Class _/. Book. 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION m EUROPE; BEING AN ACCOUNT OEGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, INSTRUCTION, AND STATISTICS PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT GRADES THE PRINCIPAL STATES. By henry BARNARD, LL. D., SUPERINTENDENT OP COMMON SCHOOLS IN CONNECTICUT. SECOND EDITION. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY CHARL11.S B. NORTON. No. 71, CHAMBERS STREET. 1854. V ^^ PREFACE, The following pages were, in part, published in 1851, under the title of " Normal Schools and other Institutions, Agencies and Means designed for the Professional Education of Teachers." They were prepared from observations made during a tour in Europe in 1835-6, and from documents subsequently collected, from time to time, to assist the un- dersigned in maturing his own views and plans for the im- provement of common schools, and particularly in devising modes of operating beneficially for the advancement of the teachers' profession, in the States of Rhode Island and Con- necticut. The author has availed himself of a recent visit to Europe, to extend his inquiries, and collect additional documents, not only respecting the training of teachers, but in every depart- partment of the educational field, and particularly respecting agricultural schools, and institutions for juvenile delinquents. The results are embodied in this new edition of his original work, the title of which is changed, so as to convey a more adequate idea of its contents. To the results of his own observations and study of docu- ments, he is able, by permission of the gentlemen named, to add freely from the elaborate and valuable reports of Prof Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., to the Legislature of Ohio, in 1837, of President Alexander Dallas Bache, LL.D., to the Trustees of the Girard College of Orphans in Philadelphia, in 1839, of Hon. Horace Mann, LL. D., to the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1846, and of Joseph Kay, Esq., Traveling Bachelor of the University of Oxford, in 1850, on the sub- jects treated of in this volume. Without claiming any 4 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. thing for his own labors, the undersigned feels authorized in saying that the present edition contains more reliable statistics and fuller information respecting the whole subject of public education in Europe, than can be found in any one volume in the English language, or in any number of volumes easily accessible to any large number of American teachers and educators. It embodies information which can be made available in organizing new, and improving existing systems of public instruction, and particularly institutions and agencies, de- signed for the education of teachers in every state of the Union. Its value does not consist in conveying the spec- ulations and limited experience of the author, but the matured views and varied experience of wise statesmen, educators, and teachers, in perfecting the organization and administration of educational systems and institutions, through a succession of years, under the most diverse circumstances of government, society, and religion. The experience and views of the undersigned, as to the organization and administration of a system of public educa- tion adapted to the peculiar circumstances and wants of our own country, will be presented to the public in the course of another year, under the title of " National Education ; or, Contributions to the History and Improvement of Common Schools, and other means of Popular Education in the United States." HENRY BARNARD. CONTENTS EDUCATION IN EUROPE. BY HENRY BARNARD. GERMANY. Page. History of Education, 37 Parochial Schools, 18 Public Schools ' 39 Martin Luther, 19 Augustus Herrman Franke, 21 Orphan-House at Halle, 21 Basedow, 2o Pestalozzi, 25 Zeller 29 Centennial Birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30 Pnigress of Normal Schools, 31 General features of the School Systems, 32 Table. Normal Schools in Germany in 1848, 34 Results of the Normal School System, 35 Testimony of Professor Stowe, 35 " President Bache, 39 Mr. Mann 39 " Rev. Dr. Ryerson, 45 " Professor Stephens, 46 Course of Instruction in Primary Schools, ... . 49 For children between ages of si.x and eight, 50 Conversotion — Lesson on Objects, 51 Elements of Reading, 51 Writing 52 " Numbers — Arithmetic, 52 For children between ages of eight and ten, 52 E.xercises in Reading, . . 52 E.xercises in Writing, 53 Moral and Religious Instruction, 53 Language or Grammar, 54 Number or Arithmetic, 56 Doctrine of Space and Form, 55 Singmg by Note, 55 For children from ten to twelve, 55 Exercises in Reading and Elocution, 55 Writing introductory to Drawing 55 Bible History 55 Language and Gramme^r, 55 Knowledge of Nature, 56 Arithmetic 57 Geometry — Doctrine of Magnitudes, . ... 57 Singing and Science of Vocal Music, .... 57 Children from twelve to fourteen, 57 Religious Instruction, 58 Knowledge of Nature and Mankind, 58 Language or Exercises in Composition,.. 59 Application of Arithmetic to Business,.. . 59 Elements of Drawing 59 Exercises in Singing and science of Music, 60 Extracts from Report of Hon. H. Mann, 60 Classification, 60 Methods of teaching young children, 60 Arithmetic and Mathematics, 63 Grammar and Composition, 64 Writing and Drawing, 66 Geography, 68 Exercises in Thinking, 70 Knowledge of Nature, 71 Knowledge of the World, and Society, 72 Bible History and Bible Knowledge, 73 Music, 74 Testimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the prac- tical working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74 PRUSSIA. Pag*. History of Primary Instruction, 81 Outline of System, 86 Statistics of Pri mary Education in 1848, ..... 88 Remarks on Progress of Primary Schools,.... 89 Subjects and Methods of Instruction, 91 Elementary Schools, 91 Burgher Schools 92 Higher Town Schools, 92 Text-books 93 School Examinations 93 Results in practical working of System ac- cording to Mr. Kay 94 Education of young children, universal,. .. . 94 School Attendance, 95 Children employed in factories, 96 Voluntary System prior to 1819, 97 Schools where the people are of one faith,. . 98 " " " " " different do. 98 Mixed Schools 99 Duties of School Committee,.. 99 Schools in large towns and cities, 101 Advantages of large schools, 102 School -houses, 103 Superior Primary Schools, 105 'Real Schools, Gymnasia, Endowed Schools, 105 Large landed Proprietors, 106 Lancasterian Method, 106 Paid Monitors or Assistants, 107 Text-books 109 Suggestive Character of the Methods, 110 Interest of Children in their Studies Ill Specimens of Schools of different grades, from Dr. Bache's Report 112 Burgher School at Halle 112 Military Orphan-House at Annaburg 115 Public Schools of Berlin, 118 Elementary Schools, 118 Burgher Schools, 123 Dorothean Higher City School of Berlin,.. 124 Model School of Teachers' Seminary, 127 Seminary School at Weissenfels, 123 Higher Burgher School of Potsdam 135 Secondary Instruction in Prussia, 139 Admission of pupils, 139 Subjects of Instruction, 140 Distribution of Teachers, 141 Number of hours of Recitation, 141 Plan of Studies 142 Study out of School Hours, / 143 Duration of courses, 143 Examination for University, 114 Su])posed defects of Teachers, 144 Physical Education 144 Religious Education, 145 Discipline, 145 Motives to Study, 145 Regulations for Final Examination 146 Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin,... 148 Royal Real School,. .' 152 City Trade School, 155 Institute of Arts 159 Legal Provision respecting Teachers, 165 Testimony of Mr. Kay, 169 6 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Page- Social Condition, 170 Educational Advantages 172 Schools Preparatory to Normal Schools,... 371 Examination on entering 172 " for Diploma as Teachers, 173 Teachers are Public Officers, 174 Salaries fixed, and payment certain, 176 Female Teachers, 178 Teachers' Conferences J79 Pensions to old and invalid teachers 181 Widows and Orphans of deceased teachers, 182 Educational Periodicals 182 Teachers' Seminary, or Normal Colleges, .. 183 Conditions and Examinations for entering,. 185 Intellectual Training of a Seminary, 186 Industrial Training, 187 Diploma 188 Location and Number of Normal Schools in 1846 190 Small Normal Schools of Lastadie, 191 Small Normal School of Pyritz 194 Normal School of Potsdam", 197 Normal Schools at Bruhl 207 Normal Seminary in Eisleben, 218 Seminary for Teachers at Weissenfels 219 Seminary for Teachers of City, at Berlin, 233 Normal Schools for Female Teachers, 235 Seminary at Marienweider 236 Diaconissen Anstalt at Kaisersworth, 236 Prussian Schools, a few years ago, 24 1 School Counselor Dinter, 242 Journal of an Institute, or Conference of Teachers 243 School Counselor Bernhardt 243 Bernard Overberg 245 C. B. Zeller — the Influence of Example 253 Self-examination — by Beckendorf, 254 SAXONY. System of Primary Instruction 257 Institution for Superannuated Teachers, .... 259 Statistics of Schools 260 Royal Seminary for Teachers at Dresden, 261 Examination for Teachers' Diplomas, 262 Protection of Teachers' Rights, 265 Compulsorv Attendance at School, 266 School Buildings, 267 Primary Schools of Dresden, 268 Saxon Sunday Schools, 268 Plan of Sunday School at Dresden 269 Public Examination of the Schools 271 Fletcher Normal Seminary at Dresden, 272 Burgher School at Leipsic, 273 Plan of Instruction, 275 Public Schools of Leipsic and Dresden, 278 Secondary Education in Saxony, 279 Blochmann-Vitzhum Gymnasium at Dresden, 280 School of Mines at Freyberg, 289 BADEN. School Authorities, 293 System of Primary Schools, 293 Educational Statistics of Baden, 293 School Attendance, 299 " Internal Organization, 299 " Plan of Instruction, 292 Evening Classes, 292 Sunday Classes 297 Industrial Instruction, 297 Education of Children employed in Factories, 297 Teachers' Conferences 298 Normal Seminary at Carlsrube, 299 WIRTEMBERG. Educational Statistics 301 System of Primary Schools, 301 Denzel's Introduction to the Art of Teaching, 303 Normal Seminary at Esslingen, 310 Normal Seminary at Nurtingen 306 Page. Subject of Instruction in the Norraal Schools, 305 Institute of Agriculture at Hohenheim 307 HESSE CASSEL AND NASSAU. Educational Statistics, 312 Normal Seminary at Schluehtern, 312 BAVARIA. System of Primary Schools, 313 Normal Seminary at Bamburg, 314 Plan of Seminary by Jacobi, 314 Educational Statistics, 315 Mr. Kay's Estimate of Public Schools 316 Dr. Grazer's System of Instruction, 319 Common School at Bayreuth 320 AUSTRIA. System of Public Instruction, 325 " Popular Schools, 325 " Upper Schools 326 " Commercial Academies, .320 High Schools for Girls 326 " Gymnasia, 326 System of Inspection, 329 Regulations respecting Teachers, 331 System of Normal Schools 333 Polytechnic Institute at Vienna, 335 Statistics of Elementary Schools, 338 " Secondary Schools, .339 " Superior 339 " Academies of Science, 340 SWITZERLAND. Outline of Educational Institutions, 341 Reconcilement of Difl^erence of Relig. Belief, 341 School Attendance made Compulsory, 342 Education of Teachers, 344 Manual Labor in Normal Schools, 344 Vehrli's Opinions on the Habits of Teachers, 345 Course of Instruction in Primary Schools,... 346 Religious Exercises 347 Local Inspection of Schools, 347 Results of the Education of the People, 348 Education of Girls in Catholic Seminaries,.. 348 Condition of the Peasantry, 349 Pauperism and Ignorance, 350 Educational Establishment at Hofwyl, 351 Emanuel Fellenberg 351 Fellenberg's Principles of Education, 354 Subjects of Study 354 " Moral Education, 3.55 " Intellectual Education, 355 " Physical Education, 356 Norma! Course for Teachers at Hofywl, .... 357 Berne Cantonal Society for Teachers, 364 Normal School at Kruitzlingen-Thurgova, .. 367 Educational Views of Vehrli, 369 Programme — Course of Study, 372 Normal School at Kussnacht, Zurich, 373 Programme of Studies, 376 Norm. School at Lausanne — Cant, of Vaud., .378 Normal School at Lucerne, 380 FRANCE. History of Popular Education, 381 Ordinances of National Convention, 381 Decrees of Napoleon, 381 Law of the Government of Louis Phillippe,. 382 Report of Victor Cousin, 382 Speech of M. Guizot 387 Degrees of Primary Instruction, 387 Local and State Inspection, 388 Professional Education of Teachers '389 M ission of the Teacher, 389 Society of Elementary Instruction, 390 Outline of system of Public Instruct, in 1850, 391 University of France, 391 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Page. Council of Public Instruction, 391 Academies, 391 Royal Colleges, 392 System of Pub. Competion for Professorship, 392 System of Primary Instruction, 393 School Attendance, 393 Local Management, 393 Examination of Teachers, 393 Departmental Inspection, 394 Education of Teachers, 394 Course of Instruction, 395 Teachers' Associations, 395 Fund for Relief of Aged Teachers, 395 Governmental Prizes to Masters, 395 Expenditures for School-houses, 395 Schools embraced in the University of France, 396 Primary Education in the Communes, 397 Number of Primary Sch. belong, to each Sect, 397 Attendance in Primary Schools, 398 Classes for Adults, and Apprentices, 899 Statistics of Normal Schools, 399 ,^^tate of Secondary Education, 400 Primary Education in department of Tarn,.. 401 Institutions for Special Instruction, 405 Industrial Instruction, 406 History of Normal Schools in France, 413 Abbe de Lasalle in 1681 413 Normal School of Paris, 1794, 413 Normal Class of Strasbourg in 1811 414 Report of Cousin in 1832, 415 Plan framed by Guizot in 1833, 421 Number of schools in 1849, 424 Conferences of Teachers, 425 Libraries of Teachers, 427 Pecuniary condition of Teachers, 430 Institute of Christian Brothers, 435 Life of John Baptist de Lasalle, 435 Regulations of Institute, 442 Primary Normal School at Versailles 447 " Dijon 449 Secondary Normal School of Paris, 451 Polytechnic School of France, 457 School of Engineers 462 School of Roads and Bridges, 463 School of Mines, 462 Central School of Arts and Manufactures,... 453 Agricultural Education in France, 467 Model Farm Schools 468 Regional Schools of Agriculture, 469 National Agronomic Institute, 470 Veterinary Schools, 471 Reform Farm Schools 474 Agricultural School at Grignon, 475 " " " Grand Jouan, 485 Farm Schools for Juvenile Delinquents, 487 " " in Switzerland, 487 " " Wirtemberg, 489 " " Hamburgh 490 " " France, 492 " " Belgium 496 " " England 497 Conference respecting Reform schools 497 Remarks of I). M. Hill 498 Rev. W. E. Osborn, Bath Prison 502 Rev. S. Turner, Red Hill Farm School,. 504 Rev. John Clay, House of Correction,. . . 505 Rev. T. Carter, Liverpool Jail, 508 Rev. F. Bishop, Liverpool Domestic Mis- sion, 510 W.Locke, Ragged School Union 511 A. Thompson, Aberdeen Indust. Schools, 512 Rev. H. T. Powell. Warwiclc Asylum, 515 Redemption Institute at Hamburgh, 517 Visit to, by Prof Stowe, 527 Mr. Mann 528 Agricultural Reform School at Mettray 5.33 Horticultural Reform School at Petit-Bourg, . . 549 Prison of La Roquette in Paris, 553 Reform School at Ruysselede in Belgium 557 Philanthropic Soc. Farm School at Red Hill, . . 578 BELGIUM. Page. History of Public Instruction, 583 Outline of System adopted in 1842, 585 Primary Schools, 586 Secondary, 587 Superior, 588 Special and Industrial, 588 Industrial Education, 588 Normal Instruction, 591 Teachers' Conferences, 592 Normal School 594 Reform School at Ruysselede, 555 HOLLAND. History of Primary Instruction, 595 Outline of System. School Inspection 595 Regulations as to examination of teachers, . . . 601 " " school inspectors, 603 " " general order of Primary Schools, 605 Regulations respecting Religious Instruction, 606 Table. Primary Education in 1846, 608 Primary School at the Hague 619 " Normal School at Harlaem, 617 HAMBURGH. Rauen-Hause, or Redemption Institute at Horn Sir DENMARK. Outline of System of Public Education, 619 SWEDEN. Outline of System of Public Education, 621 NORWAY. Outline of System of Public Education, 623 RUSSIA. History of Public Instruction 625 Statistics of schools in 1850, 627 GREECE. Outline of System, and Statistics in 1852,. 633 FTALY. Outline of System in Lombardy and Venice, 635 " " " " Sardinia, 640 " " " " Tuscany, 643 " " " " Rome, 644 " " " " Naples, 645 SPAIN. Regulations respecting Normal Schools, 647 PORTUGAL. Outline and Statistics of Public Education,.. 646 SCOTLAND. History of Parochial Schools, 651 Normal School of the Church of Scotland, .. . 661 School of Free Church, 671 IRELAND. History of National Education, 677 Legislation of Henry VIII., 685 Protestant Charter Schools, 677 Kildare Place Society 669 Commissioners of English Parliament, 678 " Notional Education, 766 Results of the System, 679 1. Attendance of Cath. and Prot. children, 679 2. Teachers 680 3. Different grades of schools 685 4. School-houses, 689 5. School-books, 689 8 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Page. 6. System of Inspection, 689 7. Appropriations, 690 8. Influence on England 691 Training Department and Model Schools, ... 693 Agricultural Education, 699 Professor3hi[)S in Queen's Colleges, 699 Agricultural Department in National System, 700 Model Farm at Glasnevin, 703 List of Lectures at Glasnevin, 707 National School at Larne, 707 Dunmanway Model School, 709 Workhouse Agricultural School, 710 Operations of similar Schools in England,. 710 Queen's Colleges and University, 711 ENGLAND. History of Public Elementary Schools, 721 Cloister and Cathedral Schools, 721 Benefit of Clergy to those who could read, 722 Grammar and Free Schools, 723 Amount of Educational endowments, 724 Voluntary Associations to promote schools, 725 Sunday Schools 726 Monitorial System, 727 Joseph Lancaster, 728 Andrew Bell 727 British and Foreign School Society, 728 National Society, 729 Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, 729 Religions Tract Society, 729 School for Adults, 729 Evening Schools, 729 Infant Schools, 730 Mechanics Institution, 730 Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 731 Central Society of Education, 731 Ragged School Union 731 Philanthropic Society's Reform School 732 Schools for Pauper Children, 733 Education of Children in Factories, 746 Schools of Industry, 733 Schools of Design, 734 Lancashire Public School Society, 734 National Public School Association, 734 Parliamentary action in behalf of Schools, . . 735 Bill of Mr. Whitbread in 1807, 735 Education Committee in 1816, 736 Bill of Mr. Brougham 1820, 736 Educational Charities, 736 Education Inquiry of, 1833, 736 Educational grant in 1833, 736 Report of Select Committee of 1834 736 Efforts ot\Lord Brougham in 1835 and 1837, 737 Committee of Council in 1839, 739 Action of Committee of Council on Education, 740 Appointment of James P. Kay, as Secretary, 741 Aid towards School Buildings, 741 " Normal School Buildings, .... 741 " Normal Pupils, 741 " Salaries of Teachers 741 " Apprentice Teachers, 741 " School-books and Apparatus,. 742 " Inspection of Schools, 742 Summary of results up to 1852, 745 Remarks of T. B. Macauley, 747 Thomas Carlyle, 750 History and Condition of Normal Schools or Training Colleges 751 Examination Papers on School Management and Alt of Teaching, 757 Page. Normal School of British and Foreign School Society 761 Normal Department for Young Men 763 Course of Conversational Reading, 775 (iuestio'ns to test a School, 777 Model School 779 Female Department of Normal School,.... 780 Hints to Candidates for Admission 784 Normal and Model Schools of the Home and Infant School Society 787 Qualifications of Cand idates, 787 Course of Instruction for Teachers 789 Graduated Course in the Model School, 795 Syllabus of Lectures on Education, 800 St. Mark's College, or Training Establishment for Masters for National Schools, 805 General Plan, by Rev. Derwent Coleridge,. 806 Musical Instruction, 812 Industrial Occupations, 814 Schools of Practice, 816 Oral Teaching 820 Battersea Normal School, 823 Condition of the Laboring Poor, 824 Training nf Pauper Children, . , 824 Visit to Normal Schools of Switzerland,. .. 826 External Training of the Pupils 826 Gymnastic Exercises, 830 Excursions into the Country, 831 Household Life 832 Intellectual Training, 836 Phonic Method of Teaching Reading, 837 Arithmetic, 838 Elements of Mechanics 839 Geography, 839 Drawing 840 Vocal Music 842 Lectures on Pedagogics, 843 Motives and Habits 844 Training of Teachers for Large Towns,. . . 844 Formation of Character, 846 Religious Life 849 Theory and Practice of Teaching 851 Results of the Experiment, 852 Chester Diocesan Training College, 855 Commercial and Agricultural School, 856 Model School 862 Statistics of the Diocese, 863 Industrial Training 867 Regularity of Attendance, 872 Normal Schools for Female Teachers, 875 Whiteland Institution, 875 Salisbury Diocesan Institute 876 Lectures on the Principles of Education,.... 877 " Practice of Education 878 Kneller Hall Training School for Teachers of Pauper Children, 879 Number of Pauper Children, 879 " Juvenile Criminals, 879 Condition of, as to Education, 879 Parish Apprenticeship, 880 Pauperism Hereditary, 880 Workhouse Schools 881 Industrial Instruction, 882 District Pauper Schools, 884 Training School for Teachers, 885 Industrial Department of, 888 Daily Routine, 886 Discipline, 888 Order of Lessons, 889 Model Pauper School 890 INDEX. Aberdeen, industrial schools, 512, 731. Adults, schools and classes for, 269, 399, 729. Adventure schools in Scotland, 609. Agriculture, schools of, in France, 467, Ireland, 699. " Wirteinberg, 307. " " Belgium, 589. " Russia, 626. Agricultural education, 467. " colonies, 487, 557. Agronomic institute at Versailles, 470. Alfort, veterinary school at, 472. Alphabet, how taught. 51. Amusement, taste and habit of, cultivated, 494. Annaburg, military orphan school at, 115. Annuaire des deux mondes, e.xtracts from, 406. Anthropology, 361. Apparatus, for primary schools, 267. " " polytechnic, 103, 336. " agricultural, 467, 473, 336. " " veterinary, 472. Apprentices, house or family for, 410, 412. " schools, 590. Architecture, study of, 164,486. Arithmetic, how taught, 6(1, 63, 130, 137, 617. Arts, schools of, in Prussia, 155, 1.59. • Berlin, 159. " " " " Vienna, 335. " " " " France, 406. " " " England, 734. Ashley, Lord, 511. Association of teachers, 179, 298, 364, 425, 592. Attendance, law respecting, in Prussia, 95, 121. " " " Baden, 294. " " " Saxony, 266. " " " Bavaria, 313. " " " Switzerland, 342. Atcham union workhouse school, 711. Athenaeum in Belgium, 587. Austria, 325. System of public instruction, 32.5. " popular schools, 325. " upper schools, 326. " commercial academies, 326. " high schools for girls, 326. " gymnasia, 326. " lyceum, 326. " university, 326. " inspection, 329. Regulations respecting teachers, 331. System of normal schools, 333. Polytechnic institute at Vienna, 335. Statistics of elementary schools, 338. " secondary schools, 339. " superior, 339. " academies of science, 340. Baehe, A. D., Report on Education in Europe, 3. " " extracts from, 81, 85, 117, 139, 122, 273, 457, 599. Baden, 293. School authorities, 293. System of primary schools, 293. Educational statistics of Baden, 293. " school attendance, 294. " internal organization, 294. " plan of instruction, 296. Evening classes, 297. Sunday classes, 297. Industrial instruction, 297. Education of children in factorieSj 297. Teachers' conferences, 298. Normal seminary at Carlsruhe, 300. Bamberg, normal school at, 314. Basedow, 25. Battersea, training college at, 823. Bavaria, 314. System of primary schools, 313. Normal seminary at Bamburg, 314. Plan of seminary by Jacobi, 314. Educational statistics, 315. Mr. Kay's estimate of public schools. 316. Dr. Grazer's system of instruction, 319. Common school at Bayreuth, 320. Bayreuth, Dr. Grazer's method at, 319. Beckendorf on self-education, 254. Belgium, 583. History of public instruction, 583. Outline of system adopted in 1842, 585. Primary schools, 586. Secondary, 537. Superior, 588. Special and industrial, 588. Industrial education, 588. Normal instruction, 591. Teachers' conferences, 592. Normal school, 593 Reform school at Ruysselede, 555. Bell, Andrew, system of sciiools, 727. Benefit of clergy, 722. Berlin, schools of, 118, 124, 127, 142, 148, 233. Berne, association of teachers of, 36't. Bernhardt, teachers' conference by, 243. Bible in Prussian schools, 53, 73. Black-book, 135. Blockman college at Dresden, 280. Boarding round, 168. ' Books. 93, 110, 689, 403. Borough Road normal school, 761. Brevet de capacity, 423. British and Foreign School Society, 761. Brougham, Henry (Lord,) educational services, 735. " " extracts from, 754, 737. Brothers, institute of, at Horn, 491, 501, 524. " of the Christian doctrine, 436. Briihl, normal school at, 207. Burgh school in Scotland, 669. Burgher school, detinition of, 92. " " in Berlin, 123. " Halle, 112. 10 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Burgher school in Leipsic, 273. Bursary or gratuity to teachers, 421, 618. Campe. 25. Cnrlsriihe, normal school at, 300. Carter, Rev. 'J'., remarks on young criminals, 308. Carved wood work, school for, 410. Cathedral schools, 721. Catholic church and schools, 17, 75, 183, 206. " cantons in Switzerland, 343. Central society of education. 731. Central school of arts in Paris, 408, 463. Certificate to pupils leaving school, 93. " " teachers in Prussia, 166, 188. " " " Sa.xony, 263. " " " France, 423. '• England, 753. Chalmers, Dr., on parochial schools of Scotland, 658 Chemistry, 459, 460. Chester, training college at, 855. Children, personal appearance, 75, 105, 109. " rich and poor in same school, 105,^09. " catholics and protestants, 343, 428. Christian Brothers, 435, 420. " knowledge society, 729. Christmas at a reform school, 522. City Trade School at Berlin, 155. Classical instruction, 156, 281, 383. Classification in schools, 60, 103. 