u00a31 lOs. each, \u00c2\u00a33; two of \u00c2\u00a31\\neach, X2.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 XIO.\\nThese premiums are to be awarded annually on the recommendation of the\\ndistrict inspector, and paid at the end of the year to the masters and mistresses\\nwho are most distinguished by the order, neatness, and cleanliness observable\\nin themselves, their pupils, and in the school-houses.\\nNo distinction to be made between vested and non-vested schools.\\nNo teacher eligible lor these premiums for more than two years in succession.\\nThese premiums will be awarded without reference to the class in which the\\nteachers may be ranked but none will be deemed eligible to receive such pre-\\nmiums against whom there may be any well-founded charge of neglect in the\\nperformance of their duties, of impropriety in their conduct, or whose schools\\nare not conducted in a satisfactory manner.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0702.jp2"}, "701": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION\\nIRELAND.\\nArrangements are now made for a eysteniatic course of instruction in\\nthe science and practice of agriculture in Ireland, in connection with the\\nQueen s Colleges, and the Commissioners of National Education.\\nProfessorship of Agriculture in the Queen s Colleges.\\nIn each of the Q,ueen s Colleges there is a professorship of agriculture,\\nwith a model and experimental farm, and botanical garden, all the helps\\nand appliances of agricultural books and periodicals, and a laboratory\\nfor experiments in the scientific principles connected with this depart-\\nment.\\nThe colleges are situated in different sections of Ireland, viz. at\\nGalway, Cork, and Belfast, and the course of agricultural instruction in\\neach, will be modified to some extent by the peculiarities of the country\\nin which it is located.\\nThe course of study and of lectures extends through two years, Avhen\\nthe student receives a Diploma of Agriculture. The courses of lec-\\ntures embrace, in the first year, natural philosophy, chemistry, natural\\nhistory, and the theory of agriculture; in the second year, geology and\\nmineralogy, history and diseases of farm animals, land surveying and\\nthe practice of agriculture.\\nOn the model and experimental farm, and in the botanical gardens\\nadjoining the colleges, and in connection with them, the students have\\nan opportunity of becoming acquainted with the best kind of farm ani-\\nmals and machines, and with the manual and mechanical operations of\\npractical agriculture, horticulture and arboriculture, being accompanied\\nin their visits to see such objects and processes, by their instructors, as\\nwell as in various excursions of natural history.\\nStudents who attend the agricultural lectures may be matriculated or\\nnon-matriculated. The former pay $33 each year to the college; the\\nlatter pay $9 for attendance upon any separate course of lectures.\\nThey also pay $3 annually for access to the library, which is well fur-\\nnished with agricultural publications, to which the matriculated students\\nhave access without charge.\\nIn each of these colleges are four scholarships of Agriculture, of the\\nvalue of $97, two for each year. Candidates for these undergo certain\\nexaminations. For the first year, they must have passed the matricula-\\ntion examination, viz. in English grammar and composition, the first\\nfour rules of arithmetic, vulgar and decimal fractions, involution and\\nevolution, proportion and simple interest, mensuration, book-keeping, and", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0703.jp2"}, "702": {"fulltext": "YOO AGRICtTLTURAL EDCCATION IN IRELAND.\\noutlines of modern geography. For the second year, the examinations\\nare in the general principles of heat, chemistr} mechanics and hydro-\\nstatics, elements of hotany and zoology, theory and composition of ma-\\nnures, and feeding of farm animals.\\nCandidates for the diplomas of agriculture pay to the college the first\\nyear, $33; for the second, $31. If they have scholarships, they pay\\nonly $20 the first year, and $18 the second.\\nAgricultural Department of the System of National Education.\\nThe operations of the Commissioners of National Education embrace:\\n1. Model Farm at Glasne.vin, near Dublin.\\n2. Model Agricultural Schools under the exclusive management of\\nthe Commissioners.\\n3. Model Agricultural Schools under the management of Local\\nPatrons.\\n4. Agricultural Departments in Workhouse Schools.\\nThe working operations of several schools, and the results of the ex-\\nperimental model firming in coimection with each, are fully set forth\\neach year in the report of the Inspector who in 1852 was Dr. Kirkpat-\\nrick. From his report for 1851. it appears that, besides the Model Farm\\nand Agricultural School at Glasnevin, there were 28 Model Agricultural\\nSchools and 37 ordinary Agricultural Schools. In these schools there\\nwere 90 boarders, and 173 pupils working on the farms, and paid out of\\nthe produce of the farms most of whom were destined to be teachers in\\nNational Schools. The Inspector in his Report remarks:\\nThe reports of the conductors of the several Agricultural Schools in which In-\\ndustrial Classes have as yet been established are most favorable as to the utility\\nand efficiency of such classes, and generally speak of the pupils composing them\\nas being the most rcgnbu- in their attendance at school, and the most protieient in\\nliterary and agricultural knowledge. The establishment of an Industrial Class of\\nsix pupils in every Agricultural School would be of gi eat advantage in carrying\\nout the different operations of the fai-m, and in diffusing more effectually the bene-\\nfits of the agricultural department of the school. The labor of such a class for two\\nhours each day on the farm, in performing the light work, (which can be more\\ncmiveniently and economically done by boys than by men.) would b. worth at\\nleast \u00c2\u00a38 per annum. Now assuming tliat of the 4,704 National Schools at pres-\\nent in operation 2,000 are favorably circumstanced for having small school farms\\nattached to them, which might be principally cultivated by such classes, a sum of\\n\u00c2\u00a316,0 0 would be annually added to the national wealth. This would be an im-\\nmediate and tangible benefit, but who can estimate the value and importance of\\nthe thrifty and industrious habits of which the foundation might thus be laid\\namong the future )iroducers of the wealth of the country. A boy might thus,\\nwithout any impediment to his literary education, earn nearly 30s. a year, and if\\nhis parents could afford to invest this in the purchase of a pig, a lamb, or a calf,\\nwhich might be reared for his benefit, he paying for its maintenance with his\\nfuture earnings selling it at the proper time investing the proceeds in additional\\nyoung stock, and thus from year to year gradually adding to his little propert}\\nwhat a valuable step this would be towards improving the provident habits of the\\nhumbler cla.\u00c2\u00abses What an improvement on the old and still too general practice\\nof allowing young lads, whose laboring in this way would be so useful, to spend\\nthe greater part of their time before and after school hours in idleness or mischief.\\nthink from the experience we now have had of the working of the system of\\nagricultural education in this country, the practicability of combining agricultural\\nwith literary instruction in all schools favorably circumstanced for practically ex", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0704.jp2"}, "703": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 701\\nemplifying the agricultural principles to be inculcated, can not be any longer ques-\\ntioned. From all tlie inl urmation I could acquire on this subject in the couise of\\nmy personal inspection, and tVom the statements of the local parties connected with\\nthe d fferent Agricultural Schools, 1 find that in almost eveiy instance the agricul-\\ntural instruction does not in any way retard the progress of the pupils in literary\\nstudies. I have heretofore had occasion to refer to the case of the Larne School,\\nas aflbrd ng a gratifying instance of the truth of this statement and I have again\\nthe satisfaction of stating that its pupils have a second time given public, and I trust\\nsatisfactory proof that at the same time they have acquired a thorough and useful\\nknowledge of agricultural principles, they have made as much proficiency in lite-\\nrary instruction as if it formed the sole subject of their studies. Three of them\\nwere examined at Edinburgh, in September last, before the education committee\\nof the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and several noblemen and\\ngentlemen interested in the agricultural education of the youth of that country, on\\na similar plan to that carried out in connection with the National Schools here;\\nand from the public and private accounts I have received of their answering, I\\nthink they amply fulfilled the object of their mission by affiording a convincing\\nproof of the practicability of combining agricultural and literary education in com-\\nmon schools, where the Teachers are properly (jualified to communicate such, and\\nto superintend the practical operations of a small farm.\\nI beg to direct attention to a portion of the speech delivered by Sir John\\niM Neill, G.C.B., who presided as chairman at a public breakfast given to Mr.\\nDonaghy by the friends of agricultural education, at the conclusion of his lectures\\non that subject. After referring to the necessity for and advantages of agricultu-\\nral education, and the most suitable means of having it generally carried out, he\\nthus proceeds I have had occasion to visit the school conducted by your guest,\\nMr. Donaghy, at Glasnevin, in the vicinity of Dublin, and from the results of the\\ne.Kperiments made in that institution, I should look vvith the greatest hope and con-\\nfidence to the success of any scheme that might conciliate public support to enable\\nit to be permanent. On looking to the schemes of improvement which are started\\nevery day, I think I see a disposition on the part of those who move them to look\\nfor too speedy results of their own labor. iNow 1 am perfectly satisfied that if we\\nare to move in this matter with the prospect of conferring benefit on the country,\\nwe must be contented to sow that othei s may reap. All education, mind you, is\\nfounded on that principle. He who establishes a school for the education of youth\\ndoes not expect to see all those ch ldren, men, and women grown up. iHe does not\\nexpect to live to see the fruits of the labor that he has bestowed on them or in\\nmany cases at least he can not expect it. He is satisfied to instill into the minds of\\nyouth those principles wlich are to guide their conduct in the manhood he will\\nnever see. If, therefore, we are to move in this matter let us not deceive ourselves.\\nWe, at least such of us as have the snows of many winters on our heads, are not\\nto suppose that we are to see the result of our labors. We must be contented, if\\nwe are to do good, to drop into the ground an acorn, which may, at a distant\\nperiod, produce a tree, under whose boughs many may hereafter find shelter and\\nshade. If in this spirit you are prepared to move in this matter if, without at-\\ntempting to hold out the prospects of inmiediate results, you are prepared to es-\\ntablish a national institution, which shall grow with the growth, and strengthen\\nv^ith the strength, of the nation, I am prepared to go along with you in the amount\\nof any influence or means which I possess. But if you are merely going to move\\nfor the sake of producing immediate effects if you expect to seethe result of your\\nown labors if you are not prepared to take any measures of v^ hich you may not\\nsee the result, I look for no advantage from your labors. Dr. Anderson, the dis-\\ntinguished chemist to the highland and agricultural society of Scotland, being\\ncalled upon to express his views on the matter, said He had felt, ever since be\\nhad come into connection with the agriculturists of Scotland, that it was essential\\nthey should have some means of establishing a thorough and effectual agricultural\\neducation. He had thought of various plans, and had seen the great dithculty of\\nmaking a commencement but the plan they were now met to-day to discuss was\\na most important and practical one as he believed the parish schools did afford\\nthem the means of carrying on this branch of education to a considerable extent.\\nHe confessed that, for his own part, he would like to see the system carried out", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0705.jp2"}, "704": {"fulltext": "702 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\neven more extensively than had been suggested at this meeting and that a\\nthorough system should be introduced over the whole of Scotland. They could\\nnot have a better educated class, as regarded general knowledge, than the agrieul-\\ntift al classes of Scotland but, as yet, they had no means of supplying them with\\nthat professional education which the present state of agriculture, and the rapid\\nadvances now making in it, rendered it necessary to possess. These remarks\\nclearly and happily express the views that must be entertained by intelligent prac-\\ntical minds as to the beneficial results of a system of education such as that admin-\\nistered by the agricultural schools, and are admirably calculated to meet the ob\\njectioris of those, who, because they can not see immediate and general improve-\\nment resulting from the operations of the agricultural schools, pronounce the sys-\\ntem a failure. Improvement can not in this instance tread on the heels of educa-\\ntion the latter sows the seed of which the former will in due time be the fruit\\nand as in ordinary cultivation some crops take only a short time to arrive at matu-\\nrity, while others require a long period to attain perfection, so from the cultivation\\nof the minds of our young farmers and laborers many beneficial results are already\\nobservable, but the general harvest of improvement will be slow in coming round.\\nThe conduct and efficiency of the agricultural teachers during the past year\\nhave been in general most exemplary and satisfactory. I am enabled to speak\\nthus favorably, not only from my own experience acquired at my different visits,\\nbut from the accounts I have received from proprietors and others who feel an\\ninterest in, and have closely watched their proceedings. They do not confine their\\nlabors to the superintendence of their schools and farms, but not unfrequently dis-\\ncharge the duties of Practical Instructors in their respective localities.\\nThe results, in the shape of pecuniary profit, realized at the different school farms,\\nas shown in the Appendix to this Report, differ materially but it must not be\\nsupposed that such results are an index to the efficiency or non-efficiency of the\\nteachers. Various circumstances besides the industry and ability of the agricultu-\\nrist, will combine to affect the result of his labors, and unless where the cases\\nare equal iu respect to advantages and disadvantages, the pecuniary result of\\nthe year s operations does not afford a sure criterion whereby to judge of the\\nmerits or demerits of the system by which they were produced, although they can\\nbe useful in many other ways, such as showing the results obtained in differ-\\nent localities, and under different systems of management, and by comparing the\\nresults of any year with those of the preceding, the progress or retrogression in in-\\ndividual cases may be ascertained. It may be observed, and perhaps unfavorably\\ncommented on by those unacquainted with all the circumstances, that in some of\\nthe schools, especially those under the immediate management of the Commission-\\ners, there has been a loss in the agricultural department but it must be borne in\\nmind that most of these schools are but very recently established that in almost\\nevery case the farms connected with them were in a most wretchedly exhausted\\ncondition that most of the energies of the agriculturists are directed to the effect-\\ning of the preliminary and indispensable improvements, and to bringing them under\\nsuitable and i-egular rotations of cropping and until these preliminary measures\\nare completed, and the farms in working order, it would be unreasonable to expect\\nprofitable pecuniary results.\\nThe following extract, taken from a recently published and highly interesting\\npamphlet, bears so strikingly and prominently on this peculiar point, that I can not\\nrefrain from giving it insertion here When any one acquainted with the mul-\\ntifarious risks which surround the farming business, takes a lease of land, he does\\nnot look for profit for several years, unless it happens to have been previously put\\nin good condition on the contrary, he calculates on having a heavy expenditure\\nand little income for a considerable time. When a farm has for a number of years\\nbeen starved and badly managed, to look at it, the theorist might conclude that it\\nwould not take much to put it in the same state as those richly cultivated fields ad-\\njoining. But than this there is not a more common mistake and when landlords\\nare of opinion that farmers can give as much rent for a wasted farm, as they may\\nseem inclined to offer for another, which perchance is in better condition, they are\\nnot looking at the matter in a proper light. In many cases, to put the individual\\nwho has become tenant of a run-out farm in an equal position with his more for-\\ntunate neighbor, who has got land exactly of a similar natui e, at a rent nothing", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0706.jp2"}, "705": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 703\\nhigher, but which happens to be less severely scourged, several hundred pounds\\nwould be required for, in improving an impoverished farm, large sums of money\\nwill be expended without malting any striking cliange in its appearance, or without\\nimmediately yielding a profit to the improver. Morton^s Rich Farming.\\nModel Farm and Agricultural School at Glasnevin.\\nThe Agricultural Department of the Commissioners of National Edu-\\ncation at Glasnevin, consists of a Model Farm of 128 acres, with appro-\\npriate buildings, a Model Kitchen Garden, and Nursery of fruit and for-\\nest trees, shrubs, c., and an Industrial School. The pupils are\\nselected by the Commissioners from the most talented and deserving\\nyoung men in the various agricultural schools in different parts of Ire-\\nland and the number for the present is limited to fifty.\\nThe success of this great establishment in gradually diffusing over\\nIreland a knowledge of better methods of farming and gardening, is fully\\nattested in the extracts which follow.\\nPresident Hitchcock in a Report concerning an Agricultural School\\nto the Legislature of Massachusetts, remarks:\\nThis institution vt as established in 1838, and its grand object is to train up\\nteachers for other schools, several hundreds of whom have already been sent out,\\nand are spreading the knowledge here gained in other parts of Ireland. The pres-\\nent number of pupils is about fifty but buildings are now in course of erection for\\none hundred. The pupils receive literary as well as agricultural instruction. The\\nprincipal lectures are on practical as well as theoretic agriculture. The mornings\\nas well as the evenings are devoted to study, but a large part of the day to labor.\\nMost of the pupils, I should think, are above twenty years of age. It was vacation\\nwhen I visited, yet some thirty or forty had remained to work on the farm, and I\\nvery thankfully accepted an invitation to listen to an examination of the young men\\nin the studies they had been taught. More than twenty cheerfully came in from\\nthe field, and without changing their dress, passed a very creditable examination\\nupon the various principles of practical and theoretical agriculture, in connection\\nwith its associated sciences. I am sure that they can not carry abroad such prin-\\nciples as they here presented without doing immense benefit to impoverished\\nIreland.\\nOn the farm the principles taught in the school are practically illustrated. I\\nwalked over the fields, and have never, in any country, seen crops as fine, taken\\nas a whole, of wheat, oats, beans, flax, and potatoes. The oats would probably\\nyield eighty bushels to the acre, and the potatoes bid fair to produce seven hun-\\ndred bushels, the disease having not then shown itself The pupils have access to\\na good agricultural library, but I saw no collections in Natural History, nor in any\\nother department, indeed. The place, however, being only three miles from\\nDublin, the pupils can resort thither for instruction in Natural History, and the\\ninspection of specimens. There is a museum of economic geology there, which\\nwill, ere long, afford great facilities to puf)ils. If they can succeed in extending the\\nskill and productiveness exhibited in this Model Farm, throughout Ireland, I am\\nconfident we should hear no more of her population as starving.\\nMr. Donaghy, in his Report on the Glasnevin Farm in 1852. makes\\nthe following judicious remarks on the educational workings of this\\nestablishment.\\nSo far as the numbers in attendance at the establishment may be considered as\\nindicative of its continued prosperity, nothing, under the circumstances, can be\\nmore satisfactory and coupling with this the very favorable testimony left on\\nrecord regarding it by the numerous visitors who have inspected its operations\\nthroughout the year, we have every reason to be satisfied that its usefulness is\\nbecoming gradually more developed, and its agency, in effecting an improvement", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0707.jp2"}, "706": {"fulltext": "704 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nin our present agricultural management, better appreciated by all who take an in-\\nterest in the real welfare of the country.\\nViewing the establishment, then, as an engine whereby extensive knowledge on\\nimproved agricultural practice is organized and disseminated ihroughout the differ-\\nent parts of the country more particularly amongst those classes of the commu-\\nnity whose circumstances debar them from acquiring such information otherwise\\nit recommends itself to the countenance and support of every true friend of Ireland,\\nas an institution by means of which the amelioration of the different classes of the\\npeople, who come within the sphere of its influence, can be, so far as other exter-\\nnal circumstances permit, ultimately effected. This it is capable of accomplishing,\\nand that, too, without money and without price, on the part, at least, of the re-\\ncipients of its benefits.\\nI need scarcely say that it would afford me, as I doubt not it would you, much\\ngratification vsere I able to state that the Gla.snevin Model P arm establishment is a\\nself-supporting institution. But this it neither is, nor can be, under existing cir-\\ncumstances. And it is very problematical, indeed, hether or not, if it were such,\\nit would be capable of accomplishing even a tithe of the good which it is at present\\neffecting. Conmion sense will point out to any man fit to exercise a sound judg-\\nment, that no agricultural educational establishment in the world, having a limited\\nquantity of land attached to it, would be able, from the sale of its produce, to board,\\nlodge, educate, wash for, pay the traveli g expenses of, afford Is. d. per week, to\\nan indefiidU number o^ free pupils, and, at the same time, return a profit to the\\nmanager. In any self-supporting institution, a CL rtain ratio must exist between the\\nnumber of pupils boarded free of expense, and the extent and quality of the land\\ncult vatcd else no result in the shape of a money profit can be realized, as may\\neasily be perceived by conceiving that there may be a larger number of pupils in\\nattendance as in our own case than the entire produce of the farm would be\\ncapable of maintaining. But though a money profit is desirable, if it can at all be\\nproduced, I v\\\\ould ask, is a money profit, in reference to the affairs of an institu-\\ntion such as this, the proper test wht-reby to judge of its utility and efficiency?\\nMost decidedly it is not. The amount of good effected by the operations of a\\npublic institution, constitutes, for the most part, the sole and only element of jirofit\\nderivable from the expenditure attendant upon its management. Does the state\\nexpect a direct money profit from the expenditure of the funds set apart for the\\nsupport of the Queen s Colleges No but from the application of those funds a\\nmore important result is expected the education of all who can conscientiously\\navail themselves of the privileges thus aflf()rded to them. Further, do the Com-\\nmissioners of education contemplate that a wonsy profit should emanate from the\\noutlay consequent upon the efficient workii. g of the Marlborough street schools\\nNo the object in view in this, as in the other case, is identically the same the\\nconferring of a great boon upon the lower ranks of the people, in the form of a\\ngood, useful, and liberal education. Well, in what does the Glasnevin Model\\nFarm establishment differ from the cases just adduced Is it not also an educa-\\ntional establishment, giving valuable gratuitous instruction to the sons of the small\\nfarmers, not only in the science and practice of husbandry, but also in general\\nliterary knowledge matters of vital importance to the counti-y, and of course at-\\ntended with extra expense as compared with an ordinary agricultural establish-\\nment The objects in view in each case, therefore are precisely similar^ the\\naff()rding of extensive gratuitous advantages to promote the educational and social\\ninterests of Ireland out of the funds of the State objects vvliich the Glasnevin\\nModel Farm establishment have promoted, is promoting, and, I should hope, will\\npromote. A money profit therefore, is not the proper criterion whereby to judge\\nof its usefulness. If so, such should also be the case in refei ence to the others.\\nBut whilst the Glasnevin Model Farm establishment, with its 128 acres attached,\\nis admirably calculated, from its proximity to the city of Dublin, for affording to\\nthe Commissioners of education the greatest possible facility for carrying out their\\nviews extensively, as regards the dissemination of agricultural knowledge, the high\\nrent which they have been obliged to pay for the land (\u00c2\u00a3.5 per statute acre for one\\npart of it, and 4 guineas per acre for the other,) in consequence, amongst other\\nmatters, of the enjoyment of this advantage the outlay for permanent improve-\\nments required to be effected the high charge for implements and repairs in the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0708.jp2"}, "707": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 705\\nlocality tlie amount of outlay for toll, cess, and other taxes and the cost attend-\\nant upon the purchase and keeping in proper repair the different sets of imple-\\nments for so many pupils, place it almost beyond the power of human exertion,\\nunder existing prices, to show a favorable balance sheet.\\nBut is the fact to be altogether overlooked in forming an estimate of the results\\nof the working of this establishment, that the Commissioners of education are able\\nfrom their arrangements, as regards the locality of the farm, not only to train a\\nclass of agricultural pupils at present 50 \u00e2\u0080\u0094immediately upon it, but also to take\\nadvantage of the services of their agriculturist in delivering two courses of agricul-\\ntural lectures in the year to about 200 of their schoolmasters when they are in\\ntraining at their Model Schools in Dublin And still further to enhance the value\\nof the information which these men thus receive in the lecture-room, they are\\ncalled upon by the board to visit the Model Farm once in the week, where an ex-\\nplanation is given to them of the courses of cropping followed, the mode of per-\\nforming the different farming operations, and, in short, of the entire management\\npursued. Could these advantages be obtained if their principal agricultural de-\\npartment was situated at a considerable distance from their literary training depart-\\nment, without incurring much more trouble and expenditure than at present?\\nThe truth is, by this very arrangement the proximity of the agricultural establish-\\nment to the literary training department the Commissioners of education have\\nbeen able to take the lead of all the educational institutions in Great Britain as\\nregards the dissemination of agricultural information. Why has Scotland been\\nheretofore unable to carry out agricultural education in connection with her pres-\\nent existing school system, notwithstanding an expressed desire on the part of\\nsome of her most enlightened men to effect this object? Simply, because she has\\nno central agricultural training department in connection with one or other of her\\nnormal seminaries, at which her teachers could acquire, in addition to their other\\nbranches of education, a knowledge of agricultural science and practice. I would\\nrespectfully submit, therefore, that in forming an estimate of our transactions,\\nthroughout the year, the real and substantial advantages derived by the country\\nfrom the working of the establishment should receive due consideration.\\nThe following notice of the Model Farm at Glasnevin, where the\\nNormal pupils are required to take practical lessons in agriculture, is\\ntaken from Colman s European Agriculture and Rural Economy.\\nIt is considered (by the Commissioners of National Education) and with\\ngood reason, that the great want, among the people, is a want of knowledge in\\napplying and using the means of subsistence within their reach that there is no\\nindisposition on their part to labor; that there is as yet an ample extent of un-\\ncultivated land capable of being redeemed and rendered productive and that a\\nprincipal source of the wretchedness, and want, and starvation, which prevail\\nin some parts of this country, often to a fearful extent, is attributable to the\\ngross ignorance of the laboring classes of the best modes of agriculture and of\\nrural economy. With this conviction upon their minds, the commissioners\\nhave determined to connect with all their rural schools a course of teaching in\\nscientific and practical agriculture, communicating a knowledge of the simple\\nelements of agricultural chemistry; of the best modes and operations of hus-\\nbandry which have been adopted in any country of the nature, and character,\\nand uses, of the vegetables and plants necessary or useful to man or beast; of\\nthe improved kinds of live stock, and of the construction and use of the most\\nimproved and most approved farming implements and machinery. With these\\nviews, it is their intention to train their schoolmasters, and to send out such\\nmen as are apt and qualified to teach these most useful branches. For this\\npurpose the government have established this model farm, which was begun in\\n1838, and which has already, in a greater or less measure, qualified and sent\\nout seven hundred teachers. To my mind it seems destined to confer the most\\nimportant benefits upon Ireland, and I may add upon the world for so it hap-\\n45", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0709.jp2"}, "708": {"fulltext": "706 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND.\\npens under the benignant arrangemen*s of the Divine Providence, the benefits\\nof every good measure or effort for the improvement of mankind proceed, by a\\nsort of reduplication, to an unlimi;ed extent these teachers shall instruct iheir\\npupils, and these pupils become in their turn the teachers of others; and the\\ngood seed, thus sown and widely scattered, go on yielding its constantly-increas-\\ning products, to an extent which no human imagination can measure. Three\\nthousand schoolmasters are at this moment demandedfor Ireland, and the gov-\\nernment are determined to supply them. Happy is it for a country, and honor-\\nable to human nature, when, instead of schemes of avarice, and dreams ot\\nambition, and visions of conquest, at the dreadful expense of the comlbrt, and\\nliberty, and lives, of the powerle.ss and unprotected, the attention of those who\\nhold the destinies of their fellow-beings in their hands is luri;ed to their im-\\nprovement, their elevation, their comfort, and their substantial welfaie.\\nThe Model Farm and Agricultural School is at a place called Glasnevin,\\nabout three miles from Dublin, on a good soil. The situation is elevated and\\nsalubrious, embracing a wide extent of prospect of sea and land, of plain and\\nmountain, of city and country, combining the busy haunts of men, and the\\nhighest improvements of art and science, with what is most picturesque and\\ncharming in rural scenery, presenting itself in its bold mountains and deep\\nglens, in its beautiful plantations, its cultivated fields, and its wide and glitter-\\ning expanse of ocean. The scenery in the neighboihood of Dtiblin, wiih its\\nfertile valleys, and the mountains of Wicklow, of singularly grand and beau;iful\\nformation, hounding the prospect for a considerable extent, is among the richest\\nwhich the eye can take in and at the going down of the sun in a fine summer\\nevening, when the long ridge of the mountains seemed bordered with a fringe\\nof golden fire, it carried my imagination back, with an emotion which those\\nonly who feel it can understand, to the most beautiful and picturesque parts of\\nVermont, in the neighborhood of Lake Chaniplain. I have a strong conviction\\nof the powerful and beneficial influence of fine natural scenery, where theie is\\na due measure of the endowment of ideality, upon the intellectual and iT)oral\\ncharacter; and I would, if possible, surround a place of education with those\\nobject-; in nature best suited to elevate and enlarge the mind, and stir the soul\\nof man from its lowest depths. It is at the shrine of nature, in the temple pil-\\nlared by the loftv mountains, and whose glowing arches are resplendent with\\ninextinguishable fires, that the human heart is most profoundly impressed with\\nthe unutterable grandeur of the great object of worship. It is in fields radiant\\nwith their golden harvests, and every where offering, in their rich fruits and\\nproducts, an unstinted compensation to human toil, and the most liberal provi-\\nsions for human subsistence and comfort, and in pastures and groves animated\\nwith the expressive tokens of enjoyment, and vocal with the grateful hymns of\\necstacy, among the animal creation, that man gathers up those evidences of\\nthe faithful, unceasing, and imbounded goodness of the Divine Providence,\\nwhich most deeply touch, and often overwhelm the heart. The Model Farm\\nand School, at Glasnevin, has connected with it fifty-two English acres of land,\\nthe whole of which, with the exception of an acre occupied by the farm build-\\nings, is under cultivation, and a perfect- system of rotation of crops. The mas-\\nter of the school pays for this land a rent of five pounds per acre, and taxes and\\nexpenses carry the rent to eight pounds per acre. Twelve poor boys, or lads,\\nlive constantlv with him, for whose education and board, besides their labor,\\nhe receives eight shillings sterling per week. They work, as well as I could\\nunderstand, about six hours a day, and devote the rest of the time to study, or\\nlearning. The course of studies is not extensive, but embraces the most com-\\nmon and useful branches of education, such as arithmetic, geography, natural\\nphilosophy, and agriculture, in all its scientific and practical details. They\\nhave an agricultural examination, or lecture, every day. I had the gratifica-\\ntion of listening to an examination of Iburteen of these young men, brought out\\nof the field from their labor; and cheerfully admit that it was eminently suc-\\ncessful, and in the highest degree creditable both to master and pupil. Besides\\nthese young men, who live on the farm, the young men in Dublin, at the TNor-\\nmal School, who are preparing themselves for teachers of the national schools,\\nare required to attend at the farm and assist in its labors a portion of the time,\\nthat they may become thoroughly acquainted with scientific and practical agri-\\nculture in all its branches, and be able to teach it; the government being deter-\\nmined that it shall form an indispensable part of the school instruction through-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0710.jp2"}, "709": {"fulltext": "NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND. ^qV\\nont the island. The great objects, then, of the establishment, are to qnaliiV\\nthese 3 oung men for teachers by a thorough ;md prficlical education in the\\nscience, so far as it has reached that character, and in the most itnproved\\nmethods and operations of agriculture. Besides this, it is intended to furnish\\nan opporuinity to the sons of men of wealth, who may be placed here as pupils,\\nto acquiie a practical knowledge of and a familiar insight into, all the details\\nof farming. This must prove of the highest importance to them in the manage-\\nment of their own estates.\\nLIST OF LECTURES AT GLASNEVIN.\\n1. The rudiments of agricultural chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, and\\nvegetable physiology, so far as they have a practical application to agriculture.\\n2. The nature and improvement of soils.\\n3. The nature, properties, and application of the several manures.\\n4. The effects of heat, light, and water on soils, manures, animal and veget-\\nable life.\\n5. The nature, situation, and properties of farms in general.\\n6. The proper divisioii of farms, with the crops suitable, according to soil and\\nsituation.\\n7. The situation and construction of farm buildings.\\n8. Rotations of crops, fencing and draining, according to the most approved\\nprinciples.\\n9. The scientific principles of ploughing, and the general construction and\\nuse of farm implements.\\n10. The cultivation of green and grain crops, proper quantity of seeds, and\\nbest mode of culture.\\n11. Haymaking and harvesting.\\n12. Animal physiology and veterinary practice, and general management of\\nhorses.\\n13. Cattle, their several breeds, management, diseases, and modes of cure;\\nalso of sheep and swine.\\n14. Horse-feeding and fattening of cattle, with the improved modes of dairy\\nmanagement.\\n15. Practical gardening, under the direction of Mr. Campbell.\\nThe results of this course of training with the teachers, are best seen\\nin the following notice of the National School, at Larne, an ordinary\\nschool in which agricultural chemistry and practical agriculture are pro-\\nvided for in the course of siudy.\\nThis is not, properly speaking, an agricultural school, but a national\\nschool, where the common branches of education are taught; and there is\\nconnected with it a department or class of agricultural study, and a small piece\\nof land, which the boys cultivate, and on which, in the way of experiment, the\\nprinciples of agriculture, and its general practice, are, within a very limited ex-\\ntent, ilhistra ed and tested. The examination was eminently successful, and\\ncreditalile alike to the teacher and the pupils. It was from this establishment\\nthat a detachment of five pupils was sent for examination to the great meeting\\nof the Agricultural Society of Scotland the last autumn, where their attainments\\ncreated a great sensation, and produced an impression, on the subject of the im-\\nportance of agricultural education, which is likely to lead to the adoption of\\nsome universal system on the subject.\\nI shall transcribe the account given of the occasion Five boys from the\\nschool at Lame were introduced to the meeting, headed by their teacher. They\\nseemed to belong to the better class of peasantry, being clad in homely garbs;\\nand they appeared to be from twelve to fifteen years of age. They were exam-\\nined, in the first instance, by the inspector of schools, in grammar, geography,\\nand arithmetic; and scarcely a single question did they fail to answer correctly.\\nThey were then examined, by an agricultural professor, in the scientific\\nbranches, and tiv two practical farmers in the practical departments of asrricul-\\nture. Their acquaintance with these was alike delightful and astonishing.\\nThey detailed the chemical constitution of the soil and the effect of manures,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0711.jp2"}, "710": {"fulltext": "708 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND.\\nthe land best fitted for green crops, the different kinds of grain, the dairy, and\\nthe system of rotation of crops. Many of these answers required considerable\\nexercise of reflection and as previous concert between themselves and the\\ngentlemen who examined them was out of the question, their acquirements\\nseemed to take the meeting by surprise at the same time they atlbrded it the\\nutmost satisfaction, as evincing how much could be done by a proper system ot\\ntraining.\\nI confess the establishment at Lame afforded me, in this respect, very high\\ngratification. The agricultural studies are not made compulsory, but voluntary;\\nand one hour per day is devoted to agricultural labcn The Board of Education\\nin Ireland have now under their control three thousand teachers; and it is pro-\\nposed, wherever it may be deemed useful, to make agriculture a standard branch\\nof common school education. They already have seven agricultural training\\nestablishments; and it is in contemplation to have iwenty-hve, Avith which it is\\nproposed shall be connected small inodel farms, so that every where, besides\\nfurnishing this most valuable instruction to the pupils of the schools, the farm-\\ners in the vicinity may be excited and instructed to improve their cultivation.\\nThus diffusive is the nature of all beneficence. A good deed, like a stone\\nthroAvn into the water, is sure to agitate the whole mass. Its strongest effects\\nwill be felt where the blow is given but the concentric circles are seen extend-\\ning themselves on every side, and reach much farther than the eye can follow\\nthem. In the moral as well as physical world, the condition of mutual attrac-\\ntion and dependence is universal and indissoluble. We have reason to hope\\nthat no good seed is ever sown in vain, but will sooner or later germinate and\\nyield its proper fruits.\\nThe.se establishments do certainly the highest honor and credit to the intelli-\\ngence and philanthropy of Ireland, and their beneficent effects must presently\\nbe seen in alleviating the indescribable amount of wretchedness under which this\\nbeautiful country and fine-spirited people have been so long crushed to the earth\\na wretchedness which, to be understood, must be seen.\\nPresident Hitchcock, of Amherst in his Report to the Legislature of\\nMassachusetts, in 1851, on Agricultural Schools, thus notices his visit\\nto the National Agricultural School at Lame.\\nThe farm consists of only seven aores. Yet in 1848, the head master, Mr.\\nM Donnell, maintained on this small plot of ground, in the very best condition,\\nthree milch cows, two calves, four pigs, and one donkey, and raised besides 32^^\\ncwt. of wheat, 28 cwt. of oats, and 24 cwt. of potatoes. The crops growing this\\nyear, appeared unusually fine.\\nThe in-door pupils pay $54 a year, including instruction and board, or if upon\\nscholarships, only $22. The out-door pupils pay for instruction, $17 annually.\\nThe boarders work on the farm from 6 to 8, and from 10 to 12 A. M., and from\\n4 to 6 P. M. From 12 to 3 o clock daily they study in the school-room, in agri-\\nculture as a science as well as in literature also, from 6 to 8 P. M., in an even-\\ning class under the superintendence of a teacher. Tliey are not admitted under\\nfifteen years of age, nor without a certificate of moral character. The course is of\\ntwo or three years duration, according to the age and aequirements of the pupils.\\nThe agricultural instruction embraces the principles of chemistry; the forma-\\ntion, nature, and difference of soils the rotations of cropping best suited to such\\nvarieties draining, trenching, and subsoiling, and the principles upon which their\\nefficacy depends house feeding of cattle, and its advantages the constitution and\\nproperties of the different manures the proper divisions of farms, c., c. To\\nthis is added a well grounded course of English education in reading, writing,\\narithmetic, Enghsh grammar, geography, book-keeping, mensuration, land sur-\\nveying, gauging, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, and navigation.\\nSuch arrangements are made, that each class receives religious instruction from\\nclergymen selected by the parents or guardians. If the teacher of the school\\nwishes to communicate religious instruction, he gives public notice of the time and\\nplace, and the pupils can attend or not, according to the wishes of their parents, or\\ntheir own.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0712.jp2"}, "711": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 709\\nDuNMANWAY Model Agricultural School.\\nThe Dunmanway Model Farm is situated in the county of Cork, and\\nconsists of twelve acres. The following extracts, taken from the Third\\nAnnual Report of Frederic W. Connor, head master of the school,\\nshows its condition in 1852.\\nThe confidence placed b) the public in the institution has not diminished. It\\nhas had a great increase of visitors. In the attendance of the pupils, an increase\\nof 70 per cent, has taken place from among the various classes of society a\\ngreater number are still anxious to be admitted, but accommodation can not be\\nfound for their instruction.\\nAgricultural Instruction, both of a scientific and practical nature, has been\\nimparted regularly to the pupils during the past year, on the days a{)pointed for\\ngiving such. There are very few subjects bearing upon agricultural economy,\\nthat have not been brought before their notice. Agricultural instruction is given\\nin the morning, from a quarter past six to half-past eight o clock in the evening\\nfrom nine to half-past nine and every second week-day from half-past two till a\\nquarter past tliree, P. M., or an average three hours daily. Information is com-\\nmunicated by lectures, and the study of approved works on agriculture and manu-\\nscripts prepared by myself accompanied in every case by searching examinations.\\nThe mode of instruction adopted has proved most satisfactor^y. The pupils take\\nnotes during the reading of the lecture these they immediately transcribe while\\nthe subject is yet fresh in the memory. Then subsequently exchange their man-\\nuscripts, mutually correcting each other s errors, (including those in spelling and\\ncomposition,) after which I examine and classify their papers. Thus literary and\\nagricultural instruction go hand in hand, and the agreeableness of the method\\nforms no ordinarj incentive to improvement. After my own examination of the\\nclass, which alternates with every lecture, I permit each pupil in his turn to ex-\\namine the class also at other times to read a lecture of his own composition.\\nAgain, I submit to the pupils a series of questions to be answered by them on\\npaper cause them monthly to write out essays on a given subject^ and weekly\\ndiscuss agricultural questions. As a proof of the interest evinced by them in the\\nprosecution of their studies, I may be permitted to state, that many of them rose\\nat three o clock in the morning, during the summer, for the purpose of studying\\nthe subject of their lesson for that day.\\nThe Agricultural Boarders^ Class consists of four pupils, one of whom, being\\na free pupil, is supported gratuitously by the board. The want of accommodation\\nprevents a greater number being admitted. The class continues to give every\\nsatisfaction. Since it was established five J oung men have been advanced from it\\nto the Glasnevin Model Farm. The selection of members for this class is gen-\\nerally confined to the neighboring farmers sons the preference being given to\\nthose pi-eviously educated at a normal school.\\nThe Pupil- Teachers Class continues to work well.\\nThe Industrial Class, the members of which are selected from the agricultu-\\nral class, aflx)rds great satisfoction by the order and good conduct of its members,\\nand the efheient manner in which they perform their duties.\\nThe Agricultural Class consists on an average of 37 pupils, the highest num-\\nber we can conveniently find room for. The pupils composing this class are se-\\nlected from the advanced classes of the school, who in conjunction with the agri-\\ncultural boarders and pupil-teachers, receive agricultural instruction for the space\\nof three-quarters of an hour every second week-day, and have also the privilege\\nof attending the morning classes, where extra instruction is afforded. They are\\ninstructed in the leading principles of agi icultural chemistry, geology, vegetable\\nphysiology, c., and especially in those practical subjects bearing more directly\\nupon their future employment. Of the 37 pupils composing the agricultural class,\\n30 are the sons of farmers, holding from 20 to 200 acres of land respectively.\\nThe working pupils are required each to keep a journal of the various opera-\\ntions going on on the farm, the different periods at which crops are sown and\\nharvested, how managed, c, and many other remarks that will form a source\\nof reUable information in after-life. Meteorological observations are also noted", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0713.jp2"}, "712": {"fulltext": "710 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\ndown. They also take part in the preparation of the ground for the crops assist\\nin the sowing, reaping, c., of all crops in short, no operation is performed in\\nwhich their assistance and attention is not so employed as to initiate them into a\\nknowledge of those business habits required to fit them for the duties of afterlife.\\nPermission is granted the pupils to assist their parents in sowing and managing\\ntheir green crops and, in inquiring of their parents as to the assistance they re-\\nceive from the instruction of their children educated at this school, I was happy\\nto find they are in the constant habit of exposing the errors of their fathers and\\nneighbors husbandry, and contrateting the system pursued by them with that car-\\nried out on the Model Farm.\\nSince the institution of the agricultural class, 12 young men have been ap-\\npointed out of it as Teachers of National Schools, and eight are giving assistance\\non their fathers farms.\\nThese young men may be looked upon as so many practical instructors, who,\\nfeeling a zealous interest in the objects of their professions, will, in their inter-\\ncourse with the neighboring farmers, be the means of materially improving the\\nintelligence and industry of the district.\\nWorkhouse Agricultural Schools.\\nOne of the most interesting features of the present educational move-\\nment, both in England and Ireland, is the successful introduction of in-\\ndustrial training for pauper children into workhouses. Tliere were\\nseventeen workhouse schools in Ireland to which agricultural depart-\\nments were annexed in 1852. Respecting the operation of these depart-\\nments in the county of Antrim, Mr. Senior, one of the poor law com-\\nmissioners, says\\nEach year shows an increased demand for the workhouse boys by the far-\\nmers the age, therefore, at which the boy leaves the workhouse becomes a very\\nearly one it probably now averages ten years. Each year also shows increased\\ngood behavior on the part of the boys, who may, perhaps, be termed apprentices.\\nDr. Kirkpatrick in view of another year s experience adds Every\\nyear s experience convinces me more forcibly of the neces.\u00c2\u00abity of a gen-\\neral and efficient system of industrial training for pauper children, and I\\nam happy to find that this opinion is steadily gaining ground bbth here\\nand in the sister country. The facts previously stated bear me out in\\nthis assertion with respect to this country, and the following extracts,\\nwhich I take leave to quote from a Parlimentary docviment, will show\\nits progress in England, and may be useful in other respects.\\nMr. Doyle, one of the poor law inspectors, m his Report, thus speaks of the pro-\\ngress of industrial e;lucation for pauper boys, and of the success which has attended\\nit wherever introduced\\nThe guardians of almost every union in this district in which there are upon\\nan average a sufficient number of boys of an age capable of industrial occupation,\\neither have already provided, or have determined to provide the means for their\\nimlustrial training. The unions of this district being almost exclusively agricul-\\ntural, the means of industrial training for boys consist chiefly in the cultivation of\\na few acres of land by spade husbandry. In those unions in vihich this system\\ncan be said to be fairly in operation, it has already been productive of much benefit,\\nand it will be seen by the detailed accounts furnished from some of them that this\\nmode of educating the children in habits of industry is attended with considerable\\nprofit to the guardians.\\nThe master of the Wrexham union workhouse, in a communication addressed\\nby him to Mr. Doyle, after describing the lamentable state of things that existed\\namong the youthful inmates previous to the adoption of a system of industrial\\ntraining, thus proceeds\\nIt is these, and such like facts, which have impelled this board of guardians", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0714.jp2"}, "713": {"fulltext": "AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. ^U\\nto adopt some plan, if possible, to put a stop to these evils and hence, in 1848 an\\nacre of potato land was taken as a trial, to be cultivated chiefly by the boys. The\\nsuccess of the experiment was so sat.sfactor\\\\ that the board was induced to rent,\\nas a permanent appendage to the workhouse, a field of four acres, in which the\\nschoolmaster in the afternoon of each working day trains the boys in spade hus-\\nbandry. The profits of the first two years were comparatively small, still they\\nhave enabled us to lay in a good stock of tools and besides, when taken together\\nwith the present year s profits, have realized in whole, in form of pauper labor,\\nnearly \u00c2\u00a390. The statement now sent shows the result of our second year s ope-\\nrations in our own field, and as the general intelligence as well as the muscular\\ncapacity of the children is becoming equal to their work, we may expect greater\\npecuniary results but at last the moral results likely to flow from our endeavors\\nare the most pleasing the children are more easily managed than formerly, are\\nmore contented and generally happier, and perform their work in a pleasing and\\ncheerful manner. They are, 1 trust, in connection with the inculcation of sound\\nprinciples, having those principles trained into habits, which, while they will for-\\ntify against temptation, give promise of enabling the children readily to adapt\\nthemselves to the sphere in life in which their lot is likely to be cast, and of ulti-\\nmately becoming wholly independent of parochial relief. I have great pleasure in\\nbeing able to add, that not one boy who has gone out to service since we began\\nthese operations has been returned on our hands, or is likely to be so.\\nMr. Everest, clerk of the Atcham Union, writes to Mr. Doyle as\\nfollows\\nThat the children of the poor may be efficiently taught, and so far as human\\nmeans may produce the object, made useful and honorable members of society in\\na union workhouse, is a fact that I have long had the pleasure of witnessing in the\\nunion in which I have served from its commencement, as well as in one in which\\nI previously served in the south of England. To illustrate the subject, I will now\\nset forth, in as condensed a form as I can, the principles and practice maintained\\nin the union school during the fourteen years of its operation. At first the num-\\nber of children was small, the guardians feeling it desirable not to crowd their\\nworkhouse until time had afforded all parties concerned in its government a little\\npractical experience therein. A school was at once established but as no quali-\\nfied schoolmaster applied in answer to an advertisement for such an officer, the\\nsituation was taken by a person who, though deficient in mental acquirements for\\nsuch an office, was a practical agriculturist, of good moral character, and entered\\non his duties with a determination to do all he could for the welfare of the chil-\\ndren put under his care. The first step was that of making the school a place of\\nmoral as well as physical training, to which I attribute its great success. For this\\npurpose every thing that transpired was, to the extent of his ability, made the sub-\\nject of some practical and familiar observations, enforced by such illustrations as^\\nbecame weighty by example. Industry was fi-oni the first a marked characteris-\\ntic of the school, to inculcate which various indoor occupations were and still are\\npracticed, such as knitting, netting, plaiting straw, c., by which means it became\\na natural habit in the claildren to be doing something that was useful, so that\\nwhen fatigued with heavier toils the child sat down to rest, it was, I had almost\\nsaid, an instinctive feeling that led him to take his straws or needles in hand, and\\nyet the gratification afforded when he found he had enough plait for a hat, and\\nthe ])leasure evinced when by himself or his companions it was so formed, proved\\nthat his mind had received a correct bias as to production by his own application,\\nnor was there ever occasion to enforce this practice when once begun, as it became\\na source of pleasure to be so engaged but whenever we found a lazy boy it\\nbecame the subject of a moral lecture, and as work was and still is held to be its\\nown reward in our school, if a boy is found idle the punishment is simple, take\\nhim away from his work to look at the others busily employed, and so severe is\\nthis in almost every case, that I have scarcely ever known a boy remain half an\\nhour without petitioning for liberty to go to work, and I have been equally pleased\\nto see that others, instead of making any taunting remarks, have become petition-\\ners in behalf of their schoolfellow.\\nThese may appear trifling incidents, but let guardians and officers try the plan,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0715.jp2"}, "714": {"fulltext": "712 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND.\\nand watch the issue in future service, and they will find, as I have done, that they\\nare important facts and I notice them because for the want of seeing this import-\\nant fact at the outset, that the child is to be trained to the principle of being useful,\\nso much of the other eiforts are vain. Another important point we have always\\naimed at has been to teach the child to do his work well, to do that work in the\\nright way, and then to make him understand why that particular way is best, and\\nthis gives them additional interest in their work, while it tends to make them\\ngood workmen in after-life. Our chief mode of employment is on the land we\\ncultivate by spade husbandry, a portion of which has, from the opening of the\\nschool, been cultivated exclusively by the boys.\\nHaving stated the nature and practice of our school for fourteen years, it only\\nremains to speak of its success. It has been said that the tendency of workhouse\\nschools is to make perpetual paupers, and such statements are made, no doubt, in\\nthe full belief of their truth but I am happy to say that, so far as fourteen years\\nmay serve for the data of calculation, it is without a shadow of foundation here.\\nOur children go to service, and I would rather refer inquiriers to their employers\\nfor their characters as servants, than speak of it myself. Suffice it to say that,\\nwith a very few exceptions, (and those of characters the most vicious and thor-\\noughly formed before they came to us,) and one or two cases of serious illness, they\\nhave not returned, except, as is frequently the case, to visit the school where they\\nwere trained in the habits of virtue and industry, and leave behind them some\\ntrifle, either in money or otherwise, to the school fund. If we trained them up as\\npaupers, I think many of them bid fair to forget the place of their training before\\nthey return. Scarcely a child who has been taught in our school leaves it without\\nthose feelings of affection for their associates which indicate most clearly that the\\nmind lias been cultivated, and the assistance they affiird in procuring situations for\\nthose they left behind proves the genuine character of their attachments but to\\nreturn to the workhouse after going to service is felt to be a disgrace, and will, I\\nhope, as it has hitherto done, prevent such a circumstance ever occurring except\\nin cases that are unavoidable and in such cases I hope that a sense of rectitude\\nand the love of virtue will seek such an asylum in preference to crime.\\nMr. Farnall, another of the poor law inspectors, states:\\nOn reference to the tables, it will be seen that fifty acres of land, cultivated by\\n514 boys, have yielded in a year a net profit of \u00c2\u00a3335 7s. Id. there is, however,\\na far more valuable benefit acquired than that sum of money represents, for\\nthese boys have, in the acquirement of this pecuniary profit, been under training\\nfor manual labor have been instructed in the value of labor, and in the con-\\nnection which must be maintained between labor and property have been made\\nacquainted, to some extent at least, with the natural world have felt pleasure in\\nthe contemplation of their own work and have been trained, as far as practi-\\ncable, to meet the difficulties and distresses which may beset them in their way\\nthrough life.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0716.jp2"}, "715": {"fulltext": "THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY\\nIRELAND.\\nThe national school system in which secular instruction is kept free\\nfrom whatever could offend the most susceptible sectarianism, had\\nproved so successful in diffusing a sound elementary education among\\nthe children of the peasantry and the working classes of Ireland, that in\\n1845 the plan was extended so as to provide, under government endow-\\nment, the means of obtaining a liberal and professional education for the\\nsons of the middle and upper classes available to persons of every de-\\nnomination. This was done by the establishment of the Queen s Col-\\nleges at Belfast, Cork, and Galway now combined and incorporated\\ninto the dueen s University, the Senate or governing body of which is\\nseated or holds its meetings at Dublin.\\nThe entire system of United Education has been built up by the co-\\noperation of the two great parties in the State upon this high ground\\ntheir only rivalry has been which should contribute most to the common\\nwork, and carry out most efficiently its great principle. To the Whig\\ngovernment of Lord Grey, belongs the honor of having first had the\\ncourage to proclaim and put in action that principle by the appointment\\nof the first board of commissioners in 1831 the charter which estab-\\nlished the schools upon a permanent basis, by constituting the commis-\\nsioners a body corporate, was a measure of the Tory government of Sir\\nRobert Peel, in 1844 on the other hand, the completion and crowning\\nof the edifice by the addition of the colleges was the idea and enact-\\nment of Sir Robert Peel, and has been the achievement, for the greater\\npart, of Lord John Russell. At the opening of the session of parlia-\\nment on the 4th of February, 1845, her Majesty, in the speech from the\\nthrone, recommended to the consideration of the legislature the policy\\nof improving and extending the opportunities for academical education\\nin Ireland and on the 19th of March thereafter, Sir Robert Peel, in\\nreply to a question by Sir Robert Inglis, took an opportunity of laying\\nbefore the House of Commons an outline of the ministerial plan, both\\nfor the establishment of the three new colleges of secular learning and\\ngeneral instruction, and for the endowment of the Roman Catholic The-\\nological College of Maynooth, which had been established by an act of\\nthe Irish Parliament in 1795, and had been hitherto dependent for its\\nsupport only upon an annual grant of very inadequate amount. The\\ntwo measures thus simultaneously announced and proposed, as in some\\ndegree connected with and dependent upon one another, were both car-\\nried through parliament in that same session. The Maynooth endow-\\nment, however, was made to take the lead, as if to intimate to the |;en-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0717.jp2"}, "716": {"fulltext": "714 THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IHii M\u00c2\u00bb.\\neral population of Ireland to what may be more peculiarly called the\\nnationality of the country that its interests and feelings were what the\\nwhole scheme primarily had regard to. If the portion of it relating to\\nthe Roman Catholic theological seminary had been defeated, the other\\nportion of it also would probably have been withdrawn. The May-\\nnooth bill encountered a vehement opposition, but it was ultimately\\npassed in both Houses by great majorities. Tiie measure for establish-\\ning three secular colleges in Ireland, wholly independent of religious\\ntests or creeds, for the education of the middle classes, was brought for-\\nward in the commons by Sir James Graham on the 9th of May. In\\nproposing the second reading of the bill on the 30th, Sir James an-\\nnounced certain alterations which ministers were disposed to make in\\nit. with the view of affording facililies for the theological instruction of\\nthe students by clergymen, or lecturers, appointed lor that purpose by\\nthe several denominations to which they might belong. On the 2d of\\nJune, an amendment moved by Lord John Manners for the postpone-\\nment of the second reading of the bill was negatived, by a majority of\\n311 to 46. On the 30th, when it was in commitiee, a proposition from\\nLord John Russell for making the apparatus of theological instruction\\nin the colleges a part of the establishment to be founded and upheld by\\nthe Slate, was rejected by a majority of 117 to 42. Finally, on the 10th\\nof July the third reading of the bill was carried, against an amendment\\nof Sir Robert Inglis. by a majority of 177 to 126. In the Lords it\\npassed through all its stages without a division.\\nBy this act. entitled An Act to enable her Majesty to endow new\\ncolleges, for the advancement of learning in Ireland, the sum of\\n100000/. was assigned out of the consolidated fund for purchasing the\\nsites, and erecting and furnishing the buildings, of the three colleges.\\nHer Majesty and her successors were made visitors, with power to\\nappoint, by sign manual, pensons to execute the office. The appoint-\\nment of the presidents, vice-presidents, and professors, was intrusted to\\nthe Crown, until parliament should otherwise determine. The commis-\\nsioners of the treasury were empowered to issue annually a sum not\\nexceeding 7.000/., for the payment of salaries, and other expenses in\\neach college; it being moreover provided that reasonable fees might be\\nexacted li om the students. Lecture rooms were directed to be assigned\\nfor religious instruction; and it was enacted that no student should be\\nallowed to attend any of the colleges unless he should reside with his\\nparent or guardian, or some near relation, or with a tutor or master of\\na boarding-house licensed by the president, or in a hall founded and\\nendowed for the reception of students.\\nA president and vice-president for each college were soon after nomi-\\nnated, and the erection of the buildings was begun. The other appoint-\\nments were made in August 1849. and the three colleges were opened in\\nthe end of October following. An additional sum of 12.000/. had shortly\\nbefore been granted by parliament for providing them with libraries,\\nphilosophical instruments and some other requisites.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0718.jp2"}, "717": {"fulltext": "THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND. 715\\nOriginally, it was intended that the number of professors in each col-\\nlege, exclusive of the president and vice-president, should not exceed\\ntwelve, and letters patent constituting them upon that basis were passed\\nfor each under the great seal of Ireland in December, 1845. Afterwards\\nit was determined that the number should be augmented for the present\\nto nineteen, but that it should not at any time exceed tJiirty. The vice-\\npresident, however, is also a professor. New letters patent embodying\\nthat extended scheme were granted in favor of each of the three col-\\nleges in November, 1850.\\nUnder the existing constitution, then, the body politic and corporate\\nof each college consists of a president, with a salary of 800/. and a\\nhouse a vice-president, with a salary of 500/. and a house and pro-\\nfessors of Greek. Latin, mathematics, history and English literature,\\nlogic and metaphysics, chemistry, natural philosophy, (each with a\\nsalary of 250/. modern languages, natural history, mineralogy and\\ngeology, (each with a salary of200/. English law, jurisprudence and\\npolitical economy, civil engineering, and agriculture, (each with a salary\\nof 150/. the Celtic languages, the practice of surgery, the practice of\\nmedicine, materia medica, and midwifery, (each with a salary of 100/.)\\nThere are also attached to each college a registrar, (with a salary of\\n200/.;) and a bursar and librarian, (each with a salary of 150/.) A sum\\nof 300/. annually is allowed for the payment of porters and servants.\\nThe total annual expenditure lor salaries is, thus, (deducting 250/. for\\nthe professorship held by the vice-president,) 5,500/.\\nThe remaining 1 500/. of the annual charge on the consolidated fund\\nis allocated ro the payment of sciiolarships and prizes. The scholarships\\nto be awarded at the commencement of the session of 1850-51 at Bel-\\nfast, are 48 of 24/. each to students of the faculty of arts; 4 of 20/. each\\nto students of the faculty of medicine; 2 of 20/. each to students of the\\nfaculty of law; 2 of 20/. each to students of civil engineering; and 4 of\\n15/. each to students of agriculture; the number being equally divided\\nin all cases between students of the first and students of the second year.\\nThe scholarships are all held for one year only.\\nThe session in all colleges extends from the third Tuesday in October\\nto the second Saturday in June, and is divided into three terms by re-\\ncesses of a fortnight at Christmas and at Easter. The fees for each\\nclass vary from 1/. to 21, 10s. and there is besides a payment from each\\nmatriculated student to the bursar on behalf of the college of 3/. at the\\ncommencement of the first year, and 21. at the commencement of every\\nsubsequent year.\\nIt had been all along contemplated that matriculation and attendance\\nat these colleges, as at similar institutions established by public author-\\nity in our own and other countries, should conduct to graduation both\\nin arts and in every other faculty, except only that of divinity; and all\\nthe regulations and arrangements of the academic curiculum in each\\nhave been moulded upon that understanding. It was a question for a\\nconsiderable time whether, with a view to the conferring of degrees and", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0719.jp2"}, "718": {"fulltext": "716\\nTHE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND.\\nother purposes, each college should be erected into a distinct university,\\nor the three constituted into one university. The latter plan has been\\nadopted, undoubtedly to the placing of the new establishments in a\\ngreatly superior position to what they would have held if they had been\\nleft each to its provincial insulation; for it could never have happened\\nthat a mere Belfast, Cork, or Galway Degree would have carried the\\nsame weight with one from the Queen s University in Ireland. The\\nletters patent creating such an university have now received the royal\\nsignature. Her Majesty has therein been pleased to declare that gra-\\nduates of our said university shall be fully possessed of all such rights,\\npriviliges, and immunities as belong to persons holding similar degrees\\ngranted them by other universities, and shall be entitled to whatever\\nrank and precedent is derived from similar degrees granted by other\\nuniversities. The following individuals constituted the government in\\n1851:\\nChancellor His Excellency George William Frederick, Earl op Clarendon, K.G.\\nK.C B. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland.\\nVice- Chancellor The Rt. Hon. Maziere Brady, Lord High Chancellor of Ireland.\\nThe Senate.\\nHis Grace Richard. Archbishop of Dublin.\\nThe Most Reverend Archbishop Daniel Mur-\\nray. DD.\\nThe Right Honorable William, Earl of Rosse.\\nK.P.\\nThe Right Honorable Thomas Baron Mont-\\neagle, of Brandon.\\nThe Riglit Honorable Francis Blackburne,\\nLord Chief Justice of the Queen s Bench.\\nThe Right Honorable Thomas Berry Cusack\\nSmith, Ma. ter of the Rolls.\\nThe Right Honorable David Richard Pigot,\\nLord Chief Baron of the Exchequer.\\nThe Right Honorable Thomas Wyse.\\nSir Pliillip Crampton, Bart.\\nThe President of the Queen s College, Bel-\\nfast, for the time being.\\nThe President of the Queen s College, Cork,\\nfor the time being.\\nThe President of the Queen s College, Gal-\\nway, for the time being.\\nRichard (Jriffith. l.L. D.\\nDominic John Corrigan, M.D.\\nCaptain Thomas Askew Larcom, R.E.\\nJames Gibson, Esq., Barrister-at-Law.\\nSecretary\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Robert Ball, Esq., LL.D.\\nStatutes, By-Laws, and Regulations.\\nThe Queen s University, founded by Royal Charter, 15th August, 1850, has its seat, and\\nholds its meetings, in the Castle of Dublin, until further order, by warrant of the Lord-Lieu-\\ntenant.\\nThe Chancellor and Senate are a corporation under the title of the Queen s University in\\nIreland may sue, and may be sued, as a commo-j seal, and acquire property not to exceed\\nten thousand pounds a year.\\nThe government of the University vests in the Chancellor and the Senate. The Chancellor\\npresides over its meetings, and authenticates its acts.\\nThe Senate is formed of the three Presidents of the Queen s Colleges for the time being,\\nand certain other persons appointed by warrant under the sign manual in all not to exceed\\ntwenty. The vice-presidents of colleges may exercise the functions of senators in the absence\\nof their respective presidents. Five members of the Senate constitute a quorum, the chair-\\nman having a casting vole.\\nA vice-chancellor is to be elected annually by the Senate, and when his election is approved\\nof by the Lord-Lieutenant, he is empowered to exercise all the functions of Chancellor in the\\nabsence of the latter.\\nThe Senate, In the absence of both Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor, may elect a chairman\\nto conduct ordinary business.\\nThe Senate appoint a secretary and such subordinate officers as may be necessary for\\ndispatch of business.\\nThe Senate have full power to make and alter by-laws and regulations; these being\\napproved by the Lord-Lieutenant, and sealed with the common seal, become binding upon\\nthe University.\\nIn all cases not provided for by charter, the Chancellor and Senate shall act in such man-\\nner as may appear best culculated to promote the purposes intended by I he University.\\nMeetings of the Senate shall be convened by the secretary or acting secretary, on the\\nauthority of the Chancellor or, in his absence, of the Vice-Chancellor, or of the chairman of\\na meeting of the Senate, elected as provided in the charier.\\nThere shall be stated meetings on the 7th of January and 20th of June, in each year, or on\\nthe following day, when either of these days shall fall on a Sunday.\\nTheQueen s Colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway, are constituted Colleges of the Queen s\\nUniversity, and their professors are considered professors of the University.\\nTlie power of the Dniversity Senate over the Colleges extends only to the regulation of\\nqualification for the several degrees.\\nThe Quee^i reserves to herself and successors the office of Visitor, with power to appoint\\nothers to execute the duties.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0720.jp2"}, "719": {"fulltext": "THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND. 7 J 7\\nThe Chancellor or Vice-Chancellor is required to report annually to the Lord-Lieutenant\\non the condition and proiiress of the University.\\nTlie Cliancellor and Senate have power to found and endow scholarships, prizes, or exhi-\\nb tioiis, lor wlhch funds may be supplied by grant or donation, under sucli rejinlations as\\ntlicy may tliink fit to make, not interfering with the courses prescribed for scholars of\\nQueen s Colleges, or lor matriculation Iherein.\\nThe Queen s University is empowered to grant degrees in arts, medicine, or laws, to\\nstuiitnts ill the Queen s Colleges who shall have completed the courses of education pre-\\nscr.bed by the ordinances. Persons who obtain these degrees shall be [lossessed of all rights\\nand privileges pertaining to similar degrees granted by other universities or colleges.\\nThe Chancellor and Senate have power to atlmit, by special grace, graduates of other uni-\\nversities to similar and equal degrees in the Queen s University.\\nAll degrees shall be granted and conferred publicly in tlie hall of tlie University.\\nAt all meetings of the Senate to confer degrees, the members shall appear in the full robes\\nthey may be entitled to wear in respect of any degrees they may have obtained, or offices (hey\\nmay hold. Any member not possessed of a degree or office, to wear the gown of a master\\nof arts.\\nCandidates for degrees shall wear the costume of their collegiate standing, and the hoods\\nof the degrees sought.\\nCandidates being presented to the Senate by the presidents of their colleges, and the secre-\\ntary having certified that their fees have been paid, and that they have duly passed the exam-\\niners, they shall sign the roll of the University, when the Chancellor (or Vice-ChanceUor)\\nshall admit them to degrees in the following manner\\nIn virtue of my authority as Chancellor (or Vice-ChanceUor) I admit you\\nto the degree of\\nThe Chancellor (or Vice-ChanceUor) .shall then proceed to present publicly any exhibition\\nor medal which may have been awarded.\\nExaminers are expected to attend the public meeting of the Senate.\\nThe present courses of study required by the University are prescribed in the ordinances\\nwhich were prepared by the presidents of the colleges, approved of by the Lord-Lieutenant,\\nand adopted by the Senate at its first meetings. These ordinances remain in force until\\naltered by the Senate such alterations to be subject to tlie approval of the Lord-Lieutenant.\\nThe qualifications of candidates for degrees shall be examined into at a special meeting of\\nthe Senate.\\nEach candidate is required to fill up, with his own hand, a certificate of his name, birth-\\nplace, age, and qualifications.\\nAll certificates of candidates to be sent to the secretary fourteen days before examination.\\nThe Senate will receive certificates of medical education for two-thirds of the required\\ncourses, from the professors of universities and chartered bodies, and from schools and hos-\\npitals, which have sought for and obtained the recognition of the Senate; but it is essential\\nthat one-third, at least, of the medical lectures prescribed in the course for the degree of M.D.,\\nbe attended in some one of the Queen s Colleges.\\nExaminations for degrees, and for scholarsh ps and prizes, shall be appointed and directed\\nby the Senate, who shall elect examiners annually.\\nIn no case shall any member of the Senate, or any Vice-President of a college (liable to be\\ncalled upon to fulfill the duties of a member,) be elected an examiner.\\nThe salaries of examiners shall commence from the next quarter-day after election.\\nExaminations shall be by printed papers.\\nEach examiner shall be present during the whole time that the candidates are engaged in\\nwriting answers to the papers set by him but if a paper be set by more than one examiner,\\nthe presence of one examiner shall be deemed sufBcient If, from unavoidable necessity, any\\nexaminer be unable to attend, the secretary shall be present.\\nEvery member of the Sfnate shall have the right of being present during examinations, but\\nonly the examiner specially appointed to conduct examinations shall have the right to put\\nquestions.\\nNo candidates shall be present except those under examination.\\nThe examiners shall rejiort to the Senate the result of their examination, and shall deliver\\nin at the same time, in sealed packets, the answers to the examination papers of the classes\\nwhich they have si verally examined.\\nThe amount of fees to be paid on the granting of degrees shall be directed from time to\\ntime by the Chancellor and Senate, with the approbation of the Lord s Commissioners of Her\\nMajesty s Treasury.\\nFor the present, the fee on the degree of M.D. has been fixed at5i., and the fee on the diploma\\nof agriculture, at 21. Fees on other degrees are not yet settled.\\nThe fees are to be carried to the general fund.\\nAccounts of income and expenditure of the University shall once in each year be submitted\\nto ttie treasury, subject to such audit as may be directed.\\nThe Hank of Ireland has been appointed treasurer.\\nPayments shall be made by drafts signed by the Chancellor or Vice-Chancellor, counter-\\nsigned by the secretary.\\nAlthough much clamor has been raised against the Glueen s Colleges,\\nbecause, in the distracted state of Ireland in religious matters, the\\nBritish Parliament has at last attempted to establish a plan of liberal\\neducation, the special purpose and profession of which is to communicate\\ninstruction in certain branches of human knowledge to classes whicb\\nmay be composed of young people belonging to various religious denom", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0721.jp2"}, "720": {"fulltext": "718 THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND.\\ninations, we believe there is no ground for alarm, or distrust, for the\\nsafety of the rehgious principles of the students who may resort to\\nthem. On the other hand, securities are provided, more protective and\\nand conservative than exist in any other academic institution in the\\nempire, which are open to other than students of one reUgious denom-\\nination.\\nAt the ancient national universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and\\nTrinity College, Dublin, there are no arrangements which even recog-\\nnize the existence of any form of religious belief but that of the Estab-\\nlished Church; not only is the student who may hold any other creed\\n(in so far as such dissenting students are admitted at all) left without\\nany spiritiml superintendence whatever, but the entire system of teach-\\ning and di.-?cipiine i.s in the hands of members of the churcli established\\nby law, and is regulated and administered in all respects in conformity\\nwith the doctrines and ritual of that church. Yet, Roman Catholics\\ngenerally have long been in the habit of sending their sons without\\nher^itation or scruple to the university of Dublin; freedom of admission\\nto Oxford and Cambridge has always been one of the demands which\\nProtestant dissenters have urged most clamorously; and no non-con-\\nformist community has ever put forth an authoritative denunciation of\\neither the demand or the practice.\\nIn the Scottish universities the professors are all by law members of\\nthe Presbyterian Established Church; any seasoning of theology, there-\\nfore, that may insiiiuate itself into the lectures delivered by them, or\\ntheir mode of teaching, must be Presbyterian it may be Presbyterian\\nof the strongest and, to all but the disciples of Calvin and John Knox,\\nof the most otfensive flavor. On the other hand, at least at Edinburg\\nand Glasgow, there is no religious superintendence of the students\\nwhatever. So here is the extreme of rigor and exclusivencss, combined\\nwith the extreme of laxity and neglect. Yet these universities are\\nattended by members of all communions; and certainly it is not the\\nliberality of the system in giving free admission to all sects which any\\nbody of dissenters has ever made matter of complaint.\\nIn University College. London, there is the same freedom of admis-\\nsion for students of all descriptions as at the Scotch colleges, with the\\nsame entire absence of reliyious superintendence as at Edinburg and\\nGlasgow; and no religious test is applied to the professors anymore\\nthan to the students Many religious fathers of all denominations, nev-\\nertheless, have been accustomed ever since it was established to send\\ntheir sons to be educated in all the great branches of human learning at\\nUniversity College.\\nIn the first place, every professor in these Irish colleges, upon enter-\\ning into office, signs a declaration promising and engaging that, in his\\nlectures and examinations, and in the performance of all other duties\\nconnected with his chair, he will carefully abstain from teaching or ad-\\nvancing any doctrine, or making any statement, either derogatory to\\nthe truths of revealed religion, or injurious or disrespectful to the relig-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0722.jp2"}, "721": {"fulltext": "THE QUEEN S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND. 719\\nious convictions of any portion of his claps or audience. And it is en-\\nacted, that, if he shall in any respect violate this engagement, he shall\\nbrt summoned before the College Council, where, upon sulficient evi-\\ndence of his having so transgressed, he shall be formally warned and\\nreprimanded by the president; and that, if he shall be guilty of a repe-\\ntition of said or similar offense, the president shall forthwith suspend\\nhim from his functions, and take steps officially to recommend to the\\nCrown his removal from office. The appointments of the professors are\\nall held during the pleasure of the Crown. A triennial visitation of\\neach college is ordained to be held during the college session by a\\nBoard of Visitors which has already been appointed by the Crown, and\\nwhich comprises the heads of the Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and\\nRoman Catholic churches in Ireland.\\nBut further, every student is actually subjected to an extent of relig-\\nious superintendence such as is enforced nowhere else, unless it be oulj\\nat Oxibrd and Cambridge. No matriculated student under the age of\\ntwenty-one years is permitted to reside except with his parent or guard-\\nian, or with some relation or friend to whose care he shall have been\\ncommitted by his parent or guardian, and who shall be approved of by\\nthe president of the college, or in a boarding-house licensed by the\\npresident upon a certificate, produced by the person keeping it, of moral\\nand religious character from his clergyman or minister. The relation\\nor friend to whose care a student is committed must in all cases formally\\naccept the charge of his moral and religious conduct. Clergymen, each\\napproved by the bishop, moderator, or constituted authorily of his\\nchurch or religious denomination, are appointed by the Crown Deans\\nof Residences, to have the moral care and spiritual charge of the\\nstudents of their respective creeds residing in the licensed boaidiiig-\\nhouses; and it is provided that they shall have authorily to visit such\\nboard ing houses for the purpose of affording religious instruction to such\\nstudents, and shall also have power, with the concurrence of the presi-\\ndent of the college, and of the authorities of their respective churches,\\nto make regulations for the due observance of the religious duties of\\nsuch students, and for securing their regular attendance on divine wor-\\nship. Finally, at the head of the list of offenses in the statutes of\\neach college for which it is enacted that any student shall be liable to\\nexpulsion, are the following: 1. Habitual neglect of attendance for\\ndivine worship at such church or chapel as shall be approved by his\\nparents or guardians; 2. Habitual neglect of attendance on the relig-\\nious instruction provided for students of his church or denomination in\\nthe licensed boarding-house in which he may reside.\\nThe above account of ihe Q,ueen s University in Ireland is drawn up\\nprincipally from an article in the Companion to British Almanac for\\n1851, and from the London Educational Register for 1852.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0723.jp2"}, "722": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0724.jp2"}, "723": {"fulltext": "ENGLAND.\\nWe propose to introduce an account of several of the best training\\nschools of England, the most efficient and hopeful agency now at work\\nin the educational field, with a brief sketch of the histo%r of public\\nschools in that country, drawn from various sources.*\\nI. The earliest mention of a school in England, dates back to the per-\\nmanent introduction of Christianity and for many centuries afterwards,\\nschools even of the most elementary character, were only found in con-\\nnection with monasteries and cathedrals. Even these were mostly swept\\naway by the Danish invasion, so that King Alfred, about the year 880,\\nwas obliged to invite learned prelates from abroad, John of Saxony\\nfrom Corbie, Asserof St. Davids, and Grimbald the provost of St. Omer,\\nin Normandy, to establish schools for his own subjects, and especially\\nsuch as were destined for the service of church and state. To the sup-\\nport of these schools, and particularly the one connected with the mon-\\nastery of Ethelingey, he set apart one-ninth of his revenue. To the\\ncenturies immediately following, we may trace the foundation of many\\nexisting educational establishments, by eminent prelates to the song\\nscole where poor boys were trained to chant, and the lecture scole\\nwhere clerks were taught to read in the service of the church. Samp-\\nson, Abbot of St. Edmunds, himself a poor boy, founded a school at\\nBury St. Edmunds for forty boys, in 1198. Langfranc and Anselm,\\narchbishops of Canterbury, had both exercised the profession of teacher\\nin the schools of their monasteries, and both established schools. Joffrid,\\nAbbot of Croyland, procured teachers from Orleans where he was edu-\\ncated, and established them at Cotenham in 1110, which is thought to\\nbe the origin of the university at Cambridge. William of Wykeham,\\nBishop of Winchester, to relieve poor scholars in their clerical education,\\nand for the support and exaltation of the Christian faith, and the im-\\nprovement of the liberal arts, founded a college in 1382 at Oxford, and\\nin 1387 at Winchester, as a nursery of the former. In schools thus\\nestablished, the dignitaries of the church, while they trained up poor\\nyouth for the service o^ the altar, and made the clergy respected by\\nCompanion to the British Almanac for 1847. Sir James Kay Shuttleworth s Public Edu-\\ncation from 1846 to 1852. Low s Charities of London.\\n46", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0725.jp2"}, "724": {"fulltext": "722 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLANTi\\ntheir learning, in reality introduced a new power into society, to soften\\nand control the influence of birth and wealth. Few of the laity could\\nread, and the law which existed in England till within the last twenty\\nyears, by which the severity of the statutes against felony was modified\\nby what was called benefit of clergy, shows how gradually the ability\\nto read was extended beyond the religious orders. In early times,\\nclergymen claimed the privilege of being exempt in certain cases from\\ncriminal punishment by secular judges. They appeared in clerical\\nhabits, and claimed the frivilegium clericale. At length the ability to\\nread was of itself considered sufficient to establish the privilege, and all\\noflTenders who claimed their clergy had to read a passage from the\\nPsalms, which came to be humorously called the neck verse. This\\nwas no merely theoretical privilege, for ihe ability to read, absurd as it\\nmay appear, saved an offender in the first instance from the full penalty\\nof his crime. There is a curious case recorded in the Paston Letters,\\nas happening in 1464. Thomas Gurney employed his man to slay my\\nLord of Norwich s cousin. They were both tried and convicted of the\\ncrime. Thomas Gurney pleaded his clergy, and was admitted to mercy\\nas clerk convict; the less guilty servant, being unable to read, was\\nhanged. But the rank of Thomas Gurney gave no assurance that he\\npossessed any knowledge of letters. Some amongst the highest in rank\\naffected to despise knowledge, especially when the invention of printing\\nhad rendered the ability to read more common than in the days of pre-\\ncious manuscripts. Even as late as the first year of Edward VI. it was\\nnot only assumed that a peer of the realm might be convicted of felony,\\nbut that he might lack the ability to read, so as to claim benefit of\\nclergy; for it is enacted that any Lord of the Parliament claiming the\\nbenefit of this act (1st of Edward VI. cap. 12.) though he can not\\nread, without any burning in the hand, loss of inheritance, or corruption\\nof his blood, shall be judged, deemed, taken, and used, for the first time\\nonly, to all intents, constructions, and purposes, as a clerk convict.\\nThat the nobility were unfitted, through ignorance, for the discharge of\\nhigh offices in the State at the time of the reformation, is shown by a\\nremarkable passage in Latimer s Sermon of the Plough, preached\\nII 154S Why are not the noblemen and young gentlemen of Eng-\\nand so brought up in knowledge of God, and in learning, that they may\\ne able to execute offices in the common weal 1***1^ the nobility be\\nivell trained in godly learning, the people would follow the same train\\npr truly such as the noblemen be, such will the people be.\\nTherefore for the love of God appoint teachers and schoolmasters, you\\n.hat have charge of youth, and give the teachers stipends worthy their\\nlains. Honest old Latimer thus demanded that the young gentle-\\nnen of England should be educated that the hundreds should be\\nwell brought up in learning and the knowledge of God, so that they\\nvould not, when they came to age, so much give themselves to other\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2anities.\\nII. The suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII., and the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0726.jp2"}, "725": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (723\\ndiversion of the funds left by charitable persons for the education and\\nsupport of the poor, was followed by the destruction of a large portion\\nof the schools of the kingdom, for which a partial atonement was made\\nby the endowment out of these funds of a class of schoolsj now known\\nas grammar schools. That all the lands and buildings of the Catholic\\nchurch were not thus appropriated, is evident from the following extract\\nfrom a sermon preached by Thomas Lever, a master of St. John s Col-\\nlege, Cambridge, before king Edward VI., in 1550: Your majesty\\nhath given and received by act of Parliament, collfeges, chantries, and\\nguilds, for many good considerations; and. especially, as appears in the\\nsame act, for erecting of grammar schools, to the education of youth in\\nvirtue and godliness, to the further augmenting of the universities, and\\nbetter provision of the poor and needy. But now, many grammar\\nschools, and much charitable provision for the poor, be taken, sold, and\\nmade away, to the great slander of you and your laws, to the utter dis-\\ncomfort of the poor, to the grievous offense of the peopte, to the most\\nmiserable drowning of youth in ignorance, and sore decay of the univer-\\nsities. The same plain speaker accuses the rapacious courtiers with\\nhaving applied the fiinds for the maintenance of learning to their own\\nprofit: Yea, and in the country many grammar schools, which be\\nfounded of a godly intent, to bring up poor men s sons. in learning and\\nvirtue, now be taken away by reason of a greedy covetousness of you,\\nthat were put in trust by God and tlie king to erect and make grammar\\nschools in many places, and had neither commandment nor permission\\nto take away the schoolmasters livings in any place. And yet, accord-\\ning to Slrype, the ecclesiastical historian who quotes these passages, the\\ncreatures of the crown did not altogether succeed in their career of ra-\\npacity; for the good king was so honest and just as to apply the\\nspoils of the religious houses and chantry lanfls, in a considerable man-\\nner. to pious ends. Twenty-one grammar schools are enumerated\\nas thus founded by Edward VI. and several of these are still amongst\\nthe most flourishing institutions of the country. The example con-\\ntinued to be followed during a century and a half; and many free gram-\\nmar schools were established for the instruction of poor children in the\\nlearned languages. From these often humble and unpretending\\nedifices has issued a series of names illustrious in the annals of their\\ncountry a succession of men, often of obscure parentage and stinted\\nmeans, who have justified the wisdom of the founders of grammar\\nschools in providing education for those who would otherwise have been\\nwithout it, and thus securing to the State the services of the best of her\\nchildren.\\nAccording to the digests of the reports made by the commissioners\\nfor inquiry into charities, presented to Parliament in 1842, the annual\\nincome of the grammar schools of England and Wales, amounted to\\n152,047/. but some schools were exempted from the inquiry.\\nAbout the time of the revolution the commercial classes, who had\\ngrown into wealth and consequent importance, began naturally to think", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0727.jp2"}, "726": {"fulltext": "724 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nthat schools in which nothing was taught but Latin and Greek were not\\naltogether fitted for those who were destined to the Hfe of tratfic. Un-\\neducated men who had pushed their way to fortune and honor gener-\\nously resolved to do something for their own class and thus we came\\nto see in every town, not a free grammar school, but a free school, over\\nwhose gates was generally set up the effigy of a boy in blue or green,\\nwith an inscription betokening that by the last will of alderman A. B.\\nthis school had been founded for twenty poor boys, to be clothed, and\\ntaught reading, wfiting, and arithmetic. With a comparatively small\\npopulation these free schools, were admirable beginnings of the educa-\\ntion of the poorer classes. While the grammar schools were making\\ndivines and lawyers and physicians out of the sons of the professional\\nclasses and the wealthier tradesmen, the free schools were making clever\\nhandicraftsmen and thriving burgesses out of the sons of the mechanics\\nand the laborers; and many a man who had been a charity-boy in his\\nnative town, when he had risen to competence, pointed with an honest\\npride to the institution which had made him what he was, and he drew\\nhis purse-strings to perpetuate for others the benefits which he had\\nhimself enjoyed.\\nThe annual income of the schools we have described, distinguished\\nin the digests qf the commissioners as Schools not Classical, is re-\\nturned as 141,385Z. With the addition of 19,1 12Z. for general educational\\npurposes, the total income of endowed charities for education in Eng-\\nland and Wales is 312,545Z.\\nComparing all the returns, we may say in round numbers that the in-\\ncome of the endowed schools is 300,000/. the number of schools 4,000\\nand the number of scholars 150,000.\\nThe 300,000Z. thus derived from the rent of land, rent charges, funded\\nsecurities, c.. during thr e centuries, has been the foundation upon\\nwhich has been built up much of the sterling worth of the English\\ncharacter. One hundred and fifty thousand children have been receiv-\\ning, for a long series of years, some the most liberal education, some\\nthe commoner rudiments of worldly knowledge, all of them religious\\ninstruction.\\nThey have kept alive the liberal studies which have nourished a race\\nof divines, lawyers, physicians, statesmen, that may challenge compari-\\nson with those of any nation. They have opened the gates of the\\nhigher employments to industry and talent unsupported by rank and\\nriches. They have mitigated the inequalities of society. They have\\nploughed up the subsoil of poverty to make the surface earth stronger\\nand richer. What the grammar schools have done for the higher and\\nmiddle classes, the free schools have done for the lower in a diflferent\\nmeasure. They were the prizes for the poor boy who had no ambition,\\nperhaps no talent, for the struggles of the scholar they taught him\\nwhat, amongst the wholly untaught, would give him a distinction and a\\npreference in his worldly race, and he was unenvied by the less fortu-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0728.jp2"}, "727": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 725\\nnate, b^ause they knew that there was no absolute bar to their children\\nand their kindred running the same course.\\nIII. With the beginning of the present century a new era in popular\\neducation in England commenced by the formation of voluntary asso-\\nciations to extend the blessings of knowledge, human and divine, to the\\ngreat mass of the people. Prior to this, there had been individuals in\\nadvance of their age, who had advocated universal education.\\nSir Thomas More, in his Utopia, professedly written to describe\\nthe best state of a public weal, says, Though there be not many\\nin every city which be exempt and discharged of all other labors, and\\nappointed only to learning that is to say, such in whom, even from\\ntheir very childhood, they have perceived a singular towardness, a fine\\nwit, and a mind apt to good learning yet all in their childhood be in-\\nstructed in learning. And the better part of the people, both men and\\nwomen, throughout all their whole life, do bestow in learning those spare\\nhours which we said they have vacant from bodily labors.^ This is the\\ncondition to which the people of England are surely tending the con-\\ndition o[ elementary instruction for all children the habit oi self-culture\\nfor all adults.\\nIn his celebrated Wealth of Nations, first published in 1766, Adam\\nSmith, advocating the instruction of almost the whole body of the peo-\\nple in the most essential parts of education, says, The public can\\nfacilitate this acquisition by establishing in every parish or district a\\nlittle school, where children may be taught for a reward so moderate, that\\neven a common laborer may afford it the master being partly, but not\\nwholly, paid by the public because if he were wholly, or even princi-\\npally paid by it, he would soon learn to neglect his business. In Scot-\\nland, the establishment of such parish schools has taught almost the\\nwhole common people to read, and a very great proportion of them to\\nwrite and account. In England, the establishment of charity schools\\nhas had an effect of the same kind, though not so universally, because\\nthe establishment is not so universal. This seed was altogether sown\\nupon barren ground. The establishment of parochial schools, whichwould\\nhave taught the children of the laboring classes habits of foresight and\\nindependence, could not be thought of whilst the easier system was at\\nhand to keep them in the condition of degraded pauperism.\\nThe state of education in England at the commencement of the pres-\\nent century, is described in ^ew words by Malthus. in his celebrated\\nEssay on Population, published in 1803 We have lavished im-\\nmense sums on the poor, which we have every reason to think have\\nconstantly tended to aggravate their misery. But in their education,\\nand in the circulation of those important political truths that most nearly\\nconcern them, which are perhaps the only means in our power of really\\nraising their condition, and of making them happier men and more peace-\\nable subjects, we have been miserably deficient. It is surely a great\\nnational disgrace, that the education of the lower classes of the people\\nin England should be left merely to a few Sunday schools, supported by", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0729.jp2"}, "728": {"fulltext": "726\\nELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\na subscription from individuals, who can give to the course o|k instruc-\\ntion in them any kind of bias whicii they please. And even the im-\\nprovement of Sunday sclioois (for, objectionable as they are in some\\npoints of view, and imperfect in all, I can not but consider them as an\\nimprovement) is of very late date.\\nAt the time when Malthus wrote this, Sunday schools had not been\\nin efficient existence more than twenty years. The indefatigable\\nfounder of these valuable institutions, Mr. Raikes of Gloucester, wrote\\nin his newspaper, in 1783, Some of the clergy in ditferent parts of this\\ncountry, bent upon attempting a reform among the children of the lower\\nclass, are establishing Sunday schools for rendering the Lord s Day sub-\\nservient to the ends of instruction, wliich has hitiierto been prostituted\\nto bad purposes. From the hour when Mr. Stock, the benevolent rector\\nof St. John s, Gloucester, met Mr. Raikes at his own door, where they\\ntalked of the necessity of doing something to ameliorate the deplorable\\nstate of the poor children around them, the system of Sunday schools\\nhas gone on most surely and rapidly developing. In 1785, the Society\\nfor the Support and Encouragementof Sunday schools; and in 1803, the\\nSunday School Union, were established. We can overrate the posi-\\ntive benefits which have been arrived from the extension, and unjust to\\ndepreciate the importance of these schools as part of a great system\\nof national progress. There were in 1852, 2,000,000 scholars in 20,000\\nschools.\\nIn the absence alike of any old parochial system of education, and of\\nendowments for popular instruction worthy of mention, it is not surprising,\\nhowever, that, thus sustained, the Sunday school, during the last half\\ncentury, should have become a great institution in the manufacturing\\ndistricts, where the old parochial system of religious ministration was\\nequally defective. The feelings of employers, parents, and teachers, all\\nunited in the erection and support of the Sunday school not in most\\ninstances, without a high regard for its secular as well as religious uses,\\nwhich is now however gradually giving way to a desire to make its\\nduties more purely spiritual. The first step usually taken in further-\\nance of this dQsire, is to teach writing and arithmetic on two or three\\nevenings of the week, instead of a part of the Sunday. The next step,\\nseeing that the great majority of the children, especially in poor neigh-\\nborhoods, are still occupied on the Sundays chiefly in learning the mere\\nart of reading though the Scriptures and Scripture extracts are the text-\\nbooks, is to endeavor by the establishment of public day schools within\\nthe same walls, or in the same neighborhoods, gradually to get the\\nyoung prepared for a higher task on the Sunday, that of possessing\\nthemselves more fully of the truths unfolded in the words Avhich they\\nhave elsewhere learned to decipher. The first step has generally been\\ntaken the second, but partially and yet with effects upon the Sunday\\nschool itself which will challenge the deepest feelings of gratitude, in\\nobserving the labors of the best Sunday schools of the manufacturing\\ntowns.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0730.jp2"}, "729": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\n727\\nIn 1807. Mr. Whitbread came forward in the House of Commons, to\\npropose a plan for the exakalion of the character of the laborer by\\nthe establishment of parochial schools. On this occasion Mr. Whit-\\nbread, said, 1 can not help noticing to the house that this is a period\\nparticularly favorable lor the institution of a national system of educa-\\ntion, because within a few years there has been discovered a plan for\\nthe instruction of youth which is now brought to a state of great per-\\nfection, happily combining rules by which the object of learning must\\nbe infallibly attained with expedition and cheapness, and holding out\\nthe fairest prospect of utility to mankind. This plan was the Monito-\\nrial SYSTEM, propounded nearly at the same time by Dr. Bell and Mr.\\nLancaster. Mr. Whitbread s proposal for parochial schools was hon-\\nored by no very favorable reception by the legislature of that day. It\\nproposed as limited an amount of education as might have mitigated the\\njealousies even of those whose confidence in the stability of our institu-\\ntions was founded upon the possibility of keeping the people in ignorance.\\nIt proposed that the poor children of each parish should receive two\\nyears education, between the age of seven and fourteen. The advan-\\ntages of education even of this limited kind were weighed in the money-\\nbalance and the moral-balance of the opinions of that day and some\\nsaid that it was monstrous to think of taxing the occupiers of lands and\\nhouses in order that all the children of the country should be taught to\\nread and write and some that it tended to give an education to the\\nlower classes above their condition. Mr. Windham, came forward with\\nthe often repeated assertion, that if the teachers of the good and the\\npropagators of bad principles were to be candidates for the control of\\nmankind, the latter would be likely to be too successful. Mr. Whit-\\nbread s bill was of course laid on the shelf\\nThe origin of the monitorial system is attributed to Andrew Bell and\\nJoseph Lancaster by the friends of each, the latter founding the Brit-\\nish and Foreign School Society in 1805, and the latter, the National\\nSociety in 1811 the origin of which is thus described by Sampson Low\\nin his Charities of London.\\nWhilst superintendent of the Military Orphan Asylum at Madras, in\\n1791, Dr. Bell one day observed a boy belonging to a Malabar school\\nwriting in the sand thinking that method of writing very convenient,\\nboth as regards cheapness and facility, he introduced it in the school of\\nthe asylum, and as the usher refused to teach by that method, he em-\\nployed one of the cleverest boys to teach the rest. The experiment of\\nteaching by a boy was so remarkably successful, that he extended it to\\nthe other branches of instruction, and soon organized the whole school\\nunder boy teachers, who were themselves instructed by the doctor. On\\nhis return to England, he published a report of the Madras Orphan Asy-\\nlum, in which he particularly pointed out the new mode of school or-\\nganization, as far more efficient than the old.\\nThe publication took place in 1797, and in the following year Dr. Bell\\nintroduced the system into the school of St. Botolph s, Aldgate, London.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0731.jp2"}, "730": {"fulltext": "728 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nHe afterwards introduced it at Kendal, and made attempts with small\\nsuccess to obtain its adoption in Edinburgh. Settling down soon after\\nas rector of Swanage in Dorchester, he was secluded from the world for\\nseven years; yet he retained his strong opinion of the value of the new\\nsystem of education, and had the school at Swanage conducted on that\\nsystem.\\nIn the meanwhile Joseph Lancaster, son of a Chelsea pensioner, in\\nthe Borough-road London, opened a school in his father s house, in the\\nyear 1798, at the early age of eighteen. He had been usher in schools,\\nand being of an original, enterprising, and ardent character, he had\\nhimself made improvements in tuition. Dr. Bell s pamphlet having fal-\\nlen in his way, he adopted the Madras system with eagerness, making\\nvarious alterations in its details. In the year 1802. he had brought his\\nschool into a very perfect state of organization, and found himself as\\nwell able to teach 250 boys with the aid of the senior boys as teachers,\\nas before to teach 80. His enthusiasm and benevolence led him to con-\\nceive the practicability of bringing all the children of the poor under\\neducation by the new system, which was not only so attractive as to\\nmake learning a pleasure to the children, but was so cheap as exceed-\\ningly to facilitate the establishment and support of schools for great\\nnumbers of the poor. He published pamphlets recommending the plan,\\nand in one of them ascribes the chief merit of the system to Dr. Bell,\\nwhom he afterwards visited at Swanage. His own school he made free,\\nand obtained subscriptions from friends of education for its support.\\nThe Duke of Bedford, having been invited to visit it, became a warm\\nand liberal patron of the system. Lancaster pushed his plan with the\\nceaseless energy of an enthusiast; nothing daunted or discouraged him;\\nhe asked subscriptions for new schools from every quarter and at\\nlength he was admitted to an interview with the king (at Weymouth\\nin 1806.) Being charmed with what he heard of his large designs, the\\nadmirable order and efficiency of his schools, and also with the sim-\\nplicity and overflowing benevolence of the man, his majesty subscribed\\n\u00c2\u00a3100 a year, the queen \u00c2\u00a350, and the princess \u00c2\u00a325 each, to the extension\\nof the Lancasterian system. The king also declared himself to be\\nthe patron of the society which was soon afterwards formed to promote\\neducation on this system. Such was the origin of the British and\\nForeign School Society.\\nDr. Bell s method thus publicly brought forward and advocated, in\\nprocess of time was adopted in the Lambeth schools, by the Archbishop\\nof Canterbury and in the Royal Military School, by the Duke of York s\\nauthority numerous schools forthwith springing into existence upon\\nOriginally designated The Royal Lancasterian Institution for promoting (he Education\\nof the Children of the Poor. In 1808, Lancaster resigning his affairs into the hands of trus-\\ntees, it assumed more of the character of a public institution. Mr. Lancaster died in 1838,\\nsupported, in his latter days, solely by an annuity purchased for him by a few old and attached\\nfriends. Dr. Bell died in 1832, leaving the princely sum of jei20,000 for the encouragement\\nof Uierature and the advancement of education.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0732.jp2"}, "731": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. ^29\\nwhat is known to this day as the- Madras system the distinctive features\\nbetween these and such as were founded by Lancaster s party, consist-\\ning in the extent to wliich the religious instruction should be mixed with\\nthe secular j the former, as a clergyman of the established church, advo-\\ncating the inculcation of the truths of Christianity as held in the church\\narticles and formularies; the latter, representing the dissenting interests,\\nadmitted the reception of the Bible as the foundation of all instruction,\\nbut without any note or comment. This still remains the essential dif-\\nference between the two societies and the schools conducted on their\\nprinciples. In 1808, Dr. Bell endeavored to induce the government to\\ntake up his plans, and to establish A National Board of education,\\nwith schools placed under the management of the parochial clergy. In\\nthis he failed, but friends of the established church rallied round him,\\nand, through their efforts and under the patronage of the bishop and\\nclergy, the National Society was eventually formed in 1811.\\nThe earliest voluntary agency of popular education was the Society\\nfor Promoting Christian Knowledge founded in 1698, to aid in the es-\\ntablishment of charity schools, and the publication and circulation at a\\nlow price of religious books. By 1750, the society had aided in the es-\\ntablishment of sixteen hundred Church Charity Schools. From 1733,\\nwhen the society began to report its annual issues of publication, to\\n1840, it had distributed upwards of 94,000,000 millions of books and\\ntracts. The annual returns for publication is about \u00c2\u00a355,000, and its in-\\ncome from dividends, contributions and legacies, about \u00c2\u00a333,000.\\nThe Religious Tract Society was instituted in 1799, for circulating re-\\nligious works of its own, in the British dominion and foreign countries,\\nunder the direction of a committee of churchmen and protestant dissen-\\nters. Its total distribution to March, 1849, was nearly 500,000,000 of\\ncopies of its publication. Its gross income is \u00c2\u00a360,000 per annum, of\\nwhich \u00c2\u00a312,000 was derived from annual subscription.\\nThe first school established in Great Britain, exclusively for adults,\\nwas at Bala, a village in Merionethshire, in 1811, by Rev. T. Charles,\\nminister of the place. This was so successful as to induce their estab-\\nlishment in other places. In 1812, William Smith, aided by Stephen\\nProut, commenced a similar school in Bristol, which led to the establish-\\nment of the Bristol Institution for instructing the adults to read the\\nHoly Scriptures. In 1813 the object was extending to teaching writ-\\ning. In 1816, a similar society was founded in London. These schools\\nwere introduced into over thirty towns in the course of a few years.\\nThe first evening school was established in Bristol in 1806, by tlie\\nBenevolent Evenings School Society to afford gratuitous instruction\\nto the sons of the laboring poor, who from the nature of their circumstan-\\nces are obliged to work hard during the day for their subsistence. In-\\nstruction was confined to reading, writing, and arithmetic. Up to 1849,\\n13,002 persons had been enrolled as members of the schools.\\nBoth adults and evening schools accomplished much good, and pre-\\npared the way for the gradual extension of the system of Mechanic", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0733.jp2"}, "732": {"fulltext": "730 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nInstitutes, into which they have been merged. Through their instruc-\\ntions, upward.s of 30,000 of the poor of England. 180,000 of Wales,\\n30.000 of Ireland, and a large number in the Highlands of Scotland,\\nmaking an aggregate of over 250,000 adult persons were taught to read.\\nIn 1815 the first infant school* was established by James Buchanan\\nat New Lanark, under the auspices of Robert Owen; and in 1819 at\\nLondon, under the patronage of Mr. Brougham and Lord Lansdowne,\\nand others and through the labors of one of the first teachers, Mr.\\nWilderspin, its methods were widely disseminated throughout the king-\\ndom. These methods were greatly improved and more wisely applied\\nin the model schools of the Home and Colonial Infant School Society,\\nIbunded in 1836. The objects of the society are, 1. To qualify masters\\nand ministers, by appropriate instruction and practice. 2. To visit and.\\nexamine .schools when required. 3. To circulate information, and pre-\\npare books and fixtures appropriate to these .schools.\\nThe history of the Mechanics Institution through all its phases of\\ndevelopment, from the earliest young men s mutual improvement society\\nestablished in London, in 1690, w{th encouragement of Defoe, Dr.\\nKidder, and others, under the name of Society for the Reformation of\\nManners the Society for the Suppression of Vice the Reformation\\nSociety of Paisley in 1787; the Sunday Society in 1789, the Cast Iron\\nPhilosophers in 1791, the first Artisans Library in 1795, and the Bir-\\nmingham Brotherly Society in 1796. all among the working classes of\\nBirmingham the popular scientific lectures of Dr. John Anderson, to\\ntradesmen and mechanics in Glasgow, in 1793 the establishment of the\\nAnderson s University at that place in 1796, and the Incorporation into\\nit of a gratuitous course of elementary philosophical lectures by Dr.\\nBirbeck in 1799, for the benefit of mechanics. the Edinburgh School\\nof Arts in 1821, the Glasgow Mechanics Institute, the Liverpool Me-\\nchanics and Apprentices Library, and the London Mechanic Institution\\nin 1823 which from this date, through the labors of Dr. Birbeck, Mr.\\nBrougham and otl:)^|prs, spread rapidly all over the kingdom until there\\nare nOw over 700 societies scattered through every considerable village,\\nespecially every manufacturing district in the kingdom, numbering in\\n1849, 120,000 members, 408 reading-rooms, and 815,000 volumes con-\\nstitute one of the most interesting chapters in the educational or social\\nhistory of Great Britain. They have created a demand for a system\\nof national education, which found its first expression in Parliament in\\n1833, in a grant of \u00c2\u00a320,000, on motion of Lord Althorpe.\\nIn 1825, as one of the direct results of the extended and growing in-\\nThe founder of infant schools was J. F. Oberlin, Pastor of Waldbach in the Ban de la\\nRoche, In the north- eastern section of France, who in his educational reform in his parish ap-\\npointed females, (paid at his own expense,) to gather the poor children between the ages of\\n2 and 6 years, and instruct and interest them by pictures, maps, and conversation, and to\\nteach tnem to read, knit, and sew. In Germany there is now a class of schools called Krib-\\nben or Cradle and Garden Schools where literally infant children, whose mothers are\\nobliged to go out to work by day, are received and properly cared for and instructed during\\ntheir absence.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0734.jp2"}, "733": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 73]^\\nterest in mechanic institutions and popular libraries, the Society for the\\nDiffusion of Useful Knowledge was formed, which commenced immedi-\\nately a series of cheap and useful publications in a great variety of\\nsubjects, and thus lead the way to a new era in English literature\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the\\npreparation of books adapted in subject and mode of treatment, as well\\nas in price, to the circumstances of the great mass of the people. In\\n1831, this society commenced a quarterly journal of education, which\\nwas discontinued in 1836, at the close of the tenth volume. In 1836, two\\nvolumes of essays on education, several of them delivered as lectures\\nbefore the American Institute of Instruction, was published by this\\nsociety. These twelve volumes, and the four volumes* published by\\nthe Central Society of Education, composed of several ot the most active\\nand liberal-minded members of the former society, contributed a large\\nmass of valuable information as to the organization, administration, and\\ninstruction of public schools in different countries, and prepared the way,\\nin 1839, for the appointment of the Committee of Privy Council on Educa-\\ntion. Before noticing briefly the action of Parliament, and the meas-\\nures of this government committee, we will conclude our sketch of the\\nvoluntary agencies in behalf of popular education.\\nAmong the most important agencies now at work in Great Britain,\\nare the Industrial, Raggedf and Reform Schools, designed for pauper,\\nneglected, and criminal children.\\nRagged schools in London had their origin in the operations of the\\nLondon City Mission the first school being founded in 1S37, in West-\\nminster, by Mr. V\\\\ alker, an agent of that society. Its success led to\\nthe establishment of similar schools in the most debased and debasing\\nstreets of the metropolis, and gathered in mendicant and ragged chil-\\ndren, already sunk in ignorance and vice, and unfit to mix with the\\nscholars of an ordinary school. In 1844, the Ragged School Union was\\nformed to encourage and assist those who teach in this class of schools,\\nand to suggest plans for their extension and more efficient management.\\nIn 1852, the union embraced 60 schools with 13,000 children, and had an\\nincome from subscription and contributions of about 814.000, in addition\\nto the sums contributed in each locality for its own schools.\\nThe most systematic and successful enterprise of this class was insti-\\ntuted and carried out by William Watson, Sheriff-substitute of Aber-\\ndeenshire in Scotland, who organized, in 1841, a system of industrial\\nschools which embraced in its operations all classes of idle vagrant chil-\\nThe fourth volume entitled the Educator, cousisted of the prize essay, written by John\\nLalor, On the necessity and means of elevating the social condition of ttie Educator, and\\nother essays by .lames Sampson, Rev. E. Higginson, and others.\\nt The first Ragged School was instituted by John Pounds, a poor cripple in Portsmouth,\\nwho, while pursuing his vocation as a shoemaker in a vicious neighborhood near the dock-\\nyards in that town, gathered into a school in his shoj), such outcasts as he could by kind\\nword, and needful food, until before his death in 1839, he had instructed over five hundred\\nchildren wlio would otherwise have grown up in ignorance, and led lives of vice and crime.\\nHe died leaving\\nFor epitaph, a life well spent,\\nAnd mankind, for a monument.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0735.jp2"}, "734": {"fulltext": "732 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\ndren, and cleared a large town and county of juvenile criminals and beg-\\ngars lliereby establishing an enviable reputation as a wise political\\neconomist, an efficient magistrate, and a practical benefactor of his\\ncountry and race. His plan, whiuh was developed gradually, embraced,\\nfirst, gratuitous education. This succeeded only partially. He next,\\nheld out, three substantial meals a day, and four hours of useful but\\nselt-imposed occupation. This was a stronger inducement; but all the\\nvagrant children did not come. Then, under the police act, all street\\nbegging was prohibited, and all found begging were sent to the indus-\\ntrial school lor food, insi ruction, and work. And to reform those who\\nstill gained their bread by thieving, a child s asylum was founded, to which\\nthese young criminals were sent to school, or be taught useful knowledge\\nand a trade, instead of to a prison. By these various agencies, street\\nvagrancy and juvenile crimes has been annihilated. Some of the fea-\\ntures of this system have been tried in all of the large towns in the\\nkingdom, and with great success and the success has been greater or\\nless, as the plan adopted embraced more or less of the Aberdeen system.\\nThe whole number of ragged schools in the kingdom in 1852, was about\\n180, with about 20,000 pupils of these about 4,000 attend industrial\\nclasses.\\nThe first reform school was instituted by the Philanthropic Society,\\nin 1788, for criminal and vagrant children in London, which was re-\\nmoved in 1848-9, to Redhill, near Reigate, and farm labor substituted\\nfor industrial training in shops. More than 3,000 boys have been ad-\\nmitted, of which number over two-thirds were reclaimed from criminal\\nand vicious habits, and permanently improved. Similar schools have\\nbeen from time to time formed by other societies with the same object\\nin view, for particular sections of the country the most succe.ssful of\\nwhich, are the Refuge for the Destitute at Hoxton, and the Warwick\\nCounty Asylum at Stratton.\\nThe system of discipline and instruction adopted in these professedly\\nreform schools, has been introduced into county gaols, and houses of\\ncorrection, and with good results, especially into the County House of\\nCorrection at Preston, of which Rev. John Clay has been chaplain for\\nmany years. The success of these schools aqd methods of instruction,\\nand the enormous increase of juvenile delinquencies in the large towns\\nof England, induced Parliament in 1836, to make provision for the es-\\ntablishment of a governmental institution for young criminals at Park-\\nhurst, in the Isle of Wight, which was opened in 1839. Although the\\nsystem of discipline adopted, partook too much of that of a prison, and\\nthe industrial training was confined almost exclusively to shop labor, in\\nwhich large numbers were employed together on the silent system, and\\nthe reformatory results were not, in consequence, so satisfactory as in in-\\nstitutions conducted on the Family and Farm School plan at Mettray, in\\nFrance, and other places on the continent, still enough has been done,\\nto awaken a desire and determination to extend and improve all existing\\nmeans, not only of reforming, but of preventing the growth o(^ juvenile", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0736.jp2"}, "735": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND 1733\\ndestitution and crime. Committees of Parliament, and conferences of\\nthose interested, have taken the subject into serious consideration, and\\nthere is now reasonable ground to believe that efficient steps will be\\ntaken to improve the physical condition and homes of the poor gener-\\nally, to establish infant and elementary schools in the infested districts\\nof large towns, to infuse the industrial and religious element into ele-\\nmentary schools for all classes, and above all to infuse the law of kind-\\nness, and restore the affections and relations of the family among those\\nin whom, by the accident of birth, these affections and relations have been\\nextinguished or perverted.\\nSchools of the same general character under the name of Schools\\nof Industry, not only for vagrant children, and in connection with pris-\\nons for juvenile ofl enders, but for children of the poor and laboring\\nclasses generally, had been previously established. One of the earliest\\nwas instituted by Mr. Joseph Allen, in Linfield, and another at Ealing\\nGrove, by Lady Byron, in which the regular occupation of the pupils in\\nshop, garden, and farm labor, is found to be both economical, and highly\\nconducive to their intellectual and moral culture.\\nIn 1840, the Poor Law Commissioners, reported the extraordinary\\nfact that there were 64,570 children in the workhouses of England, under\\n16 years of age, and 58,835 between the ages of 2 and 16. These chil-\\ndren were chiefly orphans, illigitimate, or deserted, or the childern of\\npersons physically or mentally incapable to discharge the duties of guar-\\ndianship. From the wretched system of providing for the education and\\nindustrial habits of this class of children, it was ascertained by inquiries\\nconducted by Mr. Hickson, into the previous history of the inmates of gaols,\\nthat both crime and pauperism recruited their ranks to a large extent from\\nthe workhouses. Mr. Hickson urged the immediate establishment of\\nDistrict Industrial Schools ibr workhouse children, and of wholly sepa-\\nrating them from the contaminating influence of adult pauperism. The\\nexperiment was commenced at Norwood, in 1836, by Mr. Aubin, with\\nover 1,000 children of all ages under fifteen, and was continued and per-\\nfected by him. under the superintendence of Dr. Kay, the assistant Poor\\nLaw Commissioner for the Metropolitan District. The success of the\\nenterprise was such as to induce Parliament in 1846, to provide for the\\nformation of school districts or Parochial Unions, within which all the\\npauper children should be collected into district schools, to be trained to\\nindustrious habits, and instructed in such useful knoAvIedge as is suita-\\nble to their condition. To carry out this plan, the sum of \u00c2\u00a330,000\\n($150,000) was voted in 1847, for the salaries of schoolmasters in these\\nschools, and the government has since erected a Normal School,* at\\nTwickenham, twelve miles out of London, for the special purpose of\\ntraining teachers for workhouse and reform schools, at an expense of\\nover \u00c2\u00a341,000 ($200,000.) The good influence of these improved schools\\nis already felt, and that influence will be increased as soon as better\\nFor a description of Kneller-Hall Training School, see page 791, et. seq.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0737.jp2"}, "736": {"fulltext": "734 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND\\ntrained teachers are introduced into all the workhouse, district, and\\nreform schools of the-liingdom. There are now over five hundred work-\\nhouse, and district schools under the charge of the Poor Law Coramis-\\nsioners in which there are nearly one thousand teachers employed.\\nThe beneficial results of introducing drawing into the evening classes,\\nand day schools of the Mechanic Institutions and the acknowledged\\ndependence of English manufactures in ornamental work on the taste\\nand invention of neighboring countries in consequence of the special ed-\\nucation provided by the government of these countries, for all who ob-\\ntain employment in the various branches of artistic manufacture in-\\nduced the government to establish, in 1837, Schools of Design a central\\nschool at Somerset House in London, and provincial schools in several\\nof the principal manufacturing towns and an annual grant of about\\n$30,000 was made towards their support. The government in 1852,\\nextended its plan so as to aid in giving elementary instruction in the\\narts of drawing and modeling, in any class or grade of educational in-\\nstitutions, which will conform to the regulations of the Board of Trade,\\nby whom the parliamentary grant is expended.\\nIn 1847, the Lancashire Public School Association, was formed at\\nManchester, and promulgated a plan for establishing schools for the\\ncounty upon the basis of local representation and taxation, and non-inter-\\nference with religious instruction. The objects of the association were\\nset forth in public addresses, pamphlets, and newspapers, until the\\nlocal agitation expanded into a national movement. A conference was\\nheld at Manchester on the 30th October, 1851. at which over 2,000\\npersons, many of them delegates from different parts of the kingdom,\\nwere present when it was agreed to convert the Lancashire Society into\\na National Public School Association, to promote the establishment,\\nby law, in England and Wales, of a system of free schools, which, sup-\\nported by local rates,* and managed by local committees, especially\\nelected for that purpose by the rate-payers, shall impart secular instruc-\\ntion only leaving to parents, guardians, and religious teachers, the in-\\nculcation of doctrinal religion, to afford opportunities forAvhich, it is pro-\\nposed that the schools shall be closed at stated times in each week.\\nBoth the county and national association have been instrumental in\\nbringing before the public mind of England the right and duty of taxa-\\ntion, by the people themselves, for the support of a system of public edu\\ncation, and of subjecting schools established under authority of law, and\\naided by parliamentary grant, or local taxation, to the management of\\nsuch officers as the people may elect, whether of the clergy or laity.\\nAt this meeting a letter was read from Edward Lombe, Esq., the owner of an estate ot\\n15,000 acres in the neighborhood of Norwich, transmitting a draft for jE500 ($2,500) in aid of\\nthe objects of the association the protestant right of private-judgment in matters of religion,\\nand the old Saxon right of local representation\\nThe holiest cause of pen or sword,\\nThat mortal ever lost or gained.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0738.jp2"}, "737": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDli CATION IN ENGLAND. 735\\nThe principles asserted by the association will be embodied in the report\\nof a select committee of the House of Commons appointed to consider a\\nbill to promote education in Manchester and Sallbrd. The bill on\\nwhich the committee was raised, was not introduced by the association,\\nbut as a substitute for it, by parties which are in favor of extending\\nand improving the plan of governmental aid and inspection to schools\\nin connection with religious communions now in operation.\\nIV. The first movement in parliament toward a system of national\\neducation, was made in 1807, by Mr. Whitbread who introduced a bill\\ninto the House of Commons to establish a school in each parish for poor\\nchildren, between the ages of seven and fourteen. The bill met with no\\nfavor.\\nOn the 21st of May, 1816; Mr. (now Lord) Brougham, a member of\\nWinchelsea moved for the appointment of a select committee of the House\\nof Commons to inquire into the state of education of the lower orders\\nof the metropolis, and to consider what may be fit to be done with re-\\nspect to the children of paupers who shall be found begging in the\\nstreets, or whose parents have not sent such children to any of the\\nschools provided for the education of the poor. Mr. Brougham had\\nalready taken an active interest in the educational movements of the\\nday. So early as 1808, he had assisted in extending the institution of\\nMr. Lancaster, and in organizing the British and Foreign School\\nSociety, and had contributed two very able articles to the Edinburgh\\nReview in 1810, and 1812, on the education of the poor, and in vindication\\nof the methods of Lancaster, and the plan on which that society was\\nproceeding in establishing schools without any religious test. He en-\\ntered on the business of the committee with so much zeal and industry\\nas to be able to submit a report on the 19th of June, which was followed\\nby four additional reports by which^a flood of hght was thrown on the\\neducational destitution of the metropolis, on the inefficient manner in\\nwhich many public schools were conducted, and the misapplications of\\nfunds destined to education. In 1818, the committee was revived with\\nmore extensive powers, which enabled it to inquire into the education of\\nthe lower orders through the whole of England and Scotland, and by\\nconstruction, into educational charities generally, including the universi-\\nties and great public schools. This committee addressed circulars to\\nevery parish in England, Scotland, and Wales, by which materials\\nwere collected for a statistical exhibit, filling three folio volumes, of the\\nstate of education in the whole kingdom. The labors of this committee\\nwere closed by presenting a plan for national education, countenanced\\nand supported by the State, in which an attempt was made to accomo-\\ndate the new system to the existing order of things, so as to improve\\nand confirm schools already established, and harmonize the administra-\\ntion of .schools composed of children of all denominations with a con-\\nceded deference to the authority of the church of England. The bills\\nembodying this plan were introduced in 1820, and were lost between the\\nconflicting jealousies, selfishness, and hatred of ecclesiastical authorities,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0739.jp2"}, "738": {"fulltext": "730 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nand professing religious communions and the whole subject was post-\\nponed for nearly fifteen years before its consideration was again re-\\nsumed in the English parliament.\\nMr. Brougham was more immediately successful in his attempts to\\ninduce parliament to turn its attention to the abuses of educational chari-\\nties. The reports of the committee appointed in 1816 and 1818, had\\nbrought to light a great body of curious and interesting information re-\\nspecting the state and conduct of many schools founded by charitable\\npersons in and near the metropolis. At the close of the session in 1818.\\nhe brought in a bill for the appointment of a commission to inquire\\ninto charities in England for the education of the poor. The disclosures\\nof the committees on education had excited a public jealousy, which no\\ndevice of persons interested in maintaining venerable abuses, could lull\\nor elude and although the field of inquiry was at first narrowed down\\nto a particular class of endowments, a commission was appointed,\\nwhich has been continued, enlarged, and renewed, until their reports fill\\nthirty folio volumes, and cover 28.840 charities and the work is not yet\\ndone. The total value of these charities reported on, is estimated at\\n\u00c2\u00a375,000,000, and the annual income at \u00c2\u00a31,209,395. By the publicity\\nalready given to the management of these charities, the income has\\nbeen increased, and it is calculated that by the improved system of ad-\\nministration, this income can, be raised to \u00c2\u00a34,000,000 or ^20,000,000,\\na large portion of which, dan by act of parliament, without any violence\\nto the will, but in the spirit of the original devises, be appropriated to\\npromote the education of the people.\\nThe year 18.33 was signalized by an Education, Inquiry, undertaken\\non motion of Lord Kerrj into the existing means of education for the\\npoorer classes and an annual grant* of \u00c2\u00a320,000, voted by the House of\\nCommons on motion of Lord Althorpe, for the building of school-houses in\\nEngland and Wales, under the direction of the Lords of the treasury.\\nThis sura was applied by the treasury in aid of private subscriptions for\\nthe erection of schools for the education of poor children, in connection\\nwith the National Society, and the British and Foreign School Society.\\nIn 1834, a select committee was appointed by the Commons to\\nmake inquiries into the present state of education in England and Wales,\\nand into the application and effects of the grant made in the last session\\nfor the erection of school-houses, and to consider the expediency of fur-\\nther grants in aid of education. This committee reported the minutes\\nof evidence taken before them, respecting schools in connection with the\\ntwo great societies, and the school system of Prussia, Ireland, Scotland,\\nFrance, together with the views of distinguished educationists, such as\\nLord Brougham, Dr. Julius, Prof Pillans, and others.\\nIn 1835 Lord Brougham brought the subject of national education\\nbefore the House of Lords, by moving a series of resolutions, which\\nA similar grant of JEIO.OOO was voted for the same purpose in Scotland. A grant of\\nJE4,328 had been previously made (in 1831) to the Commissioners of National Education in\\nIreland, which has been gradually increased to the sum of j6125.000, in 1851.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0740.jp2"}, "739": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. tj^tj\\ncontemplated among other things the encouragement of infant Bchools,\\nthe establishment of seminaries, where good teachers might be trained,\\nand the appointment of a board of commissioners, to estabhsh and su-\\nperintend the teachers seminaries, and the just application of the funds\\nvoted by parliament for the promotion of education, and for the protec-\\ntion of all charitable trusts for the same purpose. The resolutions were\\nread and ably advocated by the mover, but no action was had respecting\\nthem. During this year the sum of \u00c2\u00a310.000 was voted by parliament\\ntoward the erection of normal, or model schools.\\nIn 1836, Lord Brougham brought two bills before the House of Lords,\\nand renewed the same in 1837, embodying the principles set forth in his\\nresolutions of 1835. and providing in addition for a local school commit-\\ntee, to be appointed by the town council in corporate towns, and the\\nvoters of the agricultural districts, as well as the imposition of a tax on\\nproperty by the rate payers. These bills were fully explained and the\\nreasons for their adoption eloquently urged, both in 1837, and in 1838,\\nbut without success.\\nThis defeat of his favorite measure, was followed soon after by a pub-\\nlished letter to the Duke of Bedford, in which Lord Brougham urges on\\nthe friends of an independent system of national education, to unite in\\nsupport of the measures which the government would soon propose\\nby which aid would be extended to schools supported by religious de-\\nnominations, as the only practicable scheme which there was any\\nchance of carrying,\\nFor the first time we have had the attention of parliament fully di-\\nrected to the subject of education attracted, no doubt, by other motives\\nthan the mere zeal for popular improvement, led by sectarian animosity,\\nwhetted by factious rage, yet still pointed, for whatever reason, to this\\ngreat question, which, as it never before had obtained any share of par-\\nliamentary favor, so. I presume to think, never henceforth can, with its\\nprodigious intrinsic merits, cease to occupy the Legislature, for its own\\nsake, until it is finally and satisfactorily di^osed of by some great na-\\ntional measure becoming the law of the land. It is thus that the wis-\\ndom of an overruling Providence, bringing general good out of partial\\nevil, orders so as some superficial irritation, some flying ache, shall ex-\\ncite our attention to the deep-seated mischief that is preying upon our\\nvitals, lead us to probe its hidden source, and enable us to apply the\\nneedful remedy, long after the superficial feeling that first gave us the\\nwarning shall have been passed away and been forgotten. The igno-\\nrance of the people, the origin of all the worst ills that prey upon our\\nsocial system, has become at length the object of Legislative regard\\nand I defy the constituted authorities of this free country to delay much\\nlonger in applying the appropriate cure, by eradicating a disease, as\\neasily cured as it is fatal if neglected.\\nFor do not let it be imagined that ignorenee is as harmless now as it was before\\nany men were well informed, or any were misled by half knowledge, and set on to\\nmislead others in times when, without any change, one generation passed away\\n47", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0741.jp2"}, "740": {"fulltext": "Y38 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nand another came up, but the established order of things under which the earth\\nwas ruled, seemed as if it abode for ever when France before the ark adored\\nand slept. Even in those peaceful days we were taught to believe that the soul\\nbe without knowledge, it is not good. But in our own times, to leave the peo-\\nple uninformed, or half informed, is to leave the edifice of our social system rest-\\ning upon a quicksand, if its foundation be not rather like the sides of a volcano.\\nShould there, however, be any that deem such apprehensions chinierical, I will\\ncome to a very practical view of the matter. I am not inquiring how far the hap-\\npiness of a rational creature can be secured even in this world, without drawing\\naway his mind from the contemplation of sensual objects, winning over his affec-\\ntions from the taste for gross and groveling indulgence. On that subject, indeed, I\\nhave no kind of doubt but let us come to the more common-place topic of the\\nGaol Roll, the Assize Calendar. 1 pretend to prove that, without waiting for the\\ncomparative!} slow progress of general improvement by the operation of knowl-\\nedge universally diffused, six or seven years would not elapse before every prison,\\nand every circuit, and every sessions in the country felt the blessed effects of infant\\nschools, if the State did its duty, and took that etitr-etual, that only effectual mode\\nof preventing crime, instead of vainly trusting to the Gibbet, the Convict ship,\\nand the Hulks, for deterring by the force of example, that feeble, because misap-\\nplied force, which operates only on the mind at a moment when the passions arc\\nstill, and has no more power to quell their tempest, than the rudder has to guide\\nthe ship through a hurricane which has torn every sail to rags. If Infant Schools\\nwere planted for the training of all children between three and seven years of age,\\nso as to impress them w ith innocent and virtuous habits, their second natures thus\\nsuperinduced, would make it as impossible to pervert them, as it is to make men\\nand women of the upper classes rush into the highways each time they feel the\\nwant of money.\\nIt is certain, that as things now stand, the two great parties into which the com-\\nmunity is unhappily split upon this mighty question, are resolved that we should\\nhave no system of education at all, no National Plan for Training Teachers, and\\nthereby making the schools that stud the country all over, deserve the name they\\nbear, no national plan for training young children to virtuous habits, and thereby\\nrooting out crimes from the land. And this interdict, under which both parties\\njoin in laying their country, is by eacli pronounced to be necessary for the sacred\\ninterests of religion. Of religion Oh, gracious God Was ever the name of\\nthy holy ordinances so impiously profaned before Was ever before, thy best\\ngift to man, his reason, so bewildered by blind bigotry, or savage intolerance, or\\nwild fanaticism bewildered so as to curse the very light thou hast caused to shine\\nbefore his steps bewildered so as not to perceive that anyand^very religion must\\nflourish best in the tutored mind, and that by whomsoever instructed in secular\\nthings, thy word can better be sown in a soil prepared, than in one abandoned\\nthrough neglect to the execrable influence of the evil Spirit?\\nLet the people be taught, say I. I care little, in comparison, who is to teach\\nthem. Let the grand machine of national education be fiamed and set to work,\\nand I should even view without alarm the tendency of its first movements toward\\ngiving help to the power of the clergy. How Just as my friend .lames Watt,\\nwhen he has constructed some noble steam-engine, which is to bear the trade of\\nEngland, and with her trade, the light of science and helps of art, into the heart\\nof a distant continent, views without discomposure the piston-rod swerve from the\\nperpendicular, well assured that the contrary flexure, of the circles, his illustrious\\nfather s exquisite invention, has provided a speedy adjustment; and sees with still\\nless apprehension the divergency of the balls, aware that the yet more refined pro-\\nvision of the .same great mind has rendered that very centrifugal force the cause\\nof its own counteraction, and prepared a remedy in exact proportion to the disturb-\\nance, just so should I see unmoved the supposed teiylency of a Nation.il School\\nBill to increase clerical ascendancy, being quite sure that the very act of spreading\\nknowledge, which seems to increase the disturbing influence, must, in exact pro-\\nportion to its own operntion, control its evil efTects upon our socinl system.\\nI know that nothing like a provision has been any where made for infant train-\\ning, by far the most essential branch of tuition, the one to provide which is the\\nduty of our rulers, above every other duty imperative upon them, and which, if\\nthey discharge not, they forfeit their title to rule. But if they have not discharged", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0742.jp2"}, "741": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 1739\\nthat duty, if they have planted no schools where the habits of virtue may be in-\\nduced, stretched forth no hand to extirpate the germs of vice they have kept open\\nother schools where vice is taught with never-failing success used both hands in-\\ncessantly to stitle the seeds of virtue ere yet they had time to sprout laid down\\nmany a hot-bed where the growth of crime in all it\u00c2\u00ab rank luxuriance is assiduously\\nforced. The infant school languishes, which a paternal government would\\nhave cherished but Newgate flourishes Newgate, with her thousand cells to cor-\\nrupt their youthful inmates seducing the guiltless, confirming the depraved. The\\nINFANT SCHOOL IS CLospD, whicli a paternal government would have opened wide\\nto all its children. But the penitentiary, day and night, yawns to engulph the vic-\\ntims of our stepmother system, the penitentiary where repentance and penance\\nshould rather be performed by the real authors of their fall. The infant school\\nRECEIVES NO INNOCENTS whoni it might train or might hold fast to natural virtue;\\nbut the utterly execrable, the altogether abominable hulk, lies moored in the face\\nof the day which it darkens, within sight of the land which it insults, riding on\\nthe waters which it stains with every unnatural excess of infernal pollution, tri-\\numphant over all morals And shall civilized, shall free, shall Christian rulers,\\nany longer pause, any more hesitate, before they amend their ways, and attempt,\\nthough late yet seriously, to discharge the first of their duties Or shall we, call-\\ning ourselves the friends to human improvement balance any longer, upon some\\nparty interest, some sectarian punctilio, or even some refined scruple, when the\\nmeans are within our reach to redeem the time and do that which is most blessed\\nin the sight of God, most beneficial to man Or shall it be said that between the\\nclaims of contending factions in church or in State, the Legislature stands par-\\nalyzed, and puts not forth its hand to save the people placed by Providence under\\nits care, lest oflense be given to some of the knots of theologians who bewilder its\\nears with their noise, as they have bewildered their own brains with their contro-\\nversies? Lawgivers of England I I charge ye, have a care Be well assured,\\nthat the contempt lavished for centuries upon the cabals of Constantinople, where\\nthe council disputed on a text, while the enemy, the derider of all their texts, was\\nthundering at the gate, will be as a token of respect compared with the loud shout\\nof universal scorn which all mankind in all ages will send up against you, if you\\nstand still and suffer a far deadlier foe than the Turcoman, sutler the parent of\\nall evil, all falsehood, all hypocrisy, all discharity. all self-seeking, him who covers\\nover with pretexts of conscience the pitfalls that he digs for the souls on which he\\npreys, to stalk about the fold and lay waste its inmates\u00e2\u0080\u0094 stand still and make no\\nhead against him, upon the vain pretext, to soothe your indolence, that your action\\nis obstructed by religious cabals upon the far more guilty speculation, that by\\nplaying a party game, you can turn the hatred of conflicting professors to your\\nselfish purposes\\nLet us hope for better things. Let us hope it through His might and under His\\nblessing who commanded the little children to be brought unto Him, and that none\\nof any family of mankind should be forbidden of Him who has promised the\\nchoicest gifts of His Father s kingdom to those who in good earnest love their\\nneighbors as themselves\\nIn 1838, Mr. Wyse in the House of Commons made a motion for an\\naddres.? to the Q,ueen to appoint a Board of Commissioners to provide\\nfor the impartial and careful distribution of the government grants, and\\nfor the immediate establishment of schools for educating teachers. The\\nmotion was lost by only a majority of four against it.\\nIn 1839, in her speech at the opening of the session, the Q,ueen pre^\\npared the country to expect some legislation on the subject, by express-\\ning the hope that parUament would do something for the religious edu-\\ncation of the people. Before the close of the session, Lord John Rus-\\nsell, in a letter to the president of the Privy Council, communicated the\\ndesire of the Q,ueen, that he and four other members of the council, viz.,\\nthe Lord Privy Seal, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0743.jp2"}, "742": {"fulltext": "Y40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nof State for the Home Department, and the Master of the Mint, should\\nform a Board, or Committee for the consideration of all matters affect-\\ning the education of the people.\\nThe Committee of Council on Education were fortunate in their select-\\nion of Dr. James Phillip Kay, (now Sir James Kay Shuttleworth) as\\nSecretary. Dr. Kay had early interested himself in improving the con-\\ndition of the manufacturing population, and in 1832 published an elabo-\\nrate essay on the Moral and Physical condition of the working classes\\nemployed in the cotton manufacture of Manchester. He was soon\\nafter made one of the Assistant Commissioners of the Poor Law Board.\\nWhile acting in tliis capacity in the Norfolk or Suffolk district, in 1836,\\nhe submitted to that board a report on the evils of the system of ap-\\nprenticeship education under the old Poor Law, and, in 1838, a plan for\\nthe proper training of pauper children, and on district schools, which\\nwas made the basis for a reorganization and improved management of\\nschools for this class of children. In 1839, having been removed to the\\nsuperintendence of the Metropolitan district, he was specially charged\\nwith the improvement of schools in workhouses, and in maturing the\\nschool of industry at Norwood, into an example of what district schools\\nfor pauper children might become. To accomplish this. Dr. Kay made\\nhimself personally acquainted with the best methods of school manage-\\nment and teaching, as practiced in the schools of Scotland, Belgium,\\nHolland, and France, and entered on the difficult task of training up a\\nclass of teachers moved by Christian charity to the work of rescuing by\\nan appropriate physical, industrial, intellectual and religious education,\\nthe outcast and orphan children, from the mischief wrought by vicious\\nparentage and cruel neglect. This was the origin of the training school\\nat Battersea,* which was sustained until its success was beyond ques-\\ntion, mainly, by the personal efforts and large pecuniary sacrifices of its\\nprojectors. While maturing the plan of this institution, Dr. Kay was\\nappointed Secretary of the Committee of Council on Education and\\nto his industry, enthusiasm in the work, and great administrative talents,\\nmay be attributed the large measure of success which has attended the\\nefforts of that committee to extend and improve the means of elemen-\\ntary education, and especially the system of governmental inspection, and\\ntraining of teachers in 1843, he assumed the name of Shuttleworth, in\\nconsequence of receiving a legacy from a person of that name, and in\\n1849. on retiring from the office with shattered health, he was knighted\\nby the Q^ueen for his services to the cause of popular education the\\nfirst and only instance of honorary distinction conferred for this grade\\nof public service.\\nUnder his able administration the measures of the Committee of\\nCouncil have been framed, and under his instructions and correspond-\\nence, these measures have become almost a system of national\\neducation.\\nA full description of the Battersea Training School will be found on page 791, et. seq.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0744.jp2"}, "743": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2741\\nWhat and how extensive these measures of Government for the ad-\\nvancement of education really are, is not, we believe, generally known;\\nwe have therefore collected the following particulars in respect to them\\nfrom the volume of Minutes for the years 1848-9-50, which is now before\\nus. They appear to be framed with a due regard to the rights of conscience\\nand the diversities of religious opinion; and, with a wise and statesman-\\nlike precaution on the part of the Government, to avail itself of local sym-\\npathies, and to stimulate voluntary contributions.\\n1. Aid is offered by these minutes towards the erection of school build-\\nings and since the year 1839 Government has contributed under this\\nhead an aggregate sum of \u00c2\u00a3470,854, towards the erection of 3782 school-\\nhouses, drawing out, thereby, voluntary contributions to, probably, four\\ntimes that amount, and alFording space for the instruction of 709,000 more\\nchildren than could before be taught. These grants have been distributed\\nas follows\\nAmount of\\nGrant.\\nNumber of\\nSchools aided.\\nNumber of Children\\nfor whom\\nAccommodation is\\nProvided.\\nEngland\\n\u00c2\u00a3399,368\\n41,563\\n27,418\\n2,505\\n3255\\n302\\n198\\n27\\n622,823\\n47,814\\n33,198\\n5,165\\nScotland\\nWales\\nThe Islands\\nEighty-two per cent, of the whole amount granted under this head has\\nbeen paid to Church-of-England schools.\\n2. Aid is offered toward the erection of normal schools for the training\\nof teachers or for the improvement of the buildings of such schools and the\\ntotal amount thus granted in aid of eighteen normal schools, is \u00c2\u00a366,450\\nof which \u00c2\u00a335,950 is to the Church of England; \u00c2\u00a312,000 to the British\\nand Foreign School Society and the Wesleyan body and the rest to the\\nScotch Church.\\n3. Aid is offered towai ds the maintenance of such students in these nor-\\nmal schools, as shall appear, on examination, to possess the qualities and\\nattainments likely to make them good teachers, in sums varying from \u00c2\u00a320\\nto \u00c2\u00a330 annually for each student. The total sums so contributed to thirteen\\ntraining schools were, in the year 1847. \u00c2\u00a31705 in 1848, \u00c2\u00a32138; in 1849,\\n\u00c2\u00a32373.\\n4. Annual grants are paid in augmentation of the salaries of such teach-\\ners of elementary schools as, upon examination, have been judged worthy\\nto receive certificates of merit, such certificates being of three different\\nclasses, and the augmentations varying from \u00c2\u00a315 to \u00c2\u00a330. The number of\\nteachers so certificated is 681, and the total amount payable annually in\\naugmentation of their salaries \u00c2\u00a36133.\\n5. Stipends are allowed to apprentices to the office of teacher, increasing\\nduring the five years of their apprenticeship from \u00c2\u00a310 to \u00c2\u00a318. The num-\\nber of schools in which such apprentices have been appointed being 1361,\\nand the number of apprentices, 3581.\\n6. Provision is made for the instruction of these apprentices by annual\\npayments to the teachers to whom they are apprenticed, being at the rate\\nof \u00c2\u00a35 annually for one, and \u00c2\u00a34 for every additional apprentice, their com-\\npetency to instruct them being tested by annual examinations. The sums\\npayable under the three last heads are stated in the following table", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0745.jp2"}, "744": {"fulltext": "1i2\\nElementary education in England,\\nDenomination of School.\\nNumber\\nof\\nSchools.\\nNumber\\nof Cer-\\nlificated\\nToacliers.\\nNumbf\\nr of Apprentices.\\nAmount condi-\\ntionally award-\\ned for year end-\\ning 31 Oct. 1850.\\nBoys.\\nGirls.\\nTotal.\\nNational, or Church of\\ns. d.\\nEngland Schools.\\nBritish, Wesleyan,and\\nother Protestant\\n973\\n482\\n1,638\\n910\\n2,593\\n49,472 10\\nSchools, not con-\\nnected with the\\nChurch of England,\\nRom. Cath. Schools.\\nSchools in Scotland,\\n181\\n32\\n69\\n10\\n434\\n46\\n159\\n33\\n593\\n79\\n10,356 10\\n1,323 10\\nconnected with the\\nestablished Church,\\nSchools in Scotland,\\n82\\n39\\n161\\n28\\n189\\n3,492\\nnot connected with\\ntheEstab. Church.\\nTotal\\n93\\n81\\n100\\n27\\n127\\n3,467\\n1,361\\n681\\n2,424\\n1,157\\n3,581\\n68,111 10\\n7. They offer supplies of book.s, apparatus, and school fittings, at redu-\\nced rates, the reduction being effected by the purchase of large quantities\\nat wholesale prices and by grants to the extent of one-third of these\\nreduced prices. The total reduction thus effected averages sixty-two per\\ncent, on the retail price and, the total amount of the grants so made by the\\nGovernment being \u00c2\u00a36664, it is probable that the retail price of the books,\\nmaps, c.. so distributed, is not less than \u00c2\u00a317,500.\\n8. They provide for the annual inspection of normal schools, and of all\\nelementary schools in which apprentices are appointed, or which are taught\\nby certificated teachers. Also for the annual examination of apprentices\\nand of candidates for the office of apprentice, and of teachers who are can-\\ndidates for certificates of merit.\\nFor this purpose they maintain a staff of twenty-one inspectors of schools,\\nof whom eleven are inspectors of church schools; two of British and\\nForeign, and Dissenters schools and two of Scotch schools one of Ro-\\nman Catholic, and five of Workhouse schools. The cost of this inspection,\\nin 1849, for salaries and travelling expenses, was \u00c2\u00a316.826. The schools\\nat present liable to inspection are 12 normal schools, 4296 elementary\\nschools, and about 700 workhouse schools.\\nThe general result of this action of the Government on the education of\\nthe country, in respect to quantity, may be gathered from the fact, that in\\nthe ten years from 1837 to 1847, the number of cliildren under education in\\nChurch .schools had increased from 558,180 to 955,865, being an increase\\nof eight elevenths.\\nIt was not, however, so much in respect to the quantity of the education\\nof the country, as in regard to its quality, that an alteration was needed\\nand it is in this respect that most has been done. The two questions of\\nquality and quantity have, however, a relation to one another, for a good\\nschool is almost always a full one. This relation of tlie number of the\\nscholars to the quality of the school is strikingly illustrated in the returns\\nmade from schools in which certificated teachers and appi-cutices have been\\nappointed, and which are, therefore, regularly inspected. These schools\\nmay be reasonably supposed to have improved from year to year and it\\nappears that the numbers of children who attend them have, in like man-\\nner, steadily advanced. In the first year after these measures came into", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0746.jp2"}, "745": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 743\\noperation, 1847-8, the total number had thus increased 74 5 per cent. in\\nthe second year, 1666 percent. No third year s apprenticeships are yet\\ncompleted.\\nThe whole question of the quality of the instruction, after all that regu-\\nlations can do, will be found to be involved in the character of the teacher;\\nfor such as is the teacher, such invariably is the school. The first step\\ntowards tiie formation of a more efficient body of teachers was taken by\\nSir J. P. Kay Shuttleworth and Mr. E. Carleton Tutfnell, when, in the\\nyear 1840, they founded a school at Battersea for training Masters for the\\nschools of pauper children,- maintaining it at their private cost, aided by\\nsome of their friends. That, no personal exertions might be wanting to its\\nsuccess. Sir J. P. ICay Shuttleworth went to reside in it; adding to his\\nduties as Secretary to the Committee of Council on Education the cares\\nand difficulties of a position, in wiiich, surrounded by youths but recently\\nthe inmates of workhouses, he sought to lay the foundation of a new and\\nimproved state of education throughout the country. This honorable ex-\\nample of private benevolence has been followed by various public bodies.\\nThe National Society soon afterwards established St. Mark s College, Chel-\\nsea, an institution for the training of a superior class of Church school-\\nmasters, and Whiteland s House School, for the training of mistresses\\nAnd within four years of that time there had sprung up no less than seven-\\nteen diocesan schools for the tiaining of teachers of Church schools. These\\nare now increased to twenty, of which Chester, York, Durham, Chelten-\\nham, and Caerinarthen are the principal. The Battersea school having\\nbeen transferred to the National Society in 1844. there are now twenty-\\nthree or twenty-four training schools in the country for the education of\\nChurch schoolmasters.\\nThe existence of these training schools, the people of England and the\\nChurch of England owe to the Committee of Council. Their importance\\nis not to be measured by the amount of good they have been able up to this\\ntime to do, or are now doing. They are poorly supported the number of\\nstudents who attend them is small, not exceeding in the whole from four to\\nfive hundred, and the education pursued in them at present appears to be\\nbut iniperfectly adapted to the formation of the character of the teacher.\\nBut our conception of that character is as yet very imperfect in England:\\nand in all that concerns the formation and development of it, we have no\\nexperience to guide us. Each of the training schools admits of develop-\\nment and the State would do well to lend its aid to this end with a more\\nliberal hand (we should say a less sparing hand) than it has hitherto at-\\ntempted respecting, as far as is consistent with guarantees for the proper\\napplication of its aid, the independence of each, and allowing them to\\nmanifest themselves under that distinctive character towards which they\\nmay severally tend. Each, taken with its individuality, might thus become\\na depositary of local educational sympathies and a centre of local action.\\nAnd looking to the progress which the whole question of education is mak-\\ning, and to the fact that, whenever the country is. properly supplied with\\nparish schools, not less than 2000 students will, probably, require to be\\nkept within the walls of these training schools to supply tlie vacancies for\\nteachers which will annually arise in Ciiurch schools alone, there can be no\\ndoubt of the importance of tiiis part of the system.\\nFar more important, however, than any aid which the Government has\\nyet given to the establishment and maintenance of training schools, is that\\nwhich it has rendered in providing that candidates shall be properly edu-\\ncated and prepared for admission to them. Nothing has so interfered with\\nthe success of such in.stitutions as the impossibility of finding a sufficient\\nnumber of qualified candidates. The office of the national schoolmaster is", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0747.jp2"}, "746": {"fulltext": "744 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nbut little in repute and but few persons have, hitherto, been accustomed\\nto seek it, except such as, for the want of sufficient ability, or energy, or\\nindustry, have been unsuccessful in other callings, or wlio labor under\\ninfirm health or bodily deformities. These were considered indeed good\\nenough for the purpose until that inveterate prejudice was got rid of, that\\n.education is a privilege of men s social condition, and to be graduated\\naccording to it. It is a legitimate deduction from this principle, that a\\nteacher of the lowest standard iif attainments and skill is competent to the\\ninstruction of children of the lowest class. The converse proposition is to\\nrule the future of education. The education of those children who are the\\nmost degraded, intellectually and morally, being the most difficult task, is\\nto have the highest qualities of the teacher brought to bear upon it.\\nThe three or four thousand pupil teachers, having been selected as the\\nmost promising children in the scliools in which they have been brought up,\\nand having been apprenticed to the work of tlie school for five years, and\\neducated under the careful superintendence of the clergy and the inspec-\\ntors of schools, will when they have completed their apprenticeship, pre-\\nsent themselves for admission to the training schools. So selected and so\\ntrained from an eafly age, they cannot fail, after two or three years resi-\\ndence in them, to form a body of teachers such as have never before entered\\nthe field of elementary education in England. The worst training of the\\nnormal schools cannot mar this result and we have reason to hope for the\\nbest. This, then, is the bright future of education. If the apprenticeship\\nof new pupil teachers is continued at the same rate as heretofore, from 1000\\nto 1500 will annually complete their apprenticeship and nearly as many\\nwill complete annually their training in the normal schools so that nearly\\nthat number of teachers will every year be prepared to enter on the charge\\nof elementary schools.\\nThe following are the conditions annexed to grants\\n1. In respect to grants for the building of schools, it is stipulated that\\nthe site shall be legally conveyed to trustees, to be used for ever for the\\npurposes of a school.\\n2. That the buildings should be substantial and well adapted to the uses\\nof a school.\\n3. That the State, by its inspector, shall have access to the school, to\\nexamine and report whether the instruction of the children is duly cared for.\\n4. To these conditions there have been added, since the year 1 848, cer-\\ntain others, well known as the Management Clauses having for their\\nobject to secure to the laity, in all practicable cases, what appears to be a\\ndue share in the management of the schools.\\n5. To grants for the augmentation of teachers salaries, and for the sti-\\npends of pupil teacher.-;, it is made a condition that certain examinations\\nshall be passed, the subjects of examination being specified beforehand.\\nThese subjects include, with secular instruction, a detailed course of ele-\\nmentary religious instruction, to be conducted in Church schools in strict\\naccordance with the formularies of the Church of England.\\n6. To grants for apparatus and books, no other conditions are annexed\\nthan that the Committee of Council shall be certified on the report of one\\nof its inspectors, that the assistance is needed that the books and appara-\\ntus sought are proper to the use of the school and that the teachers are\\ncompetent to make the proper use of them.\\nThese measures of the Committee of Council appear excellently calcu-\\nlated to promote the interests of education. But the best measures depend\\nfor their success upon their execution and these have been so adminis-\\ntered as to secure the cordial acceptance of the various parties locally\\ninterested in schools.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0748.jp2"}, "747": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. ^45\\nThese measures were not adopted without encountering the most\\nviolent and determined opposition. Even the appointment of the Com-\\nmittee of Council, was denounced in the House of Lords by the Arch-\\nbisliop of Canterbury, who carried an address to tlie crown, praying for\\nits revocation by a majority of 111 votes; and in the House of Com-\\nmons, Lord Stanley, the author of the system of national education in\\nIreland, missed carrying a similar motion in the first instance by five,\\nand on a second occasion by only two votes. Even the continuance in\\noffice of Lord Melbourne s administration was periled by his declaration\\nin favor of these measures. By degrees the jealousies and opposition\\nof the different religious communions has been conciliated, and a system\\nof elementary education, under the local direction and support of religi-\\nous bodies, and the general supervision and pecuniary aid (mainly in\\nthe qualification and encouragement of teachers,) of the Committee of\\nCouncil, has grown up to the proportions represented in the following\\ntable\\nDenominaiion of Schools.\\nNumber of Schools.\\nNumber of Pupils.\\nToUl Income.\\nChurch of Englaud Schools.\\n17,015\\n955,865\\n\u00c2\u00a3817,081\\nBritish and Foreign\\ndo\\n1,500\\n225,000\\n161,250\\nWeslevan\\ndo\\n397\\n38,623\\n27,347\\nCongregational\\ndo\\n89\\n6,839\\n4,901\\nRoman Catholic\\ndo\\n585\\n34,750\\n16,000\\nRagged\\nTotals\\ndo\\n270\\n20,000\\n1,281,077\\n20,000\\n\u00c2\u00a31,046,579\\n19,856\\nThe following are the educational statistics of England and Wales,\\ngathered from the census of 1851\\nPublic day schools, 1 5,473\\nNumber of persons on the school books, Males, 791,548\\nFemales, 616,021\\nTotal, 1,407,569\\nAttending at the schools on the 31st March, 1851, Males, 635,107\\nFemales, 480,130\\nPrivate day schools, 31st March, 1851, 29,425\\nNumber on the school books, Males, 347,694\\nFemales, 353,210\\nAttending on March 3lst, 1851, Males, 317,390\\nFemales, 322,349\\nProportion of scholars on the books to the (1 scholar in 8^ persons) population,\\n11.76 per cent.\\nNumber of scholars in attendance to school on books, 83i per cent.\\nThe progress of elementary education is exhibited in the following\\ntable\\nIn 1818\\n1833\\n1851\\nDa; geholars.\\nPopulation.\\nProportion of\\nDay scholars\\ntoPopiilaljon.\\n674,883\\n1,276,947\\n2,108,473\\n11,398,167\\n14,417,110\\n17,922,768\\n1 to 17\\n1 to lU\\n1 to 8i\\nIncrease of population from 1818 to 1851, 57 per cent.\\nIncrease of day scholars from 1818to 1851, 212 per cent.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0749.jp2"}, "748": {"fulltext": "746 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nIn view of these facts Lord John Russell, and Sir James Kay Shut-\\nlleworth, the former in a speech in the House of Commons, and the lat\\nter in a volume just published, (1853,) advocate an extension of the\\nmeasures now in operation, in preference to a system of National Ed-\\nucation, based on municipal management and taxation. Sir James thus\\nspeaks of the policy of parental contribution in connection with public\\ngrants and private subscription.\\nA weekly payment from the parents of scholars is that form of taxation, the\\njustice of which is most apparent, to the humbler classes. Everyone who has\\neven an elementary knowledge of finance is aware, that no tax can be largely pro-\\nductive from which the great mass of the people are exempt.\\nThe mora! advantage of a tax on the poor in the form of school pence is, that\\nit appeals to the sense of paternal duty. It enforces a lesson of domestic piety.\\nIt establishes the parental authority, and vindicates personal freedom. The child\\nis neither wholly educated by religious charity, nor by the State. He owes to his\\nparents that honor and obedience, which are the sources of domestic tranquillity,\\nand to which the piomise of long life is attached. Let no one rudely interfere\\nwith the bonds of filial reverence and affection. Especially is it the interest of the\\nState to make these the primal elements of social order. Nor can the paternal\\ncharities of a wise commonwealth be substituted for the personal ties of parental\\nlove and esteem, without undermining society at its base.\\nThe parent should not be led to regard the school as the privilege of the citizen,\\nso much as another scene of household duty. Those communities are neither\\nmost prosperous, nor most happy, in which the political or social relations of the\\nfamily are more prominent than the domestic. That which happily distinguishes\\nthe Saxon and Teutonic races is, the prevalence of the idea of Ao7ne. To\\nmake the households of the poor, scenes of Christian peace, is the first object of the\\nschool, hy then shuuld we substitute its external relations for its internal the\\nidea of the citizen, for that of the parent the sense of political or social rights, foi\\nthose of domestic duties the claim of public privilege, for the personal law of\\nconscience\\nParliament has not been entirely neglectful of the education, as well\\nas the health of children employed in factories. The first act in their\\nbehalf was passed in 1802. This proving insufficient, other provisions\\nwere adopted from time to time, after very minute inquiries into the con-\\ndition of this class of children, and protracted contests in parliament,\\nuntil by the law as it now stands, every child (between the ages of 8\\nand 13 years) employed in a factory, must attend school three hours\\nevery day, between the hours of eight o clock in the morning, and six\\no clock in the afternoon. The person, whether parent or employer, who\\nreceives any direct benefit from the wages of a child, must take care that\\nthe child attend and to show that this attendance is regular, the em-\\nployer must obtain from the schoolmaster, on Monday of every week, a\\ncertificate in a form prescribed by the statute, showing the number of\\nhours the child was at school on each day of the week previous. This\\ncertificate must be preserved for six months, and produced to an inspec-\\ntor on demand. The law imposes a fine for every case of neglect on\\nthe part of the employer. Inspectors are appointed by the Home Office,\\nto visit factories and schools, with full powers to examine any person\\nupon oath on the premises, employ surgeons to examine into the condi-\\ntion and arrangements for liealth, to cause defective machinery to be re-\\npaired, to set up a school for factory children, where none exist, and to\\nreport annually, and when required to the Home office.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0750.jp2"}, "749": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 747\\nAmong the resplendent names of modern English literature, Thomas\\nBabbington Macauley and Thomas Carlyle stand preeminent, and in\\ntheir writings, both Mr. Macauley and Mr. Carlyle appear the earnest\\nadvocates of popular education.\\nIn his place in the House of Commons, in 1847, Mr. Macauley came\\nforward to defend the minutes of the Committee of Council on Educa-\\ntion, to which, as Member of the Privy Council, he had given his assent.\\nI hold that it is the right and duty of the State to provide for the education of\\nthe common people. I conceive the arguments by which this position mdy be\\nproved are perfectly simple, perfectly obvious, and the most cogent possible.\\nAll are agreed that it is the sacred duty of every government to take effectual\\nmeasures for securing the persons and property of the community and that the\\ngovernment which neglects that duty is unfit for its situation. This being once\\nadmitted, I ask, can it be denied that the education of the common peoplt is the\\nmost effectual means of protecting persons and property? On that subject I can\\nnot refer to higher authority, or u.se more strong terms, than have been employed\\nby Adam Smith and I take his authority the more readily, because he is not very\\nfriendly to State interference and almost on the same page as that 1 refer to, he\\ndeclares that the State ought not to meddle with the education of the higher\\norders but he distinctly says that there is a difference, particularly in a highly\\ncivilized and commercial community, between the education of the higher classes\\nand the education of the poor. The education of the poor he pronounces to be a\\nmatter in which government is most deeply concerned; and he compares igno-\\nrance, spread through the lower classes, neglected by the State, to a leprosy, or\\nsome other fearful disease, and says that where this duty is neglected, the State is\\nin danger of falling into the terrible disorder. He had scarcely written this than\\nthe axiom wa.s fearfully illustrated in the riots of 1780. I do not know if from all\\nhistory I could select a stronger instance of my position, when I say that ignorance\\nmakes the persons and property of the community unsafe, and that the govern-\\nment is bound to take measures to prevent that ignorance. On that occasion,\\nwhat was the state of things? Without any shadow of a grievance, at the sum-\\nmons of a madman, 100,000 men rising in insurrection a week of anarchy\\nParliament beseiged your predecessor, sir, trembling in the Chair the Lords\\npulled out of their coaches the Bishops flying over the tiles not a sight, I trust,\\nthat would be pleasurable even to those who are now so unfavorable to the church\\nof England thirty-six fires blazing at once in London\u00e2\u0080\u0094 the house of the Chief\\nJustice sacked the children of the Prime Minister taken out of their beds in their\\nnight clothes, and laid on the table of the horse guards and all this the effect of\\nnothing but the gross, brutish ignorance of the population, who had been left\\nbrutes in the midst of Christianity, savages in the midst of civilization. Nor is\\nthis the only occasion when similar results have followed from the same cause.\\nTo this cause are attributable all the outrages of the Bristol and Nottingham riots,\\nand all the misdeeds of General Rock and Captain Swing incendiary fires in\\nsome district, and in others riots against machinery, tending more than anything\\nelse to degrade men to the level of the inferior animals. Could it have been sup-\\nposed that all this could have taken place in a community were even the connnon\\nlaborer to have his mind opened by education, and be taught to find his pleasure\\nin the exercise of his intellect, taught to revere his Maker, taught to regard his feb\\nlow-creatures with kindne-ss, and taught likewise to feel respect for legitimate\\nauthority, taught how to pursue redress of real wrongs by constitutional methods?\\nTake away education, and what are your means? ^lilitary force,\\nprisons, solitary cells, penal colonies, gibbets all the other apparatus of penal\\nlaws. If, then, there be an end to which government is bound to attain -if there\\nare two ways only of attaining it if one of those ways is by elevating the moral\\nand intellectual character of the people, and if the other vi ay is by inflicting pain,\\nwho can doubt which way every government ought to take? It seems to me that\\nno proposition can be more strange than this that the State ought to have power\\nto punish and is bound to punish its subjects for not knowing their duty, but at the\\nsame time is to take no step to let them know what their duty is.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0751.jp2"}, "750": {"fulltext": "V48 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nI say, therefore, that the education of the people ought to be the first concern\\nof a St^ite, not only because it is an efficient means of promoting and obtaining\\nthat which all allow to be the main end of government, but because it is the most\\nefficient, the most humane, the most civihzed, and in all respects the best means\\nof attaining ihat end. This is my deliberate conviction and in this opinion I am\\nfortified by thinking that it is also the opinion of all the great legislators, of all the\\ngreat statesmen, of all the great political philosophers of all ages and of all nations,\\neven including those whose general opinion is, and has ever been, to restrict the\\nfunctions of government. Sir, it is the opinion of all the greatest champions of\\ncivil and religious liberty in the old world and in the new and of none I hesi-\\ntate not to say it more emphatically than of those whose names are held in the\\nhighest estimation by the Protestant Nonconformists of England. Assuredly if\\nthere be any class of men whom the Protestant Nonconformists of England re-\\nspect more highly than another-t-if any whose memory they hold in deeper venera-\\ntion it is that class of men, of high spirit and unconquerable principles, who in\\nthe days of Archbishop Laud preferred leaving their native country, and living in\\nthe savage solitudes of a wilderness, rather tlian to live in a land of prosperity and\\nplenty, where they could not enjoy the privilege of worshipping their Maker freely\\naccording to the dictates of their conscience. Those men, illustrious for ever in\\nhistory, were the founders of the commonwealth of Massachusetts but though\\ntheir love of freedom of conscience was illimitable and indestructible, they could\\nsee nothing servile or degrading in the principle that the State should take upon\\nitself the charge of the education of the people. In the year 1642 they passed\\ntheir first legislative enactment on this subject, in the preamble of which they dis-\\ntinctly pledged themselves to this principle, that education was a matter of the\\ndeepest possible importance and the greatest possible interest to all nations and to\\nall communities, and that as such it was, in an eminent degree, deserving of the\\npeculiar attention of the State. I have peculiar satisfaction in referring to the case\\nof America, because those who are the most enthusiastic advocates of the volun-\\ntary principle in matters of religion, turn fondly to that land as affording the best\\nillustration that can be any where found of the successful operation of that princi-\\nple. And yet what do we find to be the principle of America and of all the\\ngreatest men that she has produced upon the question Educate the people,\\nwas the first admonition addressed by Penn to the commonwealth be founded\\neducate the people was the last legacy of Washington to the republic of the\\nUnited States educate the people was the unceasing exhortation of Jefferson.\\nYes, of Jeffi?rson himself and I quote his authority with peculiar favor for of\\nall the eminent public men that the world ever saw, he was the one whose\\ngreatest delight it was to pare down the functions of governments to the lowest\\npossible point, and to leave the freest possible scope for the exercise of individual\\nexertion. Such was the disposition such, indeed, might be said to be the mission\\nof Jefferson and yet the latter portion of his life was devoted with ceaseless\\nenergy to the effort to procure the blessing of a State education for Virginia. And\\nagainst the concurrent testimony of all these great authorities, what have you, who\\ntake the opposite side, to show Institutions for the education of the\\npeople are on every ground the very description of institutions which the govern-\\nment, as the guardians of the people s bests interests, are bound to interfere with.\\nThis point has been powerfully put by Mr. David Hume. After laying\\ndown very emphatically the general principle of non-interference and free compe-\\ntition, Mr. Hume goes on to make the admission that there undoubtedly may be\\nand are some very useful and necessary matters which do not give that degree\\nof advantage to any man that they can be safely left to individuals. Such mat-\\nters, he says, must be effected by money, or by distinctions, or by both. Now,\\nsir, if there ever was a case to which that description faithfully and accurately\\napplies, I maintain that it is to the calling of the schoolmaster in England. That\\nhis calling is a necessary and an useful one, is clear and yet it is equally clear\\nthat he does not obtain, and can not obtain, adequate remuneration without an\\ninterference on the part of government. Here, then, we have the precise case,\\nif we are to adopt the illustiation of JIume, in which the government ought to\\ninterfere. Reasoning a priori, the principle of free competition is not sufficient\\nof itself, and can not supply a good education. Let us look at the facts. What\\nis the existing state in England There has, for years, been nothing except the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0752.jp2"}, "751": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. 749\\nprinciple of non-interference. If, therefore, the principle of free competition were\\nin reality a principle of the same potency in education as we all admit it to be in\\nmatters of trade, we ought to see education as prosperous under this system of\\nfree competition as trade itself is. If we could by possibility have had the principle\\nof free competition fairly tried in any country, it would be in our own. It has been\\ntried for a long time with perfect liberty in the richest country under the heavens,\\nand where the people are not unfriendly to it. If the principle of free competi-\\ntion could show itself sufficient, it ought to be here our schools ought to be the\\nmodels of common schools the people who have been educated in them ought to\\nshow the most perfect intelligence every school ought to have its excellent little\\nlibrary, and its mechanical apparatus and, instead of there being such a thing as\\na grown person being unable to read or to write, such an individual ought to be one\\nat whom the people would stare, and who should be noted in the newspapers\\nwhile the schoolmaster ought to be as well acquainted with his important duties\\nas the cutler with knives, or the engineer with machinery moreover, he ought\\nto be amply remunerated, and the highest respect of the public ought to be ex-\\ntended to him. Now, is this the truth Look at the charges of the judges, at\\nthe resolutions of the grand juries, and at the reports made to every public de-\\npartment that has any thing to do with education. Take the reports of the\\ninspectors of prisons. In Hertford House of Correction, out of 700 prisoners,\\nabout half were unable to read, and only eight could read and write well. In\\nJVIaidstone jail, out of 8,000 prisoners, 1,300 were unable to read, and only fifty\\nwere able to read and write well. In Coldbath-fields, out of 8,000, it is not said\\nthat one could read and write well. If we turn from the reports of the inspectors\\nof prisons to the registers of marriages, we find that there were nearly 130,000\\ncouples married in the year 1844, and of those more than 40,000 of the bride-\\ngrooms and more than 60,000 of the brides could not sign their names, but Tnade\\ntheir marks. Therefore one third of the men and one half of the women, who\\nare supposed to be in the prime of life, and who are destined to be the parents\\nof the next generation, can not sign their names. What does this imply The\\nmost grievous want of education. And it is said, that if we only wait\\nwith patience, the principle of free competition will do all that is necessary for\\neducation. We have been waiting with patience since the Heptarchy. IIow\\nmuch longer are we to wait? Are we to wait till 2,847, or till 3,847 Will you\\nwait till patience is exhausted Can you say that the experiment which has\\nbeen tried with so little efileet has been tried under unfavorable circumstances has\\nit been tried on a small scale, or for a short period You can say none of these\\nthings. It was at the end of the 17th century that Fletcher of Sal-\\ntoun, a brave and able man, who fought and suffered for liberty, was so over-\\nwhelmed with the spectacle of misery his country presented, that he actually pub-\\nlished a pamphlet, in which he proposed the institution of personal slavery in\\nScotland as the only way to compel the common people to work. Within two\\nmonths after the appearance of the pamphlet of Fletcher, the Parliament of Scot-\\nland passed in 1696, an act for the settlement of schools. Has the whole world\\ngiven us such an instance of improvement as that which took place at the begin-\\nning of the 18th century In a short tiine, in spite of the inclemency of the air\\nand the sterility of the soil, Scotland became a country which had no reason to\\nenvy any part of the world, however richly gifted by nature and remember that\\nScotchmen did this, and that wherever a Scotchman went and there were few\\nplaces he did not go to he carried with him signs of the moral and intellectual cul-\\ntivation he had received. If he had a shop, he had the best trade in the street\\nif he enlisted in the army, he soon became a non-commissioned officer. Not that\\nthe Scotchman changed there was no change in the man, for a hundred years\\nbefore, Scotchmen of the lower chisses were spoken of in London as you speak of\\nthe Esquimaux but such was the difference when this system of State education\\nhad been in force for only one generation the language of contempt was at an\\nend, and that of envy succeeded. Then the complaint was, that wherever the\\nScotchman came he got more than his share that when he mixed with English-\\nmen and Irishmen, he rose as regularly to the top as oil rises on water.\\nUnder this system of State education, whatever were its defects, Scotland rose\\nand prospered to such a degree that I do not believe a single person, even of\\nthose who now most loudly proclaim their abhorrence of State education, would", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0753.jp2"}, "752": {"fulltext": "750 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.\\nventure to say that Seotlaijd would have become the fi-ee, civilized country it is, if\\nthe education of her people had been left to free competition without any inter-\\nference on the part of the State. Then how does this argument stand I doubt\\nwhether it be possible to find, if there be any meaning in the science of induction\\nas applied to polities, any instance of an experiment tried so fully and so fairly,\\ntried with all the conditions which Lord Bacon has laid down in his Novum Or^\\nganon, and of which the result was so evident. Observe, you take these two\\ncountries so closely resembling each other in many particulars in one of these\\ntwo countries, by far the richer of the two, and better able to get on with free\\ncompetition, you have free competition and what is the result The Congrega-.\\ntional Union tell you that it is a result, indeed, to make us ashamed, and every\\nenlightened foreigner that comes amongst us, sad. In the other country, little\\nfavored by nature, you find a system of State education\u00e2\u0080\u0094not a perfect one, but\\nstill an efficient one-^and the result is an evident and rapid improvement in the\\nmoral and intellectual character of the people, and a consequent improvement in\\nsecurity and in prosperity such as was hardly ever seen before in the world. If\\nthis had been the case in su) gery or in chemistry, and such expei iments and\\nresults had been laid before you, would it be possible for you not to see which was\\nthe wrong course and which the right These arguments have most fully con-\\nvinced me of a truth which I shall not shrink from proclaiming in the face of any\\nclamor that may be raised against it that it is the duty of the State to educate\\nthe common people,\\nMr. Carlyle has uttered many indignant rebukes of the niggardly\\npolicy of the English governnnent in respect to the education of the\\npeople.\\nWho would suppose that education were a thing which had to be advocated on\\nthe ground of local expediency, or indeed on any ground As if it stood not on\\nthe basis of everlasting duty, as a prime necessity of man. It is a thing that should\\nneed no advocating much as it does actually need. To impart the gift of think-\\ning to those who can not think, and yet who could in that case think this, one\\nwould imagine, was the first function a government had to set about discharging,\\nWere it not a cruel thing to see, in any province of an empire, the inhabitants\\nliving all mutilated in their limbs, each strong man with his right arm lamed?\\nHow much crueller to find the strong soul, with his eyes still sealed, its eyes ex^\\ntinct, so that it sees not! Light has come into the world, but to this poor peas-\\nant, it has come in vain. For six thousand years, the sons of Adam, in sleepless\\neffort, have been devising, doing, discovering, in mysterious, infinite indissoluble\\ncommunion, warring, a little band of brothers, against the great black empire of\\nnecessity and night they have accomplished such a conquest and conquests and\\nto this man it is all as if ft had not been. The four and twenty letters of the al-\\nphabet are still Runic enigmas to him. He passes by on the other side and that\\ngreat spiritual kingdom, the toil-worn conquest of his own brothers, all that his\\nbrothers have conquered, is a thing non-extant for him an invisible empire; he\\nknows it not suspects it not. And is it not his withal the conquest of his own\\nbrothers, the lawfully acquired possession of all men Baleful enchantment lies\\nover him from generation to generation he knows not that such an empire is his,\\nthat such an empire is at all O, what are bills of rights, emancipations of black\\nslaves into black apprentices, lawsuits in chancery for some short usufruct of a bit\\nof land The grand seed-field of time is this man s, and you give it him not.