107. Clay, Rev. J., on crime, &c.,'515. Cloister schools, 19, 279. Coleman, H., extracts from, 475, 548. Coleridge, Derwent, 806. Collective teaching, 775. College in French system, 383, 400. " training. See Training College, Comenius, 20. Commercial school, 337. Committee. See School Committee. Committee of council on edncntion, 739. Common as applied to school, 401. Composition, how taught, ,56. Compulsory school attendance, 21, 95, 121, 342. Concours, nature of, 392. Conference of teachers in Prussia, 167, 169, 243. " Baden, 298 " " " " France, 425. " " " " Belgium, 592. " respecting reformatory schools, 497. Conversation, exercises in, 50, 60, 66. Conservatory of arts in Paris, 467, 407. Correction, house of, 492. Courses of study, 49, 92, 115, 119, 126, 127, 140, 152. 156. Courteilles, Viscount, labors at Mettray, 534. Cousin, extracts from, 382, 414, 598. " on Prussian schools, 382. " Holland, .597. " " normal schools, 414, Cramming system discarded, 270. Crime, juvenile, 732. Cuvier on schools of Holland, 597. Demetz, founder of Mettray reform school, 493. Denmark, 619. Outline of system, 620, Iceland, 620. Denzel, teachers' manual by, 303. Diaconissen Anstalt at Kaiserswerth, 236, Dick's bequest, 663. Didactic, or art of teaching, 222, 843, 851. Diesterweg, Dr., 127. Dijon, normal school at, 447. Diocesan schools in England, 85.5, 876. Diploma to teachers, 173, 188, 263. Discipline in polytechnic schools, 461. " normal schools. 449, 455. Dismission of a teacher, 265. Domergue on primary schools, 401. Dorothean Higher City School in Berlin, 124. Drawing, how taught, 59, 66, 51, 154, 320, 460. Dresden, schools in, 261, 268, 272, 278. Dublin, normal schools at, 693. Ducpetiaux, E ; report on reform schools, 496. " extracts from, 517, 532 549, 557. Dunmanwny, model agricultural school, 7U9. Dupin, Charles, educational map of France, 401. Dwelling-house for teacher, J 67, 259, 652, 394. Ecclesiastical authority as to schools, 183, 327. Edinburgh, normal schools at, 661, 671. Eislehen, normal seminary of, 218. Elberfeld, schools in, 97. Elementary schools, 92. Employment of young children, 97, 226,297. Encouragements to pupils, 1J2. Endowed schools, 103, 279, 668, 723, 736. England, 721. History of public elementary schools. 721. Cloister and cathedral schools, 721. Benefit of clergy to those who could read, 722. Grammar and free schools, 723. Amount of educational endowments. 724. Voluntary associations to promote schools, 725. Sunday schools, 726. Monitorial system, 727. Joseph Lancaster. 728. Andrew Bell, 727. British and Foreign School Society, 728. National society, 729. Society for promoting Christian knowledge, 729. Religions tract society, 729. School for adults, 729. Evening schools, 729. Infant schools, 730. Mechanics' institution, 730. Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 731. Central society of education, 731. Ragged school union, 731. Philanthropic society's reform school, 732. Schools for pauper children, 733. Education of children in factories. 746. Schools of in.Uistry, 733. Schools of design, 734. Lancashire public school society, 734. National public school association, 734. Parliamentary action in behalf of schools, i35. Action of Committee of Privy Council, 740. Remarks of T. B. Maca\ilay, 747. , " Thomas Carlyle, 750. History and condition of normal schools, 751. Examination papers on school management and art of teaching, 757. Normal school of British and Foreign School So- ciety, 761. Normal department for young men, 763. Course of conversational reading, 775. Questions to test a school, 777. Model school, 779. Female department of normal school, 780. Hints to candidates for,*id mission, 784. Normal and model schools of the Home and In- fant School Society, 787. Syllabus of lectures on education, 800. St. Mark's college, or training school, 805. Battersea normal school, 823. Chester diocesan training college, 855. Normal schools for female teachers, 875. Lectures on the principles of education, 877. " " practice of education, 878. Kneller Hall training school, 879. Conference respecting reform schools, 497. philanthropic sue, farm school at Red Hill, 578. Engineers, schools for, 461, 588. English language, 837. " literature, 837. Esslingen, normal school at, 310. Evening schools, 297, 685, 729. Examination, public, 271. " oral, 460. " by written questions, 231. " of teachers in Prussia, 230. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 11 Exaniiimtiun of teiichers in Saxony, 264, 270. ' " " France, 423. Holland. 601. " for universities, 14:!, 14.5. Example, influence of, in teachers, 253. Exhibition for poor scholars, 422. Factory children in Prussia. 96. " " " Baden, 2!I7. " " " England, 74(). Family arrangement at reform schools, 545. Farm schools for young criminals, 487. Feblnger, 31. Fees, or tuition, 176, 596, 599, 658, 746. Felbiger, 25. Fellenberg's institute at Hofvvyl, 351. " principles of education, 354. " normal course, 3,57. Female teachers, 179, 235, 240. " normal schools for, 235. 240, 404, 767. Fleidner, institute at Kaiserswerth, 236. Fletcher normiil seminary, 272. Foreman in reform schools, how trained, 491, 535, 554. 562. Forestry, schools of, 307. Formal instruction, 203. Fr.vnce, 381. History of popular education, 381. Ordinances of national convention, 381. Decrees of Napoleon, 381. Law of the government of Louis Phillippe, 382. Report of Victor Cousin, 382. Speech of M. Guizot, 387. Degrees of primary instruction, 387. Local and state inspection, 388. Professional education of teachers, 389. Mission of the teacher, 389. Society of elementary instruction, 390. Outline of system in 1850, .391. University of France, 391. Council of public instruction, .391. Academies, 391. Royal colleges, 392. System of competion for professorship, 392. System of primary instruction, 393. School attendance, 393. Local management, 393. Examination of Teachers, 393. De|)artmental inspection, 394. Education of teachers. 394. Course of instruction, 395. Teachers' associations, 395. Fund for relief of aged teachers, 395. Governmental prizes to masters, 395. Expenditures for school-houses, 395, Schools embraced in university of France, 39fi Primary education in the communes, 397. Number of primary sch. belong, to each sect, 397 Attendance in primary schools, 398. Classes for adults, and apprentices, 899. Statistics of normal schools, 399. State of secondary education, 400. Primary education in department of Tarn, 401. Institutions for special in.struction, 405. " " industrial instruction, 406. History of normal schools in France, 413. Conferences of teachers, 425. Libraries of teachers, 427 Pecuniary condition of teachers, 430. Institute of Christian Brothers, 435. Primary normal school at Versailles, 447. " ■ " " " Dijon, 449. Secondary normal school of Paris, 451. Polytechnic school of France, 457. " " engineers, 462. " " roads and bridges, 462. " " mines, 462. Central school of arts and manufactures, 453. .Agricultural education in France, 467. Model farm schools, 468. Regional schools of agriculture, 469. National agronomic institute, 470 Veterinary schools, 471. Reform farm schools, 474. Agricultural school at Grignon, 475. " " " Grand Jouan, 485. Farm schools for juvenile delinquents, 487. Agricultural reform school at Mettray, 533. Horticultural reform school at Petit-Bourg, 549. Prison of I^a Roquette in Paris, 553. Franke, educational labors of, 21. " teachers' class, 24. " orphan-house, 21, 112. Frederick William Gymnasium, Berlin, 148. Free church of Scotland, 669. " schools, 325. French language, how taught, 137, 142, 154. Freres Chretiens, 441. Freyberg, school of mines at, 289. Funds, must not diminish school rate or tax, 167. I Gallery lesson, 720, 801. I Garden for teacher, 167. I Gardening, art of, acquired by teachers, 203,431,815. Geography, how taught, 68, 114, 131, 138, 613. I Geometry, how taught, 131, 137. Germany, 17. I History of education, 17. ! Parochial schools, 18. Public schools, 19. Martin Luther, 19. Augustus Herrman Franke, 21. Orphan-house at Halle, 21. Basedow, 25. Pestalozzi, 25. Zeller, 29. Centennial birth-day of Pestalozzi, 30. Progress of normal schools, 31. General features of the school systems, 32. Table. Normal schools in Germany in 1848,34. Results of the normal school system, 35. Course of instruction in ))rimnry schools, 49. For children between ages of six and eiglit, 50. Fjr children from ten to twelve, 55. Children from twelve to fourteen, 57. Extracts from report of Hon. H. Mann, 60. Testimony of Joseph Kay, Esq., as to the practi- cal working of the Prim. Sch. of Germany, 74. Glasnevin, agricultural school at, 683. Government, educational duty of, 76, 387, 747, 750. Graded schools, 102. Grammar, how taught, 54, 56, 59, 65. Grand Jouan, agricultural school at, 485. Grazer, system of instruction of, 319. Greece, 633. Outline of system, and statistics in 1852, 633. Greek church, 628. Grignon, agricultural school at, 475. Guizot, plan of schools for France, 387. " extracts from, 387. Gymnasium, in Prussia, 105, 139. " " Saxony, 279. " " Austria, 326. Gymnastics, 830. Hague, primary school at, 609. Halle, orphan-house at, 21, 113. " burgher school at, 112. Hamburgh, reform school at, 517. Hamilton, Sir William, extract from, 91, 382. Harnisch, method of teaching reading, 114. '■ plan of studies, 115. Hebrewschools, 311, 631. Hecker, 24, 31. Hermann, seminary for classic teachers, 259. Hesse Cassel, 311. Hickson, W. E. German nationality, 7. " " schools in Holland, 24,597. Higher burgher school, 124, 127, 135. Hill, M. D., on juvenile crime, 498. Hitchcock, E., Report on agricultural schooll,703. " extF^cts from, 469, 703. 12 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Hofwyl, Fellenberg's establishment at, 351. Hohenheim, agricultural institute at, 307. Holland, 595. History of primary instruction, .595. Outline of system. School inspection, 595. Regulations as to examination of teachers, 601. " " school inspectors, 003. " " primary schools, 605. Regulations respecting religious instruction, 606. Table. Primary education in 1846, 608. Primary school at the Hague, 609. " normal school at Harlaem, 617. Home and colonial infant school society, 721, 746. Horn, reform school at, 517. Horology, practical school of, 410. Iceland, family instruction, 620. Iferten. See Yverdim. Ignorance and crime, 749. Indigent children, 487. Induction, methods of, 117, 128. Industry, school of, 733. Industrial instruction, in normal schools, 187, 367. " " primary schools, 297, 687. " " pauper schools, 882. " " reform schools, 487. " " special schools, 406. ^ Infant schools, 730. Inspection of schools in Austria, 327, 329. Baden, 293. " " . " England, 742. France, 388, 394. Holland, .596, 603. " '• " Ireland, 689. " " " Suxonv, 258.. " " " Spain; 649. " " " Switzerland, 347. " " " Wirtemberg, 302. Institute of arts at Berlin, 159. " " agriculture at Hohenheim, 307. Instruction, methods of, 43, 50, 60, 91, 110, 113, 128. Intellectual education, 836. Ionian Islands, schools in, 634. Ireland, 675. History of national education, 675. Legislation of Henry Vlll., 676. Protestant charter schools, 676. ^ Kildare-place society, 677. Commissioners of English Parliament, 677. " National Education, 677. Results of the system, 678. Training department and model schools, 693. Agricultural education, 699. Professorships in dueeii's Colleges, 699. Agricultural department in national system, 700. Model farm at Glasnevin, 703. List of lectures at Glasnevin, 707. National school at Lame, 707. Dunmanway model school, 709. Workhouse agricultural school, 710. Operations of similar schools in England, 710. Queen's Colleges and University, 711. Irregular attendance, 266. Italy, 635. System in Lombardy and Venice, 635. " " Sardinia, 640. " " Tuscany. 643. " " Rome, 644. " " Naples, 645. Itinerant schools in Norway, 623. Jacobi, plan of normal school by, 314. Julius, Dr., Prussian schools as they were, 241. Journals of education, 46, 182, 390. Journal of Education, London, e.ttract from, 401. Jury of examination, 460. Juvenile crime, origin of, 493. " cost of, 501, 503. " criminals, school for in Belgium, 496, 557. " " " " France, 492. " " " " Wirtemberg, 489. Juvenile criminals, school for, in Hamburgh, 490. " " " " England, 497. " " " " Switzerland, 487. " " conference respecting, 497. Kaiserswerth, school for nurses, governesses, 236 Kay, Joseph, on education of jieople, 94. extracts from, 74, 94, 222, 226, 261, 305,315,341,367,441. Kay, James Phillips. See ShiiUleworth. Kneller Hall, 879. Kindermaim, 31. Kirk session, nature and power of, 6.55. Kirkpatrick, Dr., on agricultural schools, 700. Knighton, W., lectures on teaching by, 877. Koenigsberg, seminary for teachers at, 83. Kribben, or nursery schools, 730. Kruitzlingen, normal school at, 367. Kussnaclit, normal school at, 373. Lalor, author of prize essay, 731. Lamartine, on duty of educated men, idii Lancashire public school association, 734. Lancaster, Joseph, 727. Lancasterian system, in England, 728. " " Denmark, 620. > " " Holland, 595, 610. " '■ Prussia, 106. " •• Spain, 647. Landed proprietors, duties to poor children, 106. Lap-bag, for needlework, 780. Ltt Roquette, prison of, 555. Larne, agricultural school at, 707. Lasalle, Abbe de, educational labors of, 435. Lastadie, normal school at, 192, Lateran, council of, 18 Latin, how taught, 137, 285 813. Lausanne, normal school at, 378. Learned societies, 405. Liberty of instruction, 584. Libraries for teachfers, 427. Lierre, normal school at, 593. Liepsic, burgher school in, 273. " real school. 273. " seminary for classic teachers, 259. Locke, John, 25. Lombardy. schools in, 635. Lucerne, normal school nt, 380. Luther, Martin, educational labors of, 19. " letter to elector of Saxony, 19. " address in behalf of Christian schools, 19. Lyceum, in Austria, 326. France, 383. Macauley, T. B. on public schools, 747. Madras system, of Dr. Bell, 727. Mnlthus, on state of schools in England, 726. Manufactures, schools of, 406. Management clauses, 744. Manners of school children, 305, 77. Mann, Horace, report on schools of Europe, 4. " extracts from, 39, 60, 528. Manufacturing districts, 96, 266, 297, 325. Marienweider, normal school for females at, 236. Material instruction, 203. Map-drawing, 69, 015. Maynooth, 713. Mc Neil, Sir John, on agricultural schools, 701. Mechanics, science of, 866. Mechanics' Institutions, 730 Mecklenberg, duchy of, 311. Mental arithmetic, 64. Methodick, 206. Mercantile and commercial schools, 335, 856. Methods of teaching left with teacher, 93, 110. Mettrav, reform school at, 533. Middle schools, 91. Milne's Free .School, 668. Mines, schools of, 2«9, 462, 410. Minutes of committee of council on education, 739. Military schools, 590, 631. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 13 Military orphan schools, 115, 532. Mixed schools, 79, 98, 401. Model farm school, 468, 532. " schools, annexed to normal schools, 165. Models for drawing, 1U3. Monasteries, schools in, 279, 72]. Monitorial system, 106, 401, 610. Monitors, 106, 175, 343. Moral Education, 355. More, Sir Thomas, extract from, 725. Mother school of Christian Brothers, 352. Motives to study, 145. Miilhauser's system of writing, 838. Munich, 317. Music, 74, 126, 131, 211, 228, 842. Mutual instruction, 107, 610, 729. Nassau, duchy of, 311. National society, in England, 729. Natural history, how taught, 131, 866, Nature, knowledge of. 70, 137. Naval schools, 405, 625. Navigation, 589, 625. Needle work in school, 780, 590. " taught by teachers' wives, 432. Neufchatel, 343, 349. New Lanark, infant school at, 730. Nichols, G., extracts from, 598. Non-attendance at school, 403. Normal schools, definition of, 31, 333. " " remarks on by C. E. Stowe, 35. " " " A. D. Bache, 39. " " " H. Mann, 39. " E. Ryerson, 45. " L. Stephens, 46. " " " Joseph Kay, 183, 232. " " " Shuttleworth, 826. ' " " V. Cousin, 414. ;| " 'I M. Guizot, .388. Lord Brougham, 751. history of, 20, 30, 413, 661, 751. " " number and condition of, — " in Prussia, 165, 172, 185, 189, 190. " " Saxon V, 259, 261. " " Wirteiiiberg, 310, 305. " " Austria, 333. " " Switzerland, 343, 357, 366, 37.3, " " Bavaria, 313. , " " Baden, 300. " " Hesse Cussel, 312. " " France, .399, 421, 431, 447, 451. " " Spain, 647. " Portugal, 646. " Russia. 627. " " Belgium, 591. " Holland, 617, 844. " " Denmark, 620. "■" " Greece, 634. " " England. 751. " " Ireland, 693. " " Scotland, 661, 671. " " Germany, 34. " " different grades of, 189. 415. " " forfemaleteachers,235, 404, 594, 875. " catholic teachers, 207. " " protestant teachers, 317, 197. " " teachersof primary schools, 191. " secondarvschools, 451. I 259, 264. " j] " pauper children, 879. " reform schools, 490. 524. 535. II " " agricultural do., 700. " " " city schools, 440, 233. " ruraldislricts, 415, 445 " " description of particular, — " " in Prussia. Lastadie, 192. " " " " Pyritz, 194. " " " Potsdam, 197. " " " " Bruhl, 207. " " " " Eisleben, 218. Normal schools in Prussia, Weissenfels, 219. »' " Berlin, 233. " " " " Kaiserswerth, 236. " " " Saxony. Leipsic, 259. " " " " Dresden, 261. " " " Baden. Carlsruhe, 300. " " " Wirtemberg. Esslingen, 310. " " " Hesse Cassel. Schluchtern, 312. " " " Bavaria. Bamberg, 314. " " " " Schwabach, 314. " " " Austria. Vienna, 333. " " " Switzerland. Hofwyl, 357. " " " " Kruitzlingen, 367. " " " " Zurich, 372. " '' " Switzerland. Kussnacht, 373. " " Lausanne, 378. " " Lucerne, 380. " " France. Paris, 451. " " " Versailles, 447. " " " Dijon, 449. " " Belgium. Lierre, 593. Holland. Harlaem, 617. " Scotland. Edinburgh, 661, 671. " " Ireland. Dublin, 693. " England. Boroughroad, Lon.761. j " " " Chester, 8.55. Chelsea, 80.5. " " " Battersea, 833. I " " " Whiteland, 875. " " . " Kneller Hall, 879. " " administration and instruction of, — " direction of, 197, 219, 233,262, 373, 617. " " buildings and fixtures, 197, 207, 367. I " " domestic arrangements, 225, 227, 233, I 262, 367, 202, 421, 447, 449. " " director, or principal of, 416. I " " discipline of, 449, 455, 018. " " plan of study, 416. { " " expenses, &c., 197, 229, 424, 421. [ " " number of teachers, 198. 217, 261, 305 I " " " of pupils, 198, 208, 261. ! " " age of admission, 422, 810. " " conditions of admission, 165, 185, 199, I 219, 226, 232, 261, 303, 617, 694. i " " pledge to teach, 422. " " course and subjects of study, 186, 192, 218, 272, 300, 306, 312, 372, 376, 378. " " length of course, 166, 184, 220, 225 260, 261, 333, 617. " physical, 209, 225. " " intellectual, 180, 201, 213. " " moral and religious, 196, 211, 220, 225. 234. " " industrial, 187, 814, 881, 888. " " science of teaching, 229, 232, 234, 617. " " art of teaching, 204, 216, 234, 262, 6I7! " " musical education, 228, 280. " " examination for diploma, 166, 188, 204, 230, 262, 423. " " privileges of graduates. 189. " " general results of, 35, 39, 755. Norway, 623. Outline of system of public education, 623. Norwood, industrial school for paupers, 733. Novitiate of the Christian Brothers, 444. Nursery schools, 730. Nurses, training of, 236. Oberlin, J. J., author of infant schools, 730. Observation, how cultivated, 50, 206. Oral instruction, 761, 612. Order of exercises in school. See Time Table. Organization of public schools. See Prussia, France, S-c. Orphans, number of, increased by war, 487. " of teachers provided for, 181. " house for at Halle, 21, 112. " " " " Annaburg, 115. Osborn, Rev. W. C, on cost of crime, 502. Outline maps, 69, 613. Overberg, Bernard, labors of, 247. 14 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. Overseers of schools in Austria, 330. Parents, duties' of, to schools, in Prussia, 74, 7.5. " " " " " Bavaria, 313. " " " " " Saxony, 266. ' " France, 393. " " " " " Switzerland, 34i2. Paris, polytechnic school, 457. " normal school at, 451. " school of arts, 463. Parish or parochial schools, 346, 651. Parkhurst, prison for juvenile criminals, 732. Patronage society, for discharged criminals, 555. Pauperism and education, 350, 879. Pauper children, number of, 733, 879. " " schools for, 733. " " teachers for, 885. Pedagogy, 183, 222. Pecuniary condition of teacher, 430. Pennmanship, see Writing. Pensions for disabled teachers, 181,402. Periodicals, educational, 46, 183, 390. Pestalozzi, educational principles of, 25. " system of in Prussia, 83. " orphan-house at Neuhof, 487. ". contrasted with Basedow, 26. Petit-Bourg, reform school at, 549. Philanthopinum of Basedow, 25. Philanthopic society, 578, " " reform school of, 578. Phonic method, 25, 613, 836. Physical education, 138, 144. Physiology, 830, 361. Pietists, 25. Piety of teachers, how shown, 194. Play-ground, 106, 274. Polytechnic school ut Berlin, 159. " " " Vienna, 335. " Paris, 457. ' Poor schools, in Holland, 609. Portugal, 646. Potsdam, higher burgher school at, 135. " normal school, 197. " orphan-bouse, 532. Pounds, John, author of ragged schools, 731. Practical instruction. 203. Practice, or model schools, 165, 204, 216. Preparatory normal school, 226. Prevention, in school government, 211. Preventive schools, conference respecting, 468. Primary school in Sa.tony, 269. Primary schools. See Prussia, France, <$-c. " gradation of, 91, 387, 609. " " course of instruction in Germany, 49. " " " " " Holland, 609. " " " " " " Austria, 327. " " " " " " Bavaria, 313. " " " " " " France, 401. " " " " " " Sa.xony, 258, " " " " " " Baden, 296. " " inspection of. See Inspection. " " teachers of. See Teachers. Prince schools, 279. Princen's reading board, 612. Private schools, 103. Pro-seminaries, 226. Prussia, description of primary instruction, 81. History of primary instruction, 81. Outline of system, 85. Statistics of primary education in 1848, 88. Remarks on progress of primary Schools, 89. Subjects and methods of instruction, 91. Results, according to Mr. Kay, 94. " " Mr Mann, 39. " " Mr. Stephens, 46. Education of young children, universal, 94. School attendance, 95. Children employed In factories, 96. Voluntary system prior to 1819, 97. Schools where the people are of one faith, 98. " ' " different do. 98. Prussia, Mixed schools, 99. Duties of school committee, 99. Schools In large towns and cities, 101. Advantages of large school;*, 102. School-houses, 103. Superior primary schools, 105. Real schools, gymnasia, endowed schools, 105. Large landed proprietors, 106. liancasterian method, 106. Paid monitors or assistants, 107. Text-books, 109. Suggestive character of the methods, 110. Interest of children In their studies. 111. Burgher school at Halle, 112. Military orphan-house at Annaburg, 115. Public schools of Berlin, 118. Elementary schools. 118. Burgher schools, 123. Dorothean higher city school of Berlin, 124. Model school of teachers' seminary. 127. Seminary school at Weissenfels, 123. Higher burgher school of Potsdam, 135. Secondary Instruction in Prussia, 139. Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin, 143. Royal real school, 152. City trade school, 1.55. Institute of Arts, 159. Legal provision respecting teachers, 165. Testimony of Mr. Kay, 169. Social condition, 170. Educational advantages, 172. Schools preparatory to normal schools, 41, 171. Examination on entering, 172. Teachers are public officers 174. Salaries fixed, and payment certain, 176. Fiemale teachers, 178. Teachers' conferences, 179. Pensions to old and invalid teachers, 181. Widows and orphans of deceased teachers, 182. Educational periodicals, 182. Teachers seminary, or normal colleges, 183. Conditions and examinations for entering, 41,185. Intellectual training of a seminary, 186. Industrial training, 187. Diploma, 173, 188. Location of normal schools in 1846, 190. Small normal schools of Lastadie, 191. Small normal school of Pyrifz, 194. •Normal school of Potsdam, 197. Normal schools at Bruhl, 207. Normal seminary In Elsleben, 218. Seminary for teachers at Weissenfels, 219. Seminary for teachers of city, at Berlin, 233. Normal schools for female teachers, 235. Seminary at Marienwelder, 236. Diaconlssen Anstalt, at Kaisersworlh, 236. Prussian schools, a few years ago, 241. School counselor, Dinter, 242. Journal of a conference of teachers, 243. School counselor, Bernhardt, 243. Bernard Overberg, 246. C. B. Zeller — the influence of example, 253. Self examination'— by Beckendorf, 254. Publicity of public schools, 75. Public schools, rich and poor attend, 75, 316. " " protestant and catholic, 63, 317. Punishments, in reform schools, 512, 537, 552. Pupil teachers, 753. Pyritz, normal school at, 194. Qualifications required in a teacher in Prussia, 165. " " " " Austria, 331. " " " " Saxony, 2.59. " " " " Ireland, 693. " " " " France, 423. Queen's College and University in Ireland, 7i3. " scholars, in England, 753. Questions for self-examination by teachers, 254. " " examiners In schools, 777. " " on school management and art «f teaching,757. POBLIC EDUCATION IN EUROPE. 15 Ragged schools, origin of, 731. Raikes, Robert, and Sunday schools, 726. Rambult, 25. Rate, or tax for schciuls, 734. Ratich, labors of, 20. Rauhen-hrtus, at Horn, 490, 517. Rnumer, F., extracts from, 635. Reading, how taught, 50, 51, 55, 61, 114, 131, 612, Realia, 91, 321. Real instruction, 56, 59. Real schools at Berlin, 152. " " " Leipsic, 277. " " " Vienna, 335. Real objects, lessons on, 70. Red Hill, reform school at, 578. Reformation, influence of, 18. Reform schools for young criminals 487, 559. " " public or |)rivate, 557. buildings, 493, 5J8, 539, 549, 558. " " farm, 559, 561. " " family arrangement, 545, 581. officers, 519, 53.5, 5,i0, 562. foremen, 491, .5.35, .'562, 554. " " conditions of admission, 558, 560. number, 519, 536, 555, 560. age, 520, 561. " " previous life, 561, 557. " " classification, 518, 550, 564. " " dress, 540, 563. " " instruction, 519, 538, 566. " " employments, 535, 540, 558, 571. " " daily routine, 521, 544, 564. " " amusements. 522. food, 519, .562. " " infirmary, 544, 563. " " dormitories, 539, 549, 563. " " punishment, 541, 552, 569. " reward, 495, 530, 553, 568. " " meetings of pupils and officers, 569. " " discharge, 560. cost, 501, 526, 534, 543, 565, 573. result, 495. 