\\nTime s seed-field, which includes the earth and aH her seed-fields and pearl-oceans,\\nnay her sowers too and pearl-divers, all that was wise and heroic and victorious\\nhere below of which the earth s centuries are but furrows, for it stretches forth\\nfrom the beginning onward even unto this d.ay\\nMy intieritance, how lonilv. wide and fair\\nTime is my fair seed-field, to time I m heir\\nHeavier wrong is not done under the sun. It lasts from year to year, from cen-\\ntury to century; the blinded sire slaves himself out, and leaves a blinded son and\\nmen, made in the image of God, continue as two legged beasts of labor; and in\\nthe largest empire of the world, it is a debate whether a small fraction of the\\nrevenue of one day (30,000/. is but that) shall, after thirteen centuries, be laid out\\non it, or not laid out on it.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0754.jp2"}, "753": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS, OR TRAINING COLLEGES\\nENGLAND AND WALES.\\nThe germ of all the institutions for training teachers for elementary\\nschools in England, must be found in the model school, and teachers\\nclass of the British and Foreign School Society in the Borough-road,\\nLondon. So early as 1805, the training of schoolmasters. in the\\nmethods of this school, was made the ground of a subscription in\\nits behalf, and in 1808, it was set forth as one of the cardinal objects of\\nthe society. From that time, persons have been admitted every year to\\nthe school to observe, learn, and practice the methods of classification\\nand instruction pursued there. Its accommodations as a normal school\\nwere insufficient even on the plan of observation and practice pursued\\nthere, until 1842, when the present building was completed at an ex-\\npense of \u00c2\u00a321,433, toward which the Committee of Council extended a\\ngrant of \u00c2\u00a35,000. In the mean time, the national society was pursuing a\\nsimilar plan in its model school at Westminster and the necessity of\\ntraining well qualified teachers by means of a special course of\\ninstruction and practice was ably discussed, and the mode and results of\\nsuch training as exhibited on the continent, and especially in Prussia,\\nwere ably advocated in parliament, pamphlets, reviews, and the daily\\npress. The Q,uarterly Journal of Education, and the publications of the\\nCentral Society of Education, and especially the Prize Essay of Mr.\\nLalor, set forth this necessity, and the experience of other countries\\nin a very able manner. Lord Brougham, in his whole public life the\\nearly and eloquent advocate of popular education, in a speech in the\\nHouse of Lords on the education of ihe people on the 23d May, 1835,\\nremarked These seminaries for training masters are an invaluable\\ngift to mankind and lead to the indefinite improvement of education.\\nIt is this which above all things we ought to labor to introduce into our\\nsystem. Place normal schools seminaries for training teachers,\\nin few such places as London, York. Liverpool. Durham, and Exeter,\\nand you will yearly qualify five hundred persons fitted for diffusing a\\nperfect system of instruction all over the country. These training sem-\\ninaries will not only teach the masters the branches of learning and\\nscience in which they are now deficient, but will teach them what they\\nknow far less, the didactic art the mode of imparting the knowledge\\nthey have, or may acquire the best method of training and dealing\\nwith children, in all that regards temper, capacity, and habits, and the\\nmeans of stirring them to exertion, and controlling their aberrations\\nThe speaker, although he failed in this, as well as in former, and subsC", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0755.jp2"}, "754": {"fulltext": "Y52 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.\\nquent efforts in parliament, to establish a system of national education,\\naccording to his own views, has lived long enough to see thirty-six normai\\nschools, or training colleges in England and Wales, four in Scotland,\\nand one in Ireland, in successful operation and both the quantity and\\nquality of elementary instruction greatly improved. These results\\nhave been reaHzed mainly through the action of the Board, or Commit-\\ntee of Council on Education, first appointed in 1839.\\nOne of the first objects proposed for the consideration of the Board,\\nwas a normal, or model school, in organizing which they were advised\\nthat it is her Majesty s wish, that the youth of this kingdom should be\\nreligiously brought up, and that the right of conscience sliould be re-\\nspected. The committee experienced so much difficulty in devising the\\nplan of a normal school, under their direction, and in reconciling conflict-\\ning views of religious communions, that the subject was postponed, and\\nthe sum of \u00c2\u00a310,000 granted by parliament in 1835 towards the erection\\nof such school, was distributed in equal proportions to the National\\nSociety, and the British and Foreign School Society, to be applied by\\nthem for this purpose.\\nWith the aid of this grant, the British and Foreign School Society\\nproceeded to provide suitable accommodations for a class of eighty nor-\\nmal pupils, in connection with the model schools in the Borough-road.\\nThe building was completed in 1842 at an expense of \u00c2\u00a321,433. The\\nNational Society commenced in 1840, the erection of a training college\\nfor seventy-four masters of schools in connection with that society at\\nStanley Grove in Chelsea, two miles from Hyde Park Corner. The\\nbuilding was completed in 1842, at an expense of \u00c2\u00a323,651. In the mean-\\ntime. Dr. James Phillips Kay, Secretar} of the Committee of Council\\non Education, and E. C. Tufnel, Esq., Assistant Poor Law Commis-\\nsioner, commenced at Battersea a Training School, to supply schools of\\nindustry for pauper children and reformatory schools for juvenile crimi-\\nnals with properly qualified teachers, and at the same time to give an ex-\\nample of normal education, comprising the formation of character, the\\ndevelopment of the intelligence, appropriate technical instruction, and\\nthe acquisition of method and practical skill in conducting an elemen-\\ntary school. The founders commenced their labors in 1840, and in 1843,\\nafter the methods and results had received the repeated, and emphatic\\ncommendation of the Q,ueen s inspectors, they transferred the institu-\\ntion to the management of the National Society.\\nThe success of these experiments, dissipated the vague apprehen-\\nsions, which the first announcement of normal schools, as a foreign insti-\\ntution had created, and inspired general confidence in their tendencies,\\nand conviction of their necessities. The different religious communions,\\nby whose exertions and jealousies, the plan of the Committee of Coun-\\ncil, had been defeated in 1839, now came forward to found Training Col-\\nleges for teachers of schools in their several connections. The Commit-\\ntee of Council encouraged the erection of suitable buildings by grants of\\nmoney, and contributed toward their support and usefulness by the es-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0756.jp2"}, "755": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHO ^S IX. ENGLAND AND WALES. ^53\\ntablishment of the system of pupil teachers, and Q,ueen s scholarships\\nby wliich young men and young women of the right character as pre-\\npared f r these institutions, and enabled to remain in them for a suffi-\\ncient length of time to profit by the extended course of instruction, and\\npractice prescribed.\\n..^To stimulate and aid the elementary schools, and to prepare pupils for\\nthe Training Schools, stipends from \u00c2\u00a310 to \u00c2\u00a318, increasing from year to\\nyear for five years, are allowed to a certain number of the most vigorous\\nintelligent, well-behaved and proficient scholars in any school, subject to\\nthe inspection of the government, who shall pass in a satisfactory man-\\nner, the examination prescribed by the Committee of Council, for an ap-\\nprenticeship to tlie office of teaching. These pupil teachers, as they\\nare called, receive daily one hour and a half of separate instruction from\\nthe master of the schools, to which they belong, (who receives an an-\\nnual addition to his salary according to the number of such pupils besides\\nspending about the same period in diligent preparation; and during five\\nhours each day, are familiarized with the management and instruction\\nof an elementary school, by having charge of one of its classes. After\\nspending five years in this way, and passing satisfactorily the annual\\nwritten and oral examination on subjects presented by the committee,\\nthese pupil teachers are then allowed to enter on a vigorous competition\\nfor admission in any of the Training Schools, as Queen s scholars. In\\nall of the Training Schools, aided and inspected by the Committee of\\nCouncil, the government allows \u00c2\u00a325 for the first year, \u00c2\u00a320 for the second,\\nand \u00c2\u00a330 for the third year, towards the cost of maintenance and educa-\\ntion of a given number of pupil teachers who can pass in a satisfactory\\nmanner the examination prescribed by ihe committee. Each Training\\nSchool receives a grant, varying from \u00c2\u00a320 to \u00c2\u00a330 on each Q,ueen scholar\\ninstructed during the year. To each graduate of a Training College,\\nwho shall pass a satisfactory examination, a certificate of merit is\\nawarded, which entitles the holder to a stipend, varying from \u00c2\u00a320 to\\n\u00c2\u00a330 a year, in augmentation of the salaries, which they may receive as\\nteachers of elementary schools. The subjects and method of examina-\\ntion, and the standard of attainments required, are determined by the\\ncommittee and the examination papers are prepared by the inspectors\\nof the Training Schools, and revi-sed at a conference of all the inspec-\\ntors of schools, over which the secretary presides. This system of an\\nannual and strict examination, and of an annual grant to deserving pu-\\npils to aid them in obtaining the requisite knowledge of the principles and\\npractice of teaching, before entering on the responsibilities of a school,\\nand of rewarding afterwards, those who prove faithful and successful, is\\nchanging the whole aspect of elementary education in England. The\\nfull results will not be seen, until after the 5,000 pupil teachers, who\\nhave served an apprenticeship of five years in the best elementary\\nschools of the kingdom, have spent three years in the Training Colleges,\\nand having gained the certificates of merit, are actively engaged as\\nteachers.\\n48", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0757.jp2"}, "756": {"fulltext": "Y54: NORMAL SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.\\nIn 1852, there were thirty-four Normal Schools or Training Colleges\\nin England and Wales, erected at an expense in building alone of over\\n\u00c2\u00a3350,000, of which sum the government contributed about one half\\nThese institutions provide the means of residence for about 1,000 males\\nand seven hundred females at an annual outlay of about .\u00c2\u00a380,000, of\\nwhich the government will contribute, in grants for Q,ueen s scholars,\\nabout one half\\nThese institutions are now sending abroad such schoolmasters, as\\nLord Brougham alluded to in his famous declaration on the omnipotence\\nof popular intelligence Let the soldier be abroad if he will; he can\\ndo nothing in this age. There is another personage abroad, a person\\nless imposing, in the eyes of some, perhaps insignificant. The school\\nMASTER IS abroad; and I trust to him armed with his primer, against the\\nsoldier in full uniform array. On another occasion, the same speaker\\nglorifies the mission of the schoolmaster: We are called school-\\nmasters, a title in which I glory, and never shall feel shame.\\nBut there is nothing which these adversaries of improvement are more\\nwont to make themselves merry with, than what is termed the march\\nof inlellect; and here I will confess that I think, as far as the phrase\\ngoes, they are in the right. It is little calculated to describe the opera-\\ntion in question. It does not picture an image at all resembling the pro-\\nceeding of the true friends of mankind. It much more resembles the\\nprogress of the enemy to all improvement. The conqueror moves in a\\nmarch. He stalks onward with the pride, pomp, and circumstance of\\nwar, banners flying, shouts rending the air, guns thundering, and mar-\\ntial music pealing, to drown the shrieks of the wounded and the lamen-\\ntations for the slain. Not thus the schoolmaster in his peaceful vocation.\\nHe meditates and prepares in secret the plans which are to bless man-\\nkind he slowly gathers round him those wiio are to further their exe-\\ncution; he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path, laboring\\nsteadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light all the recesses of\\nignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of vice. His is a prog-\\nress not to be compared with any thing like a march but it leads to a\\nfar more brilliant triumph, and to laurels more imperishable than the\\ndestroyer of his species, the scourge of the world ever won.\\nSuch men, men deserving the glorious title of teachers of mankind,\\nI have found laboring conscientiously, though perhaps obscurely, in their\\nblessed vocation, wherever I have gone. I have found them, and shared\\ntheir fellowship, among the daring, the ambitious, the ardent, the indom-\\nitably active French; I have found them among the persevering, reso-\\nlute, industrious Swiss I have found them among the laborious, the\\nwarm-hearted, the enthusiastic Germans I have found ihem among the\\nhigh-minded but enslaved Italians; and in our own country, God be\\nthanked, their numbers everywhere abound, and are every day increas-\\ning. Their calling is high and holy; their fame is the property of na-\\ntions their renown fill the earth in after ages, in proportion as it sounds\\nnot far off in their own times. Each one of these great teachers of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0758.jp2"}, "757": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. ^SS\\nworld, possessing his soul in peace, performs his appointed course,\\nawaits in palience the fulfillment of the promises, resting from his\\nlabors, bequeathes his memory to the generation whom his works have\\nblessed, and sleeps under the humble, but not inglorious epitaph, com-\\nmemorating one in whom mankind lost a friend, and no man got rid of\\nan enemy\\nIn Scotland, the first attempt to train teachers in the principles and\\npractice of their art. was made by the Education Committee of the\\nChurch of Scotland, in 1826, by placing a f*\u00c2\u00bbw teachers appointed to\\ntheir sclioois in the Highlands, for a short course of observation, instruc-\\ntion and practice, in one of their best conducted schools in Edinburgh.\\nThis plan was etdarged and improved in 1838 and in 1846, a building\\nwas erected for a Normal School in Castle Place, in Edinburgh, at an\\nexpense of XIO.OOO. In the mean time, Mr. Snow, in 1836, commenced\\nat Glasgow, a similar enterprise at his own risk to exemplify, and finally,\\nto train teachers on a system of instruction somewhat peculiar. He\\nwas subsequently aided by a voluntary society, and finally the building\\nwas completed by the Genft-al Assembly Comniittee in 1840. The dis-\\nruption of the church of Scotland, and the organization of the free\\nchurch, has led to the establishment of two other Normal Schools, one\\nat Edinburgh, in 1849, and the other at Glasgow, in 1852, at an aggre-\\ngate expense of over \u00c2\u00a320,000. The buildings for Normal Schools, in\\nScotland, have cost over \u00c2\u00a345 000 (ii^225,000,) and will accommodate\\nabout 300 resident pupils, besides the schools of practice.\\nOf the forty Training Colleges in England and Scotland, twenty-\\nseven are connected with the Church of England, two with the estab-\\nlished Church of Scotland, two with the Free Church ol Scotland, one\\nwith the Roman Catholic Church, one with the Wesleyan. one with the\\nCongregational denomination and in the six others, the Church of Eng-\\nland has a virtual ascendency-\\nSir James Kay Shutlleworth, in his recent work on Public Educa-\\ntion. written to explain and defend the measures of the Committee of\\nCouncil, and to exemplify the mode in which the school, transferred bythe\\nreformation from the priesthood to the congregation, can continue under\\nreligious government, consistently with the privileges of the laity, the\\nright of conscience, and the duty of the civil power to fit its subjects for\\nthe discharge of their functions as citizens, makes the following re-\\nmarks on the Training Colleges, of which in their present form and re-\\nlations to government, he may be justly considered the author.\\nThe English Normal Training College has thus received a definite constitution,\\nin liannoiiy with the separate religious organization of elementary schools, and\\nforty such establishments have been incorporated into a scheme of administrative\\nactiiin, in vvhieli the tducation of the future schoolmaster commences in the infant,\\nis pursued in the elementary school, developed during liis apprenticeship, and com-\\npleted as a Queen s scholar in the Training College. In every part of this career,\\nhe IS subject to the direct and independent influence of the religious conmiunion to\\nwhich he belongs, through the managers of the schools or college. But his ex-\\nertions are inspected and rewarded by the government. He passes through a", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0759.jp2"}, "758": {"fulltext": "YSO NORMAL SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND WALES.\\ngraduated series of examinations, by which every portion of this system is brought\\ninto harmony, and made to subserve one common end. The principle of self-\\ngovernment is thus reconciled with the claim of the executive to full security fijr\\nthe efficient application of the public money. The religious communion and the\\ncivil power have each separate spheres of action religion is most jealously\\nguard-d from the intrusion of secular authority, without suffering any divorce from\\nthe school. The schoolmaster will have had all the experience of his scholars and\\nhis apprentices, as well as of their future course as Queen s scholars. He will\\nbelong to the class for which he ought to have the deepest sympathy. His expe-\\nrience will not be limited to that of domestic life in his parent s cottage, nor will\\nit be likely that, after five years practical training in the school, the corporate life\\nof his college can so deeply stamp its own device upon his mind, as not to leave it\\nsusceptible of impressions which his education will fit him to receive from society.\\nPlis instruction will be neither too special nor too meagre: too genei al nor too\\nCollegiate. From its commencement to its close, it will be under the influence of\\nreligion in his own communion, and it will be at all times under the vigilance of a\\ndepartment to which the civil interests of education are confided.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0760.jp2"}, "759": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 757\\nPapers on School Management and the Art of Teaching, given in\\nEngland at the Examination of Teachers.\\nSchool Management and Notes of a Lesson. 1849.\\nSect. T. 1. If you have been in a Training Institution, state the chief features of the\\nsystem on which you have heen trained or if otherwise, state clearly how you obtained\\na knowledge of the system in which you are now giving instruction.\\n2. Describe as far as you can, or show liy a drawing, the internal arrangements of\\nyour school-room, the positions of the desks, gallery, (if any,) Teacher s seat, stoves or\\nfire|)laces, floors and windows.\\nSect. 11. 1. What furniture do you conceive to be necessary for a well-appointed\\nschool-room.\\n2. Name the subjects of instruction in your school, mentioning the text-books made\\nuse of, and the number of hours per week allotted to each subject.\\n3. State the [)rinciples on which you think a lime-table should be formed, and\\nshow their reasonableness.\\nSect. 111. Explain clearly the method on which Religious Instruction is given in\\nyour school.\\nSect. IV. Write the heads of two lessons on one of the following subjects; observ-\\ning carefully the circumstances under which each lesson is to be given, and staling\\nthe lime which it is to occupy.\\nf~, f T-. J HI.) Physical, to a lower Class.\\n1. Geography of England. Political, to Pupil-Teachers.\\n2. Natural History of Water j (1.) Gallery lesson to young children.\\nHI.) Galk\\n(2.) UsuH\\nBirds. (2.) Usual lesson to highest Class.\\n3. English History j (1.) Collective lesson to 3 Classes.\\nReign of King John. (2.) Moral to be drawn from it to Monitors Class.\\n4. Object Lesson J young Children.\\nWool. (2.) Use in manufacture, to highest Class.\\n5. Obedience to Parents. jj JoHect? ve l esson to 3 upper Classes.\\n6. English Grammar j 0) Class.\\nThe Noun. C To Pupil-Teachers in their private instruction.\\nSect. V. 2. Upon what principle would you organize (1,) a large school with the\\nallowed number of Pupil-Teachers; (2,) the same school without a Pupil-Teacher;\\n(3,) a mixed school in a rural district, where the attendance of the children is generally\\nirregular and (4,) a school of 200 infants in a manufacturing town\\n1850.\\nSect. I. Sketch the ground plan of your school, showing the position of the desks and\\nbenches stale the subjects of instruction, the number of hours employed in each dur-\\ning the week, and the method which you adopt in imparling instruction in (a) writing,\\n(i) spelling, (c) geography, (d) arithmetic, (e) grammar.\\nSect. II Wriie the heads of a collective lesson for the lower classes in an elemen-\\ntary school, on the life of\\n1. David. 2. Jeroboam. 3. John the Baptist.\\nSect. HI. Write the heads of a collective lesson for the upper classes in an elemen-\\ntary school, on\\n1. The operations of agriculture. 2. The nature and use of the horse. 3. The reign\\nof Queen Elizabeth or William III.\\nSect. (V, 1. How would you employ Pupil-Teachers in instructing the upper and\\nlower classes of your school respectively\\n2. How would you arrange for the .special instruction, out of school hours, to be given\\nto three Pupil-Teachers, all of different standing, engaged in your school at the same\\nlime\\nSect. V. Explain how yon would treat the following cases\\n1. Unseen, you observe two young boys fighting in the play-ground they are urged\\noil by the elder lads, and the Pupil-Teacher takes no notice.\\n2. A boy has been brought to you by his parents as an incorrigible thief, and they\\nhave beaten him well.\\n3. A big boy has been ill using a little one.\\nt For Masters. 1851.\\nSect. I. State at length what you understand by the term School -management.\\nSect. II. 1. In a school of 150 boys, say exactly how you would arrange five classes,\\n(a) for a reading lesson, (6) for writing, (c) for arithmetic, to be going on at ibe same\\ntime.\\n2. Show the use and abuse of the blackboard.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0761.jp2"}, "760": {"fulltext": "758 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING.\\n3. Name the different methods in which writing is taught in our elementary schools.\\nState which you believe lo lie the liest, and give your reasons.\\nSect. III.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1. Define caiefuliy Notes of a Lesson; state how you prepare thera\\nand show on paper their mechanical arrangement.\\n2. Show by siinjile instances the diti erence between giving a lesson to a class igno-\\nrnnt of the subject, and examining the same class when in some degree informed on it.\\n.3. In what way, and lo what extent do you instruct your apprentices in the art of\\nteaching Describe this carefully.\\nSect. IV. Write notes of a lesson on one of the following subjects: Filial affec-\\ntion Self-denial Falsehood Loyalty Wheat Soap Sugar Cotton King Alfred\\nChristo[)her Columbus William Shakspeare and Charles 1.\\nSect. V. 1. Describe at length your method of giving and correcting an exercise in\\ndictation.\\n2. State how you deal with children of the following description respectively igno-\\nrant, inattentive, rude, deceitful, unpunctual, irregular in attendance.\\n3. Slate fully and accurately the part which you take in the work of your school.\\nFor Mistresses. 1851.\\nSect. I Write an essay on one of these subjects\\n1. The formation of moral habits in young girls.\\n2. The peculiar difficulties of training Pupil-Teachers.\\nSect. II. 1. What time in each week should be given to the following subjects in a\\nschool of girls between seven and twelve years old\\nGrammar, English History, Writing from Dictation, Arithmetic, Sewing.\\n2. State also the best method of teaching each of these subjects.\\nSect. III. What apparatus and furniture are required for such a school (containing\\nninety scholars State exactly what use should be made of parallel desks, and of the\\nblackboard.\\nSect. IV. What branches of domestic economy can be taught theoretically in all\\ngirls schools What manual or book of reference would you recommend to your\\nPupil-Teachers on this subject\\nTraining Schools for Masters. School IManagement, and Notes of a\\nLesson. 1849.\\nGeneral Questions.\\nSect. I. 1. In what respects, chiefly, do schools in manufacturing districts differ\\nfrom those in agricultural, and schools in town from those in villages of the same dis-\\ntrict What peculiar arrangements do you conceive necessary for each\\n2. What is your opinion as to the advantages or disadvantages of mixed schools\\n(of boys and girls How should you organize such schools, and arrange the children\\nwhen saying their lessons, and when seated Give your reasons plainly, but concisely.\\n3. Describe a good school- room particularizing its aspect, size, shape, means of\\nventilation and warming, furniture, apparatus, and internal arrangements.\\nOrganization, Discipline, Method.\\nSect. II. 1. State briefly what steps you would take in opening a new school, or in\\nundertaking an old one, divided, as was not uncommon, into ten or twelve classes.\\n2. What parts of school-management do you conceive to be included in the term\\ndiscipline. To what chief causes do you attribute want of discipline How\\nshould you attempt to remedy such an evil.\\n3. What registry books do you conceive to be necessary, in order that the condition\\nand circumstances of a school may be accurately known (1st.) to the master (2d.)\\nto the managers (3d.) to the public, by means of special and statistical reports\\nGive your reasons.\\nSchool Work.\\nSect. III. 1., State at length your method of teaching young children to read.\\n2. Is il desirable, underthe present circumstances of schools, that the children should\\nread poetry Give your reasons for or against this exercise and if favorable lo it,\\nstate what authors you prefer.\\nSect. IV. 1. What arranfdement of desks do you consider the best for instruction\\nin writing/ Give your reasons.\\n2. Describe a lesson in simple subslracfion to a junior class.\\n3. State your nieihod of giving a lesson in dictation to young children. Should you\\nalways make use of a book What sort of a book should you use\\n4. For what lessons, and to what extent, would you make use of the blackboard?\\nGive an instance in a geography lesson.\\nPupil- Teachers.\\nSect. V. 1. At what time of the day would you give your Pupil-Teaobora Haair pri-\\nvate ioaUucuoDS of 1 i bour State your reaaooa.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0762.jp2"}, "761": {"fulltext": "8CHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 759\\n2. State plainly what duties you would allot to Pnpil-Tearhers in your school, for\\nwhat length of lime you would instruct a class to each, and why.\\n3. In a school where Pupil-Teachers are apprenticed, what are the chief benefits to\\nbe expected, and what tlie chief evils to be guarded against, by the Master as well as\\nthe apprentices\\nNotes of a Lesson.\\nSect. VI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1. What obvious points of difference are there between a collective les-\\nson and a clas.s-lesson Mention them, and ilhistrate your answer by notes of a les-\\nson (of each kindi on the Birth of our bie.ssed Saviour.\\n2. Give the notes of a lesson to your Pupil-Teachers, in the last year of their appren-\\nticeship, on prosody, making quotations at length from approved authors.\\n3. VVhat do you understand hy the expression, Notes of a Lesson f What is their\\nobject and use State the principal on which they should be arranged, and show it\\npractically in the notes of an object-lesson on cloth.\\nSchool M.4nagement. 1850.\\nSect. I.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -1. How would you organize a school of 60 children, from seven to thirteen\\nyears of age, supposing that you had a Pupil-Teacher in his fourth year Draw a plan\\nof the school-room you would prefer, showing the arranaement of the classes, and the\\nforms and desks. What part would you yourself take in the instruction of such a\\nschool, and what would you assign lo your Pupil-Teacher\\n2. What different methods have l)een devised for organizing elementary schools?\\nIllustrate your descriptions ofthe.se by diagrams, state whichof them you yourself pre-\\nfer, and the reasons for that preference.\\n3. What objects should specially be kept in view in the organization of a school\\nWhat are the advantages resulting from a good organization, and what are those ele-\\nments of a school which no organization, however good, will secure\\nSect. II. 1. VV hal expedients should be adopted to secure a regular attendance of\\nthe children in a school What are those qualities of the Master wiiich are most likely\\nto promote this regular attendance?\\n2. Show the divisions of the page of a register, by which the date of the transfer of\\neach boy in a school from class to class may be recorded and easily referred to? What\\nwould be the advantages of such a register What other means could you devise for\\nrecording the progress which each child is making?\\n3. VVhat are the most important statistics to be recorded in a school 1st, to aid the\\nSchoolmaster in his work; 2d, for the information of the School Managers; 3d, for\\nthe information of the Legislature?\\nSect. 111. I. Give examples of the questions in mentrd arithmetic which you would\\npropose to a class of children of about eight years of age, and of those which you would\\ngive to your highest class.\\n2. What different methods have been proposed for teaching children to read, and on\\nwhat grounds\\n3. On what principle is the method of Pestalo zzi in teaching arithmetic founded?\\nDescribe the table used in teaching by that method, and the way in which they are\\napplied.\\nSect. IV. 1. Describe some of the characteristic defects of teaching in elementary\\nschools.\\n2. What are the ad vantaees of ora? instruction, and what its disadvantages What\\nare the advantages of making this instruction collective, what are its disadvantages,\\nand how can they best be guarded against\\n3. What are the advantages oi questioning as a method of teaching Is it expedient\\nto limit all oral teaching to lliat If not, in what manner, and to what extent, may ex-\\nposition best be united with it\\n4. What relation ought oral teaching to have to the teaching of hooks\\nSect. V. 1. Write the heads of a lesson on the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus,\\nwith a special reference to the practical instruction which it is intended to convey.\\n2. What are the faculties of children w hich it is the object of education to exercise\\nand cultivate, and what exi)e(iienls of instrurtion li:ne a special application to each\\n3. What are the characteristic dangers of the Schoolmaster s profession; 1st, with\\nreference to himself; 2d, with reference to his scholars; 3d, to the parents of his\\nscholars 4lh. to the managing of his school?\\nSect. VI. 1. Show that the happiness of children ought to be respected in a school.\\n2. In what respects may the selfishness of a Teacher be prejudicial to the interests\\nof his scholars and to his own? What facilities are afforded him for the indulgence\\nof it?", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0763.jp2"}, "762": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0764.jp2"}, "763": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL\\nBRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETT, BOROUGH ROAD, LONDON.\\nThe following account of the Borough Road Normal School of the Bri-\\ntish and Foreign School Society is compiled from a report of Joseph Flet-\\ncher, Esq., one of her Majesty s Inspectors of Schools, to the Committee of\\nCouncil on Education, submitted April 7, 1847, and from documents pub-\\nlished in the Annual Pueports of the Society.\\nThe Normal establishment of the British and Foreign School Society is\\nsituated in Borough Road, at the corner of Great Union Street, London, and\\nconsists of two Normal Schools, one for male, and the other for female\\nteachers, and two large model schools, one for boys and the other for girls,\\nin which one thousand pupils are daily under instruction, on the monitorial\\nsystem. These latter schools, while incidentally benefiting the neighbor-\\nhood in which they are situated, are mainly sustained for the purpose of\\nexhibiting in actual practice the most improved methods of instruction, and\\nas a means of training in the art of teaching, and in the management of\\nchildren the various classes of persons who enter the institution for this\\npurpose. This was the leading object of the school, the nucleus of the\\npresent establishment, originally organized by Joseph Lancaster, near the\\npresent site, in 1798. At first it was attefnpted to raise a number of moni-\\ntors into pupil teachers, and in 1805 the sum of $400 was raised, by dona-\\ntions, expressly as a capital for training school masters by boarding\\nyouths of the right character, at the institution. This was the germ of all\\nsubsequent normal schools for training elementary teachers in England. The\\nattempt to erect a plain building to accomodate the young men and lads,\\nwhom Mr. Lancaster undertook to qualify for schoolmasters, led to a series\\nof embarrassments, from which he was relieved in 1808 by the generous\\nsubscription of Joseph Fox, and others, who organized, for this purpose, (in-\\ncluding the King and Royal Family,) an association called the Royal Lan-\\ncasterian Institution for promoting the Education of the Poor, which was\\nafterwards changed to the British and Foreign School Society, as more\\ndescriptive of its widening aim and influence. Regarding the instruction\\nof the people as a national object, it has always maintained that it ought\\nto be treated nationally, as belonging to towns rather than to churches, to\\ndistricts rather than to congregations. So early as 1808 the cardinal object\\nof the society is thus set forth in one of its rules.\\nThe institution shall maintain a school on an extensive scale to educate children-\\nIt shall support and train up young persons of both sexes for supplying properly,\\ninstructed teachers to the inhabitants of such places in the British dominions, at\\nhome and abroad, as shall be desirous of estabhshing schools on the British system.\\nIt shall instruct all persons, whether natives or foreigners, who may be sent from\\ntime to time for the purpose of being qualified as teachers in this or any other\\ncountry.\\nEvery year, from the enactment of this rule, persons were admitted to the\\nschool for a longer or a shorter period of time, to observe, learn, and prac-\\ntice the methods of classification and instruction pursued therein. In 1818,\\nforty-four teachers were trained, and subsequently recommended to schools;\\nin 1828, the number had increased to eighty-seven in 1838, it amounted\\nto one hundred and eighty-three, and in 1846, it wa\u00c2\u00ab over two hundred.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0765.jp2"}, "764": {"fulltext": "762 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nThe committee of the society were painfully conscious that many teachers\\nwho resorted to the school, were but poorly prepared in energy of cliarac-\\nter, tact, and christian spirit, to make good teachers; or if qualified in these\\nrespects, would stay long enough, in training to acquire the requisite attain-\\nment and practical skill. For such persons a period of two years, rather\\nthan three months, is required and until this can he afforded, the quality\\nof the instruction imparted in country schools, must of necessity be very\\nunsatisfactory. In the absence of better provision, however, these conside-\\nrations only enhance the importance of that which has been already affec-\\nted and afford additional reasons for sustaining and enlarging, as far as\\nmay be practicable, the facilities which are now afforded by your training\\ndepartment for the preparation of teachers.\\nIn 1839, the Committee Of Council on Education was formed, and in the\\ncourse of the year, they proffered to both the National Society, and the\\nBritish and Foreign School Society, a grant of \u00c2\u00a35000 towards the erection\\nof two Normal Schools. This society therefore resolved to improve an\\nopportunity which presented itself for the purchase of land adjoining to\\ntlieir premises in the Borough Road and having obtained from the Corpo-\\nration of the City of London an extension of the ground lease, which was\\ncheerfully accorded on the most liberal terms, they determined to erect,\\nthereupon, buildings capable of accommodating at least sixty resident can-\\ndidates, together with libraries and lecture-rooms sufficiently extensive for\\nthe instruction of a much larger number, so that fifty or sixty more may, if\\nit should be found desirable, lodge and board in the neighborhood, and\\nattend as out-door pupils.\\nThe new normal schools were completed in 1842, at an expense of\\n\u00c2\u00a321,433 7s. 9d. defrayed by \u00c2\u00a35000 from Government, \u00c2\u00a31000 from the\\nCorporation of London, \u00c2\u00a314,716 10s. lOd. from the friends of the institu-\\ntion generally, \u00c2\u00a3276 15s. an offering from British School teachers who had\\nbeen trained in it, and the remaining \u00c2\u00a3440 Is. lid., from the sale of old\\nmaterials. The new buildings were opened on the 29th of June in the\\nsame year, when Lord John Russell presided at an examination of the\\nmodel schools, and a report was read, which concluded by saying that,\\nTo state in detail the precise course of instruction to be pursued in tliis\\nnew building, would as yet be premature. It may at present be sufficient\\nto state, that it is intended that the course of instruction shall be very con-\\nsiderably enlarged, that additional teachers shall be engaged, that the time\\nnow devoted by candidates to preparatory training, shall be extended to the\\nutmost practicable limit, that facilities shall be afforded for the attendance\\nand instruction of the teachers of country schools, during a portion of their\\nvacations, and that, as heretofore, every improvement in education which\\nmay be introduced either at home or abroad, shall receive immediate atten-\\ntion, be fairly subjected to the test of experiment, and if found really valu-\\nable, at once adopted.\\nThis great establishment is divided into two entirely distinct portions,\\nforming respectively the male and female departments the former occu-\\npying the eastern, and the latter the western portion of the buildings, be-\\ntween which there is no direct means of communication whatever, except\\nby a private door, opened once a-day, to permit the young women to take\\ntheir seats in the back part of the theatre, during the daily conversational\\nlecture of the principal of the normal school on the art of teaching and\\ngoverning in a school. Each department, again, has its respective normal\\nand model school and each of the normal schools is divided into two\\nclasses, forming respectively the senior and junior divisions of the young\\npersons und ertraining. The whole is under the constant general super-\\nvision of the Committees, meeting on the premises, and of the Secretary,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0766.jp2"}, "765": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 763\\nresident in them but the whole of their active management devolves upon\\nthe officers hereinafter iiatucd.\\nThe following are considered as the general and primary qualifications\\nREQUIRED IN ALL CANDIDATES, whether male or female\\n1. Religious Principle. ^Whilst the Committee would disclaim anything approaching to a\\nsectarian spirit, tney consider it indispensable that persons to whom the moral and religious in-\\nstruction of youth is confided should exemplify in their lives the Christian character, and be con-\\nscientiously concerned to train up their youthful charge in the nurture and admonition of the\\nLord. In requiring the most explicit testimonials on this important point, the Committee feel\\nthat they are only fulfilling the wishes of their constituents an opinion which is confirmed by\\nthe fact, that in almost all the applications they receive for teachers, it is expressly stipulated\\nthat they must be persons of decided piety, and that no others will be accepted.\\n2. Activity and Energy. These are essential.\\nAn indolent or inactive person can never make an efficient schoolmaster or schoolmistress.\\nThe arrangements of a school on the British system, when well conducted, considerably diminish\\nthe amount of labor required from the teacher but it is a system which peculiarly demands live-\\nliness and activity both of body and mind.\\n3. A comptti-nt share of Talent and Information.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Committee have no desire to change\\nin any respect the great principle on which they first set out that of imparting to the laboring\\nclasses elementary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic but the present state of socie-\\nty requires that a teacher should possess the ability to give instruction in higher branches of\\nknowledge. Indeed, if teachers are to exercise any valuable influence over their pupils, they\\nmust themselves be intelligent they must be able to inform and interest children generally, and\\nto draw out and strengthen their feeble powers.\\nIn addition to these qualifications, the Committee esteem it desirable that the candidate should\\npossess kindness, and great firmness of mind, combined with good temper in short, those dispo-\\nsitions of heart which gain so much on the allections of the young. The age of the applicant\\nshould not be less than twenty, nor more than thirty and all candidates receive the following\\ngeneral n -tices\\n1. Candidates received into the Institution on the reduced terms, are understood to pledge\\nthem.selves to act (as far as practicable) on the great leading principles adopted by the Society.\\n2. Candidates who do not subject the Society to any cost on their behalf, are considered at lib-\\nerty to engage themselves as teachers of schools connected with other educational bodies, or at-\\ntached to particular denominations of Christians.\\n3. All persons, on completing the terra for which they are accepted, must withdraw from the\\nInstitutiou and (if candidates for schools under the Society) must reside with their friends until\\nsuitable openings occur.\\nNormal School for Young Men.\\nThe officers of the male department are, for the\\nNormal School A Principal Vice-Principal and Teacher of Dra-wing\\nand Mu.\u00c2\u00abic.\\nModel School. A Superintendent and Assistant.\\nHousehold.-^A. Curator and Housekeeper.\\nThe domestic arrangements (subject to the oversight of a sub- Committee)\\nare placed under the care of the housekeeper and the curator.\\nThe duty of the housekeeper is to direct and control all matters relating\\nto the board and lodging of the young men. She is required to provide\\nthe requisite food, to engage the domestic servant.s, and to secure at all\\ntimes order, cleanliness, and punctuality in those portions of the establish-\\nment which fall under her supervision All accounts of disbursements\\nare transmitted to the accountant for examination monthly.\\nThe duty of curator embraces all matters connected with the daily and\\nhourly supervision of the students, and the maintenance of order, cleanli-\\nness, and harmony throughout the establishment. He is\\n1. To keep a record of zdl persons entering or leaving the establishment, or attending any of\\nthe classes.\\n2. To see that all the rooms used by the students, or their teachers, are always clean, and well\\nTentilated.\\n3. To preside with the housekeeper at all meals to conduct family reading morning and even-\\ning and to be responsible for the adherence of every student to all the regulations laid down for\\nhis guidance while in the institution.\\nHe is further to give a daily written report to the secretary, whose private\\napartments, though distinct from the general establishment, are within the\\nbuilding, and througii whom, in case of irregularity, appeal can at once be\\nmade to ilie Committee.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0767.jp2"}, "766": {"fulltext": "764 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nThe dietary provided for the students is plain, but varied, substantial,\\nand abundant.\\nA medical practitioner, residing in the immediate neighborhood, is called\\nin (free of cost to the student) on the first appearance of indisposition.\\nThere are dormitories in the male department for only 45 students 27\\nin separate rooms, and 18 in nine larger rooms, with two beds in each. The\\nremainder of the 66 pupils in this department, on the day of my general\\nexamination, were occupying apartments in the neighborhood, in houses\\nof respectability, in which it is proposed that hereafter they shall be hired\\nfor them by the officers of the Institution. All, however, board in the\\nhouse. The principal and vice-principal of the normal school and the\\nsuperintendent of the model school are respectively charged with the proper\\noccupation of the students time, according to the Tables hereafter given;\\nand at all intervening periods their employments are under the general\\nsuperintendence of the curator, who marks lists to check their employment\\nof the time assigned to private study, whether individually or under mutual\\nmonitors, and has charge of the manners and conduct of the young men\\ngenerally, enlisting the aid of the two senior students for the time being.\\nThe young men perform no household services, beyond cleaning their own\\nshoes and brushing their own clothes; for the time of their stay is too short\\nto justify the sacrifice of any portion of it to industrial occupations. In-\\ndeed, most of them have already had a complete course of industrial edu-\\ncation in the trades and occupations from which they have respectively\\ncome.\\nRules to which every Student is expected rigidly to conform.\\n1. Relating to Sleeping Apartments 1. To rise every morning at 6 o clock when the bell\\nrings.\\n2. Before leaving the room to uncover the bed-clothes, and to see that all books, articles of dress,\\nSec, are placed in the drawers. For every article found in the room a fine will be enforced.\\n3. On no occasion whatever, without special permission, to have a candle, match, or other light\\nin the room. (As the violation of this rule will endanger the safety of the building, any offender\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0will be specially reported ta the Committee, and probably directed to leave the institution.)\\n4. Every student is to confine himself to his own bed-room, and to have no communication with\\nany other, conversation not being allowed after retiring for the night.\\n5. All washing and cleaning the person to be performed in the respective rooms the troughs\\non the landing never to be used for that purpose.\\n6. The bed-rooms to be finally vacated for the day at five minutes to nine, and under no pre-\\ntence whatever is any student to visit them again until bed-time. At no period will he be allowed\\nto go up stairs in shoes worn during the day.\\nII. Relating to the Classes: 1. To be present in the school of design at half-past 6 o clock\\nin the morning to answer to the roll, and then to proceed to the classes.\\n2. To be present at the additional roll-calls at the undermentioned times, viz., five minutes to\\nnine, five minutes to two, and half-past nine in the evening.\\n3. To attend all the classes during the day at the precise time. From twelve to one to be in-\\nvariably devoted to exercise in the open air. If no letters or parcels have to be delivered, the time\\nto be occupied in walking out.\\n4. From half-past eight to half-past nine in the evening to be devoted to the preparations of\\nthe studies. The students who have finished will be required to maintain order and silence, that\\nno interruption may be occasioned to those who are studying.\\nIII. Relating to Meals: 1. To be ready for breakfast punctually at a quarter past eight\\ndinner at a quart(*r past one tea at a quarter past five and supper at half-past eight at which\\nhours the bell will ring.\\n2. On entering the dining-room for any meal, every student to remain standing in his place\\nuntil the housekeeper and curator have entered and taken their seats and on the housekeeper\\nrising to leave the room (which sign indicates the conclusion of the meal), every student will be\\nexpected to rise, and the one nearest to the door to open it.\\n3. During meals no reading will be allowed silence must be observed, and the strictest pro-\\npriety of behavior maintained, rudeness, selfish eagerness to be assisted before others, or indecorum\\nof any kind, will be noticed, and expose the parties to merited rebuke.\\nIV. Relating to other Periods of Time: 1. No singing, loud talking, or unnecessary noise\\nin the passages, or in any part of the building, will be tolerated. No throwing of ink, or other\\ncareless or filthy habit, will on any account be suffered. Parties offending will be specially re-\\nported to the Committee.\\n2. No book, paper, article of dress or of other use, will be allowed, under any pretext, to lie\\nabout any of the rooms or passages a place being appointed for everything, everything must be\\nin its place. For every offence a fine will be enforced, and the article detained until it is paLil.\\n3. No student is to be absent from the premises without the permission of the curator, or (if in", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0768.jp2"}, "767": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 755\\nclass hours) of the teacher of the class from which he wishes to be absent and he is never to be\\nout later than half-past nine.\\n4. On Sunday he will be expected to attend twice at his accustomed place of worship, and to\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2pend the remainder of the day in quietness and propriety.\\n5. Never to enter the depository except on business.\\nIn order to carry the above regulations into effect the curator is strictly charged by the Com-\\nmittee to impound all articles left about, and on no account to return them to the owners without\\npayment of tlie fine and, further, never to allow any violation of these rules to pass without\\nsevere rebuke.\\nAs, however, many offences may be committed where the guilty party cannot be discovered,\\nthe two senior students (for the time being) will be held responsible for all such misdemeanors.\\nIf injury be done to any part of the rooms, or unnecessary dirt brought in, it will be their duty to\\nfind out and report on the offender in which case he will be required to remove or repair it.\\nAll fines to be spent in books for the library.\\nThe following is the official outline of the Normal School of Young\\nMen:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nI. Persons eligible. Subject to the general qualifications already enumerated, five classes of\\npersons are eligible for admission.\\nClass A. Young men desirous of becoming teachers, who wish to be introduced to a school by\\nthe Committee, and are prepared to remain in the institution twelve months.\\nClass B. Young men desirous of becoming teachers, who wish to be introduced to a school by\\nthe Committee, but are unable to remain longer than six months.\\nClass C. Youths and other persons who desire to adopt the profession of a teacher, but wish\\nsubsequently to be at their own disposal. These are considered as private teachers, and are re-\\nquired to pay the fees attached to each class.\\nClass D. Teachers elected to schools, or already conducting them, but desirous of attending, for\\nsome limited period, any of the classes, with a view to farther improvement.\\nClass E Missionaries or other persons proceeding abroad, with a view to the promotion of\\neducation in foreign parts.\\nII. Times of Admission. Class A. January and July.\\nClass B. January, April, July, and October.\\nClasses C, D, and E. Monthly, by special correspondence with the Secretary.\\nClasses A and B are expected to board in the establishment. Reduced charge, 63. a week the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0whole sum to be paid in advance.\\nCla.ss C cannot be admitted to board or lodge. They must also pay in advance the fee required\\non entering each class.\\nClasses D and E may be admitted to board by special arrangement.\\nIII. Mode of J]jij lication. The first step to be taken by the candidate is to write a letter to\\nthe Secretary, stating briefly his nge, state of health, and present employment also whether he\\nis married or single, and, if married, what family he has.\\nSecondly, he should mention, generally, the amount of his attainments, and state the length of\\ntime he could devote to the work of preparation.\\nThirdly, whether he has had any practice in communicating instruction to children, either in\\nday or Sunday schools whether he has ever been engaged in benevolent efforts for the improve-\\nment of the poor and whether he has been in the habit of attending any means of general or\\nreligious instruction beyond the ordinances of public worship.\\nThis letter, which should be as brief as circumstances will admit, should be accompanied by\\nexplicit testimonials from the clergyman or minister of the church or congregation with which\\nthe candidate miy be connected, and from one or more persons to whom he may be known, as to\\nhis possession of the qualifications already mentioned as indispensable.\\nOn receipt of these communications, the Secretary will bring the application before the Com-\\nmittee at their first meeting, and afterwards communicate further with the candidate.\\nThe sub-Committee appointed to investigate the testimonials of candidates meets at the house\\nof the Institution, in the Borough Road,, on the first Monday in every month, at 10 o clock in the\\nforenoon\\nIf the candidate reside in or near London, he should attend the Committee at this time, but not\\nunless he has had on some previous day a personal intervieiv with the Secretary.\\nSupposing the Committee to be satisfied with the letter and testimonials, the candidate will be\\ninformed when he is to present himself for preliminary examination, on the following points\\n1. As to his Health. It will be required that persons admitted into the Institution shall be in\\ngood health, and free from any serious physical defect; and that they shall either have had the\\nsmall-pox or have been vaccinated.\\n2. As to the Amount of his Knowledge. He must read fluently and without unpleasant\\ntones he must write a fair hand, spell correctly, be well acquainted with the first four rules of\\narithmetic, and have some general acquaintance with geography and history.\\nIf the result of this examination be on the whole satisfactory, the candidate (having paid the\\namount required) receives a certificate, on delivery of which to the Curator he is presented with a\\ncopy of the rules of the establishment, and either received into the house or intro fticed to the\\nclas.si s he wishes to attend. If the result be unsatisfactory, a written report to that effect is\\nmade to the Secretary, who will then communicate with the Committee, and with the candidate\\nor his friends\\nBy these preliminary inquiries and investigations, it is hoped that in the majority of casei\\nsubsequent disappointment may be prevented but as it is impossible to decide, prior to actual\\nexperiment, whether any person has or has not that peculiar fact in the management and control\\nof children, and those powers of arrangement, as applied to numbers, without which no teacher\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2an successfully carry out the combinations of a British school, every candidate is requited to", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0769.jp2"}, "768": {"fulltext": "760 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nhold himself ready to withdraw from the Institution should he be found thoroaghly deficient im\\nthe art of managing, interesting, and controlling children.\\nTlie Cmniniuee do not in any case fitd^e i/ieiiisetcts to furnish candidates with situations\\nbut as hitherto they have been ni tlie habit of receiving applications for teachers from the numer-\\nous friends of education in diti erent parts of the countiy, tliey have reason to liope that it\\nwill generally be in their power to recommend tlie candidates tiiey may train to parties thus\\napplying.\\nIV. Vacations IMitlsummer. Four weeks from the Friday preceding ^Midsummer day.\\nC/iristinas. One week from the Friday preceding Christmas-day.\\nEaster. From the Thursday preceding ijood Friday to the Wednesday in the ensuing week.\\nAt the Midsummer vacation every student is required to leave the Institution, and to provide\\nhim.self with board and lodging during that period.\\nV. Table of Classes. Class I. Grammar and English Composition .--^Students of Six\\nMonths. A course of English Grammar, including the chief roots ^especially the Anglo-Saxon.)\\nand derivatives of the language. Composition. Forrp.s of letters, notes, isc-o. Abstracts of re-\\nmarks and lectures will be looked over, with a view to the correction of errors in orthography or\\ncomposition.\\nStudents of Twelve Months. An extended course in the construction of the English language.\\nSo much of comparative grammar as may be understood by those assumed to know only one lan-\\nguage. Composition. A systematic course. Essays on some branches of teaching.\\nClass II. Elocution Readings in Prose and Poetry .-\u00e2\u0080\u0094In this class the pieces read are selec-\\nted from the Third Lesson Book, and are accompanied by systematic mterrogatiou from the notes.\\nThe pupils are also required to interrogate one another.\\nClass 111. Jlrit/imetic and Mat/ieinntics This class includes^\\n1. Arit/iinetic. Principles from De Morgan.\\n2. Geometry. Books u. iii. iv v. vi. of Euclid s Elements.\\n3. Elements of algebra and trigonometry.\\nClass IV. ]\\\\Iodel Lessons in Natural Pkitosopliy, Natural History, Botany, and Cliemis-\\ntry The object of these lessons (which, with the aid of suitable books of reference, d.re prepand\\nby the pupils before breakfast) is twofold .first, to render them suHicieutly acquainted with the\\nvarious subjects treated in the Fourth Lesson Book, to enable tliem to teach that book intelligently\\nand, secondly, to exh.bit to the tutor the extent of their knowledge, and the degree ol ability pos-\\nSH.ssed for imparting the same to children. The instruction given in natural philosophy is of a\\npopular kind, suited to the acquirements of students, some of whom may be acquainted only with\\nthe elementary parts of pure mathematics.\\nClass V. Art of Teacliing. This class, at which all the teachers in training (both male and\\nfemale) are required to attend, is held in the lecture-room of the institution.\\nThe time is occupied in criticism on the gallery lesson of the day, in a conversational lectuie\\non some topic connected with the principles or practice of leaching, and in the exammatiou of\\nwritten notes.\\nThe course consists of 60 lectures, and is completed in 12 weeks.\\nClass Vl. Practical Siniultaneous Lessons. This class (at which all attend) is conducted in\\nthe gallery cla.ss-rooms, where the teachers in turn are required to give collective lessons after\\nwhicu, the criticisms of the teachers who have been spectators are required to be given in the leo-\\nture-room. The tutor then comments on various detects and merits in tne lessons.\\nClass VII. Bible Lesson This class is conducted in the model school, each teacher being re-\\nquired to instruct and question a draft of JO or 12 children, on a given subject, under the uispeo-\\ntion of the tutor and the superintendent of the school.\\nClass VIII. School of Design. This class is separated into two divisions, upper and lov/er.\\nIn the upper, drawing is taught, in the following order\\n1. Maps and charts.\\n2. Machinery i\\n3. Architecture with and without models.\\n4. Figures and landscapes\\nIn the lower division, writing is taught, and then simple geometrical figures, and outlines of\\nmaps.\\nClass IX. Geography and History. Geography. Geography of the chief countries cf the\\nglobe, including their main natural features, towns, manufactures, government, population, and\\nsocial condition. Connexion between the political and physical geography of countries. Lead-\\ning features of mathematical geography.\\nHistoiy. General history, ancient and modern.\\nClass X. Arithmetic [Lower Class).\\nArithmetic. Written and mental.\\nGeometry. A course of practical geometry. The first book of Euclid s Elements.\\nBltnsitration.^-An elementary course.\\nClass XI. Elements of P/iysics. This class is simply intended to furnish the required infor-\\nmation for the ordinary teaching of the Fourth Lesson Book.\\nClass XII. Vocal Music. This class is maintained by a separate voluntary subscription, and\\nattendance is optional on the part .of the students. The methods and books both of Mr. Hicksou\\nand Hullah are adopted.\\nThe books required for each class, which are few and inexpensive, must be purchased by\\nthe student.\\nVI. Exatninations. Weekly Examinations. Every candidate will undergo a strict exa-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0770.jp2"}, "769": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. YqY\\nmication as to thp amount of work performed during each \u00e2\u0080\u00a2week he is required to record in\\njournal his labors and progress and it is tlieii ascertained, by a series of questions, whether thai\\nwhich he supposes hiuuelt to have acquired be thoroughly understood and digested. He is aUo\\nexamined as to the mode in which lie would communicate to others the knowledge he has gained.\\nHalf- Yearly Examinations\\nExaminers. Professor Coll.\\nJProfessor Coll.\\nCertificates of proficiency will be granted at the discretion of the examiners.\\nAny schoolmaster who has been instructed by the Society, or who may be engaged in conducting\\nany school in connexion with it, may (by previous notice to the Secretary) otfer himself for exam-\\nination, in order to obtain a certificate of proficiency.\\nThe lower class examination will embrace\\nReading; writing; arithmetic (written and mental gramntar geography: English history\\nknowledge of the Scriptures elements of geometry, drawing, and music and the art of teaching.\\nTtie higher class (in addition) practical geometry; mensuration; the elements of algebra and\\ntrigonometry natural philosophy an e.\\\\.tended course of mathematical aud physical geography\\nconstruction of maps; and drawing, as applied to mechanics and architecture.\\nAs the object of the Society is to prepare teachers, and not merely to improve students, the\\nbooks used as te.Kt-books are, as far as practicable, those used in the schools, and the examinations\\nwill be conducted with special reference to the ultimate object in view, viz elfective leaching.\\nThe male department is, in effect, subdivided into distinct sections,\\nplaced respectively under the principal of the normal school, making the\\npreliminary examinations, conducting the studies of the senior class, and\\ngiving three-fifths of the lectures to the whole in pedagogy, or the art of\\nteaching and governing in a school under the vice-principal of the normal\\nschool, conducting the studies of the junior class as well as those of the\\nmorning classes of the female students, and likewise conveying the other\\ntwo-fifths of the instruction in pedagogy and under the superintendent\\nof the model school, who has the entire disposal of that section, and the\\narrangement of the students exercises in it. The junior class consists, in\\nthe main, of those whose stay in the institution lias not exceeded three\\nmonths the senioi- class, of those whose stay has exceeded that term.\\nAmongst those admitted as students, very great variety obtains in re-\\nspect to attainments and capacity. Hence classification, at first, is almost\\nimpracticable. This, added to the difficulty occasioned by the entrance of\\nnew students at every period of the quarter, creates no little embarrass-\\nment in the management of the junior class, especially when the numbers\\nare so large. Almost every one, on his entrance, is totally ignorant of some\\none or more of the branches of study pursued hence it becomes neces-\\nsary to adopt, to a great extent, the tedious and distracting plan of indi-\\nvidual instruction. Very few of them can read ivcU, that is, with intelli-\\ngence and correctness of pronunication, while the monotonous tones of\\nsome, and the almost inveterate provincialisms of others, require much\\ntime and attention to correct. Besides, unhappily, many of those whose\\ngeneral acquirements are of a fair average character, have comparatively\\nneglected orthography and reading, and consequently very much of their\\ntime during their stay in the class is necessarily devoted to these elemen-\\ntary studies. Some again, have made apparently fair progress in arith^\\nmetic, grammar, c., previous to admission but though able to perform\\nthe operations in one science, and give definitions or parse sentences in the\\nother, it is found, on examination, that their knowledge is merely by rote,\\naud that the principles in both cases are not at all understood tliey know\\nthat the thing is so and so, but they cannot tell why. Again, some who\\nare, to some extent acquainted with principles, are quite vmable to com-\\nmunicate their information to others, especially to children, and their\\nefforts rather resemble awkward attempts at lecturing than intelligent\\nteaching. All the time that can be spared from learning and practising\\nthe art of teaching has to be employed by this junior class in a vigorous\\netfort to repair the deficiencies of their own elementary education. For\\nthis purpotie they form a very interesting school of primary instruction\\nunder the Vice-Principal.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0771.jp2"}, "770": {"fulltext": "768 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nThe following is the course of study of the junior class during the\\nquarter ended 31st March, 1847, as described by its tutor, Mr. Saun-\\nders\\nGrnmmnr TJie parts of Speech, and the Exercises upon them in Allen and Cornwell s\\nGrammar, using also the Latin Roots there given and the first part of Cornwell s Young\\nCompo-er.\\nGfogrnphy. General principles, Mathematical and Physical Varieties of the Human Race\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094General features and divisions of Europe Physical Geography of England Text-book Corn-\\nv. ell s Geography.\\nNatural History. The great divisions of the Animal Kingdom Radiatain detail Text-book:\\nMrs. Lee s Introduction to Natural History, and Cuvier.\\nWriting. improvement of the style in four hands.\\nAril/iiiietir. I rinciples and practice from Notation to Compound Proportion inclusive and\\nSquare and Cube Roots. Text-books Crossley s Calculator and Thompson s Arithmetic.\\nAritlimet ic (Mental) All the Rules in Crossley s Intellectual Calculator.\\nLinear Drawing. Geometrical Figures in Dyce s Designs, and in Francceur s Linear\\nDra\\\\Viup;.\\nHistory Roman and Saxon England in Outline Norman period with the Feudal System\\nand the Crusades in detail Text-books: Pinnock s Goldsmith, revised by Dr. Taylor, and Ma-\\ncintosh s Hi.-itory of England.\\nNatural Philosoplnj General Divisions Properties of Matter and Laws of Motion Text-\\nbojks Peschell s Physios and Moseiey s Illustrations.\\nMenmiralioii and Geometry. Plane Figures Text-books Pasley s Practical Geometry, and\\nElliot s Geometry and Mensuration.\\nElocution. A series of 2-1 lessons in prose and poetry Text-books the Society s Lesson\\nBooks, and Allen s English Poetry.\\nScripture Geography and History cf Canaan from the call of Abraham to the present time\\nText-book Home s Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures.\\nVarious other works are used as sources of illustration, and the students are referred to them\\nfor further information, in their future hours of leisure.\\nThe junior class is assembled on five evenings in the week, for two\\nhours and a half, from 6 to half-past 8 o clock, and on the morning of Sa-\\nturday for four hours, from 9 to 1 p.m. The evening of Monday is occu-\\npied by devoting one hour to English Grammar, one hour to Geography,\\nand half an hour to the elements of Physics. The les.sons having been\\npreviously prepared during the period allotted to study in the morning, one\\nof the students is selected by the tutor to examine the class in the lesson\\non grammar appointed for the evening. His questions are addressed to the\\nmembers of the class individually, and on the failure of any one to reply\\nto tlie question proposed, it is put to another, and another. This is requited\\nto be done witli as much rapidity and precision as possible, and should\\nevery one in the class fail to reply satisfactorily, the interrogator must then\\nexplain the subject to them, and examine them again. The exercises on\\nthe different rules of grammar, as corrected by themselves, are read from\\ntheir exercise books, every exercise being written before a lesson is consid-\\nered as past, and a record of it is then made in their journals. During the\\nwhole of this time the tutor is with them, occasionally asking questions on\\nthe lesson under consideration, pointing out to the class the errors of the\\nquestioner and their own. At the close of each lesson the students are\\nrequired to mention anything which to them may seem objectionable in\\nthe manner in which the questions are put, or in errors of pronunciation, or\\nany other which they may have observed and yet further to show how\\nthey would have proceeded under the same circumstances. This plan of\\nfriendly but searching criticism is carried on with every lesson superin-\\ntended by one of the students. The geographical lesson is given by one of\\nthe students, previously appointed, much in the same manner as the sim-\\nultaneous or gallery lessons are given in the model school that is, he\\nfurnishes them with information on the particular country or countries\\nbeyond what they may already possess: having ascertained the latter by\\nquestions at the commcacemcnt of the lesson. About half an hour is\\noccupied in this manner, and then another half hour by another of the\\nstudents in interrogation on the same subject thus it is speedily ascer-\\ntained if the information has been received by them, and also whether", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0772.jp2"}, "771": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 769\\ntheir notions are clear and distinct. In physics the same course is pursued,\\nand, when requisite and practicable, experiments are introduced, drawings\\nand diagrams used, and objects exhibited.\\nThe evening of Tuesday is occupied for the first hour in writing in copy-\\nbooks, eacli copy being submitted to the tutor the errors are pointed out,\\nand a line written by him with special i-eference to those errors j the stu-\\ndent is thus furnished with a copy precisely adapted to his wants. The\\nnext hour is devoted to drawing. In this, as in writing, the measure of\\nsuccess depends mainly on individual practice, and therefore the teaching\\nis individual rather than simultaneous. Very few have practiced even\\ndrawing from copies before they came to the institution. Those who have,\\npossess the facility of hand and eye which the preliminary exercises in this\\nclass are chiefly designed to convey. But the greater number require very\\ncareful introduction to the first notions and hrfbits of representing forms on\\na plane surface, or even of drawing straight lines, and measuring them\\ninto relative lengths, without which they are quite unprepared to use the\\nmodels which are introduced in the senior drawing classes. They make\\nthese first sketches in charcoal, so as to admit of correction, chiefly from\\nsimple geometrical figures in the published books of the Government\\nSchool of Design, or from enlarged copies of those contained in Francceur s\\nLinear Drawing, prepared for the schools of France, organized on the\\nLancasterian system. This hour is the only one in the week devoted to\\ndrawing by those who are under the instruction of Mr. Saunilers but it\\nsuffices to give a habit of using the eye and the crayon. Mental Arithme-\\ntic occupies the next half hour and as mental calculations depend so\\nmuch on the ability to combine numbers rapidly and to detect their rela-\\ntions, much of the time devoted to them is occupied by tables and analyses\\nof numbers, forming a firm basis on which to build up rapid and correct\\ncalculations.\\nOn Wednesday evening the first hour and the last half hour are occupied\\nin the same manner as on Monday, but the hour from 7 to 8 is devoted to\\nthe History of England the lesson being treated precisely in the same\\nmanner as the geography.\\nOn Thursday evening the first hour is devoted to Elocution. The mem-\\nbers of the class standing in a circle in the School of Design, the tutor\\nreads about a page in the style and spirit which he wishes should charac-\\nterize their reading. The students then read in turn at the close of the\\nreading of each, observations on the excellences or defects of the reader\\nare elicited from his companions the teacher makes liis own remarks on\\nthese observations and on the reading itself; and the pupil who sits next\\nin rotation resumes the text. The next hour is devoted to Practical Geo-\\nmetry, for their exercises in which the students occupy seats at the desks\\nin the School of Design, and each is furnished with a slate, compasses,\\ntriangle, and ruler. The problem to be executed is then distinctly enun-\\nciated by the tutor the first step in its performance is explained and exhi-\\nbited on a large black board, each copying it on his slate by means of\\ninstruments the second step is then explained and illustrated in like man-\\nner. When completed, the question occurs, What have you done And\\nif the answer does not agree with the conditions of the problem, the dis-\\ncrepancy is pointed out and corrected. If the performance is correct and\\ntlie reply satisfactory, the figure described is obliterated from the board and\\nthe slates, and the problem has to be executed again without any direction\\nwhatever. If this can be done, the next is proceeded with, and so on. As\\nmost of the students on entering are altogether ignorant of geometry, no\\nvery great amount of progress can be made but a good foundation may be\\nlaid for future improvement. The text-book used is one well adapted to\\n49", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0773.jp2"}, "772": {"fulltext": "770 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nthe age of the students, combined with their want of early practice. It is\\nPasley s Complete Course of Practical Geometry and Plan Drawing.\\nIt is employed to illustrate their practice in drawing from copies of geo-\\nmetrical figures, and simple problems in mensuration are pertinently intro-\\nduced. The remaining half hour of Thursday evening is devoted to writ-\\nten arithmetic, or, in the conventional phrase of the schools, to slate\\narithmetic. It is applied to the development of principles, or the appli-\\ncation of them to practice, as may be required. In either case the students\\nthemselves are called upon to explain to their fellows the lesson received\\nfrom the tutor, and to exhibit illustrations of it on the black board.\\nThe first hour of Friday, as of Tuesday, evening, is devoted to Writing.\\nThe .second hour to Elocution or Reading, in like manner as the first hour\\nof the preceding evening aii^ the concluding half hour is employed in a\\nlesson in Physics, as oh Monday and Wednesday.\\nOn Saturday morning the first hour is devoted to Modern History and\\nGeography; the second to examinations in Arithmetic, especially in prin-\\nciples the third to examinations in Grammar and Etymology, particularly\\nGreek and Latin roots and the fourth to Scripture Geography and History\\nall of them conducted in the same manner as tiie lessons already described.\\nIt should be observed that one of the lessons for each evening is given\\nby the tutor as a model for imitation by the students, all the subjects being\\ntaken by him in turn, and attention particularly directed to tlie points of\\nfailure on the part of the students, and the errors into which they are most\\nlikely to fall. It might perhaps be supposed that, from remarks being\\nfreely made on each other s performances, some exhibitions of ill-feeling\\nmight be produced, but I believe myself fully justified in saying that no\\none instance of the kind has occurred. One advantage gained by these\\nfriendly criticisms is, that in very many instances the fault which passes\\nunnoticed when committed by the student himself is apparent to him in\\nanother and hence his correction is applied to his companion and himself\\nat the same time,\\nThe number of exercises which they are required to write gives them\\nmuch practice in orthography but besides this, an hour of one morning\\nin each week is devoted exclusively to writing from dictation the exer-\\ncises being examined afterwards by two students appointed to that ofiice by\\nthe tutor, who also afterwards examines them again himself. In addition\\nto this, each one in the class is required to write a letter once a week to\\nthe tutor, the writer being allowed to select his own subject this exerci.se\\nis of great service, as displaying the mental peculiarities of the writer, and\\naffording a medium of private and confidential communication. In the\\nexamination of these letters attention is devoted to the most minute points,\\nsuch as the mode of address, manner of folding, c.\\nThe tnembers of this junior class also attend, with those of the senior\\ncla.ss, the course of 60 lectures on teaching, c., delivered by the Principal\\nand Vice-Principal of the normal school making rough notes while the\\nlecture is being given, and writing out afterwards a fair abstract of it in a\\nbook furnished to them for tliat purpose these abstracts also are examined\\nand corrected by the tutor. During four hours and a half (from 9 till 12,\\nand from 2 till half-past 3) of every day, the students are engaged in\\nteaching classes of boys in the model school under the close ob.servation\\nof the tutors, one of whom is always present, for the purpose of noticing\\nand pointing out to them their defects, and the mode of supplying them;\\nthus the lessons learned in the normal school are carried into practice in\\nthe model school, and the application of theory to practice conducted under\\nstrict supervision. Such is the course contemplated but there appeared\\nto me to be great room for improvement in the practical employment of", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0774.jp2"}, "773": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 77 j\\nthis valuable portion of time improvement connected with an economy\\nof opportunities in other departments of the training in this institution, in\\ndescribing which it will be convenient again to revert to the labors of the\\nmodel school.\\nDuring the past year an additional Bible class to the one mentioned in\\nthe Time Table has been established at the request of the students, the\\ntime of meeting being from 9 to 10 on the Sunday morning, and though\\ntheir being present is perfectly voluntary, almost every one of them has\\nbeen regular and constant in attendance and the anxiety of many who\\nhave left the institution to have copies of the notes of the subjects taken\\nup in the class, since their removal, affords an evidence of the value they\\nset on the instruction communicated.\\nAt the close of the first three months of tiieir stay, the members of this\\nclass are put through another general examination by the Vice-Principal,\\nin the presence of the Committee and from among them the numbers in\\nthe upper class are then filled up, so as to leave behind only the few who\\nare yet unprepared to proceed with the rest to any profitable result.\\nUpper Class in Normal School,\\nThe upper class, states the Principal of the normal school, consists\\nof students of not less than three months standing. Their attention has\\nbeen directed to the following subjects the English Language, Mathe-\\nmatics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural History. These studies have\\nbeen pursued with me from 6 till half-past 8 during three evenings in the\\nweek.* The course, as to method, has been uniform, the instruction\\nhaving been given in the form of conversational lectures, based, as far as\\npossible, upon the lesson-books of the Society as text-books. As much\\ninformation has been thus afforded as the students have been supposed to\\nbe able to master by study in the early morning of the following day. either\\nprivately or in class and the consciousness that the next time the subject\\nshould be taken up it would be commenced by a searching interrogation as\\nto what is known of the last given lesson, has acted as a sufficient stimulus\\nto persevering industry.\\nThe English Language. -^ThiS has been treated under three distinct\\nheads. First, that which is ordinarily called Grammar, viz., the distinc-\\ntions in the nature of words, the inflectional changes they undergo, their\\nrelations to each other, and the influence they exert in consequence of those\\nrelations. In short, syntax and etymology, exclusive of derivation, The\\naim has been never to give any term, definition, or rule, except as the rep-\\nresentative of an idea, -to supply the notion before the words that express\\nit. The general principles of language have been given, too, as far as they\\ncould be understood by those not having the power of comparison from the\\nwant of acquaintance with two languages. Thus the universal fact has\\nbeen taught, that languages have a tendency to get rid of their inflectional\\nforms, and to express their relations by particles and position and hence\\nhas the reason been shown why the rules of position are so much more\\nimportant in a language in its recent than in its earlier condition. English\\nand Anglo-Saxon have, perhaps, been instanced.\\nThe second direct study of English has been the Formation and Deri-\\nvation of Words. These have been taught from lists of Anglo-Saxon,\\nLatin, and Greek primitives found in the grammar. Etymologies have\\nbeen explained, too. incidentally in connexion with the reading, and the\\nvarious scientific terms from time to time occurring. In this study extreme\\naccuracy has been insisted on, as it has been felt that persons not unfre-\\nTwo whole evenings in each week are devoted to Drawing and Musio, under the teausher of\\ntboie branches.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0775.jp2"}, "774": {"fulltext": "772 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL\\nquently render themselves ridiculotis, by dabbling in a foreign language\\nW ith which they have not a correct acquaintance as far as it goes.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^Composition is the third means that has been employed for teaching\\nthe English language. It has been felt to be important that a teacher\\nshould be able to express his thoughts in suitable language and in a proper\\norder. In the exercises, importance has been attached to neatness of wri-\\nting and unaffectedness of style. Considerable advantages have attended\\nthis employment. It has been so pursued as to form a new study of Eng-\\nlish, showing the structure of the language and not of the words, logical\\nand not grammatical relations. Truer, because more e.vtensive views of\\nthe nature of their mother-tongue have thus been obtained, than could\\nhave been secured had the same time been devoted to the mere study of\\ngrammar. I regret to say that in a few instances, too (especially in the\\nteachers selected by local committees), it has not been without its advan-\\ntages even in regard to orthography.\\nWe have Jiot yet found time for a systematic course on English Liter-\\nature. It has not, however, been entirely neglected, but has been taken up\\nincidentally in connexion with tlie composition. For as tlie exercises found\\nin the text-book are for the most part selections from our best classic\\nauthors, fitting opportunities have been afforded, as each came under ob.ser-\\nvation, for giving a slight biographical notice, the characteristics of his\\nstyle, his principal works, and the recommendation of those deemed most\\nvaluable.\\nGeography. A good deal of attention has been given to geography.\\nIt is attempted to make this an inductive study certain conditions are\\ngiven, from which certain consequences are to be inferred. Thus the stu-\\ndents are expected to discover that the currents of the rivers of Eastern\\nEurope are slow, and of Western Europe rapid; after having been told\\nthat tlie former have their rise at a slight elevation and have a lengthened\\ncourse, and the latter originate in the high land of Central Europe, at no\\ngreat distance from the sea. Political and social geography are thus\\nshown to be in a great degree dependent on physical geography the reason\\nis seen why one nation is agricultural and another commercial why a\\ncertain manufacture should be carried on in a particular locality in prefer-\\nence to every other; and why an alteration in tlie mode of manufacture\\nshould involve a change in its seat. Thus that Holland is agricultural\\nand England manufacturing; that our cotton manufacture is carried on in\\nSouth Lancashire and the edges of the neighboring counties, and not in\\nLincolnshire that our manufactures generally are travelling north and\\nwest: and that iron, which was once largely manufactured in Kent and\\nSussex, is now only smelted on the great coalfields, are not merely so many\\nfacts, but highly interesting facts; interesting, because regarded as effects,\\nthe causes of which are perceived, and have probably been discovered, by\\nthe student himself.\\nThe Etymology of geogrophical names forms an important feature in\\nthis branch of knowledge. The name of a place often fells its coudition\\nor history; and the explanation of the same by calling into exercise the\\npower of association, increases the probability of its being remembered.\\nThus the name Bwjnos Ayrcs. still shows the salubrity of the air of that\\ntown Sierra, the .Spanish name for a range of hills, the saw-like appear-\\nance which it presents New York tells us that it was once a colony of\\nEngland, and those who know that it was first called New Amsterdam,\\nknow, too, that it was founded by the Dutch Virginia, shows that it was\\ncolonized in the reign of our virgin queen, Elizabeth Carolina, during\\nthat of CharlQs (Carolus). The term fell, applied to mountains in the\\nnorth of England, the south of Scotland, and in the islands of the noith", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0776.jp2"}, "775": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. j^\\nand west, shows that these parts of the country were occupied by some\\ntribe or tribes of Scaudinaviau origin while ben or pen found in tlie most\\nmauntaiuous regions, contirnis the facts of history, that these high grounds\\nwere unconsjuered by the northern invaders, and continued in the possession\\nof the original Celtic inhabitants. la thus finding out the cause of the\\nfact, and the cause of the name, the reason has been exercised and the\\nstudy rendered highly philosophical and a science which has often been\\nthought to consist only of lists of hard unmeaning words, has been made\\nattractive in i\u00e2\u0080\u009e more than usual degree.\\nHistonj. This study has been almost exclusively confined to the few\\ngreat prominent events which have distinguished the history of any coun-\\ntry. These have been a good deal amplitied traced to their cau.ses, and\\npursued to tlieir cousequsnces. Shortness of time necessitates such a\\nmethod. But irresp.ective of this, it is considered the best for a first course;\\nfor, as these salient events are only the visible development of principles,\\nan acquaintance with these affords a key, as it were, to most of the subor-\\ndinate intermediate occurrences. The events of English history receive\\nby far the most attention, as do also those nearer our own times, compared\\nwith the m. re remote. In considering the events of other countries, con-\\nstant reference is made to what was going on at the same time in Eng-\\nland. It is thus frequently seen, that the same principle is developing itself\\nat different places at the same time e. g. the struggle between ecclesiasti-\\ncal and kingly power in France and Germany, at the time of our Henry II.\\nand his Archbishop Becket.\\nMxthematics. A full and systematic explanation of the principles of\\nArithmetic has formed a part of this study, and has been productive of\\ngreat advantage to the teachers. Some who have entered the institution\\nas good mathematicians, have been found to be unable to give a reason for\\nthe mode of performing the elementary parts of arithmetic. An acquaint-\\nance with rules by no means includes a knowledge of principles; but he\\nAvho understands principles can make rules for himself. A strong interest\\nlias been excited, as the principles involved in the most ordinary opera-\\ntions have been evolved, and the effect of this has shown itself remarkably\\nin the different manner of teaching a class of boys in the model school\\nbefore and after such explanation dulness on the part of the teacher has\\nbeen succeeded by spirit, and lassitude on that of the boys by the most\\nlively attention.\\nDemonstrative Geometry has been pursued, but for the most part by\\neach student independently, such being, in my opmion, the only way in\\nwhich the advantages attendant on its pursuit are to be realized in the\\nhighest degree. The acquirements have, consequently, been very various,\\nfrom only a few propositions to several books, according to ability and pre-\\nvious attainments. In all cases, however, though not equally, the great\\nobject has been secured mental drilling.\\n^Only the elements of Algebra and !^/\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^g\u00e2\u0080\u00a2ono?ne^r3/ have been taught, and\\nthese not systematically. The first has been introduced in connexion with\\nthe explanation of the principles of arithmetic, the algebraic formula) being\\ngiven as the representatives of general truths. Trigonometry has been\\nrequired for the explanation of certain facts of natural philo.sophy, espe-\\ncially those of astronomy, and has been then introduced.\\nNatural Philosophy. It has been attempted to teach this branch of\\nknowledge so as to combine the popular with the scientific. It has been\\nmade popu/ar by drawing the illustrations from those phenomena which are\\nevery day before our ayes; and, fortunately, the great truths of physics are\\nalmost always capable of such illustration. But the merely popular has\\nbeen avoided, by directing attention, not only to resulta, but to the methods", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0777.jp2"}, "776": {"fulltext": "^74 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nby which such results have been obtained. There are sonne truths, of\\ncourse, only to be demonstrated by the higher mathematics. These are\\nquite beyond our reach, and are either entirely omitted or explained by the\\nnearest analogical approximation. But in numerons instances, perhaps\\nmost, the principle of a method admits of illustration by means of very\\nelementary mathematical knowledge. Thus the students learn, not only\\nthat the sun and planets are at such a distance, but the manner in which\\nsuch results are obtained is given, and shown to involve only the same\\nprinciples as are employed in the simplest land surveying.\\nNatural History. Up to the present time only zoology has been con-\\nsidered. Subsequent to the lectures on this subject, visits have been made,\\nwith great advantage, to the Regent s Park Zoological Gardens and the\\nrooms of the British Museum containing the specimens of natural history.\\nIn the case of the few students who remain with us more than six\\nmonths, the afternoons of Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, from 2 to half-\\npast 3, are devoted to the further study of mathematics, original composi-\\ntion, and Latin. As regards the latter subject, the progress made is small\\nindeed. It amounts to little more than removing some of the initiatory\\ndifficulties attendant on the study of a new language, and showing the\\nstudent how he may hereafter pursue it with the best prospect of success.\\nYet slight as is the amount of knowledge obtained, it has not been without\\nits value as affording a glimpse into the nature of language in general,\\nwhich is not to be obtained by the individual who has no acquaintance\\nwith any but his own.\\nDrawing and Music\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -Two whole evenings in every week, those of\\nMonday and Wednesday, ire devoted by the senior class to drawing; and\\nthree-quarters of an hour is given at the close of every day to singing\\nThe course adopted in the .scheme of drawing lessons is. in the first instance,\\nto convey to the students, in a series of familiar explanations, such princi-\\nples of perspective as may be sufficient to enable them to delineate cor-\\nrectly simple lines in various positions. This is done on the black board\\nwith chalk and when the class has evinced a degree of proficiency in such\\nexercises, our next step is to introduce solid forms, involving a further ac-\\nquaintance with principles which are then progressively laid down. As\\nsoon as practicable, the mere outlines on board are superseded by the use\\nof paper, which is continued to the end of the course. The models in use\\nin the classes are the series published under the sanction of the Committee\\nof Council on Education and We have also, as time and the skill of the\\nstudent would permit, introduced many simple objects for exercise, such as\\narticles of furniture.\\nThe time devoted to vocal music is necessarily limited and the lessons\\nare given at the close of the day, to prevent interference with any of the\\nmore important studies. The elementary les.sons are based on Wilhem s\\nsystem, as improved by Mr. HuUah but one lesson in each week is devo-\\nted to the practice of simple school-pieces, published in The Singing Mas-\\nter of Mr. W. E. Hick.son, which is found to be of considerable use iu\\ncreating an air of cheerfulness, and relieving the more serious exercises.\\nArt of Teaching and Governing in a School.\\nThe theory of teaching and governing, is given in a series of lectures on\\npedagogy, which are delivered every day in the theatre of the institution,\\nthe course running through three months. Of these lectures the students\\nare required to make abstracts. Among these, is a series on mental phi-\\nlosophy it being deemed of importance, that those who have to influence\\nmmd, through the agency of mind, should know something of its opera-\\ntions. Through these lectures the science of education is generally under-\\nstood.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0778.jp2"}, "777": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. ^75\\nBut education is an art as well as a science, and as in every other art, per-\\nfection is to be obtained only by practice. This practice is se ured by the\\nattendance of all the students in the model school for four hours and a half du-\\nring each day. They pass, step by step, throu^i all the parts of the school,\\ncommencing with the lowest draft of boys, and ending with the charge of the\\nwhole. During this time, they are always under observation and when\\nany one manifests a want of skill in teaching or government, he is requested\\nto leave the draft, his error is privately pointed out to him, and such di-\\nrections are given as are considered proper to obviate it. Should the error\\nbe of a kind likely to characterize more than the individual, it is noted\\ndown and made the subject of observation to all the students When together\\nin the theatre.\\nThe second method of improving the practice is, to assemble all the stu-\\ndents in one of the gallery class-rooms, and then to require one of them,\\nwho has been previously appointed and furnished with a subject, to give a\\ncollective lesson to about a hundred boys. Every one is then engaged in\\nnoting down what he considers the defects or merits of the lesson, embra-\\ncing points of grammar, manner, knowledge, government, c. At the\\nconclusion of the lesson, all the teachers adjourn to the theatre of the in-\\nstitution, and in turns give their opinions of the lesson. When all have\\nfinished, observations are made by myself, first on the criticisms of the ob-\\nservers and then on the general points of excellence or defect which have\\ncharacterized the lesson.\\nThe third mode of improving the practice is by means of lessons given\\nby the students in turn to all the rest. The chief difference between this\\nmethod and the last is, that errors are checked as they arise. There is no\\nnoting down deficiencies but as soon as one is observed, the teacher is\\nstopped, the defect pointed out, and he is at once required to rectify it.\\nBefore boys, this method would be obviously improper, as the moral influ-\\nence of the teachers would be destroyed by it. But, among themselves,\\nit is found to work very amicably. Indeed, it has been gratifying to me to\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0witness the good temper with which the criticisms have been all but uni-\\nversally given and received. On the entrance of some students, the ob-\\nservations have been rather intended to show the acuteness of the speaker\\nthan to benefit the teacher who has given the lesson. But this has soon\\nrighted itself, and almost always without the necessity of intervention on\\nmy part.\\nThe following is a list of the Conversational Readings to the whole of\\nthe students on the art of teaching and governing in a school, which form\\nthe quarter s course five being delivered on five several days in each of\\ntwelve weeks, three by the Principal, and two by the Vice-principal. The\\nfirst 36 form the course given by the Principal, and the remaining 24, that\\nby the Vice-principal. At the commencement of each quarter these courses\\nare begun again.