520, 530, 556, 570. " " aid to discharged inmates, 555, 576. " " in Switzerland, 487. " " " Wirtemberg, 48e who profiled by their weaknesses, or punished their offenses. He believed that a good education for the children of the people was the only means of remedying this evil. The ravages of war had left a multitude of des- titute orphans in the small cantons of Switzerland. His first attempt to carry his benevolent plan into e.Neciition, was in collecting a number of these poor children at Stanz, devoting himself to their instruction and care in the sacri- fice of most of the comforts of life, and providing for their sup) oit fiom his own resources, or from the charity which he solicited from others. Here, he la- bored to discover the Irus and simple means of education. He treated his pu- pils with uniform sympathy and tenderness and thus attempted to awaken love and confidence in their hearts, and to sow the seed of eveiy good feeling. He therefore assumed /«i7A «/t./ /in' as the only true foundation of a system of edu- cation. He subsequently established a school in more regular form in Btirgdorf, in the canton of Beine, to which his benevolence and talents attracted a number of fellow-laborers. Here he endeavored to ascertain the principles which should govern the developm.ent of the ii'.fant faculties, and the proper peiiod for the commencement and completion of each course of instruction in this view. As the result of his investigations, Pestalozzi assumed as a fundamental prin- ciple, that education, in order to fit man for his destination must proceed ac- cording to the laws of nature. To adopt the language of his followers— that it must not act as an arbitrarj' mediator between the child and nature, between man and God, pursuing its own artificial arrangements, instead of the intiica- tionsof P<-ovidence — that it should assist the cour.se of natuial development, in- stead of doing it violence — that it should watch, and folloM' its progress, instead of attempting to mark out a path agreeably to a preconceived system. I. In view of this principle, he did not choose, like Ba.sedow, to cultivate the mind in a material way, meielv by inculcating and engrafting every thing rela- ting to external objects, and giving mechanical skill. He sought, on the con- trary, to develope, and exercise, and strengthen the faculties of the child by a steady couise of excitement to sclt-activity, with a limited degree of assistance to his efforts. II. In opposition to the haste, and blind groping of many teachers without system, he endeavored lo find the proper point for commencing, and to proceed in a slow and gradual, but uninterrupted- course, from one point to another — always wailing until the first should have a certain degiee of distinctness in the mind of the child, before enteiing uj on the exhibition of the second. To pur- sue any other course would only give superficial knowledge, which would neither afford pleasure to the child, nor promote its real progress. III. He opposed the undue cultivation of the memoiy and understanding, as lios.ile to true education. He j laced the essence of education in the harmoni- ous and uniform development of every faculty, so that the body should not be in advance of the mind, and that in the development of the mind, neither the physical powers, nor the aflfections, should be neglected; and that skill in ac- tion should be acquired at the same lime with knowledge. When this point is secured, we may know thai education has really begun, and thai it is not merely supe:ficial. IV. He required close attention and constant reference to the peculiarities of every child, and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people among whom he lived, in order that he might acquire the development and qualificaiion.s necessary for the situation to which the Creator destined him, when he gave him these active faculties, and be prepared to labor successfully for those among whom he was placed by his birth. V. While Basedow introduced a multitude of subjects of instruction into the schools, without special regard to the development of the intellectual powers, Pestalozzi considered tiiis plan as superficial. He limited the elementary sub- jects of instruction to Form, Number and Language, as the essfential c. ..ditibn HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 27 of definite and distinct knowledge; and believed that these elements should be tau'^hl wilh the inmost possible simplicity, comprehensiveness and mutual con- nec.ion. , , , . • . u VI. Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, desired ihat mstruction should com- mence with the intuition or simple perception of external objects and their rein- ti jns He was not, however, sati-ficd with this alone, but wished that the art of o'j^ rviwr should also be acquired. He th,)ught the things perceived o( less con- sequence than the cultivation of the perceptive powers, which should enable the child to observe completely,— to exhaust the subjects which should be brought before his mind. . Vii While the Philanihropinists attached great importance to special exer- cises of rellection, Pestalozzi would not make this a subject of separate study. He maintained that every subject of instiuction should be properly treated, and thus becom- an exercise'of thought; and believed, that lessons on Number, and Proportion and Size, would give ihe best occasion for it. VIII Pestalozzi, as well as Basedow, attached great importance to Arithme- tic particularly to Mental Arithmetic He valued it, however, not merely in the limited view of its practical usefulness, hat as an excellent means ot strengihening the mind. He also introduced Geometry into the eleniensary schools, andlhe art connected with it, of modeling and "drawing beautiful ob- jects. He wished, in this way. to train the eye^ the hand, and t'le touch, lor that more advanced species of drawing which had not been thought ol helore. Proceeding from the simple and intuitive, to the more complicated and dilR- cult formsjie arranged a series of exercises so gradual and com;, le:e that the method of leaching this subject was soon brought to a good degree ol perlection. IX The Philanihropinists introduced the insiructioa of language into the common schools, but limited it chiefly to the writing of letters and preparation of essays. But Pestalozzi was not satisfied with a lifeless repctiliori oi the rules of grammar, nor yet with mere exetcises for common life. He aimed at a development of the laws of language from within— an introduction into its iri- ternal nature and construction and peculiar spirit— which would not only culti- vate the intellect, but also improve the affections. It is impossible to do justice to his method of instruction on this subject, in a brief sketch like the present- but those who have witnessed its progress and results, are fully aware of us practical character and value. . X. Like Basedow, Rochow and others, Pestalozzi introduced vocal music into the circle of school studies, on account of its powerful influence on the heart. But he was not satisfied that the children should learn to sing a few melo- dies by note or by ear. Hewi.-^hed ihem to know the rules of melody and rhythm, and dynamics- to pursue a regular course of instruction, descending to its very elements, and rendering the musical notes as familiar as the sounds of the let- ters. The extensive work of Nageli and Pfeiffer has contributed very much lo give this branch of instruction a better form. XI. He opposed the abuse which was made of the Socratic method in many of the Philanthropinic and other schools, by attempting to draw something out of children before they had received any knowledge. He recommends, on the contrary, in the early periods of instruction, the established method of dictation by the teacher and'repetilion by the scholar, with a proper legard to rhythm, and at a later period, especially'in the mathematical and other subjects which involve reasoning, the modern method, in which the teacher merely gives out the problems in a proper order, and leaves them lo be solved by the pupils, by the exertion of their own powers. XII. Pestalozzi opposes strenuously the opinion that religious instruction should be addressed exclusively to the understanding; and shoAvs that religion lies deep in the hearts of men, and that it should not be enstamped from with- out, but developed from within; that the basis of religious feeling is to be found in the childish disposition to love, to thankfulness, to veneration, obedi- ence and confidence toward its parents; that these should be cultivated and strengthened and directed toward God; and that religion should be formally treated of at a later period in connection with the feelings thus excited. As he requires the mother to direct the first development of all the faculties of her child, he assigns to her especially the task of first cultivating the religious feelings. XILI. Pestalozzi agreed wilh Basedow, that mutual affection ought to reign betwtfen the educator and the pupil, both in the house and in the school, in dr- 2S inSTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. der to render education effectual and useful. He was, therefore, as little dis- posed as Basedow, to sustain school despotism ; but he did not rely on artificial excitements, such as those addressed to emulation. He preferred that the chil- dien should find their best reward in the consciousness ol'increased inielleciual vigor ; and expected the teacher tu render the instruction .so attractive, that the delightful ieeling of progress should be the strongest excitement to industry and to morality. XIV. Peslalozzi attached as much importance to the cultivation of the bodily powers, and the exercise of the sen.ses, as the Philanthropinists, and in his publications; pointed out a graduated course for this purpose. But as Guts- muths, Vieth, Jahn. and Clias treated this subject very fully, nothing further was v\ritlen concerning it by his immediate followers. Such are the great principles which eiititle Pestalozzi to the high praise of having given a more natural, a more comprehensive and deeper foundation /or education and instruction, and of having called into being a method which is far superior to any that preceded it. , But with all the excellencies of the system of education adopted by Pesta- lozzi, truth requires us to state that it also involves serious defects. 1. in his zeal for the improv^ement of the mind it.self, and lor those modes of instruction which were calculated to develop and invigorate its Jaculties, Pes- talozzi forgot too much the necessity of general positive knowledge, as the ma- terial for thought aijd for practical use in future life. '1 he pupils of his estab- lishment, instructed on his plan, were too ofien dismissed with inielleciual poweis which weie vigorous and acute, but without the stores of knowledge important for immediate use — well qualified lor mathematical and abstract reasoning, but not prepared to apply it to the business of common lile. 2. He commenced with intuitive, mathematical studies loo early, attached loo much importance to them, and devoted a portion of time to Ihem, which did not allow a reasonable attention to other studies, and which prevented the regular and harmonious cultivation of other poweis. 3. The wrfAw/of instruciion was also defective in one important point. Sim- plification was carried too far, and continued too long. The mind became so ac- customed to receive knowledge divided into its most simple elements and small- est portions, that it was not piepared to embrace complicated ideas, or to make those rapid strides in investigation and conclusion v\hich is one of the most im- portant results of a sound education, and which imiicates the most valuable kind of mental vigor both for scientific purposes and for practical lile. 4. He attached loo little importance to testimony as one of the sources of our knowledge, and devoted too little attention to histoiical truth. He was accus- tomed to observe that history was but a ' tissue of lies;' and forgot that it was necessary to occupy the pupil with man, and with moral events, as w ell as with nature and matter, if we wish to cultivate properly his moral powers, and ele- vate him above the material world. 5. But above all, it is to be regretted, that in reference to religious education, he fell into an impoitant error of his predecessors. His too exclusive attention to mathematical and scientific subjects, tended, like the system of Basedow, to give his pu[)ils the habit of undervaluing historical evidence and of demanding rational demonstration for every truth, or of requiring the evidence of iheir senses, or something analogous to it, to which they were constantly called to appeal in their studies of Natural Histoiy. it is precisely in this way, that many men of profound scientific attainments have been led to reject the evidence of revelaiion, and some, even strange as it may seem, to deny the existence of Him, whose works and laws they study. In some of the early Pestalozzian schools, feelings of this nature weie paiticu- larly cherished by the habit of asserting a falsehood in the lessons on Mathe- malics or Natural history, and calling upon the pupils to contradict it or dis- • prove it if they did not admit its irulh. No improvement of the inielleciual powers, can, in our view, compensate for ihe injury to the moral sense and the diminished respect for truth, which will naturally result from such a course. 6. While Pestalozzi disapproved of the attempts of the Philanthropinists to draw forth from the minds of children, befoie they had stoies of knowledge, he seemed to forget the application of his principle to moral subjects, or to imagine that this most elevated species of knowledge was innate. He attempted too much to draw from the minds of his punils those great truths of religion and the fflSTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 29 spiritual world which can only be acquired from revelation ; and thus led them to imagine they were competent to judge on this subject without external aid. It is obvious iluU such a course would fall in most unhappily M'ith the tenden- cies produced by other parts of the plan, and that we could not hope to educate in such a mode, a truly Christian community. The personal character of Pestalozzi also influenced his views and methods of education on religious subjects. He was remarkably the creature of power- ful impulses, which were usually of the most mild and benevolent kind; and he preserved a child-like character in this respect even to old age. It was probably this temperament, which led him to estimate at a low rate the import- ance of positive religious truth in the education of children, and to maintain that the mere habit of faith and love, if cultivated toward earthly friends and benefactors, would, of course, be transferred to our Heavenly Father, whenever his character should be exhibited to the mind of the child. The fundamental error of this view was established by the unhappy experience of his own insti- tution. His own example afforded the most striking evidence that the noblest impulses, not directed by established principles, may lead to imprudence and ruin, and thus defeat their own ends. As an illustration of this, it may be men- tioned that, on one of those occasions, frequently occurring, on which he was reduced to extremity for want of the means of supplying his large family, he borrowed four hundred dollars from a friend for the purpose. In going home, he met a peasant, wringing his hands in despair for the loss of his cow. Pes- talozzi put the entire bag of money into his hands, and ran off to escape his thanks. These circumstances, combined with the M'ant of tact in reference to the affairs of common life, materially impaired his powers of usefulness as a practical instructor of youth. The rapid progress of his ideas rarely allowed him 10 execute his own plans; and, in accordance with his own system, too much time was employed in the profound development of principles, to admit of much attention to their practical application. But, as one of his admirers observed, it was his province to educate ideas and not children. He combated, with unshrinking boldness and untiring perse- verance, throu2;h a long life, the prejudices and abuses of the age in reference to education, both by his example and by his numerous publications. He attacked with great vigor and no small degree of success, that favorite maxim of bigotry and tyranny, that obedience and devotion are the legitimate offspring of igno- rance. He denounced that degrading system, which considers it enough to enable man to procure a subsistence for himself and his offspring — and in this manner, merely to place him on a level with the beast of the forest; and which deems every thing lost whose value can not be estimated in money. He urged upon the consciences of parents and rulers, with an energy approaching that of the ancient prophets, the solemn duties which Divine Providence had imposed upon them, in committing to their charge the present and future destinies of their fellow-beings. In this way. he produced an impulse, which pervaded the continent of Europe, and which, b)'- means of his popular and theoretical works, reached the cottages of the poor and the palaces of the great. His institution at Yverdun was crowded with men of every nation; not merely those who were led by the same impulse which inspired him, but by the agents of kings and noblemen, and public institutions, who came to make themselves ac- quainted with his principles, in order to become his fellow-laborers in other countries." When the Prussian Government, in 1809, undertook systematically the work of improving the elementary schools, as a means of creating and diffusing a patriotic spirit among the people, the fame of Pestalozzi was at its height. To him and to his school, to his method and to his disci- ples, the attention of the hest teachers in the kingdom was turned for guidance and aid. Several enthusiastic young teachers were sent to his institution at Yverdun, (Iferten.) to study his methods and imbibe his spirit of devotion to the children of the poor. One of his favorite pupils, C, B. Zeller, of Wirteraberg, and who shared with him in certain weak' 30 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. iiesses of character, which prevented his attaining the highest success as a practical educator in carrying out the details of an extensive plan, was invited to organize a Normal School at Rcnigsberg, in the orphan- house (orphanotrophy) established by Frederick III., on the 13th of January, 1701, the day on which he declared his dukedom a kingdom, and caused himself to be crowned king, under the name of Frederick the First. To this seminary, during the first year of its existence, upward of one hundred clergymen, and eighty teachers, resorted, at the expense of the government, to acquire the principles and methods of the Pestaloz- zian system. Through them, and the teachers who went directly to Pes- talozzi, these principles and methods were transplanted not only into various parts of Prussia, but also into the schools and seminaries of other states in Germany. Not even in Switzerland is the name of this philan- thropist and educator so warmly cherished as in Prussia. His centennial birthday was celebrated throughout Germany, and par- ticularly in Prussia, on the 12t.h of January, 1846, with an enthusiasm usually awarded only to the successful soldier. In more than one hundred cities and villages, in upward of one thousand schools, by more than fifty thousand teachers, it is estimated in a German school journal, was the anniversary marked by some public demonstration. The following notice of the appropriate manner in which it was celebrated in Leipsic, by founding a charity for the orphans of teachers, and for poor and neglected children generally, is abridged from an extended notice in Reden's School Gazette. " At the tirst .school hour, the elder pupils of the city school at Leipsic, were informed by a public address of the eminent merits of Pe.stalozzi as an eminent teacher, and a program, with his portrait, handed to them; this program contained an address to the citizens of Leipsic. by the Rev. Dr. Naumann ; the plan of a public charity, to be called the Pestalozzi Foundation, (Hiftung,) by Director Vogel ; and a biographical sketch, by Professor Plato. At ten o'clock, the elder pupils of the burgher school, and delegates from all the schools, with their teachers, and the friends of education, assembled in the great hall of one of the public schools; on the walls were portraits of Pestalozzi, adorned with garlands. Addresses were made by the Kev. Dr. Naumann, who had visited Pestalozzi in Iferten, and by other gentlemen, while' the intervals were enliv- ened by songs and music composed for the occasion. In the evening a general association of all the teachers in Leipsic was formed, for the purpose of estab- lishing ' the Pestalozzi foundation,' designed for the education of poor and neglected children." In Dresden a similar charity was commenced for the benefit of all orphans of teachers from any part of Saxony. The same thing was done in nearly all the large cities of Germany. In Berlin a Pestalozzi foundation was com- menced for an orphan-house, to which contributions had been made from all provinces of Prussia, and from other states of Germany ; to the direction of this institution Dr. Dieslerweg has been appointed. The schools of most of the teachers and educators, whose names have been introduced, were in reality Teachers' Seminaries, although not so designated by themselves or others. ' Their establishments were not simply schools for children, but were conducted to test and exemplify HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 31 principles and methods of education, and these were perpetuated and disseminated by means of books in which they were embodied, or of pupils and disciples who transplanted ihem into other places. As has been already stated, on the authority of Franke's biographer, and of Schwartz, Raumer, and other writers on the history of education in Germany, the first regularly-organized Teachers' Seminary, or Normal School, (not normal in the sense in which the word was originally used, as a school of children so conducted as to be a model or pattern for teach- ers to imitate, but a school of young men, who had already passed through an elementary, or even a superior school, and who were preparing to be teachers, by making additional attainments, and acquiring a knowledge of the human mind, and the principles of education as a science, and of its methods as an art,) was established in Halle, in a part of Hanover, prior to 1704. About the same period, Steinmetz opened a class for teachers in the Abbey of Klosterberge, near Magdeburg, and which was continued by Resewitz, by whom the spirit and method of f^ranke and the pietists were transplanted into the north of Germany. In 1730, lectures on philology and the best methods of teaching the Latin, Greek and German languages, were common in the principal universities and higher schools. The first regularly-organized seminary for this purpose, was established at Gottingen, in 1738. and by its success led to the institution of a similar course of study and practice in Jena, Helle, Helmstadt, Heidelberg, Ber- lin, Munich, &c. In 1735, the first seminary for primary school teachers was established in Prussia, at Stettin, in Pomerania. In 1748, Hecker, apupil of Fratike, and the founder of burgher, or what we should call high schools, estab- lished an institution for teachers of elementary schools, in Berlin, in which the king testified an interest, and enjoined, by an ordinance in 1752, that the country schools on the crown lands in New Mark and Pomerania should be supplied by pupil teachers from this institution who had learned the culture of silk and mulberries in Hecker's institution, with a view of carrying forward industrial instruction into that section of his kino-dom. In 1757, Baron von Fiirstenbecg established a seminary for teachers at Munster, in Hanover. In 1767, the Canan von Rochow opened a school on his estate in Rekane, in Bradenburg, where, by lectures and practice, he prepared schoolmasters for country schools on his own and neio-liborino- properties. To these schools teachers were sent from all parts of Ger- many, to be trained in the principles and practice of primary instruction. In 1770, Bishop Febinger, organized a Normal (model) School in Vienna, with a course of lectures and practice for teachers, extending through four months ; and about the same time the deacon Ferdinand Kinder- mann,.or von Schulstein, as he was called by Maria Theresa, converted a school in Kaplitz. in Bohemia, into a Normal Institution. Between 1770 and 1800. as will be seen by the following Table, teachers' semina- ries were introduced into nearly every German state, which, in all but three instances, were supported in whole or in part by the government, 32 HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY As the demand for good teachers exceeded the supply furnished by these seminaries, private institutions have sprung up, some of which have at- tained a popularity equal to the public institutions. But in no state have Buch private schools been able to sustain themselves, until the gov- ernment seminaries and the public school system had created a demand for well-qualified teachers. And in no state in Europe has the experi- ment of making seminaries for primary school teachers an appendage to a university, or a gymnasium, or any other school of an academic char- acter, proved successful for any considerable period of time, or on an ex- tensive scale. At the beginning of the present century, there were about thirty teachers' seminaries in operation. The wars growing out of the French Revolution suspended for a time the movements in behalf of popular ed- ucation, until the success of the new organization of schools in Prussia, commencing in 1809, arrested the attention of governments and individ- uals all over the continent, and has led, within the last quarter of a century, not only to the establishment of seminaries nearly sufficient to supply the annual demand for teachers, but to the more perfect organiza- tion of the whole system of public instruction. The cardinal principles of the system of Primary Public Instruction as now organized in the German states, are. First. The recognition on the part of the government of the right, duty and interest of every community, not only to co-operate with parents in the education of children, but to provide, as far as practicable, by efficient inducement and penalties, against the neglect of this first of parental obligations, in a single instance. The school obligation, — the duty of pa- rents to send their children to school, or provide tor their instruction at home, — was enforced by law in Saxe-Gotha, in 1643 ; in Saxony and Wirtemberg. in 1659; in Hildesheim in 1663; in Calemberg, in 1681; in Celle, in 1689 ; in Prussia, in 1717 ; and in every state of Germany, before the beginning of the present century. But it is only within the last thirty years, that government enactments have been made truly efficient by en- listing the habits and good will of the people on the side of duly. We must look to the generation of men now coming into active life for the fruits of this principle, universally recognized, and in most cases wisely enforced in every state, large and small, Catholic and Protestant, and having more or less of constitutional guaranties and forms. Second. The establishment of a sufficient number of permanent schools of different grades, according to the population, in every neighborhood, with a suitable outfit of buildings, furniture, appendages and apparatus. Third. The specific preparation of teachers, as far as practicable, for the particular grade of schools for which they are destined, with oppor- tunities for professional eniploynient and promotion through life. Fourth. Provision on the part of the government to make the schools accessible to the poorest, not, except in comparatively a few instances, HISTORY OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 33 V and those in the most despotic governments, by making them free to the poor, but cheap to all. Fifth. A system of inspection, variously organized, but constant, gen- eral, and responsible — reaching every locality, every school, every teacher, and pervading the whole state from the central government to the remotest district. The success of the school systems of Germany is universally attributed by her own educators to the above features of her school law — especially those which relate to the teacher. These provisions respecting teachers may be summed up as follows : — 1. The recognition of the true dignity and importance of the office of teacher in a system of public instruction. 