\\n1. On the objects which a teacher should have in view in adopting his profession.\\n2. On the circumstances which make a teacher happy in a school.\\n3. On some of the essential moral qualifications of a teacher\\n4. On the essential intellectual qualifications of a teacher.\\n5. On the establishment of authority.\\n6 On gaining ascendency over the minds of children.\\n7. On combination and arrangement.\\n8. On routines of instruction and formation of plans.\\n9. On the monitorial system its use and abuse.\\n10. On the selection of monitors.\\n11. On the training of monitors.\\n12. On the collective or simultaneous system.\\n13. On the art of teaching the elements of reading to very yonng childran.\\n14. Illustrations of the mode of using the First Lesson Book.\\n15. On various methods of teaching spelling.\\n16. On the mode of using the Second Lesson Book.\\n17. On object-lesaons for young children.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0779.jp2"}, "778": {"fulltext": "tjljQ BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\n18. On the interrogative system, with illustrations. t\\n19. On analytical teaching generally, with illustrations from the Third Lesson Book.\\n20 On syntlietioal teaching; illustrations from the Third Lesson Book.\\n21. On the art of reaJing with animation and expression.\\n22. On Scripture questioning, generally on Scripture geography, and methods of teaching it.\\n23. On teaching writing.\\n24. On the use and nature of numbers.\\n25. On teaching arithmetic.\\n26. On the mode of using the Fourth Lesson Book.\\n27. On teaching geography.\\n28. On teaching grammar.\\n29. On teaching drawing.\\n30. On teaching vocal music.\\n31. On the philosophy of the human mind as applicahls to education.\\n3-2. On attention and memory\\n33. On association.\\n34. On conceptioa.\\n35. On imagination.\\n36. On the principal writers on education.\\n37. On rewards and punishments.\\n38. On emulation.\\n39. On common errors relating to punishments, and on corporeal punishments.\\n40. On moral and religious influence generally.\\n41. On the promotion of a love of truth, honesty, benevolence, and other virtues, among children.\\n42. On cleanliness and neatness, kindness to animals, and gentleness.\\n43 On promoting obedience to parents, respectful demeanor to elders, and general submission to\\nauthority.\\n44. On the private studies of a teacher.\\n45. On the course to be pursued in organizing anew school.\\n46. On keeping the various registers of attendance and progress.\\n47. On the ventilation of school-rooms and dwellings.\\n48. On school furniture generally.\\n49. On some of the circumstances which affect the condition of the laboring classes.\\n50. On the elements of political economy.\\n51. On machinery and its results.\\n53 On cottage economy and savings banks.\\n53. On the duties of the teacher to the parents of the children, and to the Committee.\\n54. On the formation of museums and collections of apparatus, and the management of school\\nlibraries.\\n55. On keeping up a connexion with old scholars.\\n56. On the order in which a teacher should attempt to accomplish the various objects he has in\\nview.\\n57. On school examinations generally.\\n53. On raising and filling a school, and on the circumstances which make a school popular.\\n59. On the various ways in which a teacher may co-operate with other benevolent efforts, such\\nas temperance societies and Sabbath schools.\\n60. Brief summary of the teacher s duties in school, otit of school, and in relation to the chil-\\ndren, their parents, the Committee, and to society at large.\\nThe 4^ hours devoted to daily practice by the students in the moni-\\ntorial labors of the model school, with an occasional gallery lesson, has\\nalready been described and several times a week the Principal casts a\\ncareful glance around their drafts, and makes notes of the defects observa-\\nble in them, to form the subject of observations in the conversational lec-\\nture of the evening. If the students were staying, as they ought to stay,\\nfor two years, instead of six months, this amount of time spent in the\\nmodel school would be in excess; and the actual amount of valuable time\\ndevoted to its labors, is a sacrifice which challenges a vigilant superin-\\ntendence and an amount of ambulatory instruction which shall turn it 10\\nthe best account. The practice in gallery teaching is necessarily unfre-\\nquent, where there are only three classes placed under it every morning\\nbut over this, also, the same eye is extended at like intervals and every\\nafternoon, at half-past three o clock, occurs the gallery lesson, by a student\\nteacher, in the presence of the Principal or the Vice-principal and the whole\\nbody of the students, expressly to form the subject of mutual criticism,\\nand of a final critique by Mr. Cornwell,on adjourning to the theatre at,4. In\\nthe theatre, after taking the criticisms of the students on the lesson just de-\\nlivered, which seem generally to be limited to the superficial defects of\\ngrammar, pronunciation, or want of order in the gallery, the Principal or\\nVice-priucipal makes a far more searching exposure of its essential defects,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0780.jp2"}, "779": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NOR^MAT- :=CIIOOL. 77*7\\nwhich are carefully analyzed and concludes by throwing in the remarks\\nrequired by his miscellaneous notes on the class and gallery teacliing of\\ntiie day. He then proceeds with the conversational lecture for the day,\\ninto each of which the student s limited period of residence compels lain\\nto throw a large amount of instruction, so tersely expressed, and yet so con-\\ndensed, as to require all the earnestness of the young men at once to seize and\\nassimilate it. No one, however, can be present at one of these conversa-\\ntional lectures without being struck by the weightiuess of the matter which it\\ncontains, and the aphoristic vigor with which it is endeavored, not merely\\nto lay it before, but to engrave it into the minds of the hearers.\\nThe tenor of the course may be gathered from the results contemplated\\nin the following set of queries, drawn up by the Principal, and contained\\nin the Society s Manual\\nQuestions to test a School.\\nThe following questions have been drawn up for the use alike of Com-\\nmittees and teachers. They indicate the points to which a teacher should\\ndirect his attention, and the course a Committee should take in order to\\na.scertaiii the condition of a school. The questions are supposed to be put\\nto the teaclier\\nReading\\nDo yon fiejine ani limit the portion to be read. Is the portion assigned of such moderate\\nlenglli as to allow of its being read three or four times\\nDo your monitors question readily on the lessons that have been read\\nHave you the specimens, models., or diagrams, that are necessary to illustrate such lesson\\nDo you rest satisfied if one boy is reading in the draft, or do yon see that every child is atleiitive\\nwhile one is reading Do you also forbid the rar nitors appro.iohing the boy who is reading, and\\nrequire him always to stand where he has a view of the whole draft\\nDo you pay attention to the slyleoi realing. particularly with the elder boys\\nDo you correct a bad style by having vevy Jiiiniliar sentences read\\nBy requiring the boys to tell you something, to write it down, and then to read it from their\\nown writing\\nDo you teach \\\\,\\\\ie meanings of words in connexion with the reading, as found in sentences,\\nrather than with the spelling in which the arrangements must be arbitrary\\nDo you point out on the map all the places occurring in the lesson read\\nDo the boys exhibit seriousness of manner while reading the Bible\\nSpelling:\\nDo you sometimes teach and test spelling by the dictation of sentences to be written\\nDo the elder boys sometimes copy pieces of poetry and the e.^eroises in grammar, with a view\\nto improvement in spelling\\nDo you have the more ditHcult words that occur in your collective lessons spelt?\\nInterrogation\\nDo you or your monitors, question on every siibjert taught\\nDo you occasionally require mutual questioning on the part of the elder boys\\nDoes your questioning include the (/iree dilferent stages 1. During reading, the explanation\\nof su;h words or allusion-; as are necessary to understanding the lesson 2. After the books are\\nclosed, with a view to impressing the facts of the lesson on the memory 3. The explanation of\\nthe etymologies of words and the imparting such incidental information as is naturally associ-\\nated with it\\nDo you avoid indefinite questions, and such as by admitting of only Ves or No I en-\\ncourage guessing\\nWriting\\nAre the books kept clean, free from blots, and without the corners being turned down\\nDo you furnish the boys with good copies, avoiding those which have improper contractions\\nHave you a black board on which you write in chalk a copy for the lower boys who are unable\\nto write\\ndrithmetic\\nDo you teach arithmetic by the black board Have you one in each draft\\nDo you in teaching arithmetic commence with and constantly refer to sensible objects\\nAre the numbers in your toioer classes always those of littie vilae\\nDo you invariably insist on every number being read to ascertain whether its value is under-\\nstood\\nDo your monitors yuestf on at every step in the process of a sum? e.g. Why do you carry\\nonly one when you borrow ten\\nAre the t(;r;\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00ab and wnrA* explained? e.g. Witt do s. d. ms:iu Why is the rule called\\ncompound subtraction? What are these marks used for.\\nThe books may be kept smooth by tying them up between two pieces of board.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0781.jp2"}, "780": {"fulltext": "iJ^JQ BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nDo you connect the book knowledge of the more advanced boys with the objects around them e. g.\\nWhat is the quantity of timber in the trunk of a tree whose height and girth, both at the root and\\npart where it branches otf. have been measured by themselves? The number of gallons the\\ntchool water-butt will hold The contents of a field, whose shape and sides they have ascer-\\ntained\\nOrammiir\\nDo you explain every definition, rule, c.. before allowing the boys to commit them to meraoryT\\nDo you make your boys understand that language determines grammar, and not grammar lan-\\nguage That the rules of grammar are only the recognized usages of language\\nIn explaining the etymologies of words are you extremely careful to give the right quantities\\nand terminations of the roots\\nGeography\\nDo you teach the physical {f3.tures of any district first\\nDo you make the boys acqoaiuted with their own neighborhood and country before attending to\\nmore distant parts\\nHave you a map of the neighborhood in the school\\nIn commencing geography do you require the boys to make a map of the play-ground, or some\\nwell-known part Do you explaih latitude and longitude by a reference to this map\\nDo you require the boys occasionally to point towards the place under consideration e.g.\\nWhen Dublin has been pointed out on the map, do you say, .Vote point to Dublin itself?\\nDrawing\\nDo you commence with chalk drawing on the black board\\nAre your monitors so proficient as to be able to sketch off any object illustrative of their lesson?\\nCollective Teaching:\\nDo you abstain from teaching collectively those subjects which depend for their improvement\\non the amount of individual practice, as reading, spelling, c.?\\nDo you test the efficiency of your collective teaching by individual questions?\\nDo you sometimes require the elder boys to make a written abstract of their lesson? Is this\\nlooked over with a view to the spelling among other things\\nDo you make use of elipscsJ the number varying inversely as the age of the child?\\nAre your collective lessons to the whole school especially devoted to subjects connected with\\nmanners, morals and religion Do those to the younger boys relate to the various familiar ob-\\njects, utensils, and operations about them? Are those to the elder hoys given systematically\\ni. e. Is each lesson part of a system of knowledge\\nIs your collective teaching especially charaoterized by simplicity both of language and illustra-\\ntion, and by animation\\nIn using numbers do you make them intelligible by referring them to known standards e. g.\\nIf you were stating that soma trees are near 300 feet high, would you say that they were twice,\\nthree or four times, as the case may be, as high as some well-known object?\\nMonitors\\nDo you devote an hour a day specially to the training of your monitors\\nIs it your prime object in this training to give your monitors the art of teaching, and do you\\nmake the impartation of knowledge subservient to this\\nDo you train every monitor in the very lessons he has to teach\\nIs the mass of your school employed in some quiet exercise, as writing, while you are engaged\\nwith the monitors\\nHave you a good general monitor to whom yon can intrust the mass of the school during your\\ntraining of the monitors\\nDo you require the same monitor to teach the same lesson that he maybe thoroughly competent\\nto that lesson\\nHave you a double set of monitors, that while one set is teaching the other is learning\\nDo you from time to time, add to your monitor s class, to act as auxiliaries, in the absence of\\nthe regular monitors, such boys as you deem likely to be suited to the office\\nDo you associate with the office of monitor as many pleasing circumstances as you can\\nDo you pay them? Have they as such the use of the school library Do you treat them with\\nmarked consideration Do you occasionally accompany them in little excursions, to places in\\nyour neighborhood distinguished in history, or for beautiful scenery, or to museums, gardens,\\nc.\\nDo you impress on your monitors that they should correct no mistake till they have ascertained\\nthat none of the boys in their draft can Do you exemplify this in your own teaching\\nDiscipline\\nIs order the habit of your school\\nHave you perfect quietness during writing?\\nDo you drill your boys occasionally, with a view to securing habits of prompt obedience\\nDo you have the movements to and from the desks made in an orderly way Do you generally\\nhave the tables repeated or sung simultaneously at this time Do you sometimes have the\\nmovements made with perfect quietness, as a means of discipline Are all the exercises con-\\nducted as quietly as is consistent with the full development of the powers of the children\\nDo you have all tho-e subjects whicli depend for their improvement upon practice, such as head-\\ning, spelling, c., taught individually\\nIs every exercise conducted under observation, that the boys may feel that any inattention or\\ndisorder is certain of detection\\nMany of the points suggested here are as important in conuexiOD with other kinds of teaching as in collec-\\ntive but as the evils of neelecting them would be increased in proportion to the number taught, it baa bcoi\\nteemed advisable to throw taem under this head.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0782.jp2"}, "781": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL, SCHOOL. 779\\nHave all the children at all times sometin^ to do, and a motive for doing it?\\nDo you abstain from giving a second command till thejirxt has been obeyed?\\nDo you abstain from calling out, except on puite necessary occasions\\nIn stopping or directing the whole school, do you give your commands so lond as to be heard by\\nall, and no loader\\nAre you strict, without being severe\\nIf you find the general discipline becoming at all lax, do you have those exercises which are\\nmost faulty, gone through as you wish thera, after the regular school hours\\nHabits of the School\\nIs your room clean\\nDo you have it well swept, and Justed every day\\nDo you see all the school furniture put in its proper place, before you leave the school-room?\\nIs your room well ventilated J\\nDo the boys exhibit subdued and gentle manners in their intercourse with each other\\nAre the boys generally clean in their persons and dress\\nDo you carefully prevent idling about the school, or in or near the gates, c., or in the play-\\nground\\nAre your boys orderly and respectful to their superiors\\nDo you discourage tiile-telling, except in reference to very serious faults\\nDo you keep your drafts of about a uniform size, not less than nine, nor more than twelve\\nDo you take care that boys of the same class are of about the same attainments, and in a col-\\nlective lesson of the same mental capacity?\\nHave you the form of the drafts distinctly marked on the floor, by cutting into it, painting it,\\nor letting a wire into it\\nExaminations\\nHtve yo\\\\i stated periods oi ezamination, in order to the removal of the competent to higher\\nclasses\\nDo the children know these periods, that they may work with a view to them\\nAre the intervals between these periods of such moderate length in a child s estimation, as to\\ninfluence his exertions?\\nHave the parents any means of knowing when their children are advanced?\\nHave you an evening examination, at least once a year, for the parents and friends of the chil-\\ndren\\nOeneral\\nDo you require every error to be corrected by the boy making it, after it has been corrected by\\nanother\\nIs every matter explained before it is committed to memory\\nDo you keep up your connexion with the old scholars, by occasional meetings, or in any other\\nway Are they allowed the use of the school library\\nDo your children loDe you Have you a strong sympathy for children, and pleasure in their\\ncompany\\nIs your teaching intellectual? Do the children really understand \\\\vh3.t they are learning? Do\\nyou make every subject taught a means of intellectual development\\nDo your children come to school regularly and in time\\nDo you give time and attention to subjects according to their relative importance e. g. Rea-\\nding above every thing, the history and circumstances of your own town or locality in prefer-,\\nenoe to more distant parts\\nDo you rather aim at giving the boys 3, good acquaintance with a. few subjects, than a very su-\\nperficial acquaintance with many\\nAre your exercises generally characterized by /ittie \u00c2\u00bb-ppe\u00c2\u00ab in^ and much questioning?\\nDo you keep a register of the attendances of the children, and of their school payments\\nDo you rest satisfied if you obtain an answer to a question /rom one, or do you repeat and re-\\nmodel the question till the matter is understood by all Do you impress this maxim upon your\\nmonitors, that all teaching is for the whole class\\nModel School.\\nThe Boys School connected with this establishment probably stands\\nunrivalled in England, as a model of order and discipline, and of the col-\\nlective instruction of a large number of children on the monitorial system.\\nIt is composed of 760 boys, from the age of six to twelve or thirteen\\nyears. The register is always full, and the attendance is regular and\\npunctual, (averaging daily 700.) although the children are gathered from\\none of the poorest neighborhoods of the city. The school is not free, (ex-\\ncept when there are more than two from the same family.) and yet being\\ngood, there is no difficulty in collecting in advance the fee of 2d. per week.\\nOn account of the large number of classes into which the school is divided\\nthe normal pupils enjoy unrivalled opportunities, both of observation and\\npractice of the method of instruction pursued, which are not exclusively", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0783.jp2"}, "782": {"fulltext": "780 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nmonitorial, but a mixed system of the monitorial and simultaneous, in\\nwliich, however, the monitorial is the ground- work of the whole.\\nFemale Department of the Normal School.\\nThe mode of obtaining admission, conditions, organization and instruc-\\ntion of this department are substantially the same as those in the male depart-\\nment. The immediate class instruction and practice are conducted under fe-\\nmale teachers, while the pupils of this department attend daily in the theatre,\\nor lecture hall on the lectures on the art of teaching given to the young men.\\nIn addition to, or modification of the course pursued by the young men,\\nthe female Normal pupils are instructed in the art of teaching needle-\\nwork; in the best method of training girls to houseliold duties; and espe-\\ncially in those methods of conmiunicating religious knowledge, which,\\nunder the blessing of God, are most likely not only to make the young\\nacquainted with, and interested in Holy Scripture, but to bring them\\npractically under the influence of its sacred truths.\\nMr. Fletcher, in his Report describes a peculiar practice of the Model\\nGirls School:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nNor must I omit from express notice the perfect system of industrial\\ninstruction in needlework, and the economy of clothing, through whicli\\nthe whole school- is passed. The outline of it given in the Society s\\nManual of the System of Teaching in the Model Girls School. is no\\npaper theory, but a simple description of a well-ordered and vigorous set\\nof classes, embracing the whole school, for an hour and a half every\\nmorning. When at needlework the children are seated at desks, arranged\\nin classes, according to their proficiency. The first or lowest class is\\nseated further from the platform, and the others, in numerical order, in\\nfront of it. The number of classes depends on the different kinds of work\\ntaught in the school, each kind occupying a separate class. The number\\nin general use is 11. From the higher classes the best workers are selected\\nfor monitors two are appointed for each class. One instructs for one week,\\nwhilst theotlier is at workunder the direction of her monitor consequently\\neach superintends the class and works alternately and each monitor contin-\\nues at the same desk until she is appointed monitor to a higher class. FiVery\\ngirl continues to sit at the same desk while she remains in the class.\\nThere are also two platform monitors, who alternately superintend and\\nwork one week. But all the monitors of classes, and the girls under their\\ncare, are under the superintendence of the general monitor. Every Friday\\nmorning the girls are allowed to bring their own work.\\nThe children in the higher classes are provided with lap-bags, made of\\nbrown holland. These are marked 1, 2, 3, c., for as many as the desk\\ncontains. The number of the desk is also marked upon them thus f sig-\\nnifies that the bag belongs to the fifth girl in the eighth etesk. Before the\\nchildren take their seats, the bags are placed by the platform monitor on\\nthe class monitor s desks, and by them given to their girls. The class work\\nand all garments in hand, are collected by the class monitors, and placed\\non the ends of the desks ready for the platform monitor to deliver to the\\nmistress. The monitor of each desk is furnished vv ith a pair of scissors,\\nthread-paper, needle-case, and a bag large enough to contain all the imple-\\nments that belong to her desk. They are also supplied with a few thimbles\\nand needles, for which they are responsible to the platform monitor. The\\nchildren in the lower classes use colored cotton for the class work, as it\\nrenders the stitches more conspicuous, and consequently facilitates general\\ninspection. It also excites an interest, as the promise of a choice of some\\npretty color is a strong inducement to a child to perform her work neatly.\\nAt the time assigned for closing the labor of the morning reading drafts,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0784.jp2"}, "783": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 781\\nviz., at a quarter past 10 o clock, the general monitor rings the bell as a\\nsignal for the business of the drafts to cease: and, after a pause, the com-\\nmand is given for the girls to turn to the right or to the left, as the order\\nmay be. The order is then given, and the whole of the children walk in\\na line along the passage round the school, and each girl, as she comes to\\nthe end of it, steps in behind the desk to which she belongs, and goes to\\nher proper place at the desk. Each monitor does the same, taking her\\nplace at the liead of the desk. Each child being now opposite to her own\\nslate, a command is given to take their seats, which thej^ do instantly.\\nA signal is now given for the monitors to distribute the bags, after\\nwhich they return to their seats, and another signal is given for each girl to tie\\nher own bag to tlie desk before her. A signal is again given for the moni-\\ntors to examine their girls hands to see if they are clean, and that each is\\nprovided with a needle and thimble. The platform monitor now supplies\\nthe class monitors with any additional work they may require for tlieii\\ngirls, which the class monitors give out; al.so a needleful of cotton to each\\ncliild, and then return to their seats. A command is now given for the\\nwhole school to show work, that is, to hold it up in their left hand to see\\nthat each is furnished with work. The bell is then rung, each child\\nholds down her work and immediately begins; and the monitors pass down\\nthe desks to instruct them. When a child wants work she holds up her\\nleft hand as an intimation to her monitor, who steps forward and supplies\\nher. If a monitor wants a fresh supply she makes a like signal to the\\nplatform monitor. When a girl wants thread she holds up her right hand,\\nand her monitor supplies her. If a monitor wants a fresh supply she makes a\\nlike signal to the platform monitor. At half past 1 1 o clock the mistress\\nexamines the work of each child those who merit rewards have a ticket,\\nand tho.se who have been careless and inattentive forfeit one, or are\\nconfined after school.\\nAt a quarter before 12 the bell rings for the girls to show work, and\\nthe monitors to pass down the desks and collect the needles and thimbles\\nAn order is then given for the children to put the class work into the bags,\\nand the monitors to collect all articles in hand, and deliver them to the\\nplatform monitor, who takes them to the platform. The monitors then\\ntake their .seats. The order is now given to untie bags, when each\\nchild unties her own; a second order is given to take them off; and a\\nthird, to fold them up. Each child folds her own neatly, with the number\\nin view, places it on the desk before her, and puts her hands behind her.\\nThe bell then rings for the monitors to collect bags, which they do, placing\\nthem one on the other in order; they then put them neatly into the bag\\nbelonging to their desk; also their scissors, thread-papers, needles and\\nthimbles. The monitors are then ordered to the platform with their bags,\\nwhere they deliver them to the platform monitor. They then return to\\ntheir seats, and the report of the good and inattentive girls is read ahmd\\nby the monitor- general the good receive tickets, and the negligent must\\neither forfeit tickets or stay in after school hours. As soon as the reports\\nare taken, all the children are exercised out of their seats, to stand each\\nopposite to her own slate, with her hands behind her. A signal is given\\nfor the girls to turn, when they are dismissed in order, one class following\\nthe other in a line along the sides of the school.\\nFor the details of the instruction in each class, I must refer you to the\\nManual. The first class is for hemming, in two divisions, one composed\\nof those who have not learned to fix a hem, and who are taught on waste\\npaper, as being less expensive than linen or cotton, and answering the\\npurpose just as well and a second, in which they practice hemming on\\nsmall pieces of calico. The second class, also in two divisions, is for", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0785.jp2"}, "784": {"fulltext": "782 BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nsewing and felling, and running and felling first division learning to fix\\ntheir work in paper, and the second to execute it. The third class is for\\ndrawing threads and stitching; the fourth for gathering and fixing gathers;\\nthe fifth, for button-holes; the sixth, for making buttons and sewing them\\non; the seventh, for herring-bone stitching; the eighth, for darning; the\\nninth, for making tucks, and whipping and the tenth, for marking. The\\neleventh is the finishing class. Tliere is at present no knitting or netting\\nclass; and fancy work is expressly excluded and discouraged.\\nAs it is highly desirable that the children, as soon as they have learned\\nto work, should be employed in something useful, this class comprises the\\ngirls who have passed tiirough the preceding, and are here engaged in\\nmaking and completing garments. The children in this class are taught\\neconomy in purchasing, cutting out, and repairing various articles of wear-\\ning apparel tliey are made acquainted with the waste occasioned by the\\nwant of proper consideration and exactness in domestic arrangements, and\\nthe miseries frequently produced by misnaanagement and inattention. In\\norder to impress upon their minds this useful branch of female instruction,\\nthey are interrogated, in various ways, on the common concerns of life.\\nWhen the teacher proposes a question, she waits until each child in the\\nclass has had an opportunity of retarning an answer, according to the\\nknowledge she possesses. She then comments upon each of these answers\\nin a way that will enable the children to decide which is the most suitable\\ncourse. To assist the teachers in these exercises, they are furnished with\\na few examples of questions and answers, which they may carry out to a\\nmuch greater extent. These also will be found in the Manual,\\ntogether with engraved patterns for cutting out the commonest garments.\\nThe highest industrial section of the school forms in fact a class for collec-\\ntive teaching of the most practical and improving kind, including as many\\nideas on household management generally as can be conveyed. Specimens\\nof needlework, made up in portfolios for the use of teachers, and arranged\\niu the order of the above classes, are sold at the Society s Depository and\\nthe beautiful patterns of every variety of garment, made up in tissue\\npaper by the finishing class against the time of the annual meeting, are\\nquite little works of art.\\nThe propriety and industry exhibited throughout these industrial classes\\nis as perfect as their system and a student teacher in each class has the\\nadvantage of co-operating in, and doing as much as she can of, the work\\nof superintending each successive class, from the lowest upwards the\\nsewing classes, in this respect, presenting no peculiarity distinguishing them\\nfrom those devoted to other exercises. The discipline and moral tone of\\nthis school present throughout a standard well worthy of its exemplar\\ncharacter. It has a library of above 250 carefully selected volumes,\\nbesides a small library of reference for its monitors. Great advantage, too,\\nmust arise from a certain small proportion of the children being retained\\nin connexion with the institution until a riper age, and even then not giving\\nup their intercourse with it. In fact, the whole department is a family as\\nmuch as a school and no higher praise can possibly be bestowed upon it.\\nArt of Teaching and Governing a School.\\nThree hours and a half each day are devoted by the female students to\\npractice in monitorial or gallery teaching in the Girls Model School; and\\nin alternate weeks another hour and a half is given daily, by each of the\\ntwo classes, to the practical labors of the needlework drafts. At the close\\nof the afternoon s gallery lesson, they all adjourn to the theatre, on the\\nback seats of which tliey take their places to hear the criticism on the\\ngallery lesson which has been given by one of the young men, followed by\\nthe lecture on pedagogy for the day, in the course already described.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0786.jp2"}, "785": {"fulltext": "BOKOUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 783\\nA like criticism of the afternoon s gallery teaching, and of the draft teach-\\ning for the day, in the model girls school, is taken on the opening\\nof the evening classes. It is conducted with some spirit, and the\\nconcluding remarks of the normal school teacher. Miss Drew, are exceed-\\ningly acute and judicious. A weekly conversational lecture occupies\\ntwo hours of every Saturday morning, and is given by tlie experienced super-\\nintendent, Mrs. Mac Rae, to the whole of the female student teachers,\\nseated at their needlework in the gallery. The following are the heads of\\nher course\\n1. On the various motives for entering on the profession of a teacher.\\n2. On sonae of the essential moral qualifications of a teacher.\\n3. On the selection rff monitors.\\n4. On organizing a new school.\\n5. On training monitors.\\n6. On teaching the elements of reading, with illustrations of the method of using the First\\nLesson Book.\\n7. On the various methods of teaching spelling, with illustrations,\\n8. On training suitable monitors to assist in teaching needlework.\\n9. On teaching arithmetic.\\n10. On domestic economy and orderly habits.\\n11. On school furniture, and the order of a school-room.\\n12. On the cleanliness of a school-room, and ventilation.\\n13. On the duties of monitors.\\n14. On the various offices in the school,\\n15. On improving an old school.\\n16. On the judicious treatment of the monitors.\\n17. On the duties of a teacher to the committee, and to the parents of the children.\\n18. On a week s oooupation in the model school, and the advantages of cultivating a spirit of\\ninquiry.\\nThese lessons of the superintendent, applying all which the students are\\nlearning in the normal school, to the circumstances into which they are\\nabout to be introduced, are higiily interesting, vividly instructive, and im-\\nbued with a truly Christian spirit. Drawing from the experiences of a\\nquick and refined perception, they embody indeed practical lessons of adhe-\\nrence, to unfailing truth and untiring patience, from which others than\\nteachers might proiit. The following is the Examination Paper on the Art\\nof Teaching and Governing in a School, answered by Ann Inglefield, 25th\\nMarch, 1837\\n1. How will a teacher best establish her authority in a school By firmness, joined with kind-\\nness of manner and impartiality in all her conduct; giving her commands clearly and definitely\\nexpecting prompt and cheerful obedience let the children see that principle governs her conduct:\\nthis, with good information and a pleasing manner of communicating, are not likely to fail of suc-\\ncess in establishing the authority of a teacher in her school.\\n2. What will especially demand your vigilance in giving a collective lesson That the atten-\\ntion of the children be kept alive by the interesting information and manner of the teacher that\\nthe supervision be constant, and the order preserved.\\n3. How will you endeavor to have good monitors By efficient training and interesting them\\nin the work, imparting to them superior information, and reposing confidence in them when found\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0worthy.\\n4. State some of the uses of the monitorial system, and of the defects which may be indulged\\nunder it A greater number of children can be instructed at one time than by one individual!\\nThe monitors acquire the art of communicating the information they gain they must be ex-\\namples to their drafts and by these means they are likely to prove, as they grow up, more useful\\nmembers of society\\nThe defect would arise from the mistress indulging self-ease and neglecting her monitors, or\\nleaving too much of the school duties to them.\\n5. How will you endeavor to get good reading in a school By attending to the punctuation,\\nemphasis, rising and falling inflection, aspirates and non-aspirates, and tones of the voice.\\n6. What will demand especial attention in the arithmetic classes ?^-That the children perfectly\\nunderstand the rules and their uses.\\n7. How will you convey to children the first notions of geography By illustration, as desoii-\\nbing the earth by an orange.\\n8. What powers of the mind should an object lesson be directed to cultivate Observation\\nattention, reflection.\\nIt is difficult to imagine a combination of advantages greater than that\\nenjoyed by the student teachers in the female department of this iiistitution,\\nincluding, as it does, the animated and faithful instruction of the principal", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0787.jp2"}, "786": {"fulltext": "tj^^ BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL.\\nteacher of the normal school and the vice-principal of the companion\\ndepartment, the lectures on teaching and governing in a school, delivered\\nto the students in both departments by the principal and vice-principal of\\nthe normal school for young men, an admirable model school, and the\\nfaithful counsels conveyed by the superintendent in her daily management\\nand weekly addresses. The effect of this combination is indeed very\\nmarked, if tlie superior activity and orderliness of tnind shown by the\\nsenior over the junior section, during my presence in the school, afford any\\nfair measure of its amount. Considering however, that the female students,\\nthough as much instructed as the male students, and possessed of superior\\nmanners, are yet not generally equal to them in physical resources, and in\\nthe enthusiastic energy which brings a considerable proportion of the latter\\ninto the field of instruction, it is not less to be regretted in their case than\\nin the male department, that the young teachers have not the advanta-\\nges of a longer stay to strengthen their acquirements, their capacities of\\nteaching, and, I might even add, their general character, before they enter\\nupon the arduous duties of their very responsible situations. The time of\\ntheir stay is far too short to accomplish all that is desirable in these\\nrespects although the means provided are, I sincerely believe, sufficient,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with God s blessing, to render them able, modest, and Christian teachers.\\nAmong the circum.stances incidentally conducive to this result, I would\\nrecall especial attention to the fair proportion of pupil teachers to be found\\nin the model school, at the head of the monitor s class, giving a moral\\nfirmness, as well as intellectual strength, to its organization, eminently\\nbeneficial to the student teachers, at the same time that they enjoy the\\nfurther advantage of the head teachers of the normal and model schools\\nthemselves daily superintending, correcting, and teaching in the classes.\\nIt is a leading object in the management of this institution to train up a\\nrace of teachers who shall not only elevate the office by the respectability\\nof their attainments, but adorn it by the fervor of their poetry. Each\\ncandidate is presented, on admission, with a copy of the following hints,\\naccompanying the regulations to which he will be expected to attend\\nI. Let your mind frcquf.ntly and seriously revert to the objects w/tic/t ore to be obtai)ied\\nby your residence in the Society^s House. You have at once to acquire and to communicate,\\nto learn and to teacl:. to govern and to submit to government and you have to do tiiis, not in re-\\nlation to one mind only, but to many minds, of different quality, under varying circumstances,\\nas an e-xemplar. and as subordinate to others. You have MUCH to do. Therefore\\nII. Redeem yuar Time. Do not think it sufiiciein to attend regularly and diligently to np-\\npoi/i(f(/ studies, but improve the intervals of time which will necessarily elapse between these stated\\nemployments. Secure the minutes, for minutes compose hours. Ten minutes, diligently im-\\nproved every day. will amount to an hour in the course of a week and an hour thus redeemed\\nevery ciny, will be equal in value to no small portion of a year.\\nIII. Cultiviile Habits of Order. Avoid negligence in personal appearance. Bealwaysneat\\nand clean in your app.irel. Let those pursuits which are most important in reference to your ex-\\npected engagements receive the greatest share of your attention and never suffer these to be in-\\nterrupted or superseded by others of a more general nature. Do not allow levity and tritting to\\nusurp the place of rational cheerfulness. Avoid the very appearance of evil. Attend to all\\nestablished regulations. He who wilfully breaks rules which are calculated to promote the wel-\\nfare of the cormnunity to which he belongs, is the common enemy of all.\\nIV. Cherish a kind and friendly di. iposiiion towards your Associates. Let this be shown by\\na general spirit of courtesy, a willingness to assist where help may be needed, and especially by\\nthe communication to others of any knowledge you may exclusively possess. Manifest a decided\\ndisapprobation of unbecoming conduct wherever you observe it and, jealous for the honor of the\\nbody to which you belong, endeavor to stimulate every pupil to diligence and apal in the pursuit\\nof those great objects for the attainment of which all are alike receiving the countenance and aid\\nof the Society.\\nV. Exercise a constant Spirit of Watchfulness unto Prayer. Remembering that you\\nare responsible to God for the right improvenleut of the advantages you enjoy, the talents you\\npossess, and the time placed at your dispo.sal seek daily for the wisdom which cometh from\\nabove, and the grace which bringeth salvation. Be yourself a diligent and devotional stu-\\ndent of that book you are emphatically to teach and never forget that all Scripture is given\\nby inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in\\nrighteousness that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto good works. (2\\nTim. iii. 16, 17.)\\nPeriodical examinations of the student teachers take place in the pre-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0788.jp2"}, "787": {"fulltext": "BOROUGH ROAD NORMAL SCHOOL. 785\\nBence of the Committee, and upon the results of these examinations its\\nmembers appear to base their assertion, that by the efforts of the Society,\\nrestricted as those efforts may ever have been by external obstacles and inter-\\nnal want of resources, more elevated views of the teacher s office and duty\\nhave been promulgated a greater moral power has been given to popular\\ninstruction; and, as a necessary consequence, the school-master has been\\nin some measure raised in public estimation, though not by any means so\\nmuch as the importance of the office deserves. Letters from all parts of\\nthe country have borne testimony to the patience, diligence, and piety of\\nmany of the laborers whom the Society have sent forth. The best evi-\\ndence, however, of the general satisfaction which has been given, is to be\\nfound in the increasing applications for teachers, which pour in from all\\nquarters a demand largely exceeding the ability of the Committee to\\nsupply.\\nIf by any means its resources could be so augmented, and its duties so\\nshared with svipplemental institutions, that it could retain its student\\nteachers on terms consistent with their interests and those of the schools\\nto be supplied, for quadruple the time of their present stay, for two years\\ninstead of six months, such an arrangement alone would ultimately be\\nproductive of incalculable advantage to that great branch of the popular\\neducation of England wliich comes under its influence.\\nThe teachers trained in the institution, resident in and near the metro-\\npolis, enjoy the advantage of periodical meetings in the theatre of the\\ninstitution for professional discussions; as likewise of attendance at a\\ncourse of lectures provided by the Society each winter since 1837, for their\\ngratification and instruction. During the summer vacation a number of\\nmale teachers of British schools, from various parts of the country, known\\nto the Committee through their inspectors, as persons who would really\\nprofit by such an opportunity for supplemental study, are invited to a rapid\\ncourse of instruction in the art of teaching and governing in a school, and\\nto take up their residence in the Society s house during its continuance.\\nThis opportunity of revising and improving upon their actual methods is\\nof great value; and those who have enjoyed the advantages of it are\\nwarm in acknowledging them. Indeed, the British school teachers\\nthroughout the kingdom generally, maintain relations with the parent\\nSociety, because it is the centre of all applications for new teachers, and,\\ntherefore, the principal source of promotion.\\n50", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0789.jp2"}, "788": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0790.jp2"}, "789": {"fulltext": "NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS,\\nOF THE\\nHOME AND COLONIAL INFANT AND JUVENILE SCHOOL SOCIETY.\\nThe Home and Colonial Infant and Juvenile School Society, under whose\\nauspices the Normal and Model Schools described below are conducted, was\\nfounded in 1836, and has since that time educated upwards of two thou-\\nsand teachers for Infant and Juvenile Schools. The Committee in their\\nfirst Report, made in February, 1837, state with much force the reasons\\nthat suggested the formation of the Society. The Committee may with-\\nout fear of contradiction assert, that few situations in life require so much\\ndiscretion, so much energy, so much tenderness, so much self-control, and\\nlove, as that of a teacher of babes that to guide and govern an infant-\\nschool well calls for wisdom to discern, versatility to modify, firmness to\\npersevere, judgment to decide and they may add that no uneducated or\\nundisciplined mind can supply the incessant care, the watchful diligence,\\nthe unwearied patience necessary to manage young children.\\nOne of the first duties of the Committee of the Society was to reduce\\ninfant instruction to a system, the necessity for which must have been\\nobvious to all who have observed the trifling desultory way in which infant\\nschools were too often conducted by untrained teachers. For this purpose\\nit was absolutely necessary to found a model infant-school, and also to pre-\\npare a set of text-books for the use of teachers. Both these objects were\\ncarried out, and the Society having constantly kept in view the necessity of\\nimproving their system, now possess an admirable Model Infant School,\\na Juvenile School for children between six and ten years, in which the\\nplan adpoted with the infants is carried out in its development with\\nthose of riper years and have published a series of text-books for the\\nuse of infant-teachers, obviously drawn up with the utmost care, and\\nexcellently fitted for the purpose in view.\\nThe establishment is located in Grays Inn Road, and contains accom-\\nmodation for a Model Infant School for children between the ages of two\\nand six for a Juvenile Model School for children between the age of six\\nand sixteen, and for sixty persons sent to be trained as teachers. The follow-\\ning documents, published by the Society, exhibit the qualifications of candi-\\ndates, and the course of instruction pursued in both the Model School, and\\nthe Training Department.\\nQualifications of Candidates who enter the histitviion to be recmmnended by the\\nCommittee to Schools, and the Conditions under which they are admitted.\\nThe Committee receive into their Institution, in Gray s Inn Road, near King a\\nCross, for a limited period, persons either desirous to enter for the first time upon\\nthe work, or those who, having engaged in it, feel their own deficiency, and are\\nanxious for improvement.\\nIn order to prevent disappointment and mistakes, the Committee think it neces-\\nsary to state what they Consider the necessary qualifications of candidates, and the\\nconditions under which they are received,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0791.jp2"}, "790": {"fulltext": "V88 NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\nQualifications. 1. Religious and Moral Principles. As the primary object of\\nearly education is to cultivate religious principles and moral sentiments to awaken\\nthe tender mind to a sense of its evil dispositions and habitual failings, b.efore it is\\nbecome callous by its daily intercourse with vice and to lead it to that Saviour\\nwho so tenderly received such little ones, and blessed them to accustom them to\\ntrace the hand of their heavenly Father in liis works of providence and grace; and\\nto be impressed with the truth that his eye is ever upon them since such is the\\nprimary object, an object which if unattempted, early education is valueless; the\\nCommittee consider that, in addition to an unimpeachable and moral character,\\ndecided piety is indispensable, and that without it no teacher can be fitted for the\\nwork.\\n2. Natural Disposition and Abilities. There are certain qualifications of tem-\\nper looked for in the teacher of young childi-en. The power of sympathy is felt by\\nall, but its effect upon children is almost incalculable on this account an animated\\nlively manner, tempered by self-possession, and a cheerful good humor, combined\\nwith gentle firmness, are very important. To these sliould be added, that natural\\nfondness for cliildren whicli leads to a participation in all their little pleasures and\\nf)ains, and bears patiently with their infirmities and ill humors. It is also particu-\\narly necessary that infant school teachers should possess an aptitude to teach, the\\nability of drawing out and directing the powers of children, a quickness of percep-\\ntion to see the effect of tlie instruction they are giving, and a readiness in availing\\nthemselves of accidental circmnstances to awaken moral sentiment, or draw out\\nsome intellectual faculty.\\nAcquirements. It would be desirable that a candidate should be able to read, to\\nwrite a tolerable hand, to sing, should know the simple rules of arithmetic, be well\\nacquainted with the Word of God, and possess some information in grammar, geo-\\ngraphy, and natural history.\\nIt will be seen tliat they think the office of teacher requires certain indispensable\\nnatural qualifications and some attainments and, having this opinion, the Commit-\\ntee would earnestly entreat those interested in the cause of early education to\\npatronize only such persons as their judgment can fully approve, every facility for\\nthe improvement of those who devote themselves to the work being now afforded\\non reasonable terms.\\nConditions. 1. The Committee receive candidates in the first instance on proba-\\ntion and on or before the expiration of a month, their qualifications are reported\\non by the superintendent in communication with the master of tlie model school\\nand if the report be satisfactory, they are allowed to contmue if not, they leave\\nthe Institution.\\n2. All candidates who are to be recommended to schools arc to remain twenty-\\nfour weeks in the house, and the Committee can not receive any who will not come\\nin for that time. The wives of married candidates remain such time as the Com-\\nmittee decide in each case, if they can not remain as it is much to be desired that\\nthey should the whole time.\\n3. The charge is reduced to Ys. a week, making \u00c2\u00a38 8s. for the twenty-four weeks,\\nwhich includes every expense, except ashing.\\n4. Mariied men are now admitted to be trained as teachers of juvenile schools,\\nwithout their wives, on the above terms, viz. 7s. a week, for twenty-four weeks,\\nfinding their own lodgings.\\n5. Unmarried men are not trained in the Institution.\\n6. Six young females, not exceeding seventeen years of age, are received as pupil\\nteachers for one, two, or three years, according to their age, at an annual charge of\\n\u00c2\u00a325, which includes washing and books.\\n7. The admission of teachers for short periods having been found very inconveni-\\nent to the arrangements of the Institution, and attended with comparatively little\\nbenefit, the Committee do not receive teachers for less than six weeks, unless they\\nhave actually the care of schools, and are, in consequence, unable to remain for that\\ntime.\\n8. The return of teachers to the Institution contributing greatly to their improve-\\nment, tlie Committee agree to allow all teacliers who have been regularly trained\\nthere to re-enter for one month, at a charge of \u00c2\u00a31 only, or six weeks for \u00c2\u00a31 10s.,\\nwhether the money is paid by the teachers or from school funds.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0792.jp2"}, "791": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS. 789\\nCotmsE of Instrcctiox for the Teachers in training at the Home and Colonial\\nInfant and Juvenile School yociEXY.\\nI. Scripture. The authenticit} of tlie Bilile and the evidences of Christianity\\na general view of the different books of the Bible a daily Scriptm-e text witli re-\\nmarks, chiefly of a practical natnre instruction in the most important doctrines of\\nthe Bible to promote real religion, the lessons especially bearing upon the duties\\nand trials of teachers.\\nII. Writing and Spelling.\\nIII. Language. Grammar etymology composition.\\nIV. Number. Mental arithmetic; ciphering.\\nV. Form. Lines and angles superticies solids.\\nVI. Natural History. Mammals; birds; plants.\\nVII. Elementary Drawing. For the cultiva^on of taste and invention; as an\\nimitative art.\\nVIII. Vocal Music. Singing the notation of music.\\nIX. Geography. A general view of the world England and its colonies\\nPalestine.\\nX. Objects. The parts, qualities, and uses of common objects the essential\\nproperties of matter.\\nXL Educational Lessons. Principles of education as founded on the nature\\nof cliildren on the government of children, and moral training on subjects for\\nlessons on graduated instruction on methods of teaching on writing and giving\\nlessons.\\nXII. Physical Exercises.\\nFirst or Lowest Class. Six Weeks.\\nThe students in this class are chiefly occupied in receiving instruction for their own improve-\\nment, with a view to their future training.\\nH. M. Morning.\\n8 15. The business of the day is commenced with a text from Scripture, and remarks. This is\\nfollowed by an educational motto, setting forth some principle or practice of education,\\non which a few remarlcs are also made.\\n8^ 30. A le.sson on Scripture.\\n9 15 Practice in singing pieces from Hymns and Poetry.\\n9 30. A lesson on objects, or the properties of matter.\\n10 30. Recreation.\\n10 45. Observing a lesson given to the children in one of the practicing schools by the superin-\\ntendent of those schools.\\n11 30. A lesson on language.\\n12 30. Dismissal. Afternoon.\\n2 0. A lesson previously given in the preparatory or practising schools, examined as to it3\\nobject, and the metliod of giving it.\\n3 0. A lesson on number.\\n4 0. A le.sson in singing and the notation of music, or in drawing, for the cultivation of tasto\\nand invention.\\n5 0. Wallcing exercise on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.\\n5 30. Dismissal on Tuesday and Thursday.\\nEvening.\\nC 30. Scripture instruction, or analyzing lessons in Model Lessons.\\n7 30. Entering heads of lessons in note-books.\\n9 15. Dismissal.\\nSatttrday.\\n8 15 A Scripture text and educational motto, as on the previous days.\\n8 30. Scripture instruction.\\n9 30. Gymnastics, under a drill-sergeant.\\n10 30. Scripture instruction.\\n11 30. Entering heads of lessons in note-books.\\nNote. The afternoon of Saturday is a holiday for all the teachers in the Institution.\\nSecond Class. Twelve Weeks.\\nAs the students now begin what may properly be called their training, more time is appropri-\\nated to the principles and practice of early education.\\nII M. Morning.\\n15. A Scripture text and educational motto as to the lowest class.\\n8 30. A lesson to the upper section of the class in geography, or on the principles and practice\\nof early education, and to the lower section on Scripture.\\n15. A lesson on number or drawing as an imitative art.\\nI II 0. In charge of classes of children in the schools, or a continuation of the lesson on drawing\\n10 45. A lesson on the principles and practice of early education.\\n1 1 .30. Attending and remarking on gallery lessons given by students of the class,\\ni 2 30. Dismissal.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0793.jp2"}, "792": {"fulltext": "790\\nNORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\n.3\\nM. Afternoon.\\n0. In charge of classes of children in the schools.\\n30. Observing a lesson given to the children by the mistress of the infant schooL\\n0. Drawing up sketches of lessons, or analyzing lessons in Model Lessons, or other exer*\\ncises of the same kind.\\n4 0. Notation of music, or practising drawing.\\n5 0. Walking exercise on JVtonday, Wednesday, and Friday.\\nEvening.\\n6 30. A lesson on Scripture, or natural history.\\n7 30. Entering notes in daily journals.*\\n9 15. Dismissal.\\nSaturday.\\n8 15. A Scripture text and educational motto, as in the other days of the week.\\ns 30. A lesson to the upper section of the class on geography, and to the lower section on\\nScripture.\\n9 30. Gymnastics.\\n10 30. A lesson on Scripture.\\n1 1 30. Entering notes in daily journals.\\nThird Class.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Six Weeks.\\nThe previous instruction and practice of the students is now brought to bear upon the govern-\\nment of large numbers of children, and the time is chiefly employed as assistants in the schools,\\nor in taking the entire matiagement of one of the small practicing schools. When they are not so\\nemployed, their time is occupied as follows, viz.\\nH. M. Morning.\\n8 15. A Scripture text and educational motto.\\n8 30. A lesson on the principles and practice of early education, or on geography.\\n9 15. In the schools employed as general assistants.\\n30. Dismissal.\\nAfternoon.\\n0. In the schools as before.\\n0. Dismissal. Evening.\\n30. A lesson on natural history or Scripture.\\n30. Entering notes in daily journals.\\n15. Dismissal. Saturday.\\n15. A Scripture text and educational motto,\\n30. A lesson on geography.\\n30. Gymnastics.\\n30. A Scripture lesson.\\n30. Entering notes in daily journals.\\nTime allotted to each subject of study.\\nThe following table exhibits the time weekly allotted in the different classes to each subject of\\nstudy, and also the average weekly time.\\nI. General Improvement Scripture\\nWriting and spelling, reports of lessons, o.\\nLanguage\\nNumber and form i\\nNatural history\\nGeography, including the Holy Land\\nObjects\\nVocal music -----i.-\\nDrawing\\nGymnastics and walking exercise\\nII. Lessons on the principles and practice of early education\\nIII. Practice in the Schools Taking charge of classes,\\nand afterwards of galleries of children i\\nGiving an opinion on the lessons of other teachers,\\nGiving lessons publicly\\nAttending as assistants in the schools\\nHaving the sole charge of schools under inspection\\nRecapitulation General improvement\\nPrinciples and practice of education\\nSchool practice\\nTotal number of hours weekly\\nCla\\nH. M.\\n8 30\\n10 30\\n6 15\\n5\\n6 15\\n4 15\\n3\\n1 6\\n11 15\\n44\\n45\\n11\\n15\\nH. M.\\n7\\n12 30\\n2 15\\n4 30\\n35\\n12 30\\nS 30\\nClass.\\nThird\\nClass.\\nAv raere\\nWeekly\\nSecond\\nPcrioil.\\nH. M.\\nH.\\nM.\\nH. M.\\n7\\n3\\n45\\n6 34\\n12 30\\n10\\n30\\n11 30\\n2 7\\n2 15\\n1 49\\n3\\n3\\n2 15\\n1 15\\n2\\n30\\n1 11\\n1 34\\n3\\n2 34\\n5\\n3 15\\n1\\n1\\n1\\n12 45\\n3\\n9 45\\n4\\n2\\n4 30\\n2 15\\n32\\n15\\n10 11\\n34 45\\n21)\\n45\\n34\\n1-2 45\\n3\\n9 45\\n8 30\\n3)\\n15\\n12 15\\n56\\n56\\n56\\nMuch time and attention are given to these journals, both by the students and those who ilutruot them, u\\nwell as by the ladies of the Committee, to whom they are sent for exouiiuatiou.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0794.jp2"}, "793": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\n791\\nIt IB deemed unnecessary to give any syllabus of the courses of ordinary in-\\nstruction, but the following syllabus of lessons on the principles and practice of\\nearly education, is annexed, as it shows what is in some degree peculiar to this in-\\nstitution.\\nJP irst Course.\\nIt is a distinctive feature at this course that the ideas are chiefly gained from\\nexamples presented to the students. The lessons are mahily explanatory of the\\nexamples.\\nI. Lesson on the daily routine of employment in the Institution^ The instruc-\\ntions by the committee for students. General rules and regulations.\\nIL Examination and analysis of lessons from Model Lessons, viz.\\nLessons on objects, Part I. p. 51-93.\\ncolor, Part I. p. 149-157.\\nanimals, Part L p. 160-165.\\nnumber, Part L p. 103-140.\\nScripture Lessons, Part III. p. 1-28.\\nIII. Drawing out sketches of lessons on various subjects, after the example of\\nthose analyzed.\\nI. On Objects.\\n1. On a shell or leaf, according to the model of a lesson on a feather.\\n2. Copper or iron\\nlead.\\n3. Tea or sealing wax\\nloaf sugar.\\n4. Vinegar or ink\\nu\\nmilk\\n5. Recapitulation.\\n6. Parchment\\npaper.\\n7. Cloth\\nleather.\\n8. Pipeclay\\nM u\\nchalk.\\n9. Wood or rice\\nU 11\\ncoal.\\n10. Recapitulation.\\n11. A candle or hammer\\nu\\nlead.\\n12. A turnip or acorn\\nu u\\na rose-leaf\\n13. An egg\\nhoneycomb.\\n14. A bird or bee\\na butterfly.\\n16. Recapitulatioa\\nII.-\\n-On Animals.\\n1. Sheep model hare.\\n2. Goat\\nmodel cow.\\nIll\u00e2\u0080\u0094 On Color.\\nL The color blue model\u00e2\u0080\u0094 red. 2. Color yellow model\u00e2\u0080\u0094 green.\\nIV. Lessons in which Practical Remarks form the text-book.\\nV. On the art of questioning children, and on the different methods of giving\\nlessons.\\nThe students afterwards draw out lessons in full, according to models\\ngiven.\\nVI. On the best method of drawing out children s observation upon the objects\\naround them, and upon the circumstances in wliich they are placed, and\\non fixing the knowledge so gained in the mind.\\nVIL The characteristics of young children that must be kept in view and acted\\nupon, in order to secure their attention^ to interest them in their lessons,\\nand to gain ascendency over them.\\n1. Love of activity.\\n2. Love of imitation.\\n3. Curiosity, or love of knowledge.\\n4. Susceptibility to kindness and sympathy.\\n5. Deficiency in the power of attention.\\n6. The love of frequent change.\\n7. The force of early association.\\n8. Disposition to repeat the means by which they have once at-\\ntained their ends.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0795.jp2"}, "794": {"fulltext": "V92 NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\nVIII. On the senses, and the use to be made of them in early education.\\nIX. The gallery lessons given to the children of the preparatory or practicing\\nschools, as to the subjects, the manner of treating them, and their bear-\\ning upon the education of the children.\\nFirst Preparatory School. 1. Form 1st step.\\n2. Color 1st and 2nd step.\\n3. Size 1st step.\\n4. Actions 1st step.\\n5. Human body 1st step.\\n6. Objects 1st step.\\n7. Number 1st step.\\n8. Religious instruction 1st step.\\n9. Sounds 1st step.\\nSecond Preparatory School. 1. Form 2nd step.\\n2. Color 3rd and 4th step.\\n3. Size 2nd step.\\n4. Actions 2nd step.\\n6. Place 1st step.\\n6. Objects 2nd step.\\n7. Animals 2nd step.\\n8. Number 2nd and 3rd step.\\n9. Moral instruction 2nd step.\\n10. Religious instruction 2nd step.\\n11. Sounds 2nd step.\\nX. A general view of the different subjects of instruction in the preparatory\\nschools, with a view to lead the students to draw from them principles\\nand plans of teaching.\\nSecond Course.\\nI. Instructions on familiar or conversational lessons, and on the subjects chosen\\nfor these lessons, in the preparatory schools.\\nII. Analysis of lessons in Model Lessons.\\n1. Form, Part II. p. 150-226.\\n2. The human body, Part I. p. 24-50.\\n3. A flower, Part H. p. 65-76.\\n4. Scripture lessons, Part II. p. 1-21.\\n5. Bible examination, Part II. p. 125-132.\\nin. Drawing up sketches of lessons in writing, according to a given model,\\nfirst, singly, and then in a series or course.\\nObjects.\\n1. On sugar, after tlie model of the lesson on bread.\\n2. Spices and liquids corns.\\n3. Leather and silk cotton.\\nAnimals.\\n1. On a tiger Model A pheasant\\n2. The elephant and the cat A pig.\\n3. Different kinds of teeth Different kinds of feet\\nof animals.\\n4. Comparison of parts of a\\nquadruped and bird. Hand and foot.\\nScripture Illustrations.\\n1. The sun and the dew. Model The rainbow.\\n2. Sheep lion The vine.\\n3. Fishermen of Galilee The shepherds of Judsea.\\nScripture Narratives.\\n1. On the Prodigal Son, and on Model Joseph s forgiveness\\n2. The Brazen Serpent of his l\u00c2\u00bb:ethreii.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0796.jp2"}, "795": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS. ^93\\n8. David s Veneration for his King Solomon s respect\\nfor his mother.\\n4. The Nobleman s Son. Mark x. 46 to 52.\\nIn Series or Course.\\n1. A variety of sketches, after the model of the lesson on\\nwater.\\n2. A series of sketches on a given subject on\\nprayer, fec., as in Model Lessons, Part III p. 24, \u00c2\u00abtc.\\n8. A graduated series of sketches on the on a\\nsame subject. straw, a cat, c.\\n4. On the subjects appointed for lessons weekly at the differ-\\nent galleries.\\nIV. Writing out lessons in full on specified subjects As\\n1. To develop the idea of Inodorous.\\n2. Pliable.\\n3. Tasteless.\\n4. Soluble and fusible.\\n5. Semitransparent.\\n6. Elastic.\\n7. Aromatic.\\n8. Natural and artificial\\n9. Lesson on an elephant.\\n10. Comparison of the cow and pig.\\nIL A piece of poetry.\\n12. The rambow.\\n18. The addition or subtraction of 8.\\n14. Explanation of the terms sum, rem\u00c2\u00a3under,\\nproduct, quotient.\\n15. Substance of lesson X. in Reiner s Lessons\\non Form.\\n16. On the illustration of the general truth, God\\nis angry with the wicked every day.\\nNote. The number of sketches and lessons which the students are enabled to\\ndraw out during tlieir training of course depends upon their ability and upon the\\nErevious education they have received. Some of these lessons are examined pub-\\ncly, that their excellencies or errors may be pointed out for the improvement of\\nthe class, the name of the writer being witliheld.\\nV. Gallery Lessons. With reference to the Gallery Lessons, instructions\\nare given on the following points\\n1. The sketch.\\n2. The subject-matter.\\n3. The summary.\\n4. The application of a moral subject.\\n5. On maintaining order and interest.\\n6. The exercise of the minds of the children, and the knowledge gained\\n7. The manner of the teacher.\\n8. Voice pronunciation.\\n9. Importance of attention to the whole gallery of childrea\\n10. On the use to be made of incidental circumstances.\\n11. On the questions to the children.\\n12. Mechanical plans.\\nVL On the subjects taught in the schools, their suitabilitj to the diildraa,\\nand the mode of treating them\\n1. Color.\\n2. Form.\\n8. Size.\\n4. Weight\\n6. Physical actions and operations.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0797.jp2"}, "796": {"fulltext": "704 NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\nA. Number.\\n7. Place, as preparatory to geography.\\n8. Sounds, as preparatory to singing and the notation of muda\\n9. Objects, includuig models of conmion utensils.\\n10. Teaching by pictures of common objects, and drawing objects before\\nchildren.\\n11. The human body.\\n12. Animals.\\n18. Moral instruction.\\n14. Religious instruction.\\n16. Teaching pieces of poetry.\\n16. Drawing and writing.\\n1*7. Reading and spelling.\\n18. Language, including composition, grammal*, and the explanation of\\nwords.\\n19. Number, form and language, as the elements of intellectual instruc-\\ntion.\\n20. Summary of the principles learnt in considering the subjects of lessons\\nfor infants.\\n21. Drawing out sketches of the different methods of giving lessons, and\\nthe uses to be made of them, showing which are bad and which are\\ngood, and those suitable to diflferent subjects.\\nVIL Miscellaneous:\\n1. A Course of educational mottoes.\\n2. On intuitive knowledge and early development.\\n8. On principles and plans of education.\\n4. Anecdotes of occurrences in the school, brought forward with a view\\nto form right principles of moral training and intellectual develop-\\nment.\\n6 On the play -ground, especially in reference to its influence in the in-\\ntellectual and moral training of cliildren.\\nThird Course.\\nL ^The practice of the school-room, and the principles on which it should be\\nregulated\\nThe school-room and its apparatus, including library, collection of objects\\n(fee.\\nThe opening and general arrangements of a schooL\\nAttendance, and the best method of raising and filling a schooL\\nAdmission payment, and first treatment of children.\\nGeneral order and quietness.\\nThe physical state of the children, health, cleanliness, neatness.\\nThe exercises of the school-room and play -ground.\\nThe division of time, and the subjects of lessons in a school.\\nModes of leading elder scholars to work, independently of the master s\\ndirect teaching.\\nThe government of a school with respect to its spirit and plans.\\nThe influence of numbers in teaching and moral training.\\nRewards, punishments, emulation.\\nAssistance, including paid assistants and monitors the monitorial system.\\nThe defects and advantages of the individual, and simultaneous methods of\\ninstruction, and the use of the ellipses.\\nExaminations by the teacher, for parents and for subscribers.\\nHolidays.\\nII. Points respecting teachers\\nThe intellectual and moral qualifications of a teacher, and the circuniistances\\nwhich affect him in his labors.\\nThe conduct of teachers to parents, committees, inspectors, and the public.\\nThe means by which teachers may carry on thdr own improvement.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0798.jp2"}, "797": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS. 795\\nTTT. On the mental and moral constitution of children with reference to the\\nprinciples on which education sliould be based\\nMental.\\nThe various operations of the mind, intellectual and moral, and the wisdom\\nand goodness of God which they display.\\nThe dependence of one intellectual faculty upon another, and the necessity\\nfor tJie orderly and progressive development of the whole.\\nThe intellectual diversities of children, and the method of treating each\\nvariety of character.\\nMoral.\\nThe importance of moral training on a religious basis, showing how the\\nBible should be our guide.\\nDiver.^ies in the moral character of children, and the method of treating\\neach, viz..\\nAttachments of cliildren.\\nAnger, and the treatment of passionate cliildren.\\nQuarrelsome children.\\nChildren disposed to injure and destroy.\\nCunning children.\\nCovetous children.\\nFear, and its use and abuse, as a means of discipline with children.\\nFirmness, and its tendency to become obstinacy.\\nThe love of distinction and applause.\\nThe cultivation of benevolence.\\nThe sense of right and wrong.\\nRespect.\\nObedience.\\nrV. General truths respecting the operations of the minds and moral feelings,\\nand the uses to be made of them in the education of children.\\nThe Graduated Course of Instrnction pursued in the Model Schools.\\nI. Religious Instruction. \\\\st step Moral Impressions. The children of this\\ngallery are very young, direct religious instruction can scarcely be attempted at\\nfirst, but their moral sen-;e is to be cultivated, and moral habits formed. For in-\\nstance, little acts of obedience are to be required from them their conduct to-\\nwards each other regulated, and little conversational lessons are to be given upon\\nthe kindness of their parents and teachers, with a view to develop the feeling of\\nlove, and to instruct them in their duties.\\n2nd step Fir.^t Ideas of God. The object, as the children advance, is to pro-\\nduce the first impressions of their Heavenly Father to lead them to feel some-\\nwhat of liis power from its manifestation in those works of his with which they\\nare familiar and somewhat of his benevolence, by comparing it with the love\\nshown them by then- parents and friends.\\nZrd step A Scripture Print. The story to be gathered from the picture, by\\ndirecting the attention of the children to it. and by questioning them. A portion\\nof the Scripture should be given, that the children may connect the narrative with\\nthe Bible, and receive it as Divine instruction. The children should abo be en-\\ncouraged to make their remarks, by which the teacher may ascertain liow far\\ntheir ideas are correct. The object of the lesson should be to make a religious\\nand moral impression.\\nUh step: Scripture Narratives. The incidents or characters should be chose\\nwith a view to inculcate some important truth or influential precept. Elliptical\\nteaching should be introduced to help the children to receive the story as a whole,\\nand to sum up the lesson. In giving these lessons, the storv itself should be either\\nread from the Bible, or partly n^ad and partly narrated, and pictures only used\\noccasionally, to illustrate and throw interest into the subject. Teachers ought well\\nto consider the dilferent positions that pictures should occupy in the different stages\\nof instruction.\\nbth step Scripture Illustrations of Doctrines and Predepts. ^NaiTativea,\\nchosen with a view to inculcate some of the moat simple and fundamental doo*", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0799.jp2"}, "798": {"fulltext": "796 NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\ntrines of Christianity. For instance, sin, its nature, introduction into the \\\\7orld, its\\nconsequences, and the remedy provided for it in the sacrifice of the Saviour. As\\nthe children advance, some lessons to be given to illustrate the natural history of\\nthe Bible.\\nNorE. Tn the first or early lessons on Scripture narratives, the truth or pre-\\ncept should be drawn from the story by the children. In the later lessons, the\\nprecept or religious truth or duty may be stated as the subject of the lesson, and\\nthe children required to discover what Scripture narratives illustrate the truth or\\nprecept they are considering.\\nMil step. A course from the Bible, or a course on the Natural History of the\\nBible. On Monday, Scripture geography.\\nII. Objects. \\\\st step. Distinguishing or naming three or four common ob-\\njects, and telling their uses or distinguishing and naming the parts of common\\nobjects, and stating their uses.\\nIndstep. One Object chosen that exhibits m a remarkable degree some par-\\nticular quality, that the idea of that quality may be developed. Another, having\\ndistinct parts, which the children are to discover, and of which they are told the\\nnames.\\nZrd step One Object. The children to find out the quaUtics that can be dis-\\ncovered by the senses alone also to distinguish and name the parts.\\n4 /t step Miscellaneous Objects, Metals, Eartlts, Liquids, jcc. One Object.\\nTlic children to extend their observations to qualities, beyond those wliich are im-\\nmediately discoverable by the senses. A little simple information to be given at\\nthis stage on the natural history or manufacture of the object, after the children s\\nobservation has been called out.\\n5th step Several objects. The children to compare them, and point out their\\npoints of resemblance and difference.\\nIII. Toys. Model toys of kitchen utensils, common carpenters tools, c.,\\nnaming them, and telling or showing their uses.\\nIV. Pictures. 1st step. Groups of objects or single figm-es, naming and\\ntalking about tliem.\\n27id step. Part of the lesson to be on the recollection of a picture used in a\\nformer lesson part on a picture of common objects.\\nV. Human Body. 1st step. Distinguishing the principal parts of the human\\nbody, the teacher naming them or the children exercising any part of the body\\nas directed. This lesson should be accompanied with considerable action, to ani-\\nmate the children.\\n2nd step. Distinguishing the secondary parts of the body. This lesson to be\\nextended to the parts of the principal parts of the human body, the teacher con-\\ntinuing to name them a good deal of action still to be used.\\nSrd step. Distinguishing the parts of the principal parts of the human body\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthe children naming them, and telling their uses.\\nVI. Form. 1st step. Distinguisliing the patterns of shapes for the purpose of\\ndeveloping the idea of form the children to distinguish them no names being\\nused.\\n2nd step. The children continuing to select the patterns of shapes, according\\nto the one shown when perfect in this, they may select all those that have the\\nsame number and kind of edges, and the same number of corner^.\\nSrd step. The children to determine the number of sides and corners in planes,\\nwhether the sides are straight or curved also to learn the names of the planes.\\n4 /t step. A solid is sho^vn, and the children select all those that resemble it\\nin some points the names of the solids are not to be given. The letters of the\\nalphabet to be examined, and the number and direction of their hnes to be deter-\\nmined.\\n5th step. To determine the length of different measures, learn their names, and\\npractice the introductory lessons on Form in Model Lessons, part II.\\nth step. The course of lessons on Form in Model Lessons, part II.\\nVII. Animals. 1st step A Domestic Ani^nal. A pictm-e or a stuffed speci-\\nmen may be shown. The children to be encouraged in talking about it, to say", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0800.jp2"}, "799": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS. Y97\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2what they observe or know, without reference to any arrangement, the aim of the\\ninstruction being to elicit observation, to cultivate tlie power of expression, and\\nespecially to encourage humane and benevolent feelings towards the inferior crea-\\ntion. At this stage it is well sometimes to allow the children themselves to pro-\\npose the animal that they are to talk about.\\n2nd step A Domestic Animal. Children to nanie its parts, color, size, and\\nappearance. An attempt should be made in this stage, at a httle arrangement of\\nthe subject, but it should not be too rigidly required. One principal object should\\nbe to encouragehumane and benevolent feelings towards the lower animals.\\n^rd step A Domestic Animal. Children to describe the uses of domestic ani-\\nmals, their difiereut actions, and with what limb they perform any action, the\\nsounds they make, our duties with respect to them, c. These alternate weekly\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with\\n4th step Animals and Human Body. The children to describe where the\\ndifferent parts of the human body are situated, and to compare those parts with\\nthe parts of animals, pointing out in what they are alike, in what they differ, and\\nhow fitted to the habits and wants of man, or of the different animals. See course\\nin Model Lessons, part I.\\nbth step Wild A)umals. Children to tell their parts, color, size, and appear-\\nance to point out h(jw particularly distinguished, and to learn something of their\\nhabits and residence being led to perceive how the annual is fitted by the Al-\\nmighty for its habits and locality.\\nVIII. Plants. 1st step. Naming the parts of plants, and telling their use3\\nto man as food, fec.\\n2nd gtep.\u00e2\u0080\u0094iiee course in Model Lessons, part II.\\nIX. Number. 1st step First Idea of Number. Tlie idea of the numbers\\nfrom 1 to 5 or 6, to be developed by the use of the ball frame and miscellaneous\\nobjects, as exemplified in Reiner s ii^roductory lesson, Lessons on Number, re-\\nprinted, by permission of the author, for the use of the teachers of the institution,\\nm Papers on Ai-ithemetic to which may be added many additional exercises,\\nsuch as those in the 1st and 2nd sections of Arithmetic for young Children, c.\\n27idstep First Idea of Number. The idea of the numbers from 6 to 10 to be\\ndeveloped by the use of the ball frame, as before also the tu st and second exer-\\ncises in Model Lessons, p:u-t i., to be used as directed in that work.\\n^rd step Addition and Subtraction. The remainmg exercise under section I.,\\nalso the whole of the exercises on subtraction in the same work.\\n4 step. The more difficult exercises in Model Lessons, part i., Ac, accom-\\npanied by selected exercises from Arithmetic for Children.\\nbth step The Four Simple Rules. Exercises on the four simple rules, in num-\\nber from 10 to 100, from Papers on Arithmetic, and Lessons on Number;\\nalso simple explanations of the rules, leading the children to think of the opera-\\ntion they have been performing also, by numerous exercises, to lead them to\\nperceive some of the general properties of number.\\nX. Color. 1st step. Selecting colors according to a pattern shown, and ai*-\\nranging colors, no names beuig used.\\n2nd step. Learning the names of the different colors, and selecting them when\\ncalled for by name.\\n3r step. Distinguisliing and naming colors and shades of colors, and pro-\\nducing examples from surrounding objects with exercises on beads of different\\ncolors.\\n4th step. Distinguishing and naming shades of color, and producing examples\\nfrom memory.\\n5th step. The lessons in this step to be given on a specific color the children\\nare also to learn from seeing them mixed, liow the secondary colors are produced\\nfrom the primary.\\nXI. Drawing. From the age of the juveniles, and also from drawing not\\ncoming under the head of Gallery Lessons, the following course of exercises can-\\nnot be so well arranged into stages for the various schools. It is also thought\\ndesirable that one of the courses of lessons should be presented in a continuous", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0801.jp2"}, "800": {"fulltext": "798 NORMAL SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.\\nform, that the extent and variety of exercise which they are intended to give to\\nthe mind may be observed. Tlie courses form two series of exercises, commenced\\nin the infant-school, and completed in the juvenile-school.\\nFirst Series\u00e2\u0080\u0094 To Exercise the Eye alone.\\nMeasuring relatioely. Let the children determine the relative length of lines\\ndrawn in the same direction on the slate, i. e., which is longest, which is shortest,\\n,c. Whenever there is a difference of opinion, prove who is correct, by mea-\\nsuring.\\nDetermine the relative length of Uaes drawn in different directions on the\\nslate.\\nDetermine the relative distances between dots made on the slate.\\nDetermine the relative difference of the distances between different parallel\\nlines.\\nDetermine the relative size of angles.\\nDetermine the relative degree of inclination of lines from the perpendicular\\nfirst, by coinparini, them with a perpendicular line, drawn on am)ther part of the\\nslate and afterwards without this assistance.\\nThe same exercise with horizontal lines.\\nDetermine tlie relative size of circles, and then of portions of circles.\\nChildren called out to divide straight lines, drawn in different directions, into\\n2, 3, 4, (fee, equal or given parts, the others to state their opinions as to the cor-\\nrectness with which the operation has been done.\\nThe above exercise repeated with curved lines in different directions.\\nNote. Several of the above exercises may be applied to the lengths, fec., of\\nthe objects and pictures in the room.\\nIleasuriny by current Standards. The teacher to giro the children the idea of\\nan inch, nail, quarter of a yard, foot, half a yard, and yard, wlijch, at first, should\\nbe drawn in a conspicuous place, for the whole class to see.\\nTo decide the length of hues. First practice the children upon the inch, then\\nupon tlie nail, and so on up to the yard continually referring to the standard\\nmeasures.\\nNote. These exercises should be continued until the eye can decide with\\ntolerable accuracy.\\nDetermining the length of lines combmed in various rectilmear geometrical\\nfigures.\\nDetermining the circumference or girth of various objects.\\nDetermining distances of greater extent, such as the floor and walls of the\\nroom, the play-ground, kc., c.\\nPleasuring by any given Standard. Measuring sizes, heights, lengths^ fec., by\\nany given standard.\\nHow often a given standard will occupy any given space, with respect to su-\\nperficies.\\nSecond Series\u00e2\u0080\u0094 To Exercise both the Eye aiid Hand.\\nBefore commencing these exercises, it would be advisable to give the children\\ninstruction (in a class around the large slate) with regard to the manner of holding\\nthe pencil, the position of the hand in drawing lines in various directions. This\\nwill be found to duniuish the labor of attending to each individual separately. In-\\nstruction as to the position of the body may be left till the childi-eu are placed at\\nthe desks.\\nNote. The standard measures, used previously, should be painted on the\\nwalls, or placed conspicuously before the class in some manner, both horizontally\\nand perpendicularly, in order to accustom the children to them.\\nThe children to practice drawing straight lines in different directions, gradually\\nincreasing them in length. First perpendicular, second horizontal, third right ol\\nhque, foiu th left obhque.\\nTo draw lines of given lengths and directions.\\nTo divide the lines they draw into given parts.\\nTo draw curved hues in different directions, gradually increasing in size.\\nTo try how many angles they can make with 2, 3, 4,\\\\fec., lines.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0802.jp2"}, "801": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOL FOH PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS. ^99\\nTo try what they can make of 2, 3, 4, fec., curved lines. Then proceeding to\\ncopies first copying those formed of straight lines, then those of curved lines.\\nTo draw from copies.\\nNote. Tn the course of forming figures out of straight and curved lines, the\\nchildren should be taught to make the letters of the alphabet.\\nXII. Geography.^ \\\\-it step. The course consists of the following series of les-\\nsons 1. The cardinal points. 2. Tlie semi-cardinal points. 3. The necessity of\\nhaving fixed points. 4. The relative position of objects. 5. The boundaries of\\nthe school-room. 6. The boundaries of the play -ground. 1. The relative distances\\nof the parts and objects of the school-room. 8. The relative distances of the parts\\nand furniture of the school-room marked on a map, drawn on the large slate or\\nblack board with chalk, before the children. 9. The scale of a map. 10. Th\u00c2\u00ab\\nrelative positions and distances of different places on a map of the neighborboodp\\nU. The map of England. 12. The map of the IJoly Land,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0803.jp2"}, "802": {"fulltext": "SPECIMEN OF EXAMINATION PAPERS\\nOR\\nSCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING.\\nAt the risk of repeating some of the leading principles set forth in\\nthe foregoing Course of Instruction,^ we give below a Syllabus of\\nLessons on Education given in the same institution to students in\\ntraining for teachers in the schools of the Home and Colonial Infant and\\nJuvenile School Society.\\nExtracts from Syllabus of Lessons oi^ Education, given to Students\\nIN Training at the Home and Colonial School Society.\\nI- The Principles of Education as set forth by Pestalozzi.\\n1. On the Aim proposed by Pestalozzi in Education. This the first point to be con-\\nsidered Mistakes with respect to The true aim of education as it respects knowledge\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094intellectual and moral character Social relations\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Moral and religious duties\\nPrinciples on which based The proper work of the Teacher reduced Residts.\\n2. The Influence of a good Education. The little that has been done by education as\\nhitherto pursued Causes of this Influence of a good education on thought, feeling,\\nsentiment, opinion, c. Diflferent senses in which the child may be said to be father\\nof the man Influence of education established from examples Necessity of faith in\\nthis principle o,n the part of the Teacher Incidental and systematic education,\\ndifference between The Teacher to form a good intellectual and moral atmosphere\\nround the child Means of effecting this.\\n3. Education, Organic. Organs and organized bodies considered to illustrate this\\nDifference between growth from within carried on by organic action or development,\\nand increase from without effected by accretion Application\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Difference between\\nordinary elementary education and elementary education on the system of Pestalozzi\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Deductions as to liberty, activity, and power The application, especially as to\\nliberty, in the school-room and play-ground.\\n4. On Education being an entire Work. Pestalozzi s motto, Education has to work\\non the head, the hand, and the heart Dugald Stewart on the same point Pestalozzi\\nintroduced the principle into popular education The perfection to be aimed at in\\neducation, moral, Mistakes that have been made as to Pestalozzi s practice Pesta-\\nlozzi s estimate of the relative importance of the different elements of a child s nature,\\nand method of dealing with each.\\n5. Education should aim at the Gradual and Progressive Development of the Faculties.\\nExamples of graduated and progressive instruction as Proceeding from realities to\\nsigns, first natural, then artificial From particular facts to general truths From what\\nis simple to what is complex From the exercise of observation to the exercise of con-\\nception From the conception of material things to abstract ideas, c. The first step\\nto find something analogous in the experience of the child to the subject presented,\\nthus proceeding from the known to the unknown The child to be firm on one step\\nbefore proceeding to the next\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The extent to which graduation should be carried\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ex-\\ntremes to be avoided The graduations not to be too minute to prevent healthy\\nexercise.\\n6. Education should be Harmonious. The cultivation of all the faculties, not singly\\nand apart, but simultaneously.\\n7. The Character or Spirit of Education. Not to teach religion alone but all things\\nreligiously Illustration drawn from the circidation of the blood in the body Ex-\\nemplification of this spirit in the instruction, general management, and discipline of the\\nschool Results to be expected.\\n8. Early Education chiefly by Intuition. What is meant by intuition Examples\\nValuB of what is learned from experience Early education to lead to and prepare the\\nmind for books When commenced with books the mind often loaded with words con-\\nveying no definite meaning to children The powers of the mind in consequence often\\ncramped Intuitive teaching one of the leading features of Pestalozzi s system Con-\\nnection between intuitiTe and logical knowledge The assistance the former gives to", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0804.jp2"}, "803": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 801\\nthe latter Difference between the instruction of infants and juveniles, the one mainly\\nintuitive, the other principally lugical.\\n9. Differtnct betwetu Education and Instruction. An idea put forth strongly hy Pesta-\\nlozzi Origin and application of the words Points of difference Instruction com-\\nmunicated (though the subject may be clearly explained) does not produce the same\\ngood effect, as instruction employed as a means of mental discipline The proper\\nbearing of this distinction on the lessons of the Teacher.\\n10. Education of a Mixed Character. What this means Principle on which based\\nExamples Education should be practical as well as preceptive Illustrated by the\\nTeacher as well as enforced upon the child Applied individually as well as collec-\\ntively Direct instruction to be followed by study Public education united with\\nprivate and domestic Children to be carried rapidly over some subjects to develop\\npower and energy, slow ly over others to give habits of minute investigation Subjects\\nof instruction enumerated.\\n11. Systemx o/ Erfucafion.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Application of the word system^\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Views generally taken\\nof systems of education Characteristics of the chief popular systems, especially those\\nof Stow and Pestalozzi The one teaching chiefly through words picturing out, as\\nit is called, the other by things and words in their appropriate place The specious\\nboast of selecting what is good from every system The motto, That is the best\\nsystem which brings the powers of the mind under the best discipline, a test The\\nsystem of Pestalozzi founded on principles and adapted to the human mind, conse-\\nquently a philosophical system, might be called the natural system Different value\\no( principles and plans lUusl ration of this shown in the different kinds of value apper-\\ntaining to wheat and bread Advantage of principles in everything Many Teachers\\nappreciate plans only Principles the only true and safe guide.\\n2, Summary of the leading Principles of Pestalozzi.\\n1. Education ought to be essentially religious and moral.\\n2. Education ought to be essentially organic and complete, and not mechanical, su-\\nperficial, and partial, it should penetrate and regulate the entire being.\\n3. Education ought to be free and natural instead of being cramped, confined, sur-\\nvile The child should have sufficient liberty to manifest decidedly his individual\\ncharacter.\\n4. Education ought to he harmonious in all its parts It should be so carried on that\\nall the natural faculties, and all the acquired knovvledge agree and harmonize.\\n5. Education should be based on intuition, on a clear and distinct perception of the\\nsubject to be learned.\\n6. Education should be gradual and progressive, united in all parts, like a chain,\\nforming a continued series without gaps.\\n7. Education should be of a mixed character, uniting the private and the public; it\\nshould cultivate at the same time the social and domestic spirit,\\n8. Education should be synthetical every thing taught should be first reduced mto\\nits elements by the Teacher.\\n9. Education should be practical, drawing its means of development from the actual\\ncircumstances of life.\\nII. The Art of Teaching.\\n1. INTRODUCTORY COURSE.\\n1 Instructions as to the Mode of giving Familiar or Conversational Lessons, and on the\\nsubjects chosen for such lessons in the Practicing Schools of the Institution.\\n2. The Examination and Analysis of Lessons selected from Model Lessons, a work\\npublished by the Society.\\n3. Drawing out Sketches of Lessons on various Subjects, taking those before analyzed\\nas examples.\\n4. Different Methods of giving Lessons Compared, with a view to point out which are\\nbad and which good, also the methods suital)le to different subjects.\\n5. On the Art of Questioning. The importance of understanding this art One of the\\nplans of teaching much used by Pestalozzi Different objects in view in questioning\\nQuestions which only exercise memory Advantages of questioning Rules to be ob\\nserved and mistakes avoided Examples of different kinds of questions Of a train of\\nquestions Practice in the art of questioning.\\n2. ON GALLERY INSTRUCTION.\\n1. Introduction. The nature and importance of gallery instruction Children brought\\nunder the direct influence of the Teacher Facility thus afforded for securing order,\\nattention, progress, moral training\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Value in economizing labor The principle of suc-\\ncess to be found in the power of the sympathy of numbers Extent to which Teachers\\nshould avail themselves of this sympathy Its abuses Duties connected with gallery\\ninstruction.\\n2. Preparation of Lessons. Directions for making a good sketch Advantages of a\\n51", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0805.jp2"}, "804": {"fulltext": "802 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING.\\nfull sketch Importance of determining beforehand the chief points of the lesson, and\\nthe method of working theni out.\\n3. The Suhject vxatltr. Importance of attention to qiiantityand quality Rules by\\nwhich to be guided, and the principles upon winch based Advantage of clear and nat-\\nural arrangement\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The ideas to be thoroughly worked into the mind s of the children\\nsufficient but not too much new- matter to be presented properly, it being almost as\\nimportant how children learn as what they learn.\\n4. The Summary. Delinition of a summary The qualities of a good summary Its\\nuses Various ways of making a summary Advantage of its being well committed to\\nmemory or written out by the children.\\n5. Application of Moral arid Religious Lessons. The nature of this application ex-\\nplained The importance of applying moral and religious instruction\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Ol re(iuiring the\\nchildren to make the application themselves What is meant by impression Causes of\\nfailure in making religious instructiim impressive.\\n6. Order, Interest, and Attention.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The importance of order Causes of disorder\\nVarious means of obtaining and regaining order\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Difference between order and stiff-\\nness or restraint Importance of exciting interest Means of doing it Difference be\\ntween heaUliful activity of mind and excitement Attention how to be obtained and\\nkept up.\\n7. The Exercise to be given to the Minds of CA;7(ire\u00c2\u00ab.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Importance of producing activity\\nof the mind\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Amount of mental exercise to be given Means of giving it Teachers tell\\nloo much Ways of doing so, and causes.\\nfl. The Manner of the Teacher. Importance of manner, especially with young chil-\\ndren Different kinds of manner How each affects children The power of a decided\\nmanner\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Its abuse\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The effects of the voice in exciting different feelings Tones of\\nvoice suited to different subjects.\\n9. Attention to the tvhole Gallery. Temptations to attend to a fe.w children only\\nEffects Means of keeping up general attention Difficulties where a gallery is unhap-\\npily composed of children of different degrees of attainment How in part to be\\nobviated.\\n0. The Use to he made of Incidental Circumstances, especially in Moral Training.\\nEnumeration of those which most commonly occur in a gallery, and also in the play-\\nground\u00e2\u0080\u0094The influence that the notice of incidental circumstances has on the children,\\nas well in an intellectual as in a moral point of view Cautions against the abuse of\\nthis practice.\\n11. On the Language given to Children. Relatitm of language to ideas Right time of\\nsupplying language JNecessity for clearness and simplicity Fine words and technical\\nterms to be avoided.