2. The e.ctablishment of a sufficient number of Teachers' Seminaries, or Normal Schools, to educate, in a special course of instruction and practice, all persons who apply or propose to teach in any public primary school, with aids to self and professional improvement through life. 3. A system of examination and inspection, by which incompetent per- sons are prevented from obtaining situations as teachers, or are excluded and degraded from the ranks of the profession, by unworthy or criminal conduct. 4. A system of promotion, by which faithful teachers can rise in a scale of lucrative and desirable situations. 5. Permanent employment through the year, and for life, with a social ' position and a compensation which compare favorably with the watres paid to educated labor in other departments of business. y' 6. Preparatory schools, in which those who wish eventually to become teachers, may test their natural quaUties and adaptation for school teach- ing before applying for admission to a Normal School. 7. Frequent conferences and associations for mutual improvement, by an interchange of opinion and sharing the benefit of each others' experience. 8. Exemption from militaty service in time of peace, and recognition, in social and civil life, as public functionaries. 9. A pecuniary allowance when sick, and provision for years of infirmity and old age, and for their famihes in case of death. 10. Books and periodicals, by which the obscure teacher is made par- taker in all the improvements of the most experienced and distinguished members of the profession in his own and other countries. With this brief and rapid survey of the history and condition of Popu- lar Education in Germany, we will now pass to a more particular desc,rip- tion of primary schools in several states, with special reference to the or- ganization and course of instruction of Normal Seminaries, and other means and agencies for the professional training of teachers. Before doing this, we publish a table, prepared from a variety of school docu- ments, exhibiting the number and location of Normal Schools in Germany, with the testimony of some of our best educators as to the result of this Normal School system. 3 34 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. TABLE. NUMBER AND LOCATION OP NORMAL SEMINARIES IN THE DIFFERENT STATES OP GERMANY. The following Table has been compiled from recent official documents and school journals, and without being complete, is accurate as far as it goes. Cahnich, in an article in Reden's Magazine, estimates the whole number of public and private seminaries in Germany, at one hundred and fifty-six, and the preparatory schools at two hundred and six. HANOVER 7 Alfeld. t; 1750; Hanover, Hildes- heim, Osnabriick, Siade ; one for Jewish teachers in Hanover. PRUSSIA, 45 SUPERIOR SEMINARIES. Stettin, founded 1735; Potsrlam, foun, 1748; Breslou, foun. 1765; Hal- berstadt, f. 1778; Magdeburg, f. 1790; Weissenfels, f, 1794; Kara- lene, f. 1811; Braunsherg, f. 1810; Marienburg. f. 1814; Grandenz, i. 1816; Neuzelle, f. 1817; Berlin, f, 1830; Coslin. f. 1806; Bnnzlau, f. 1816; Bromberg, f 1819; Paradies, f. 1838; Erfurt, f. 1820; Biiren, f. 1825; Meurs. f. 1820; Neuwied, f. 1816; Briihl, f. 1823; Kempen, f. 1840; K6nissberg, re-organized, 1809; Ober-Glogau, re-or., 1815; Posen, C 1804 ; Soest, f, 1818 ; Low- en, f. 1849. I BMALL, OR SECONDARY SEMINARIES. Angerburg, f, 1829; Muhlhausen,' Greifswald, f. 1791; Kammin, f. 1840 . Pyritz, f. 1827 ; Trzemesseo. f, 1829; Gardelegen,f. 1821 ; Ei.sleben, f 18.36; Petershagen, f. 1831 ; Lan-; genhorst, f. 1830; Heiligenstadt, Eylau, Alt-Dobern, Stralsund. I FOR FEMALE TEACHERS. Miinster; Paderborn ; private semi- naries in Berlin, (Bormann) ; Ma- rienwerder, (Alberti ;) Kaisers- werth, (Fleidner.) AUSTRIA. : 11 Vienna, f. 1771 ; Prague, Trieste, Salz- burg, Inspruck, Graz, Gorz, Kiag- enfurt, Laibach, Linz, Briinn. SAXONY, lO; Dresden, f. 1785 ; Fletcher's seminarv, f. 1825; Freiberg, f. 1797; Zittau,! Budissin, Plauen, Grimma, Anna- berg, Pirna, Waldenl^urg. ' BAVARIA, 9 Bamberg, f. 1777; Eichstudt, Speyer, Kaiserslautern, Lauingen, Altdorf, Schwabach. V^IRTEMBERG, ..... 8 Esslingen, Oehringen, Gm^nd, Niir- tingen, Stuttgart, Weingarten, Tu- bingen. BADEN, 4 Carlsruhe, f. 1768; Ettlingen, Meers- burg, MuUheim. Hes.se-Cassel, 3 Fulda, Homberg, Schlichtern. Hesse-Darmstadt, .3 Friedbeig, Bensheim. Anhalt 3 Bernburg, Cothen, Dessau. Reuss, 3 Greiz, Gera, Schleiz. Saxe Coburg-Gotha, 2 Coburg; Go/ha, f, 1779. Saxe Meiningen, 1 Hildburghausen. Saxe Weimar, 2 Weimar, Eisenach. Oldenburg, 2 Oldenburg, Birkenfeld. Holstein, , Segeberg, f 1780. Saxe-Altrnburg, , Altenburg. Nassau, , Idsiein. Brunswick, Wolfenbuttel. Luxemburg, Luxemburg. LlPPE, Detmold. Mecklenburg Schwerin, Ludwigslust. Mecklenburg Strelitz, Mirow. Schwarzburg, . , . . lludolstadt. Lubeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Frankfort , , . . , RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM IN GERMANY. The following testimony as to tlie results of the system of training teach- ers in institutions organized and conducted with special reference to com- municating a knowledge of the science and art of education, is gathered from American documents. Rev. Calvin E. Stowe, D. D„ Professor of Biblical Literature in Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio, in a " Report on Elementarij Public Instruction in Europe,^'' submitted to the General Assembly of Ohio, December, 1839, after describing the course of instruction pursued in the common schools of Prussia and Wirteniberg, thus sums up the character of the system in refer- ence particularly to the wants of Ohio : " The strikini^ features of this system, even in the hasty and imperfect sketch wliich my limits allow me to give, are obvious even to superficial observation. No one can fail to observe its great completeness, both as to the number and kind of subjects embraced in it, and as to its adaptedness to develop every power of every kind, and give it a useful direction. What topic, in all that is necessary for a sound business education, is here omitted ? I can think of noth' ing, unless it be one or two of the modern languages, and these are introduced wherever it is necessary. I have not taken the course precisely as it exists in any one school, but have combined, from an investigation of many institutions, the features which I suppose would most fairly represent the whole system. In the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, in a considerable part of Bavaria, Baden, and Wirtemberg, Freucli is tauglit as well as German ; and in the schools of Prussian Poland, German and -Polish are taught. Two languages can be taught in a school quite as easily as one, provitled the teacher be perfectly familiar with both, as any one may see by visiting Mr. Solomon's school in Cincinnati, where all the instruction is given botli in German and English. Wliat faculty of mind is there that is not developed in the .scheme of instruc- tion sketcheil above ? I know of none. Tlie perceptive and reflective faculties, the memory and the jiulgment, the imagination and tlio taste, tlie moral and re^ ligious faculty, antl oven tlie various kinds of physical antl manual dexterity, all have opportunity for development and exercise, buloed, I think the system, in its great outlines, as nearly complete as human ingenuity and skill can make it ; though undoubtedly some of its arrangements aiul iletails atlmit of improvement ; and some cliaiiges will of course be necessary in adapting it to the circumstances of (lirterent coiuitries. The entirely practical cliaracter of the system is obvious throughout. It views every subject on the practical side, and in reference to its adaptedness to use. The dry, technical, abstract parts of science are not those first presented ; but tlie system i)roceeds, in tlie only way which nature ever pointed out, from practice to theory, from facts to demonstrations. It has often been a complaint ill respect to some .systems of education, that the more a man studied, the less he knew of the actual business of life. Such a complaint cannot be made in refer- ence to tliis system, for, being intended to educate for the actual business of life, this object is never for a moment lost sight of. Anotlier striking feature of the system is its moral and religious character. Its morality is pure and elevated, its religion entirely removed from the narrow- ness of sectarian bigotry. What parent is there, loving his children, and wishing to have them respected and happy, who would not desire that they should be 36 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. educated under such a kind of moral and religious influence as has been described * Wliether a believer in revelation or not, does he not know that without sound morals there can be no happiness, and that there is no morality like the morality of the New Testament ? Does he not know that Avithout religion the human heart can never be at rest, and that there is no religion like the religion of the Bible ? Every well-informed man knows that, as a general fact, it is impossible to impress the obligations of morality with any efficiency on the heart of a child, or even on that of an adult, without an appeal to some code which is sustained by the authority of God ; and for wliat code will it be possible to claim this authority, if not for the code of the Bible ? But perhaps some will be ready to say, ' The scheme is indeed an excellent one, provided only it were practicable ; but the ideii of introducing so extensive and complete a course of study into our common schools is entirely visionary, and can never be realized.' I answer, that it is no theory which I have been exliib- iting, but a matter of fact, a copy of actual practice. The above system is no visionary scheme, emanating from the closet of a recluse, but a sketch of the course of instruction now actually pursued by thousands of schoolmasters, in tiie best district schools that have ever been organized. It can be done ; for it has been done — it is now done : and it ought to be done. If it can be done in Europe, I believe it can be done in the United States : if it can be done in Prus- sia, I know it can be done in Ohio. The people have but to say the word and provide the means, and tlie thing is accomplished ; for the word of the people here is even more powerful than the word of the king there ; and the means of the people here are altogether more abundant for such an object than the means of the sovereign there. Shall this object, then, so desirable in itself, so entirely practicable, so easily within our reach, fail of accomplishment ? For the honor and welfare of our state, for the safety of our whole nation, I trust it will not fail ; but that we shall soon witness, in this commonwealth, the introduction of a system of common-school instruction, fully adequate to all the wants of our pop- ulation. But the question occurs. How can this be done ? I will sive a few brief hints as to some things which I suppose to be essential to the attainment of so desira- ble an end. 1. Teachers must be skillful, and trained to their business. It will at once be perceived, that tiie plan above sketched out proceeds on the supposition that the teacher has fully and distinctly in his mind the whole course of instruction, not only as it respects the matters to be taught, but also as to all tlie best modes of teaching, that he may be able readily and decidedly to vary his method accord- ing to the peculiarities of each individual mind which may come under his care. This is the only true secret of successful teaching. The old mechanical method, in which the teacher reUes enthely on his text-book, and drags every mind along through the same dull routine of creeping recitation, is utterly insufficient to meet the wants of our people. It may do in Asiatic Turkey, where the whole object of tlie school is to learn to pronounce the words of the Koran in one dull, monotonous series of sounds ; or it may do in China, where men must never speak or think out of tlie old beaten track of Chinese imbecility ; but it will never do in the United States, where the object of education ought to be to make imme- diately available, for tlie highest and best purposes, every particle of real talent that exists in the nation. To effect such a purpose, the teacher must possess a strong and independent mind, well disciplined, and well stored witli every thing pertaining to his profession, and ready to adapt his instructions to every degree of intellectual capacity, and every kind of acquired habit. But how can we expect to find such teachers, unless they are trained to their business ? A very few of extraordinary powers may occur, as we sometimes find able mechanics, and great mathematicians, who had no early training in their favorite pursuits ; but these few exceptions to a general rule will never multiply fast enough to supply our schools Avith able teachers. The management of the human mind, particularly youtliful mind, is the most delicate task ever committed to the hand of man ; and shall it be left to mere instinct, or shall our schoolmasters have at least as careful a training as our lawyers and physicians ? 2. Teachers, then, must have the means of acquiring the necessary qualifica- tions ; in other words, there must be institutions in which the business of teachino- RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 3I7 is made a systematic object of attention. I am not an advocate for multiplying our institutions. We already have more in number than we support, and it ■would be wise to give power and efficiency to those we now possess before we project new ones. But the science and art of teaching ouglit to be a regular branch of study in some of our academies and high schools, that those who are looking forward to this profession may have an opportunity of studying its prin- ciples. In addition to tl)is, in our populous towns, where tliere is opportunity for it, there should be large model schools, under the care of the most able and experienced teachers that can be obtained ; and the candidates fur the profession who have already completed the theoretic course of the academy, should be em- ployed in this school as monitors, or assistants — thus testing all their theories by practice, and acquiring skill and dexterity under the guidance of their head master. Thus, while learning, they would be teaching, and no time or effort ■would be lost. To give efficiency to the whole system, to present a general standard and a prominent point of union, there should be at least one model teachers' seminary, at some central point — as at Columbus — which shall be amply provided with all the means of study and instruction, and have connected with it schools of every grade, for the practice of the students, under the immediate superintendence of their teachers. 3. The teachers must be competently supported, and devoted to their busi- ness. Few men attain any great degree of excellence in a profession unless they love it, and place all their hopes in life upon it. A man cannot, consistently with liis dutv to himself, engage in a business which does not afford him a com- petent support, unless he has other means of living, wdiich is not the case with many who engage in teaching. In this country especially, where there are such vast fields of profitable employment open to every enterprising man, it is not possible that the best of teachers can be obtained, to any considerable extent, for our district schools, at the present rate of wages. We have already seen what encouragement is lield out to teachers in Russia, Prussia, and other European nations, and what pledges are given of competent support to their families, not only wliile engaged in the work, but when, having been worn out in the public service, they are no longer able to labor. In those countries, where every pro- fession and walk of life is crowded, and where one of the most common and oppressive evils is want of employment, men of high talents and qualifications are often glad to become teachers even of district schools ; men who in this coun- try would aspire to the highest places in our colleges, or even our halls of legis lation and courts of justice. How much more necessary, then, here, that the profession of teaching should afford a competent support ! Indeed, such is the state of tilings in this country, that we cannot expect to find male teachers for all our schools. The business of educating, especially young chiUlren, must fall, to a great extent, on female teachers. There is not the same variety of tempting employment for females as for men ; they can be supported cheaper, and the Creator has given them peculiar qualifications for the education of the young. Females, then, ought to be employed extensively in all our elementary schools, and tliey should be encouraged and aided in ob- taining the qualifications necessary for tliis work. There is no country in the world where woman iiolds so high a rank, or exerts so great an influence, as here ; wherefore, her responsibilities are tlie greater, and she is under obliga- tions to render herself the more actively useful. 4. The children must be made comfortable in their school ; they must bo punctual, and attend the whole course. There can be no profitable study with- out personal comfort ; and the inconvenience and miserable arrangements of some of our school-iiouses are enough to annihilate all that can be done by the best of teachers. No instructor can teach unless the pupils are present to be taught, and no plan of systematic instruction can be carried steadily through unless the pupils attend punctually and through the whole course. 5. Tiie cliil Iren must be given up implicitly to the disciplj^ie of the schooL Notlung can be done unless the teacher has the entire control of his pupils in school-hours, and out of school too, so far as the rules of the school are concerned. If the parent in any way interferes with, or overrules, the arrangements of the teacher, he may attribute it to himself if the school is not successful. No teacher evw dught tt> be emjAoyW to whbku tine fentirb management of the children cat>- 38 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. not be safely intrusted ; and better at any time dismiss the teacher than coun- teract his discipline. Let parents but take the pains and spend the money necessary to provide a comfortable school-house and a competent teacher for their children, and they never need apprehend that the disciplitie of the school •will be unreasonably severe. No inconsiderable part of the corporal punishment that has been inflicted in schools, has been made necessary by the discomfort of school-houses and the unskillfulness of teachers. A lively, sensitive boy is stuck upon a bench full of knot-holes and sharp ridges, without a support for his feet or his back, with a scorching fire on one side of him and a freezing wind on the other ; and a stiff Orbilius of a master, with wooden brains and iron hands, orders him to sit perfectly still, with nothing to employ his mind or his body, till it is his turn to read. Thus confined for hours, what can the poor little fellow do but begin to wriggle like a fish out of water, or an eel in a frying-pan ? For this irrepressible eifort at relief he receives a box on the ear ; this provokes and ren- ders him still more uneasy, and next comes the merciless ferule ; and the pool child is finally burnt and frozen, cuffed and beaten, into hardened roguery or incurable stupidity, just because the avarice of liis parents denied him a comfort- able school-house and a competent teacher. 6. A beginning must be made at certain points, and the advance toward completeness must be gradual. Every thing cannot be done at once, and such a system as is needed cannot be generally introduced till its benefits are first de- monstrated by actual experiment. Certain great points, then, where the people are ready to co-operate, and to make the most liberal advances, in proportion to their means, to maintain the schools, should be selected, and no pains or expense spared, till the full benefits of the best system are realized ; and as the good effects are seen, other places will very readily follow tiie example. All experi- ence has shown that governmental patronage is most profitably employed, not to do the entire work, but simply as an incitement to the people to help themselves. To follow up this great object, the Legislature has wisely made choice of a Superintendent, whose untiring labors and disinterested zeal are worthy of all praise. But no great plan can be carried through in a single year ; and if the Superintendent is to have opportunity to do what is necessary, and to preserve that independence and energy of official character which are requisite to the successful discharge of his duties, he should hold his office for the same term, and on the same conditions, as the Judges of the Supreme Court. Every officer engaged in this, or in any other public work, should receive a suitable compensation for his services. This, justice requires ; and it is the only way to secure fidelity and efficiency. There is one class of our population for whom some special provision seems necessary. The children of foreign emigrants are now very numerous among us, and it is essential that they receive a good English education. But they are not prepared to avail themselves of the advantages of our common English schools, their imperfect acquaintance with the language being an insuperable bar to their entering on the course of study. It is necessary, therefore, that there be some preparatory schools, in which instruction shall be communicated both in English and their native tongue. The EngUsh is, and must be, the language of this country, and the highest interests of our state demand it of the Legislature to require that the English language be thoroughly taught in every school wliich they patronize. Still, the exigencies of the case make it necessary that there should be some schools expressly fitted to the condition of our foreign emigrants, to introduce them to a knowledge of our language and institutions. A school of this kind has been established in Cincinnati, by benevolent individuals. It has been in operation about a year, and already nearly three hundred children have received its advantages. Mr. Solomon, the head teacher, was educated for his profession in one of the best institutions of Prussia, and in this school he has demonstrated the excellences of the system. The instructions are all given both in German and English, and this use of two languages does not at all interrupt the progress of the children in their respective studies. I cannot but recommend this philanthropic institution to the notice and patronage of the Legislature.