\\n3. ON CL.4SS INSTRUCTION.\\nUse of class lessons Mechanical arrangements Apparatus Amount of class in-\\nstruction to be given Subjects.\\n4.-^0N THE SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION, ETC., PROPER FOR AN INFANT SCHOOL.\\n1. On the Principles that should Regtdate. The choice of subjects should be suitable to\\nthe children s age Elementary character of the subjects^Necessity of having a uen-\\neral design in each course of lessons, as well as a particular design in each lesson\\nTlie importance of the instruction being of a graduated character Of its commencing\\nat the right starting point Subjects should be varied The reason and principles upon\\nwhich this is founded.\\n2 The subject stated. Color Object in view in lessons on color, and their suitable-\\nness to this oliject and to infant minds The graduated course of these lessons, with\\nreference to the work published by the Society, entitled, Graduated course of Instruc-\\ntion for Infant Schools and Nurseries Methods to be adopted in giving lessons Prin-\\nciples to be deduced.\\n3. The other subjects treated in a similar manner Form Size Weight Place\\nNumber Physical actions and employments Sounds, including practice in singing\\nCommon objects Pictures of common objects Drawing before children Human\\nbody Animals Plants Language Reading, Spelling, Writing Pieces of poetry\\nMoral instruction Religious instruction\\n5. ON THE SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION, ETC., PROPER FOR A JUVENILE SCHOOL.\\n1. Points in which a Juvenile School differs from an Infant School As to its organiza-\\ntion Division of time Classification of children Hoine-work Employment of Pupil-\\nTeachers Subjects of instruction calling the reasoning powers more into exercise\\nMethod of giving such subjects a more continuous and systematic character Mode of\\ntreating the children Morally, throwing them more upon their own responsibility\\nIntellectually, making them more independent of their Teachers,, and more accustomed\\nto gain information and knowledge from books, teaching them early to learn how to\\nlearn, i. e., to be self-educators.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0806.jp2"}, "805": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING. 803\\nm. The School-room, as to its Arrangement and Management.\\n1. The School-room. Influence of the appearance of the school-room on the chil-\\ndren s char;\u00c2\u00abcler\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Its effect on visitors Desits and their arrangement Cleaning; Ven-\\ntilation Temperature Order and decoration Apparatus What it is^ Its rightappre-\\ncialion Care to he taken of it.\\n2. The Opening of a New School, ^c. Preliminary steps to be taken Difficnitie.s\\nSpirit in which to commence Plans to be adopted Admission of children Register\\nand other books -Payments.\\n3. The Organization of a School. What it means Importance of good organization\\nPlans to be adopted\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -Treatment of new scholars Points requiring attention, as time-\\ntables, programmes, distribution of work, c.\\n4. Division or Classification of the Children. Importance of classification of the chil-\\ndren of an Inlant School Too much neglected hitherto The advantage seen in the\\nModel Schools of the Institution Arrangement in galleries and classes Principle\\nupon which this is made, of proficiency, not age or size The difficulties of Inlant\\nSchools, when Teachers have no assistance.\\n5. Regular and punctual Attendance, and the means of insuring it. Importance of the\\nsubject Diflferent causes of irregular attendance Method of dealing with each\\nMeans for securing attendance, supplying a good education, having well defined and\\npositive rules\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Quarterly pre-payment\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Punctual attendance How much depending\\non the Teacher s own habits Closing the door at a fixed hour Visiting the parents, c.\\nG The Dinner hour and arrangements for it. The Teacher s presence necessary Its\\ninconvenience considered The social and moral effects of superintending children at\\ndinner.\\n7. The Physical State of the Children. Teacher s duties with respect to health,\\ncleanliness, and neatness Duties of parents not to be too much interferred with\\nMeans of c\\\\iltivating cleanliness, neatness, c. The effects.\\n8. The Play-ground. Physical education Its importance Provision to be made\\nfor its connection with a school Advantages of the play-ground in reference to moral\\ninstruction and moral training Its bearing on the health and comfort of the Teacher\\nTheir objections answered Tact required in the superintendence of the play-ground\\nApparatus, games, c Time to be allotted to exercise Objections of parents met.\\n9. Monitors, Pupil- Teachers, and Paid-Assistants. Monitors, these ^necessary evils,\\nas they have l]een called, fast disappearing\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Still often found useful\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Relative value\\nof Monitors and Pupil-Teachers, and principle on which to lie ascertained The de-\\npartments of labor (or which each best fitted Pestalozzi s method of preparing Moni-\\ntors, and the work allotted them Instructioti of Pupil-Teachers, general and special\\nTheir management\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Special cases examined Pupil-Teachers almost essential to a\\ngood school, and amply repay labors of first year or two to be early trained to self-\\neducation When so trained a great relief to the Teacher Always to be had where\\npracticable.\\n10. Examinations, for the satisfaction of the public The parents The Teacher\\nThe design and special advantages of each Manner of conducting them Abuses\\nAddresses to parents a most desirable a ijunct SuitaLile topics for such addresses.\\n11. Holidays, their use and number Never to be given at fairs, wakes, c. Not\\ngenerally desired by children in a well-conducted school.\\n12. Dealing with Parents. Position of the parent Its relation to the Teacher Con-\\nclusions The double duty of a Teacher to the parent and the school Course to be\\ntaken Necessity of a conciliatory manner in dealing with parents who will not submit\\nto rules On punishing children at the request of parents.\\n13. Visitors, special and casual Connection of the former with the school Attention\\nand courtesy due to them How far the usual arrangement of a school may be changed\\nfor visitors Their stiggestion.s Spirit in which to he taken Use to be made of them.\\n14. Inspectors. The peculiar character of their office Inspection always to be ob-\\ntained when practicalile Its value to a good Teacher Their view of a school con-\\ntrasted with that of the Teacher Their relation as well to the Teacher as to the Pat-\\nron The Teacher s best friend Inspection anticipated Preparation to be made\\nLessons to be given before Inspector, as at other times.\\n15. Patrons and Committees. Relation to the school Claims The blessing of a\\ngood Patron Difficulties with Patrons or Committees The self-will and pride of a\\nTeacher not to be mistaken for conscience, or the love of doing good Principles and\\nends to he kept in view rather than plans Not to thwart or oppose even when not con-\\nvinced to give way in minor matters if vital points are untouched Circumstances\\nwhich appear to justify giving up a school.\\nIV. The Government of a School.\\nThe Nature and Object of this Government. All plans of government, if good, must\\nbe adapted to the uniform tendencies of human nature Qualifications required in\\norder to govern well Importance of government in a school, as often giving to the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0807.jp2"}, "806": {"fulltext": "804 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND THE ART OF TEACHING.\\nchild first ideas of subordination Essential also to the comfort of the Teacher To\\nthe progress and happiness of the children Disorder the master defect of many schools\\nDislike to Teachers often caused by misgovernment.\\n2. A knowledge of the Principles of Action in Childhood required in order to Govern\\nwell. The principles enumerated Their importance Scripture references on the in-\\nfluence of iiabirs Wisdom and beneficence of the Creator seen in the early formation\\nand power of habits Difficuhy of ascertaining motives Importance of knowing them\\nThe use to be made of them in governm^ a school.\\n3. Parental Government. Different kind of rule as to their spirit The political\\nThe military The family Characteristics of each Reasonableness of requiring the\\nparental spirit in Teachers In what it consists Effects of possessing the spirit\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The\\nparental spirit manifested tiy God Seen in Christ The parental spirit should govern\\nour schools Our debt to Pestalozzi for advocating it so powerfully His fundamental\\nprinciple in all mora! development and training.\\n4. Authority\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ^.ea.r\\\\ m^ of the term Abuses of authority Modern mistakes Import-\\nance of authority in the school-room How to be used Adaptation to the nature of the\\nchild\u00e2\u0080\u0094Mistakes as to governing by love alone Rules to be adopted in establishing and\\nmaintaining authority.\\n5. Kindness. Distinguished from other affections Love essential to a Teacher\\nShock often received by children when transferred from a mother to an unkind\\nTeacher Influence of Kindness Principles on which based Manner of carrying\\nthem out Caution against extremes.\\n6. Justice. Definition Temptations to partiality Children s appreciation of jus-\\ntice Written rules often useful.\\n7. Fear. Its abuses as a principle of government shown in the conduct of parents,\\nteachers, and nurses\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The use of fear in the moral economy of the child, and conse-\\nquently its use by the Teacher Cautions.\\n8. Injluence. What it is to govern with the will of a child Means of obtaining in-\\nflence its true value both in the Infant and Juvenile School.\\n9. Appeal to Principle. Nature of principle, or sense of right and wrong\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Relative\\nposition among motives of action Advantages The result, self-government, c.\\nPerlection of a school as to governineni, when good conduct proceeds from principle.\\n10. Prevention. Importance of this principle as applied to the government of a\\nschool Children to have full occupation To associate pleasure with learning\\nTeacher to call in aid the public opinion of the school To obtain the co-operation of\\nparents.\\nRewards.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 W\\\\\\\\ X, they are How they act Injurious as being an artificial ex-\\ncitement As giving wrong views both of justice and merit As rousing a mercenary\\nspirit As exciting vanity and pride\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Means to be used to make promised rewards un-\\nnecessary\u00e2\u0080\u0094Example of Hofwyl From our Infant Schools\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The highest motives to be\\ncultivated\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Animal motives to be properly directed Different ways of rewarding\\nmerit Value of a reward consists not in the actual value of what is bestowed, but in\\nthe association created Reward occasional and not expected When it is not an in-\\ncentive to exertion, but a proof that merit is recognized, it gives the idea of justice.\\n12. Punishments.~l iA\\\\m-e, design, and spirit Difference between punishment, cor-\\nrection, and discipline\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The true end of punishment Mistakes of the passionate\\nTeacher Effects of these on the child Punishment should arise out of the fault\\nGod s dealings with us our example Natural punishments enumerated Children to\\nbe shown the connection between sin and punishment An unvarying punishment im-\\npossible^Should differ according to character and disjiosition, and the nature of faults,\\nc.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -Evils of severe punishments Importance of discrimination\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Public exfiosure as\\na punishment Spirit that leads a teacher to expose her pupils for her own gratifica-\\ntion Effects of exposure on different dispositions, and on spectators Corporal pun-\\nishment Former and present practice contrasted\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Opinion of Dr. Arnold and Dr.\\nBryce Pestalozzi s rules for using it Its absence in a good school\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Expulsion when\\nto be resorted to\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Circumstances to attend it.\\n13. Emulation. Nature of the principle Usual application Meaning of the word\\nNatural emulation, distinguished from Scripture emulation\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Generous rivalry, and\\nrivalry a means of self-knowledge, false ideas\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Natural emulation not to be stimu-\\nlated Difliculties of a Teacher not using emulation Substitutes for it, as Desire to\\novercome difficulties- To gain knowledge To please a much-loved Teacher, c.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0808.jp2"}, "807": {"fulltext": "TRAIKING ESTABLISHMENT\\nFOR MASTERS FOR THE NATIONAL SOCIETY.\\nThe following account of St. Mark s College is drawn from the Annual\\nReports of her Majesty s Inspectors of Schools, from 1843 to 1846, and from\\npublications of the Principal, Rev. Derwent Coleridge, addressed to the\\nSecretary of the National Society\\nThe principal Normal School, or training establishment for masters for\\nschools under the charge of the National Society, is located in the parish of\\nChelsea, on the Fulhani Road, about two and a half miles from Hyde Park\\nCorner. It is called St. Mark s College, and the place is frequently designated\\nas Stanley Grove.\\nSite and Buildings. The site of the institution consists of eleven acres\\nof land, perfectly healthy, and surrounded by a wall of the eleven acres of\\nland, about three acres and a half are occupied as gardens and potato-\\nground, three acres as meadow-land, two acres and a half as pleasure-ground\\nand shrubberies, leaving about two acres for the farm and laundry buildings,\\nthe college, practicing school, and chapel. The whole of the grounds,\\nwhether laid out as meadow-land, garden-ground, or shrubberies, may be\\nconsidered, and really are, practically useful for the industrial purposes of\\nthe college. Formerly the estate belonged to Mr. Hamilton, whose com-\\nmodious mansion near the southern side of the property affords, in addi-\\ntion to an excellent residence for the principal, a committee-room, a spacious\\nand lofty lecture-room, having an area of 1,070 feet, the walls of which were\\nfitted by the late owner with handsome bookcases, above which are casts\\nfrom the Elgiu marbles, a dining-hall (area 450^ feet), and offices.\\nAttached to this has been erected, in one of the Italian styles, a chapel,\\n,c., a quadrangle, in which are situate the dormitories of the pupils, a sep-\\narate bed-room (area 62| feet) being appropriated to each. The quad-\\nrangles are two stories, containing each 22 small sleeping-rooms, together\\nwith the towers at the two outer angles, each of which contains a sitting.\\nroom, a master s bed-room, and three smaller chambers for boys, thus pro-\\nviding accommodation for fifty students and two masters. Underneath are\\ncoal-chambers, workshops fitted up with carpenters benches, a shoe and\\nknife room, c. The laundry is a separate building one end of this has\\nbeen fitted up as an infirmary, and in the center are store-rooms for potatoes\\nand apples, and other products of the fiirra and garden.*\\nThe practicing school is situate near the chapel, on the north side of the\\ngrounds. It is an octagonal building, affording accommodation for six\\nclasses, in addition to those that may be arranged on the gallery. In the\\ncenter is the fireplace, and over this, on the sides of the brick-work form-\\ning the ventilating apparatus and the chimneys, have been fitted black-\\nboards and conveniences for suspending maps and musical tablets, so as\\nthat they may be seen by the classes opposite. Independently of the central\\nsquare area, each side of which naeasures 20 feet, tiie recesses provide\\naccommodation for 260 children. A cottage on the premises, situated near\\nthe practicing school, has been fitted up during the present year for the\\naccommodation of the two higher classes, in separate rooms, the area of each\\nbeing about 259 feet.\\nReport, National Society, 1842, p. 75.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0809.jp2"}, "808": {"fulltext": "806 ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nThe teachers and masters of the training establishment consist of a prin-\\ncipal, a vicc-prinfip;;l. a head master, a teacher of music, a tercher of draw-\\ning, and .-m industri;il master or steward. The principal is the Rev. Derwent\\nColeridixe, nephew of the eminent poet and metaphysician. Samuel T. Colo-\\nridge, who has impressed his own views on the general scope and details of\\nthe institution. Of him, Mr. Moseley, one of the Inspectors, speaks thus\\nThose persons whose privilege it is to be acquainted with Mr. Coleridge, -will\\nappreciate his many and eminent qualitieations as an instructor, and they will\\nreadily understand the ascendency which is given to him over the minds of the\\nstudents, not less by that kindly and persuasive manner which is peculiar to him,\\nand that colloquial eloquence which is his patrimony, than by the generosity of\\nhis purposes and the moral elevation of his principles of action. In the union of\\nqualities such as tliese, with an abiding sense of the importance of tlie objects\\nhe has proposed to himself, absolute dedication to them, and entire faith in the\\nmeans he has adopted for accomplishing them, he has succeeded in creating\\naround him an institution which has probably outrun the hopes and expectations\\nof its earlier friends, not less in the scale of its operations than in the character\\nof the results which it contemplates, an institution which claims, at an humble\\ndistance, to take its place among the collegiate establishments of the country\\nwhich has enlisted the sympathies of a large portion of the clergy in its favor,\\nand contributed not a little to raise the standard affixed by public opinion to the\\noffice of an elementary schoolmaster.\\nThe general scope and design of the institution, as gathered from Mr.\\nColeridge s own writings, may be thus summed up in the language of one\\nof the inspectors\\nResting upon the ground that it is the duty, and by consequence the right\\nand privilege of the Church to be the teacher of the nation, Mr. Coleridge s\\nefforts have been mainly directed to form the character of his pupils in accord-\\nance with Church principles to raise up a body of teachers, who might appre-\\nciate the Scriptural character of the English Chui-ch, and who should feel them-\\nselves to be living, intelligent, and responsible agents in tlie carrying out of her\\nsystem. For .such an end, they must prove (so far as such a result can be secured\\nby any system of training within the reach of man) capable of communicating\\nthat entire preparation of heart and mind by which, with the help of God s Holy\\nSpirit, tlie due reception and effectual working of the gospel message may be\\nsecured. Accounting it to be the peculiar aim of Protestantism, contemplated as\\nan awakened energy of the Church, to enable each man for himself, according to\\nhis measure, to give a reason for the faith that is in him, and to ground that faith\\non Holy Scripture. Mr. Coleridge trusts that the teachers educated in this in-\\nstitution will be skilled to cultivate the best fruits of the English Reformation,\\nas that which would substitute a religion of light for the darkness of super-\\nstition.\\nThe Church being regarded as the teacher of the nation, she can have no end\\nin view short of, or wholly apart from, the training of tlie young in the principles\\nof true religion. At her hands they are to be enabled, as far as human instruc-\\ntion might avail, to profit b} the reading of Holy Scripture. No school knowl-\\nedge can be recognized as useful which may not, directly or indirectly, contribute\\nto this end. To bring up a child in the way in which he should go, and to fur-\\nnish him with the weapons of his heavenly warfare this is not a part of his\\neducation, rather it is the sum and substance of the whole for whatever secular\\nknowledge is really desirable as a part of early and general education, is either\\nincluded in such a description, or may with facility be added to it cannot fitly\\nbe taught apart from it. Language, with all its uses history, in all its branches\\nscience itself, con.sidered in its noblest aspect, as an organ of reason and exer-\\ncise of the ment-al faculties these and every other study, not merely technical,\\nattain their highest value when connected with religious truth, and degenerate\\ninto falsehood when pursued in any other connection.\\nMr. Coleridge feels strongly that no number of attainments, nor any facility\\nin communicating them, can of themselves qualify a schoolmaster for his arduous\\noffice^ and that before we inquire into the special ntness of a teacher, there is", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0810.jp2"}, "809": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAnSTENG COLLEGE 807\\nneeded, as an essential prerequisite, a sound, and, to a considerable extent, a cul-\\ntivated understanding a certain moral power, tlie growth of religious principles,\\nbut developed by intellectual culture. And as the parochial schoolmaster has to\\nsupply all the indirect teaching to which the children of the better-provided\\nclasses owe much, and perhaps tlie best, of what they know, in those children of\\nthe poor liliely to be intrusted to him, he will liave to cultivate good habits in\\nthe ground of self-respect habits of regular iudusti-y and self-control, of kindness\\nand forbearance, of personal and domestic cleanliness, of decency and order he\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0will have to awaken in them the faculties of attention and memory, of reflection\\nand judgment he will have not merely to instill knowledge, or supply the ma-\\nterials of thought, but to elicit and exercise the powers of thinking, to seek\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with the first dawning of reason to awaken a faculty by which truth may be in-\\ndeed discerned a faculty which he cannot give, but which he will assuredly find,\\nand to which, by continually presenting its proper counterpart, he will ground\\nknowledge upon faith, and give to religious truth an evidence approaching to\\nintuition. Wherefore he especially needs to be not simply a seriously-minded\\nChristian, but an educated man and while to teach letters, in however humble\\na capacity, is not a mechanical employment, the occupation of the schoolmaster\\nof the poor, when regarded from the jjroper point of view, is as truly liberal as\\nany in the commonwealth.\\nThe following passages are in the language of Mr. Coleridge\\nThe truth is, that the education given in our schools (I speak of those open\\nto the poor for cheap or gratuitous instruction, but the remark might be expanded\\nmuch more widely) is too often little more than nominal, imparting, it may be, a\\nlittle knowledge sometimes hardly this but leaving the mental powers wholly\\nundeveloped, and the heart even less affected than the mind. Of course there\\nare exceptions and limitations to this statement. It does not apply to every\\nschool, and is less true of some districts than of others but the fact, as a whole,\\nstands upon what may be called statistical evidence. Is this owing to an acci-\\ndental or to an inherent defect Are the means employed inadequate merely,\\nor essentially unfit If the former, we may trust to time and gradual improve-\\nment. We may proceed, if possible, more carefully, but in the old way. If the\\nlatter, a different course must be pursued we must do something else. I ven-\\nture to take the latter position.\\nTo what end do we seek to educate the poor man s child Is it not to give\\nbim just views of his moral and religious obligations his true interests for time\\nand for eternity wliile, at the same time, we prepare him for the successful\\ndischarge of his civil duties duties for which, however humble, there is surely\\nsome appropriate instruction Is it not to cultivate good habits in a ground of\\nself-respect habits of regular industry and self-control, of kindness and for-\\nbearance, of personal and domestic cleanliness, of decency and order Is it not\\nto awaken in him the faculties of attention and memory, of reflection and judg-\\nment not merely to instill knowledge, or supply the materials of thought, but\\nto elicit and to exercise the powers of thinking Is it not to train him in the\\nuse of language, the organ of reason, and the symbol of his humanity And\\nwhile we thus place the child in a condition to look onward and upward while\\nwe teach him his relationship to the eternal and the heavenly, and encourage\\nhim to live by this faith, do we not also hope to place him on a vantage-ground\\nwith respect to his earthly calling to give to labor the interest of intelligence\\nand the elevation of duty, and disarm those temptations by which the poor\\nman s leisure is so fearfully be.set, and to which mental vacuity off^ers no resistance\\nBut is this an easy task Can we hope that it will be duly performed for\\nless than laborers wages, without present estimation or hope of preferment, by\\nthe first rustic, broken-down tradesman, or artisan out of employment, whom ne-\\ncessity, or perhaps indolence, brings to the ofiice Not to put an aggravated\\ncase, however common, can any half-educated man from tlie working classes (and\\nthe majority of those who seek to be schoolmasters are all but uneducated) be\\nsafely intrusted with duties, the very nature of which it would be impossible to\\nmake iiim understand Almost uninstructed, and utterly untrained with little\\ngeneral fitness for his calling, and no special apprenticeship he may teach a\\nUttle, and this not well, but he cannot educate at all. But will not a Uttle prep-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0811.jp2"}, "810": {"fulltext": "808 f i^ AEK S TRAINING COI.LF.GE.\\naration suffice May he not be taught a system He may indeed be taught a\\nsystem, but surely it will not suffice. He w.mts the first conditions of a teacher.\\nHe caniK.t teach what he does not know. He cannot explnin v. lrit lie does not\\nunderstand. He may learn a particular method, but not how to apply it. The\\nbest pr(!paration which he can receive, short of a complete course of trainin r, is\\nsuperficial and formal. He must himself be educated before he can educate\\nothers. Morally and religiously considered, the case is still worse. He cannot\\nsuggest motive.s, or inspire feelings, of which he is himself unconscious. If he be\\na pious man, it is indeed much yet his principles, or at least his mode of ex-\\nplaining them, will be uncertain.\\nHere, then, I think we have the root of the evil. The object on which so\\nmuch zeal and ingenuity have been bestowed, has been, not to procure proper\\nmasters, but to do without them. The attempt has been to educate by systems,\\nnot by men. School-rooms have been built, school-books provided, and methods\\nof instruction devised. The monitorial, the simultaneous, the circulating, the\\ninterrogative, the suggestive systems, have each been advocated, separately or\\nin combination. Meanwhile, the great need of all, without which all this appa-\\nratus is useless, and in comparison with which it is unimportant, has been all but\\noverlooked. It has been taken for granted that the machinery of education\\nwould work itself, as if there had been a living spirit in the wheels. The guiding\\nmind, by which even an imperfect mechanism might have been controlled to good\\neffect, wa.s to be superseded nay, the conditions under which alone it can be\\nprovided adequate support and just estimation have been regarded as not\\nmerely unattainable, but as positively objectionable. The result is exactly what\\nmight have been anticipated. Each successive system, so long as it has been\\ncarried on under the eye of the author that is, in effect, by an educated man,\\nor by any really competent teachers has been more or less successful and in\\nevery case the merit of the workman has been transferred to his tools and\\nwhen, in other hands, these prove unserviceable, or even mischievous, they not\\nmerely lose a credit to which they were not entitled, but are charged with a\\nfault which lies, perhaps, mainly in the handling. I say mischievous for in edu-\\ncation, as in other arts, the most effective implements may chance to require the\\nmost dexterous management. Let me not be thought to undervalue even the\\nslightest helps by which the communication of knowledge may be facilitated.\\nThere is an art as well as a science of education and every art has its methods,\\nof which some may be better than others. But method itself supposes intelli-\\ngence, adaptation, choice when traveled blindly, it is a mere routine. And if\\nthis be true in the domain of matter if no method can exempt the sliip-builder\\nor the engineer from the necessity of ever-varying contrivance nay. if some\\nfaculty of this sort be required to enable the bird to construct its nest, or the\\nbee its cells how shall it be dispensed with, how shall we hope that its place\\ncan be supplied by forms, and practices, and rules, when that upon which we\\nhave to work is the mind of man Even an educated teacher who trusts to\\nmechanical arrangements, must expect a mechanical result. Phidias himself\\ncould not have produced the semblance of life, the image of a man, according\\nto the beauty of a man, had he employed any but the most simple tools. The\\nmental statuary must, in like manner, leave upon his work the touches of his\\nown hand he must model with his own fingers. Every child is an individual,\\nthinking and feeling for himself. He must be dealt with accordingly. The influ-\\nence of the master must, as far as possible, be personal. Whatever intermediate\\nagency is employed must be, for the same reason, intelligent for mind can only\\nbe affected by mind, the inferior by the .superior. To procure this without extra\\ncost to create a number of teachers who shall continue learners, exercising in\\nthe former capacity a certain freedom of action, without losing their own do-\\ncility and dependence in a word, to reconcile an intelligent agency with gen-\\neral regulation and unity of purpose, is a problem for which, perhaps, no general\\nsolution can be offered. In practice, every national schoolmaster must solve it\\nfor himself and the success of his attempt will be the test of his efficiency.\\nI have described the education of a poor man s child with a reference to the\\nends for which I suppose it to be given and I have contended that this educa-\\ntion cannot be given through the instrumentality of such men as axe commonlj", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0812.jp2"}, "811": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. gOg\\nemjilove l for that purpose. The educator must himself have been l)otli luflB-\\nciently an 1 suitably educated. This will be denied by none, but every one will\\natri.x his own meaning to the words. I say further, to teach letters, in however\\nhumble a capacity, is not a mechanical employment to educate, in the full sense\\nof the word, is as liberal an occupation as any in the commonwealth. In plain\\nterms, then, and iu old-fashioned language, my conclusion is, that the schoolmaster\\nmust be an educated man. Thus stated, the proposition has a more startling\\neouii I but the import is the same. I speak of the thing, not of the accidents\\nwith wliicli it may be accompanied. I do not speak of birth, or social position,\\nor habits of life, or manners, or appearance, but of a certain condition of the\\nmental faculties, as well moral as intellectual of that which constitutes educa-\\ntion, contemplated as a result not of the dress by which, in this country and in\\nmodern times, it is commonly distinguished. Of the social relations and outward\\nbearing which education must necessarily assume, I may say a few words here-\\nafter at present I speak of the thing itself With this explanation, I do not\\nfear to affirm that the schoolmaster must be an educated man. And this neces-\\nsity is not at all affected by the class of children which he has t() tv in. The\\namount of acquirement may differ; but this is the least thing to be co.ii lered.\\nI am utterly opposed I had almost said hostile to the notion that any number\\nof attainments, or any facility in teaching them, can qualify a schoolmaster for\\nhis arduous office. Attainments may make a particular teacher a. professor, as\\nsuch teachers affect to call themselves but a mere teacher has much to learn\\nbefore he can uuilertake to educate. A sound, and, to a consideraVjle extent, a\\ncultivated understanding a certain moral power, the growth of religious princi-\\nples, but developed Jay intellectual culture surely this is an essential prerequisite\\nin every educator, every schoolmaster, before we inquire into his special fitness\\nfor the class of children of which his school may be composed. And let it not be\\nassumed that this is less requisite in the teacher of the poor than of the rich.\\nThe parochial schoolmaster, in which term I include the master of every church-\\nschool for tlie poor, is encompassed with difficulties to which an ordinary com-\\nmercial or grammar school otters no parallel. Not merely has he a greater num-\\nber of children to instruct, with le.\u00c2\u00abs assistance and in a less time children, for\\nthe most part, of tenderer years, and less prepared by previous instruction and\\nhome-training but he has more to do ft)r them. They are more dependent upon\\nhim for their education. His scholars have, in a manner, to be taught not merely\\nto think, but to speak, if they would express any thing beyond animal passions\\nan I animal wants. He has to supply all the indirect teaching to which the\\nchildren of the better provided classes oWe much, and perhaps the best, of what\\nthey know. And when to this we add the moral training which they require\\nwhen we take into account the actual position of the church in this country, and\\nremember that on the parochial schoolmaster the children of the poor are too\\noften dependent, not merely for catechetical instruction, but for the first implant-\\nation of religious sentiment -that he has too often to give that first presumption\\nin favor of lioly things, as they are set forth in the church of our father.s, of which\\nthere should be no rememberable beginning that he has to interpret that sound\\nof Sabbath-bells, which ought to have a meaning to the ears of earliest child-\\nhood, as often as it carries to the cottage its message of peace when, lastly, we\\nadd to this the influence for good which the honored teacher may and ought to\\nexercise over the youth long after he has quitted the school an influence wliich\\nhe can onlv maintain by the ability to direct and assist him after he has ceased\\nto be a child in a word, when we see that the church schoolmaster has not\\nmerely to minister to the clergym an in some of his most arduous and important\\nfunctions the instruction of ciiildhood an 1 the guidance of youth but to make\\nup much that is wanting, and correct much that is perverse, in the cu cumstances\\nand tendencies of humble life shall it be said that I have overstrained the\\npoint, and contend for too high a standard But if this be a just picture of what\\nwe want, then look at what we have, and be my earnestness forgiven\\nAt all events, it is better to strive for too high, than to be content with too\\nlow a standard. Do I describe an impossible perfection Let us at least set\\nout witli our faces toward it we are then in the right direction, though we ad-\\nvance but a little Avay. Let us set out with faith, and the resolution that it\\nengenders, and perhaps we may advance further than we tliiuk.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0813.jp2"}, "812": {"fulltext": "glQ ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nI have described the qualifications of a .schoolmaster implicitly by a reference\\nto his work. How, it will be asked, are these to be commanded Not, assured-\\nly, by any cheap or summary method. Not, let me venture to urge, bv courses\\nof lectures, or lessons in pedagogic. Rather than so, let the clergyman take the\\nfirst thoughtful man. no matter what his acquirements, of wliose piety he is\\nassured, and prepare him for his work, as he walks with him in the fields, or in\\nthe streets. I do not say that this is enough far from it. I do not say that it\\nis easy to meet with a man of good sense and right feeling, putting aside acquire-\\niment, to whom the oversight of chihlren may be committed. I believe it will be\\nfound very difficult. But something in this way miglit be done some fatherly\\ndiscipline established .some lessons of humble wisdom imparted. From the\\nother mode nothing, in the long run, but mischief can ensue. Wherever mere\\nattainment is made a principal consideration, there will be a perpetual mistaking\\nof means for ends, ami of semblance for reality. A little superlicial knowledge,\\nand a showy, .self-sufficient cleverness, will be the product, the spirit and flavor\\nof which will quickly evaporate, leaving behind either a mere caput mortuum, or\\na feruKinting mass of restlessness, petulance, and discontent. Yet let me not be\\nmi iiiiderstood. My objection is not to lectures, or any other mode of facilitating\\nacquirement still less to the acquirement itself. The former may be most use-\\nful, the latter most desirable. What I resist is, the notion that either is sufficient\\nthe one as a means, the other as a result. Normal education is not satisfied\\nwith a superstructure of faculties it nmst lay a basis of character and the\\nlatter is the longer and the more difficult process. Not what a teacher knows,\\nbut what he is, should ever be the first point considered.\\nAdmismon of Pupils. Every applicant for admission must be at least\\nfifteen years of age, and must submit the follov^ ing testimonials: 1, a certif-\\nicate of baptism 2, a declaration from the parents or guardians of the\\nyou.h, stating that he has attended the services of the Church of England,\\nwith their consent and approbation, for the space of at least one twelve-\\nmonth previous to the dale of the application 3, a medical certificate,\\naccording to a printed form 4, a recommendation from a clergyman, who\\nis requested to state, as particularly as possible, the grounds on winch it, is\\ngiven, as well for the satisfaction of the National Society as to prevent dis-\\nappointment and needless expense on the part of the youth and !iis friends.\\nGood moral character, amiability, truthfulness, and diligence, are indispen-\\nsable requi-ites. Further information is solicited as to the youth s temper\\nand disposition, his abilities and attainments, his tastes and habits, his age,\\nsize, and physical strengih, and as to any other matters from which his\\ngeneral fitness for the otRce of schoolmaster may be inferred. A certain\\ndegree of bodily as well as mental vigor is deemed indispensable. A strong,\\nhealthy, well-grown lad, of amiable disposition and promising talents, who\\nshows an evident desire of knowledge, and has made a good use of the\\nopporlunities which he has already enjoyed, though these may not have\\nbeen great, is considered to be the description of youth best fitted to fulfill\\nthe designs of the institution.\\nThe examination of each student for admission is preceded by the other\\ninquiries specified in the following paragraph, which are to be answered in\\nhis own words, and in his own handwriting, in the presence of the clergyman\\nby whom he is recommended, or some other trustworthy person:\\nState your name and age the last birth-dny when and where you were bnptized whether\\nyou have heen confirmed, and by whom; whether you have taken the sacrament of the l.oio s\\nSiippef, and if so, whether you are a regular communicant? At what schools have you been\\neducated, and lor how long a time, and in what subjects have you been instructed? Are you\\nsincerely desirous of becoming a schoolmaster, and do you seek admission into the National So-\\nciety s Training College expressly to be fitted for that difficult and responsible office? Are you\\nprepared to lead in the Colleije a simple and laborious life working with your hands as well as\\nacquiring bimk-kniiwledge. and rendering an exact obedience to the disicipline of the place?\\nAre you awan; that your path of duty on leaving the College will be principally, if not entirely,\\nainoiig the poor? And are you willing to ajjprentice yourself to the Society on that under-\\nstanding?\\nMode of Admission. These certificates having been received and approved.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0814.jp2"}, "813": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. gn\\nthe \\\\oiiih is diiveted lo present himself for examination at the college. He\\nis expecleJ to read Euglisli pro.ie vvi;h prupriely, to spell correcily from\\ndictaijon, to write a good hand, to be well acquainted with the ou lines of\\nScripiure history, .ind to show consider.ible re.idiuess in working the funda-\\nmental rules of ariihmetic. Any further knowledge which he may possess,\\nof wlijitever kind, is in his favor, not only, or so much, for its own sake, as\\non account of the studious turn of mind and aptness for receiving instruction\\nWiiicli it may appear to indicate. A talent for vocal music and drawing ia\\npardcularly de;-.ir.il le.\\nIn the event of his passing this examination with credit, he is received\\ninto the college, and remains there on probation for the first three months;\\nafter which, if his conduct shall have been satisf.ctory and he shall be found\\nto possess the necessary qualifications, he is appreniiced to the National\\nSociety. From this period till the age of 21, the society is responsible for\\nhis educ ition, clothing, and maintenance, being at liberty to make use of his\\nservices as a schoolmaster at any time and in any way thai may be thought\\nproper. In general, the period during which the appren.ices are expected to\\nrem an under instiiuction at the college is three years, afier which time\\nthey are to be placed in situ liions ei.her us the masters of small schools, or\\nmore commonly as assistants in large ones.\\nThe Principal, in his Report, complains that many of the students admitted\\nare deticien in the requisite preparation for the course of instruction pur-\\nsued ia tliis inslitu.ion.\\nOf tho.\u00c2\u00abe now on probation, or recently apprenticed, a fair proportion are in-\\ntelli:^ent lads, of suitable tenipemand dis^position but even of these, compara-\\ntively few are properly prepared for tlie iu titution. Against tliis ditficulty it is\\nimpos.-ible to provide by mere e.\\\\clusicin, without reducing the tmmbers admitted\\nto an extent incompatible with the welfare, or indeed the existence, of the insti-\\ntution. Not many of those recommended possess even that modicum of acquire-\\nm nt wliich might fairly be expected from a promising boy of twelve, not to say\\nfifteen, years old. They cannot read well, tliat is, with intelligence, nor write\\ncorrectly from dictation. I do not allude to slight and casual inaccuracies, but to\\na general deticijncy, the result of bad teaching. They are, for the most part,\\nquite ignorant of grammar and, what is worst of all, they are not sufficiently\\nacquainted with the vocabulary of their own language to profit even by oral\\nteaching of a kind suitable to the college, much less to^ain information for them-\\nselves from boctks. Of geography, not to say history, they are, for the most part,\\nwholly ignorant, many having never seen map. This description applies to\\ndiii erent intlividuals in different degrees, and there are some to whom it tioes not\\napply at all but in a majority of cases it is necessary to ground the probationers\\nafresh in the .simplest rudiments of learning to go over again the work of an\\nelementary school with what loss to the pupils and disadvantage to the college,\\nneed not be told.\\nStudies mid Training of the Pupils. The subjects of instruction include\\nScriptural knowledge, and Bible literature, the doctrines of the Church and\\nChurch History, Latin, Music, English Grammar, General History, English\\nLiterature, Geogr.iphy, Algebra, Geometry, Mechanics, Ari.hmelic, Drawing,\\nand the art of Teaching under the de:-ign;ition of Normal lessons.\\nThe pupils leave their beds at half past 5 in the morning, and are again\\nin bed at 10 at night, when the dormi.ory lights are extinguished by one pf\\nthe elder youths; two of whom, under the inspection and control of the\\nindustrial teacher, are intrusted with the duty of lighting, regulating, and\\nextinguishing the gas lights throughout the establishment. This gives\\nseven hours and a half for sleep. The remaining IG hours and a half arc\\nthus divided :-r-they are allowed to remain,\\nOne hour in their bed-rooms, half an hour in the morning, and the same\\ntime in the evening. This, however, includes the time spent in coming and\\ngoing, .C. Habits of personal cleanliness, neatness, and order, are care-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0815.jp2"}, "814": {"fulltext": "812\\nST. MARK S TRArNING COLLEGE.\\nfully enforced. It is with this view, as well as for the purpose of private\\ndevolion, that a separate bed-room has been allotted to each youth.\\nFour hums and a half are assigned to industrial occupalicns, of which\\nhalf an hour is consumed iii coming and going, getting out and putting by\\ntheir tools, -.vashing their hands, c.\\nThe studies of the college commence at a quarter before 7, with the\\nreading of a collect from the Prayer-Book. The period of time allotted to\\nstudy and united devotion amounts to about 8 hours.\\nHalf an hour is allowed for each of the three meals, including the laying\\nand removing of the cloth, c. They breakfast at 8, dine at 1, and drink\\ntea at 7. Before tea they sing for an hour.\\nTwo hours and a quaner are reserved for voluntary study and recreation,\\nviz. the half hour before and after dinner, the half hour after tea, which is\\nspent in f imily devotion, and an hour before bed-lime, when the repetitions\\nare learnt which are to be said next nioi uing.\\nThe number of hours devoted weekly to each occupation is stated in the\\ntable subjoined. It will be observed that the greatest periods of time are\\ngiven to Music and Latin, and the least to Arithmetic\\nNumber of Hours devoted Weekly to each Occupation of the Students.\\nOCCUPATION.\\nChapel\\nEveiiinj; Worship\\nScriptural Knowledge and Christian Doc- 1\\nIrine (i. e. Articles)\\nChurch History and Bible Literature\\nLatin\\nEni, lish Grammar, English Literature, and\\nHistory s\\nGeography\\nWriting\\nArithmetic\\nGeometry\\nAlgebra imd Trigonometry\\nMechanics and Natural Philosophy\\nM usic\\nDrawing- -x\\nNormal Lessons\\nPrivate Reading\\nPrf paring Lessons\\nMeals\\nLeisiu e\\nDivision 11.\\nDivision IIL\\nDivision L\\n1st\\n2d\\n1st\\n2d\\nSection.\\nSection.\\nSection.\\nSection.\\n6\\n6\\n6\\n6\\n6\\n3 :to\\n3 30\\n3 30\\n3 30\\n3 30\\n2 5\\n3\\n3 25\\n50\\n3 40\\n2 20\\n2\\n2\\n2 40\\n2 40\\n6 15\\n6\\n6\\n5\\n6\\n7 10\\n2 45\\n5 20\\n6\\n3 50\\n2 30\\n2 30\\n1 20\\n4\\n5 20\\n30\\n1 20\\n1 20\\n2 40\\n4\\n20\\n35\\n1 10\\n40\\n3 30\\n2 50\\n1 20\\n2 25\\n2 20\\n5 40\\n2 40\\n2 40\\n2\\n35\\n7 10\\n7 10\\n7 10\\n7 10\\n7 10\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n4\\n3\\n1 30\\n9\\n9\\n9\\n9\\n8 45\\n8 45\\n8 45\\n8 45\\n8 45\\n6\\n6\\n6\\n6\\n6\\nIn addition to the seven hours devoted to musical instruction in each\\nweek, six hours more are allotted to the practice of the Chapel service. On\\nthis point, Mr. Coleridge observes\\nIf, however, the choral service, as performed in the chapel of St. Mark s\\nColleffe, be in itself unobjectionable if, in truth, it have been adopted from a\\nsense of its superior beauty and fitness under the circumstances of the case it\\nmay be mentioned, as a further recommendation, that it furnishes the begt, if not\\nthe only means, compatible with otlier exigencies, of imparting to the students\\nof this institution that skill in the art of singing which is now so generally desired,\\nif not expected, in a parochial schoolmaster. No system of teaching vocal music,\\nhowever excellent, can dispense with the necessity of long and continuous prac-\\ntice time for which could not have been afforded in this college, if it had not\\nbeen found possible to unite the acquirement of this art with its best and princi-\\npal use. As it is, the seed-time and harvest of instruction are to a certain\\nextent combined, the grain being sown and the sheaves gathered by the same\\nprocess and at the same time. In plain terms, the musical skill required for the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0816.jp2"}, "815": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. 8J3\\nperformance of the choral service is supplied, in some considerable measure, by\\nthe service itself; aii 1, imleed, :is these youths have not been suiccted, generally\\nspeaking, with any reference to musical capacity, and are not destined for the\\nexclusive or i^ainful exercise of the musical profession, it would, I believe, have\\nbeen found difficult to exact from them that close and unremitting attention to\\nthis study which it indispensably requires, and which they now bestow upon it,\\nwere it not for the pressure of a motive at once so sacred and so stimulating,\\ncoupled with the guidance and encouragement of a teacher who, to a practical\\nacquaintance with Church music, such as could be looked for only in a master\\nof tlie art, adds the authority derived from his position as vice-principal of the\\ncollege.\\nIt is not, indeed, intimated that any opportunity for the practice of singing,\\nhowever ftivorable, can dispense with the necessity of regular elementary in-\\nstruction in the principles of music. It is a great advantage to acquire a foreign\\nlanguage in the country where it is spoken but it will be proper, nevertlieless,\\nto acquire it graininafically. Now the services of the chapel render music, as it\\nwere, a living language in this college, which the youths catcli up insensibly by\\nhearing and imitation a language, moreover, heard only in its purest and noblest\\nform, by which tlie taste of the student is cultivated, together with his powers\\nof execution. And when it is remembered how much the success of a singer\\ndepends upon mechanical proficiency, apart from the interesting science which\\ngives to the study its intellectual character, it will not be thouglit that too much\\nstress is laid upon that training of the ear and voice which the students go\\nthrough, indepen lently of any course of lessons. On the other hand, it is felt\\nthat, without the intellectual character above alluded to, the study, or, to speak\\nmore properlv, the pursuit, of vocal music would not merely be imperfect, but of\\ndoubtful benefit, taken as a branch of general education. And if it should be\\nsaid, that all the theoretical knowledge necessary to a vocalist will come in the\\nend by an analytical as opposed to the usual elementary methods (a result which\\ncan only be expected in the most favorable cases), it would yet be necessary\\nthat those who learn in order that they may teach, should be made acquainted\\nwith some si/s. etn of instruction, capable of easy antl general application. In\\nadopting that which owes so much to the peculiar genius of Mr. Hullah, regard\\nhas been had both to the intrinsic excellence of the method itself, and to the\\nready machinery with which it is supplied.\\nIt thus appears that there are two kinds of musical instruction always going\\non together, and mutuallv assisting each other. The art of reading nmsic, with\\nthe requisite knowledge of musical notation, is conveyed through th medium of\\nMr. Hullah s Granunar of Vocal Music, under the very able superintendence\\nof Mr. May one division of the students being under his own tuition, while a\\njunior class is carried through the earlier portion of the course by one of the\\npupils. A third section, more advanced than either of the preceding, has the\\nfurther advantage of lectures on harmony and counterpoint from Mr. Hullah\\nhimself These three divisions correspond generally to the three years of resi-\\ndence an arrangement by which every branch of study in the college is more\\nor less regulated. An exact correspondence is obviously impracticable some\\nyouths bringing with them a larger amount of musical knowledge and proficiency\\nthan others can be expected to attain at any period of their lives. Much, it is\\ntrue, has been done to produce a respectable mediocrity but excellence will\\ndepend, after all, on individual qualifications.\\nThe reason.s for embracing the study of Latin in the scheme of instruc-\\ntion are thus set forth\\nAs it is considered a leading object of national education, as viewed in\\nconnection with the church to raise the speech, and by implication the un-\\nderstanding of the people to the level of the lirurgy, the uses of language,\\nthat priceless talent of re.iding the tlioughts of others and of communicating\\nour own in writing, has been kept prominently in view as one of those first\\nprinciples by which the studies of the college should be regulated and in\\nconformity with these notions Latin is taught (so far as may be necessary\\nto lay tiie foundations of a sound acquaintance with the accidence, synta.x,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0817.jp2"}, "816": {"fulltext": "514 ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nand etymology of that language), as an essential part of the course. This\\nknowledge has been considered, if not necessary for the teacher of English,\\nto be, at least, in the highest degree useful. The majority of the pupils are\\nnot carried beyond the accidence of the Eton Latin Grammar and Arnold s\\nthird Latin exercise book: a few who, previously to their admission, had\\nacquired the rudiments, have been carried further, and some five or^si.\\\\ who\\nhave attained a knowledge of Greek, apart from the teaching of the insthu-\\ntion, are encouraged by the principal iu its cultivation, so far as may conduce\\nto the understanding of the original text of the New Testament, on the ex-\\npress provision, however, that these and the like studies do not in the slightest\\ndegree interfere with the more immediate objects of the institution, or with\\nthe due performance of its humblest duties.\\nIndustrial Occupations. The industrial occupations of the students con-\\nsist iu the labors of the farm, the garden, the house, lithography, and book-\\nbinding.\\nThe advantages, I had almost said the necessity, of balancing the intellectual\\npursuits of the students by manual labor, scarcely need to be further insisted on.\\nIt is, in the first place, tlie ouly way in whicli such an institution could be sup-\\nported, except at an euurmous expense but this is the least consideration. It\\nis almost the only mode in which the hours not occupied in study could be prof-\\nitablv and innocently passed by a promiscuous assemblage of youths, almost all\\nof whom have so much both to learn and to unlearn. Above all, that which is\\nlearned in this way is itself a most valuable acquirement, more especially to the\\nschoolmaster of the poor. Xot merely will it enable him to increase his own\\ncomforts without cost, but it will make him practicalU acquainted with the occu-\\npations of those whom he has to instruct, and thus procure him an additional\\ntitle to their confidence when he comes to act among them, not merely as their\\nteacher, but as their adviser and friend.\\nHitherto the difficulty has been to perform the necessary work of the estab-\\nlishment in a satisfactory numner without encroaching on the hours of study\\nnothing being so nmch to be avoided as a hasty, imperfect, or slovenly perform-\\nance. The method pursued is iis follows The several duties whether of the\\nhou. e, the farm, or the garden are assigned to different parties, varying in num-\\nber according to the need, which are changed at stated periods, generally weekly.\\nOver each of these parties a monitor is appointed, care being taken so to sort\\nthe parties that the influence of the older and steadier youths may be continu-\\nallv exerted over their younger or less experienced associates. One youth, the\\neldest of those first admitted, is over the whole. It is his duty to arrange the\\nlabors of the ilay, under the superinteudence of the industrial master, and to\\ninspect the different working-parties when needful. He is also expected to bear\\ncomplaints, and to settle any trifling difference which may have arisen. The\\nmonitor of each partv is expected to maintain order among those whose labors\\nhe directs and, to speak generally, the discipline of the place is, as far as possi-\\nble, carried on by the moral influence of the youths over each other, a most\\nwatchful supervision being maintained by the masters. The direct interference\\nof the principal is not resorted to except in cases of necessity. Faults are cor-\\nrected bv admonition, and, if need be, by rebuke, either private or public, a.s the\\nC-ase may seem to require. It is sometimes advisable to make the admonition\\nireneraCwithout naming those for whom it is specially intended. A journal of\\nconduct is also kept, wiiich will, it is hoped, have a beneficial effect and every\\nvouth is occasionally reminded that his prospects when he shall have left the\\ninstitution, depend upon his conduct while in it. No prominence, however, is\\ngiven to this or to any other secondary motive. Good conduct can only be pro-\\nduced, in the long run, by a sense of duty, or by the habit which it produces\\nwhen it becomes a matter of course and this habitual sense of duty is best\\nencouraged bv a mode of treatment from which every appeal to motive, strictly\\nso called, is excluded. I believe this to be not merely the highest, but the most\\npractical view of the question and although in such a matter the utmost that\\ncan without presumption be expected, is a partial, and, under the Divine bless-\\ning, a growing success, yet it may with some degree of confidence be affirmed,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0818.jp2"}, "817": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. gjg\\nthat it has been already borne out by facts. Tlie particular methods by which\\ncheerful obeiiiencc. reijulnrity, dilij^ence, and general good condiut are to be pre-\\nserved in a training establishment, more especially in the industrial department,\\ncannot be detailed witliin tlie limits of this report. They vary with the exigency,\\nand are suggested in each case by tlie judgment, experience, good-feeling, and\\neducatiiiuid tact of those by whom the establij hmcnt is conducted. It will be\\nunderstood tliat the whole rests upon a religious basis, and is referred constantly,\\nand expressly, yet not obtrusively, to a religious standard care being taken to\\nprevent phrases and professions from anticipating the growth of real feelings.\\nThe business of the house is partly performed by the students, ;uid partly\\nby female servants. The former clean all the shoes, and knives, (fee, lay the\\ncloth, c., and wait at meals, sweep and dust the school-rooms, keep the courts\\nclean, light and attend to all the hres except those in the kitchen department,\\nregulate the gasdights, keep up a constant supply of water throughout the col-\\nlege by means of a forcing-pump, ami attend to the drainage, which is also\\neffected by means of a pump. It has not been thought advisable that they\\nshould make their beds or wash the floors. It is not likely that they will ever\\nbe calkul upon to perform these offices when they leave the ct)llege, while the\\nloss of time, and the injury done to their clothes, more than counterbalance any\\npecuniary saving which could in this way be effected.\\nThe labors of the farm are principally confined to the care of domestic ani-\\nmals cows and pigs, and poultry of various kinds. The cows are milked by the\\nyouths, and an accurate account kept of the produce of the farm and dairy, which\\nis consumed almost entirely in the establishment. The utihty of this part of the\\nestablishment is too evident to require a comment.\\nThe gardens, lawns, and shrubberies furnish abundant employment for those\\nnot otherwise engaged and though a considerable portion of time and attention\\nis necessarily allotted to ornamental horticulture, yet this will be found by no\\nmeans the least useful or the least appropriate feature of the scheme. There is\\nperhaps no form in which habits of manual industry can be encouraged more\\neasily or more beneficially, either with a view to the immediate or to the ulterior\\neffect, than by the occupations of the garden. Not to mention their effect upon\\nthr health and happiness of the youths, or the lessons which they teach of pa-\\ntience, order, and neatness, they are decidedly favorable to the growth of intelli-\\ngence, and this of the best kind more particularly when connected with the\\netudy of botany, which may with peculiar propriety be called the poor man s\\nscience. When studied on physiological principles, its close connection with the\\nbest and holiest truths/give it a yet higher claim to our attention.\\nLooking forward to the future positiou of our students, almost every country\\nschoolmaster might be, with much advantage, both to himself and to his neigh-\\nborhood, a gardener and a florist. The encouragement lately afforded to cottage\\ngardening has been already attended with the most pleasing results. The paro-\\nchial schodlmaster who shall be able to assist by example and precept in fosterhig\\na taste so favorable to the domestic happiness, and, in fact, to the domestic vir-\\ntues of a rustic population a taste by which an air of comfort is communicated\\nto the rude.-t dwelling, and a certain grace thrown over the simplest forms of\\nhumble life will, it is trusted, in this as in so many other ways, be made an\\ninstrument of good, and an efficient assistant to the parochial clergyman.\\nIn connection with the moral purposes of the industrial occupations of\\nthe students, the office of the. industrial master is considered of the highest\\nimportance.\\nIt is his duty to maintain order and enforce discipline not, however, by\\nmere drill, however skillfully organized or efficiently conducted, but by the in-\\nfluence of his example and the force of his character to live among them, and\\nto lead them on, as well by precept as by occasidually sharing in their occupa-\\ntions, to simple, industrious, and strictly regular habits; to settle disputes and\\nfillay jealousies to correct personal conceit and every the least approach to a\\nlove of show and finery to recommend (and this not by words only an humble\\nand dutiful mdustriousness, setting forth the religious obligation and beneficial\\ntendency, not merely of labor in general, but of bodily labor in particular, as a", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0819.jp2"}, "818": {"fulltext": "816 ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nblessing growing out of, and, in the case of those by whom it is rightly used,\\nsupL-rseding, if 1 may so speak, tlie penal character of toil, through Hiui by\\nwliom, after an inetiable manner, it has been rendered holy, lionorable, and of\\ngood report in tlie Churcli all this with a reference to the special aim of the\\ninstitution, as an instrument for elevating and amelioratmg the lot of tlie labor-\\ning poor.\\nSchools of Practice. Opportunities for practice in teaching and con-\\nducting school are afforded in a Practicing or Model School, on the\\npremises, and the Chelsea Parochial School. The Model School is com-\\nposed of 142 children, of whom a certain number are admitted upon the\\nfree list, and the rest p;iy a fee of 4d. per week, or 3s. per quarter. The\\nlatter are j)rincipally children of respectable mechanics, market-gardeners,\\nand working-people. Mr. Coleridge thus cliaracterizes them:\\nThere are among them many very promising lads, in whom a toward nature,\\nand perliaps some liome-training, must sliare wliatever praise may be thought\\ndue to their actual character and attainments. It is from tliese and such as these,\\nwherever they may be found, that I would select our future teachers. Many of\\ntliem come from a considerable distance as much as two or even three miles-\\nbringing their dinners with tliem, which they eat in the schoolroom, under the eye\\nof a teacher the same attention being paid to the propriety of their behavior as if\\nthey were boarders. Their little hymn of praise is sung by themselves at the\\nbeginning and conclusion of their simple meal, the materials of which in most\\ncases indicate but a .scanty competence at home while the sum paid for their\\nschooling, as well as the punctuality of their attendance, are each of them the\\nlatter, perhaps, not less than the former a proof that considerable ertbrts, and\\neven sacrifices, will be made by respectable persons of this class to procure\\nwhat they consider good instruction for their children.\\nIt having been considered expedient to extend yet further the facilities for\\npractice in the art of teaching supplied to the students, and to make them\\nfdraili.ir with it in its application to schools more nearly of the same class\\nwith those the charge of which will ultimately devolve upon them, an ar-\\nrangement has been made by which a certain number of them are employed\\ndaily in the Chelsea Parochial School. To facilitate the details of this\\narrangement, one of the students, whose term of training has expired, has\\nbeen appointed to the office of master of that school, with permission to\\nreside in the college, from whence the students accompany him daily to the\\nschool. Mr. Coleridge thus speaks of the connection of this school with\\nthe institution\\nIf the practicing school should be thought not to prepare the young men for\\nthe difficulties of their vocation the children being of a better sort, or tauglit\\nunder greater advantages, than they can expect to find hereafter no such ob-\\njection lies against the parochial school. Kothing can be more humble I might\\nalmost say, abject than the domestic condition, generally speaking, of the poor\\nchildren, who are here provided, not merely with instruction, but with the motive\\nto seek it with the clothes without which many would not, and others could\\nnot, come to school at all. Some, indeed, of the children pay a penny a week\\nbut the greater number are taught gratuitously, and of these as many are com-\\nfortably clothed as the funds at the command of the committee will permit.\\nThe benevolence of the directors, and in particular of the rector of the parish, is\\nspecially directed toward the children of the very poor atti-acted by the\\nmisery, undeterred by the vice and self-abandonment with which the lowest\\nestate of poverty is too often attended. Hence they have been unwilling to\\nraise the cJiaracter of the school by any means inconsistent witli this charitable\\nobject, and would rather do a little good to those who want it so much, tlian\\nseem to do more to tho.se who want it less. But, as intimated above, the very\\ndifficulties by which the school is embarrassed whether from the character of\\nthe children or any other cause enhance the value of the experience which may\\nbe gained in it by the teachers and although some time must elapse before tb\u00c2\u00bb", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0820.jp2"}, "819": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nsr\\neffects of the present management upon the welfare of the school can appear,\\nyet it is hoped that an improvement has already taken place beneath the sur-\\nface. Tliis connection with the results of which, so far as they have y one, I am\\nauthorized to state that the rector of the parish is fully satisfied will relieve\\nthe funds of the school to a certain extent, without burdening those of the\\nNational Society.\\nMr. Moseley, the Inspector, submits the following remarks at the close of\\nhis Report, on the condition of this Institution in 1846:\\nNo purpose of such an institution is obviously of equal importance with that\\nwhich proposes to itself the formation of the religious character of the students,\\nin the true and comprehensive sense of that term and it is with heartfelt pleas-\\nure that I bear testimony to the impression left upon mv mind by my visits to\\nSt. Mark s College, of the success with which religious influences have, under the\\nblessing of God, been made to operate there.\\nIf the moral aspect of the institution be that in which it is most gi-ateful to\\ncontemplate it if in the cheerful conformity of the students to the rules of its\\ndiscipline, in their submi-sive deportment toward their superiors, and their steady\\npursuit of an arduous path of duty, there be evidence of a dedicated and a\\nchastened spirit if their intercourse with the children whose education is in-\\ntrusted to their charge, be characterized not less by that kindly tone and that\\nhumanized demeanor, than by that more just recognition of their social position\\nand truer self-respect, which are usually associated with a gentler birth than\\ntheirs, and a more careful luu ture all these advantages, so inestimable in them-\\nselves, and in their relation to the purposes of the institution, are the legitimate\\nfruits of the formation of a religious character, and are evidences of its exist-\\nence. To the formation of such a character, the prominence given in the system\\nof the institution to the services of the college chapel, cannot but contribute in\\nan eminent degree and in assigning to them the first place among those charac-\\nteristic features of the system which I am desirous to bring under your lord-\\nships notice, I am not only following the order in which they came under my\\nown observation, but assigning to them their due place and their relative import-\\nance. The chapel is, in Mr. Coleridge s svstera, the kev-stone to the arch.\\n^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2x-\\nPassing to the subject of secular instruction, I am desirous to record my\\nentire adhesion, in a general sense, to the views entertained by Mr. Coleridge on\\nthe relative importance of literature and science, as proper elements of a course\\nof secular instruction in its adaptation to the purposes of this institution. These\\nviews are set forth in the following paragraphs of his last letter\\nWhat these lads want is power of thought and language. Their verbal\\nmemory is dormant they are incapable of the simplest abstraction. Till this\\nbe remedied, they can neither classify nor analyze they cannot vary the form\\nwithout changing the matter they cannot illustrate they cannot explain in a\\nword, they cannot teach. They have learned a certain imfnber of tacts or\\nrather, perhaps, a form of words in which facts are recounted and might easily\\nbe taught a great many more in the same way but they cannot combine or\\nemploy them, or so much as recognize them in an altered dress.\\nScience, however valuable in itself as a disciphne of the mind, and however\\nuseful in its application to the mechanic arts, is of no avail for the purposes\\nabove mentioned. It will not enable an ignorant boy to express himself with\\ncommon propriety it will not furnish him with the machinery of thought, or pre-\\npare him for the acquisition of knowledge in general. It will indeed strengthen\\nhis faculties, and raise him intellectually in the scale of being, but it will not\\nserve as a foundation. Again, from whatever cause, it is not found to have the\\nsame effect as studies of another description in softening and refining the charac-\\nter and though this may be easily carried to excess, yet to humanize the coarse,\\nrude natures, common in a greater or less degree to all uneducated boys, and in\\nthis way to gentle their condition, is among the most important ends of the insti-\\ntution.\\nWhatever difference Of opinion there may be as to some of those considera-\\n.tions by which Mr. Coleridge has thus sought to define the respective provinces\\nof science and literature, there can, in my opinion, be none as to the general\\n52", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0821.jp2"}, "820": {"fulltext": "gig ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nresult at which he has arrived. I believe that he has assigned to each its due\\nimportance, and that each actually holds, in the system of the institution, its\\nlegitimate place, and receives its due share of attention.\\nThere is, however, a second stage in the education of a schoolmaster. He\\nmust not only liave acquired the knowledge which he has to communicate, but\\nbe acquainted with the best methods of communicating it, and thoroughly prac-\\nticed in the use of those methods. All the elnments of education hitherto spoken\\nof, are common to him and to every other educated man, and are not peculiar to\\na training college the functions of such a college are not discharged until a pro*\\nfessional education is superadded.\\nIt is in the experience of every teacher, that to embrace a truth one s self, and\\nto be able to present it under the simplest form to the mind of another, are es-\\nsentially different things the one is a condition necexsary^ but not sufficient to\\nthe realization of the other.\\nI am not urging the claims of any of the particular schemes, or methods of\\ninstruction, which may at any time have been propounded, although I believe\\nthat the students in such an institution sliould be conversant with all of them\\nI am simply insisting on the necessity of making teaching, as an art, the subject\\nof study in a training college, in respect to each subject taught of viewing each\\nsuch subject under a double aspect, as that which is to become an element of the\\nstudent s own knowledge, and as that which he is to be made capable of present-\\ning under so simple a form, that it may become an element of the knowledge of\\na child. If it be said that such knowledge will be given by that practice of the\\nart of teaching which will form the occupation of the student s future life, I ask\\nwhether it is not in the experience of every person conversant with education,\\nthat a master may be possessed of all the knowledge he is called upon to teach\\nand far mnre than it he may, in the ordinary sense of the word, and even in its\\nhighest sense, be an educated man and to these qualifications he may add the\\nexperience of a whole life spent in tuition, and yet never have become a skillful\\nteacher.\\nAppealing to my own experience as an inspector, I can bear testimony to the\\nfact that among the schools of which my opinion is recorded the least favorably,\\nare some, whose demerits are not to be attributed to any want of education or\\nof general intelligence in their masters, or of a character formed upon Christian\\nprinciples, but simply to ignorance of the art of teaching.\\nIf I were asked (supposing the requisite knowledge of the subject taught)\\nwhat constituted a good teacher I sh( uld say, an habitual study of the best\\nmethods, and of the art of teaching. And if it were inquired of me why so few\\ngood teachers were to be found I should say, because so few study it or look\\nupon it, indeed, at all in the light of a proper subject of study.\\nIt is true that, as in all other branches of practical knowledge, some possess\\ngreater natural advantages for the acquisition of the art of teaching than others,\\nand, by the prompting of these, being led to the study of it, become self-taught\\nin it. And, in like manner, if any other branch of knowledge, now the subject\\nof ordinary instruction, had never been .analyzed and simplified for that purpose,\\nor taught systematically and if all men were, under these circumstances, left to\\ntheir own resources in the acquisition of it, and to their own choice whether\\nthey would acquire it or not yet some, incited and encouraged to the pursuit\\nof it by the bent of what is called genius, would find out for themselves the\\npath which leads to it, overleap the intervening diflSculties, and attain it.\\nI believe it to be thus Avith the art of teaching. Some few, by dint of natural\\nqualifications, acquire that skill which a systematic course of instruction would\\nmake in a great degree common to all and thus the false opinion has grown up\\nthat no man can become a good schoolmaster who is not endowed naturally with\\npeculiar qualifications for the office.\\nIt is to be borne in mind that the work of the elementary schoolmaster is one\\nof no ordinary difficulty. A crowd of poor children is brought to him, in whom\\nthe moral sense is in abeyance who have never been taught to think who have\\nlittle or no knowledge which may form the subject of thought, and are without\\nthe means of acquiring that knowledge. He must teach them to read, to write,\\nto cipher, and impart to them the elements of religious knowledge but this is", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0822.jp2"}, "821": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. g 1 9\\nnot all he will fail of the really valuable results of education if he do nut fur-\\nther teach them to think and to understands\u00e2\u0080\u0094store their minds with legitimate\\nsubjects of tliought, and cultivate the habit of self-instruction.\\nFor the accomplishment of these objects, the time allowed to him is short, the\\nmeans limited, and often inadequate.\\nIf he have beforehand Weighed the difficulties and discouragements of his\\nwork, carefully and systematically studied the best methods of encountering\\nthem, considered the various circumstances of the application of those methods,\\nand the mudiiications thereby rendered proper to them, and practiced hinaself in\\nthe use of them and if, actuated by the highest motives in reliance on the\\nDivine blessing\u00e2\u0080\u0094 -strong in the requisite preparation, but without extravagant\\nhopes of tlie result he then give his heart to the work, and pursue it hopefully,\\ncheerfully, and perseveringly it will prosper in his hands.\\nWithout such a preparation, his first impulse will be to sit down and weep\\nhis second, in despair of any useful result, to shrink into the mere mechanical\\ndiscliarge of his school tiuties.\\nThe elementary schoolmaster must be a man of action his functions are\\naffc/ressive, and call for the exercise of decision of character, a prompt judgment,\\na ready skill, and a facile intelligence. A passive, impressible, abstracted, and\\nexclusively literary character, however pleasing as the subject of speculation, in\\nconnection with the office of a village schoolmaster, is foreign to the business of\\na great school.\\nI can imagine no concurrence of circumstances better calculated to form an\\nefficie.it schoolmaster, than a previous course of professional instruction, subdued\\nin every phase and form of its development to that one object assigning not to\\na single teacher the realization of that object, but concentrating the labors of all\\neach in his own department upon it. To youths who had enjoyed the advan-\\ntages of a course of instruction like this, the duties of a schoolmaster s life, and\\nits responsibilities, Would have become, in some sort, a second nature. That am-\\nbition which receives so early its impulse, would, in minds thus preoccupied,\\nobtain its legitimate direction, and the labor of their office would become less\\nirksome to them when looked upon in tlie light of an exercise of skill not less\\nthan a duty.\\nThe following remarks on the results of the methods pursued in this\\nInstitution, and, incidentally, in other Institutions of the same kind, are\\ntaken from the Report of Mr. Moseley, in 1847\\nIf, with reference to its professional bearings, there be any defect in the pre-\\nscribed course, it does not appear to lie in this, that it aims at too high a\\nstandard of attainment in every subject to which the attention of the students is\\ndirected.\\nIt is not to be supposed that, to become good teachers, they can know too\\nmuch of the subjects they have to teach. Of the elementary lessons it has been\\nmy duty to listen to and to pass a judgment upon, here and elsewhere, the pre-\\nvailing and characteristic defect has been, not too much knowledge, but too\\nlittle. Had the teacher known more of the subject of his lesson, it has been my\\nconstant observation, that he would have been able to select from it tilings\\nbetter adapted for the instruction of children. Had his mind been more highly\\nciiltivated, and the resources of his intellect brought by education more fully\\nunder his control, he would have been able to place them under simpler forms,\\nand in a better manner to adapt the examination founded upon them to the in-\\ndividual capacities of the children he had to teach. Accordinffly, the simplest\\nlesso7is I have listened to in trainhip schools, have commonly been those delivered\\nby the ablest and best-instructed students.\\nIt is not the fact, that the teacher knows too much, which makes him unintelli-\\ngible to the child, but, that he knows nothing which the child can comprehend,\\nor that he has never studied what he has to teach in the light in which a child\\ncan be made to comprehend it.\\nThat fullness of knowledge on the part of the teacher, of which my experience\\nhas led me to appreciate the importance, is a fullness of the knowledge of things\\nadapted to the instruction of ohildien, studied undur the forms in which they are", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0823.jp2"}, "822": {"fulltext": "820\\nST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nmost readily intelligible to them of things learned in the light in which they\\nare also to be taught. It includes, notwithstanding, the knowledge of many\\nthings which a child can never be expected to know. That the teacher may be\\nable to present the subject under its most elementary form to the mind of the\\nchild, he must himself liave gone to the root of it. That he may exhaust it of\\nall that it is capable of yielding for the cliild s instruction, he must have compassed\\nthe whole of it.\\nIn his preparation for the discharge of functions such as these, even with\\nrespect to that limited number of subjects which enter into the business of ele-\\nmentary instruction, there is ample room, and verge enough, for a long course of\\nstudy, which, whilst on the one hand it is strictly professional in its bearings,\\nyields to no other, as a means of accomplishing the highest objects of a general\\neducation.\\nIt is not, liowever, to be denied, that in that function of a training school which\\nis directed to the simple acquisition of knowledge separated from, or exercised\\nout of the view of, that otlier wliich contemplates tlie imparting of it, there is a\\ntendency to defeat the object for which such institutions have been established.\\nEvery man must be conscious of a separation made by education, between his\\nown mind and that of a less educated man a separation which enlarges with\\neach step of his intellectual progress, and which is widened to its utmost con-\\nceivable limits, when the relation is that of a poor ignorant child to a teacher\\notherwise higlily instructed, but who knows nothing likely to interest the child,\\nor has been accustomed to study nothing in the light in which it may be made\\nintelligible to the child. Their intercourse, under these circumstances, cannot\\nbut be mutually distasteful, and the school must be to both equally a place of\\nbondage the child neither benefiting by it as a learner, nor the master as a\\nteacher.\\nEvery thing which I have observed leads to the conclusion, that the course of\\nthe training school, to be successful, must not be limited to the one function of\\ngiving the student the learning he may require the other, that which concerns\\nthe art of teaching, being left to self-instruction and to pr.actice.\\nOne of those results of the recent examination of the Battersea Training\\nSchool, which appeared tf) me the most important, was the progress the school-\\nmasters who came up for examination had obviously made, as teachers, since\\nthey left the Institution, placing them in this respect greatly in advance of the\\nresident students. I have not observed the same result in institutions where\\nthe importance of the study of the art of teaching is not to the same extent felt,\\nand wliere the I elation of the elementary school to the training college is not so\\nconstantly kept in view.\\nIt struck me as remarkable, in the lessons dehvered by the candidates for cer-\\ntificates in the model-school at St. Mark s, that there was no attempt made to\\ntransfer the knowledge to be communicated directly from the mind of the teacher\\nto the minds of the cliildren.\\nTheir idea of an oral lesson seemed to be comprised in an examination. Nor\\nwas it a qtic.stioning of knowledge from their own minds to those of the children,\\nby that process which is called the interrogative method, but, simply, a viva voce\\nexamination into what the children actually knew, limited for the most part to\\nthe subject-matter of some lesson which they had previously read; and as it did\\nnot thus enter apparently into the teacher s idea of an oral lesson that the chil-\\ndren sliould know any thing more wdien it was completed than when it began, so\\ndid tills seem to be tlie result.\\nIn the printed form of report on the qualifications of candidates for certificates,\\none of the questions we are instructed to answer has reference to tlie character\\nof the Exposition of the candidate in teaching, whether it be fluent or not.\\nThe answer recorded to this question in almost every case which aame under\\nour observation at St. Mark s is, No exposition. With reference to the same\\nquestion at Battersea, we have recorded that, in the lessons we listened to there,\\nthere was too much exposition, and too little examination. At Chester the tAvo\\nseemed to be more judiciously united in the proportions of a good lesson. There\\nwas tills feature, moreover, worthy of observation in the lessons delivered in the\\nChester School, that the teacher broke up his lesson into parts, teaching by the\\nway of exposition, only so long at one time as not to weary the attention of the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0824.jp2"}, "823": {"fulltext": "ST. MARK S TRAINING COLLEGE. 821\\nchildren, and overburden their memories, then examining upon that portion,\\nafterward taking up the subject where he had loft it oif, and thus continuinj,\\nthe process until the lesson was completed, when he examined upon the whole\\nof it.\\nOral teacliing requires, more than any other, constant self-teaching on the part\\nof the master. It is a method which will be adopted by no master who is not\\nof a dedicated spirit and fond of his work. Besides, liowever, that satisfixction\\nwhich he will derive from it in the success of his school, he will not fail to expe-\\nrience this other, that whatever, for this object, he teaches himself, will be fixed\\nmore firmly in his mind, and that his knowledge of it will receive a character of\\nclearness and precision not, perhaps, otherwise to be gained.\\nIn the teaching of the students of all the Training Institutions I have observed,\\nand it was perhaps to be expected, a perpetual tendency to travel out of the\\nsphere of the intelligence of the children, and out of the limits of that kind of\\nknowledge which is hkely to interest or to benefit them but nowhere does\\nthere appear to be less effort m;ide to subdue this tendency, and systematically\\nto subject the lesson, both as to the matter and the manner of it, to the exi-\\ngencies of the child, than at St. Mark s College. Nothing would tend so effectu-\\nally to correct this evil as the addition to the staff of the Institution of a model\\nelementary teacher, on whose efforts those of the students might, with advantage,\\nbe formed, and to which they might be encouraged to refer them as a standard.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0825.jp2"}, "824": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0826.jp2"}, "825": {"fulltext": "UOKMAL SCHOOL\\nFOR THE TRAINING OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOLMASTERS,\\nAT BATTKRSEA, ENGLAND.\\nThe Battersea Training Establishment is the most interesting institution\\nin England for the professional education of teachers. It was founded in\\n1839, by James Phillips Kay* (now Sir James Kay Shuttleworth), Secretary\\nof the Committee of Council on Education, and E, C. Tufnel, Esq., Assist-\\nant Poor-Law Commissioner, with two distinguishing objects\\n1. To give an example of normal education for schoolmasters, comprising the\\nformation of character, the development of the intelligence, appropriate technical\\ninstruction, and the acquisition of method and practical skill in conducting an\\nelementary school.\\n2. To illustrate the truth that, without violating the rights of conscience,\\nmasters trained in a spirit of Christian charity, and instructed in the discipline\\nand doctrines of the Church, might be employed in the mixed schools necessarily\\nconnected with public establishments, and in which children of persons of all\\nshades of religious opinion are assembled.\\nIt was founded as a private enterprise, and at an expense of $12,000 to\\nthe individuals named, in the hope that it might be employed, if the experi-\\nment should prove successful, by the Government, in supplying teachers for\\nschools of industry for pauper children, like those at Norwood, Manchester,\\nLiverpool, and elsewhere for reformatory institutions for juvenile criminals\\nfor ragged schools for neglected and vagrant children in large cities and\\nfor schools of royal foundation at dock-yards and in men-of-war. The\\noriginal constitution impressed upon the normal school was conceived in\\nthis view. But, in 1843, the institution, having proved successful, and it\\nbeing no longer convenient for its founders personally to superintend its\\noperations, was transferred to the management of the National Society, for\\nthe purpose of being also instrumental in spreading a truly Christian\\ncivilization through the masses of the people in manufacturing districts.\\nIn announcing this fact, the founders, in their Report in 1 843, remark\\nOur personal experience had made us early acquainted with the absence of a\\ngrowth in the spiritual and intellectual life of the masses, corresponding with\\nthe vast material prosperity of the manufacturing districts.\\nWe had witnessed the failure of efforts to found a scheme of combined educa-\\ntion on the emancipation of infants from the slavery into which the necessities\\nand ignorance of their parents, and the intensity of commercial competition, had\\nsold them.\\nTo arrest the progress of degeneracy toward materialism and sensuality, ap-\\npeared to us to be the task roost worthy of citizens in a nation threatened by\\ncorruption from the consequences of ignorance and excessive labor among her\\nlower orders.\\nIt is impossible that the legislature should, year after year, receive and pub-\\nlish such accounts of the condition of the people as are contained in the Reports\\nMr. Kay in 1843 assumed the name of Shuttleworth, in consequence of receiving a legacy\\nfrom a person of that name and in 1849 was knighted by the queen, for his services to the cause\\nof elementary instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0827.jp2"}, "826": {"fulltext": "824 BAITERSEA TRAINING t!CHOOL.\\nof the Hand-kiom Weavers Commission, or of the Commission on the Employ-\\nment of Women and Children, or that on the Dwellings of the Poor and on the\\nSanitary Condition of Large Towns, without resolving to confer on the poor\\nsome great reward of patience, by offering national secm-ity for their future\\nwelfare.\\nThese considerations have a general relation, but the state of the manufacturing\\npoor is that which awakens the greatest apprehension. The labor which they\\nundergo is excessive, and they sacrifice their wives and infants to the claims of\\ntheir poverty, and to the demands of tlie intense competition of trade. Almost\\nevery thing around them tends to materialize and mflame them.\\nThey are assembled in masses, they are exposed to the physical evils arising\\nfrom the neglect of sanitary precautions, and to the moral contamination of\\ntowns, they are accustomed to combine in trades-unions and political associa-\\ntions, they are more accessible by agitators, and more readily excited by them.\\nThe time for inquiry into their condition is past, the period for the interference\\nof a sagacious national forethought is at hand. We therefore felt that the im-\\nminent risks attending tliis condition of the manufacturing poor established the\\nlargest claim on an institution founded to educate Christian teachers for the\\npeople.\\nNo material change has been made in the plan of the school in conse-\\nquence of this transfer of management, or enlargement of the design; and\\nthe history of its establishment and original constitution will therefore be\\nboth appropriate and profitable to an understanding of its present opera-\\ntions. The following account is drawn from the First and Second Rej)orLs\\non the Training School at Battersea, to the Poor-Law Commissioners\\npublished in a volume entitled Reports on the Training of Pauper Chil-\\ndren. 1841.\\nThe training of pauper children in a workhouse or district school cannot be\\nsuccessful unless the teacher be moved by Christian charity to the work of rear-\\ning in religion and industry the outcast and orphan children of our rural and city\\npopulation. The difficulty of redeeming by education the mischief wrought in\\ngenerations of a vicious parentage, can be estimated only by those who know\\nhow degenerate these children are.\\nThe pauper children assembled at Norwood, from the garrets, cellars, and\\nwretched rooms of alleys and courts in the dense parts of London, are often sent\\nthither in a low stage of destitution, covered only with rags and vermin often\\nthe victims of chronic disease almost universally stmited m their growth and\\nsometimes emaciated with want. The low-browed and inexpressive physiog-\\nnomy or malign aspect of the boys is a true index to the mental darkness, the\\nstubborn tempers, the hopeless spu-its, and the vicious habits on which the\\nmaster has to work. He needs no smaU support from Cliristian faith and charity\\nfor the successful prosecution of such a labor and no quality can compensate for\\nthe want of that spirit of self-sacrifice and tender concern for the well-being of\\nthese children, without which their instruction would be any thing but a labor of\\nlove. A baker, or a shoemaker, or a shop apprentice, or commercial clerk, cannot\\nbe expected to be imbued with this spirit, during a residence of six months in\\nthe neighborhood of a model-school, if he has not imbibed it previously at its\\nsource.\\nThe men who undertake tliis work should not set about it in the spirit of\\nhirelings, taking the speediest means to procure a maintenance with the least\\namount of trouble. A commercial country will always offer irresistible tempta-\\ntions to desert such a profession, to those to whom the annual stipend is the\\nchief if not sole motive to exertion. The outcast must remain neglected, if\\nthere be no principle which, even in the midst of a commercial people, will\\nenable men to devote themselves to this vocation from higher motives than\\nthe mere love of money.\\nExperience of the motives by which the class of schoolmasters now plying\\ntheir trade in this country are commonly actuated, is a graver source of want of", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0828.jp2"}, "827": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 325\\nconfidence in their ability to engage in tliis labor, than the absence of skill in\\ntheir profession. A great number of them undertake tlieSe duties either because\\nthey are incapacitated by age or infirmity for any other, or because they have\\nfailed in all other attempts to procure a livelihood, or because, in the absence of\\nAvell-qualitied competitors, the least amount of exertion and talent enables the\\nmost indolent schoolmasters to present average claims on public confidence and\\nsupport. Rare indeed are the examples in whicli skill and principle are com-\\nbined in the agents employed in this most important sphere of national self-\\ngovernment. Other men wiU nut enable you to restore the children of vagabonds\\nand criminals to society, purged of the taint of their parents vices, and prepared\\nto perform their duties as useful citizens in an humble sphere.\\nThe peculiarities of the cliaracter and condition of the pauper children demand\\nthe use of appropriate means for their improvement. The general principles on\\nwhich the education of children of all classes should be conducted are doubtless\\nfundan^entally the same but for each class specific modifications are requisite,\\nnot only in the methods, but in the matter of instruction.\\nThe discipline, management, and methods of instruction in elementary schools\\nfor the poor, differ widely from tliose which ought to cliaracterize schools for the\\nmiddle or upper classes of society. The instruction of the blind, of the deaf and\\ndumb, of criminals, of paupers, and of children in towns and in rural districts,\\nrenders necessary the use of a variety of distinct methods in order to attain the\\ndesired end.\\nThe peculiarity of the pauper child s condition is, that his parents, eitlier from\\nmisfortune, or indolence, or vice, have sunk into destitution. In many instances\\nchildren descend from generations of paupers. They have been born in the\\nworst purlieus of a great city, or in the most wretched hovels on the parish\\nwaste. They have suffered privation of every kind. Perhaps they have wan-\\ndered about the country in beggary, or have been taught the arts of petty\\nthieving in the towns. They have lived with brutal and cruel men and women,\\nand have suffered from their caprice and mismanagement. They have seen\\nmuch of vice and wretchedness, and have known neither comfort, kindness, nor\\nvirtue.\\nIf they are sent very young to the work-house, their entire training in religious\\nknowledge, and in all the habits of hfe, devolves on the schoolmaster. If they\\ncome under his care at a later period, his task is difficult in proportion to the\\nvicious propensities he has to encounter.\\nThe children to whose improvement Pestalozzi devoted his life were of a\\nsimilar class, equally ignorant, and perhaps equally demoralized, in consequence\\nof the internal di.scords attendant on the revolutionary wars which, at the\\nperiod when his labors commenced, had left Switzerland in ruin\\nThe class of children which De Fellenberg placed under the charge of Vehrii\\nat Hofwyl were in like manner picked up on the roads of the canton they were\\nthe outcasts of Berne.