* In neighborhoods where there is a mixed population, it is desirable, if possible, * German schools now form a part of the system of public scbools in Cincinnati. RESULT!? OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 39 to employ teachers wlio understand both languages, and that the exercises of the school be conducted in both, with the rule, however, that all the reviews and examinations be in English only." Alexander Dallas Bache, LL. D., Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey, in a " Report on Educalion in Europe" to the Trustees of the Girard College of Orphans, Philadelphia, in 1838, remarks as follows: " When education is to be rapidly advanced, Seminaries for Teachers offer the means of securing this result. • An eminent teaclier is selected as Director of the Seminary ; and by the aid of competent assistants, and while benefiting the com- munity by the instruction given in the schools attaclied to the Seminary, trains, yearly, from thirty to forty youths in the enlightened practice of his methods ; these, in their turn, become teachers of schools, which they are fit at once to conduct, without the failures and mistakes usual with novices ; for though begin- ners in name, they have acquired, in the course of the two or three years spent at the Seminary, an exj)erience equivalent to many years of unguided efforts. This result has been fully realized in the success of the attempts to spread the meth- ods of Pestalozzi and others through Prussia. The plan has been adopted, and is yielding its appropriate fruits in Holland, Switzerland, France, and Saxony ; while in Austria, where the method of preparing teachers by their attendance on the primary' scliools is still adhered to, the schools are stationary, and behind those of Northern and Middle Germany. These Seminaries produce a strong esprit de corps among teachers, which tends powerfully to interest them in their profession, to attach them to it, to ele- vate it in tlieir eyes, and to stimulate them to improve constantly upon tlie at- tainments with wJiich they may have commenced its exercise. By their aid a standard of examination in the theory and practice of instruction is furnished, ■which may be fairly exacted of candidates who have chosen a different way to obtain access to the profession." Hon. Horace Mann, in his " Seventh Annual Report as Secretary of the Board of Educalion in Massachusetts" in which he gives an account of an educational tour through the principal countries of Europe in the summer of 1843, says: " Among the nations of Europe, Prussia has long enjoyed the most distin- guished reputation for the excellence of its schools. In reviews, in speeclies, in tracts, and even in graver works devoted to the cause of education, its schools have been exhibited as models for the imitation of the rest of Christendom. For many years, scarce a suspicion was breathed that the general plan of education in that kingdom was not sound in theory and most beneficial in practice. Re- cently, however, grave charges have been preferred against it by high authority. The popular traveler, Laing, has devoted several chapters of his large work on Prussia to the disparagement of its school system. An octavo volume, entitled ' The Age of Great Cities,' has recently appeared in England, in which that sys- tem is strongly condemned ; and during the pendency of the famous ' Factories' Bill' before the British House of Commons, in 1843, numerous tracts were issued from the Engli-sh press, not merely calling in question, but strongly denouncing, the whole plan of education in Prussia, as being not only designed to produce, but as actually producing, a spirit of blind acquiescence to arbitrary power, in things spiritual as well as temporal — as being, in fine, a system of education adapted to enslave, and not to enfrancliise, the human mind. And even in some parts of the United States — the very nature and essence of whose institutions consist in the idea that the people are wise enough to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong — even here, some have been illiberal enough to con- demn, in advance, every thing that savors of the Prussian system, because that system is sustained by arbitrary power. ********* But allowing all these charges against the Prussian system to be true, there were still two reasons why I was not deterred from examining it. In the first place, the evils imputed to it were easily and naturally separable 40 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. from the good which it was not denied to possess. If the Prussian schoolmaster has better methods of teaching reading, writing, grammar, geography, arithme- tic, &c., so that, in half the time, he produces greater and better results, surely we may copy his modes of teaching these elements without adopting his notions of passive obedience to government, or of blind adherence to the articles of a church. By the ordinance of nature, the human faculties are substantially the same all over the world, and h^nce the best means for their development and growth in one place, must be substantially the best for their development and growth everywhere. The spirit which shall control the action of these faculties when matured, which shall train them to self-reliSnce or to abject submission, which shall lead them to refer all questions to the standard of reason or to that of authority, — this spirit is wholly distinct and distinguishable from the manner in which the faculties themselves ought to be trained ; and we may avail our- selves of all improved methods in the earlier processes, without being contami- nated by the abuses which may be made to follow them. The best style of teaching arithmetic or spelling has no necessary or natural connection with the doctrine of hereditary right ; and an accomplished lesson in geography or gram- mar commits the human intellect to no particular dogma in religion. In the second place, if Prussia can pervert the benign influences of education to the support of arbitrary power, we surely can employ them for the support and perpetuation of republican institutions. A national spirit of liberty can bo cultivated more easily than a national spirit of bondage ; and if it may be made one of the great prerogatives of education to perform the unnatural and unholy work of making slaves, then surely it must be one of the noblest instrumentali- ties for rearing a nation of freemen. If a moral power over the understandings and affections of the people may be turned to evil, may it not also be employed, for the highest good ? Besides, a generous and impartial mind does not ask whence a thing comes, but what it is. Those who, at the present day, would reject an improvement because of the place of its origin, belong to the same school of bigotry with those who inquired if any good could come out of Nazareth ; and what infinite bless- ings would the World have lost had that party been punished by success ! Throughout my whole tour, no one principle has been more frequently exempli- fied than this, — that wherever I have found the best institutions, — educational, reformatory, charitable, penal, or otherwise, — there I have always found the greatest desire to know how similar institutions were administered among our- selves ; and where I have found the worst, there I have found most of the spirit of self-complacency, and even an offensive disinclination to hear of better methods. ************ All the subjects I have enumerated were taught in all the schools I visited, whether in city or country, for the rich or for the poor. In the lowest school in the smallest and obscurest village, or for the poorest class in overcrowded cities ; in the schools connected witli pauper establLshments, with houses of correction, or with prisons, — in all these, there was a teacher of mature atje, of simple, unaf- fected, and decorous manners, benevolent in his expression, kind and genial in his intercourse with the young, and of such attainments and resources as qualified him not only to lay down the abstract principles of the above range of studies, but, by familiar illustration and apposite example, to commend them to the at- tention of the children. I speak of the teachers whom I saw, and with whom I had more or less of personal intercourse ; and, after some opportunity for the observation of public assemblies or bodies of men, I do not hesitate to say, that if those teachers were brought together, in one body, I believe they would form as dignified, intelligent, benevolent-looking a company of men as could be collected from the same amount of population in any country. They were alike free from arrogant pretension and from the affectation of humility. It has been often remarked, both in Eng- land and in this country, that the nature of a school-teacher's occupation exposes him, in some degree, to overbearing manners, and to dogmatism in the statement of his opinions. Accustomed to the exercise of supreme authority, moving among those who are so much his inferiors in point of attainment, perhaps it is proof of a very well-balanced mind, if he keeps himself free from assumption RE?;ULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 41 in opinion and haughtiness of demeanor. Especially are such faults or vices apt to spring up in weak or ill-furnished minds. A teacher who cannot rule by love, must tlo so by fear. A teaclier who cannot supply material for the activity of liis pupils" minds by his talent, must put down that activity by force. A teacher who cannot answer all the questions and solve all tho doubts of a scholar as they arise, must assume an awful and mysterious air, and must expound in oracles, which themselves need more explanation than the original difficulty. When a teacher knows much, and is master of his whole subject, he can afford to be mod- est and unpretending. Butwhen-the head is the only text-book, and the teacher has not been previously prepared, he must, of course, have a small library. Among all the Prussian and Saxon teachers whom I saw, there were not half a dozen instances to remind one of those unpleasant characteristics, — Avhat Lord Bacon would call the ' idol of the tribe,' or profession, — wliich sometimes de- grade the name and disparage the sacred calling of a teacher. Generally speak- ing, there seemed to be a strong love for the employment, always a devotion to duty, and a profound conviction of the importance and sacredness of the office they filled. The only striking instance of disingenuousness or attempt at decep- tion, which I saw, was that of a teacher who looked over the manuscript books of a large class of his scholars, selected the best, and, brhiging it to me, said, ' In seeing one you see all. Wlience came tMs beneficent order of men, s:\Tttered over the whole coun- try, molding the character of its people, and carrying them forward in a career of civilization more rapidly than any other people in tiie world are now advanc- ing ^ This is a question nvhich can be answered only by giving an account of the Seminaries for Teachers. From tlie year 18 20 to 1830 or 1835, it was customary, in all accounts of Prussian education, to mention the number of these Seminaries for Teachers. TJiis item of information has now become unimportant, as there are seminaries sufficient to supply the wants of the whole country. The stated term of resi- dence at these seminaries is three years. Lately, and in a few places, a class of preliminary institutions has sprung up, — institutions where pupils are received in order to determine whether they are fit to become candidates to be candi- dates. As a pupil of the seminary is liable to be set aside for incompetency, even after a three years' course of study; so the pupils of these preliminary in- 8titutit)ns, after having gone through witli a shorter course, are liable to bo set aside for incompetency to become competent. Let us look for a moment at the guards and securities which, in that country, environ this sacred calling. In the first place, the teacher's profession holds such a high rank in public estimation, that none who have failed in other employments or departments of business, are encouraged to look upon school-keeping as an ultimate resource. Those, too, who, from any cause, despair of success in other departments of business or walks of life, have very slender prospects in looking forward to this. Tliese considerations exclude at once all that inferior order of men wlio, in some countries, constitute the main body of the teachers. Then come, — though only in some parts of Prussia, — these preliminary schools, wliere those who wish eventually to become teachers, go, in order to have their natural qualities and adaptation for school-keeping tested ; for it must be borne in mind that a man may have the most unexceptionable cliar.acter, may be capable of mastering all the branches of study, may even be able to make most brilliant recitations from day to day ; and yet, from some coldness or repulsiveness of manner, from harshness of voice, from some natural defect in his person or in one of his senses, he may be adjudged an unsuitable model or archetype for children to be conformed to, or to grow by ; and hence he may be dismissed at the end of his probationary term of six months. At one of these preparatory schools, which I visited, the list of subjects at the examination, — a part of which I saw, — was divided into two classes, as follows : — 1. Readiness in thinking, German language, including orthography and composition, history, description of the earth, knowl- edge of nature, thorough bass, calligrapiiy, drawing. 2. Religion, knowledge of the Bible, knowledge of nature, mental arithmetic, singing, violin-playing, and readiness or facility in speaking. The examination in all the brandies of the first class was conducted in writing. To test a, pupil's readiness in thinking, for in- BtancB, several topics for cblHpbsdtion are given out, and, aftfer the lapse ctf a cer- 42 RESULTS OF NORMAL PCIIOOL SYSTEM. tain number of minutes, whatever has been written must be handed in to the examiners. So questions in arithmetic are given, and the time occupied by the pupils in solving them, is a test of their quickness of thouglit, or power of com- manding their own resources. This facility, or faculty, is considered of great im- portance in a teacher.* In the second class of subjects the pupils were exam- ined orallji. Two entire rlayswrre occupied in examining a class of thirty pupils, and only twenty-one were admitted to tlic seminary school ; — that is, only abcjut two-thirds were con.'^idere 1 to be eligible to become eligible, as teachers, after three years' further study. Thus, in this first process, the chaff is Avinnowed out, and not a few of the lighter grains of the wheat. It is to be understood that those who enter the seminary directly, and with- out this preliminary trial, have already studied, under able mastersln the Com- mon Schools, at least all the briiuches I have above described. The first two of the three years, they ex])end mainly in reviewing and expanding their element- ary knowledge. The German language is studied in its relations to rhetoric and logic, and as ajstlietic literature ; aritlnnetic is carried out into algebra and mixed mathematics ; geography into commerce and manufactures, and into a knowledge of the various botanical and zoological productions of the different quarters of the globe ; linear drawing into perspective and machine drawing, and the drawing from models of all kinds, and from objects in nature. &c. The theory and practice, not only of vocal, but of instrumental music, occupy much time. Every pupil must ]>lay on the violin ; most of them play on the organ, and some on other instruments. I recollect seeing a Normal class engaged in learning the principles of Harmony. The teacher first «xplained the principles on which they were to proceed. He then wrote a bar of music upon the black- board, and called upon a pupil to write such notes for another part or accompa- niment, as would make harmorn/ with the first. So he would write a bar with certain intervals, and then require a pupil to write another, with such intervals as, according to the priiicijiles of musical science, would correspond with the first. A thorough course of reading on the subject of education is undertaken, as well as a more general course. Bible history is almost committed to memory. Con- nected with all the seminaries for teachers are large Model or Experimental Schools. During the last part of the course much of the -students' time is spent in these scliools. At first they go in and look on in silence, while an accom- plished teacher is instructing a class. Tlien they themselves commence teaching under the eye of such a teaclier. At last they teach a class alone, being respon- sible for its proficiency, and for its condition as to order, Ac, at the end of a week or other period. During the wdiole course, there are lectures, discussions, com- positions, tfec, on the theory and practice of teaching. The essential qualifications of a candidate for the office. Lis attainments, and the spirit of devotion antl of religious fidelity in which he should enter upon his work; the modes of teaching the different branches ; the motive-powers to be applied to the minds of chil- dren ; dissertations upon the different natural dispositions of children, and, con- sequently, the different ways of addressing them, of securing their confidence and affection, and of winning them to a love of learning and a sense of duty ; and es- pecially the sacretlness of the teacher's profession, — the idea that he stands, for the time being, in the place of a parent, and therefore that a parent's responsi- bilities rest upon him, that the most precious hopes of society are committed to his charge, and that on him depends, to a great extent, the temporal and per- haps the future well-being of hundreds of his fellow-creature.s, — these are the conversations, the ideas, the feelings, amid which the candidate for teaching spends his probationary years. This is the daily atmosphere he breathes. Tliese are the sacred, elevating, invigorating influences constantly pouring in upon his soul. Hence, at the expiration of his course, he leaves the seminary to enter upon his profession, glowing with enthusiasm for the noble cause he has espoused, and strong in his resolves to jierform its manifold and momentous duties. J Here, then, is the cause of the worth and standing of the teachers, whom I /had the pleasure and the honor to see. As a body of men, their character is I * The above described is a very common method of examining in the gymnasia and higlier seminaries ol' Prussia. Certain sealed subjects for an exercise are given to the students ; they are then loclved up in a room, each by himself, and at the expiration of a given time, they are en- larged, and it is seen what each one lias been able to make out of his faculties. RESULTS or NORMA I. SCHOOL SYSTEM. 4.3 more enviable than that of either of the tln^ee, so-called, ' professions; They have more benevolence and self-sacritice than the legal or medical, while they have less of sanctimoniousness and austerity, less of indisposition to enter into all the innocent amusements and joyous feelings of childhood, than the clerical. They are not unmindful of what belongs to men while they are serving God ; nor of the duties they owe to this world while preparing for another.^^ On reviewing a period of six weeks, the greater pai't of which I spent in visiting schools in tlie north and middle of Prussia and in Saxony (excepting, of course, the time occupied in going from jjlace to place), entering the schools to hear the first recitation in the morning, and remaining till the last was completed at nigiit, I call to mind three things about which I cannot be mistaken. In some of my opinions and inferences 1 may have erred, but of the following facts there can l)e no doubt : 1. During all this time, I never saw a teacher hearing a les.son of any kind (excepting a reading or spelling lesson), iuUIl a book in liix //and 2. I nevjr s;iw a teaclier sittiufi while hjiring a recitation. o. Though I saw hundreds of scliools, and thousands, — I think I may say, within bounds, tens of thousands of pupils, — ■/ never saw one child undergoing punishment, or arraigned for misconduct. I never mw one child in tears from haring been punished, or from fear of being punished. During the above period, 1 witnessed exercises in geography, ancient and modern ; in the German language, — from the explanation of the simplest words up to belles-lettres tlisquisitions, with rules for speaking and writing ; — in arith- metic, algebra, geometry, surveying, and trigonometry; in book-keeping; in civil history, ancient and modern ; in natural pliilosopliy ; in botany and zoology ; in mineralogy, where there were hundreds of specimens ; in the endless variety of tlie exercises in thinking, knowledge of nature, of the world, and of society ; in Bible history and in Bible knowledge ; — and, as I before said, in no one of these cases did I see a teacher with a book in his hand. His book, — his books, — his library, was in his head. Proni'itly, without pause, witliout hesitation, from the rich resources of his own mind, he brought forth whatever the occa.sion demand- ed. I remember calling one morning at a country school in Saxony, where every thing about the premises, and the appearance, both of teacher and children, indicated very narrow pecuniary circumstances. As I entered, the teacher was just ready to commence a lesson or lecture on French history. He gave not only the events of a particular period in the history of France, but mentioned, as he proceeded, all the contemporary sovereigns of neighboring nations. The or- dinary time for a lesson here, as elsewhere, was an hour. This was somewhat longer, for, toward the close, the teacher entered upon a train of thought from which it was difficult to break off, and rose to a strain of eloquence which it was delightful to hear. The scholars were all absorbed in attention. They had pa- per, pen, and ink before them, and took brief notes of what was said. When the lesson touched upon contemporary events in other nations, — which, as I suppose, had been the subject of previous lessons, — the pupils were questioned concern- ing them. A small text-book of history was used by the pupils, which they studied at home. I ought to say further, that I generally visited schools without guide, or let- ter of introduction, — presenting myself at the door, and asking the favor of ad- mission. Though I had a general order from the Minister of Public Instruction, commanding all schools, gymnasia, and universities in the kingdom to be opened for my inspection, yet I seldom exhibited it, or spoke of it, — at least not until I was about departing. I preferred to enter as a private individual, an uncom- mended visitor. I have said that I saw no teacher sitting in his school. Aged or young, all stood. Nor did they stand apart and aloof in sullen dignity. They mingled with their pupils, passing rapidly from one side of the class to the other, animat- ing, encouraging, sympathizing, breathing life into less active natures, assuring the timid, distributing encouragement and endearment to all. The looks of the Prussian teacher often have the expression and vivacity of an actor in a play. He gesticulates like an orator. His body assumes all the attitudes, and his face puts on all the variety of expression, which a pubhc speaker would do if ha- ranguing a large assembly on a. topic vital to their interests. 44 RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. It may seem singular, and pnrhaps to some almost ludicrous, that a teacher in expounding the hrst rudiments of handwriting, in teaching tlie difference be- tween a hair-stroke and a ground-stroke, or how an I may be "turned into a 6, or a M. into a w, shouhl ba able to w >rk himself up into an oratorical fervor ; should attitudinize, and gesticulate, and stride from one end of the class to the other, and appear in every way to be as intensely engaged as an advocate when argu- ing an important cause to a Jury ; — but, strange as it may seem, it is neverthe- less true ; and before five minutes of such a lesson had elapsed, I have seen the children wrought up to an 6xciteinent proportionally intense, hanging upon the teacher's lips, catching every w(jid he says, and evincing great elation or depres- sion of spirits, as they had or had not succeeded in following his instructions. So I have seen the same rhetorical vehemence on the part of the teacher, and the same interest and animation on the part of the pupils, during a lesson on the original sounds of the letters, — that is, the difference between the long and the short sound of a vowel, or the different ways of opening the mouth in sounding the consonants b and p. TJie zeal of the teacher enkindles the scholars. He charges them with his own electricity to the point of explosion. Such a teacher has no idle, mischievous, whispering children around him, nor any occasion for the rod. He does not make desolation of all the active and playful impulses of childhood, and call it peace ; nor. to secure stillness among his scholars, does he find it necessary to ride them with the nightmare of fear. I rarely saw a teacher put questions with his lips alone. He seetns so much interested in his subject (though he might liave been teac'hing the same lesson for the hundredth or fiv« hundredth time), that his whole body is in motion; — eyes, arms, limbs, all con- tributing to the impression he desires to make ; and, at the end of an hour, both he and his pupils come from the work all glowing with excitement. Suppose a lawyer in one of our courts were to plead an important cause be- fore a jury, but instead of standing and extemporizing, and showing by his ges- tures, and by the. energy and ardor of his whole manner, that he felt an interest in his theme, instead of rising with his subject and coruscating with flashes of genius and wit, he should plant liiniself lazily down in a chair, read from some old book which scarcely a member of the panel could fully understand, and, after droning away for an hour, should leave them, without having distinctly impressed their minds with one fact, or led them to form one logical conclusion ; — would it be any wonder if he left half of them joking wi'h each other, or asleep ; — would it be any wonder, — provided he were followed on the other side by an advocate of brilliant parts, of elegant diction and attractive manner, — who ishouhl pour sunshine into the darkest recesses of the case, — if he lost not only his own repu- tation, but the cause of his chent also ? These incitements and endearments of the teacher, this personal ubiquity, as it were, among all the pupils in the class, prevailed much more, as the pupils were younger. Before the older classes, the teacher's manner became calm and didactic. The habit of attention being once formed, nothing was left for subse- quent years or teachers, but the easy task of maintaining it. M'as there ever such a comment as this on the practice of hiring cheap teachers because the school is young, or incompetent ones because it is backward ! In Prussia and in Saxony, as well as in Scotland, the power of commanding and retaining the attention of a class is held to be a sine qua non in a teacher's qualifications. If he has not talent, skill, vivacity, or resources of anecdote and wit, sufficient to arouse and retain the attention of liis pupils during the accus- tomed period of recitation, he is deemed to have mistaken his calling, and re- ceives a significant hint to change his vocation. Take a group of little children to a toy-shop, and witness their outbursting eagerness and delight. They need no stimulus of badges or prizes to arrest or sustain their attention ; they need no quickening of their faculties by rod or ferule. To the exclusion of food and sleep they will push their inquirie.s, until shape, color, quality, use, substance, both external and internal, of the objects around them, are exhausted ; and each child will want the show-man wholly to himself. But hi all the boundless variety and beauty of nature's works ; in that profusion and prodigality of charms with which the Creator has adorned and en- riclied every part of his creation ; in the delights of affection ; in the ecstatic joys of beDevolende ; in the absorbing interest which an un^phi^ic^t^ donfiteiende RESULTS OF NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 45 instinctively takes in all questions of right and wrung ; — in all these, is there not as much to challenge and command the attention of a little child, as in the curi- osities of a toy-shop ? When as much of human art and ingenuity shall have been expended upon teaching as upon toys, there will be less difference between the cases. The third circumstance I mentioned above was the beautiful relation of har- mony and affection which subsisted between teacher and pupils. I cannot say that the extraordinary fact I have mentioned was not the result of chance or ac- cident. Of the probability of that, others must judge. I can only say that, dur- ing all the time mentioned, I never saw a blow struck, I never heard a sharp rebuke given, 1 never saw a child in tears, nor arraigned at the teacher's bar for any alleged mi.sconduct. On the contrary, the relation seemed to be one of duty first, and then affection, on the part of the teacher, — of affection first, and then duty, on the part of the scholar. The teacher's manner was better than parent- al, for it had a parent's tenderness and vigilance, without the foolish dotings or indulgences to which parental affection is prone. I heard no child ridiculed, sneered at, or scolded, for making a mistake. On the contrary, whenever a mis- take was ma,de, or there was a want of promptness in giving a reply, the expres- sion of the teacher was that of grief and disappointment, as thdugh there had been a failure, not merely to answer the question of a master, but to comply with the expectations of a friend. No child was disconcerted, disabled, or be- reft of his senses, through fear. Nay, generally, at the ends of the answers, the teacher's practice is to encourage him with tlie exclamation, ' good,' ' right,' • wholly right,' tfec., or to check him, with his slowly and painfully, articulated ' no ;' and this is done with a tone of voice tiiat marks every itegree of plus and minus in the scale of approbation and regret. When a difficult question has been put to a young child, which tasks all his energies, the teacher approaches him with a mingled look of concern and encouragement ; he stands before him, the light qjid shade of hope and fear alternately crossing his countenance ; he lifts his arms and turns his body, — as a bowler who has given a wrong direction to his bowl will writhe his person to bring the ball back upon its track ; — and finally, if the little wrestler with difficulty triumphs, the teacher felicitates him upon his success, perhaps seizes and shakes him by the hand, in token of con- gratulation ; and, when the difficulty has been really formidable, and the effort triumphant, I have seen the teacher catch up the child in his arms and embrace him, as though he were not able to contain his joy. At another time, I have seen a teacher actually clap his hands with deligjit at a bright reply ; and all this has been done so naturally and so unaffectedly as to excite no other feeling in the residue of the children than a desire, by the same means, to win the same caresses. What person worthy of being called by the name, or of sustaining the sacred relation of a parent, would not give any, thing, bear any thing, sacrifice any thing, to have his children, during eight or ten years of the period of their childhood, surrounded by circumstances, and breathed upon by sweet and hu- manizing influences, like these !" The Rev. Egerton Ryerson. D, D.. Chief Superintendent of Schools, in a " Report on a System of Public Elementary fnstruction for Upper Canada,''^ after quoting the above passages fVom Mr. Mann's report, re- marks : "In the above summary and important statements on this subject, by the able Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, I fully concur, with two slight exceptions. In one instance I did see a boy in tears (in Berlin) when removed to a lower class on account of negligence in his school preparations. I did see one or two old men silting ocrMsionally in school. With these excep- tions, my own similar inquiries and experience" of nearly three months in South- ern and Western, as well as Northern and Middle Germany, and I might add a longer period of like investigations in Switzerland, Holland, Belgium and France— enable me not only to subscribe to the statements of the Hon. Mr. Mann, but would enable me, were it necessary, to illustrate them by various details of visis to individual schools." 46 RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. Professor Lemuel Stephens, now of Girard College of Orphans, Phila- delphia, in a " Letter addressed to Hon. F. R. Shunk, Superintendent of Common Schools in Pennsylvania,'''' from Berlin, in 1843, remarks : " To determine absolutely the influence which teachers' seminaries have had upon the state of popular education in Germany, would be a matter of great difiiculty, owing to the gradual growth of these institutions. One thing is cer- tain, that the improvement of the schools has followed, hand in hand, the mul- tiplication and improvement of the seminaries. Perhaps the value of these in- siilutions can be shown in no light so advantageously, as by comparing the class of common school teachers in Germany, at the present moment, with the same class in England and America. In this country one is struck with the zeal and common spirit which a common education has imparled to the whole body. They have been for three or four years under the instruction of men practically and scientifically acquainted with the best principles of teaching; and what is an indispensable part of their preparation, they have had the op- portunity of testing the value, and of becoming familiar with the application of these principles in practice. During the latter part of their course they have been accustomed, under the eye of their teachers, to instruct a school of child- ren by which means the art and the theory have kept pace with each other, t-'ome knowledge of the human mind, and some just conception of the great problem of education which they are engaged in solving, inspires them with self-iespect, with earnestness and love of their profession. Once raised above the idea that education consists alone in drilling children in a few useful ac- complishments, a sense of the dignity of the work of operating on, and forming other minds, causes them to overlook the humble outward conditions of a viU lage school, and fortifies them against the seductions of false ambition. Leaving out of the question the great immediate benefit of these seminaries in fitting teachers better to fill their ottice, I believe that the professional spirit, the esprit du corps, which they create, is productive of results which-are alone sufficient to recommend these institntion.s. It is this common spirit which se- cures the progress of the young teacher after he has entered into active service, and saves him from the besetting sin of rusting into a mechanical routine, by keeping up a lively interchange of opinions, and making him acquainted with the successes and improvements of other teachers. The means for this inter- course, are conferences and periodicals of education. In every German city, in which I have made the inquiry, I have learned that the teachers from the dif- ferent schools are accustomed to come together, at stated times, for the pur- pose of mutual improvement: even in the villages of Hes.se, and the mountain- ous part of Saxony, I found that the teacheis, from villages miles apart, held their monthly conferences for debate and lecture. In Geiarany there are no less than thirty periodicals devoted exclusively to education. In these all questions of interest to teachers are discussed; the best method of instructing explained, all new school books noticed and criticised : the arrangements and organizations of distinguished schools described, and ac- counts given from time to time of the progress of education in other states. The General School Gazette, which has particularly attracted my attention, has a list of more than one hundred regular contributors. The journals are open to all teachers to make known their experience, or to ask for informa- tion. The able director of the seminary in this city, who is at the same time the conductor of one of these periodicals, inlbrms me that one or more of them finds its way to every common school teacher. They are furnished so low that he can generally afford to take them, or if not, they are taken by the district for his benefit. By these means an active spirit of inquiry is kept up ; the improve- ments of individuals become the property of all; the obscure village teacher feels that he is a member of a large and respectable class, engaged in the great work of human improvement ; and love and zeal for his profession are enkindled. There is union, sympathy, generous emulation and mutual improvement. Among the members of a profession, there is a common principle of life. It is a type of organic lile, which contains within itself the principle of development and growth. A valuable ordinance passed in Prussia, in 1826, and renewed in 1846, re- quires a director of a seminary to travel about once a year, and visit a certain part of the schools within his circuit. He makes himself acquainted with the RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. 47 State of the school, listens to the instruction given, takes part himself in the same, and gives to the teacher such hints for improvement as his observation may suggest. The results of his yearly visits he presents in the form of a re- port to the school authorities of the province. I'his occasional visitation is very useful in clearing up the dark corners of the land, correcting abuses, and giving an impulse, from time to time, to teachers, who might otherwise sink into apathy and neglect. To render the efficacy of the seminaries more complete, it is provided that at the end of three years after leaving the seminary, the young teachers shall return to pass a second examination. And further, by an ordinance in 1826, it is provided, ' To the end, that the beneficial influence of the seminary may extend itself to those teachers already established, who either require further instruction, or who in their own cultivation and skill in office do not advance, perhaps even recede; it is required that such teachers be re- called into the seminary for a shorter or longer time, as may be needful for them, ill order, either to pass through a whole methodical course, or to prac- tice themselves in particular departments of instruction.' By this organization it is very easy to see that the whole system of popular instruction is brought under the influence of the most able teachers; their skill is made to tell upon the character of the class; and the assurance is given that the work of educa- tion is advancing surely and consequently toward perfection. It is only by the distinct division of the objects of human industry and knowl- edge, into separate arts and sciences, that their advancement can be insured. The necessity for the division of labor in the mechanic arts is well enough un- derstood. A necessity for this division, in intellectual pursuits, exists in a by no means less degree. So long as the science of education depends for its de- velopment upon the casual contributions of men of all professions, without being made the business of any, it must grope its way hither and thither by the light of occasional flashes, instead of being guided on by a steady flame. The views of certain men on education are known among us, but so far is pedagogics from being cultivated as a science, we feel ourselves as yet hardly authorized to use the word. I am far from denying that we have many very good teachers ; but they stand separate and alone. Their influence rarely ex- tends beyond the sphere of their own schools. Their experience has furnished them with excellent practical rules for their own j rocedure, but these rules have perhaps never been expressed in words, much less their truth demon- strated by a reduction of the same to scientific principles. They are content to be known as possessing the mysterious talent of a skillful teacher, and their wisdom dies with them. It is owing to the i-solated position in which teachers by profession find themselves, that the didactic skill they may have acquired, even when it rises above the character of a blind faculty, and is founded on the enlightened conclusions of science, still remains almost without influence on the wrong ideas in education which may be in vogue around them. To quote a remark of Dr. Harnisch : ' we have had, now and then, capable teach- ers without possessing seminaries: we still find such sinsly in states which yet have no seminaries, but it can not be denied that seminaries are most eflfectual levers for elevating the condition of common schools, and such they have suffi- ciently proved themselves to be in latter years.'" ************ " How far may we avail ourselves of the German plan of popular education 1 It will be borne in mind, that the Prussian system is so far voluntary that it is left entirely to the parent where, and in what manner, his child shall be edu- cated, only requiring that the years, from six till fourteen, shall be devoted to instruction, and that a certain amount of knowledge shall be obtained. The Swiss republics have placed their public schools on the same basis that the German states have done, their laws are essentially the same, and teachers have therefore, there as well as in Germany, the character of public servants. The great feature of the Prussian system, which it is both suitable and highly desirable for us to imitate, is that which I have already described, namely : the provision therein made for the education of common school teachers. This appears to me the only radical reform, and the only means of putting public education in a steady and consequent train of improvement. To apply to ourselves the advantages which I have already stated as flowing from this measure— It will raise the employment of teaching among us to a regular profession, and introduce generally consistent and rational methods of 48 RESULTS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL SYSTEM. instructing. It will create among teachers, devotion to their office, and a de- sire for co-operation. This desire will manifest itself in the organization of unions for conference and m the establishment and support of many periodicals. The higher character of teachers, and the improved state of the schools will bring them respect, and a better remuneration for their services. The higher value set upon education, the immense contrast between the efficacy of a con- stant, and that of a half-yearly school, and I must add, the impossitnlity of gel- ting good teaxkersfor the lutter, will gradually do away with this great evil under which our school system suffers. The permanent settlement of teachers, ren- dering much less the annual accession to the profession necessary to keep the schools supplied, will, as 1 have shown, obviate all difficulty on the score of numbers. The science of the human mind and its cultivation, this vitally im- portant branch of a nation's literature, will be developed among us, and its blessings will be richly manifested in the better cultivation of all the sciences and arts of life. Such is a scanty outline of the benefits which the experience of other coun- tries, and reason, show us will follow the proper education of our teachers. I do not mean to say that Germany has already realized all these benetits. It is important to observe that the reform in education in this country, goes out from the government not from the people themselves, who rather passively submit to its operation, than actively co-operate in giving it efficacy. This, with other grounds belbre stated, necessarily make popular education in Germany produc- tive of less results than in our own country. * * In the establishment of teachers' seminaries their utility and success will de- pend entirely upon their appropriate and perfect organization. False economy has often attempted to provide for the education of primary teachers, by making the seminary an appendage to a high school, or an academy. Thirty years ago this arrangement was not uncommon in Germany ; and later the experi- ment has been tried in the State of New York. * * If it were needed, to strengthen the evidence of the inefficiency of this system, I might easily quote the testimony of the most able teachers of Germany to this effect. Perhaps no department of education requires a more peculiar treatment, and more calls for the undivided zeal and energy of those who have the conduct of it, than the preparation of teachers. Every thing depends on making the seminaries for teachers, separate and independent establishments, with a careful provision for a thorough, theoretical and practical preparation for all the duties of the common school. In the ex- periment of introducing teachers' seminaries into our country, there is a dan- ger that we shall be too sparing in the number of teachers employed in con- ducting them. Seminaries conducted by one or two teachers can not be other- wise than imperfect; and while but little good would come from them, there is great danger that their failure would .serve to bring the cause into disrepute." COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS OP GERMANY. Rev. Calvin E. Stowe, D. D., in 1839, while Professor of Biblical Literature in Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio, visited Europe, and on his return submitted to the General Assembly of Ohio, in December, 1839, a " Report on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe," in which he thus describes the course of instruction pursued in the Primary Schools of Germany, particularly of Prussia and Wirtemburg. The whole course comprises eight years, and includes children from the ages of six to fourteen •, and It is divided into four parts, of two years each. It is a first principle, that the children be well accommodated as to liouse and furniture. The school-room must be well constructed, the seats convenient, and the scholars made comfortable, and kept interested. The younger pupils are kept at school but four hours in the day — two in the morning and two in the evening, with a recess at the close of each hour. The older, six hours, broken by recesses as often as is necessary. Most of the school-houses have a bathing-place, a garden, and a mechanic's shop attached to them, to promote the cleanliness and health of the children, and to aid in mechanical and agricultural instruction. It will be seen by the schedule which follows, that a vast amount of instruction is given during these eight years ; and lest it should seem that so many branches must confuse the young mind, and that they must necessarily be but partially taught, I will say, in the outset, that the industrj', skill, and energy of teachers regularly trained to their business, and depending entirely upon it ; the modes of teaching ; the habit of always finishing whatever is begun ; the perfect method which isprc' served ; the entire punctuality and regularity of attendance on the part of the scholars ; and other things of this kind, facilitate a rapidity and exactness of ac- quisition and discipline, which may well seem incredible to those who have never witnessed it. The greatest care is taken that acquisition do not go beyond discipline ; and that the taxation of mind be kept entirely and clearly within the constitutional capacity of mental and physical endurance. The studies must never weary, but always interest ; the appetite for knowledge must never be cloyed, but be kept always sharp and eager. These purposes are gradually aided by the frequent interchange of topics, and by lively conversational exercises. Before the child is even permitted to learn his letters, he is under conversational instruction, fre- quently for six months or a year ; and then a single week is sufficient to intro- duce him into intelligible and accurate plain reading. Every week is systematically divided, and every hour appropriated. The scheme for the week is written on a large sheet of paper, and fixed in a promi- nent part of the school-room, so that every scholar knows what his business will be for every hour in the week ; and the plan thus marked out is rigidly followed. Through all the parts of the course there are frequent reviews and repetitions, that the impressions left on the mind may be distinct, lively, and permanent. The exercises of the day are always commenced and closed with a short prayer ; and the Bible and hymn-book are the first volumes put into the pupils' hands ; and these books they always retain and keep in constant use during the whole progress of their education. The general outline of the eight years' course is nearly as follows ; I. First part, of two years, including children from six to eight years old; four principal branches, namely : 1. Logical exercises, or oral teaching in the exercise of the powers of observa- tion and expression, including religious instruction and the singing of hymos. 2. Elements of reading. 3. Elements of writing. 4. Elements of number, or arithmetic. 4 5Q PRIMARY StilOOl.S OF GT.RMANY. II. Second fart, of two years, including children from eight to ten years old — sevien principal branches, namely : 1. Exercises in reading. 2. Exercises in writing. 3. Religious and moral instruction, in select Bible narratives. 4. Language, or grammar. 5. Numbers, or arithmetiic. 6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry. 7. Singing by note, or elements of music. III. Third part, of two years, including children from ten to ttoelve years old — eight principal branches, namely ; 1. Exercises in reading and elocution. 2. Exercises in ornamental writing, preparatory to drawing. 3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history. 4. Language, or granimar, with parsing. 5. Keal instruction, or knowledge of iSature and the external world, including the first elements of the sciences and the arts of life — of geography and history. 6. Arithmetic continued through fractions and the rules of proportion. 7. Geometry — doctrine of magnitudes and measures. 8. Singing and science of vocal and instrumental music. IV. Fourth part, of two years, including children from ten to twelve years old — six principal branches, namely : 1. Religious instruction in the religious observation of Nature ; the life and discourses of Jesus Christ; the history of the Christian religion, in connection with the contemporary civil history ; and the doctrines of Christianity. 2. Knowledge of the world, and of mankind, including civil society, elements of law, agriculture, mechanic arts, manufactures, &c. 3. Language, and exercises in composition. 4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to the business of life, including surveying and civil engineering. 5. Elements of drawing. 