\\nThese cu-cumstances are among the motives wluch led us to a careful examina-\\ntion of the schools of industry and normal schools of the cantons of Switzerland.\\nThese schools are more or less under the influence of the lessons which Pestalozzi\\nand De Fellenberg have taught that country. They differ in some important\\nparticulars from those which exist in England, and the experience of Switzerland\\nin this peculiar department of elementary instruction appears pre-eminently\\nworthy of attention.\\nThese orphan and normal schools of Switzerland, which have paid the deference\\ndue to the lessons of Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, are remarkable for the gen-\\ntleness and simplicity of the intercourse between the scholar and his master.\\nThe formation of character is always kept in mind as the great aim of education.\\nThe intelligence is enlightened, in order that it may inform the conscience, and\\nthat the conscience, looking forth through this intelligence, may behold a tv ider\\nsphere of duty, and have at its command a greater capacity for action. The\\ncapacity for action is determined by the cultivation of habits appropriate to the\\nduties of the station which the cliild must occupy.\\nAmong the laboring class, no habit is more essential to virtuous conduct than\\nthat of steady and persevering labor. Manual skill connects the intelligence", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0829.jp2"}, "828": {"fulltext": "826 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nwith the brute force with which we are endued. The instruction in elementary\\nschools should be so conducted as not only to assist the laborer in acquiring\\nmechanical dexterity, but in bringing his intelligence to aid the labors of his\\nhands, whether by a knowledge of the principles of form or numbers, or of the\\nproperties of natural objects, and the nature of the phenomena by which his\\nlabors are likely to be affected. In a commercial country, it is pre-eminently\\nimportant to give him such an acquaintance with geography as may stimulate\\nenterprise at home, or may tend to swell the stream of colonization which is\\ndaily extending the dominion of British commerce and civilization. Labor which\\nbrings the sweat upon the brows requires relaxation, and the child should there-\\nfore learn to repose from toil among innocent enjoyments, and to avoid those\\nvicious indulgences which waste the laborer s strength, rob his house of comfort,\\nand must sooner or later be the source of sorrow. There is a dignity in the\\nlot of man in every sphere, if it be not cast away. The honor and the joy of\\nsuccessful toil should fill the laborer s songs in his hour of repose. From religion\\nman learns that all the artificial distinctions of society are as nothing before that\\nGod who searcheth the heart. Religion, therefore, raises the laborer to the\\nhighest dignity of human existence, the knowledge of the will and the enjoyment\\nof the favor of God, Instructed by religion, the laborer knows how in daily toil\\nhe fulfills the duties and satisfies the moral and natural necessities of his existence,\\nwhile the outward garb of mortality is gradually wearing off, and the spirit pre-\\nparing for emancipation.\\nAn education guided by the principles described in this brief sketch, appears\\nto us appropriate to the preparation of the outcast and orphan children for the\\ngi eat work of a Christian s life.\\nThat which seemed most important was the preparation of a class of teachers,\\nwho would cheerfully devote themselves, and, with anxious and tender solicitude,\\nto rear these children, abandoned by all natural sympathies, as a wise and\\naffectionate parent would prepare them for the duties of life.\\nTo so grave a task as an attempt to devise the means of training these teach-\\ners, it was necessary to bring a patient and humble spirit, in order that the\\nresults of experience in this department might be examined, and that none that\\nwere useful might be hastily thrown aside. Our examination of the Continental\\nschools was undertaken with this view. A visit was made to Holland at two\\nsuccessive periods, on the last of which we took one of Dr. Kay s most experienced\\nschoolmasters with us, in order that he might improve himself by an examination\\nof the methods of instruction in the Dutch schools, all the most remarkable of\\nwhich were miimtely inspected. A visit has been paid to Prussia and Saxony,\\nin which several of the chief schools have been examined with a similar design.\\nTwo visits were paid to Paris, in which the normal school at Versailles, the\\nMaison Mfcre, and Novitiate of the Brothers of the Order of the Christian Doc-\\ntrine, and a great number of the elementary schools of Paris and the vicinity,\\nwere examined. The normal school at Dijon was especially recommended to\\nour attention by M. Cousin and M. Villemain, and- we spent a day in that school.\\nOur attention was directed with peculiar interest to the schools of Switzerland,\\nin the examination of which we spent several weeks uninterruptedly. During\\nthis period we daily inspected one or more schools, and conversed with the\\nauthorities of the several cantons, with the directors of the normal schools, and\\nwith individuals distinguished by their knowledge of the science of elementary\\ninstruction. The occasional leave of absence from our home duties which you\\nhave kindly granted us in the last three years respectively, was mainly solicited\\nwith the view, and devoted to the purpose, of examining the method of instruc-\\ntion adopted in the schools for the poorer classes on the Continent.\\nThis report is not intended to convey to you the results of our inquiries. It\\nmay suffice to describe the chief places visited, and the objects to which our at-\\ntention was directed, in order that you may know the sources whence we have\\nderived the information by which our subsequent labors have been guided. We\\nentered Switzerland by the Jura, descending at Geneva, and, having obtained\\nthe sanction of the authorities, were accompanied by some members of the\\ncouncil in our visit to the schools of the town and neighborhood. Thence we\\nproceeded to the Canton de Vaud, inspecting certain rural schools, and the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0choola of the towns on the borders of the lake, on our way to Lausanne. Hera", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0830.jp2"}, "829": {"fulltext": "BATl iiJKSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 82 V\\nwe spent two day8, iu company with M, Gautliey, the director of the normal\\nBchool of the canton, whose vaUiable report has been translated by Sir John\\nBoileau, our fellow-traveler in this part of our journey.\\nAt Lausanne we attended the lectures, and exaniined the classes in the normal\\nschool and the town schools, and enjoyed much useful and instructive conversa-\\ntion with M. Gauthey, who appeared eminently well qualified for his important\\nlabors.\\nAt Fribourg we spent some time in the convent of the Capuchin friars, where\\nwe found the venerable Pere Girard officiating at a reUgious festival, but he\\nbelongs to the Dominican order. The Pere Girard has a European reputation\\namong those who have labored to raise the elementary instruction of the poorer\\nclasses, consequent on his pious labors among the poor of Fribourg; and the\\nsuccess of his schools appeared to us chiefly attributable, first, to the skill and\\nassiduity with which the monitors had been instructed in the evening by the\\nfather and his assistants, by which they had been raised to the level of the pupil\\nteachers of Holland and secondly, to the skillful manner in which Pfere Girard\\nand his assistants had infused a moral lesson into every incident of the instruction,\\nand had bent the whole force of their minds to the formation of the characters\\nof the children. It was, at the period of our visit, the intention of Pfere Girard\\nto publish a series of works of elementary instruction at Paris, for which we have\\nsince waited in vain.\\nAt Berne, we spent much time in conversation with M. De Fellenberg, at\\nHofwyl. We visited his great establishment for education there, as well as the\\nnormal school at Munchen Buchsee, in which visit we were accompanied by M.\\nDe Fellenberg. What we learned from the conversation of this patriotic and\\nhigh-minded man we cannot find ^pace here to say. His words are better read\\nin the establishments which he has founded, and which he superintends, and in\\nthe influence which his example and his precepts have had on the rest of Switzer-\\nland, and on other parts of Europe. The town schools of Berne and other parts\\nof the canton merited, and received our attention.\\nAt Lucerne we carefully examined the normal and orphan schools. Thence\\nwe proceeded through Schweitz, with the intention of visiting the colony of the\\nLinth, in Glarus, but failed, from the state of the mountain roads. Crossing the\\nLake of Zurich at Rapperschwyl, we successively visited St. Gall and Appenzell,\\nexamining some of the most interesting orphan schools in the mountains, par-\\nticularly one kept by a pupil of De Fellenberg at Teuffen, the normal school at\\nGais (Kruisi, the director of which is a pupU of Pestalozzi), and the orphan\\nschool of M. Zeltveger at Appenzell.\\nDescending from the mountains, we crossed the lake to Constance, where we\\nfound Vehrli, who had many years conducted the poor -school of De Fellenberg\\nat Hofwyl, now in charge of the normal school of the canton of Thurgovia, in a\\nlarge mansion once connected with the convent of Kruitzlingen. Here we spent\\ntwo days in constant communication with Vehrli and his pupils, in the examina-\\ntion of his classes, and deriving from him much information respecting his\\nlabors. From Constance we traveled to Zurich, where we carefully exaniined\\nthe normal and model schools, both at that time considerably shaken by the\\nrecent revolution.\\nAt Lenzberg we had much useful conversation with the director of the normal\\nschool of the canton of Aargovia thence we traveled to Basle, where we visited\\nthe orphan house of the town, and also that at Beuggen, as well as other schools\\nof repute.\\nWe have ventured to give this sketch of our journey in Switzerland, as some\\napology for tlie strength of the opinion we have formed on the necessity which\\nexists for the establishment of a training school for the teachers of pauper\\nchildren in this country. Our inquiries were not confined to this object but\\nboth here, at Paris, in Holland, and in Germany, we bought every book which\\nwe thought might be useful in our future labors and in every canton we were\\ncareful to collect all the laws relating to education, the regulations of the normal\\nand elementary schools and the by-laws by which these institutions wer\u00c2\u00ab\\ngoverned.\\nIn the orphan schools which have emanated from Pestalozzi and De Fellen-\\nberg, we found the type which has assisted us in our subsequent labors. la", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0831.jp2"}, "830": {"fulltext": "828 BATTErvSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nwalking with M. De Fellenberg through Hofwyl, we listened to the precepts\\nwhich we think most applicable to the education of the pauper class. In the\\nnormal school of the canton of Thurgovia, and in the orphan schools of St. Gall\\nand Appenzell, we fomid the development of those principles so far successful as\\nto assure us of tlieir practical utility.\\nWe were anxious that a work of such importance should be undertaken by\\nthe authorities most competent to carry it into execution successfully, and we\\npainfully felt how inadequate our own resources and experience were for the\\nmanagement of such an experiment but after various inquiries, which were at-\\ntended with few encouraging results, we thought that as a last resort we should\\nnot uicur the charge of presumption, if, in private and unaided, we endeavored\\nto work out the first steps of the establishment of an institution for the framing\\nof teachers, wliich we hoped might afterward be intrusted to abler hands. We\\ndetermined, therefore, to devote a certain portion of our own means to this\\nobject, believing that when the scheme of the institution was sufficiently mature\\nto enable us to speak of results rather than of anticipations, the well-being of\\n50,000 pauper children would plead its own cause with the government and the\\npublic, so as to secure the future prosperity of the establishment.\\nThe task proposed was, to reconcile a simplicity of life not remote from the\\nhabits of the humbler classes, with such proficiency in intellectual attainments,\\nsuch a knowledge of method, and such skill in the art of teaching, as would\\nenable the pupils selected to become efficient masters of elementary schools.\\nWe hoped to inspire them with a large sympathy for their own class to implant\\nin their minds the thought that their chief honor would be to aid in rescuing\\nthat class from the misery of ignorance and its attendant vices to wean them\\nfrom the influence of that personal competition in a commercial society which\\nleads to sordid aims to place before them the unsatisfied want of the uneasy\\nand distressed multitude and to breathe into them the charity which seeks to\\nheal its mental and moral diseases.\\nWe were led to select premises at Battersea, chiefly on account of the very\\nfrank and cordial welcome with which the suggestion of our plans was received\\nby the Hon. and Rev. Robert Eden, the vicar of Battersea. Mr. Eden offered\\nthe use of his village schools in aid of the training school, as the sphere in which\\nthe pupils might obtain a practical acquaintance with the art of instruction.\\nHe also undertook to superintend the training school in all that related to\\nreligion.\\nWe therefore chose a spacious manor-house close to the TJ[iames, surrounded\\nby a garden of five acres. This house was altered and divided so as to afford a\\ngood separate residence to Dr. Kay,* who undertook to superintend the progress\\nof the establishment for a limited period, within which it was hoped that the\\nprinciples on which the training school was to be conducted would be so far\\ndeveloped as to be in course of prosperous execution, and not likely to perish by\\nbeing confided to other hands.\\nIn the month of January, 1840, the class-rooms were fitted up with desks on\\nthe plan described on the minutes of the Committee of Council, and we furnished\\nthe school-house. About the beginning of February some boys were removed\\nfrom the School of Industry at Norwood, whose conduct had given us confidence\\nin their characters, and who had made a certain proficiency in the elementary\\ninstruction of that school.\\nThese boys were chiefly orphans, of little more than thirteen years of age, in-\\ntended to form a class of apprentices. These apprentices would be bound from\\nthe age of fourteen to that of twenty-one, to pursue, under the guidance and\\ndirection of the Poor-Law Commission, the vocation of assistant teachers in\\nelementar)^ schools. For this purpose they were to receive instruction at least\\nthree years in the training school, and to be employed as pupil teachers for two\\nyears at least in the Battersea village school during three hours of every day.\\nAt the termination of this probationary period (if thej^ were able satisfactorily\\nto pass a certain examination) they were to receive a certificate, and to be em-\\nployed as assistant teachers, under the guidance of experienced and well-conducted\\nmasters, in some of the schools of industry for pauper children. They were at\\nFor which he paid half the rent and taxes, in addition to his share of the expenses of the\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Cbool.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0832.jp2"}, "831": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 829\\nthis period to be rewarded with a certain remuneration, increasing from year to\\nyear, and secured to them by the form of the indenture.\\nIf they were unable to sati-sfy the examiners of their proficiency in every\\ndepartment of elementary instruction, and thus failed in obtaining their cer-\\ntificate, they would continue to receive instruction at Battersea until they had\\nacquired the requisite accomplishments.\\nThe number of pupil teachers of this class has been gradually increased,\\nduring the period which has since elapsed, to twenty-four. But it seemed\\nessential to the success of the school that the numbers should increase slowly.\\nIts existence was disclosed only to the immediate circles of our acquaintance, by\\nwhom some boys were sent to the school, besides those whom we supported at\\nour own expense. For the clothing, board and lodging, and education of each of\\nthese boys, who were confided to our care by certain of our friends, we consented\\nto receive \u00c2\u00a320 per annum toward the general expenses of the schools.\\nBesides the class of pupil teachers, we consented to receive young men, to\\nremain at least one year in the establishment, either recommended by our per-\\nsonal friends, or to be trained for the schools of gentlemen with whom we were\\nacquainted. These young men have generally been from twenty to thirty years\\nof age.\\nThe course of instruction, and the nature of the discipline adopted for the\\ntraining of these young men, will be described in detail. This class now amounts\\nto nine, a number accumulated only by very gradual accessions, as we were by\\nno means desitous to attract many students until our plans were more mature,\\nand the instruments of our labor were tried and approved.\\nThe domestic arrangements were conducted with great simplicity, because it\\nwas desirable that the pupils should be prepared for a life of self-denial. A\\nsphere of great usefulness might require the laljors of a man ready to live among\\nthe peasantry on their own level, to mingle with them in their habitations, to\\npartake their frugal or even coarse meals, and to seem their equal only, though\\ntheir instructor and guide. It was desirable, therefore, that the diet should be\\nas frugal as was consistent with constant activity of mind, and some hours of\\nsteady and vigorous labor, and that it should not pamper the appetite by its\\nquality or its variety.\\nThe whole household-work was committed to the charge of the boys and young\\nmen; and for this purpose the duties of each were appointed every fortnight, in\\norder that they might be equally shared by all. The young men above twenty\\nyears of age did not aid in the scouring of the floors and stairs, nor clean the\\nshoes, grates, and yards, nor assist in the serving and waiting at meals, the prep-\\naration of vegetables and other garden-stutf for the cook. But the making of\\nbeds and all other domestic duty was a common lot and the young men acted\\nas superintendents of the other work.\\nThis was performed with cheerfulness, though it was some time before the\\nrequisite skill was attained and perfect order and cleanliness have been found\\namong the habits most difficult to secure. The pupils and students were care-\\nfully informed, that these arrangements were intended to prepare them for the\\ndiscliarge of serious duties in au humble sphere, and to nerve their minds for the\\ntrials and vicissitudes of life.\\nThe masters partook the same diet as the pupils, sitting in the center of the\\nroom, and assisting in the carving. They encouraged familiar conversation\\n(avoiding the extremes of levity or seriousness) at the meals, but on equal\\nterms with their scholars, with the exception only of the respect involuntarily\\npaid them.\\nAfter a short time a cow was bought, and committed to the charge of one of\\nthe elder boys. Three pigs were afterward added to the stock, then tlu-ee\\ngoats, and subsequently poultry and a second cow. These animals were all fed\\nand tended,^and the cows were daily milked, by the pupil teachers. It seemed\\nimportant that they should learn to tend animals with care and gentleness\\nthat they should understand tlie habits and the mode of managing these par-\\nticular animals, because the schoolmaster in a rural parish often has a common\\nor forest-right of pasture for his cow, and a forest-run for his pig or goat, and\\nmight thus, with a little skill, be provided with the means of healthful occupation\\nin his hours of leisure, and of providing for the comfort of his family.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0833.jp2"}, "832": {"fulltext": "g30 BAttEftSEA TllAINING SCHOOI,.\\nMoreover, sUch employments were deemed important, as giving the pupils, by\\nactual experience, some knowledge of a peasant s life, and, therefore, truer and\\ncloser sympathy with his lot. They would be able to render their teaching\\ninstructive, by adapting it to the actual condition and associations of those to\\nwhom it would be addressed. They would be in less danger of dospisiiiLr the\\nlaborer s daily toil in comparison With intellectual pursuits, and of being led by\\ntheir oWn attainments to form a false estimate of their position in relation to the\\nclass to which they belonged, and which they were destined to instruct. The\\nteacher of the peasant s child occupies, as it were, the father s place, in the per-\\nformance of duties from which the father is separated by his daily toil, and\\nunhappily, at pf esent, by his want of knowledge and skill. But the schoolmaster\\nought to be prepared in thought and feeling to do the peasant-father s duty,\\nby having sentirtients in common with him, and among these an honest pride in\\nthe labor of his hands, in his strength, his manual skill, his robust health, and the\\nmanly vigor of his body and mind.\\nAt first, four hours were devoted every day to labor in the garden. The\\nwhole school rose at half past five. The household-Work occupied the pupil\\nteachers altogether, and the students partially, till a quarter to seven o clock.\\nAt a quarter to seven they marched into the garden, and Worked till a quarter\\nto eight, when they were summoned to prayers. They then marched to the\\ntool-house, deposited their implements, washed, and assembled at prayers at\\neight o clock. At half past eight they breakfasted. From nine to twelve they\\nWere in school. They worked at the garden from twelve to one, when they\\ndined. They resumed their labor in the garden at two, and returned to their\\nclasses at three, where they were engaged till five, when they Worked another\\nhour in the garden. At six they supped, and spent from seven to nine in their\\nclasses. At nine, evening prayers were read, and immediately afterward they\\nRetired to rest.\\nIn these labors the pupils and students rapidly gained strength. They almost\\nall soon wore the hue of health. Their food Was frugal, and they returned to it\\nwith appetites Which Were not easily satisfied. The most delicate soon lost all\\ntheir ailments.\\nThe gymnastic frame and the horizontal and parallel bars Were not erected\\nuntil the constitutional and muscular powefs of the pupils and students had been\\ninvigorated by labor. After a few months daily work in the garden, the drill\\nWas substituted for garden-work during one hour daily. The marching exercise\\nand extension movements Were practiced for several weeks then the gymnastic\\napparatus was erected, and the drill and gymnastic exercise succeeded each\\nother on alternate evenings. The knowledge of the marching exercise is very\\nuseful in enabling a teaclier to secure precision and order in the movements of\\nthe classes, or of his entire school, and to pay a due regard to the carriage of\\neach child. A slouching gait is at least a sign of vulgarity, if it be not a proof\\nof careless habits of an inattention to the decencies and proprieties of Ufe,\\nwhich in other matters occasion discomfort in the laborer s household. Habits of\\ncleanliness, punctuality, and promptitude are not very compatible with indolence,\\nnor with that careless lounging which frequently squanders not only the laborer s\\ntime, but his means, and leads his awkWard steps to the village tavern. In\\ngiving the child an erect and manly gait, a firm and regular step, precision and\\nrapidity in his movements, promptitude in obedience to commands, and particu-\\nlarly neatness in his apparel and person, we are insensibly laying the foundation\\nof moral habits, most intimately connected with the personal comfort and the\\nhappiness of the future laborer s family. We are giving a practical moral lesson,\\nperhaps more powerful than the precepts which are inculcated by words. Those\\nwho are accustomed to the management of large schools know of how much im-\\nportance such lessons are to the establishment of that order and quiet which is\\nthe characteristic of the Dutch schools, and which is essential to great success in\\nlarge schools.\\nThe gymnastic exercises Were intended, in like manner, to prepare the teachers\\nto superintend the exercises and amusements of the school play-ground to\\ninstruct the children systematically in those graduated trials of strength, activity,\\nand adroitness, by which the mUecles are developed and the frame is prepared", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0834.jp2"}, "833": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 831\\nfor sustaining prolonged or sudden efforts. The play -ground of the school is so\\nimportant a means of .separating the children from the vicious companions and\\nevil example of the street or lane, and of prolonging the moral influence of the\\nmaster over the habits and thoughts of his scholars, that expedients which in-\\ncrease its attractions are important, and especially those which enable the master\\nto mingle with his .scholars usefully and cheerfully. The schools of the Canton\\nde Vaud are generally furnished with the proper apparatus for this purpose,\\nand we frequently observed it in France and Germany.\\nThe physical training of our charge was not confined to these labors and\\nexercises. Occasionally Dr. Kay accompanied them in long walking excursions\\ninto the country, in which they spent the whole day in visiting some distant\\nschool, or remarkable building connected with historical associations, or some\\nscene replete with otlier forms of instruction. In those excursions their habits\\nof observation were cultivated, their attention was directed to what was most\\nremarkable, and to such facts and objects as might have escaped observation\\nfrom their comparative obscurity. Their strength was taxed by the length of\\nthe excursion, as far as was deemed prudent and after their return home they\\nwere requested to write an account of what they had seen, in order to afford\\nevidence of the nature of tlie impressions which the excursion had produced.\\nSuch excursions usefully interrupted the ordinary routme of the school, and\\nafforded a pleasing variety in the intercourse between ourselves and the teachers\\nand pupils. They spurred the physical activity of the students, and taught\\nthem habits of endurance, as they seldom returned without being considerably\\nfatigued.\\nSuch excursions are common to the best normal schools of Switzerland. It is\\nvery evident to the educators of Switzerland that to neglect to take their pupils\\nforth to read the great truths left on record on every side of them in the extra-\\nordinary features of that country, would betray an indifference to nature, and to\\nits influence on the development of the human intelligence, proving that the\\neducator had most hmited views of his mission, and of the means by which its\\nhigh purposes were to be accomplished.\\nThe great natural records of Switzerland, and its historical recollections, abound\\nwith subjects for instructive commentary, of which the professors of the normal\\nschools avail themselves in their autumnal excursions with their pupils. The\\nnatural features of the country its drainage, soils, agriculture the causes which\\nhave affected the settlement of its inhabitants and its institutions the circum-\\nstances which have assisted in the formation of the national character, and have\\nthus made the history of their country, are more clearly apprehended by lessons\\ngathered in the presence of facts typical of other facts scattered over hill and\\nvalley. England is so rich in historical recollections, and in the monuments by\\nwhich the former periods of her history are linked with the present time, that it\\nwould seem to be a not unimportant duty of the educator to avail himself of\\nsuch facts as lie within the range of his observation, in order that the historical\\nknowledge of his scholar may be associated with these records, marking the\\nprogress of civilization in his native country. Few schools are placed beyond\\nthe reach of such means of instruction. Where they do not exist, the country\\nmust present some natural features worthy of being perused. These should not\\nbe neglected. In book-learning there is always a danger that the thing signified\\nmay not be discerned through the sign. The child may acquire words instead\\nof thoughts. To have a clear and earnest conviction of the reality of the things\\nsignified, the object of the child s instruction should as frequently as possible be\\nbrought under its eye. Thus, Pestalozzi was careful to devise lessons on objects\\nin which, by actual contact with the sense, the children were led to discern qual-\\nities which they afterward described in words. Such lessons have no meaning\\nto persons who are satisfied with instruction by rote.\\nThe excursions of the directors of the Swiss normal schools also serve the\\npurpose of breaking for a time an almost conventual seclusion, which forms a\\ncharacteristic of establishments in which the education of the habits, as well as\\nthe instruction of the intelligence, is kept in view. These excursions in Swit-\\nzerland extend to several days, and even longer, in schools of the more wealthy\\nclasses. The pupils are thus thrown ui contact with actual society their re-\\nBources are ta.xed by the iucideut\u00c2\u00ab of ea :h day their moral qualities are Bome*", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0835.jp2"}, "834": {"fulltext": "g32 BATTERSEA TRAmiNG SCHOOL.\\ntimes tried, and they obtain a glimpse of the perspective of their future life. It\\nis not only important in this way to know what the condition of society is before\\nthe pupil is required to enter it, but it is filso necessary to keep constantly be-\\nfore his eye the end and aim of education tliat it is a preparation for the duties\\nof his future life, and to understand in what respect each department of his\\nstudies is adapted to prepare him for the actual performance of those duties.\\nFor eacli class of society there is an appropriate education. The normal schools\\nof Switzerland are founded on this principle. None are admitted who are not\\ndevoted to the vocation of masters of elementary schools. The three or four\\nyears of tlieir residence m the school are considered all too short for a complete\\npreparation for these functions. The time, therefore, is consumed in appropriate\\nstudies, care being taken that these studies are so conducted as to discipline and\\ndevelop tlie intelligence to form habits of thought and action and to inspire\\nthe pupil with principles on which he may repose in the discharge of his duties.\\nAmong these studies and objects, the actual condition of the laboring class,\\nits necessities, resources, and intelhgence, form a most important element. The\\nteachers go forth to observe for themselves they come back to receive further\\ninstruction from their master. They are led to anticipate their own relations to\\nthe comraime or parish in which their future school will be placed. They are\\nprepared by instruction to fultiU certain of the communal duties which may use-\\nfully devolve upon them such as registrar, precentor, or leader of the church\\nchoir, and clerk to the associations of the village. They receive famdiar exposi-\\ntions of the law affecting the fulfillment of tliese duties.\\nThe benefits derived from these arrangements are great not only in furnish-\\ning these rural communes with men competent to the discharge of their duties,\\nbut the anticipations of future utility, and the conviction that their present\\nstudies infold the germ of their future life, give an interest to their pursuits,\\nwhich it would be difficult to communicate, if the sense of their importance were\\nmore vague and indistinct.\\nTo this end, in the excursions from Battersea we have been careful to enter\\nthe schools on our route, and lessons have been given on the duties attaching to\\nthe offices which may be properly discharged by a village schoolmaster, in con-\\nnection with his duty of instructing the young.\\nThis general sketch may suffice to give an idea of tlie external relations of\\nthe life of a student in the framing school, with the important exception of that\\nportion of his time devoted to the acquirement of a practical knowledge of the\\nduties of a schoolmaster in the village scliool. This may be more conveniently\\nconsidered in connection with the intellectual pursuits of the school. We now\\nproceed to regard the school as a household, and to give a brief sketch of its fa-\\nmiliar relations.\\nThe most obvious truth lay at the threshold a family can only subsist harmo-\\nniously by mutual love confidence, and respect. We did not seek to put the\\ntutors into situations of inaccessible authority, but to place them in the parental\\nseat, to receive the willing respect and obedience of then- pupils, and to act as\\nthe elder brothers of the young men. The residence of one of us for a certain\\nperiod, in near connection with them, appeared necessary to give that tone to\\nthe familiar intercourse which would enable the tutors to conduct the instruction,\\nand to maintain the discipline, so as to be at once the friends and guides of their\\ncharge.\\nIt was desirable that the tutors should reside in the house. They rose at the\\nsame hours with the scholars (except when prevented by sickness), and superin-\\ntended more or less the general routine. Since the numbers have become great-\\ner, and the duties more laborious, it has been found necessary that the superin-\\ntendence of the periods of labor should be committed to each tutor alternately.\\nThey have set the example in working, frequently giving assistance in the sever-\\nest labor, or that which was least attractive.\\nIn the autumn, some extensive alterations of the premises were to a large\\nextent effected by the assistance of the entire school. The tutors not only su-\\nEerintended, but assisted in the work. Mr. Tate contributed liis mechanical\\nQowledge, and Mr. Home assisted in the execution of the details. In the cheer-\\nful industry displayed on this and on other similar occasions, we have witnessed", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0836.jp2"}, "835": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 333\\nwith satisfaction one of the best fruits of the discipline of the school. The con-\\nceit of the pedaojogue is not likely to arise among either students or masters\\nwho cheerfully handle the trowel, the saw, or carry mortar in a hod to the top\\nof the building such simplicity of life is not very consistent with that vanity\\nwhich occasions insincerity. But fi-eedom from this vice is essential to that har-\\nmonious interchange of kind offices and mutual respect which we were anxious\\nto preserve.\\nThe diet of the household is simple. The fruits and vegetables of the garden\\nafford the cliief variety, without luxury. The teachers sit in the midst of their\\nscholars. The familiar intercourse of the meals is intended to be a means of\\ncultivating kindly affections, and of insuring that the example of the master shall\\nuisensibly form the habits of the scholar. Every day confirms the growing im-\\nportance of these arrangements.\\nIt has been an object of especial care that the morning and evening prayers\\nshould be conducted with solemnity. A hall has been prepared for this service,\\nwliich is conducted at seven o clock every morning in that place. A passage of\\nScripture having been read, a portion of a psalm is chanted, or they sing a hymn\\nand prayers follow, generally from the family selection prepared by the Bishop\\nof London. The evening service is conducted in a similar manner. The solem-\\nnity of the music, which is performed in four parts, is an important means of\\nrendering the family devotion impressive. We trust that the benefits derived\\nfrom these services may not be transient, but that the masters reared in this\\nBchool will remember the household devotions, and will maintain in their own\\ndwellings and schools the family rite with equal care.\\nQuiet has been enjoined on the pupils in retiring to rest.\\nThe Sunday has been partially occupied by its appropriate studies. The ser-\\nvices of the church have been attended morning and evening and, besides a\\ncertain period devoted to the study of the formularies, the evening has been\\nspent in writing out from memory a copious abstract of one of the sermons. At\\neight o clock these compositions have been read and commented upon in the\\npresence of the whole school and a most useful opportunity has been afforded\\nfor religious instruction, besides the daily instruction in the Bible. Mr. Eden has\\nlikewise attended the school on Friday, and examined the classes in their ac-\\nquaintance with the Holy Scriptures and formularies of the church. The religious\\ndepartment, generally, is under his superintendence.\\nThe household and external life of the school are so interwoven with the les-\\nsons, that it becomes necessary to consider some of their details together, before\\nthe intellectual instruction is separately treated.\\nWith pupils and students alike, it was found necessary to commence at an\\nearly stage of instruction, and to furnish them with the humblest elements of\\nknowledge. The time wliich has elapsed since the school has opened ought,\\ntherefore, to be regarded as a preparatory period, similar to that which, in Ger-\\nmany, is spent from the time of leaving the primary school to sixteen, tha\\nperiod of entering the normal school, in what is called a preparatory training\\nBchooL\\nAs such preparatory schools do not exist in this country, we had no alternativfi.\\nWe selected the boj-s of the most promising character, and determined to wade\\nthrough the period of preparation, and ultimately to create a preparatory class\\nin the school itself. Our design was to examine the pupils of this class at the\\nend of the first year, and to grant to such of them as gave proof of a certain\\ndegree of proficiency a certificate as Candidates of the training school. At the\\nend of the second year s course of instruction, it is intended that a second exam-\\nination shall occur, in which proficients may obtain the certificate of Scholar and\\nat the close of the ordinary course, in the third year, another examination is to\\nbe held, in which the certificate of Master will be conferred on those who have\\nattained a certain rank intellectually, and who support their claims by a correct\\nmoral deportment.\\nTraining schools, developed on this design, would therefore consist of\\n1. Preparatory classes of students and pupils. 2. A class of Candidates.\\n3. A class of Scholars. And some students, who had obtained the certificate of\\nMaster, might remain in the school in preparation for special duties as the Mas-\\n53", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0837.jp2"}, "836": {"fulltext": "834 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nters of important district schools, or as Tutors in other training schools. These\\nettidents would constitute 4. ,A class of Masters.\\nAs soon as thp attainments of the students and pupils appeared to warrant\\nthe experiment, an hour was daily appropriated to examination by means of\\nquestions written on the board before the class, the replies to which were worked\\non paper, m silence, in the presence of one of the tutors. This hour is, on suc-\\ncessive days of the week, appropriated to different subjects, viz. grammar, ety-\\nmology, arithmetic, mensuration, algebra, mechanics, geography, and biblical\\nknowledge. The examination papers are then carefully examined by the tutor\\nto whose department they belong, in order that the value of the reply to each\\nquestion may be determined in reference to mean numbers, 3, 4, 5, and 6. These\\nmean numbers are used to express the comparative difficulty of every question,\\nand the greatest merit of each reply is expressed by the numbers 6, 8, and 10\\nand 12 respectively, the lowest degree of merit being indicated by 1.\\nThe sum of the numbers thus attached to each answer is entered in the. ex-\\namination-book, opposite to the name of each pupil. These numbers are added\\nup at the end of the week, and reduced to an average by dividing them by the\\nnumber of days of examination which have occurred in the week. In a similar\\nmanner, at the end of the month, the sum of the weekly averages is, for the\\nsake of convenience, reduced by dividing them by four and a convenient num-\\nber is thus obtained, expressing the intellectual progress of each boy. These\\nnumbers are not published in the school, but are reserved as an element by\\nwhich we may be enabled to award the certificates of Candidate, Scholar, and\\nMaster.\\nThe examination for the quarterly certificates will necessarily also include the\\ninspection of the writing, drawings, abstracts, and compositions. Oral examina-\\ntion will be required to ascertain the degree of promptitude and ease in expres-\\nsion of each pupil. They will likewise be required to give demonstrations of\\nproblems in arithmetic, algebra, and mechanics, on the blackboard to describe\\nthe geography of a district in the form of a lecture, and to conduct a class be-\\nfore us, ere we award the certificates.\\nThe examination of the pupils Avill gradually rise in importance, and the quar-\\nterly examinations will be marked by a progressive character, leading to the\\nthree chief examinations for the certificates of Candidate, Scholar, and Master,\\nwhich will be distinguished from each other, both as respects the nature and\\nnumber of the acquirements, and by the degree of proficiency required in some\\nbranches which will be common to the three periods of study.\\nIn another department of registration we have thought it important to avoid\\ncertain errors of principle to which such registers appear to be liable. We have\\nbeen anxious to have a record of some parts of moral conduct connected with\\nhabits formed in the school, but we have not attempted to register moral merit.\\nSuch registers are at best very difficult to keep. They occasion rivalry, and often\\nhypocrisy. On this account we did not deem it advisable to require that they\\nshould be kept but it was important that we should be informed of certain\\nerrors interfering with the formation of habits of punctuality, industry, cleanli-\\nness, order, and subordination and registers were devised for noting deviations\\nfrom propriety in these respects. First, a time-book is directed to be kept, in\\nwhich the observance of the hour of rising, and of the successive periods marked\\nin the routine of the school is noted, in order that any general cause of aberra-\\ntion may meet the eye at once. Secondly, one book is kept by the superintend-\\nents appointed from among the students to inspect the household work above\\nstairs, another in relation to the household work below stairs, and a third by the\\ntutor having charge of out-door labor. In these books the duties assigned to\\neach pupil are entered opposite to his name. The superintendent, at the expi-\\nration of the period allotted to the work, marks in colunms under each of the\\nfollowing heads, Subordination, Industry, Cleanliness, Order, the extent of de-\\nviation from propriety of conduct by numbers varying from 1 to 4.\\nThe register of punctuality in classes is kept by writing opposite to each pu-\\npil s name the number of minutes which elapse after the proper period before he\\nenters the class. The sum of the numbers recorded in these books denotes the\\nextent of errors in habits and manners into which any of the pupils fall, and di-\\nrects our attention to the fact. Such records would, in connection with the re-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0838.jp2"}, "837": {"fulltext": "nATTEU; EA TUAININ^; S( HOOL. {5.^5\\nBults of the examinations, enable us to determine whether, in reference to each\\nperiod, a certificate of Candidate, Scholar, or Maater, oitYiefimt, second, or third\\ndegree, should be granted.\\nThe reports of the superintendents are presented to Dr. Kay immediately\\nafter morning prayers. The record is read in the presence of the school, and\\nany appeal against the entry heard. At this period the relation which the\\nentire discipline holds to the future pursuits of the pupils is from time to time\\nmade familiar to them by simple expositions of the principles by which it is reg-\\nulated.\\nThis is the household life of the school. Brief hints only of the principles which\\nhave deteruained and regulated the preparatory course can Snd a place in the\\nremarks we have to offer on the preparatory course.\\nThe students have been stimulated in their application by a constant sense of\\nthe practical utility of their intellectual labors. After morning prayers, they are\\nfrom day to day reminded of the connection between their present and future\\npursuits, and informed how every part of the discipline and study has a direct\\nrelation to the duties of a schoolmaster. The conviction thus created becomes a\\npowerful incentive to exertion, which might be wanting if those studies were se-\\nlected only because they were important as a discipline of the mind.\\nThe sense of practical utility seems as important to the earnestness of the stu-\\ndent as the lively conviction attending object teaching in the early and simplest\\nform of elementary instruction. In the earliest steps an acquaintance with the\\nreal is necessary to lively conceptions of truth, and at a later period a sense of\\nthe value of knowledge resulting from experience inspires the strongest convic-\\ntion of the dignity and importance of all truth, where its immediate practical\\nutility is not obvious.\\nFar, therefore, from fearing tliat the sense of the practical utility of these\\nstudies will lead the students to measure the value of all truth by a low stand-\\nard, their pursuits have been regulated by the conviction, that the most certain\\nmethod of attaining a strong sense of tlie value of truth.s, not readily applicable\\nto immediate use, is to ascertain by experience the importance of those which\\ncan be readily measured by the standard of practical utility. Thus we approach\\nthe conception of the momentum of a planet moving in its orbit, from ascertain-\\ning the momentum of bodies whose weight and velocity we can measure by the\\nsimplest observations. From the level of the experience of the practical utility\\nof certain common truths, the mind gradually ascends to the more abstract,\\nwhose importance hence becomes more easily apparent, though their present ap-\\nplication is not obvious, and in this way the thoughts most safely approach the\\nmost difficult abstractions.\\nIn the humble pur^^uits of the preparatory course, a lively sense of the utility\\nof their studies has likewise been maintained by the method of instruction adopt-\\ned. Nothing has been taught dogmatically, but every thing by the combination\\nof the simplest elements, i. e. the course which a discoverer must have trod has\\nbeen followed, and the way in which truths have been ascertained pointed out\\nby a synthetical demonstration of each successive step. The labor of the pre-\\nvious analysis of the subject is the duty of the teacher, and is thus removed from\\nthe child.\\nHaving ascertained what the pupil knows, the teacher endeavors to lead liim\\nby gentle and easy steps from the known to the unknown. The instruction, in\\nthe whole preparatory course, is chiefly oral, and is illustrated, as much as possi-\\nble, by appeals to nature, and by demonstrations. Books are not resorted to\\nuntil the teacher is convinced that the mind of his pupil is in a .state of healthful\\nactivity that there has been awakened in him a lively interest in truth, and\\nthat he has become acquainted practically witli the inductive method of acquir-\\ning knowledge. At this stage the rules, the principles of which have been orally\\ncommunicated, and with whose application he is famihar, are committed to mem-\\nory from books, to serve as a means of recalling more readily the knowledge and\\nskill thus attained. This course is Pestalozzian, and, it will be perceived, is the\\nreverse of the method usually followed, which consists in giving the pupil the\\nrule first. Experience, however, has confirmed us in the superiority of the plan\\nwe have pursued. Sometimes a book, as for example a work on Physical Geog-\\nraphy, is put into his hands, in order that it may be carefully read, and that the", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0839.jp2"}, "838": {"fulltext": "536 BATTERSEA TiJAININi; .SCHOOL.\\nstudent may prepare himself to give before the class a verbal abstract of the\\nchapter selected for this purpose, and to answer such questions as may be pro-\\nposed to liini, either by the tutor or by his fellows. During the prejiaratory\\ncourse exercises of this kind have not been so numerous as they will be in the\\nmore advanced stages of instruction. Until habits of attention and steady ap-\\nplication had been formed, it seemed undesirable to allow to the pupils hours for\\nself-sustained study, or voluntary occupation. Constant superintendence is ne-\\ncessary to the formation of correct habits, in these and in all other respects, in\\nthe preparatory course. The entire day is, therefore, occupied with a succession\\nof engagements in household work and out-door labor, devotional exercises, meals,\\nand instruction. Recreation is sought in change of employment. These changes\\nafford such pleasure, and the sense of utility and duty is so constantly maintained,\\nthat recreation in the ordinary sense is not needed. Leisure from such occupa-\\ntions is never sought excepting to write a letter to a friend, or occasionally to\\nvisit some near relative. The pupils all present an air of cheerfulness. They\\nproceed from one lesson to another, and to their several occupations, with an\\nelasticity of mind which affords the best proof that the mental and physical ef-\\nfects of the training are auspicious.\\nIn the early steps toward the formation of correct habits, it is necessary that\\n(until the power of self-guidance is obtained) the pupil should be constantly un-\\nder the eye of a master, not disposed to exercise authority so much as to give\\nassistance and advice. Before the habit of self-direction is formed, it is there-\\nfore pernicious to leave much time at the disposal of the pupil. Proper intel-\\nlectual and moral aims must be inspired, and the pupil must attain a knowledge\\nof the mode of employing his time with skill, usefully, and under the guidance\\nof right motives, ere he can be properly left to the spontaneous suggestions of\\nhis own mind. Here, therefore, the moral and the intellectual training are in\\nthe closest harmony. The formation of correct habits, and the growth of right\\nsentiments, ought to precede such confidence in the pupil s powers of self-direc-\\ntion, as is implied in leaving him either much time unoccupied, or in which his\\nlabors are not under the immediate superintendence of his teacher.\\nIn the preparatory course, therefore, the whole time is employed under super-\\nintendence, but toward the close of the course a gradual trial of the pupil s\\npowers of self-guidance is commenced first, by intrusting him with certain\\nstudies unassisted by the teacher. Those who zealously and successfully employ\\ntheir time will, by degrees, be intrusted with a greater period for self-sustained\\nintellectual or physical exertion. Further evidence of the existence of the prop-\\ner qualities will lead to a more liberal confidence, until habits of application\\nand the power of pursuing their studies successfully, and without assistance, are\\nattained.\\nTlie subjects of the preparatory course were strictly rudimental. It will be\\nfound that the knowledge obtained in the elementary schools now in existence\\nis a very meager preparation for the studies of a training school for teachers.\\nUntil the elementary schools are improved, it will be found necessary to go to\\nthe very roots of all knowledge, and to rearrange such knowledge as the pupils\\nhave attained, in harmony with the principles on which they must ultimately\\ncommunicate it to others. Many of our pupils enter the school with the br( adest\\nprovincial dialect, scarcely able to read with fluency and precision, much less\\nwith ease and expression. Some were ill furnished with the commonest rules of\\naritimietic, and wrote clumsily and slowly.\\nThey have been made acquainted with the phonic method of teaching to read\\nfwacticed in Germany. Their defects of pronunciation have been corrected to a\\narge extent by the adoption of this method, and by means of deliberate and\\nemphatic syllabic reading, in a well-sustained and correct tone. The principles\\non which the laut or phonic method depends have been explained at considerable\\nlength as a part of the course of lessons on method.\\nWe have deemed it of paramount importance that they should acquire a\\nthorough knowledge of the elements and structure of the Enghsh language. The\\nlessons in reading were in the first place made the means of leading them to an\\nexamination of the structure of sentences, and practical oral lessons were given\\non grammar and etymology according to the method pursued by Mr. Wood in\\nthe Edinburgh Sessional Schpol. The results of these exercises were tested by", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0840.jp2"}, "839": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOI,. 537.\\nthe lessons of dictation and of composition which accompanied the early stages\\nof tliis course, and by which a timely sense of the utility of a knowledge of\\ngrammatical construction and of the etymological relations of words was devel-\\noped. As soon as this feeling was created, the oral instruction in grammar\\nassumed a more positive form. The theory on which the rules were founded\\nwas explained, and the several laws, when well understood, were dictated in the\\nleast exceptionable formulje, and were written out and committed to memory.\\nIn this way they proceeded through the whole of the theory and rules of gram-\\nmar before they were intrusted with any book on the subject, lest they should\\ndepend for their knowledge on a mere effort of the memory to retain a formula\\nnot well understood.\\nAt each stage of their advance, corresponding exercises were resorted to, in\\norder to familiarize them with the application of the rules.\\nWhen they had in this way passed through the ordinary course of grammati-\\ncal instruction, they were intrusted with books to enable them to give the last\\ndegree of precision to their conceptions.\\nIn etymology the lessons were in like manner practical and oral. They were\\nfirst derived from the reading-lessons of the day, and applied to the exercises and\\nexaminations accompanying the course, and, after a certain progress had been\\nmade, their further advance was insured by systematic lessons from books.\\nA course of reading in English literature, by which the taste may be refined\\nby an acquaintance with the best models of style, and with those authors whose\\nworks have exercised the most beneficial influence on the mind of this nation, has\\nnecessarily been postponed to another part of the course. It, however, forms\\none of the most important elements in the conception of the objects to be attained\\nin a training school, that the teacher should be inspired with a discriminating but\\nearnest admiration for those gifts of great minds to English literature which are\\nalike the property of the peasant and tlie peer national treasures which are\\namong the most legitimate sources of national feelings.\\nThose who have had close uitercourse with the laboring classes well know\\nwith what difficulty they comprehend words not of a Saxon origin, and how fre-\\nquently addresses to them are unintelligible from the continual use of terms of a\\nLatin or Greek derivation yet the daily language of the middling and upper\\nclasses abounds with such words many of the formularies of our church are full\\nof them, and hardly a sermon is preached wliich does not in every page contain\\nnumerous examples of their use. Phrases of this sort are so naturalized in the\\nlanguage of the educated classes, that entirely to omit them has the appearance\\nof pedantry and baldness, and even disgusts persons of taste and refinement.\\nTherefore, in addressing a mixed congregation, it seems impossible to avoid using\\nthem, and the only mode of meeting tlie inconvenience alluded to is to instruct\\nthe humbler classes in their meaning. The method we have adopted for this\\npurpose has been copied from that first introduced in the Edinburgh Sessional\\nSchools; every compound word is analyzed, and the separate meaning of each\\nmember pointed out, so that, at present, there are few words in the English\\nlanguage which our pupils cannot thoroughly comprehend, and from their\\nacquaintance with the common roots and principles of etymology, the new com-\\npound terms, which the demands of civilization are daily introducing, are almost\\nimmediately understood by them. We believe that there are few acquirements\\nmore conducive to clearness of thought, or that can be more usefully introduced\\ninto common schools, than a thorough knowledge of the English language, and\\nthat the absence of it gives power to the illiterate teacher and demagogue, and\\ndeprives the lettered man of his just influence.\\nSimilar remarks might be extended to style. It is equally obvious that the\\neducated use sentences of a construction presenting difficulties to the vulgar\\nwhich are frequently almost insurmountable. It is, therefore, not only necessary\\nthat the meaning of words should be taught on a logical system m our element-\\nary schools, but that the children should be made familiar with extracts from\\nour best authors on subjects suited to their capacity. It cannot be permitted to\\nremain the opprobrium of this country that its greatest minds have bequeathed\\ntheir thoughts to the nation in a style at once pure and simple, but still inaccea-\\nBible to the intelligence of the great body of the people.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0841.jp2"}, "840": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0080\u00a2833 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nIn writing, they Were trained, as soon as the various books could be prepared,\\naccording to the method* of Mulliauser, which was translated and placed in the\\nhands of the teachers for that purpose.\\nIn like manner, in arithmetic, it has been deemed desirable to put thom in-\\npossession of tlie pre-eminently synthetical method of Pestalozzi. As soon as the\\nrequisite tables and series of lessons, analyzed to the simplest elements, could\\nbe procured, the principles on which complex numerical combinations rest were\\nrendered fomiUar to them, by leading the pupils through the earlier course of\\nPestalozzi s lessons on numbers, from simple unity to compound fractional quan-\\ntities connecting with them the series of exercises in mental arithmetic wliich\\nthey are so well calculated to introduce and to illustrate. The use of such a\\nmethod dispels the gloom which might attend the most expert use of the com-\\nmon rules of arithmetic, and wliich commonly afford the pupil little light to guide\\nhis steps off the beaten path illuminated by the rule.\\nWhile these lessons have been in progress, the common rules of arithmetic\\nhave been examined by the hght of this method. Their theory has been ex-\\nplained, and by constant practice the pupils have been led to acquire expertness\\nm them, as well as to pursue the common principles on which they rest, and to\\nascertain the practical range within which each rule ought to be emploved. Tlie\\nordinary lessons on mental arithmetic have taken their place in the course of in-\\nstruction separately from the peculiar rules which belong to Pestalozzi s series.\\nThese lessons also prepared the pupils for proceeding at an early period in a\\nsimilar manner with the elements of algebra, and with practical lessons in men-\\nsuration and land-surveying.\\nThese last subjects were considered of peculiar importance, as comprising\\none of the most useful industrial developments of a knowledge of the laws of\\nnumber. Unless, in elementary schools, the instruction proceed beyond the\\nknowledge of abstract rules, to their actual application to the practical necessi-\\nties of life, the scholar will have httle interest in his studies, because he will not\\nperceive their importance and moreover, when he leaves the school, they will\\nbe of little use, because he has not learned to apply his knowledge to any pur-\\npose. On this account, boys who have been educated in common elementary\\nschools, are frequently found, in a few years after they have left, to have\\nforgotten the greater part even of the slender amount of knowledge they had\\nacquired.\\nThe use of arithmetic to the carpenter, the builder, the laborer, and artisan,\\nought to be developed by teaching mensuration and land-surveying in element-\\nary schools. If the scholars do not remain long enough to attain so liigli a range,\\nthe same piinciple should be applied to every step of their progress. The prac-\\ntical application of the simplest rules should be shown by familiar examples. As\\nsoon as the cliikl can count, he should be made to count objects, such as\\nmoney, the figures on the face of a clock, fec. When he can add, he should have\\nbefore him shop-bills, accounts of the expenditure of earnings, accounts of wages.\\nIn every arithmetical rule similar useful exercises are a part of the art of a\\nteacher, whose sincere desire is to fit his pupil for the application of his knowl-\\nedge to the duties of life, the preparation for which should be always suggested\\nto the pupil s mind as a powerful incentive to action. These future duties\\nshould be always placed in a cheering and hopeful point of view. The mere\\nrepetition of a table of numbers has less of education in it than a drill in the\\nbalance-step.\\nPractical instruction in the book-keepincf necessary for the management of the\\nhousehold was for these reasons given to those who acted as stewards accounts\\nwere kept of the seeds, manure, and garden produce, c., as preparatory to a\\ncourse of book-keeping, which will follow.\\nf The recently rapid development of the industry and commerce of this\\nSee a description of MulhausPi s method, p. 250.\\nt It is somewiiat remarkable that since this paragraph was written I should have received a\\nletter from one of the principal directors of a railway company, in which he informs me that the\\nfrequent recurrence of accidents had induced the directors of the railway to make a careful ex-\\namination into their causes. The directors rose from this inquiry convinced that these accidents\\nwere, to a large exteot, attributable to tlic i^^nurauce of the men whom they bad beeo obliged to", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0842.jp2"}, "841": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 339\\ncountry by machinery, creates a want for well-instructed mechanics, which, in\\nthe present state of education, it will be difficult adequately to supply. The\\nsteam-engines which drain our coal-fields and mineral veins and beds; which\\nwhirl along every radroad which toil on tlie surface of every river, and issue\\nfrom every estuary, are committed to the charge of men of some practical skill,\\nbut of mean education. The mental resources of the classes who are practically\\nintrusted with the guidance of this great development of national power should\\nnot be left uncultivated. This new force has grown rapidly, in consequence of\\nthe genius of tlie people, and the natural resources of this island, and in spite of\\ntheir ignorance. But our supremacy at sea, and our manufacturing and com-\\nmercial prosperity (inseparable elements), depend on the successful progress of\\nthose arts by which our present position has been attained.\\nOn this account, we have deemed inseparable from the education of a school-\\nmaster a knowledge of the elements of mechanics and of the laws of heat, suf-\\nficient to enable liini to explain the structure of the various kinds of steam-\\nengines in use in this country. This instruction has proved one of the chief\\nfeatures even of the preparatory course, as we feared that some of the young\\nmen might leave the establishment as soon as they had obtained the certificates\\nof candidates, and we were unwilling that they should go forth without some\\nknowledge at least of one of the chief elements of our national prosperity, or\\naltogether without power to make the workingman acquainted with the great\\nagent which has had more influence on the destiny of the working classes than\\nany other single fact in our history, and which is probably destined to work stUl\\ngreater changes.\\nKnowledge and national prosperity are here in strict alliance. Not only do\\nthe arts of peace the success of our trade our power to compete with foreign\\nrivals our safety on our railways and in our steam-ships depend on the spread\\nof this knowledge, but the future defense of this country from foreign aggression\\ncan only result from our being superior to every nation in those arts. The\\nschoolmaster is an agent despised at present, but whose importance for the\\nattainment of this end will, by the results of a few yeans, be placed in bold\\nrelief before the public.\\nThe tutor to whom the duty of communicating to the pupils a knowledge of\\nthe laws of motion, of the mechanical powers and contrivances, and of the laws\\nof heat, was committed, was selected because he was a self-educated man, and\\nwas willing to avail himself of the more popular methods of demonstration, and\\nto postpone the application of his valuable and extensive mathematical acquire-\\nments. By his assistance the pupils and students have been led through a\\nseries of demonstrations of mechanical combinations, until they were prepared to\\nconsider the several parts of the steam-engine, first separately, and in their suc-\\ncessive developments and applications, and they are at present acquainted with\\nthe more complex combinatit)ns in the steam-engines now in use, and with the\\nprinciples involved in their construction and action.\\nIn geography, it has been deemed important that the tutors should proceed by\\na similar method. The lessons on land-surveying have familiarized the pupils\\nwith the nature and uses of maps. As one development of the art of drawing,\\nthey have been practiced in map-drawing. For this purpose, among other expe-\\ndients, the walls of one class-room have been prepared with mastic, in order that\\nbold projections of maps might be made on a great scale.\\nemploy as engineers, for the want of better; and to the low habits of these men, who, though\\nthey do not subject themselves to dismissal by such a defi;ince of regulations as to be found\\ndr\u00c2\u00abH/i, are in Ihe habit of stupefying themselves with dram-drinking! The directors of the\\ncompany had delermined that the proper remedy for these evils was to provide amusement and\\ninsUuclion tor their men at night, and application has since been made to Mr. Tate, the tutor in\\nmechanics, ii. c, in the training school, to afford his assistance in delivering lectures on mechanics\\nto Ihe engineers, stokers, and other servants of the company. A large room has been provided\\nfor IhesB purposes, and it is understood to be the intention of the company to draw their servants\\nto this room by such amusements as may be more attractive than the tavern to excite their\\naUention to subjects of instruction appropriate to their duties by a series of popular lectures\u00e2\u0080\u0094 and\\nthen to open cl:isses. when they may learn mechanics, and such ot the elements ot natural science\\nas may be useful to them in their calling.\\nAs a part of the amusements, application was made by one of the directors to Mr. Hiillah to\\nopen a class like those of the artisans of Paris, and to instruct them in singing on the method of\\nWilhem.-J. P. Kay.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0843.jp2"}, "842": {"fulltext": "^40 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nPhysical geograpliy has been deemed the true basis of all instruction in the\\ngeography of industry and commerce, -which ought to form the chief subject of\\ngeographical instruction in elementary schools. The tutor has first endeavored\\nto convince the pupils that nothing which presents itself to the eye in a well-\\ndrawn map is to be regarded as accidental the boldness of the promontcries,\\nthe deep indenture of the bays, the general bearings of the coast, are all refer-\\nable to natural laws. In these respects the eastern and western coasts of\\nEnglanil are in striking contrast, in appearance, character, and in the circum-\\nstances which occasion their peculiarities. The physical geography of England\\ncommences with a description of the elevation of the mountain ranges, the\\ndifferent levels, and the drainage of the country. The course, rapidity, and\\nvolume of the rivers are referable to the elevation and extent of the country\\nwhich they drain. From the climate, levels, and drainage, with little further\\nmatter, the agricultural tracts of the country may be indicated, and when the\\ngreat coal-fields and the mineral veins and beds, the depth of the bays and\\nrivers are known, the distribution of the population is found to be in strict rela-\\ntion to certain natural laws. Even the ancient political divisions of the country\\nare, on inspection, found to be in close dependence on its drainage. The counties\\nare river basins, which were the first seats of tribes of population. If any new\\npolitical distribution were to be made, it would necessarily, in like manner,\\nbe affected by some natural law, which it is equally interesting and useful to\\ntrace.\\nGeography, taught in this way, is a constant exercise to the reasoning powers.\\nThe pupil is led to trace the mutual dependence of facts, which, in ordinary in-\\nstruction, are taught as the words of a vocabulary. Geography taught in the\\nordinary way is as reasonable an acquisition as the catalogue of a museum, which\\na student might be compelled to learn as a substitute for natural history. A\\ncatalogue of towns, rivers, bays, promontories, c., is even less geography than\\nthe well-arranged catalogue of a museum is natural history, because the classifi-\\ncation has a logical meaning in the latter case, which is absent in the former.\\nAs a department of geographical instruction, the elements of the use of the\\nglobes in i iK ction with nautical astronomy has been cultivated with some\\ndiligence.\\nThe outlines only of the history of England have been read, as preparatory\\nto a course of instruction in English history, which is to form one of the studies\\nof the second year. The history of England has been read in the evening as an\\nexercise in the art of reading, and the examinations which have followed have\\nbeen adapted only to secure general impressions as to the main facts of our history.\\nSkill in drawing was deemed essential to the success of a schoolmaster. With-\\nout this art he would be unable to avail himself of the important assistance of\\nthe blackboard, on which his demonstrations of the objects of study ought to be\\ndehneated. His lessons on the most simple subjects would be wanting demon-\\nstrative power, and he would be incapable of proceeding with lessons in me-\\nchanics, without skill to delineate the machines of which his lessons treated.\\nThe arts of design have been little cultivated among the workmen of England.\\nWhoever has been accustomed to see the plans of houses and farm buildings, or\\nof public buildings of an humble character from the country, must know the ex-\\ntreme deficiency of our workmen in this application of the art of drawing, where\\nit is closely connected with the comfort of domestic life, and is essential to the\\nskillful performance of public works. The survey now in progress under the\\nTithe Commissioners affords abundant evidence of the want of skill in map-draw-\\ning among the rural surveyors.\\nThe improvement of our machiney for agriculture and manufactures would be\\nin no small degree facilitated, if the art of drawing were a common acquirement\\namong our artisans. Invention is checked by the want of skill in communicating\\nthe conception of the inventor, by drawings of all the details of his combination.\\nIn all those manufactures of which taste is a principal element, our neighbors, the\\nFrench, are greatly our superiors, solely, we believe, because the eyes and the\\nhands of all classes are practiced from a very early age in the arts of design. In\\nthe elementary schools of Paris, the proficiency of the young pupils in drawing", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0844.jp2"}, "843": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING f- CHOt H,. g^j\\nis very remarkable, and the evening schools are iilled with yoniiif men and\\nadults of mature or even advanced age, engaged in the diligent cultivation of\\nthis art. Last Midsummer, in some of the evening schools of tlie Brothers of tlie\\nChristian Doctrine, classes of workmen were questioned as to their employments.\\nOne was an ebeniafe, another a founder, another a clock-maker, another a paper-\\nhanger, another an upholsterer and each was asked his hours of labor, and his\\nmotives for attendance. A single example may serve as a type. A man witli-\\nout his coat, whose muscular arms were bared by rolling his shirt-sleeves up to\\nhis shoulders, and who, though well washed and clean, wore the marks of toil on\\nIiis white, horny hands, was sitting with an admirable copy in crayon of La\\nDomui della Segiola before him, which he had nearly completed. He was a\\nman about 45 years of age. He said he had risen at live, and had been at wt)rk\\nfrom six o clock in the morning until seven o clock in the evening, with brief\\nintervals for meals; and he had entered the evening class at eiglit o clock, to\\nremain there till ten. He had pleasure, he said, in drawing, and that a knowl-\\nedge of the art greatly improved his skill and taste in masonry. He turned\\nround with a good-humored smile, and added, he could live better on less wages\\nthan an Englishman, because his drawing cost him less than beer. Some thou-\\nsand workingmen attend the adult schools every evening in Paris, and the\\ndrawing classes comprise great numbers whose skill would occasion much aston-\\nisliment in this country. The most difficult engravings of the paintings of the\\nItalian masters are copied in crayon with remarkable skill and accuracy. Com-\\nplex and exquisitely minute architectural details, such, for example, as perspec-\\ntive views of the Duomo at Milan, or the cathedrals at Rouen or Cologne, are\\ndrawn in pen and ink, with singular fidelity. Some were drawing from plaster\\ncasts and other models. We found such adult schools in many of the chief towns\\nof France. These schools -are the sources of the taste and skill in the decorative\\narts, and in all manufactures of which taste is a prominent element, and which\\nhave made the designs for the calico-printers, the silk and ribbon looms, the\\npapers, (fee, fec., of France, so superior in taste to those of this country, notwith-\\nstanding the superiority of our maimfactories in mechanical combinations.\\nThese considerations lead us to account drawing an important department of\\nelementary education. The manufacturers of Lancashire are well aware how\\ndifficult it is, from the neglect of the arts of design among the laborers of this\\ncountry, to procure any skilled draftsmen to design for the cotton or silk manu-\\nfacturer. The elevation of the national taste in art can only be procured by the\\nconstant cultivation of the mind in relation to the beautiful in form and color,\\nby familiarizing the eye with the best models, the works of great artists, and\\nbeautiful natural objects. Skill in drawing from nature results from a careful\\nprogress through a well-analyzed series ef models. The interests of commerce\\nare so intimately connected with the results to be obtained by this branch of\\nelementary education, that there is little chance that it will much longer suffer\\nthe grievous neglect it has hitherto experienced.\\nThe drawing classes at Battersea were first exercised in very simple models,\\nformed of oblong pieces of wood, arranged in a great variety of forms by the\\nmaster, according to the method observed in the Swiss and German schools.\\nThese were drawn in common and in isometrical perspective, the laws of per-\\nspective being at the same time carefully explained, and the rules applied in\\neach case to the object which the pupil drew. A very little practice made^us\\naware that a method comprising a more minute analysis of form was necessary\\nto the greatest amount of success. Some inquiries which were pursued in Paris\\nput us in possession of the method invented by M. Dupuis and a series\\nof his models were purchased and brought over at the close of the autumn,\\nfor the purpose of making a careful trial of this method. Considerable difficulty\\nwas experienced in procuring the services of an artist to superintend the instruc-\\ntion but at length the application of this method has been commenced, and is\\nin progress.\\nThe experience of the French inspectors of schools (at an early period after\\nthe establishment of the system of inspection) convinced them that, to the per-\\nfection of skill in drawing form, the practice of drawing from models is necessary.\\nThe best copyists frequently, or rather generally, were found to fail in drawing\\neven very simple natural o^ects on their first trials. In the drawing schools at", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0845.jp2"}, "844": {"fulltext": "P42 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nParis, in \u00e2\u0080\u00a2which the most elaborate engravings were admirably copied, an in-\\nspector would discover that the pupils were unable to draw correctly the pro-\\nfessor s desk and chair. It became, therefore, evident that the copy could not\\nstand in the place of the natural object. Copying works of art might be essential\\nto one department of .skill and taste, but it by no means necessarily gave skUl\\nin drawing from nature.\\nM. Dupuis was an inspector, and, observing this defect, he invented a series of\\nmodels, a.^^cending from a simple line of wire through various combinations to\\ncomplex figures. These models are iixed on an in.strument, on the level of the\\neye, and may, by the movement of the instrument, be placed in a varying\\nperspective. By this means the pupil may learn to draw the simplest objects,\\nand proceed by gradual steps through a series of combinations, of an almost in-\\nsensibly increasing difficulty, until he can draw faithfully any object, however\\ncomplex. The instrument which holds the object enables the teacher, by varying\\nits position, to give at each lesson a series of demonstrations in perspective, ap-\\nplying the rules to objects of a gradually increasing complexity, until they are\\nunderstood in their relations to the most difficult combinations. Thus practical\\nskill and theoretical knowledge are in harmony in this instruction. The taste\\nmay afterward be cultivated by drawing those works of art best adapted to\\ncreate a just sense of the beautiful in form and color.\\nThat which a workman tirst requires is mechanical skill in the art of drawing.\\nNature itself otters many opportunities to cultivate the taste insensibly; and\\nskill can be acquiied only by careful and prolonged practice in the art of drawmg\\nfrom nature. In the more advanced parts of the course, we shall be able to\\nsatisfy ourselves as to the best mode of using the skill acquired for the formation\\nof the taste.\\nIn tlie normal schools at Versailles one year s instruetion had sufficed to give\\nthe pupils a wonderful facility and skill in drawing from models. Some com-\\nplicated pneumatic apparatus, consisting of glass, mahogany, brass, and in diffi-\\ncult perspective, was drawn rapidly, and with great truth and skill. It is not,\\nhowever, our intention to carry the instruction of our pupils in this art further\\nthan is necessary for the industrial instruction of their future scholars.\\nSome of the reasons inducing us to attach much importance to the cultivation\\nof vocal music have already been briefly indicated. We regard it as a powerful\\nauxiliary in rendering the devotional services of the household, of the pari.sh\\nchurch, and of the village school, solemn and impressive. Our experience satisfies\\nus that we by no means over-estimated this advantage, though all the results are\\nnot yet obtained which we trust will flow from the right use of these means.\\nNor were we indifferent to the cheerfulness diffused in schools by the singing\\nof those melodies which are attractive to children, nor unconscious of the moral\\npower which music has when linked with sentiments which it is the object of\\neducation to inspire. We regard school songs as an important means of diffusing\\na. cheerful view of the duties of a laborer s life of diffusing joy and honest pride\\nover English industry. Therefore, to neglect so powerful a moral agent in\\nelementary education as vocal music, would appear to be unpardonable. We\\navailed ourselves of .some arrangements which were at this time in progress,\\nunder the superintendence of the Committee of Council, for the introduction of\\nthe method* of M. Williem, which has been singularly successful in France.\\nA method which has succeeded in attracting thousands of artisans in Paris\\nfrom low cabarets and miserable gambhng-houses, to the study of a science and\\nthe practice of a captivating art, deserves the attention of the public. Mr.\\nHullah, in adapting the method of Wilhem to English tastes and habits, has both\\nsimplified and refined it. He has, moreover, adapted to it a considerable num-\\nber of old English melodies, of gi-eat richness and character, which were fast\\npassing into oblivion, and which may be restored to the place they once held in\\nthe affections of the people, being now aUied with words expressive of the joys\\nand hopes of a laborer s life, and of the true sources of its dignity and happiness.\\nWe have assisted in the development of this method, being convinced that it\\nmay tend to elevate the character of our elementary schools, and that it may\\nFor a desci iption of WUhem s method, see p. 275.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0846.jp2"}, "845": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 343\\nhe of great use throughout the country in restoring many of our best old English\\nnioloJies to their popularity, and in improving the character of our vocal music\\nin village churches, through the medium of the parochial schoolmaster and\\nhis pupils.\\nWhen the preparatory course was sufficiently advanced, a series of lectures on\\nthe construction and organization of elementary schools, and on the theory and\\nart of teaching, were commenced. They have resembled those given in the\\nGerman and Swiss schools under the generic term Paedagogik.\\nThey have treated of the general objects of education, and the means of at-\\ntaining them. The peculiar aims of elementary education the structure of\\nschool-houses in various parts of Europe the internal arrangement of the desks,\\nforms, and school apparatus, in reference to different methods of instruction, and\\nthe varieties of those methods observed in different countries. The theory of the\\ndiscipline of schools. Its practice, describing in detail the different expedients\\nresorted to in different countries for the purpose of procuring order, decorum\\npropriety of posture and manner, regularity and precision in movements, and in\\nchanges of classes and exercises, and especially the right means of securing the\\nreverence and the love of the children. This last subject naturally connects the\\nconsideration of the mechanical and methodic expedients with tlie consideration\\nof the sources of the schoolmaster s zeal, activity, and influence, ou which much\\nhas been said. To these subjects have succeeded lectures on the great leading\\ndistinctions in the methods of communicating knowledge. When the distinguish-\\ning principles had been described, the characteristic features of the several\\nmethods were examined generalbj, and certain peculiar applications of each were\\ntreated. The application of these methods to each individual branch of instruc-\\ntion was then commenced, and this part of the course has treated of various\\nmethods of teaching to read, especially giving a minute description of the phonic\\nmethod. Of methods of teaching to write, giving a special account of the method\\nof Mulhauser. On the njiplication of writing in various methods of instruction.\\nOf methoiis of teaching to draw, giving a detailed account of that of M. Dupuis\\nOf methods of teaching arithmetic, in which the method of Pestalozzi has been\\ncareful!) explained, and other expedients examined. This brief sketch may in-\\ndicate the character of the instruction up to the period of this report. Our\\ndesire is to anticipate as little as possible, but, on the contrary, to relate onlj\\nwhat has been done. We have therefore only to add, that the instruction in\\nPcedagogik is in its preparatory stage, and that the course will be pursued, in re-\\nlation both to the general theory and practice, and to the special application of\\nthe theory and practice to the development of the village school, and of the\\ntuning school, through the whole period of instruction, as that part of the\\nstudies of the pupils by which the mutual relations of these studies are revealed,\\nansl their future application anticipated.\\nWe regard these lectures, combined with the zealous labor of the Hon. and\\nRev. Robert Eden, as the chief means by which, aided by the tutors, such a tone\\nof feeling can be maintained as shall prepare the teachers to enter upon their\\nimportant duties, actuated by motives which will be the best means of insuring\\ntheir perseverance, and promoting their success.\\nThe Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, who devote their lives a cheerful\\nsacrifice to the education of the poorer classes of France, can be understood best\\nby those who have visited their Novitiate and schools at Paris. From such per-\\nsons we expect acquiescence when we say, that their example of Christian zeal\\nis worthy of the imitation of Protestants. Three of the brothers of this order\\nare maintained for a sum which is barely the stipend of one teacher of a school\\nof mutual instruction in Paris. Their schools are unquestionably the best at\\nParis. Their manners are .simple, affectionate, and sincere. The children are\\nsingularly attached to them. How could it be otherwise, when they perceive\\nthat these good men have no other reward on earth for their manifold labors\\nthan that of an approving conscience I\\nThe regime of the Novitiate is one of considerable austerity. They rise at\\nfour. They spend an hour in private devotion, which is followed by two hours\\nof religious exercises in their chapel. They breakfast soon afterward, and arc\\nin the day schools of Paris at uine. They dine about uoou, and coutiuue their", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0847.jp2"}, "846": {"fulltext": "844 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nattention to the schools till five. They sup at six, and then many of them are\\nemployed in evening^ schools for the adults from seven to nine, or from eight to\\nten. wlien, after prayers, they immediately retire to rest.\\nNo one can taiter the schools of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine without\\nfeeling instinctively that he is witnessing a remarkable example of the develop-\\nment of Cliristian cliarity.\\nWith such motives should the teachers of elemehtary schools, and especially\\nthose who are called to tlie arduous duties of training pauper children, go forth\\nto their work. The path of the teacher is strewn with disappointments, if he\\ncommence with a mercenary spirit: it is full of encouragement, if he be inspired\\nwith the spirit of Christian charity. No skill can compensate adequately for the\\nabsence of a pervading religious influence on the character and conduct of the\\nschoolmaster.\\nllie technical instruction in that knowledge which it will be the duty of the\\npupils to communicate in elementary schools, occupies a much greater portion of\\nthe time in tlie preparatory course than that which will be allotted to such\\nstudies in the two subsequent years.\\nEvery montli will ni w bring into greater prominence instruction, theoretical\\nand practical, in the art of teachinc/. The outlines only of a future course of in-\\nstruction in this most important element of the studies of a training school have\\nbeen communicated. Some of tlie principles have been laid down, but the ap-\\nplication of these principles to each subject of instruction, and the arrangement\\nof the entire matter of technical knowledge, in accordance with the principles of\\nelementary teaching, is a labor to which a large portion of the future time of the\\npupils must be devoted.\\nTliose studies which will prepare them for the performance of collateral duties\\nin the village or parish have not been conmienced.\\nThe instruction in the management of a garden in pruning and grafting trees\\nin the relative qualities of soils, manures, and the rotation of garden crops, is to\\nform a part of the course of instruction, after the certificate of candidate is\\nobtained.\\nA course on the domestic economy of the poor will be delivered in the same\\nyear, which will be followed by another on the means of preserving health,\\nespecially with regard to the employments, habits, and wants of the working\\nclasses. Some general lectures on the relations of labor and capital will close\\nthis course.\\nFrom the following extracts from the Report of the Founders of the In-\\nstitution in 1843, it will be seen that they were induced, after three years\\nexperience, to change one feature of their original plan, and, instead of tak-\\ning boys of the age of fourteen, to select their candidates for admission from\\nyouths who had attained the age of eighteen or twenty years. This change\\nhas special reference to teachers designed for large schools in commercial\\ntowns and manufacturing districts. They also advise a course of prepara-\\ntory training, previous to their admission into a Normal School, similar to\\nthat pursued in Holland.\\nIn Holland, the elementary schoolmasters of every great town form a society,\\nassociated for their common benefit. Their schools are always large, varying in\\nnumbers from three to seven hundred, or even a thousand children, who are\\noften assembled in one room. Every master is aided by a certain number of\\nassistants of different ages, and by pupil-teachers.\\nThe course through which a youth passes from a position of distinction, as one\\nof the most successful scholars, to tliat of master of a school, is obvious. He ia\\napprenticed as a pupil- teacher (an assistant equivalent, in the first stage, to the\\nmost superior class of our monitors in England). As pupil-teacher he assists in\\nthe instruction of the youngest classes during the day, witnessing and taking\\npart in the general movements of the school, and in the maintenance of discipline\\nand order. Ho resides with his own familj^ in the city, and before he is admitted\\napprentice, care is taken to ascertain that he belongs to a well-conducted house", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0848.jp2"}, "847": {"fulltext": "BATTERSE A TRAINING SCHOOL, 845\\nhold, and that he \u00e2\u0096\u00a0will be reared b} his parents in habits of religion and order.\\nEvery evening all the pupil-teacliers of the town are assembled to receive in-\\nstruction. The society of teachers provides from its own body a succession of\\ninstructors, by one of whom, on each night of the week, the pupil-teachers are\\ntaught sitme branch of elementary knowledge necessary to school-keeping. One\\nof the most experienced masters of the town, likewise, gives them lectures on\\nmethod, and on the art of organizing and conducting a school.\\nThe society of schoolmasters meets from time to time to receive from each of\\nits members an account of the conduct, progress, and qualifications of each pupil-\\nteacher in the town, not only in the evening class, but in the school duties of\\nthe day.\\nOn the reputation thus acquired, and preserved, depends the progress of the\\npupil-teacher in the art of school-keeping. As liis experience becomes more ma-\\nture, and his knowledge increases, he is intrusted with more important matters\\nand higher classes in the school. He undergoes two successive examinations by\\nthe Government Inspector, being first admitted candidate and afterward assist-\\nant master, and he is then at liberty to complete his course of training by enter-\\ning the Normal School at Haarlem, from which he can obtain the highest certifi-\\ncates of fitness for the duties of his profession.\\nThis appears to us a course of training peculiarly well adapted to the forma-\\ntion of masters for the great schools of large towns, and likewise for supplying\\nthese great schools, during the education of the pupil-teacher, with the indispen-\\nsable aid of a body of assistant masters, without which they must continue to be\\nexamples of an economy which can spare nothing adequate to the improvement\\nof the people.\\nThe formation of a body of pupil-teachers in each great town, thus instructed\\nby a society of schoolmasters, is an object worthy of encouragement from the\\nCommittee of Council, wlio might at least provide the fees and charges of ap-\\nprenticeship, and grant exhibitions for the training of the most successful pupil-\\nteachers in a Normal School at the close of their apprenticeship, even if the\\nGovernment were indisposed to encounter any of the annual charges incident to\\nthe plan.\\nFew words are requisite to render apparent the difference between the life of\\na pupil-teacher so trained, and that of a young novice in a Normal School. The\\nfamiliar life of the parental household, while it exercises a salutary influence on\\nthe habits and manners of the young candidate, is not remote from the great\\nscene of exertion in which his future life is to be spent. He is unconsciously\\nprepared by the daily occurrences in his father s family, and by his experience\\nand instruction in the day and evening school, to form a just estimate of the cir-\\ncumstances by wliich he is surrounded. He is trained from day to day in the\\nmanagement of the artful and corrupt chililreu even of the dregs of the city, and\\nenableei to apply such means as the discipline and instruction of a common school\\nafford, to the improvement of the moral and intellectual condition of the children\\nof the common people. He becomes an agent of civilization, fitted for a peculiar\\nwork by habit, and prepared to imbibe during the year or year and a half he\\nmay spend in a Normal School those higher maxims of conduct, that more exact\\nknowledge, and those more perfect methods of which it is the proper source.\\nFrom such a period of training, he returns to his native city, or is sent to some\\nother town, strong in the confidence inspired by his prolonged experience of the\\npeculiar duties he has to perform, either to take a high rank as an assistant mas-\\nter, or to undertake the responsibility of conducting a town school as its cliief.\\nThese are the views which have led us to conclude that the admission of boys\\ninto a Normal School, as distinguished from a Mother School, is not a fit prepara-\\ntion for the discharge of tlie duties of a schoolmaster in a large town.\\nWe have gradually raised the age of admission from 14 to 16, and thence to\\n18 or 20 years, and we are now of opinion that few or none should be admitted\\ninto a Normal School under the latter age.\\nBesides the reasons already stated why youths under 18 should not be ad-\\nmitted into such a school, there are some arising out of the internal economy of\\na Normal School of sufficient importance to deserve enumeration.\\nIf youths are admitted, none who have arrived at adult age should be per\\nfiiitted to eater. The youth necessarily eaters for a course of traiaiog which \u00c2\u00abz-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0849.jp2"}, "848": {"fulltext": "g46 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\ntends over several years the adult student commonly enters for a year and a\\nhalf or two years. The attainments of all are raeu ^er on their admission. In\\nthe course of a few years, therefore, the youngest pupils are necessarily at the\\nhead of the school in their attainments and skill, which is a source of great dis-\\ncouragement to an adult entering such an establishment, and a dangerims dis-\\ntinction to a youth whose acquirements have suddenly raised him intellectually\\nabove all in his sphere of hfe. The tendencies of such a great disparity in the\\nacquirements appropriate to the two classes of age are obviously injurious. We\\nhave experienced the consequences of this disparity as a disturbing force in the\\ntraining schools, iind to counteract these tendencies has required a vigilance and\\nprovident care, wliich has increased our labors and anxieties. Few things have\\nbeen more pleasing than the readiness with which some of the oldest students\\nwho have entered the schools have taken their seats in the humblest positions,\\nand passed with patient perseverance through all the elementar} drudgery,\\nthough boys have held the most prominent positions in the first class, and have\\noccasionally become their instructors. On the other hand, to check the conceit\\ntoo frequently engendered by a rapid progress, when attended with such con-\\ntrasts, Ave have suggested to the masters, that the humble assiduity of the re-\\ncently entered adult pupil ought to secure an expressive deference and attention.\\nThe intellectual development of the young pupils is a source of care insignifi-\\ncant in comparison with that attending the formation of tJteir characters, and\\nthis could be accomplished with greater ease and certainty if they were the sole\\nobjects of solicitude. But, as members of an establishment into which adults are\\nadmitted in an equality or inferiority of position, the discipline is compUcated\\nand the sources of error are increased.\\nFor these reasons, we prefer to admit into a Normal School only students of\\nadult age, reared by religious parents, and concerning whose characters and\\nqualifications the most satisfactory testimonials can be procured. The inquiries\\npreliminary to the admission of a student should in all cases, where it may be\\npracticable, extend to his previous habits and occupations, to the character of\\nthe household in which he has resided, and the friendships he has formed. In\\nall cases those young men are to be preferred whose previous pursuits warrant\\nBorne confidence in their having s^. predilection for the duties of a teacher of the\\npoor.