6. Exercises in singing, and the science of music. We subjoin a few specimens of the mode of teaching under several of the above divisions. I. First part — children from six to eight years of age. 1. Conversations between the teacher and pupils, intended to exercise the powers of observation and expression. The teacher brmgs the children around him, and engages them in a familiar conversation with himself. He generally addresses them all together, and tliey all reply simultaneously ; but, whenever necessary, he addresses an individual, and requires the individual to answer alone. He first directs their attention tp the dittir;rent objects in the school-room, their position, form, color, size, materials of which they are made. &c., and requires precise and accurate descriptions. He then requires them to notice the various objects that meet their eye in the way to tfteir respective homes ; and a description of these objects, and the circumstances under which they saw them, will form the subject of the next morning's lesson. Then the house in which they live, the shop in which their father works, the garden in which they walk, &c., will be the subject of the successive lessons; and in this way for six months or a year, the childi-en are taught to study things, to use their own powers of observation, and speak with readiness and accuracy, before books are put into their hands at all. A few speeunens will make the nature and utility of this mode of teaching perfectly obvious. In a school in Berlin, a boy has assigned him for a lesson, a description of the remarkable objects in certain directions from the school-house, which is situated in Little Cathedral street. He proceeds as follows : " "^Ahen I come out of the school-house into Little Cathedral street, and turn to the right, I soon pass on my left hand the Maria Place, the Gymnasium, and the Anklam Gate. When I come out of Little Cathedral street, I see on my left hand the White Parade Place, and within that, at a little distance, the beautiful statue of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia. It is made of white marble, and stands on a pedestal of vai'iegated marble, and is fenced in with an iron railing. From here, I have on PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 5J my right a small place, which is a continuation of the Parade Place ; and at the end of this, near the wall, [ see St. Peter's Church, or the Wall-street Church, as it is sometimes called This church has a green yard before it, planted with trees, which is called the Wall Church Yard. St. Peter's Churteh is the oldest church in the city; it has a little round tower, which looks green, because it is mostly covered with copper, which is made green by exposure to the weather. When I go out of the school-house to the lower part of Little Cathedral street, by the Coal-market, through Shoe street and Carriage street, I come to the Castle. The Castle is a large building, with two small towers, and is built around a square yard, which is called the Castle-yard. In the Castle there are two churches, and the King and his Ministers of State, and the Judges of the Supreme Court, and the Cons story of the Church, hold their meetings there. From the Coal-market, I go through Shoe street to the Hay-market, and adjoining this is the New-market, which was formed after St. Nicholas's Church was burnt, which formerly stood in that place. Between the Hay-market and the New-market is the City Hall, where the officers and magistrates of the city hold theis meetings." If a garden is given to a class for a lesson, they are asked the size of the garden ; its shape, which they may draw on a slate with a pencil ; whether there are trees in it ; wliat the dift'erent parts of a tree are ; what parts grow in the spring, and what parts decay in autumn, and what parts remain the same throughout the winter ; whether any of the trees are fruit trees ; what fruits they bear ; when they ripen ; how they look and taste ; whether the fruit be wholesome or other- wise ; whether it is prudent to eat much of it ; what plants and roots there are in the garden, and whatlise is made of them ; what flowers there are, and how they look, i%c. The teacher may then read them the description of the garden of Eden in the second chapter of Genesis — sing a hymn with them, the imagery of which is taken from the fruits and blossoms of a garden, and explain to them how kind and bountiful God is, who gives us such wholesome plants and fruits, and such beautiful flowers for our nourishment and gratification. The external heavens also make an interesting lesson. The sky — its appear- ance and color at dilFerent times ; the clouds — their color, their varying form and movements ; the sun — its rising and setting, its concealment by clouds, its warm- ing the earth and giving it life and fertility, its great heat in summer, and the danger of being exposed to it unprotected ; the moon — its appearance by night, full, gibbous, horned ; its occasional absence from the heavens ; the stars — their shining, difference among them, their number, distance from us, &o. In this connection the teacher may read to them the eighteenth and nineteenth Psalms, and other passages of Scripture of that kind, sing with them a hymn celebrating the glory of God in the creation, and enforce the moral bearing of such contem- plations by appropriate remarks. A very common lesson is, the family and family duties, love to parents, love to brothers and sisters, concluding with appropriate passages from Scripture, and singing a family hymn. 2. Elements of reading. After a suitable time spent in the exercises above described, the children pro- ceed to learn the elements of reading. The first step is to exercise the organs of sound till they have perfect command of their vocfel powers ; and this, after the previous discipline in conversation and singing, is a task soon accomplished. They are then taught to utter distinctly all the vowel sounds. The characters or letters representing these sounds are then shown and described to them, till the form and power of each are distinctly impressed upon their memories. The same process is then gone through in respect to dipthongs and consonants. Last of all, after having acquired a definite and distinct view of the diff"erent sounds, and of the forms of the letters which respectively represent these sounds, they are taught the names of these letters, with the distinct understanding that the name of a let- ter and the power of a letter are two very dift'erent things. They are now prepared to commence reading. The letters are printed in large form, on square cards ; the class stands up before a sort of rack ; the teacher holds the cards in his hand, places one upon the rack, and a conversation of this kind passes between him and his pupils : What letter is that ? H. He places another on the rack. What letter is that ? A. I now put these two letters to- gether, thus, (moving the cards close together,) HA. What sound do these two letters signify ? Ha. There is another letter. What letter is that ? (putting it on 52 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. the rack.) R. I now put this tliinl letter to the other two, thus, HAR. 'WTiat sound do the three letti rs niaki- .' liar. Tlicre !.•< anothor letter. What is; it ? I). I join this letter to the other three, thus, llAKl). What do they all make ? Hard. Then he proceeds in the same way with the letters b'-I-S-T ; joins these four letters to the preceding lour, 11ARI>-K1ST, and the pupils pronounce, Hard- fist. Then with the letters K and I), and joins these two to the proceeding eight, and the pupils ]>ronounce. Hard-fisted. In this way they are taught to read words of any length, (for you may easily add to the above, N-E-S-S^ and make Hard-fistedne.'is) — the longest as easily as the slKjrtest ; and in laet they learn their letters ; they leai'n to read words of one syllable and of sevei'al syllables, and to read in plain reading, by the same process, at the same moment, .\fter having completed a sentence, or several sentences, with the cards and rack, they then proceed to read the same words and sentences in their spelling-books. 3. Elements of writing. The pupils are tirst taught the right position of the arms and body in writing, the proper methi)d of holding the pen. Arc. ; and are exercised on these points till their habits are formed correctly. The ditferent marks used in writing are then exhibited to them, from the simple point or straight line, to the most complex figure. The variations of t'orm and position which they are capable of assuming, and the ditterent parts of which the complex figures are composed, are carefully described, and the student is taught to imitate them, beginning with the most simple; then the separate parts of the complex, then the joining of tne several parts to a whole, with his pencil and slate. After having acquired facility in this exercise, he is prepared to write with his ink and paper. The copy is written upon the blackboard ; the [taper is laid before each member of the class, and each has his pen ready in his hand, awaiting the word of liis teacher. If the copy be the simple point, or line | , the teacher repeats the syllable one, one, slow- ly at first, and with gradually increasing speed, and at each repetition of the sound the pupils write, in this way they learn to make the mark both correctly and rapidly. If the figure to bo copied consists of two strokes, (thus, ;,) the teacher pronounces one, Inw — one, two, slowly at first, and then rapidly, as before ; and the ])upils make the (h-st n\ark, and then llie second, at the sound of each syllable, as before. If the figure consist of three strokes, (thus, t,) the teaelier pronounces one, two, three, and the pupils write as before. So when they come to make let- ters, the letter o has five strokes, thus, a. When that is the copy, the teacher says, deliberately, one, two, three, four, five, and at the sound of each syllable the different strokes composing the letter are made ; the speed of utterance is grad- ually accelerated, till finally the a is made very quickly, and at the same time neatly. By this method of teaching, a plain, neat, and quick hand, is easily acquired. 4. Elements of number, or arithmetic. In this branch of instruction I saw no improvements in the mode of teaching not already substantially introduced into the best schools of our own country. I need not, therefore, enter into any details respecting them, excepting so far as to say that the student is taught ^^ demonstrate, and perfectly to understand, the reason and nature of every rule before he uses it. II. Second part — children from eight to ten years of age. 1, ExercLses in reading. The object of these exercises, in this part of the course, is to acquire the habit of reading with accuracy and readiness, with due regard to punctuation, and with reference to orthogr;iphy. Sometimes the whole class read together, and some- times an individual by himself, in order to accustom them to both modes of read- ing, and to secure the advantages of both. The sentence is first gone through with in the class, by distinctly spelling each word as it occurs ; then by pronounc- ing each word distinctly without spelling it ; a third time by pronouncing the words and mentioning the punctuation points as they occur. ^V fourth time, the sentence is read with the jn-oper pauses indicated by the punctuation jtoints, with- out mentioning them. Finally, the same sentence is read with particular attention to the intonations of the voice. Thus one thing is taken at a time, and pujiils nuist become tluirough in eaeli as it occurs, before they proceed to the next. One great benefit of the class reading together is, that each individual has the same amount of exercise as if he were the only one under instruction, his attention PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 53 can never falter, and no part of the lesson escapes him. A skillful teacher, once accustomed to this mode of reading, can as easily detect any fault, mispronuncia- tion, or negligence, in any individual, as if that individual were reading alone. The process is sometiiues shortened, and the sentence read only three times, namely : " according to the words, according to the punctuation, according to the life." 2. Exercises in writing. The pupils proceed to write copies in joining-hand, both large and small, the principles of teaching being essentially as described in the first part of the course. The great object here is, to obtain a neat, swift, business hand. ISometimes, with- out a copy, they write from the dictation of the teacher ; and in most cases in- struction in orthography and jjunctuation is combined with that in penmanship. They are also taught to make and mend their own pens, and in doing this to be economical of their quills. ;{. Religious and moral instruction in select Bible narratives. In this branch of teaching the methods are various, and the teacher adopts the method best adapted, in his judgement, to the particular circumstances of his own school, or to the special objects which he may have in view with a particular class. Sometimes he calls the class around him, and relates to them in his own language, .some of the simple narratives of the Bible, or reads it to them in the words of the Bible itself, or directs one of the children to read it aloud ; and then follows a friendly, familiar conversation between him and the class respecting the narrative ; their little doubts are pniposcd and resolved, their questions put and answered, and the teacher unfolds the moral and religious instruction to be derived from the les- son, and illustrates it by appropriate quotations from the didactic and preceptive part.s of the Scripture. Sometimes he explains to the class a particular virtue or vice, a truth or a duty ; and after having clearly shown what it is, he takes some Bible narrative which strongly illustrates the point in discussion, reads it to them, and directs their attention to it, with special reference to the preceding narrative. A specimen or two of these different methods will best show what they are. (a) llead the narrative of the birth of Christ, as given by Luke, ii. l-'2(). Ob- serve, Christ was born for the salvation of men, so also for thi salvation of chil- dren. Christ is the children's friend. Heaven rejoices in the good of men. Jesus, though so great and glorious, makes his aiipearanco in a most humble con- dition. He is the teacher of the poor, as well as of the rich. With these remarks compare other texts of the Bible. Jno iii 16. " For God so lovpd the world that he pave his only begotten Son, that whoso- ever believelti in liim should not perish, but have everlasting life." 1. Jan. iv. 9 "In this was manifested the love of God toward us; because that God sent his only befrotten Son into the world, that we mif;ht live througti him." Mark .V. 14, 1."). "But when .lesussawit he was much displeased, and said nnto them, Suffer little children to come unio me. for of such is the kingdom of God. Verily I say unto you. whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not enter therein." And the lesson is concluded with singing a Christmas hymn. Jesus feeds five thousand men : Jno. vi. 1-14. God can bless a little so that it will do great good. Economy suffers nothing to be lost — other texts: Ps. cxlv. 15, 16. '• The eyes of all wait upon thee ; and thou givest them their me.at in due season." "Thou openest thy hand, and satisfies! the desire of every living thing." Matt. vi. 31-33. '-Therefore fake no thought, saying, what shall we eat? or, What shall we drink 7 or. Wherewith il shall we be clothed? (for after all these things do the Gentiles seek :) for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things. But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness ; and all these things shall be added unto you." Story of Cain and Abel. Gen. iv. 1-16. Remarks. — Two men may do the same thing externally, and yet the merit of their acts be very different. God looks at the heart. Be careful not to cherish envy or ill will in the heart. You know not to what crimes they may lead you. Remorse and misery of the fratricide — other texts. Matt. xv. 10. Heb. xi. 4. 1 Jno. iii. 12. ,Iob. xxxiv. 32. "For out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts* false witness, blasphemies." 54 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. "By faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice than Cain, by which he obtained witness that he was righteous, God testifying of his gifts: and by it he, being dead, yet Ejieaketh." •• Not as Cain, who was of that wicked one, and slew his brother. And wherefore slew he him t Because his own works were evil, and his brother's righteous." Story of Jesus in the temple. Luke ii. 41-52. Jesus in his childhood was very fond of learning, (he heard and asked ques- tions.) God's word was his delight, he understood what he heard and read, (men were astonished at his understanding and answers.) He carefully obeyed his parents, (he went with them and was subject to them.) And as he grew up, his good conduct endeared him to God and man. Other texts. Eph. vi. 1-4. Prov. iii. 1-4. "Children! obey your parents in the Lord; for this is right. Honor thy father and mother, (which is the first commandment with promise.) that it may be well with thee, and thou mayest live long on Ihe earth. And ye fathers ! provoke not your children to wrath, but bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord " '• My son, forget not my law ; but let thine heart keep my commandments: For length of days, and long life, and peace, shall they add to thee. Let not mercy and truth forsake thee : bind them about thy neck ; write them upon the table of thine heart: So shall thou find favor and good understanding in the sight of God and man." On the other mode of teaching, the teacher, for example, states the general truth, that God protects and rewards the good, and punishes the bad. In illustra- tion of this he reads to them the narrative of Daniel in the lions' den, and the death which overtook his wicked accusers. Dan. vi. In illustration of the same truth, the escape of I'eter, and the miserable death of his persecutor, Herod, may be read. Acts xii. The teacher may impress upon the mind of his class, that diligence, scrupulous fidelity, and conscientious self-control, are the surest guarantees of success in life ; and, in illustration of the statement, read the narrative of Joseph's conduct in his master's house in Egypt, and in the prison, and the results of it. Gen. xxxix. So, also, various incidents in the life of Jesus may be used to great advantage in illustrating different virtues. It is reeommenied that the teacher employ, in his instructions, the translation of the Scriptures in general use among the people ; but that he occasionally take the original Scriptures and read to the children, in his own translation, and some- times use simple translations from different authors, that children may early learn to notice the diversities in different faithful translations, and see what they really amount to. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that a teacher who understands his business, and is faithful to his trust, will scrupulously abstain from sectarian peculiarities, or from casting odium on the tenets of any of the Christian denominations. A man who has not magnanimity or enlargement of mind enough for this, is not fit to be employed as a teacher, even in the humblest branches of knowledge. 4. Language, or grammar. The knowledge of the native tongue, the ability to use it with correctness, facility, and power, is justly regarded as one of the most important branches of com- mon school instruction. It is the principal object of the logical exercises, or, as they may be justly termed, the exercises in thinking and speaking^ already des- cribed as the first subject of study in the first part of the course, before the child has begun to use his book at all. In this second part of the course, grammar is taught directly and scientifically, yet by no means in a dry and technical manner. On the contrary, technical terms are carefully avoided, till the child has become familiar with the nature and use of the things designated by them, and he is able to use them as the names of ideas which have a definite existence in his mind, and not as awful sounds, dimly shadowing forth some mysteries of science into which he has no power to penetrate. The first object is to illustrate the different parts of speech, such as the noun, the verb, the adjective, the adverb ; and this is done by engaging the pupil in conversation, and leading him to form sentences in which the particular parts of speech to be Varned shall be the most important word, and directing his attention to the nature and use of the word in the place where he uses it. For example, let us suppose the nature and use of the adverb are tn be taught. The teacLer PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 65 writes upon the blackboard the words " here, there, near," &c. He then says, " Children, we are all together in this room ; by which of the words on the black- board can you express this ?'' Children. " We are all Aere." Teacher. ''Now look out of the window and see the church ; what can you say of the church with the second word on the blackbuard ?" Children. " The church is there.'''' Teacher. " The distance between us and the church is not great ; how will you express this by a word on the blackboard ?" Children. " The church is near,'' The fact that these diftereiit words express the same sort of relations is then ex-'' plained, and, accordingly, that they belong to the same class, or are the same part of speech. The variations of these words are next explained. " ( hildren, you say the church is near, but there is a shop between us and the church ; wliat will you say of the shop ?"' Children. " The shop is nearer.'' Teacher. " But there is a fence between us and the shop. Is'ow when you think of the distance between us, the shop and the fence, wliat will you say of the fence ?" Children. " The fence is nearest." So of other adverbs. '' The lark sings well. Compare the singing of the lark with that of the canary bird. Compare the singing of the nightingale with that of the canary bird." After all the different sorts of adverbs and their variations have in this way been illustrated, and the pupils understand that all words of this kind are called adverbs, the definition of the adverb is given as it stands in the granmiar, and the book is put into their hands to study the chapter on this topic. In this way the pupil understands what he is doing at every step of his progress, and his memory is never burdened with mere names, to which he can attach no definite meaning. The mode of teaching the i;ubsequent branches is founded on the same general principles, and it may not be necessary to give particular examples. 5. Numbers, or arithmetic. 6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry. 7. Singing by note, or elements of music. The method of teaching music has already been successfully introduced into our own State, and whoever visits the schools of Messrs. Mason or Solomon, in Cincin- nati, will have a much better idea of what it is than any description can give ; nor will any one who visits these schools entertain a doubt that all children from six to ten years of age, vvho are capable of learning to read, are capable of learn-> ing to sing, and that this branch of instruction can be introduced into all our common schools with the greatest advantage, not only to the comfort and disci- pline of the pupils, but also to their progress in their other studies. The students are taught from the blackboard. The different sounds are repre» sented by lines of different lengths, by letters, by figures, and by musical notes ; and the pupils are thoroughly drilled on each successive principle before proceed- ing to the next. III. Third part, of two years — children from ten to twelve. 1. Exercises in reading and elocution. The objects of these exercises, in this part of the course, is to accustom the pupils to read in a natural and impressive manner, so as to bring the full force of the sentiment on those to whom they read. They are examined in modulation, emphasis, and the various intonations, and they often read sentences from the blackboard in which the various modulations are expressed by musical notes or curved lines. The evils of drawling and monotone are prevented in the outset by the method of teaching, particularly the practice of the whole class reading together and keeping time. Short and pithy sentences, particularly the Book of Proverbs, are recommended as admirably adapted to exercises of this kind. 2. Ornamental writing, introductoiy to drawing. The various kinds of ornamental letters are here practiced upon, giving accuracy to the ej'e and steadiness to the hand, preparatory to skill in drawing, which comes into the next part of the course. The pupils also practice writing sentences and letters, with neatness, rapidity, and correctness. 