\\nOur plans have therefor* tended to the introduction of young men of 18 years\\nof age and upward for a training of one year and a half, which we are led to\\nregard as the shortest period which it is desirable they should spend in such a\\nschool.\\nWith this explanation of a modification of one feature in their original\\nplan, the Report for 1843 proceeds to discuss the main objects of a Nor-\\nmal School.\\nThe main object of a Normal School is the formation of the character of the\\nschoolmaster. This was the primary idea which guided our earliest efforts in the\\nestabhshment of the Battersea Schools on a basis different from that of any pre-\\nvious example in this country. We have submitted to your lordship the reasons\\nwhich have led us to modify one of the chief features of our plan, but our con-\\nvictions adhere with undiminished force to the principle on which the schools\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0were originally founded They were intended to be an institution in which\\nevery object was subservient to the formation of the character of the schoolmas-\\nter, as an intelligent Christian man entering on the instruction of the poor, with\\nreligious devotion to his work. If we propose to change the means, the end we\\nhave in view is the same. Compelled by the foregoing considerations to tliink\\nthe course of training we proposed for youths does not prepare them for the\\ncharge of large schools in manufacturing towns, we are anxious that the system\\npursued in Holland should be adopted, as a training preparatory to the examin-\\nation of the pupil-teachers previously to their admission into a Normal School.\\nFinding that the patrons of students and the friends of the establishment are\\nunable, for the most part, to support a longer training for young men than one\\nyear and a half, we are more anidous respecting the investigation of their pro-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0850.jp2"}, "849": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. \u00c2\u00a747\\nvious characters and connections, and more fastidious as to their intellectual\\nqualifications and acquirements.\\nWhen circumstances thus combine to prevent the residence of the students in\\nthe training school for a longer period than a year and a half, tlie inquiries as to\\nprevious character cannot be conducted with too much care, and the first month\\nof training should, under anij circuni stances, he regarded as probationary.\\nUnder these arrangements, also, the impression produced upon the characters\\nof the students during their residence is of paramount importance.\\nThey are commonly selected from an humble sphere. They are the sons of\\nsmall tradesmen, of bailiffs, of servants, or of superior mechanics. Few have re-\\nceived any education, except that given in a common parochial school. They\\nread and write very imperfectly are unable to indite a letter correctly and\\nare seldom skillful, even in the first four rules of arithmetic. Their biblical\\nknowledge is meager and inaccurate, and all their conceptions, not less on reli-\\ngious than on other subjects, are vague and confused, even when they are not\\nalso very limited or erroneous. Their habits have seldom prepared them for the\\nseverely regular life of the Normal School, much less for the strenuous effort of\\nattention and application requii-ed by the daily routine of instruction. Such con-\\ncentration of the mind would soon derange the health, if tlie course of training\\ndid not provide moderate daily exerci.se in the garden, at proper intervals. The\\nmental torpor, which at first is an obstacle to improvement, generally passes\\naway in about three months, and from that period tlie student makes rapid prog-\\nress in the studies of the school.\\nThese attainments, humble though they be, might prove dangerous to the\\ncharacter of the student, if his intellectual development were the chief concern\\nof the masters.\\nHow easy it would be for him to form an overweening estimate of his knowl-\\nedge and ability, nmst be apparent, when it is remembered that he will meas-\\nure his learning by the standard of that possessed by his own friends and neigh-\\nbors. He will find himself suddenly raised by a brief course of training to the\\nposition of a teacher and example. If his mind were not tlioroughly penetrated\\nby religious principle, or if a presumptuous or mercenary tone had been given to\\nhis character, he might go forth to bring discredit upon education, by exliibiting\\na precocious vanity, an insubordinate spirit, or a selfish ambition. He miglit be-\\ncome, not the gentle and pious guide of the children of the poor, but a hireling\\ninto whose mind had sunk the doubts of the skeptic in whose heart was the\\nworm of .social discontent and who had changed the docility of ignorance and\\ndullness, for tlie restless impatience of a vulgar and conceited sciolist.\\nIn the formation of the character of the schoolmaster, the discipline of the\\ntraining school should be so devised as to prepare him for the modest respecta-\\nbility of his lot. He is to be a Christian teacher, following Him who said, He\\nthat will be my disciple, let him take up his cross. Without the spirit of self-\\ndenial, he is notliing. His reward must be in his work. There should be great\\nsimplicity in the life of sjich a man.\\nObscure and secluded schools need masters of a contented spirit, to whom the\\ntraining of the children committed to their charge has charms sufficient to con-\\ncentrate their thoughts and exertions on the humble sphere in whieli they live,\\nnotwithstanding the privations of a life but little superior to the level of the\\nsurrounding peasantry. When the scene of the teacher s exertions is in a neigh-\\nborhood which brings Iiim into association with the middle and upper classes of\\nsociety, his emoluments will be greater, and he will be surrounded by tempta-\\ntions which, in the absence of a suitable preparation of mind, might rob him of\\nthat humility and gentleness which are among the most necessary qualifications\\nof the teacher of a common school.\\nIn the ti ainiug school, habits should be formed consistent with the modesty of\\nhis future Ufe. On this account, we attach peculiar importance to the discipline\\nwhich we have estabhshed at Battersea. Only one servant, besides a cook, has\\nbeen kept for the domestic duties of the household. The whole household work,\\nwitli the exception of the scouring of the floors and cooking, is perforrneti by tlie\\nstudents and they likewise not only milk anil clean the cows, feed and tend\\nthe pigs, but have charge of the stores, wait upon each other, and cultivate the\\ngardea We cannot too emphatically state our opinion that no portion of this", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0851.jp2"}, "850": {"fulltext": "848\\nBATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nwork could be omitted, without a proportionate injury to that contentment of\\nspirit, without which the character of the student is liable to be overgrown with\\nthe errors we have described.\\nThe garden- work also serves other important ends. Some exercise and rec-\\nreation from the scholastic labors are indispensable. Nevertheless, a large por-\\ntion of the day cannot be devoted to it, and when three or four hours only can be\\nspared, care should be taken that the whole of this time is occupied by moderate\\nand healthful exertion in the open air. A period of recreation employed accord-\\ning to the discretion of the students would be liable to abuse. It might often\\nbe spent in listless sauntering, or in violent exertion. Or if a portion of the day\\nwere thus withdrawn from the observation of the masters of the school, it would\\nprove a period in wliich associations might be formed among the students incon-\\nsistent with the discipline and habits might spring up to counteract the influ-\\nence of the instruction and admonition of the masters. In so brief a period of\\ntraining, it is necessary that the entire conduct of the student should be guided\\nby a superior mind.\\nNot only, by the daily labor of the garden, are the health and morals of the\\nschool influenced, but habits are formed consistent with the student s future lot.\\nIt is well both for his own health, and for the comfort of Ids family, that the\\nschoolmaster should know how to grow his garden stuff, and should be satisfied\\nwith innocent recreation near his home.\\nWe have also adhered to the frugal diet which we at first selected for the\\nschool. Some little vari ty has been introduced, but we attach great importance\\nto the students being accustomed to a diet so plain and economical, and to ar-\\nrangements in their dormitories so simple and devoid of luxury, that in after life\\nthey will not in an humble school be visited with a sense of privation, when their\\nscanty fare and mean furniture are compared with the more abundant food and\\ncomforts of the training school. We have therefore met every rising complaint\\nrespecting either the quantity or quality of the food, or the humble accommo-\\ndation in the dormitories, with explanations of the importance of forming, in the\\nschool, habits of frugality, and of the paramount duty of nurturing a patient\\nspirit, to meet the future prjvations of the life of a teacher of the poor.\\nOur experience also leads us to attach much importance to simplicity and pro-\\npriety of dress. For the younger pupils we had, on this account, prepared a\\nplain dark dress of rifle green, and a working dress of fustian cord. As respects\\nthe adults, we have felt the importance of checking the slightest tendency to\\npeculiarity of dress, lest it should degenerate into foppery. We have endeav-\\nored to impress on the students that the dress and the manners of the master\\nof a school for the poor should be decorous, but that the prudence of his life\\nshould likewise find expression in their simplicity. There should be no habit nor\\nexternal sign of self-indulgence or vanity.\\nOn the other hand, the master is to be prepared for a life of laborious exer-\\ntion. He must, therefore, form habits of early rising, and of activity and perse-\\nvering industry. In the winter, before it is light, the household work must be\\nfinished, and the school-rooms prepared by the students for the duties of the day.\\nOne hour and a half is thus occupied. After this work is accomplished, one class\\nmust assemble winter and summer, at a quarter to seven o clock, for instruction.\\nThe day is filled with the claims of duty requiring the constant exertion of mind\\nand body, until, at half past nine, the household retire to rest.\\nBy this laborious and frugal life, economy of management is reconciled with\\nthe efficiency both of the moral and intellectual training of the school, and the\\nmaster goes forth into the world humble, industrious, and instructed.\\nBut into the student s character higher sentiments must enter, if we rightly\\nconceive the mission of the master of a school for the poor. On the religious\\ncondition of the household, under the blesshig of God, depends the cultivation\\nof that religious feeling, without which the spirit of self sacrifice cannot take its\\nright place among the motives wliich ought to form the mainspring of a school-\\nmaster s activity.\\nThere is a necessity for incessant vigilance in the management of a training\\nschool. The principal should be wise as a serpe7it, while the gentleness of his\\ndiscipline, and his affectionate solicitude for the well-being of his pupils, should\\neucourage the most imreserved commuuicatious with him. Much of bis leisure", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0852.jp2"}, "851": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. g ^g\\nshould bo devoted to private interviews with the students, and employed in in-\\nstiliiii^ into their min Is hi^h principles of actium A cold !Ui I repulsive air of\\nauthority may preserve the appearance of order, re^ ularity, and submission in\\nthe liousehold but these will prove delusive si^us if the principal does not pos-\\nsess the respect and confidence, not to say the affections, of liis char^ e. He\\neliould be must accessible, and unwearied in the patience witli which he listens\\nto confessions and inquiries. Wliile it is felt to be impossible tliat lie should\\nent(!r into any compromise with evil, there should be-no sucli severity in his tone\\nof rebuke as to check tliat coniidence which seeks guidance from a superior in-\\ntelligence. As far as its relation to the principal only is concerned, every fault\\nshould be restrained and corrected by a conviction of the pain and anxiety which\\nit causes to an anxious friend, rather than by the fear of a too jealous authority.\\nThus conscience will gradually be roused by the example of a master, respected\\nfor his purity, and loved for his gentleness, and inferior sentiments will be re-\\nplaced by motives derived from the iiighest source.\\nWhere so much has to be learne 1, and where, among other studies, so much\\nreligious knowledge must be acquired, there is danger that religion siiouM be\\nregar lei chiefly as a subject for the exercise of the intellect. A speculative re-\\nligious knowledije, without tliose habits and feelings which are the growth of\\ndeeply-seated religious convictions, may be a dangerous acquisition to a teacher\\nof the young. How important, therefore, is it that the religious services of the\\nhousehold should become the means of cultivating a spirit of devotion, and that\\nthe reUgious instruction of the school should be so conlucted as not merely to\\ninform the memory, but to master the convictions and t j interest the feelings\\nRehgion is not merely to be taught in the school it must be the element in\\nwhich the stu lents live.\\nThis i-eligious life is to be nurtured by the example, by the public instruction\\nof the principal, and by his private counsel and admonition; by the religious\\nservices of the household; by the personal intercourse of the students, and the\\nhabits of private meditation and devotion which they are led to form by the\\npublic worship of the church, and by the acts of charity aud .self-denial which\\nbelong to their futtu e calling.\\nHow importan^ is it, that the principal should embody such ai. example of pu-\\nrity and elevation of character, of gentleness of numners, and of unwearie I be-\\nnevolence, as to increase the power of his teaching, by the respect and conviction\\nwhich wait upon a ctmsistent life Into the religious services of the household\\nhe shoul 1 en leavor to in-tpire such a spirit of devotion as Avould spread itself\\nthrough the familiar life, and hallow every season of retirement. The manage-\\nment of the village school atfords opportunities for cultivating habits of kimlness\\nan I patience. The students should be instructed in the organization and con-\\nduct of Sun lay-schools they should be trained in the preparation of the volun-\\ntary teachers by previous instruction in the visitation of the absent children;\\nin the management of the clothing and sick clubs and libraries attached to such\\nschools. They sh(juld be accustomcvl to the performance of those parochial du-\\nties in which the schoolmaster may lighten the burden of the clergyman. For\\nthis purpose, they should learn to keep the accounts of the benefit club. They\\nshould instruct and manage the village choir, and should learn to play the organ.\\nWhile in attendance on the village school, it is peculiarly important that they\\nshould accompany the master in his vi its to children detained at home by sick-\\nness, and should listen to the words of counsel and comfort which he may then\\nadminister; they should also attend him when his duty requires a visit to the\\nparents of some refractory or indolent scholar, and should learn how to secure\\ntheir aid in the correction of the faults of the child.\\nBef ire he leaves the training school, the student should have formed a distinct\\nconception, from precept and practice, how his example, his instruction, an I his\\nw.irks of charity and religion, ought to promote the Christian civilization of the\\ncommunity in which he labors.\\nTurn we again to the contrast of such a picture. Let us suppose a school in\\nwhich this vigilance in the formation of character is deemed superfluous; or a\\nprincipal, the guileless simplicity of whose character is not strengthened by the\\nwisdom of experience. A fair outward show of (jnler and industry, and great\\nintellectual development, may, in either case, be consistent witli the latent prog-\\n54", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0853.jp2"}, "852": {"fulltext": "550 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nrcss of a rank corruption of manners, mining all beneath. Unless the searcliing\\nintelligence of the principal is capable of discerning the dispositions of his charge,\\nand anticipating their tendencies, he is unequal to the task of molding the minds\\nof his pupils, by the power of a loftier character and a superior will. In that\\ncase, or when the principal deems such vigilance superfluous, and is content with\\nthe intellectual labors of his office, leaving the little republic, of which he is tlie\\nhead, to form its own manners, and to create its own standard of principle and\\naction, the catastrophe of a deep ulcerous corruption is not likely to be long de-\\nlayed.\\nIn either case, it is easy to trace the progress of degeneracy. A .school, in\\nwhich the formation of character is not the chief aim of the masters, must aban-\\ndon that all-important end to the republic of scholars. When these are selected\\nfrom the educated and upper ranks of society, the school will derive its code of\\nmorals from that prevalent in such classes. When the pupils belong to a very\\nhumble class, their characters are liable, under such arrangements, to be com-\\npounded of the ignorance, coarseness, and vices of the lowest orders. One pu-\\npil, the victim of iow vices, or of a vulgar coarseness of thought, escaping the eye\\nof an unsuspicious prhicipal, or unsought for by the vigilance which is expended\\non the intellectual progress of the school, may corrupt the private intercourse of\\nthe students with low buffoonery, profligate jests, and sneers at the self-denying\\nzeal of the humble student; may gradually lead astray one after another of the\\npupils to clandestine habits, if not to the secret practice of vice. Under such\\ncircumstances, the counsels of the principal would gradually become subjects of\\nridicule. A conspiracy of direct insubordination would be formed. The influ-\\nence of the superior would barely maintain a fair external appearance of order\\nand respect.\\nEvery master issuing from such a school would become the active agent of a\\ndegeneracy of manners, by which the humbler ranks of society would be infected.\\nThe formation of the character is, therefore, the chief aim of a training school,\\nand the principal should be a man of Christian earnestness, of intelligence, of ex-\\nperience, of knowledge of the world, and of the humblest simplicity and purity\\nof manners.\\nNext to the formation of the character of the pupil is, in our estimation, the\\ngeneral development of his intelligence. The extent of his attainments, though\\nwithin a certain range a necessary object of his training, should be subordinate\\nto that mental cultivation, which confers the powers of self-education, and gives\\nthe greatest strength to his reflective faculties. On this account, among others,\\nwe attach importance to the methods of imparting knowledge pursued in the\\nNormal Scliool. While we have insured that the attainments of the students\\nshould be exact, by testing them with searching examinations, repeated at the\\nclose of every week, and reiterated lessons on all subjects in which any deficiency\\nwas discovered, nothing has been taught by rote. The memory lias never been\\nstored, without the exercise of the rea.son. Nothing has been learned which has\\nnot been under.stood. This very obvious course is too frequently lost sight of\\nin the humbler branches of learning principles being hidden in rules, defining\\nonly their most convenient application or buried under a heap of facts, united\\nby no intelligible link. (To form the character, to develop the intelligence, and\\nto store the mind with the requisite knowledge, these were the objects of the\\nNormal School, j\\nIn the village scliool a new scene of labor developed itself, which has been in\\nprogress since the period of our last report, and has now nearly reached its term.\\nIf we attach pre-eminent importance to the formation of character as the object\\nof the Normal School, a knowledge of the method of managing an elementary\\nschool, and of instructing a class in each branch of elementary knowledge, is the\\npeculiar object of the model-school attached to any training institution. In its\\nproper province as subordinate to the instruction and training in a Normal School,\\nit is difficult to exaggerate the importance to a teacher, of a thorough familiarity\\nwith the theory and practice of organizing and conducting common schools. With-\\nout tliis, the most judicious labor in the Normal School may, so far as the future\\nusefulness of the student as a schoolmaster is concerned, be literallv wasted. It", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0854.jp2"}, "853": {"fulltext": "is possible to conceive that the char icier may be formed on the purest rnociel;\\nthat the intelligence may have been kept in healthful activity and that the\\nrequisite general and technical instruction may have been acquired, yet without\\nthe aptitude to teach without skill acquired from precept and example with-\\nout the habits matured in the discipline of schools; without the methods in\\nwhich the art of teaching is reduced to technical rules, and the matter of instruc-\\ntion arranged in the most convenient form for elementary scholars, the previous\\nlabor wants the link which unites it to its peculiar task. On the other hand, to\\nselect from the common drudgery of u handcraft, or from the humble, if not mean\\npursuits of a petty trade, a young man barely (if indeed at all) instructed in the\\nhumblest elements of reading, writuig, and arithmetic, and to conceive that a\\nfew months attendance on a model-school can make him acquainted with the the-\\nory of its organization, convert him into an adept in its methods, or even rivet\\nupon his stubborn memory any significant part of the technical knowledge of\\nwhich he has immediate need, is a mistake too shameful to be permitted to sur-\\nvive its universal failure.\\nWhen we speak of the necessity of a thorough acquaintance with methods of\\norganizing and teaching in comnuju schools, we mean to exalt the importance of\\nprevious training of the character, expansion of the intelligence, and sufficient\\ntechnical instruction. Without tl is previous preparation, the instruction in the\\nmodel-school is empirical, and the luckless wight would have had greater suc-\\ncess in his handcraft, than he can hope to enjoy in his school.\\nFor these reasons, among others, the attention of the students has especially\\nof late been directed to the theory of the organization of schools, and to the ac-\\nquirement of the art of teaching.\\nThe method of conveying instruction is peculiarly important in an elementary\\nschool, because the scholars receive no learning and little judicious trainitig at\\nhome, and are, therefore, dependent for their education on the very limited pe-\\nriod of their attendance at school. On this account nothing superfluous should\\nbe taught, lest what is necessary be not attained. The want of a fit preparation\\nol the mind of the scholar, and the brevity of his school life, are reasons for adopt-\\ning the most certain and efficacious means of imparting knowledge, so that this\\nshort period may become as profitable as possible. The regularity of the child s\\nattendance, the interest he takes in his learning, and his success, will be promoted\\nby the adoption of means of instruction suited to the state of his faculties and\\nthe condition of society from which he is taken. If his progress be obstructed\\nby the obscurity of his master s teaching, and by the absence of that tact which\\ncaptivates the imagination of children, and rouses the activity of their minds, the\\nscholar will become dull, listless, and untoward will neglect his learning and\\nhis school, and degenerate into an obstinate dunce. The ei^iest transition in\\nacquirement is in the order of simplicity from the known to the unknown, and\\nit is indispensable to skillful teaching that the matter of instruction should be\\narranged in a synthetic order, so that all the elements may have to each other\\nthe relation of a progressive series from the most simple to the most complex.\\nThis arrangement of the matter of instruction requires a previous analysis, which\\ncan only be successfully accomplislied by the devotion of much time. Such\\nmethods are only gradually brought to perfection by experience. The element-\\nary schoolmaster, however highly instructed, can seldom be expected to possess\\neither the necessary leisure or the peculiar analytical talent and unless this work\\nof arrangement be accomplished for him, he cannot hope, by the technical instruc-\\ntion of the Normal School, to acquii-e sufficient skill to invent a method by ar-\\nranr^ing the matter of instruction.\\nIn order, therefore, that he may teach nothing superfluous that he may con\\nvey his instruction in the most skillful manner, and in the order of simplicity, it\\nis necessary that he should become acquainted with a method of commmiicating\\neach branch of knowledge.\\nThis is the more important, because individual teaching is impossible in a\\ncommon school. Every form of organization, from the monitorial tn the simulta-\\nneous, includes more or less of collective teaching. The characteristics of skillful\\ncollective teaching are the simplicity and precision with which the knowledge is\\ncommunicated, and the logical arrangement of the niatter of instruction. DLf-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0855.jp2"}, "854": {"fulltext": "852 BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nfuse, desultory, or unconnected lessons are a waste of time they leave no perma-\\nnent traces on the memory they confuse the minds of children, instead of in-\\nBtiucting iliem and strengthening their faculties.\\nCertain moral consequences also flow from the adoption of skillful methods of\\nteacliiiig. Tlie relations of regard and respect which ought to exist between\\nthe master and his scholars are liable to disturbance, when, from his imper-\\nfect skill, their progress in learning is slow, their minds remain inactive, and\\ntheir exertions are languid and unsuccessful. A school in which the master is\\ninapt, and the scholars are dull, too frequently becomes the scene of a harsher\\ndiscipline. Inattention must be prevented indolence quickened impatience\\nrestrained insubordination and truancy corrected; yet all these are early con-\\nsequences of the want of skill in the master. To enforce attention and indus-\\ntry, and to secure obedience and decorum, the languid and the listless are too\\noften subjected to the stimulus of coercion, when the chief requisite is method\\nan 1 tact. The master supplies his own deficiencies with the rod; and what he\\ncannot accomplish by skill, he endeavors to attain by the force of authority.\\nSuch a result is not a proper subject of wonder, when the master has received\\nno systematic instruction in method. To leave the student without the aid of\\nmethiid, is to subject him to the toil of analysis and invention, when he has neither\\nthe time nor the talent to analyze and invent.\\nThe Report of 1843 dwells on the several methods previously noticed in\\nthe extracts already made from the Report of 1841, and concludes as follows\\nThese several Methods^ have now been tested by experience on the most pub-\\nlic theater, and have become an important part of the instruction of masters\\nof elementary schools. The Manuals in which they are embodied render their\\nacquisition comparatively easy even to those who do not enjoy the advantage of\\nreceiving lessons in the art of teaching by them from adepts. The school of\\nmethod will place within the reach of the schoolmasters of the metropolis the\\nmeans of acquiring the requisite skill; and the body of schoolmasters, whom the\\nNormal Schools will annually disseminate, will diffuse them through the country.\\nEvery school conducted with complete efficiency by a master trained in a Normal\\nSchool, will become a model to neighboring schools which have not enjoyed sim-\\nilar advantages. On this account aUine, it is important that no student from a\\nNormal School should commence his labors in the country until he has acquired\\na mastery of the methods of teaching these necessary elements.\\nIn a course of instruction extendL ig over a year and a half, a student ought to\\nspend three hours daily, during six or eight months, in the practice of- the art of\\nteaching in the village .school. When the course of instruction is necessarily lim-\\nited to one year, four months should be thus employed, and during the entire\\nperiod of his training, instruction in method should form an element of the daily\\nroutine in the Normal School.\\nBy such means alone can a rational conception of method be attained, and that\\nskill in the art of conducting a .school and instructing a class without which all\\nthe labors of the Normal School in imparting technical knowledge are wasted, be-\\ncause the student has no power of conununicating it to others.\\nIn the Report of 1847, the Inspector, Mr. Moseley, makes the following\\nremarks\\nThere is one point of view in which we cannot but speak of the labors of this\\ninstitution with unmingled satisfaction. It stands out honorably distinguished\\nfrom all others as a place where the methods of elementary instruction are\\nrecognized as legitimate objects of research, and where teaching is studied as\\nAN art.\\nThat shifting, dreamy state of the mind which is associated with mechanical\\npursuits, such as have usually been the previous pursuits of the students of\\ntraining institutions, does not readily pass into a close and continuous application\\nof the understanding, any more than, in respect to our bodily health, a state of\\nconstant physical exertion gives place quietly to a sedentary life. A laborer ia\\nnot easily converted into a student. It is not to be done by putting a book be-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0856.jp2"}, "855": {"fulltext": "BATTERSEA TRAINING SCHOOL. 853\\nfore him. He may sit with that book before him for months, and yet never begin\\nto leant.\\nSuch a man requires to be roused from that mental apathy wliich lias (jrown\\nupon liim by tlie disuse of his faculties, and to be taught the secret of his pow-\\ners. This is best effected by the direct contact of his own mind with that of a\\nvigorous teacher, and for tliis reason oral instruction is specially adapted to the\\nbusiness of a training school.\\nA system which limits itself to this expedient of instruction will probably, how-\\never, fail of some important results. The teacher must also be a student. Un-\\nless this be the case, the lessons he gives in his school will echo every day mon.\\nfaintly the instructions he received at the college. Each lesson should have had\\nits preparation. However humble the subject, or the class of children to whom\\nit is addressed, there is probably some information to be gathered from books\\nwhich is applicable to it and it is in the direction of such applications that lie\\nthe legitimate studies of the teacher studies not less valuable in their influence\\nupon his school than upon himself.\\nThe labor of oral instruction is, however, so great, that to adopt it in respect\\nto ever so small a number of students, supposes the union of several teachers\\nand thus is obtained that division of the subjects taught among the teachers\\nwhich enables each to confine his attention to a particular class of subjects, and\\nthereby himself to acquire not only that greater knowledge of these subjects, but\\nof the best means of teaching them, which is essential to his success.\\nIt is not only, however, because e.ach teacher teaches better, that a favorable\\ninfluence is to be attributed to the labors of various teachers in an institution\\nlike this, but because there is an awakening and stimulating power in the rude\\naftacks made by a succession of vigorous teachers each with a different subject,\\nand an energy concentrated in it on a sluggish understanding; and in the dif-\\nferent impressions they leave upon it.\\nThere are phases in every man s mind which adapt it to receive impressions\\nfrom one teacher rather than another, as well as from one subject rather than\\nfrom another. And thus, between one of a succession of teachers and some in-\\ndividual student, there may be established sympathies which no other could\\nhave awakened, and there may be commenced a process of instruction in some\\nindividual mind, which the united labors of all the rest could not have moved.\\nIf any thing had been wanting to confirm in our minds the favorable opinion\\nwhich has been earned for it among the friends of education, by the many ad-\\nmirable teachers it has sent out, the experience of our examination would have\\nsupplied it.\\nFifty-four young men were assembled who, originally educated here, had for\\nvarious periods of from one to seven years been in charge of elementary schools.\\nAn opportunity was afforded us of forming the personal acquaintance of these\\nmen, and each of them taught in our presence one of tiie classes of the village\\nschool.\\nThe impression we received of them from these efforts was eminently favora-\\nble. Nor was this favorable ojunion shaken by an examination of the papers\\nwritten in answer to tlie questions we proposed to them. Although their course\\nof regular instruction had in many cases long ceased, the knowledge they had\\nacquired had not been lost. It was evident that their education had been of\\nthat kind which has a tendency to perfect itself, and that the process of instruc-\\ntion commenced here in their mihds bad gone on.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0857.jp2"}, "856": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0858.jp2"}, "857": {"fulltext": "TRAINING COLLEGE\\nFOR\\nTHE DIOCESE OF CHESTER, ENGLA] (D,\\nThe following account of the Chester Diocesan Training College,\\nEngland, is abridged from Reports by Rev. Henry Mosely, one of her\\nMajesty s Inspectors of Schools, to the Committee of Council on Education\\nfor 1845 and 1846. The Reports will be found in the Minutes of the\\nCommittee of Council on Education^ for 1844 and 1845.\\nThe Chester Diocesan Training College was commenced by the Chester\\nDiocesan Board of Education, in 1840. The College is situated on\\nelevated ground, adjacent to the high road which leads from Chester to\\nPark Gate, and is distant about one quarter of a mile from the north gate\\nof the city, and a little less east, from the River Dee. It commands\\ntowards the west, an uninterrupted prospect of 12 or 14 miles, terminated\\nby the hills of Denbighshire and Flintshire, and, from its upper -vsandows,\\nan equally extensive view eastward, over Cheshire. With its garden and\\ngrounds, it occupies five acres of land, one of which is freehold, held by\\ndeed of gift from the Dean and Chapter of Chester, and four acres (being\\npasture land) on lease, renewable every 21 years, and held under the same\\ncorporation. The property is conveyed in trust, for the purposes of the\\nInstitution, to the Chester Diocesan Board of Education, the Bishops of\\nChester, and the Deans of Chester and Manchester.\\nThe material of the building is brickwork, with red sandstone facings.\\nIt has two principal fronts the one towards the east extending on the line\\nof the Park Gate-road and the other towards the west, being that of the\\nPrincipal s residence, and commanding a view of the Denbighshire hills. It\\nis a structure of a grave and massive yet picturesque cliaracter, and of the\\nTudor style of architecture, to which its irregular outline is well adapted.\\nIn the adjustment of its proportions, in its decorations suitable to the\\nmaterial, and in the selection of its architectural forms, it presents a com-\\nbination of great merit and of a very appropriate character. The building\\nwas erected in the years 1841 and 1842, and prepared for the reception ot\\nthe students at an expense of about \u00c2\u00a310,752, raised by donations in the\\ndiocese, aided by a grant of \u00c2\u00a32500 from your Lordsliips. A model school-\\nroom has since been added to it, additional accommodation provided foi\\n20 students, and your Lordships have contributed a further sum of \u00c2\u00a31200\\n^towards those objects. The design of the Institution unites, with the\\ntraining of schoolmasters, the instruction of a commercial school, the\\npupils of which are received as boarders and the instruction of an ele-\\nmentary school. Provision is made within the walls for these several\\ndepartments.\\nThe general management is vested in a Committee of the Chester\\nDiocesan Board of Education, composed of 21 members.\\nThe following is an official statement of the objects of the Institution,\\nand of the conditions upon which students are received into it\\nThe object intended to be promoted by tliis Institution is to prepare, as far as a\\ncorrectly religious, moral, and scientific training can do it, a supply of Masters, for\\nthe parochial-church schools in the diocese of Chester.\\nThe Institution is under the presidency of the Lord Bishop of the Diocese, and\\nhas the sanction of the very Reverend the Deans, 8nd the Reverend the Chapters", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0859.jp2"}, "858": {"fulltext": "856 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nof Chester and Manchester. The office of Principal is vested in the Reverend\\nArthur Rigg, M.A. of Christ s College, Cambridge. The Vice-Principal is also a\\ngraduate ot that uuiver;iity.\\nTlie times tor the admission of students are two in the course of each year\\nviz., in January and in July.\\nAitention is directed to the following extracts from the Resolutions of the Train-\\ning College Ciinnnittee.\\nObjects of the Inxtitution. The Chester Diocesan Training College consists of\\nan elementary school for the children of the poor, to be regarded as a model\\nschool\\nA school for the education of Masters of elementary schools for the cliildren of\\nthe poor, to be regarded as a noimal school.\\nAs subsidiary to these objects, a middle sciiool for the education of the children\\nfrom the middle classes.\\n/Scheme of histr action. That subject to such alterations as the Training School\\nCommittee may from time to time sanction, the following be i\\\\\\\\e. general Scheme\\nof Instruction m the Trauiing School\\nRELIGION. GENERAL.\\nHoly Scriptures. English Grammar and Reading.\\nEvidences of Christianity. Geography and History.\\nChurch Catechism. Wrir.nig and Arithmetic.\\nDaily and Occasional Services of Liturgy Book-keeping\\nXXXIX. Articles. Theory and i ractice of Teaching\\nChurch History. Psalmody.\\nHistory of the Reformation.\\nInstruction may also be given, at the discretion of the Principal, with reference\\nto the capacity of the pupil and the situation for wliich he is designed, in\\nThe Latin and Greek Languages, Linear Drawing,\\nNatural Philosophy, Mapping,\\nTrigOTioraetry, The French Language,\\nNavigation, Elements of Geometry and Algebra,\\nsubject to the approval of the Training School Committee.\\nNumber of Pupils. Exiiibitioners That tlie number of pupils training a3\\nmasters, until the Board shall otherwise determine, be limited to titty wlio shall\\npay \u00c2\u00a325 per annum tor their board and instruction (all payments being made\\nquarterly in advance). That of these a number not exceeding half shall receive\\nexliibitions of \u00c2\u00a312 lOs per annum each, to be appointed according to merit, and\\nthat tlie exliibition be held for a period not longer tlian three years, subject never-\\ntheless to forfeiture, if the individual appointed do not, in the opinion of the Com-\\nmittee, by assiduity and good conduct continue to merit it.\\nCaution Money. That each person, before his name be entered as a candidate\\nfor admi.-!sion, j)ay one pound this sum to be returned it he come into residence;\\nto be foifciled for the use of the Library Fund if he do not.\\nStudents to enter intoaBond.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Vhiit every pupil training for a master, or\\nother person on his behalf be required to enter into a legal engagement, binding\\nhim to tlie following etfect, viz.\\nThat in case he liall decline, when so required by the Principal, to undertake\\nthe duties of a schoolmaster or assistant, wiJnn one year after he has left the*\\nestablislnnent, and also in case at any period not exceeding four years from his\\nundertaking sucli duties, he shall decline to continue tlie same, the Diocesan Board,\\nTraming College, Committee, or any one acting by their authority, sliall witli due\\nregard to his liealth, services and other circumstances, have power to require of\\nhim the payment of any sum not exceeding twice tlie amount which shall have\\nbeen paid to him or applied to his benefit as sucli student.\\nTimes of Admission. That pupils for training be admitted into the Establish-\\nment ludf-yearly, on certain days to be fixed by the Committee, of which due\\nnotice shall be given by the Principal.\\nAge of Candidates. Tliat, except in special cases, when the examiners shall\\notherwi.se determine, no pupil be admitted before the age of fifteen, nor be recom-\\nmended as a schoolmaster before the age of eighteen, having studied at least one\\nyear in the Institution and tfeat no pupil remain for a longer period than five\\nyears. And that no person be eligible as a pupil to the Training School, who,", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0860.jp2"}, "859": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAWmG COLLEGE. 557\\nfrom any bodily infirmity, is disqualified from efficiently discharging the duties of\\na schoolmaster.\\nCertijicate of Baptism. Tliat every pupil, on becoming a candidate for\\nadmission into the IVaiiiing School, be required to produce a certificate or sufficient\\ntestimonial of baptism, and a certificate from the minister of the parish in which\\nhe uas resided, according to the following form\\nI, A. B., Incumbent or Curate of do hereby certify that C. D. has\\nresided in this Parish for the space of and that I believe hira to be quali-\\nfied in character and attainments to become a Candidate for admission into tha\\nTraining College at Chester.\\nExaminations of Candidates. That candidates for admission be subjected to\\nan examination to be conjaeted by the Principal, the Chancellor of the Diocese,\\nthe Canon in residence at Chester, and one of tiie elected masters of higher schools.\\nThat eacli cantiidate be required to read and spell correcily to write a good plain\\nhand to be well versed in ilie first four rules of arithmetic to possess a general\\nknowledge of the Old and New Testament and to be able to repeat accurately\\ntlie Church Catechism.\\nEvery candidate for admission is required to answer the following ques-\\ntions in writing, space being left for his answers on a printed copy of them\\nwhich is placed before him;\\nWhat is your age\\nHave you been vaccinated\\nAre you now and usually in a good state of\\nhealth J\\nAre you without any bodily defect\\nWhere did you receive your education\\nWhat is your present situation in life why\\nleaving it and what is the average of your J\\nweekly earnings\\nHave you been accustomed to teach either in\\na day or Sunday school if so, where and for\\nwhat period of time\\nHave you any knowledge of music, singitig\\nOT drawing?\\nWho becomes responsible for your quarter s m j i,-\\npayment in advance? I Trade or calling,\\nAddress,\\nDate, Sign with your own\\nname and address. J\\nEvery candidate for admission is moreover required to sign the foUovring\\ndeclaration\\nI hereby declare that my object in entering the Chester Diocesan Training\\nCollege is to qualify myself for a .schoolmaster, and that I will not take any situ-\\ntion, either as a schoolmaster or otlierwise, without the consent of the Board, and\\nrepayment of the money expended on my preparatory Education, and that, when\\nrequired, I will accept the office of schoolmaster under and in connexion with the\\nDiocesan Board of Education.\\nFifteen exhibitions, each of \u00c2\u00a312 10s annually, have been founded by the\\nDiocesan Board, and one of the same amount Ijy W. E. Gladstone, Esq.,\\nM.P. The whole charge upon the funds of the Institution, in respect to\\nexhibition.s, amounts therefore to \u00c2\u00a3187 10s.\\nThe National Society has founded a number of exhibitions to meet in\\npart, the expenses of the residence of twenty masters, over twenty-one\\nyears of age, for a period not less than three and not more than eight\\nmonths. The number of students at the period of my first inspection was\\n56, of whom 14 were schoolmasters resident, temporarily, upon the exhi-\\nbitions of the National Society. There average age was 27 years. The\\nages of the students of the class permanently resident in the Institution\\nvaried at the period of my first inspection from 17 to 37 years, their meau\\nage being 25 years.\\nThe previous occupations of 21 of the regular students, being one-half", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0861.jp2"}, "860": {"fulltext": "858 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nof the whole number, had been of a mechanical character, connected for the\\nmost part with the manufacturers of the district they had, in point of fact,\\nbeen, under one form or another, workmen. Of the remainder, 8 had\\nbeen employed in schools, and the rest had for the most part been ware-\\nhousemen or clerks.\\nI have been thus particular in recording the previous occupations of\\nthese young men, from an impression that, in estimating the probable re-\\nsources of such an institution, and the results attainable from it, it is de-\\nsirable to know who are likely to frequent it.\\nI find that 8 are supported in the Institution at their own charge, 18 at\\nthe cost of their parents or other relations, and 9 by private patrons\\nchiefly benevolent clergymen. Of these. 14 are aided by exhibitions of the\\nDiocesan Board. The previous instruction of the greater number was\\ncommenced in National Schools. Their school-days, however, had termi-\\nnated at a very early period of life, and what they knew had chiefly been\\nacquired during the intervals of daily labor. Attainments, however\\nmeagre, made under such circumstances, are evidences of a superior\\ncharacter they are the fruits of self-dedication and self-sacrifice for the\\nattainment of an important and a laudable object, and they bear testimony\\nto a thirst for knowledge already created, and a habit of self-instruction\\nalready formed.\\nThese are qualifications of no mean value for the career on which they\\nenter at tire Training College. On the other hand, it is to be borne in\\nmind that there is nothing in mechanical occupations, however favorable\\nin some cases to reflection, to exercise a prompt and facile intelligence, or\\ncultivate a verbal memory and an opulent diction. With few exceptions\\nthey had been accustomed to teach in Sunday-schools, and the extensive\\nScriptural knowledge of which my examination supplied me with the\\nevidence, was probably acquired in this occupation. Where their secular\\nknowledge on admission extended beyond reading, writing, and arithmetic,\\nit included in seven or eight cases, a little Latin, and in five, the first\\nprinciples of algebra and geometry. The dialect and pronounciation of\\nmany of them I found to be strongly provincial, and the articulation in\\nreading imperfect.\\nTheir arithmetical knowledge on their admission, often includes all the\\nrules usually taught in books on arithmetic; but it is a knowledge limited\\nto the application of the rule mechanically, with a greater or less amount\\nof accuracy and facility and does not include any intelligence of tho\\nprinciples of calculation on which it is founded, much less of the best\\nmeans of bringing the minds of children to the intelligence of them.\\nThe students rise at 5 o clock in the summer and at a i before 7, in the\\nwinter.* They make their own beds and in summer devote the interval\\nbetween i past 5 and 7, to Scriptural instruction, and to the preparation of\\nlessons for the next succeeding day. Prayers are read at 7 o clock, and at\\na i past 7 they breakfast. The interval from a i before 8 to a i past 8 is\\ndevoted to industrial occupations, carried on for the most part in the open\\nair, or (the weather being unfavorable) to psalmody. At i past 8 their\\nmorning studies commence, and are continued to i past 11. The interval\\nbetween i past 1 1 and f after 1 2 they again devote to industrial pursuits,\\nthe weather permitting. They dine at 1 o clock, and resume their studies\\nat 2. The interval from 5 to past 7 is allowed them for private reading\\nand exercise, and it is in this interval that they take their evening meal.\\nTheir evening studies begin at i past 7, and are continued until a i past 8.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Any number, not less than four, -who come down to pursue their studies at an earlier hour\\nthan this in the winter are allowed to light the gas in the class rooms.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0862.jp2"}, "861": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. 359\\nAt 1^ past 8 evening prayers are read, the service being choral and accom-\\npanied by the organ, and at 9 they retire to rest. In the dormitories the\\ngas-lights burn for three-quarters of an hour after they have retired to rest,\\na period which they have the opportunity of devoting to religious reading\\nand to their devotions.\\nThe following is a list of the officers of the Institution\\nRev. Arthur Rigg, M.A., Christ College, Cambridge, Principal.\\nRev. Richard Wall, B.A., St. John s College, Cambridge, Vice-\\nPrincipal.\\nMr. Henry Beaumont, Master inthe Commercial School.\\n*Mr. Richard Griffies, Master in the Commercial School.\\n*Mr; Lawrence W. Riley, Master of the Model School.\\nThe teachers of the commercial school occasionally assist in the instruc-\\ntion of the students of the training school. No other masters are employed\\nthan those above enumerated, all of whom are resident within the walls of\\nthe Jnstitution.\\nThe Principal is assisted in the general supervision of the Institution, by\\none of the students called the scholar, selected from among the exhibition-\\ners, and changed every week according to a cycle fixed at the commence-\\nment of each half year. His duties are as follows\\nDuties of the Scholar.\\n1. To inspect the bed-rooms and be responsible for their order. To open all windowi\\nupstairs.\\n2. To go to the post-ofRce at 9 o clock A.M. and leave the order-book in the usual place.\\n3. To ring the bell at all the doors at the appointed hours.\\n4. To have a general care over all the in-door property of the building.\\n5. To keep the library in order, and to be responsible for class-books, and to prepare the books\\nfor each lesson.\\n6. To receive all letters for post at i to 8 P.M.\\n7. To receive all articles for the tailor and shoemaker before 5 o clock P.M. on Thursday.\\n8. To take the board containing the scheme of work into the study on Thursday evening.\\n9. To put up the calender for the week on the Saturday previous also to put up a copy of\\nthe psalm-tune for Sunday on the Monday evening previous.\\n10. For neglect or breach of these rules the scholar may be punished at the discretion of the\\nPrincipal.\\nAnother student, selected according to a weekly cycle from among those\\nwho will leave the Institution at the following vacation, is appointed under\\nthe designation of an orderly. specially to assist the Principal in matters\\nconnected with the discipline of the Institution and the industrial occupa-\\ntions of the students. His duties are as follows\\nDuties of Orderly.\\n1. Not to allow any student to talk or make a noise before prayers (morning) and at meals.\\n2. To see that shoes are on at least 5 minutes before prayers, Thursday and Sunday excepted.\\n3. To order and arrange for prayers.\\n4. To bolt the yard-doors when the bell has rung for each meal.\\n5. To have the control, direction, c., of the manner in which work is to be done the employ-\\nment of any who are idle and the general care, c., of tools, c., and all the out-door property\\nof the building.\\n6. To see that the students are seated 10 minutes after the bell has rung in the morning and\\n2 in the afternoon.\\n7. To attend to order in classes at lessons both as regards persons and places.\\n8. The orderly to provide a towel every Saturday night for the use of the students in the\\nyard.\\n9. For neglect or breach of these rules the orderly m^ay be punished at the discretion of the\\nPrincipal.\\nThe period devoted every week to each subject of instruction will be\\nfound specified in the following table\\nThese were recently students in the Institntiai.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0863.jp2"}, "862": {"fulltext": "860 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nTime devoted in the course of the Week to each subject of Instruction.\\nH. M.\\nScriptural knowledge g q\\nEvidences of Cliristianity .-IQ\\nChurch History ------120\\nEnglish Grammar -----------3 30\\nEnglish History 10\\nEnglish literature (including themes and writing from memory, c.) 2 40\\nEducational essays, together with lectures, reading, and praxes on National\\nSchool teaching ----.-.-.--ioq\\nArithmetic 5 iq\\nAlgebra -------------XO\\nEuclid 10\\nMensuration ------lo\\nNatural and Experimental Philosophy -------0 40\\nLecture (subject not prescribed) ...-...-iq\\nWriting 140\\nGeography ..-..-.--..-20\\nVocal Music --..-----.-.30\\nLinear Drawing --.-..20\\nPreparation for lessons 4 30\\nLeisure 15\\nDuring the last six months of the residence of each student, he practices\\nthe art of teaching in tlie luodel-school a week at a time being set apart\\nfor tliat occupation, according to a cycle prepared by the Principal, which\\nbrings back the teaching week of each, with an interval of about three\\nweeks during the first quarter, and oftener if necessary during the last.\\nThe Institution provides all the books used by the students, whose price\\nexceeds 3s, and the students contribute each 2s quarterly towards the\\npurchase of them.\\nOn one of the days of my inspection, in the month of May, I found the\\nstudents thus employed\\n7 were engaged in carpentry.\\n5 cabinet-making.\\n2 brass-working and soldering.\\n*8 book-binding\\n2 painting.\\n2 graining.\\n2 turning in wood.\\n2 in metal.\\n1 stone-cutting.\\n4 lithographing.\\n2 filing and chipping.\\n2 practical chemistry.\\n2 varnishing and map-mounting.\\n2 lithographioal drawing.\\n15 gardening, excavating, and transporting earth.\\nAll the rough ground about the building has been levelled and brought\\ninto cultivation by them the principal class-rooms painted in imitation of\\noak and excellently grained they have made several articles of furniture\\nand various school apparatus and many of tlte books in the school have\\nbeen bound by them.\\nIt is not, however, with reference to the pecuniary value of the labors\\nof the students that the Principal attaclies importance to them, but with a\\nview to their healthful character and their moral influence. They pursue\\ntheir studies with the more energy, habits of indolence not having been\\nallowed to grow upon them in their hours of relaxation, and their bodies\\nbeing invigorated by moderate exercise and, inactivity being banished\\nfrom the Institution, a thousand evils engendered of it are held in abeyance.\\nAYhen first admitted, they do not understand why bodily labor is required\\nof them, and are desirous to devote all their time to reading; they soon,\\nhowever, acquiesce, and take a pleasure in it.\\nBy employing each student as far as possible in the pursuit to which he\\nAll the students learn book-binding.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0864.jp2"}, "863": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. 861\\nhas been accustomed, his active co-operation is assured, because it is easy\\nto him, and there is a pleasure associated with tlie exercise df his skill in\\nit and he becomes, moreover, in respect to tliis pursuit, an instructor to\\notliers in this way, not less than by the marketable value of the results\\nof his labor, contributing to the welfare of the Institution.\\nThe industrial occupations of the students receive the constant and\\nactive supervision of the Principal. He takes a lively interest in the\\nlabors of each points out the scientific bearings of the craft he is exer-\\ncising, sometimes suggests to him an improved manipulation of it, and\\ncombines and directs the whole to proper objects and to useful results.\\nAt the time of my second visit he had thus concentrated all the mechanical\\npower of the Institution on the labors of the chapel.\\n.J. Nothing could be more lively and interesting than the scene presented\\nBy the grounds and workshops during the intervals of study. In one place\\nthe foundations of the structure were being dug out in another the stone\\nwas quarried. In the workshops I found carpenters, turners, carvers in\\noak, and blacksmiths, plying their several trades and, in a shed, a group\\nof stone-cutters carving with great success, the arch-mouldings, mullions,\\nand lights of a decorated window, under the direction of one of their\\nnumber, to whom they were indebted for their knowledge of the art. A\\nlively co-operation and a cheerful activity were everywhere apparent, and\\nan object was obviously in the view of all, which ennobled their toil.\\nThe expense of medical attendance is provided for, by the students them-\\nselves, who have a sick-club, to which each contributes 2s 6d every half-\\nyear. This payment is found sufficient, very little sickness having pre-\\nvailed.\\nThe students wear a collegiate dress, consisting of a cap and gown like\\nthose worn in the Universities. It is the object of this regulation to pre-\\nserve a uniformity of appearance amongst them whilst they are within\\nthe bounds of the Institution, and to distinguish them when without.\\nThe administration of the entire household department is intrusted to\\nthe steward, who provides the food and washing of the students, the board\\nand wages of domestic servants, the house-linen, knives and forks, earthen-\\nware, kitchen utensils, c., at a fixed charge in respect to each student, de-\\npendent for its amount on the number in residence. The Principal does\\nnot otherwise interfere with his department than in the exercise of an\\nactive and a constant supervision over it.\\nA dietary has been prescribed, but it has been found wholly unnecessary\\nto enforce it. An entire separation between the rooms occupied by the\\nstudents and the household department has been carefully provided for in\\nthe construction of the building, and is strictly and effectually enforced.\\nThe Principal is charged with the administration of the discipline. It\\nis enforced by impositions consequent on a breach of the rules.* The\\npower of suspension rests with the Principal; of expulsion with the Com-\\nmittee of Management.\\nA permanent record of all punishments is kept in a book provided for\\nthat purpose by the Scholar.\\nThe students who have left the Institution are accustomed to corres-\\npond with the Principal, and are invited at Christmas to dine with him.\\nHe is desirous, if it were practicable, to pay an annual visit to them.\\nInquiries are moreover made officially by the honorary secretary, from\\ntime to time, as to the way in which their duties are discharged, and the\\nwelfare of their schools.\\nThe following may be taken as an example of these impositions. Five lines are required to\\nbe written out for every miraite that a student is late in the morning. No imposition had been\\nenforced, exeept fbr this offence, between Cluistaiaa, 1843, a,nd the period of my iiispoction iu\\nMay, 1844.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0865.jp2"}, "864": {"fulltext": "862\\nCHESTER DIOCESAN TitAINING COLLEGE.\\nCommercial and Agricultural School.\\nThe system of education in the commercial and agricultural school com\\nprises the following subjects\\nEnglish Composition.\\nWriting and Arithmetic.\\nBook-keeping.\\nMensuration.\\nSurveying and Engineering.\\nAncient and Modern History.\\nGeography, Drawing and Music.\\nThe Elements of Natural Philosophy.\\nChemistry as applied to Agriculture, Horticnl-\\nture, and the Arts.\\nLatin and Greek.\\nFrench and German.\\nThe terms, including board, lodging, and education, are, for pupils\\nabove 12 years of age, \u00c2\u00a335 per annum; for pupils under 12 years of age,\\n\u00c2\u00a330 per annum. There are no extra charges. An entrance fee of \u00c2\u00a31 is\\nrequired, and appropriated to the library and museum.\\nPupils are admitted to the commercial school between the ages of 8\\nand 15 years.\\nThe utmost attention is paid to their health and comfort, the domestic\\narrangements being under the superintendence of an experienced matron.\\nEach has a separate room and bed. There are two vacations in the year;\\nthat in the sununer for five weeks, that in the winter for four weeks.\\n3Iodel School.\\nThe appointment of Master of the model-school, is filled up from among\\nthe best qualified of the students of the College. He resides within the\\nwalls of the Institution, but is not charged with any other duties than those\\nconnected with his scliool. He is assisted in the instruction of the children\\nby the students who are in the last six months of their residence (according\\nto a scheme adverted to in a preceding part of this Report), and by\\nmonitors.\\nThe children come, for the most part, from the neighboring city, their\\nparents being commonly laborers of a superior class, or small shopkeepers.\\nHaving been present on one of the days of admission, which come round\\nmonthly, I can bear testimony to the earnest desire shown by the parents\\nto secure for their children the superior instruction offered by the school.\\nThere were, at that time, between 20 and 30 applicants more than could\\nbe admitted, and the names of many of these had already been for some\\nmonths on the list of candidates.\\nThe following are the rules of the school. The scale of payment will be\\nremarked as a novel feature in them. It has been framed in the hope of\\nkeeping the children longer at school, by offering the premium of a reduc-\\ntion of the fee dependent upon the child s standing, and has been found to\\nwork well.\\nRules of Model National School in the Training College^ Chester.\\nIf these Rules are not obeyed, the Master cannot allow Children to remain at the School.\\n1 Boys who are above seven years of age and of good health may be\\nbrought to the school.\\n2. Each boy must be zn the school at nine o clock in the morning, and\\nat two o clock in the afternoon, unless otherwise ordered by the Master.\\n3. The children themselves, and their clothes, must be quite clean, their\\nhair cut short, and in every way they must be as neat as the parents or\\nfriends can make them.\\n4. The 20 boys who have been longest in the school are free.\\nThe next 20 boys who have been longest in the\\nschool must each pay Id per week.\\nThe third 20 boys who have been longest in the\\nschool must each pay 2d\\nAnd the rest of the children 3d", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0866.jp2"}, "865": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\n863\\n5. On each Monday morning the pence for that week are to be brought,\\nwhether the child be at school or not.\\n6. Books, slates, paper, pens, ink, and pencils, c., are found for the\\nchildren without cost to the parents.\\n7. Any injury which may be done to books, c., by a child, must be made\\ngood by his parents or friends.\\n8. If a boy be wanted at home, the master s leave must be asked before-\\nhand by a parent or grown-up friend.\\n9. When children are late, or absent without the master s leave, a note\\nwill be sent requiring a parent or grown-up friend to come to the school to\\ntell why the child was late or absent and if it should ever be the case\\nthat, at dilfereut times during one half-year, three such notes have been\\nsent about the same boy, he will on the next like offence be subject to\\ndegradation on the payment list, or dismissal from the school.\\n10. Care will be taken that children are not ill-treated while in school.\\nShould there be any just ground of complaint, the parent must speak to\\nthe Principal of the College, without going to the school-room.\\n11. Since more is required than the labors of a schoolmaster in school,\\nin order that children may be virtuously brought up to lead a godly and\\na Christian life, the parents or friends are desired, as they love the\\nwelfare of their children, to promote their education in every possible\\nmanner, confirming at home, both by precept and example, those lessons\\nof piety and morality, order and industry, the teaching of which are main\\nobjects of this Institution.\\nIn bringing under your Lordship s notice the conclusions to which I\\nhave been led by my inspection of this Institution, I cannot disguise from\\nmyself that, placed as it is in the immediate neighborhood of the vast\\npopulation of Manchester and Liverpool, and destined to provide for the\\neducational wants of a diocese, including within its limits the greatest\\nmanufacturing districts of the kingdom districts than which no others are\\nmore remarkable for a dearth of elementary education,* and for the evils\\nengendered of popular ignorance it yields to no other similar institution\\nin interest or importance. Neither does it yield to any other in the ad-\\nThe foUowing is an abstract of the statistical returns made by the deaneries of the diocese of\\nChester to the Diocesan Board of Education and published in its Report for 1842\\nProportion\\nProportion\\nNumber of\\nper Cent, to\\nper Cent, to\\nChildren for\\nNumber of\\nthe Population\\nthe Popula-\\nBOARD.\\nPopulation.\\nwhom accom-\\nChildren in\\nof those for\\ntion of those\\nmodation is\\nAttendance.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0whom accom-\\nin Daily\\nprovided.\\nmodation is\\nprovided.\\nAttendance.\\nChester\\n90,341\\n15.178\\n4.3UIJ\\n16*\\ni^\\nNantwich\\n.34,237\\n4.559\\n\\\\..\\\\-M\\n13i\\n3i\\nMacclesfield\\n134,70-2\\n15,987\\n3.350\\n9i\\nn\\nMiddlewich\\n44,962\\n6,844\\n1..5.56\\n15\\n3i\\nFrodsham\\n73,tf. 59\\n9,597\\n2.957\\n12J\\n4\\nManchester\\ni5. 50.17s\\n51.311\\n10 043\\n9i\\nU\\nBolton\\n149,10-^\\n15.-47\\n2.695\\nlOf\\nIf\\nLiverpool\\n266.13.5\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0i\\\\Mi\\n10.22S\\n8i\\n^t\\nWigau\\n141,85s\\n]-^.-224\\n4.147\\n12J\\n2}\\nPreston\\n72.668\\n15..517\\n3.813\\n21 i\\n5i\\nLancaster\\n34,033\\n6,657\\n1,.5S1\\n19J\\n4|\\nBlackburn\\n156,793\\n25,125\\n4.140\\nm\\n21\\nChorley\\n56.815\\n8,345\\n1,759\\n14i\\n3\\nUlverston\\n2.5,760\\n5,207\\n1,621\\n20J\\n6*\\nWhitehaven\\n18,808\\n6,890\\n1,718\\n361\\n9*\\nKendal\\n33,833\\n7,149\\n236,475\\n1,581\\n2U\\n4}\\nWhole Diocese.\\n1,884,082\\n56,609\\n12i\\n3", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0867.jp2"}, "866": {"fulltext": "g04 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nvantages of its situation, the imposing character and the magnitude of its\\nstructure, and the scale of its operaiions. It is the only building which\\nhas yet been erected expressly for the purposes of a training college, and in\\nthe adaptation of its plan internally for the uses of such a structure, not\\nless than in the appropriate character of its external architecture, it may\\nserve as a model for every other.\\nThe direct influence of the College on the education of the district, is\\nthat -which it exercises through the schoolmasters whom it sends out.\\nWhat this influence is likely to become, may be judged of from the fact\\nthat, of the 37 masters who had been so sent out up to February 1844, it\\nhas been ascertained in respect to 30, that the number of children in\\nattendance upon their schools had increased in 13 months from 1428 to\\n2469 so that if every schoolmaster in the diocese could be replaced by\\none from this college, the number of children under instruction in it, would\\naccording to this rate of increase, double itself inlitlle more than a year.\\nThe Bishop of Chester, who takes a deep interest in the success of the\\nCollege, and extends to it a paternal care, thus speaks of it in his charge\\nto the clergy of the diocese, at the triennial visitation of 1844\\nIt may be objected, that education is no new thing that National\\nschools have existed for a whole generation and that we have no right\\nto look for a result in future which has not been produced already.\\nWe have learnt, however, from past experience, that .schools may exist,\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with very little of real education: very little of that culture which brings\\nthe mind into a new state, and prepares it for impressions of good which\\nmay be strong enough to resist temptation, and maintain a course of\\nrighteousness, sobriety, and godliness. That our schools have been useful\\nas far as they have hitherto proceeded, it would be unreasonable to doubt\\nthat they are capable of becoming far more useful, it is impossible to deny.\\nI believe that we have taken the right step, in applying ourselves to tlie\\neducation of masters as preparatory to the education of children. And I\\nlook to the Training College, now happily established at Chester, and able\\nto send forth its 30 masters annually, to supply the schools now building,\\nand demanded by our increasing population, as one of the bright stars in\\nour present prospect one of the premises on which I found my hopeful\\ncalculations, for the people themselves readily appreciate the nature of the\\neducation offered them. After all, their indifference to education has hither-\\nto been the chief cause of their want of education. Many of our national\\nschools have languished for lack of scholars, in the midst of an illiterate\\npopulation. When once it is perceived that schools are really telling upon\\nthe habits of the scholars\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that the children through the effect of moral\\ndiscipline are becoming orderly, obedient, and intelligent the school fills\\nas naturally as water rises in the channel when the spring receives a fresh\\nsupply. The 30 ma.sters who first left our Training College found in their\\nrespective schools an aggregate of 1400 scholars. By the close of the first\\nyear the 1400 had swelled to 2400.\\nIt is not only by means of the schoolma-sters educated within its walla\\nthat the Training College exercises an influence on the surrounding dia-\\ntrict, but indirectly also, by the interest which it adds to the subject of\\neducation among the clergy of the diocese by the educational topics which\\ncome through its means under their discussion and the new methods of\\ninstruction which it brings to their knowledge. The imposing character of\\nits structure, ahso the commanding scale of its operations, and the sanc-\\ntion which the Bishop of the diocese lends to it, are not probably without\\ntheir influence upon the springs of public opinion, or their practical bear*\\ning upon the interests of elementary education tending as they do to raise\\nthe character of the educator iu the estimation not less of the lower than", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0868.jp2"}, "867": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. 865\\nof the upper classes of society, and to awaken the public sympathies in his\\nbehalf.\\nNothing is more remarkable than the order and decorum which pervades\\nthe College, not less daring the hours of relaxation than those of study.\\nA duty appears to be prescribed for every moment, and every moment to\\nfind its active and useful employment.\\nEntire silence prevails throughout the building during the hours of study\\nthe industrial pursuits of the students are characterized by the most per-\\nfect decorum a routine is prescribed which regulates the order in which\\nthey assemble at prayers, and retire noiselessly to rest. All bespeaks a\\nsystem rigidly enforced, and a high state of discipline.\\nIn a preceding part of this Report, 1 have spoken of the class of society\\nfrom which the students are for the most part taken, and the circumstances\\nunder which they are supported in the Institution. From the laborious\\ncharacter of an elementary schoolmaster s life and its privations, it is im-\\nprobable that many persons would seek it, whose friends were in a position\\nto pay for them an annual premium of \u00c2\u00a325, unless for some reason or\\nother, they be disqualified for pursuing with success other avocations in\\nlife.\\nIn so far as the self-supporting character which is sought for this Insti\\ntution, and lor others of the same class, is realized by the contributions of\\nthe relatives of the students themselves its tendency is, therefore, to lowei\\nthe general standard of ability and qualification for the office of school-\\nmaster; afibrding facilities for introducing to that office persons unsuited to\\nthe discharge of its duties. For it is to be borne in mind, that precisely\\nthose qualities of mental and bodily activity, judgment, enterprise, and per\\nseverance, which lead to advancement in every other pursuit in life, are\\nnecessary to the elementary schoolmaster, and that the man is disqualified\\nfor that office wlio is unfit for any other.\\nIn recording my impression of the actual attainments of the students at\\nthe period of inspection. I must in the first place bear testimony to a re-\\nmarkable disparity apparent not less in their acquired knowledge, than in\\ntheir natural abilities and adaptation of character and manners to the office\\nthey seek a disparity which dates from the period of their admission. I\\nhave found amongst them men of powerful understanding and (speaking\\nrelatively) of cultivated minds and others whose limited attainments,\\nmade under circumstances of extraordinary difficulty and discouragement,\\nhave borne testimony to much natural intelligence, a persevering charactcfj\\nand formed habits of study.* There are, however, others who appear\\nscarcely to possess the ability or the industry requisite to supply as to the\\ncommonest elements of knowledge the deficiencies of a neglected educa-\\ntion. It is too much to expect of the Institution, that, in the short period\\nof their residence, itf should give to the latter class that aptj intelligence,\\nI find the following recorded among my notes of a private interview with one of the students\\nof the College. I insert it here in illustration of the above remark\\nwas a cotton \u00c2\u00bbpinner is an intelligent person possesses great Scriptural know-\\nledge, much general information in literature, and some acquaintance with algebra and geometry.\\nTaught himself these things while spinning having a book fixed up and reading in the interval\\nof the return of the jenny. Afterwards he availed himself of the mutual instruction classes\\nestablished at tlie place of his residence by the clergymen. He came to the Institution at his own\\nexpense for tiie first three quarters his maintenance for three other quarters was provided by\\nsubscription. Exhibitions covering the whole e.xpenses of residence in the College, and thrown,\\nin some degree, open to competition, would probably secure for the interests of education many\\nmen of a similar character.\\nt The meantime of the residence of a student appears to be about one year and a half.\\nt In no respect are the deficiencies of these young men more apparent on their first entrance to\\nthe Institution than in the lack of a ready intelligence of those common elements of knowledge\\nwhich are placed before them in their simplest forms. They seem to have little or no power of\\nclosely applying their thouguts, or of fixed attention and it is long before they aie in a state to\\nprofit by study, or by oral instruction. Their first effort is to shake off this sluggish habit of\\n65", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0869.jp2"}, "868": {"fulltext": "866 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nthat power of exposition, and those resources of method and simplification\\nwhich unite to form the accomplished educator. It is enough that it bring\\nthese men up to the standard of the existing masters of National schools\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nthat it should raise them above it is not to be hoped.\\nWhilst the addition of men of this class to the number of elementary\\nschoolmasters is not the legitimate function of a training institution, and\\ncan contribute nothing to the .interests of that cause which it is established\\nto promote, it cannot fail to disappoint the hopes of tliese persons them-\\nselves. The standard of elementary education is rising so rapidly, and the\\nnumber of efficient educators so fast increasing, that already those of infe-\\nrior skill, find great difficulty in obtaining employment.\\nTheir knowledge of geography includes many of the simpler elements of\\nthat science known as physical geography, which treats of the general con-\\nformation of the earth s surface in connexion with tiie climates of different\\nregions, their vegetable and animal productions, and the races of men who\\ninhabit them. Viewed in this light, geography is a science which may, in\\nthe hands of a skilful instructor, be made the vehicle of much general\\nknowledge of that kind which is most likely to awaken in the minds of\\nchildren a curiosity to know more, and cultivate a habit of self-instruction\\nand he will not fail to avail himself of it, to bring the resources of his\\nlending library to the aid of his lessons, and thus to establish in the child s\\nmind a link between the mechanical ability to read and a pleasure deriv-\\nable from reading.\\nIt is a novel feature of the Institution that it includes natural history in\\nits course of instruction. I look forward with great interest to the pro-\\ngress of this branch of knowledge, than which none is more humanizing in\\nits influence upon the mind, or more healthful in the pursuit. The scene\\nof a village-schoolmaster s life appears well adapted for the study of it,\\nand followed, as it were, in the constant and manifest presence of Divine\\nwisdom and goodness, it is eminently of a devotional tendency. It is to the\\nable and well-directed labors of the Vice-Principal that the Institution\\nowes those two characteristic and distinguished features of its course of\\ninstruction to which I have last adverted.\\nThe science of mechanics is taught with much care, and particularly\\nthat simple form of it which treats of the work of mechanical agents. It\\nhas been introduced successfully into their schools by some of the students\\nwho have left the College. By a manufacturing population it cannot fail\\nto be appreciated, admitting as it does of a useful application to their daily\\npursuits, and possessing a marketable value. It is a characteristic of ele-\\nmentary education such as this, that being allied to that which is to form\\nthe future occupation of the life of the child, it will not be cast away with\\nhis school-books, but when he becomes a man will be suggested again to\\nhis mind by things constantly occurring under his observation. Some scat-\\ntered rays of knowledge being thus made to fall on the scene of his daily\\ntoil, his craft will assume something of the character of a science, and he\\nwill rise in the scale of intelligent beings by the mechanical exercise of his\\ncalling.\\nLike St. Mark s College, the Chester Diocesan Training College has\\ngrown up under the hands of its Principal. It has been framed from its\\ncommencement upon his views, and has received in many respects an im-\\npression from his character. This Report would be incomplete did it not\\nbear testimony to his many and admirable qualifications for the office in-\\nmind and much of tKe valuable time allotted to them in the Institution is often expended before\\nthat effort is successful. Thus their progress during the latter part of their career is far greater\\nthan at first, and they sometimes leave when the real education of their minds is but just\\nbeginning.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0870.jp2"}, "869": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. ggiy\\ntrusted to him and I cannot but look upon it as an event of no little im-\\nportance to the interests of education, that his services have been secured\\nin its cause.\\nThe following passages are taken from the Report of Mr. Mosely, for 1845\\nAccording to the census of 1841, the diocese of Chester contained, in\\nthat year, in the counties of Chester and Lancaster, a population of 2,062,-\\n364, of which number 236,126 were males, and 234,929 females, between\\nthe ages of 5 and 15, or 3 and 13, that is of an age to go to school.\\nAdmitting that each adult teacher is capable of instructing 60 children,\\n7,850 such teachers would be required for the instruction of the children of\\nthese two counties. In which number\u00e2\u0080\u0094 supposing none of them to be less\\nthan 25 years of age, and to become incapacitated for their duties at 65\\n117 will die annually, and 105 w^ill be superannuated. So that from these\\ntwo causes 222 vacancies will occur annually.\\nAssuming that 7 per cent, of this number are private teachers, there\\nAvill remain 206 vacancies to be provided for among the teachers of public\\nelementary schools, i. e., 103 masters, and the same number of mistresses.\\nMy experience in the iitspection of training colleges leads me to the\\nconclusion that the persons who seek them are not generally possessed of\\nsuch previous instruction as would render a period of less than two years\\nadequate to qualify them for the office of the elementary schoolmaster.\\nThe training schools for masters in this diocese alone should, therefore,\\nwith reference to a really efficient state of the elementary education of the\\ncountry, give instruction constantly to 206 students.\\nThe present number of students in the Chester Diocesan College, is 40.\\nIt aflbrds accommodation for 100. The part of it otherwise unoccupied,\\ngiving space to a commercial school, which at present consists of 30 boys.\\nThe task of instructing the senior students devolves entirely upon the\\nPrincipal and the Vice-principal they are, however, assisted in their\\nlabors in the commercial and model schools by two of the students, whose\\ncourse of instruction has been completed. This constitutes the entire staff\\nof officers.\\nThe fee for admission is 25^ annually; 16 exhibitions of 12^ 10s. each,\\nhowever, reduce the fee, in respect to the like number of students, by one-half.\\nSeven hours a day are devoted to study in the class-rooms, If hours to\\nindustrial pursuits, 2^ hours in winter, and 4 in summer, to private study\\nand exercise.\\nThe subjects of instruction, include Religious knowledge, English litera-\\nture. Science, and the Art of teaching. Ten hours and one-third in each\\nweek, are devoted to the first, 21 hours to the second, 9 hours to the third,\\nand 12 hours to the fourth, The students occupy 4^ hours in the prepa-^\\nration of lessons, and they have, every week, 15 hours leisure.\\nThe rest of their time is given to industrial occupations. These constir\\ntute an integral part of the course of instruction, received as systematically\\nas any other, and under a greater variety of forms, and with more success\\nthan in any similar institution with wiiich I am acquainted.\\nNothing can be more animated and interesting than the scene which\\npresents itself to the stranger who visits the institution during the hours\\nwhen these occupations are going on.\\nEvery student is seen plying some useful handicraft -either that which\\nwas the means of his previous livelihood, or one taken up since he has\\nbeen in the institution and w^herever the eye rests, some new form of\\nuseful instruction in the mechanical arts suggests itself to the mind.*\\nOn the day of my inspection I found the students thus distributed There were 5 carpenters,\\n2 turners in wood, 4 in iron, 2 painters, 2 blacksmiths, 3 glass-stainers, 4 lithographers, 3 carvers.\\n6 bookbinders, 2 students were varnishing maps, 1 was working a circular saw, 6 were oocupied\\nin excavating and transport of earth, and there was 1 gardener.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0871.jp2"}, "870": {"fulltext": "868 CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nThere can te no doubt of the admirable adaptation of a system iiKe\\nthis to the education of masters for Industrial Schools and the question\\nhow far it may be practicable and expedient to maintain such schools is\\npressed more and more, every day, upon the attention of tlie friends of the\\nlaboring classes, by the encroachments which labor is making upon that\\npart of a poor child s life, which has hitherto been left for its education.\\nAny plan would be likely to receive the confidence of the poor, combining\\ninstruction in useful learning, with some employment, which, whilst it\\nserved, by a trifling remuneration, to diminish the sacrifice they make in\\nnot sending their children to work, would be an obvious preparation for the\\nlife of labor in reserve for them.\\nIt is not, perhaps, without a show of reason, that they are accustomed\\nto fear, lest by too long a contmuance at school, and by the influence of\\ntoo much book learning, their children should be led to shrink from that\\nself-denial of bodily toil, and should fail of those habits of steady industry,\\nwhich are proper to their state of life. To talk to them of the moral\\nadvantages of instruction, of the elevating and ennobling tendencies of\\nknowledge, of the social virtues which follow in its train, and of its influ-\\nence in the formation of religious character, and. through that character,\\nupon the future and eternal welfare of a responsible being, is to seek to\\nimpress their minds with truths of which, alas, they have no experience.\\nEngaged themselves in a perpetual struggle with the physical dilficulties\\nof existence too often increased by their own improvidence when they\\nlook to the future welfare of their children, they have no other thought\\npresent to their minds than the remuneration of their labor. And, aiLcr\\nall, if we would serve them effectually, and with that view, if we would\\nsecure their active concurrence in our efforts, we must, in some degree,\\nmeet their own views as to what is best for their children, and take them\\nas they are, with all their ignorance, and their prejudices about them.\\nOur success will be the greatest when we do the lea.st violence to these\\nprejudices and they do not debar us from a wide field of labor for their\\nadvantage.\\nIn giving to its students a practical knowledge of the pursuits of the\\nlaboring classes, this institution places them on vantage ground. It helps\\nto fill up that chasm which separates the educated from the uneducated\\nmind, and too often interdicts all sympathy between the school-master and\\nthe parents of the children intrusted to his charge.\\nSo long as the domestic and inner life of the classes below us in the\\nsocial scale the whole world of those thoughts and feelings in which their\\nchildren are interested remain hidden from us, our elforts for their\\nwelfare, devised in ignorance, will, in a great measure, fail of their object.\\nHe who would explore this region close at our doors, and bring back to us\\ntidings of it. would have a tale to tell as strange as of an undiscovered\\ncountry, and far more important.\\nAccording to that tlieory of a school-master which these considerations\\nwould seem to suggest, his education, far from separating the link which\\nunites him to the classes out of which he is taken, should strengthen it.\\nHis sympathies are to be with his own people. He is to take a lively\\ninterest in their pursuits. The scene of their daily toil is to be familiar\\nto him. Those ideas associated with their craft, which include, within\\nsuch narrow limits, the whole of their acquired knowledge and the terms\\nof their art, however technical he is to be conversant with. Then-\\nintelligence is limited to the narrow circle which contains their daily\\nbread. He is to enter that circle. The love of intellectual pursuits, per-\\nhaps never extinguished in the mind of man, loses its vivacity side by side\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0with the pressing wants of animal life. He is to reawaken it. Out of", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0872.jp2"}, "871": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. S69\\nthe friendly relations and generous sympathies which, result from an inter-\\ncourse such as this, he is to build up a superstructure of mutual confidence\\nand good will, and to dedicate the ascendency he thus acquires over the\\nparent, to the welfare of the child. He is to reawaken in the bosom of the\\nlaboring man those natural sympathies which seem under the influence\\nof the manufacturing system to be fast dying away, and to impel him to\\nsacrifices in behalf of his child to impress him with a deep sense of the\\nresponsibility under which he lies in the matter of its spiritual and eternal\\nwelfare, and to direct him as to the best means of promotiong it. It is not\\nin any unreal character that he is thus to appear on his hearth, or with any\\nJesuitical project of circumventing him for the advantage of his child; but\\nsimply that, taken from his own order, he is not to separate the link\\nwhich unites him to that order that, by both parentage and education,\\nassociated witli the laboring classes, he is not to divest himself of those\\nimportant advantages for fulfilling the duties of his mission, which that\\nassociation supplies. With this view, neither in his dress, nor in his man-\\nners, nor in his forms of speech, is he to assume a distinctive or separated\\ncharacter, otherwise than as it regards that greater moral restraint, that\\ngravity of speech, and sobriety of demeanor, which it would become the\\nlaboring man himself to cultivate.\\nThis theory of a school-master is diametrically opposed to that on which\\nthe system of every other training college with which I am acquainted, is\\nfounded. The tendency of every other is elevating. This would repress\\nthose aspirations which are natural to the new condition of his intellectual\\nbeing on which the student has entered, and which are usually associated\\nwith the office he seeks, and it would tether him fast to that state of life\\nfrom which he started.\\nNothing can be more just than that estimate of the moral necessities of\\nthe laboring man, which is its basis. Above all other things, that man\\nwants a friend set free from the influences under which he is himself fast\\nsinking a friend, if it were possible, not divided from him by that wide\\ninterval which a few conventional distinctions are sufficient to interpose\\nto advise him, if not in the matter of his own welfare, in that of his\\nchildren.\\nIt is. however, a theory which in practice would not be without its perils.\\nSo close an appro.ximation to the class below him, would have a tendency\\nto separate the school-master from the class which is above him, that\\nclass in whicli all his better and higher impulses will find their chief stay\\nand Support, and where alone he can, as yet, look for a cordial sympathy.\\nThat ascendency which education gives him over the minds of his ordinary\\nassociates, will tend to foster an independence of spirit inconsistent, perhaps,\\nwith the relation in which he must of necessity stand to the patrons and\\npromoters of his school and above all he will be the less likely to preserve\\nthose intimate and friendly relations with the clergyman, which are not\\nless important to the spiritual welfare of the parish school and the parish,\\nthan to the personal comfort, and the self-respect of the school-master.\\nI have every where found a disposition on the part of the clergy to\\nextend a friendly syiupathy to the labors of the school-master, and I believe\\nthat they very generally rejoice in the opportunity which the superior\\neducation of the training colleges affords to them, of stretching out to him\\nthe right hand of Christian fellowship. Asperity of manners, an inde-\\npendent bearing, and a rude deportment, would repel these kindly feelings.\\nOn the other hand, it may be questioned whether the opinion that the\\nco-operation of the laboring classes in the work of the schoolmaster is to\\nbe gained by a closer approximation to themselves in his modes of thought\\nand his way of life, is founded on correct estimate of the springs of public", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0873.jp2"}, "872": {"fulltext": "870 CHESTER. DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nopinion amongst them, and whether some separation and the interposition of\\na few conventional distinctions do not serve to give weight to his counsels,\\nand enhance the estimate formed of the value of his labors.\\nMy own opinion is that a sincere and earnest interest in the welfare of\\ntheir children, shown by a labor of industry and love, will overpower\\nevery other consideration in the minds of the poor, and that however great\\nmay be the advantage which a close association with them, and an intimate\\nknowledge of their condition, give to the school-master, it will, in general,\\nbe dearly purchased by a conformity with their habits of life and modes of\\nthought and action. It is an intercourse in which, whatever they may gain\\nhe will probably lose.\\nThat state of things in which a breach between the class of elementary\\nschool-masters and the clergy shall have become wide and general, cannot\\nbe contemplated otherwise than with unmingled apprehension. The\\nascendency which education gives to them amongst the uneducated masses\\nministering to their characteristic independence of spirit, their profes-\\nsional pride and their ambition-^niight, in such a case, prove a temptation\\nand a snare too great for them to withstand, and by a slow but irresistible\\nprocess, convert them into active emissaries of misrule.\\nWith reference to the industrial pursuits which have suggested these\\nremarks, it appears to me worthy of consideration whether in this institu-\\ntion they may not have acquired an ascendency which is not without its\\nunfavorable influence on the literary pursuits of the place, and whether\\ntoo large a sacrifice of healthful recreation is not made when, in fine\\nweather, the students pass from their class-rooms into the workshops,\\ninstead of into the open air.\\nOf the whole number of students, I find that 18 spell incorrectly, 12\\nread and 8 write itnperfectfj 10, upon the evidence of the exercises they\\nhave sent in, may be characterized as illiterate; 10 others have afforded\\nin their exercises the evidence of a considerable amount of general literary\\nattainment and mental culture; 20 write beautifully; 9 have acquitted\\nthemselves well in Scriptural knowledge, and the .same number in Church\\nHistory and the Liturgy; 4 in their answers to the questions on the Art of\\nTeaching; 20 in Arithmetic, and some of these admirably 5 in Natural\\nPhilosophy; 18 in Mechanics and Astronomy; 12 in Geography; 9 in\\nEnglish History; 45 in Aigebra.\\nAt my previous examinations I have been struck by the remarkable\\ndisparity which presents itself in this institution as to the general ability\\nand acquired knowledge of the students. I have found among them some\\nof vigorous intellect and of considerable attainments, and others whose\\ndefects of previous education and want of the natural endowments proper\\nto an elementary teacher will not, I fear, be remedied by a residence\\nhowever long continued.\\nIf a sufficient number of candidates presented themselves for admission,\\nto allow a selection from amongst them of those who are really qualified,\\nthis source of embarrassment might be removed. Such a number of can-\\ndidates would, I doubt not, be found, if the obstacle which the fee presents\\nto their admission could be overcome. At Battersea Training College the\\nexpedient has been adopted of lending to an eligible student that portion\\nof his fee which is not covered by an exhibition and the number of such\\nexhibitions has been augmented by subscriptions to a fund specially devoted\\nto that object.\\nIt is, however, in my opinion, worthy of grave consideration whether\\nthe expenditure of the public money for educational purposes would not be\\ngreatly economised by the foundation of Government exhibitions in the\\ntraining colleges.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0874.jp2"}, "873": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. QVl\\nThe office of the school-master does not offer to a man desirous to pro-\\nvide for his children, and in a position to pay an annual fee of 25/., adequate\\nadvantages, either in respect to the remuneration attached to it or its social\\nposition. If, indeed, a shopkeeper, a warehouseman, a small manufacturer,\\nor a farmer well to do in the world, have one child, who, by reason of a\\nfeebleness of character, or of bodily health, or perhaps of intellect, may\\nbe considered unequal to a more active and enterprising career in life, the\\ntraining college will perhaps be sought as an asylum for him. Straitened\\nas are these institutions (especially the Diocesan Colleges) in their resour-\\nces, it is not easy to refuse a candidate who is thus prepared to pay the\\nwhole fee for admission. At the expiration of his course of instruction\\nthe qualifications of a student received under these circumstances, not-\\nwithstanding all the labor which may have been bestowed upon his\\ninstruction, will scarcely be found such as would obtain for him the public\\nconfidence, were it not for the guarantee which his residence in the training\\ncollege has supplied. And so, after all, the public money will have been\\nexpended, and the public sympathies exhausted, not in raising the standard\\nof intelligence in the existing body of school-masters, but at best in bring-\\ning up to the existing standard, men who would not otherwise have\\nreached it.\\nI have brought out this evil, perhaps, beyond its just proportions; but\\nit has been in the hope of fixing your Lordships attention upon it, and\\nwith a view to its remedy. I have reason to know that it is operating in\\nthe training institutions as a great evil, and, I believe, that, if they fail of\\ntheir results and disappoint the public expectation, this will lie at the root\\nof the matter. It would be quite possible, if this fee were dispensed with,\\nthrough the agency of the Inspectors, to fill the training colleges with men\\nin their qualifications for admission very far indeed above the general\\nstandard of those who are now found in them. Were the question, whether\\nfrom such a class of persons a body of efficient educators could be formed,\\nwholly problematical as to its results, having such an object in view, it\\nwould surely be worthy a large expenditure of the public money to bring\\nit to the test of an experiment. But it is not difficult to show that a\\nreally eligible candidate becomes, when admitted a student in our best\\ntraining colleges, by a process in which there are very few instances of\\nfailure, a school-master capable of realizing all that we hope from him.\\nConsidering that the faith of the public in education hangs upon the fruit\\nof these colleges, not less than the success of each individual school-master\\nin the sphere of action particularly assigned to him, it would be folly to\\nmeasure the services of such a man for the public welfare by the 40Z.\\nor 50/. of the public money which may have been expended in edvicating him.\\nMy Report to your Lordships on this institution would not convey to you\\na just impression of it, did it not bear testimony to the very arduous char-\\nacter of the labors of the two gentlemen the Principal and the Vice-\\nPrincipal on whom the entire management of it devolves. Besides that\\ngeneral supervision which the Principal exercises over it in all its depart-\\nments, its whole correspondence is intrusted to him, and he takes an active\\npart in the teaching of the students, not only during the hours devoted to\\nstudy, but whilst they are engaged in their industrial occupations. If to\\nthese, his ordinary labors, be added those with which for the last two years\\nhe has been charged in superintending the building operations which have\\nbeen going on at the model school-room and the chapel, it will, I think, be\\nfelt that claims are made upon his services which are incompatible with\\nhis own health and with the best interests of the institution.\\nThe Model School. The second week of my inspection I devoted to an\\nexamination of the model school.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0875.jp2"}, "874": {"fulltext": "872\\nCHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE.\\nOne hundred and sixty-three hoys were present on the day of my exam-\\nination. These children, like those of every other model school which I\\nhave visited, appear to belong to a grade in society removed a little above\\nthat from which the children who usually attend National Schools are\\ndrawn. They attend with remarkable regularity, the average nuniher of\\nabsentees during a period of six months, except by reason of sickness or\\nwith leave, being only one daily.\\nI have appended in this Report* a statement on this subject, which I\\nhave read with great interest.\\nThe school is held in high and well deserved estimation by the parents,\\nand it is obvious that under the influence of that estimation, they are\\nprepared to make those sacrifices of the occasional services of their chil-\\ndren, lest they should lose their learning, which in other schools they will\\nnot make. The irregularity of the attendance of the children of National\\nSchools, I find to be every where alleged as an obstacle fatal to all the\\nhopes of education. Here that obstacle is removed.\\nI have appended to this Report a copy of the note which is addressed to\\nthe parents of a child absent without leave. This note forms one part of\\nthe page of a book, resembling a cheque book, from which it is torn a\\nrecord of the notice being preserved on the other part. The arrangement\\nis exceedingly convenient in practice, and might be introduced generally\\nin National Schools with advantage.!\\nThe discipline is admirable, it is maintained apparently with great ease,\\nand affords the evidence of a subordination, influenced by moral causes,\\nMODEL SCHOOL.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ATTENDANCE.\\nFrom January 13th to June 26th. (A. D. 1845.)\\nPresent.\\nSick.\\nLeave.\\n508\\n4\\nLate.\\nAbsent.\\n197\\n1\\nTotal.\\nTotal\\nDaily Average\\n14,532\\n126\\n884\\n7\\n58\\n16,011\\n139\\nFrom July 2Slh to November 7th.\\nTotal\\nDaily Average\\n10.214\\n139\\n297\\n4\\n479\\n6\\n27 1 127\\n11,141\\n150\\nFrom 2nd May, 1845, to 26th August, 1845 84 School days during this time there -were 151\\nNotes sent for boys being late 38, and absent 113\\nExcuses for being\\nLate Domestic arrangements bad, 20. Errands, 10. Idlers, 8.\\nAbsent Wanted by parents, 50. At home, no reason given, 9. Sick, 25 ^No shoes, 4.^\\nTruants, 3. Domestic arrangements bad, 3. Miscellaneous, 11. Left, 8.\\nind J\\nrofboy )-\u00c2\u00abS\\nt No. Chester,\\nName and\\nntunber of boy S\\nLast day for answer\\nNo. of boy sent\\nWhen answered.\\nRsasons f^ven\\n184\\nNo.\\nChester,\\n184\\nhas been lat\u00c2\u00ab\\nor absent this morning, or this afternoon, without leave,\\nfrom the National School in the Training College.\\nRULE.\\nA parent or grown-np friend must come, or send a\\nnote, to the School, to tell why the boy was late or ab-\\nsent, on or before next, or we shall con-\\nsider that he has left the school.\\nMuiTSS.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0876.jp2"}, "875": {"fulltext": "CHESTER DIOCESAN TRAINING COLLEGE. \u00c2\u00a773\\nand cheerfully yielded. So far as this is apparent in the order and regu-\\nlarity of the school, it is greatly promoted by the school songs which\\naccompany all the clianges of the classes, and which the children sing as\\nthey assemble and when they leave.\\nThe singing is tlie more remarkable, as its character is maintained ap-\\nparently with very little etfort, and the sacrifice of very little time.\\nAccustomed to oral instruction on the gallery, the children exhibit great\\npower of attention, much quickness of apprehension, and greater resources\\nof language tlian I am accustom.ed to find in schools of this class. They\\nappear to be interested in what they are taoght, to appreciate the value of\\nlearning, and to take a pleasure in it. That listlessness of manner and\\ndreaminess so intimately associated in the mind of an inspector with the\\naspect of an elementary school, had certainly no place here on the days of\\nmy inspection. The children not less than their teachers, seemed to be in\\nearnest in the business of the school, and the fervor and vivacity apparent\\non the one part, is at least commensurate with the zeal and ability exhibi-\\nted on the other.\\nSo far as this school, taught exclusively by the stvidents of the college,\\nmay be taken as affoi ding direct evidence of the skill they attain in the\\nart of teaching, no other than a favorable estimate can be formed of it.\\nThe notes in which I have recorded the impressions which I derived from\\nthe opportunity afforded me of being present at a lesson delivered by each\\nstudent, do not however bear an unqualified testimony to this fact.\\nAmongst them were some excellent teachers, earnest, vigorous, well\\ninstructed, and efficient, but there were others, wanting not only in the pe-\\nculiar and professional qualifications of a teacher, but themselves very\\nimperfectly educated. If I might be allowed a general criticism, it would\\nbe that the students whom I saw teach were not acquainted to the extent\\nthat might have been expected with the best methods of simplifying the\\nprimary elements of instruction. I doubt whether these had ever been\\nmade the subject of study with them. There was no evidence of any in-\\ndependent power to present the knowledge they themselves possessed under\\nthat form in which it is best adapted to the intelligence of children, or of\\nany systematic instruction directed to that object, or indeed of any due\\nappreciation of its importance to the success of elementary instruction.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0877.jp2"}, "876": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0878.jp2"}, "877": {"fulltext": "NORMAL SCHOOLS\\nFOR THE\\nTRAINING OF FEMALE TEACHERS IN ENGLAND.\\nBesides the Normal School of the Home and Colonial Infant and\\nJuvenile School Society already described, which is mainly devoted to\\nthe training of female teachers for a class of schools for which females\\nare pre-eminently fitted by nature, there was established, in 1842, at\\nWhiteland, Chelsea, by the National Society, an Institution for the\\nTraining of Schoolmistresses. Since its establishment 93 pupils have\\nbeen sent out as teachers, of which number 82 were in charge of schools\\nin 1848. It has already been instrumental, in the opinion of Her Majesty s\\nInspector of Schools, Rev. F. Watkins, in rearing the standard of attain-\\nments of the schoolmistresses, and elevating their social position. The\\ncourse of instruction, as presented in his Report to the Committee of\\nCouncil on Education for 1848, extends through two years, but does not\\nembrace any peculiar features as to subjects or methods, except as to\\nthe industrial employment of the pupils. In the printed Regulations for\\nthe admission of pupils, it is said:\\nTheir attention will not be coniined to the studies of the school-room.\\nWhatever skill or knowledge may be of use in a poor man s family, either\\nto increase the comlbrts of his fireside, to assist in bringing up his children,\\nor to prepare his daughters to gain, in whatever capacity, a respectable\\nlivelihood, this will be diligently imparted. For this purpose they are care-\\nfully instructed in the art of plain needlework, knitting, marking, darning, c.\\nTo give them practice and experience in this department, they are expected to\\ncut out and make up the various articles of clothing secured to the poor chil-\\ndren of the schools by their clothing clubs. The pupils are also required to cut\\nout and make up their own clothes, as well as to undertake all other plain nee-\\ndlework which may be sent to the Institution. The teachers are practiced in\\nthe art of setting needlework for children, by preparing the work for the differ-\\nent classes in the school. The pupils have also been in the habit of making\\nthemselves useful in the laundry.\\nThe Inspector makes the following remarks on the previous education\\nof some of the pupil teachers of the institution.\\nIt must be said, that some of them are exceedingly ignorant, being unable\\nto work the four simple rules of arithmetic correctly, possessing little knowl-\\nedge either of the Old or New Testament, altogether unskilled in geography,\\ngrammar, or English history, and utterly unable to spell words of the most com-\\nmon occurrence. It is hardly necessary to say, that this state of ignorance is\\nnot owing to any want of sufficient instruction ih the training school, but to the\\ndeplorable neglect of sound elementary education in the families of those who\\nare raised a little above the poorest class. It is from these families that the\\nmajority, I am told, of the young women in training are drawn. They have\\nbeen educated, (if it be not misusing the term,) at private boarding-schools.\\nA little external dressing has been given to them, but rarely any internal cul-\\nture. They have been taught some fancy needlework, and to write in a run-\\nning hand; they can read fluently, but not with expression they have learned\\nby heart passages of Holy Scripture, a few hymns, and other pieces of poetry,\\nput have seldom been directed to their meaning. On such material it is diffi-", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0879.jp2"}, "878": {"fulltext": "876 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN ENGLAND.\\ncult for the most skillful teacher of a training school to work with any effect\\nShe must carefully pull down before she begin to build up any structure on\\nsuch an unsteady foundation; she must, indeed, lay a new foundation on dif\\nferent principles, and with a careful hand. It is, therefore, hardly fair to expect\\ngreat results from the examination of pupils in the training colleges for mis-\\ntresses, until ihey shall have received a more sound elementary education, and\\na longer period of training than two years shall have been allotted to them.\\nThere exists also at Salisbury a similar seminary, styled the Salis-\\nbury Diocesan Institute for the Training of Schoolmistresses. The\\ninstitution was opened in 1841, and has been since maintained by dona-\\ntions and subscriptions to the amount of about \u00c2\u00a3500 a year, for the pur-\\npose of providing a sufficient supply of well-educated, right-minded, and\\nthoroughly-trained young women for the schools of the diocese. Up to\\n1848, only 58 had left the institution to take schools. The following ex-\\ntract touches a most important point of inquiry before admitting pupils\\nto a Normal School and especially female pupils. In the Eighth Re-\\nport of the Diocesan Board of Education, it is stated\\nSince the beginning of 1846 two of the pupils died, and five have shown\\nsuch symptoms of weak constilutiuns as to give no reasonable hope that they\\ncan ever undeitake the anxious and trying duties of schoolmistresses. The\\nCommittee are very earnest in pressing this point upon the consciences of those\\nwho give or sign certificates with too much facility and they say most truly,\\nthat, though it is not an uncommon opinion that the work of a schoolmistress\\nmay be undertaken by those whose constitution unfits them for other more ac-\\ntive employments, the truth is. that the drain upon the constitution and spirits\\nof a schoolmistress is very great, and none but those whose lungs are quite\\nhealthy, and whose constitution is in all respects good, can discharge its duties\\nwith any comfort, or for any length of time.\\nThe Inspector, in the Report of his visit to the school in 1848, observes\\nIt appears to me, that at present the domestic employments of the pupils,\\nif not too much of a servile, are too little of an instructive, economical charac-\\nter. It is said, and doubtless with great truth, that occasional employment in\\neven such works as scrubbing, cleaning shoes, :c., has a beneficial tendency\\nin correcting faults of vanity, indolence, ;c., and in giving a practical lesson\\nof humility and I should be far from wishing to abolish it. Indeed, I hold\\nit to be of great importance to employ the pupils in works that tend to increase\\ntheir sympathy with the poor. But surely it is of not less importance that\\nyoung women intended for a really liberal profession should have ample oppor-\\ntunities of learning the cost of materials, the best and cheapest modes of pre-\\nparing them, and the comparative expense of various modes of housekeeping;\\nand so of acquiring experience which will be available to them, both in the\\nmanagement of their own affairs, and in conversing with the parents of their\\npupils, who will be glad to consult them if they find them practical guides.\\nWith well-arranged offices, under the superintendence of the mistress or a good\\nassistant, the elder girls might profitably devote some portion of their time to\\nthese matters, and might connect them with their siucfies, both by composing\\nessays on subjects of domestic economy, and by keeping the accounts of the\\nestablishment upon the most approved system.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0880.jp2"}, "879": {"fulltext": "COURSE OF LECTURES ON EDUCATION. 877\\nSyllabus of a Course of Lectures on Education its Principles and\\nPractice, by William Knighton, Professor of the Art of Teaching in\\nTHE WhITELAND TRAINING ScHOOL FOR MiSTRESSES.\\nI. The Principles or Theory of Education.\\nEducation a science and an art a science, inasmuch as it investigates the principles\\nupon which tuition is, or ought to be, conducted an art in affording rules for its con-\\nduct and putting them into practice object of education in its highest and widest sig-\\nnification; tho etymology of the word referred to the human being a religious and\\nmoral, an intellectual, and a physical animal education therefore threefold, of the body,\\nthe mind, and the soul or spirit their relative importance the end of man s existence\\non earth, not his happiness or gratification, but performance of duty this brings with\\nit the truest happiness our duty threefold also. (1 All attempts to form a moral\\nbeing without the aid and influence of religion hitherto unsuccessful history convinces\\nus of this fact warranted in concluding religion and morality inseparable how the re-\\nligious and moral powers are to be cultivated the Bible the rule of faith how the\\nBible, and its auxiliary to the ignorant mind, the Catechism, are to be taught, a ques-\\ntion for practical education. (2.) The intellectual nature of man necessity of its cul-\\ntivation if man is to fill properly the sphere allotted to him on earth; constant necessity\\nfor the exercise of the intellect in the daily affairs of life advantages of its cultiva-\\ntion disadvantages of its neglect different powers of the mind all useful in different\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0ways attention, association of ideas, conception, abstraction, imagination, and reason\\nor judgment, all to be cultivated harmoniously evils of allowing one faculty undivided\\nsway; qualities which constitute a well-regulated mind, a habit of attention, a power\\nof regulating the succession of tlioughts, mental activity, habits of reflection and asso-\\nciation, proper relation of objects of pursuit, government of the imagination, culture,\\nand regulation of the judgment, proper moral feeling. (3.) The physical nature of\\nman; necessity of knowing something of it; evils of neglecting its development;\\nbenefits of health, vigor, and bodily activity to all caution not to make to much of it.\\nII. The Practice of Education.\\n1. The school-room its adaptation to the purposes of education the primary consider-\\nation the infant school-room its gallery, dimensions, construction, and convenient\\ndisposition in the room uses of infant gallery the blackboard or large slate, pictures,\\ncard-stands should books be used in the infant school Yes, but for the highest class\\nonly smaller boards or slates for classes. Juvenile school-room importance ol a gal-\\nlery utility of parallel desks for classes those of the National Society excellent each\\nrow of seats should differ in height; general arrangement of classes to suit the room\\nfor both schools a play-ground necessary its importance in moral training the uncov-\\nered school-room how it should be used neatness and cleanliness of the covered\\nand uncovered school-room to be attended to influence of this upon the children s\\ncharacter ventilation temperature. The class-room necessity of it in a large\\nschool its arrangement and most convenient position.\\n2. The Pupils^\u00e2\u0080\u0094 E\\\\\\\\\\\\s of grown-up children in infant schools sympathy of numbers\\ninfluence of this principle in the school and in the world; examples\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Bacon s Idols\\nof the Forum the result of want of attention to this principle, and neglect of its cul-\\ntivation in education advantages likely to be derived by both sexes from their ming-\\nling in schools; evils to be guarded against in schools for girls alone power of the\\ngallery vastly increased in the mixed school; its power of condemnation, and its utility\\nin inflicting severe punishment on an individual offender different method of treatment\\nto be adopted with town and country children object in the town to turn the mental\\nactivity, the sharpness, to proper account, and direct it to proper objects of pursuit\\nin the country to develop the open unsuspecting character and increase the mental\\nacuteness by judicious training difference between training and teaching.\\n3. The ^VocAer.^Mental qualities and habits of thought most valuable for the\\nteacher; piety, patience, perseverance, and a sympathy with children to be cultivated\\nassiduously impartiality or freedom from injustice indispensable to form a really good\\nteacher; activity of mind and body essential; immense influence exercised by the\\nteacher on the pupil-teachers and scholars good example better than good precepts\\nimportance of attention in minute rnatters to the rules of the school discipline thus\\ninculcated and enforced Let all things be done decently and in order; attention to\\ntrifles necessary time often wasted danger of being puffed up with pride necessity\\nof humility impossibility of those succeeding who take no interest in the work hap-\\npiness of managing a well-kept improving school impression respecting the misery of\\nschool-keeping (juite erroneous dress should be cleanly, neat, and simple.\\n4. Organization of the School. Superiority of pupil-teachers to monitors pupil-teach-\\ners may be taught much with the highest class in simultaneous lessons evils produced\\nby neglect of the school in order to devote too much time and labor to pupil-teachers\\nadvantages of a good classification evils of maintaining the same classification in all\\nsubjects those quick in acquiring a knowledge of reading often dull in arithmetic\\nnecessity therefore of all working arithmetic at the same lime, in order to admit of a", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0881.jp2"}, "880": {"fulltext": "878 COURSE OF LECTURES ON EDUCATION.\\nnew classification for that subject time-tables not to be lightly or hastily constructed\\nor altered advantages of the classes passing successively under the teacher s own eye\\ndifficulties likely to be encountered in opening a school; practical suggestions for over-\\ncoming them rules for avoiding waste of time.\\n5. Discipline. Necessity of enforcing discipline which is the stronger motive to\\nobedience, love or fear? conclusions to be drawn from the answer evil influence of\\nconstant change of rules necessity of adhering to those once established good efl^ect\\nof early attention to rules on the subsequent character of the pupils; nature of punish-\\nment, parental, legal, and vindictive necessity of some punishment (not corporal) to\\nenforce discipline its nature and object to be explained to the children in Bible les-\\nsons when correction had recourse to, utility of referring to these lessons vindictive\\npunishment disclaimed; the gallery the great instrument for severe punishment may\\nbe inflicted without meaning the offender, by reference to the fault in a Bilile lesson\\ndetention in school, except for late attendance, not to be resorted to nothing but the\\nmost imperative necessity can justify expulsion solemnity which should accompany\\nit necessity for a thorough command of temper in the teacher; difficulties connected\\nwith the use of emulation as a mental stimulus doubts with respect to its being a\\nhealthy one; minor matters of discipline too frequently neglected.\\n6. Method of Teaching. Simultaneous gallery lessons most advantageously given in\\nthe way inculcated in the Training System by Mr. Stow; Bible lessons or lessons\\non the Catechism or Liturgy in the morning very advantageously given according to this\\nmethod advantages of the mingling of questions and ellipses judiciously of pictur-\\ning out as a mental exercise secular lessons in the afternoon similarly rule not to\\ntell the children what can be drawn from them by exercising their judgment or associ-\\nation of ideas or imagination their mental jjowers thus cultivated guessing to be\\navoided; the lessons to be made as interesting as possilile care to be taken not to\\nsacrifice utility in the attempt to render the lesson interesting or attractive importance\\nof a proper division of simultaneous lessons of systematic lessons on Holy Scripture\\nof courses of lessons on scientific or other secular subjects evils of want of system in\\ndivision of lessons care to be taken that the narrative comes first and the application\\nsubsequently; reason of this; general rules for dividing Bible lessons; for secular;\\nmethod of giving such lessons voice, manner, enunciation importance of the black-\\nboard, or large slate necessity of some slight facility in sketching in order to be able\\nto illustrate the lesson.\\n7. On Teaching Reading. Synthetic method best in teaching to read a simple word\\npresented, and its sound and appearance taught analysis of it subsequently advanta-\\nges and disadvantages of the phonic method of teaching the alphabet; no necessity to\\nbegin with the alphabet simultaneous reading of 10 or 15ata time useful, if the teacher\\nreads well danger of carrying this too far importance of the teacher reading clearly,\\ndistinctly, and calmly simultaneous method excellent in eradicating the propensity to\\nsing, often found in schools.\\n8. On Teaching Arithmetic. Importance of attention to first principles explanations\\nof rules too frequently neglected necessity of proper classification for arithmetic the\\nground-work of an arithmetical education its most important part; necessity of atten-\\ntion to elementary classes different methods of teaching numeration, and the simple\\nrules immense practical importance of simplicity in explanation, and clearness of\\ndefinition; mental arithmetic should he taught for its utility, not for show; the kind of\\nquestions likely to be practically useful examples.\\n9. On Teaching Geography. The nature of maps to be first explained and illustrated\\nby a ground plan of a school great outlines of the country or continent delineated on\\nthe blackboard useful importance of giving facts with names, and thus calling in the\\nassociation of ideas to the aid of the memory manners and conditions of the inhabi-\\ntants of different countries too often neglected; the outlines of general history may be\\nadvantageously combined with geography a box of sand of great use in teaching geog-\\nraphy in infant schools.\\n10. On Teaching Grammar. Interesting lessons may be given by a judicious teacher\\non the distinctions between the parts of speech examples of such general rules on\\nthe illustration of each particular part; in elementary lessons on grammar the slates\\nshould be constantly in the children s hands necessity of a very gradual progress in\\nthe lessons on this subject absurdity of supposing that it can be properly taught in a\\nvery short time utility of grammatical analysis composition to be taught with gram-\\nmar varieties in methods of parsing adopted by different authors Latham s Grammar\\na very philosophical work; should be studied by teachers Broomley s abridgment of\\nit, useful as a manual.\\n11. On. Teaching Writing. Writing on slates maybe taught from the very com-\\nmencement of a child s school life useful exercise to make them attempt the forms of\\nletters as infants strokes and such like thus rendered useless habits of order, neat-\\nness, cleanliness, and obedience, may be cultivated in teaching writing in advanced\\nclasses all should commence to write each individual line at the same time a second\\nline should not be commenced till the first has been inspected reason of this rule\\nwriting from dictation the best method of teaching spelling composition, as combined\\nwith grammar lessons, also teaches writing and spelling.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0882.jp2"}, "881": {"fulltext": "KNELLER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nFOR\\nTEACHERS OF PAUPER CHILDREN.\\nThe Kneller Hall Training School, located at Twickenham, twelve\\nmiles out of London, is under the direct control of the Committee of\\nCouncil on Education and was established in 1846, for the special pur-\\npose of training teachers for workhouse and penal schools.\\nAccording to the returns of the Poor Law Board, there were on the\\n1st of January, 1851, 43,138 children, under sixteen years of age, in\\nthe workhouses of England and Wales, and in connection with these\\nworkhouses. 838 teachers were employed.\\nThe number of children of the same age, receiving outdoor relief at\\nthe same date, was 276,613, These children did not attend the work-\\nhouse schools, and in all probability they did not attend any day school,\\nbut they indicat e an educational want of the most desperate kind.\\nFrom the reports of the Prison Inspectors for 1850, it appears that out\\nof 166,941 prisoners confined in the gaols of England and Wales in\\n1849, 12,955, or nearly eight per cent, were under seventeen years of age.\\nWith the exception of the schools at Parkhurst and Redhill, (the latter\\na private institution,) little has been done for the reformatory mfluence\\nof education upon this class.\\nThese returns show an aggregate of 332,706 children, toward whom\\nthe state stands more or less in loco parentis, and for whose moral,\\nphysical, intellectual, and industrial training, every dictate of humanity\\nand wise economy demands that the state should make immediate and\\nthorough provision in schools and teachers of the right kind. The gen-\\neral condition of these children as to education, as compared with the sys-\\ntem now to be introduced, is set forth in the following remarks by Rev.\\nH. Mosely, one of the inspectors of schools, appointed by the Commit-\\ntee of Council, in a report on the Kneller Hall Training School. The\\nquotations are from official documents on the condition of the poor.\\nThe system of education under the old poor law was that of parish\\napprenticeship. Pauper children were bound apprentices to such per-\\nsons as were supposed capable of instructing them in some useful call-\\ning. In some cases this was by compulsion, the apprentices being as-\\nsigned to different rate-payers, who render themselves liable to fines if\\nthey refuse to receive them, which fines sometimes went to the rates.\\nand in other cases were paid as premiums to persons who afterward\\ntook these apprentices. Another method of apprenticeship was by pre-\\nmiums paid from the rates to masters who, in consideration of such\\npremiums, were contented to take pauper children as apprentices.\\nThe evils of this system were manifold\\n1st. As it regarded the independent laborer, whom, by its competi-\\ntion, it prevented from getting his children out, except by making them", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0883.jp2"}, "882": {"fulltext": "880 EDUCATION OF PAUPER CHILDREN.\\nparish paupers, he having no means of offering the advantages given by\\nthe parish, and in whom it discouraged that which in a parent is the\\nstrongest motive to seU-denial, Ibrelhought, and industry a desire to\\nprovide ibr his children.\\n2diy. As it regards those to whom the children were apprenticed\\nwho, when they took them on compulsion, took them at an inconven-\\nience and a disadvantage to whom these parish apprentices were\\nmuch worse servants and less under control than others, who often\\nfound them hostile both in conduct and disposition, ready listeners,\\nretailers of falsehood and scandal of the lamily affairs, ready agents of\\nmischief of the parents and other persons ill disposed to their employ-\\ners, who not unfrequently excited the children to disobedience, in\\norder to get their indentures cancelled, they were the unwilling serv-\\nants of unwilling masters they could not be trusted, and yet could not\\nbe dismissed. The demoralization of the apprentices made them unde-\\nsirable inmates. They disseminate in the parish the morals of the\\nworkhouse.\\n3dly. As it regards the children themselves\\n1. They were often apprenticed to needy persons, to whom the pre-\\nmium offered was an irresistible temptation to apply for them, and\\nafter a certain interval had been allowed to elapse, means were not un-\\nfrequently taken to disgust them with their occupation, and to render\\ntheir situations so irksome as to make them abscond.\\n2. They were looked upon by such persons as defenseless, and de-\\nserted by their natural protectors, and were often cruelly ill-treated.\\nSo that to be treated worse than a parish apprentice has passed into\\na proverb.\\n3. Not only was their moral culture neglected, but their moral well-\\nbeing was ofien totally disregarded. The lacts relaied under this head\\nare tearful. There was a mutual contamination. The c-ystem appears,\\nsays Mr. Austin, to have led directly to cruelty, immorality, and suffer-\\ning, although, in some cases, exceptions to the rule, apprenticeship\\nwas not unproductive of certain beneficial results to both master and\\napprentice.\\n4. Their instruction in any useful calling was for the most part neg-\\nlected, because their masters were often unfit to teach them, and\\nbecause they were obstinately unwilling to learn. The position which\\nthe parish apprentice occupied in the liouse was therefore commonly\\nthat of the household drudge.\\nIt is scarcely to be wondered at, that among a race thus born in\\npauperism, and educated to it, pauperism became hereditary.\\nWhen a family is once on the parish, says Mr. Chad wick, (re-\\nport of 1833. London and Berkshire.) it is very difficult to get them\\noff. We have seen three generations of paupers, (the lather, the son,\\nand the grandson.) with their respective families at their heels, troop-\\ning to the overseer every Saturday for their weekly allowances.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Pauper parents, says Mr. Carleton Tufnell, (report on the edu-\\ncation of pauper children, 1839,) reared pauper children, and their\\nhabit of dependence on the poor s rate seemed to descend as part of\\ntheir natures from generation to generation. To stop this hereditary\\ntaint would be to annihilate the greater part of the pauperism of the\\ncountry.\\nIn many unions, says Mr. Jelinger Symons, (report for 1848, on\\nparochial union schools, Wales and the Western district,) the same\\nfamily names of paupers continue for a century in the rate-books. Pau-\\nperism is an hereditary disease. There is a pauper class, and hence\\nthe importance of eradicating the seeds of it in pauper children.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0884.jp2"}, "883": {"fulltext": "EDUCATION OF PAUPER CHILDREN.\\n881\\nTo say that the old poor law, with its parish apprenticeship by way\\nof education, had failed, is to speak too leniently of it. (I quote this\\npassage from Mr. Temple s notes.) It was rapidly demoralizing the\\nwhole lower order. The mass of evil was such as to unite all real\\nstatesmen of all parties in one effort to abolish it.\\nWhen the Poor Law Board abolished the system of education by\\napprenticeship, they took upon themselves the responsibility of provid-\\ning some better form of education. Every workhouse was accordingly\\nrequired to provide a schoolmaster who should educate the children.\\nFor which purpose they were to be completely separated from the\\nadults, and instructed for at least three hours every day.\\nLest the guardians should be tempted to employ inefficient school-\\nmaster. that they might not have to pay them high salaries, it was\\nafterward provided that the salaries of workhouse schoolmasters should\\nbe paid out of a grant voted specially for that purpose by Parliament;\\nand, later still, these salaries were ordered to be determined by your\\nLordships, upon examination by Her Majesty s Inspectors.\\nThis system had (says Mr. Temple) the inestimable advantage\\nover the other, of making some one responsible for the education of the\\nchildren. The pauper child had now some one to care for him,\\nwhich before he had not. His education was now an object of real in-\\nterest to some one.\\nIt had, however, conspicuous defects.\\nUnder the old system the children were liable to evil associations and\\nbad examples out of the walls of the workhouse now they received\\nthe evil impression of the workhouse itself, and became liable to con-\\ntamination within its walls, by unavoidable contact with adult paupers.\\nAbundant evidence is to be found of these facts, and of their conse-\\nquences, in the reports of your inspectors.\\nGreat mischief, says Mr. Stuart, in his report on the Blything in-\\ncorporation, 1833, is done by familiarizing the minds of the children to\\nthe restraints of the workhouse, which destroys all reluctance to being\\nsent back to it in after-life.\\nA boy educated in. perhaps, the best shool in niy district, says Mr.\\nBowyer, being ill-used by his master, ran away, and brought a com-\\nplaint against him before a magistrate. After hearing his story, the\\nmagistrate, knowing him to be a friendless orphan, asked him where he\\nintended to go? Home, sir, said the boy. But, my lad, you have no\\nhome, said the magistrate. Oh, sir, was the re ply, I mean the\\nworkhouse.\\nI have known them, says Mr. Chadwick, when sent out on liking\\nto respectable people, to have come back to the workhouse, being dis-\\nsatisfied with the treatment those respectable persons gave them, as\\ncompared with the workhouse treatment.\\nThere are two obstacles to the establishment of satisfactory schools\\nin workhouses, says Mr. Hall, (in his report on Berks and Oxon, 1838,)\\nthat operate every where under the present system. One is the mix-\\nture which seems unavoidable between the children and the adult pau-\\npers. This is especially detrimental among the females. The girls\\nare set to work in the kitchens, the sleeping wards, and the wash-houses,\\nwith young women of depraved character. Nor does much im-\\nprovement seem to have taken place since this report was written, for\\nMr. Browne reports, in 1849, that in more than 70 workhouses in his\\ndistrict the children are not separated from the adult paupers and that,\\neven in the better description (i. e., where such separation is supposed\\nto exist) of workhouses, opportunities of contact continually arise.\\nThe children and the adult inmates not only meet at meals and dinner\\nservice, but the elder girls are often kept from school to nurse infants\\n66", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0885.jp2"}, "884": {"fulltext": "882 EDtlCATION OF PAUPER CHILDREN.\\nor they wash, or cleanse the house, or assist in the kitchen in company\\nwith the women.\\nWhen it is borne in mind that the inmates of worithouse? almost\\ninvari;ibl3 include prostitutes, -who seem to irequent them as lying-in\\nhospitals. the evil of this association may be judged of. Out of\\nthirteen children whom I found in one workhouse, says Mr. Bowyer,\\n(1848.) -being nursed by the girls, nine were the bastard children of\\nmothers of this class.\\nIt is impossible not to feel that Mr. Tufnell speaks in measured terms\\nof a system like this, when in 1849 he says of it. The experience of\\nthis year has still further convinced me of the hopelessness of expect-\\ning any general or permanent benefit to arise from the training of pau-\\nper children, as long as they remain within the precincts of the union\\nworkhouse.\\nAnother defect inseperable from the education of the workhouse\\nschool IS the false position of the teacher in a workhouse. The chil-\\ndren form, on the average, a clear moiety of the number of inmates the\\nspirit of the internal regulations is, however, mainly directed to (he\\ngovernment of the adults nor can it well be otherwise so long as the\\ntwo are united under the same roof (Mr. Ruddock s report on the\\nsouthern district, 1847-48.) This fact at once consthutes an anomalous\\nposition for the schoolmaster. He must be in subordination to the gov-\\nernor of the workhouse, and yet their duties are essentially different.\\nNor can their characters be alike; the one chosen to control an adult\\ncommunity inured to indolence and vice the other, to form the minds\\nof ciiildren, to bestow upon them the care and the love of a parent, and\\nto bring them up to industry and to the lear of God. The viewsof two\\nsuch officers and their functions can not but be continually clashing, and\\nwe need not be surprised that it is often found impossible to maintain a\\ngood understanding between them, (Mr. Tufnell in 1847-48.) The\\nchildren, too. (says Mr. Templer.) are in a false position. The\\nar.rangements are all made with a view to the adults. But the children\\nare totally unlike the adults in their faults, their needs, their chance of\\nbeing reclaimed. Whilst (in a workhouse) the industral and moral\\ntraining is entirely sacrificed, the intellectual is cramped and thwarted.\\nBut the most striking point, of view in which the present arrangement\\nappears defective is, the impossibility of uniting with it the suitable\\nindustrial training- of the children. The laborer s cottage, however\\nbad a school in other respects, has this advantage, that it is a good\\nplace for the industrial training of his children; he knows the import-\\nance to them of being brought up to labor. I have myself known\\nparents capable of making sacrifices that their children may go to\\nschool, and willing to do so if they thought it for their welfare yet\\nobject to do so alter the children were of an age to work, lest, as they\\nsaid. they should not take kindly to labor.\\nThe example of industry which a laborer s cottage affords; his\\nwatchful eye lest habits of idleness should grow upon his children and\\nthe exigencies of the household, which claim that all its members\\nshould contribute to the common fund which feeds and clothes all. make\\nof it a school of industry and, perhaps, the best school in which indus-\\ntry can be learned.\\nThe old poor law system of education by apprenticeship, with all its\\nvices, had, moreover, its system of industrial training; a bad system,\\nno doubt, tending to make labor repugnant to the children, hut still\\ncalculated to accustom and to inure them to it. The very pastimes of\\nanother child, and that part of its life which is passed in the fields or in\\nthe streets, is industrial training, compared with the gloomy existence\\nof a workhouse child.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0886.jp2"}, "885": {"fulltext": "EDUCATION OF PAUPER CHILBREN 883\\nIn the great maiority of workhouses the children are stated to have\\nno induslrial training at all. Where they have, it is commonly of a\\nsedentary kind. They are sometimes taught a little shoe-making or\\ntailoring; the best of their occupations are carpentering or bookbind-\\ning but in many cases they make hooks and eyes, or sort bristles, and\\npick oakum. A boy thus brought up (says Mr. Bowyer) is unfit-\\nted for an agricultural laborer; he can neiiher dig, hoe, nor plough;\\nis puzzled with harness, and afraid of ahorse. Any hard or continu-\\nous labor exhausts his body and wearies his mind. He has formed a\\ncompletely false conception of the life that awaited him.\\nOne lad, (says the chaplain of a union in Wales, writing to Mr.\\nRuddock.) strong and active to all appearance, was engaged as a\\nfarm laborer, but being unable to handle any tool, except in the most\\nclumsy manner, was jeered at by the men, consequently he became dis-\\ncouraged, and feeling alone and friendless, he returned to the work-\\nhouse, where he will probably be an incumbrance lor life, as he has de-\\nclared that he never wishes to leave it again.\\nChildren thus shut up, says Mr. Henderson, (report on Lancashire,\\n1833 in ignorance and idleness, and exposed to tte moral contamina-\\ntion of a workhouse, are almost necessarily unfit for the duties required\\nof them as apprentices. All labor is an intolerable hardship, their\\nmasters, objects of aversion, and they rarely acquire habits of industry\\nin atter-life.\\nAn orphan or deserted child educated from infancy to the age of\\ntwelve or fourteen in a workhouse. (says Sir J. P. Kay Shuttleworth,)\\nii taught reading, writing, and arithmetic only, is generally unfitted\\nfor earning his livelihood by labor.\\nIt is not only with reference to the forming of the habits of labbr in\\npauper children that the present system is defective, but with reference\\nto the full development of the power to labor of the thews and\\nsinews of the laborer.\\nPauper children (says Mr. Temple) are decidedly, as a class,\\nbelow the children of the independent laborer in physical de-\\nvelopment.\\nTheir physical conformation and physiognomy, (says Sir J. P. Kay\\nShuttleworth, in his report on the training of pauper children,) betray\\nthat they have inherited from their parents physical and moral constitu-\\ntions, requiring the most vigorous and careful training to render them\\nuseful members of society. They arrive at the school in various stages\\nof squalor and disease; some are the incurable victims of scrofula;\\nothers are constantly liable to a recurrence of its .symptoms almost all\\nexhibit the consequences of the vicious habits, neglect, and misery of\\ntheir parents. The stunted growth of many of these children (says\\nMr. Tremenheere,) was apparent; whether from early privations else-\\nwhere, or the depressing influence of long confinement within the walls\\nof a workhouse, with not enough of healthful exercise, or stimulus of\\nchange of scene and new objects, or whether, also, it may have resulted\\nfrom a long continued uniformity of diet.\\nIf to other children, then especially to these, other than sedentary\\noccupations, freedom, exercise,. and the open air are necessary to healthy\\nphysical development and growth.\\nHence, (says Mr. Tufnell, in 1847-48.) with a view to securing\\nthe health of the boys, garden or field labor is, I am satisfied, superior\\nto most others. I find a great unanimity, says Mr. Symons. (1849,)\\nas to the kind of industrial labor deemed the fittest for boys by guar-\\ndians who reflect on the subject. Spade husbandry is almost invaria-\\nbly chosen, not only on account of the return derivable from it, but", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0887.jp2"}, "886": {"fulltext": "884 KUUCATiON OF PAUPER CHILDREN.\\nfrom its aptness for developing moral character as well as bodily-\\nstrength and health.\\nThe introduction of industrial training, (says Mr. Bovvyer. 1849.)\\nhas been every where attended by a marked improvement in the ap-\\npearance and bodily vigor of the boys and their progress in their\\nstudies, so far from being retarded by it, has generally been promoted,\\nnotwithstanding the reduction m the number of hours devoted to in-\\nstruction. And, (Mr. Browne, 1849.) industrial training for boys\\nought, I am convinced, to consist in the cultivation of land. It is re-\\nmarkable that boys employed in field-work make greater progress than\\nthose who are not so employed, although the latter may give to study\\nnearly twice as much time as the former.\\nThe ages of the pauper children (nearly 25 per cent, are above the\\nage of 12 years) are such as to render industrial training in field labor\\npracticable in their case to an extent that it is not, in other elementary\\nschools.\\nTo break, then, the link which in the mind of the pauper child binds\\nhim to the workhouse as a home, which associates it in his mind with\\nthe state of life allotted to him and his destiny to take from him the\\nstamp and impression of it and to emancipate him from the regime of\\nits course of thought and standard of opinion, to free him from its pes-\\ntilent associations and evil example and, above all, to prepare him to\\ntake his place in the ranks of independent industry, by a judicious\\ncourse of industrial training, for all these objects a substitute is needed\\nlor the workhouse school.\\nThis fact has received a practical recognition from the Legislature\\nin tlie Act of 7 aiid 8 Vict. c. 101., which provided for the formation of\\nschool districts and district pauper schools, where the children should be\\ncollected from the workhouses of the district, instructed in such useful\\nknowledge as is suitable to their condition, and trained to industry.\\nThis Act gave to the Poor Law Commissioners power to form school\\ndistricts. But it affixed certain limits of area and population, and it\\nprovided that the expense of starting, to be borne by the unions of the\\ndistrict, should not exceed one-fifth of the entire annual expenses of\\nthose unions; provisions which rendered the Act inoperative; the limit-\\nations were impracticable, and no school could be built for the money.\\nIn 1847, an Act was passed removing the limitation as to c^st, but\\ndepriving the commissioners of their power to erect the school without\\nthe consent of the guardians or a majority of them.\\nThis new condition has rendered the new Act nearly as inoperative\\nas the old one. Six district schools only have been formed in the entire\\ncountry. In other respects, the declared intentions of the Legislature\\nremain without effect. It is obvious (says Mr. Temple) that the\\nreasons for the establishment of district scliools are not of a nature to\\nbe readily appreciated by boards of guardians. The object of such\\nschools is national their operation, to be successful, must cover a large\\nsurface, and extend over a long period and their results, however cer-\\ntain, are remote, belonging rather to posterity than ourselves. Consid-\\nerations of this class are not likely to have weight with boards of\\nguardians. The operation of such boards is local, isolated, and inde-\\npendent, and their function is temporary, having in view the present\\nnecessities of the poor, and the protection of the present rate-payers. It\\nhas jiothing to do with posterity.\\nWith reference to the probable occupation of the students of your\\nnormal school, as masters, at some future time, of district schools, the\\nCommittee of Council provided in 1846, for the erection, in connection\\nwith it, of a model school of industry for the pauper children of some\\nof the London unions. Nothing can be more important than to give", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0888.jp2"}, "887": {"fulltext": "KNELl.ER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL. 885\\nto the students the benefit of that experience which euch a school\\nwould offer, o- to the coualiy the model of a pauper school conducted\\non sound princ pU s.\\nIn the traming of teachers for that object, labor is an essential ele-\\nment. Teachers of industry must practice it, and must be inured to it.\\nA schoolmaster unable to work would be almost as much misplaced in\\nhis field garden as one unable to read and write would be in his school.\\nIndustrial work enters accordingly very largely into the dail}^ routine\\nof Kneller Hall. Appended is a list of the rules by which it is\\nregulated.\\nRULES FOR REGULATING THE FIELD-WORK.\\n1. The gong will sound at five minutes before two, and the bell will immediately begin to\\nring, and continue till two. The return bell will ring at a quarter before five.\\n2. The students are to muster at the tool-house, and the names to be called over by the\\ncaptain of the field as soon as the bell stops.\\n3 Students not in lime to answer to their names will remain out till five o clock.\\n4. S:udents more than a quarter of an hour after time, or a second time in the same week\\ntoo late to answer to their names, will go to work all day the next day.\\n5. No leave of absence will be giveu to any student, unless applied for before 11 in the\\nmorning, and notified, when obtained, to the captain of the field.\\n6. As soon as names have been called, the captain of the field will read out what work\\neach student is to do, and what tools he will require and each student as his name is read\\nwill take his tools and proceed to work.\\n7. As soon as the second bell rings each student will clean his tools, and proceeding to the\\ntool-house deliver Ihem up to the captain.\\n8. The ground will be gradually divided into plots, and as each plot is marked off it will be\\nassigned to one of the students, who will be capiain of that plot.\\n9 No work will be done on any plot except under the direction of its captain, but he will\\nnot be always working there.\\n10 The captain of a plot will keep a weekly report of work done on his plot, and an ac-\\ncount of all expenditure and receipts from it.\\n11. The students will take turns weekly, two by two, to attend upon the horse in the after-\\nnoons These turns are not to be shifted from one to another without leave.\\n12. The students will take turns weekly, one by one, to milk the cows. They are to be\\nmilked immediately before tea in the afternoon, and immediately after prayers in the\\nmorninj.\\n13. Both the above rotations to be in alphabetical order.\\n14. The industrial master will give a weekly report of the way in which each student s\\nwork has been done for that week.\\nDUTIES OF THE CAPTAINS.\\nGeneral.\\n1. To prevent indecorous noise in the bedroom.\\n2. To report to the principal, in writing and immediately, any thing requiring attention in\\nthe bedroom.\\n3. To light and put out the gas.\\n4. To warn any of ihe students whom they see breaking the rules. If a captain has been\\npresent at such a breach of rules, and has not warned those who are so doing, he alone will\\nbe held responsible.\\n5. To see that their rooms, viz., the library, lecture-rooms, c.,be properly cleaned.\\nSpecial.\\nI.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Captain of the Library.\\n1. To report every morning in writing to the principal the names of students present at\\nprayers that morning and the evening before.\\n2. To collect the exercise books on the days appointed, whether done or undone, and bring\\nthem to the principal at seven in the evening, reporting absentees.\\n3. To give the principal on Friday night at evening prayers a statement of the lectures\\ngiven during the week.\\n4. To take charge of and distribute ink, pens, and other stationery.\\nII.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The Captain of the Field.\\n1. To give the industrial master every evening a list of the students who will have charge\\nof the practicing school the next day, specifying the time and classes.\\n2 To obtain from the industrial master every morning at breakfast time a list of the work\\nto b done by each boy in the practicing school, and to give the necessary information to the\\nstudent in charge of the boys when at work.\\n3. To inform the industrial master every morning before twelve, whether any and what\\nstudents have obtained leave of ab.sence from work.\\n4 To call the names at two o clock.\\n5. To give out fools.\\n6. To receive them back acain. See that they are properly cleaned and replaced. If the\\nIndustrial master afterward finds any tools not replaced, or not properly cleaned, the captain\\nof the field will be liable to a day s work.\\n7. To prepare for the principal a weekly report of the work done every day, and of th\u00c2\u00ab\\nfarm and garden accounts, both then to be countersigned by the industrial master.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0889.jp2"}, "888": {"fulltext": "KNELLER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL\\nHI. The Captain of the Laboratory.\\n1. Always to have every thing in readiness for the chemical lecturer.\\n2 To k.eep the keys of the laboratory, and to allow no one to go there, except in his com-\\npany, or with written leave from the principal, or by express order from the chemical\\nlectur\\njrer.\\n3. To keep an exact account of the state of the chemical and physical apparatus, as to\\nbreakages, need of rtpairs, c. and to report every week to the chemical lecturer.\\nThe system of training will be best understood from a description of\\nthe daily routine, the course of lectures, the methods of maintaining dis-\\ncipline, and the management of the practicing school, in a memorandum\\nby Mr Temple, the principal of the school.\\nThe students rise at six, and prayers (taken from the Liturgj are read at half-\\npast. Lectures commence after prayers and continue till breakfast time at eight.\\nThe half-hour after breakfast is employed, at the discretion of the students, in pre-\\nparing for the ensuing lectures. The lectures recommence at nine and continue\\ntill one, which is the hour for dinner. At a quarter past two the students are re-\\nquired to be ready to proceed to the field, where they are employed in manual labor\\ntill half-past four, when they return to prepare for tea at five. Aftea tea their time is\\noccupied with exercises, writing out their notes of lectures, and occasionally with\\nlectures till a quarter before ten, when they take supper. Prayers are read at ten,\\nand all lights extinguished before half-past.\\nThe students are required to brush their own clothes, and to clean their own\\nboots and shoes. They have charge of the lecture-rooms, library, and chemical\\nlaboratory. But they do not make their own beds or sweep out the bedrooms,\\nnor clean the knives and forks or plates after meals. They wait upon themselves\\nat dinner, but do not lay the cloth or bring the dishes from the kitchen.\\nOn Saturdays there are no lectures after breakfast, but the time is chiefly occu-\\npied with reading and correcting essays written during the week. Saturday after-\\nnoon is a half holiday, when masters generally join them at cricket or football;\\nor such students as desire to do so are allowed to go out to walk. On Saturday\\nevening a lecture is generally given, which only those are required to attend who\\nhave signified their intention to do so.\\nOn Sundays they rise at eight, and morning prayers are read in the chapel at\\nhalf-past eight. This service consists of the office for Morning Prayer, as directed\\nto be used when the Litany is to be read. The Litany is not, however, read then.\\nThe service occupies about half an hour, and is followed by breakfast. A second\\nservice commences at eleven, consisting of the Litany, Cominunion Service, and\\nSermon. Dinner is at one, as usual and the afternoon service is read at half-past\\nfour. In the evening all the school attend a Divinity lecture immediately before\\nsupper. After supper prayers are read at the usual time.\\nThe subjects of the k-ctures have been divinity, history, geography, grammar,\\nmathematics, physics, and music.\\nThe Divinity lectures commenced with reading simultaneouslj- the first three\\ngospels. As, however, it was deemed desirable that the text of one at least of the\\ngospels should be accurately known, and it seemed unwise to attempt more, par-\\nticular stress was laid upon St. Matthew, and the substance of that gospel was al-\\nmost got by heart. The Acts of the Apostles were then read, and then the Old\\nTestament was commenced. The historical books of the Old Testament were read\\nin order, down to the time when the Prophetical wi-itings begin. The Prophets\\nwere then read simultaneously with the history, so that each might illustrate and\\nexplain the other. The lecture has continued to the end of Ezekiel.\\nThese lectures were given every day before breakfast throughout last year. Since\\nChristinas, that hour has been assigned to the delivery of the same course to the\\nstudents then admitted and the course has been continued to the last year s class\\nthree days in the week, from nine to ten.\\nOn the alternate days a course of lectures has been given, to the same class, on\\nthe history of the Church. This course will continue after the vacation, and will\\ninclude the study of our own formularies and of the Catechism.\\nOn Sunday evening St. Paul s Epistles have been read in chronological order.\\nThe lectures on history were so arranged that the history of England occupied", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0890.jp2"}, "889": {"fulltext": "KNELLER HALL TRALMNG SCHOOL. \u00c2\u00a787\\nexactly a year, one hour a day being devoted to the subject. The Vice-Principal\\nthen gave a course of lectures, to the same class, on the history of linglish litera-\\nture and the characteristics of the great lingLsh writers.\\n(Jo. Tuesday morning the V ice-Priucipai gives out a subject, generally, but not\\nalways, of an historical character, on which every student is required to compose\\nan English essay. These essays are collected immediately after breakfast on Sat-\\nurday, and in the course of the morning are read aloud in the presence of all the\\nstudents, either before the Vice-Principal or myself. Opportunity is then taken\\nto point out defects in style or in grannnar and the presence of the body of stu-\\ndents is found to have a wholesome influence in stimulating all to do their best.\\nIn geography, the course commenced with the geography of England which was\\ncarefully studied in detail. The physical geography of the world then followed, so\\nas to explain the great features of the land and water, the elements of geology, the\\nphenomena of the atmosphere, the geographical distribution of plants and animals.\\nThese lectures wiU continue till Christmas and will include the political and com-\\nmerc.al geography of the world, treated in connection with the great physical lec-\\ntures. One hour a day has been devoted to this subject throughout.\\nMathematical geography was ti eated as a part of jjopular astronomy, to which\\nsubject two hours a week were assigned for three quarters of a year. These lec-\\ntures commenced after the summer vacation, and terminated at Easter.\\nThree hours a \\\\teek were given to grammar for three quarters of a year. It\\nwas then thought advisable to give the students the opportunity of comparing the\\nforms and rules of their own language with those of another, and French les-\\nsons were substituted for the grammar twice a week. A lecture was also given\\non Saturday evenings to such as chose to attend, on the outlines of logic as con-\\nnected with grammar.\\nTwo hours a day were assigned to lectures on mathematics and physic. Since\\nChristmas the chemical laboratory has been in use, and two additional hours a\\nweek have been devoted to lectures on chemistry. The students who have been\\nalready once examined for certificates of merit, have read i\\\\lr. Tate s arithmetic,\\nalgebra, mechanics, and mensuration six books of Euclid, with numerous deduc-\\ntions, partly worked without any assistance, partly with such hints as appeared to be\\nnecessary and the commencement of analytical geometry and of differential calcu-\\nlus. Their attainments on first entering are found to be very various, and their\\npowers not less so. It is not possible therefore to keep them all at the same level.\\nOf the ten students mentioned, one will, without doubt, be thoroughly master of the\\ndifferential calculus before he leaves, and one sufficiently so to render further help\\nunnecessary. The rest do not come up to these.\\nThe chem cal lectures are intended to bear particularly upon agriculture. Tliey\\nhave not continued long enough, as yet, to supply means of judging as to their suc-\\ncess but I have little doubt, from the interest which they attract, that they will be\\nfound extremely useful.\\nThree hours a week have been given to music. The students also sing a hymn\\nat morning and evening prayers, and chant the Canticles and sing Psalms in the\\nSunday services.\\nThe teaching has been entirely oral. The lectures are given from notes, and\\nafterward written out by the students. Text-books have been used, but only as\\nsupplying a frame-work to be filled up by the lecturer. The students at their first\\nadmission are not in a condition to prepare their own lessons by reading. They\\nrequire the contact of mind with mind, the living presence of the lecturer, the per-\\npetual commentary supplied by voice and gesture, and the slight but constant\\nadaptation of each step in the course to the state of their own knowledge. Even\\na written lecture, as a means of educating such men, is very inferior to one delivered\\nextempore from notes but a mere examination upon the contents of a book is\\nalmost useless. They seem unable, in fact, to derive fiwn books any thing beyond\\nthe bare statements contained in them, and their reading results in the accumula-\\ntion of a mass of undigested facts.\\nOn the other hand, there is a definiteness about the knowledge derived from\\nbooks, which oral teaching taken alone can not give. And it is advisable too that\\nthe students should not leave the school without some practice in reading for\\nthemaelves, so that they may be able. hcn away, to continue their own education", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0891.jp2"}, "890": {"fulltext": "888 KNELLER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nwith a chance of real improvement. The students therefore who have been in\\ntraining for a year and half will now be required to attend fewer lectures, and to\\nread more than hitherto. Their reading will be directed and their progress per-\\npetually tested, but the lectures will be subordiiiate to the books.\\nThe industrial training of the students has been conducted under the guidance of\\nthe gardener. 1 have generally joined in their labors, in order that this essential\\npart of the system might not be undervalued. The vegetables for the use of the\\nschool have been grown, and we have besides broken up a considerable portion (five\\nacres) of our ground (about thirty -five acres in all,) and made it fit for the operations\\nof a larger number of students. We have a horse and an increasing stock of pigs,\\nand we propose shortly to purchase a cow. The students have care of these animals\\nand attend to them well.\\nThei-e can be no question as to the beneficial effect of the manual labor and\\neven if the students were intended to take schools in which the children we re not\\nto be so employed, I should think it expedient to adopt the same system in their\\ntraining.\\nThe following regulations have been made for the maintenance of discipline\\nGENERAL RULES.\\nThe students are to rise when the gong sounds at six, and to be down to prayers at half-past\\nsix. The gong will sound a second time at twenty-five minutes past six. Students who are\\nlate for prayers will be sent to work all day in the field.\\nNo student is to go into the bedrooms between half-past six in the morning and ten min\\nutes before one.\\nNo student is to leave the premi.=es without permission.\\nNo student is to go out of the house after dark.\\nNo student is to go into the kitchen, housekeeper s room, or any part of the building\\nnorthwards from these two rooms, for any purpose whatever.\\nEvery student on coming in from work is to change his shoes before going up stairs.\\nEvery student is required to be clean in his person.\\nChapel.\\nThe chapel hours on Sunday will be half-past eight, eleven, and half-past four unless other-\\nwise specially ordered.\\nThe students who have passed their first examination for certificates will read the lessons\\nin turn. Two will read the morning lessons, and two the afternoon.\\nThe readers are always to look over the lessons before the time of service, and are to endeavor\\nto read simply and reverently.\\nThe two readers are to sit in the seat at the bottom of the chapel, facing the Communion\\nTable.\\nBedrooms.\\nTwo captains are appointed over each bedroom.\\nThe duties of the captains are\\nI o prevent all indecorous noise or disturbance in the bedrooms.\\nTo light the gas at the sound of the gong, at six in the morning, during winter.\\nTo open two windows in each bedroom before coming down to prayers in the morning.\\nTo put out the gas at the sound of the gong, at half-past ten in the evening.\\nTo keep lists of the students in their respective bedrooms, and mark against the name\\nof each whether he was present at morning prayers. Tliese lists to be given to the\\nPrincipal or Vice-Principal, on Saturday evening, after prayers.\\nTo report to the Principal any thing in the bedrooms which appears to require attention,\\n(broken windows, deficiency of water, c.,)\\nLibrary and Leeiure-ronms.\\nThe library and lecture-rooms to be swtpt out every day immediately after dinner.\\nThe students who are not captains are to do this in turn.\\nThe captains are to see that this is done, and to be reponsible for it. If the Principal finds\\noccasion to remark more than twice upon the state of any room, the captain who has charge\\nof it will be sent to the field all day.\\nThe library to be decently arranged again, and the books put away, at the sound of the sup-\\nper gong.\\nNo conversation allowed in the library, such as to interrupt those who are reading.\\nHall.\\nThe captains, in rotation, to be presidents of the lower tables in the hall. One of the captains\\nand two of the other students to come to the upper table in rotation.\\nTwo students to act as waiters at each table, and to remove the dishes, plates, c., while\\nthe rest remain seated. All except the captains to take this duty in turn.\\nEssays and Analysis.\\nThe weekly essays are to be collected by the captains, and placed in the Principal s study\\nevery Saturday morning immediately after breakfast.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0892.jp2"}, "891": {"fulltext": "KNELLER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL. \u00c2\u00a789\\nAll analysis, or abstracts, or other work done in the exercise books are to be collected by the\\ncaptains immediately after tea, and brought to the Principal s study on the following days:\\nMathematics and physics on Tuesdays.\\nDivinity on Wcdne.Miays.\\nG-ography and history on Tlmrtdays.\\nGrammar and literature on Fridays.\\nConclusion.\\nEvery student is to make a copy of the.^e rules.\\nThe captains are charged with the duty of seeing that all these rules are observed, and arc\\nrequired to warn any student who disobeys them, and, if any persist after warning, to re-\\nport to the Principal.\\nThese rules, as will be obvious on perusal, were not made all at once, but aa\\noccasion arose. They will of course require many modifications, for the same\\nreason, hereafter.\\nBut our reliance for the maintenance of discipline has been, and must be, much\\nmore on perpetual watchfulness, and personal intercourse with our pupils, than on\\na fixed routine. It has been our object, by living with the students, sharing their\\nmeals, joining in their out-of-door employments and-recreations, to place ourselves\\non such a footing with them as to render the open exercise of authority almost un-\\nnecessary. They are not subjected to any system of espionage. We do not profess\\nto be always with them. They are left a good deal to themselves, and aluays\\ntreated with confidence. No opportunity is ever taken to watch them, without\\ntheir own knowledge. But care is taken that no artificial barrier shall grow up\\nbetween us and them, and that the great temptation to disorder shall be taken\\naway by their being made to feel that they are governed well.\\nThe practicing school has been in operation since Lady-day. The children\\ncome from the neighboring village. The numbers are at present tv^ enty-four.\\nThey come at nine and stay till one, being dismissed for about ten minutes at\\neleven. At a quarter past two they return, and are taken with the students to the\\nfield. The field-work leaves oft at half-past four. They come back to school, in\\nsummer, at six and stay till seven.\\nThe foUovving is at present the order of lessons in the first class\\n9 Prayers,\\n1st Lesson till 9J St. Mark s Gospel.\\n2d 10 Writing.\\n3d lOi Mental arithmetic.\\n4th ll Dictation.\\nDismissed for ten minutes.\\n5th Lesson till 11^ Reading.\\n6th r2 Slate arithmetic.\\n7lh 124 Geography.\\n8th 1 Object lesson.\\nEvening.\\n9th Lesson from 6 to 6i Reading On Mondays\\nlOlh 7 Arithmetic s and Fridays.\\nOn Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, the evening hour is given by the whole school\\nto singing.\\nOn Mondays and Wednesdays the class goes into Mr. Tate s lecture-ronm,from\\ntwelve to one, where he gives them a lesson, or makes one of the students do so\\nin his presence in the latter case he overlooks the notes of the lesson before it is\\ngiven, and criticises it after.\\nOn Mondays from eleven to twelve, and on Fridays from ten to eleven, Mr. Til-\\nleard has the class in the same way and on Saturdays, from nine to ten, I take\\nthem myself.\\nThe school is divided into three classes. The students being divided into three\\ndivisions each division is charged with teaching one class. By this ineaiis there\\nis a perpetual change of masters, no one having a class for tnore than two hours.\\nOn Mondays, from eleven to one, I take the third class myself; on Wednesdays,\\nat the same time, the second on Fridays, the first.\\nMinute-books are kept of the lessons done every day. When I take the class,\\nI test its progress for the week, and give directions for the lessons of the next\\nweek.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0893.jp2"}, "892": {"fulltext": "890 KNELLER HALL TRAINING SCHOOL.\\nTwo of the students in rotation take charge of the children in the field joining\\nin their work and superintending it.\\nIt will be obvious that tlle.\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^e arrangements are preliminary and provisional not\\nfinal. But so far we suceed as I could wish. The children are fond of iheir mas-\\nters, work very heartily and tnez-rily in the field, never seem tired of the lessons,\\nand like coming to school. The students enter into the plans with spirit, improve\\nvisibly in the art of giving lessons, and superintend the field-work with firmness and\\nmethod.\\nIt would be absurd to hope that so small a school would give them an opportu-\\nnity of learning the art of teaching and educating in perfection. A large school is\\nin many respects a more powerful machine than a small one, and exhibits features\\ndistinctly which are hardly noticed in the other.\\nNor again can such a schod place before the students a complete specimen of\\ntheir own future labi)rs. In many ways the school in a workhouse difTers from all\\nothers, and the schoolmaster s duties differ accordingly.\\nIhe school can be intended to teach them only one part (though a very Impor-\\ntant part) of what they will have to do, and for that purpose I have no doubt of its\\nfiiness. To tnake our system perfect, a pauper school of considerable size is\\nindispensable.\\nContemporaneously with the opening of the practicing school I commenced a\\ncourse of lectures on methods of teaching. These lectures will of course take par-\\nticular notice of the peculiarities in those schools for which our student are in-\\ntended they are given twice a week.\\nI w 11 conclude with two remarks. One refers to the great diflnculty with which\\nwe have to contend in the exaggerated estinjate, in the minds of all the students,\\nof knowledge as compared with mental cultivation. The wide extent of subjects\\ncovered by the examination for certificates of merit has had, I think, a tendency\\nto encourage this mistake.\\nThe other point, to which I wish to draw attention, is the great advantage that\\nwould be gained if the examination, especially in all the literary part of it, were\\nconfined to definite text-books.\\nThese considerations bear more peculiarly on the case of Kneller Hall than on\\nthat of any other training school. It must be the aim of every such school, but\\nan aim peculiarly required in us, to train masters who shall be able nfit merely to\\nteach, but to educate masters who will discrimin.ite between information and\\nmental discipline. The workhouse children are liable to one temptation beyond\\nall others a servile dependence of mind, which makes them willing to remain\\nin a degraded position. They are cowed by the sense of having no friends or pro-\\ntectors they know not how to right themselves when they are wionged how to\\nsupport themselves when distressed. To give them mere knowledge, to make\\nthem good arithmeticians, or good grammarians, will not give them what they\\nneeil. They may learn, perhaps with readiness, when skillfully taught, whatever\\ninformation they may be required to learn. But even a very intelligent knowledge\\nis compatible with slight appreciation of the uses of that knowledge. ^A hat they\\nrequire is the contact of a cultivated mind, of a mind superior, not so much in\\nknowledge as in the degree in which that knowledge has refined and strengthened\\nthe character. This, next to religious temper and moral principal, is what is\\nneeded in a workhouse schoolmaster, and whatever bears on this demands our\\nattention.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0894.jp2"}, "893": {"fulltext": "REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS\\nON\\nCOMMON SCHOOLS AND OTHER MEANS OF EDUCATION.\\nBY HENRY BARNARD.\\nHistory op the System of Common Schools in Connecticut, from 1638 to 1S38,\\nwith a History of Yale College from 17C0 to ]800. 160 pages. Pri(^e \u00c2\u00a71.\\nFirst Annqal Report, as Secretary of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools\\nin Connecticut, submitted to the Legislature, May, 1839. 62 pages. Price 25 cents.\\nSeco.nd do 1840. 56 pages. Price 25 cents.\\nThird do 1841. 40 pages. Price 25 cents.\\nFourth do 1842. 58 pages. Price 25 cents\\nLegal Provision respecting the Education and Employment of Children in\\nFactories and Manufacturing Establishments in England, France, Prus-\\nsia, Connecticut, Khode Island, and Massachusetts. 1842. 84 pages. Price\\n50 cents.\\nLegislation respecting Common Schools in Connecticut, from 1842 to 1850.\\n1850. 104 pages. Price 25 cents.\\nFifth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Common Schools in Connec-\\nticut, submitted to the Legislature in May, 1850. 160 pages. Price 50 cents.\\nSixth do 1851. 168 pages. Price 50 cents.\\nSeventh do 1852. 52 pages. Price 25 cents.\\nEighth do 1853. 288 pages. Price 50 cent.s.\\nThe Connecticut Common School Journal, commenced in August, 1838, and dis-\\ncontinued in September, 1842. The four volumes bound in one, two, or four. Price $3.\\nThe Connecticut Common School Journal. Volumes 5, 6, 7, 8. 1850. Price\\n$1.25 per volume.\\nReports and DocumUnts on the Common School System of Connecticitt, from\\n1839 to 1842, (being selections from the Connecticut Common School Journal.) 400\\npages. Price $1.\\nReport ON the Public Schoolsof Rhode Island. J845. 254pages. Price 50 cents.\\nDocuments relating to the Public Schools of Rhode Island. 1848. 560 pages.\\nPrice Si.\\nDocumentary History of the Public Schools of Providence, from 1800 to\\n1849. 96 pages. Price 50 cents.\\nJournal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, commenced |in 1845,\\nand discontinued in 1849. 3 vols.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 bound in sheep. Price S3. 50.\\nTribute to Gallaudet, with a History of Deaf Mute Instruction and Institutions in\\nEurope and the United Slates, and particularly of the American Asylum at Hartford.\\n1H52. 00 pages. Price ,f I.\\nSchool District, Town and Village Libraries Hints for the Organization,\\nand Management, and Selection oP Books for Popular Libraries. 1854.\\n150 pages. Price $1.\\nEducation in its relations to Health, Insanity, Labor, Pauperism, and\\nCrime. 16 pages. Price $1 per dozen copies.\\nHints on Reading. Being selections from various authors on the selection and right use\\nol Books. 16 pages. Price $1 per dozen.\\nPractical Illustrations of the Principles op School Architecture. 176\\npages, with 163 wood cuts. 1851. Price 50 cents.\\nSchool Architecture or Contributions to the Improvement of School-houses\\nIN the United States. 1854. 416 pages, with 300 wood cuts. Price $2, cloth.\\nNormal Schools in the United States. 1852. 215 pages. Price 75 cents.\\nNormal Schools IN Europe. 1851. 450 pages. Price $1.50.\\nReports on Education AND Schools in Connecticut. 1853. 462pages. Price$l.\\nPublic Education in Europe. 1834. 800 pages. Price $3.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0895.jp2"}, "894": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.\\nSchool Architecture or, Contributions to the Improvement of\\nSchool-houges in the United States. By Henry Barnard, Superin-\\ntendent of Common Schools in Connecticut. Fifth Edition. 1854.\\nThis volume will be found on examination to contain I. An exposi-\\ntion, from otRcial documents, of common errors in the location, construc-\\ntion, and furniture of school-houses, as they have been almost univers-\\nally built, even in States where the subject of education has received\\nthe most attention. II. The principles to be observed in structures\\nof this kind. III. Plans of school-houses adapted to schools of every\\ngrade, from the Infant School to the Normal School, either recommended\\nby experienced educators, or recently erected. IV. Illustrations of the\\nbest styles of seats and desks, and the best mode of warming and venti-\\nlation. V. Catalogue of apparatus suitable to each grade of schools.\\nVI. Catalogue of books on education, and books of reference for school\\nlibraries. VII. Rules for the care and preservation of school-houses.\\nVIII. Examples of dedicatory exercises. IX. Hints respecting the\\nclassification of schools.\\nFagb.\\nDouble Inclined Plane, 58\\nWooden H orse, 58\\nSlanting Ladder 58\\nPlan of Russell s Gymnasium, 59\\nInclined Ropes, 60\\nVaulting Bar, 60\\nRotary Swing, 54\\nPlan of Water-closet, 63\\nPREFACE.\\nReport of Committee on School-houses, to\\nthe National Convention of the Friends\\nof Education, in 1850, 7\\nSCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.\\n1. Common Errors to be avoided.\\nExtracts from Official School Documents,\\nshowing the condition of School-houses in\\nConnecticut, 16\\nMassachusetts, 26\\nNew York, 29\\nVermont, 34\\n]\\\\ew Hampshire, 36\\nMaine, 37\\nRhode Island, 38\\nMichigan, 39\\nNew England, generally, 44\\nUliislrationn,\\nSchool-houses as they are, 45\\nII. General PRtNciPLES to be observed.\\n1. Site. 2. Yard. 3. Size of Building. 4.\\nSize of School-room. 5. Class room. 6.\\nLight. 7. Warming. 8. Ventilation. 9.\\nDesk. 10. Seats. 1). Aisles. 12. Ac-\\ncommodation for Teacher. 13. Library\\nand Apparatus. 14. External Appearance.\\n15. Residence f(ir Teacher. 16. Privies.\\n17. Gymnastic and Calisthenic Exercises, 47\\nPlans of School-houses.\\nCircumstances to be regarded, 49\\nPlans of School-houses with one\\nSchool-room.\\nDistrict Schools, General Condition, 50\\nInfant and Primary Schools, do 50\\nLocation, Yard, and Play Grounil, 51\\nPlay Ground of Infant and Primary School, 52\\nApparatus for Gymnastic Exercises, 56\\nlilustrattoiis.\\nPlay Ground of Infant School, 53\\nClimbing Stand, 56\\nHorizontal Bars 56\\nParallel Bars 57\\nWooden Swing, 57\\nPlans of School-houses recommended\\nBY Practical Teachers and Educa-\\ntors.\\nPlan by Dr. WilliomA. Alcott, 64\\nIllustration,\\nSchool-room for 56 pupils, 65\\nPlan by Horace Mann, 64\\nllltistrations.\\nSchool-room, 65\\nLocation in Union District, 65\\nPlan by George B. Emerson, 66\\nGeneral Principles to be observed, 66\\nIllustrations-,\\nPerspective of School-honse, c., 67\\nFront Projection, with Trees, c.,... 68\\nMovable Blackboard, 70\\nSection of Fire-place, 70\\nVentilating Apparatus, 71\\nSchol-room for 121) pupils 72\\nSchool-room for 48 pupils, 72\\nPlan by Messrs. Town and Davis 73\\nAdvantajes of the octagonal shape, 73\\nMode of lighting by skylight, 74\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective of octagonal School-house, 73\\nSchool-room, 74\\nSection of smoke and Ventilating Pipe, 75\\nPlan by Dr. A. D. Lord, 76\\nIllustration,\\nSchool-room, 76\\nPlans of School-rooms for different systems\\nof instruction, 77\\nPlan for Infant School 79\\nIllustration,\\nSchool-room and Grounds, 79\\nPlan by Wilderspiu, 80", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0896.jp2"}, "895": {"fulltext": "BOOKS ON EDUCATION.\\n3\\nFaob.\\nPlan for Schools on the Monitorial System, 81\\nJUiistrations,\\nSchool-room on the plan of Lancaster, 82\\nDr. Bell,.. 82\\nPlans for Schools on the Mixed System re-\\ncommended by Committee of Council on\\nEduciitiun, 83\\nOrganization of Schools in parallel groups\\nof Desks, 85\\nillustrations.\\nSchool-room, with Movable Partition,, 83\\nSchoolroom, with four Class rooms,.. 84\\nSection of Desk, 84\\nArrangement of Curtain to separate\\nClasses, 88\\nPlans of School-rooms, with Classes sepa-\\nrated by Curtains, 88\\nNo. 1. School for 48 boys and girls, in 4\\nclasses, 88\\n2. School for 48 boys and girls, with\\nclass room, 88\\n3. School for 72 boys or girls, in 5\\nclasses, 89\\n4. School for 72 boys and girls, 89\\n5. J2U or in 5\\nclasses, 90\\n6. School fur 168 boys or girls, 90\\n7. 240 in 8 classes,.. 91\\n8. Infant School, 91\\nPlan of Village National School, 92\\nJllu^tratiuHs,\\nPerspective, 92\\nGround Plan, 92\\nPlans for Rural and Villiige School, recom-\\nmended by Massachusetts Board of Edu-\\ncation 93\\nMode of Ventilation, 93\\nDirections for making Black-plaster Wall,. 93\\nHints for the iirrangement of School-rooms, 94\\nIllustrations^\\nPlans for Rural and Village Schools,. 94\\nNo. 1. Schoolroom building 46 by 30 94\\n2.\\n3.\\n4.\\n5.\\n6.\\n7.\\n8.\\n9.\\n10.\\n11.\\n12.\\n13.\\n14.\\n15.\\n36 by 20 95\\n48 by 30 96\\n40 by 28 97\\n50 by 42 98\\n44 by 48 99\\n44 by 48 100\\n40 by 52 101\\n60 by 48 102\\n45 by 60 103\\n40 by 60 104\\n35 by 62 105\\n52 by 70 106\\n37 by 40 107\\n37 by 38 107\\nSection exhibiting Mode of Ventilation, 108\\nPlans of School-houses recently\\nERECTED.\\nRemarks on Plans furnished or sanctioned\\nby the Author, Ill\\nPlans for District School-houses,\\none story high.\\nPlan of School-house, 30 by 20, in Bloom-\\nfield, Conn 112\\nIllustrations,\\nFront Elevation,\\nPlan of Warming and Ventilation\\nGi ,und Plan,\\nPlan of School-house, 34 by 22, in Wind-\\nsor, Conn., 114\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 114\\nPage.\\nGround Plan, 115\\nPlan of District School-house, 40 by 25, in\\nBarrington, R. I., 116\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 116\\nSeat and Desk, 116\\nGround Plan, 117\\nPlan ofDistrict School, 34by25 118\\nIllustration,\\nGround Plan, 118\\nPlan of District School-house, 36 by 27,... 118\\nIllustration,\\nGround Plan, 118\\nPlan of District School-house, 50 by 30 119\\nIllustration,\\nGround Plan, 119\\nPlan of District School-houses in Michigan, 119\\nJllistration,\\nGround Plan, 119\\nPlans of District School-houses recently\\nerected in New Hampshire, 120\\nIllustrations,\\nDistrict School-room in Dublin, 120\\nGreenland 121\\nPlans of School-houses for Union or\\nGraded Schools.\\nClassification of Schools, 123\\nPlan of School-house for two schools in\\nCenterdale, R. I., 133\\nIllustrations,\\nElevation, Trees, c., 133\\nGround Plan, 26 by 51, 133\\nPlan of School-house for two schools in\\nWashington Village, R. I., 134\\nIllustration,\\nGround Plan, 134\\nPlan of School-house for two schools in\\nWarren, R. I., 135\\nlllustratiojis.\\nLocation and Yards, 136\\nFirst Floor, 62 by 44, 137\\nSecond Floor, 137\\nPlan of School-house for three schools in\\nChepachet, 133\\nIllustrations,\\nSide and Front Elevations, 138\\nFirst Floor, 50 by 34, 139\\nSecond Floor, 139\\nPlan of School-house for four schools in\\nPawtucket, R. I., 140\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 140\\nFirst Floor, three schools, 141\\nSecond Floor, 141\\nPlans of School-houses for schools of dif-\\nferent grades in Providence, R. I. 142\\nPrimary School-house, 142\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective of a Primary School-house, 142\\nGround Plan, 143\\nTops of desks fur two pupils, 144\\nSection of seat and desk for two pupils, 144\\nIntermediate School-house, 144\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective of Inter. School-house,... 145\\nSection uf Ventilators, 144\\nInternalarrangement 176\\nSection of Writing Desk and Seal,. 177\\nGrammar School- house, 148\\n/lustration*.", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0897.jp2"}, "896": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\\nPage.\\nHigh School-house, 154\\nIII i.^tratioii--,\\nPerspective, 155\\nBusement, 15()\\nFirst Flocr 1S7\\nSecond Tloor, 157\\nMovable Seat uiid Desk for two, 158\\nVertical Section ot Furnace, 158\\nPlan of Graded School-house in Arsenal\\nDistrict, Hartford 160\\nIlli.strations,\\nFront Elevation, 160\\nGround Plan, 160\\nPerspective, fur two Schools, 161\\nPlan of Graded School-house in South Dis-\\ntrict, Hartf.)rd, 163\\nIII strationf,\\nPerspective, 162\\nFirst Floor, 163\\nSecond Floor, 164\\nThird Floor 165\\nPlan of High School-house in Hartford,... 166\\nList of Apparatus, 168\\nlUa^tratiiin--,\\nPerspective, 170\\nPlan of Yard and Basement, 171\\nFirst Flour, 17-i\\nSecond FK.ur ]7 2\\nSection shuwing Ventilation, 173\\nSeat and Desk, I i3\\nPlans of School-houses recently erected in\\nBoston, 174\\nOrganization of Public Schools, 174\\nIngrahani Primary School-house, Boston,.. 176\\nEducHti .nal value of School decorations,.. 189\\nSpecifications for building Primary School-\\nhouse 191\\nComposition for making Black Wall, 197\\nIllu--triitioii-!,\\nPlay Ground and First Floor 177\\nInternal arrangements. Second Floor,.. 179\\nThird Floor, 180\\nPrimary Scho.d Chair, 181\\nView o f Front Wall, 181\\nSection of Smoke Flues, 182\\nSection of Ventiducts 183\\nP jsiti(in of Flues and Ventiducts, 184\\nVentilation, c., of Privies, 186\\nPlan of Brimmer Grammar School-house,.. 198\\nJll:if:tration^-,\\nFirst ami Second Floor, 198\\nThird Flour, 199\\nPlan of Bowdoin Grammar School-house, 200\\nIllutratiorf,\\nFirst and Second Floor, 201\\nThird Floor, 201\\nPlan of Qui ncy Grammar School-house,.. 202\\n111 if:tr{ition,\\nFirst Flour, 203\\nRemarks nt Dedication of Quincv Grammar\\nSchool 204\\nClassification of large schools in Boston, 206\\nInternal ^rransement of School-houses,... 206\\nForm of Specification, 207\\nPlan of Putnam Free School-house, New-\\nburyport, 210\\nlll istratiori\\nFirst Floor, 212\\nSecond Floor 213\\nPlan of East Public School, Salem, 114\\nIllu.t7 ution,\\nFirst Floor 116\\nSecond Floor, 117\\nKimball s Chair and Desk, 115\\nPage.\\nDescription of Latin and English High\\nSchool, Salein, 218\\nPlans of School-houses in city of New\\nYork, 220\\nHistory of Public Schools, 220\\nPlan of Public School-house 222\\nIlLf. trattuiis.\\nPrimary Department, 223\\nSecond Floor, 224\\nPlan of Primary School-house, 225\\nI//.u.ttrattun\\nSection of Gallery, 226\\nSeat and Desk, 226\\nMutt s Patent Revolving Chair 227\\nPlan of Ward School, No. 29 228\\nIllu. tratwns,\\nPerspective, 228\\nBasement 230\\nPrimary Department, 233\\nlnk-bo.\\\\ and Well 231\\nPlan of Ward School-house, No. 30, 232\\nIII. stratioiif.\\nFront Elevation, 232\\nB.isement, 233\\nFirst Floor, 234\\nSecond and Third Floor, 235\\nPrimary School Chair and Desk 235\\nTeacher s Desk, 235\\nCover to Ink- well 234\\nPlan of Free Academy-building, 236\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 218\\nMode of Wanning and Ventilation,.. 238\\nBasement, 239\\nFirst Floor, 240\\nSecond and Third Floor, 241\\nDesk and Chairs, 241\\nPlan of Academy-building, Rome, N. Y.,.. 243\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 243\\nBasement, 243\\nDesk and Chiiirs, 244\\nFirst Flour, 245\\nSecond Floor, 243\\nPlans of School-houses recently erected in\\nPhiladelphia, 246\\nHistory and Condition of Public Schools,.. 246\\nPlans of Jefferson Grammar School-house, 248\\nIlliistrutions,\\nPerspective, 248\\nFirst Floor, 249\\nPlans of North-East Grammar School-house, 250\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 250\\np First Floor, 251\\nPlans of Warner Grammar School-house,. 252\\nIllustration.\\nPerspective, 252\\nFirst Floor, 252\\nPlans of Greenwood School-liouse, 253\\nIllustrations,\\nPerspective, 253\\nFirst Floor, 253\\nPlans of Central High School, 254\\nMode of Ventilation,. 256\\nInfluence of the School, 258\\nOccupations of Pupils, 259\\nlUiistrntions,\\nPerspective, 2.54\\nBasement, 2S5\\nFirst Floor, 256\\nSecond and Third Floor, 256", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0898.jp2"}, "897": {"fulltext": "SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE.\\nPage.\\nHistory of Public Schools of Cincinnati,. 2fil\\nHughes City Hi-ii .-^c-hi.oi, 2C1\\nHi utralwii--,\\nPersjiective, 260\\nBiiseineiit Luburriturv, 262\\nFirst Floor, 262\\nSecomI Floor, 263\\nHigh Schools, their pluce in a System of\\nPublic Instruction, 265\\nPlnns for Normal Schools and Schools of\\nPractice, 272\\nHistory of Normal Schools, 272\\nPlans of Normal School Buildings in Mass,, 274\\nIllustrations,\\nBridgewuter State Norniiil School, 274\\nFront Elevation, 274\\nFirst Flo.r, 275\\nSecond Flo, r, 270\\nWesttield StMte Normal School, 277\\nFront Elevution, 277\\nFirst Floor, 278\\nSecond Floor, 279\\nFramingham State Normal School,... 280\\nFront Elevation, 28U\\nFirst Flour, 281\\nPlans of State Normal School Building at\\nAlbany, N. Y., 282\\nIII i.-trations.\\nPerspective, 282\\nBasement, 283\\nFirst Floor, 284\\nSecond Floor, 285\\nThird Floor, 286\\nFourth Floor, 287\\nDesk and Chairs 286\\nPlans of State Normal School at New Brit-\\nain, Conn., 288\\nIllutrntiuns,\\nFersiiective 288\\nBasement, 290\\nFirst Floor, 291\\nSecond Floor, 292\\nThird Floor, 293\\nPlans of City Normal School, Philadelphia, 294\\nIllustrdtions,\\nPersjective, 294\\nCellar Furnaces, 294\\nFirst Floor, 295\\nSecond Floor,...; 295\\nThird Floor, 295\\nPlans of Normal and Model School Building\\nat Toronto, Upper Canada, 296\\nlUiistrntion^-,\\nFront and Side View, 297\\nGround Plan 299\\nSecond Floor :\u00c2\u00abli\\nRear and Side View 300\\nJ lansof Kneller Hall Training School, Eng-\\nland, 302\\nIII iftration.\\nPerspective, 302\\nVentilation and Warming.\\nGeneral Principles 303\\nReport of Dr H. G. Clark on Ventilation of\\nGrammar School in Boston, 307\\nGeneral Rules of Boston Committee, 3]4\\nConstructiim of Ventducts 323\\nMode reconiirveiided by .1. W. Ingrahiim,. 185\\nMode adof.ted by Prof Hart, 247\\nMode reconiniended by G. B. Emerson, 329\\nIII strations.\\nExample of imperfect Ventilation, 310\\nPlan Ml Eliot School-house, Boston, 312\\nEndicott School-house, 3J3\\nPage.\\nGeneral Plan in Grammar Schools, 314\\nSection of Chilson iMiruii-e, 317\\nSection if Ventilutiiig Stove, 317\\nEmerson s Ejecting Ventilator, 318\\nInjecting Ventilator, 319\\nElevation of Ventiducts 320\\nCold-air Ducts iind Smoke Flues 320\\nSection ol Ajiparatus in a building of\\ntwo stories, 321\\nFirst Flour of do., 322\\nSecond Floor of do., 322\\nSection of Ingraham School-house,... 184\\nSection ofHiirtford High Schoul-lioust l73\\nPlan recummended by D. Leach, 109\\nApparatus f.r Warming 3 i4\\nCulver s Hot-Air Furnace, 324\\nPortable Furnace, 325\\nDirections fir using, 326\\nCulver s Laboratory Furiuice, 328\\nMutt s Ventilating School Stove, 330\\nB ston Ventilating Stove, 331\\nChilson s Portable Furnace, 331\\nAir V\\\\ arming and Ventilating\\nFurnace, 332\\nDirections I or setting Chilson s Furnace, 334\\nfor using, do 334\\nfor making Ventiducts, 338\\nBushnell s Hot-air Furnace, 339\\nDouble Fire-place, 340\\nIllustration^,\\nDouble Fire-place horizontal section, 340\\nperpendicular 340\\nMott s Ventilating School Stove 329\\nBoston Ventiliiting St.ive, 331\\nChilson s Trio Portable Furnace, 331\\nSchool Stove, 331\\nVentilating Furnace, 332\\nPlans for setting Chilson s Furnace,... 334\\nSection ground and plan 334\\nposition and thickness of walls, 335\\nCulver s Hut-air Furnace, 324\\nBushnell s Hot-air Furnace, 339\\nSchool Furniture.\\nGeneral Principles 341\\nScale of Uiuieiisions, 343\\nstratidiis,\\nBench with Back 344\\nGallery for Infant School, 344\\nSand Desk 344\\nGallery used in National Schools, 345\\nGallery in Borough Road School, 345\\nClosing Gallery 345\\nDesks and Seats made of wood, 346\\nRange of Seats and Desks, 346\\nRhattuck s Primary School Chair, 349\\nBoston High School Desk and Chair,.. 346\\nMott s School Chair and Desk, 348\\nHartford School Chair and Desk, 347\\nWales Improved School Furniture,.. 350\\nNo. 1. American School (Chairs, 350\\n2. do, with desk for two pupils, 350\\n3. do., one ])upil, 354\\n4. New England School Chairs,.. 3.)1\\n5. do., with desk for two pupils, 351\\n6. do., do one impil, 352\\n7. Bowdoin School Chairs, 352\\n8. do., with desk for two,.. 352\\n9. do., do., one,.. 353\\n10. Washington School Chair 358\\n11. do., with desk fur two pupils, 3.53\\n12. do., do., one pupil, 354\\n13. Normal School Desk for twu,.. 354\\n14. do., do., do, one,.. 3.53\\n15. Improved Writing Stools, 3.55\\n16. Primary School Chair, 355\\n17. Basket Primary School Chair,. 555\\n18. Improved Settees, 3,56\\n19. Improved Lyceum Settees,,,.. 356", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0899.jp2"}, "898": {"fulltext": "V\\nSCHOOL ARCHITECTURK.\\nPage.\\n20. Teacher s Arm Chair, 356\\n21. do. do., with cushions, 357\\n22. Teacher s table without drawers, 357\\n23. do. do., with one drawer, 357\\n24. do. do., with two drawers, 358\\n25. Movable Skeleton Desk, .3.58\\n26. P.)rtable Desk, 358\\n27. Teacher s Desk, 358\\n28. do., with drawers and table top, 358\\n29. do., do. and top desk, 358\\n30. do., two drawers and table toji, 2.59\\n31. do., do. and top desk, 359\\n32. do., four drawers and table top, 3.59\\n33. do., do. and top desk, 359\\n34. do., six drawers and table tup, 300\\n35. do do. and top desk, 360\\n36. do., With bookcase in front, 360\\n37. do., do. do. 361\\n38. do., do. do. 361\\n39. Teacher s desk, with bookcase, 361\\nDrawing Desks, 362\\nIllustrations,\\nA Leaf and Drawing Desk, 362\\nBracket to support Leaf, 363\\nRoss Movable Drawing Desk, 363\\nDrawing Desk and Board recommended in\\nSchools of Practical Art, England, 304\\nMovable Support and Drawing Board,. 365\\nRoss ArSerican School Furniture, 366\\nScale of Heights, 306\\nIllustrations,\\nNo. 1. N. Eng. Primary School Chair, 366\\n2. N. Y. Primary School Clmir,.. 306\\n3. N. Eng. Pri. Sch. Busket Chair, 306\\n4. do. Pri. Sch. Desk and Chair, 307\\n5. do 367\\n6. do. Intermediate, 367\\n7. do. do 367\\n8. N.Y. Pri. doubledesk and chair, 308\\n9. Village desk, with seat attached, 368\\n10. Improved Writing Stool, .309\\n11. Improved sand top Chair, 3i)9\\n12. Sin. Gram. sch. desk and chair, 370\\n13. Double do 370\\n14. Single highschool desk, with lid, 371\\n15. Double do 371\\n16. Desk and chair for young ladies, 372\\n17. do. with portfolio, 372\\n18. do 373\\n19. do 373\\n20. do 373\\n21. Lowell Institute Drawing Desk, 374\\n22. Improved Ink Well, 369\\n23. I. 370\\n24. Settee for Recitation Room,. 371\\n25. Teacher s Chair, 373\\n26. 375\\n27. 375\\n28. Recitation Room Table, .376\\n29. Primary School Table, 376\\n30. 376\\n31. Teacher s Table with drawer,. 377\\n32. Desk 377\\n33. 377\\n34. 378\\n35. 378\\n36. 378\\n37. 379\\n38. 379\\n39. 379\\nApparatus.\\nGeneral Arrangements, 383\\nArticles indispensable in every school 384\\nfor Primary and District Schools,. 384\\nPaue\\nArticles for Grammar Schools, 397\\nHigh School, 40]\\nIllustrations,\\nMovable Lesson Post, 384\\nGonigraph, 391\\nAllen s Spelling and Rending Table,.. 385\\nHanging Blackboard and Shelf 386\\nMovable Blackboard, .387\\nEasel, or Movable Stand for Black-\\nboard 387\\nMap Exhibitor, 387\\nSponge Box or Damper, 390\\nBox and Cover for Glass Ink Well,. 391\\nArithmeticon or Numeral Frame, 391\\nGeoiuetrical Forms and Solids, 392\\nBlock to illustrate Cube Root, 3iM\\nDrawing Slate 394\\nTerrestruil Globe, 395\\nHejnisphere Globe, 395\\nTellurian, 396\\nPlanetarium 396\\nInertia Apparatus, .398\\nCollision Balls and Stand, 398\\nLav\\\\s of Motion, 399\\nMechanicals, 4U0\\nHydrostatics, 400\\nHydraulics, 401\\nPneumatics, 401\\nElectricity, 403\\nComposition for Blackboard 387\\nDirections for making Blackboard 387\\nBlack Plaster Wall,. 389\\nCanvas, 388\\nCrayons, 389\\nprocuring Large Slates, 390,\\nGoodyenr s applications of Metallic Gum to\\nschool purposes, 403\\nBook Bindmg and Covers, 403\\nMaps and Charts 403\\nGlobe. 403\\nBlackboard 404\\nCalisthenic E.xercises, 404\\nSet of Ap|)aratus cost, $50, 403\\n100 404\\n200 406\\n400, 407\\n500, 408\\n700 409\\n1000, 410\\nList of Examples and Casts for Drawing\\nClasses 41]\\nLibrary.\\nArrangements for a School Library, 413\\nCatalogue of Books on Education, 413\\nCare and Preservation of School-\\nHOU.SES.\\nRules adopted in Rhode Island, 435\\nSuggestions respecting Fires, Sweeping,\\nDusting, 436\\nRegulations of Chauncey Hall School,\\nBoston, 438\\nRemarks of Mr. Thayer, 440\\nDedicatory Exercises.\\nSchool Celebration at Salem, Mass., 402\\nRemarks of G. B. Emerson,.. 402\\nG.F.Thayer 405\\nDedication of School-house, N. Providence, 450\\nAddress of President Wayland, 450\\nDedication of High School, Cambridge,... 457\\nRemarks of President Everett, 459", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0900.jp2"}, "899": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0901.jp2"}, "900": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0902.jp2"}, "901": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0903.jp2"}, "902": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3285", "width": "1933", "jp2-path": "nationaleducatio00barn_0904.jp2"}}