3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history. The design here is to give to the student a full and connected view of the whole Bible history. For this purpose large tables are made out and hung before the students. These tables are generally arranged in four columns, the first contain- ing the names of the distinguiched men during a particular period of Bible history ; gg PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. the second, the dates ; the third, a chronological register of events ; and the fourth, the particular passages of the Bible where the history of these persons and events may be found. With these tables before the pupils, the teacher him- self, in his own words, gives a brief conversational outline of the principal char- acters and events within a certain period, and then gives directions that the scrip- tural passages referred to be carefully read. After this is done, the usual recita- tion and examination takes place. Some of the more striking narratives, such as • the finding of Moses on the banks of tlie Jsile ; Abraham offering his son ; the journey of the wise men to do homage to Christ ; the crucifixion ; the conversion of Paul, &c., are committed to memory in the words of the Bible, and the recita- tion accompanied with the singing of a hymn alluding to these events. The moral instruction to be derived from each historical event is carefully impressed by the teacher. The teacher also gives them a brief view of the history between the termination of the Old and the commencement of the New Testament, that nothing may be wanting to a complete and systematic view of the whole ground. Thus the whole of the historical part of the Bible is studied thoroughly, and sys- tematically, and practically, without the least sectarian bias, and without a moment being spent on a single idea that will not be of the highest use to the scholar during all his future life. 4. Language and grammar. There is here a continuation of the exercises in the preceding parts of the course, in a more scientific form, together with parsing of connected sentences, and writing from the dictation of the teacher, w^ith reference to grammar, orthog- raphy, and punctuation. The same principal alluded to before, of avoiding tech- nical terms till the things represented by those terms are clearly perceived, is here carefully adhered to. A single specimen of the manner in which the modes and tenses of the verb are taught may be sufficient to illustrate my meaning. The teacher writes on the blackboard a simple sentence, as, •' Tlie scholars learn well ;" and asks the class what sort of a sentence it is. They reply that it is a direct statement of a fact. (Teach.) Put it in the form of a command. (Class.) Schol- ars, learn well ! (Teach.) Put it in a question form. (Class.) Do the scholars learn well ? (Teach.) Of a wish. (Cla.ss.) May the scholars learn well ! (Teach ) Of an exclamation. (Class.) How well the scholars learn ! (Teach.) The conditional form. (Class.) If the scholars learn well ; or, should the scholars learn well. (Teacl^) Of necessity. (Class.) The scholars must learn well. (Teach.) Of ability. (Class.) The scholars can learn well, &c., &c. They are then taught that the direct statement is called the indicative mode of the verb ; the command, the imperative mode ; the conditional, the subjunctive mode ; the wish, the potential mode, &c., &c. ; and after this, the book is put into their hands, and they study their lesson as it stands. After this the different tenses of the several modes are taught in the same way. 5. Real instruction, or knowledge of Nature and the external world, including the first elements of the natural sciences, the arts of life, geography, and history, instruction on this head is directed to the answering of the following questions, namely : (a) What is man, as it respects his corporeal and intellectual nature ? Here come anatomy and physiology, so far as the structure of the human body is concerned, and the functions of its several parts. Also the simple elements of mental philosophy. In this connection appropriate texts of Scripture are quoted, as Gen. ii. 7. Ps. cxxxix. 14-16. An appropriate hymn is also sung. " And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ; and man became a living soul." " I will praise thee : for I am fearfully and wonderfully made : marvellous are thy works ; and that my soul knoweth right well. My substance was not hid from thee, when I was made in secret, and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being imperfect ; and in thy book all my members were written, which in eontinuance were fashioned, when as yet there Was none of them." (b) What does man need for the preservation and cheerful enjoyment of life, as it respects his body and mind ? For his body he needs food ; the different kinds of foid, and the mode of preparing them, are here brought to view -, the unwholesomeness of some kinds of food ; injuriousness of improper food •, cooking; PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. g^ evils of gluttony. The different kinds of clothing and modes of preparing them ; what sort of dress is necessary to health ; folly and wickedness of vanity and extravagance. Dwellings^ materials of which houses are constructed ; mode of constructing them ; different trades employed in their construction. For the mind, man needs society, the family and its duties ; the neighborhood and its duties. Intellectual, moral, and religious cultivation ; the school and its duties ; the church and its duties. For the body and mind both, he needs security of person and property ; the government ; the legislature ; the courts, &c. (c) Where and how do men find the means to supply their wants, and make themselves comfortable and happy in this life ? The vegetable, the mineral, and the animal kingdoms are here brought to view, for materials ; together with agriculture and manufactures, as the means of con- verting these materials to our use. Geography, with special reference to the pro- ductions of countries, and their civil, literary, and religious institutions ; towns, their organization and employments. Geography is sometimes taught by blank charts, to which the students are required to affix the names of the several coun- tries, rivers, mountains, principal towns, &c., and then state the productions and institutions for which they are remarkable. Sometimes the names of countries, rivers, &c., are given, and the pupil is required to construct an outline chart of their localities. In respect to all the above points, the native country is particularly studied ; its capabilities, its productions, its laws, its institutions, its history, &c., are investigated, with especial reference to its ability of supplying the physical, social, and moral wants of its inhabitants. Under this head the pupils are taught to appreciate their native country, to venerate and love its institutions, to understand what is necessary to their perfection, and to imbibe a spirit of pure and generous patriot- ism. It is scarcely necessary to add, that all the instruction under this fifth head is confined to the fundamental and simplest principles of the several branches re- ferred to. 6. Arithmetic, continued through fractions and the rules of proportion. 7. Geometry, doctrine of magnitudes and measures. 8. Singing, and science of vocal and instrumental music. IV. Fourth part, of two years — -children from twelve to fourteen. 1. Religious instruction, in the religious observation of Nature, the life and dis- courses of Jesus Christ, the history of the Christian religion, in connection with the eotemporary civil history, and the principal doctrines of the Christian system. The first topic of instruction mentioned under this head is one of peculiar interest and utility. The pupils are taught to observe, with care and system, the various powers and operations of Nature, and to consider them as so many illus- trations of the wisdom, power, and goodness of the Creator ; and at each lesson they are directed to some appropriate passage of the Bible, which they read and commit to memory : and thus the idea is continually impressed on them, that the God of Nature and the God of the Bible are one and the same Being. For example, as introductory to the whole study, the first chapter of Genesis, together with some other appropriate passage of Scripture, as the 147th Psalm, or the 38th chapter of Job, may be read and committed to memory. The surface of the earth, as illustrating the power and wisdom of God, may be taken as a lesson. Then the varieties of surface, as mountains, valleys, oceans and rivers, continents and islands, the height of mountains, the breadth of oceans, the length of rivers, remarkable cataracts, extended caverns, volcanoes, tides, &c., may be taken into view, and the teacher may impress upon the class the greatness, power, and intelligence necessary for such a creation. The whole is fortified by the application of such a passage as Psalm civ. 1-13. * '' Bless the Lord, O my soul ! O Lord my God ! thou art very ?reat ; tnou art clothed with honor and majesty. Who coverest thy.self with light as with a garment : who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain : who layetli the beams of his chambers in the wafers : who mak- eth the clouds his chariot • who walkelh upon the wings of the wind : who maketh his angels spirits ; his ministers a Uaminr fire. Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed forever. Thou coverest it with the deep as with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebnke they fled : at the voice of tliy thunder they halted away They go up by the mountains ; they go down by the valleys unto the place which thoii hast founded for them. Tiiuu hnst set a bound that they may not pass over ; that they turn not again to cover the earth. He eendeth the springs into the valleys, 58 PRrMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. which run anionsr the hills. They pive drink to every beast of the field ; the wild asses quench their thirst. By them shall the (owls of the heaven have their hab.tatioii, which sing among the brandies. He watereth the hills from his chambers : the earth is satisfied with the truit of thy works." " O Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things ci-eeping innumerable, both small and great beasts. There go the ships : there is that leviathan, whom thou hast made to play therein." The fruitfulness and beauty of the earth, as illustrating the wisdom and good- ness of God, may serve as another lesson. Here may be exhibited the beauty and variety of the plants and flowers with which the earth is adorned ; the man- ner of their growth and self-propagation, their iitility to man and beast, their immense number and variety, their relations to each other as genera and species ; trees and their varieties, their beauty and utility, their timber and their fruit ; and, in connection with this lesson. Psalm civ. 14-34 may be committed to memory. " He causeth the grass tn grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man : that he may bring forth lood out of the earth ; and wine that niaketh glad the heart ol man. and oil to make h.s face to shine, and bread wli.ch strengtheiieth man's heart. The trees of the Lord are full of sap ; the cedars of l,ebanoii. wli,ch he halh planted ; where the birds make their nests : as for the stork, the lir trees are her house. The high hills are a refuge fur the wild goats ; and the rocks for the conies. He appointeth the moon for seasons : the sun knowelh hsgoing down. • Thou maketh darkness, and it is night : wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth. The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meal from God. The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens. Man goeth Ibrth unto h s work and to his lalior until the evening " '•These wait all upon thee ; that thou mayest give them their meat in due season. That thou givest them they gather; thou openest thine hand, they are filled with good. Thou hidest thy f;ice. they' are troubled: thou takest away their breath, they die. and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy .Spirit, they are created ; and thou renewest the face of the earth. The glory of the Lord shall endure forever • the Lord shall rejoice in his works. He looketh on the earth, and it trembleth : he toucheth tlie hills, and they smoke. I will sing unto the Lord as lung as I live : 1 will sing praise to my God while I haye my being. My meditation of him shall be sweet ; I will be glad in the Lord." In like manner, the creation and nourishment, the habits and instincts of vari- ous animals may be contemplated, in connection with Proverbs vi. 6-8 ; Psalm civ. ir-22 ; Proverbs x.xx. 24-31 ; Gen. i. 2U-24 ; Psalm cxlv. 15-16. " Go to the ant, thou sluggard ! consider her ways, and be wise : Wh'ch having no guide, over.-eer, or ruler, providelh her meat in the summer, and ^rathereth her food in the harvest." ••There he four things which are liltleon the earth, but they are excee[)ly them not only with knowledge, but with an inexiinguit-hable love lor it ; suppose such a teacher to be able to fjivt.- one. and sometimes two such lessons a day, that is, trom two hundred to I'our hundred lessons in a year, to the same class, and to carry his classes, in this way, through their eight years schooling. On the other hand, suppose a young njan coming fresh from the plow, the workshop, or the anvil ; or, w hat is no better, from (Jreek and Latin classics, and suppose his knowledge on the above enumerated subjects to be divided into four hundred, or even intt) two hundred parts, and that only one two-hundredth portion of that stock of knowledge should be administered to the children in a day. Let us suppose all this, and we shall have some more adequate idea of the different advantages of children, at the present time, in ditierent |jarts of the world. In Prussia, the theory, and the practice under it, are, n(jt that three years' study under the best masters qualifies a talented and devoted man to become a teacher, but that three years' of such general preparation may qualify one for that particular and daily preparation which is to be made before meeting a class in school. And a good I'russian teacher no more thinks of meeting his classes without this daily preparation, than a distinguished lawyer or clergyman amongst ourselves would think of managing a cause before court and jury, or preaching a sermon, without special reading and forethought. It is easy to see, from the above account, how such a variety of subjects can be taught simuitaoeously in school, without any interfei^nce with each other ; nay, that the "common bond," which, as Cicero says, binds all sciences together, should only increase their unity as it enlarges their number. BIBLE HISTORY AND BIBLE KNOWLEDGE. Nothing receives more attenticm in the Prussian schools than the Bible. It is taken up early and studied systematically. The great events recorded in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament; the character and lives of those wonderful men, who, from age to age, were brought upon the stage of action, and through whose agency the future history and destiny of the race were to be so much modified ; and especially, those sublime views of duty and of morality which are brought to light in the Gospel, these are topics of daily and earnest inculcation, in every school. To these, in some schools, is added the history of the Christian religion, 'in connection with cotemporary civil history. So far as the Bible lessons are concerned, I can ratify the strong statements made by Professor Stowe, in regard to the absence of sectarian instruction, or endeavors at proselyt- ism. The teacher being amply possessed of a knowledge of the whole chain of events, and of all biographical incidents ; and bringing to the exercise a heart glowing with love to man, and with devotion to his duty as a former of the char- acter of children, has no necessity or occasion to fall back upon the formulas of a creed. It is when a teacher has no knowledge of the wonderful works of God, and of the benevolence of the design in which they were created ; when he has no power of explaining and applying the beautiful incidents in the lives of prophets and apostles, and especially, the perfect example which is given to men in the life of Jesus Christ ; it is then, that, in attempting to give religious instruction, he is, as it were, constrained to recur again and again to the few words or sentences of his form of faith, whatever that faith may be ; and, therefore, when giving the second lesson, it will be little more than a repetition of the first, and the two-hun- dredth lesson, at the end of the year, will diif'er from that at the beginning only in accumulated wearisomeness and monotony. There are one or two facts, however, which Professor Stowe has omitted to mention, and without a knowledge of which, one would form very erroneous idea.s respecting the character of some of the religious instruction in the Prussian schools. In all the Protestant schools, Luther's Catechism is regularly taught ; and in all the Roman Catholic schools, the Catechism of that communion. When the schools are mixed, they have combined literary with seperate religious instruc- tion : and here all the doctrines of the respective denominations are taught early and most assiduously. I well remember hearing a Roman Catholic priest incul- cating upon a class of very voung children the doctrine of transubstantiation. He illustrated it with the miracle of the water changed to wine, at the marriage feast in Cana ; and said that ho who could turn water into wine, cbuld turn hiB own 74 PRIiMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. blood into the same element, and also his body into bread to be eaten with it. Contrary, then, to the principles of our own law, sectarianism is taught in all Prussian schools ; but it is nevertheless true, as Professor Stowe says, that the Bible can be taught, and is taught, without it. All Prussian teachers are masters not only of vocal, but of instrumental music, One is as certain to see a violin as a blackboard, in every school-room. Generally speaking, the teachers whom I saw, played upon the organ also, and some of them upon the piano and other instruments. Music was not only taught in school as an accomplishment, but used as a recreation. It is a moral means of great efficacy. Its practice promotes health ; it disarms anger, softens rough and turbulent natures, socializes, and brings the whole mind, as it were, into a state of fusion, from which condition the teacher can mould it into what forms he will, as it codls and hardens. All these subjects I have enumerated, were taught in all the schools I visited, whether in city or country, for the rich or for the poor. In the lowest school in the smallest and obscurest village, or for the poorest class in over-crowded cities ; in the schools connected with pauper establishments, with houses of correction or with prisons, in all these, there was a teacher of mature age, of simple unaffected and decorous manners, benefolent in his expression, kind and genial in his inter- course with the young, and of such attainments and resources as qualified him not only to lay down the abstract principles of the above range of studies, but, by familiar illustration and apposite example, to commend them to the attention of the children. Although the foregoing acc6unt of primary instruction in Germany, was drawn from observations mainly in the schools of Prussia and Sax- ony, it is, in its main features, appUcable to primary schools in the other German States. On this point, Mr. Kay bears the following emphatic testimony in his valuable contribution to our knowledge of the social and educational condition of Europe* — a work, from which we shall have occasion to quote largely in giving an account of the school sys- tems of Switzerland and the several German States. In Bavaria, Wirtemburg, the Duchy of Baden, and Nassau, as much, and in Wirtemberg and Baden perhaps even more, has been done to promote the intel- ligence, morality, and civilization of the lower orders of society, than in Prussia. In each of these countries, every village has a good school-house, and at least one learned and practically efficient teacher, who has been educated for several years at a college ; every town has several well-organized schools, sufficiently large to receive all the children of the town, who are between the ages of six and fourteen ; each of these schools contains from four to ten class-rooms, and each class-room is under the direction of a highly educated teacher. In each of these countries, every parent is obliged to educate his children, either at home or at some school, the choice of means being left to himself. In none of these countries are children left to grow up in vicious ignorance or with debasing habits. In none of these countries, is there any class of children analogous to that, which swarms in the back streets, alleys, and gutters of our great cities and towns, and from which our paupers, our disaffected, and our criminals grow up, and from which our '• ragged schools" are filled. All the children are intelligent, polite, clean, and neatly dressed, and grow up from their sixth to their fourteenth year under the teaching and influence of educated men. The Social Condition and Education of the People in England and Europe ; showing the results of the primary schools nnd of the division of landed property in foreign countries, by Joseph Kay. Esq., M. A., of Trinity (.'ollese, Cambridge ; Barrister at-law ; and late Travel- ing Bacbelor of the University of Cambridge. London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Long- mans. 1S50. PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 15 In each of these countries a suflicient number of normal colleges has been founded, to enable it to educate a sufficient supply of teachers for the parisiies and towns. In each of these countries, all the schools of every sect and party, private as well as public, are open to public inspection, and are visited several times every year by learned men, whose business it is to examine bolli teachers and scholai's, and to give the government, the chambers, and the country, a full and detailed account of the state, condition, character, and progress of every school, so that parents may know where to send their children with safety; tliat good teachers may be encouraged, rewarded, and promoted ; and that unworthy teachers may not be sutFered to continue long in their situations. In each of these countries, the laws prohibit any person being a teacher of any school, until he has proved his elticiency to the committee of professors, appointed by the state to e.\ai7iine candidates, and until he has laid before such committee testimonials of character from his religious minister, his neighbors, and the pro- fessors of the college at which he was educated. I can give a traveler, who is desirous of comprehending at one short view the workings of the German and Swiss systems of popular education, no better advice than to direct Jiim to notice the state of the str(^ets in any German or Swiss town, which he happens to visit ; no matter where it be, whether on the plains of Prus- sia or Bavaria, on the banks of the Rhine, in the small towns of the I3lack Forrest, or in the mountainous cantons of Alpine Switzerland, no matter where, let him only walk through the streets of such a town in the morning or the afternoon, and count the number of children to be found there above the age of four or five, or let him stand in the same streets, when the children are going to or returning from the schools, and let him examine their cleanly appearance, the good quality, the excellent condition, and the cleanliness of their clothing, the condition of the les- son books they are carrying, the happiness and cheerfulness, and, at the same time, the politeness and ease of their manners ; he will think he sees the children of the rich; but let him follow them home, and he will find that many of them are the oftspriiig of the poorest artizans and laborers of the town. If that one spectacle does not convince him of the magnitude of the educational efforts of Ger- many, and of the happy results which they are producing, let him go no further, for "nothing he can further see will teach him. Let him then come home, and rejoice in the condition of our poor; but, should he start at this extraordinary spectacle, as I have seen English travelers do, to whom 1 have pointed out this sign of advanced and advancing civilization, let him reflect, that this has been effected, spite of all the obstac'es which impede ourselves. Bigotry and ignorance have cried their loudest ; Romanists have refused co-operation with Protestants, Protestants with Romanists, and yet th ^y have co-operated. There has been the same strong jealousy of all government interference, the same undefined and ill- digested love of liberty, and there has been the same selfish fear of retarding the development of physical resources. In Bavaria, the war has been waged be- tween Romanists and Protestants ; in Argovie, opposition has been raised by the manufacturers; in Lucerne, by the religious parties, and by the political oppo- nents of the government ; and in Baden, the difficulties have been aggravated by the numbers of Jews, whom both Romanists and Protestants hated to receive into alliance, even more than they disliked to co-operate among themselves. But in all these countries the great principle has finally triumphed ; and all parties have yielded some little of their claims, in the full conviction, that a day is dawning upon Europe, fraught with the most overwhelming evils for that country which has not prepared for its approach. Whether the methods by which any of these different countries are carrying out their great design, are in any way applicable to this country or not, I shall not stop to consider, my desire being merely to show how different countries, with dif- ferent degrees of political freedom, with dlft'erent political constitutions, whose people profess different religious tenets, where Protestants of different sects, Roman Catholics, and Jews, are mingled up in every kind of proportion, have all managed to overcome difficulties precisely similar to those which stand in our way, and have all agreed to lalior together to educate their poor. For it is a great fact, however much we ni.iy be inclined t.) doubt it, that throughout Prussia. 76 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. Saxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, Wirtemburg, Baden, Ilesse Darmstadt, Hesse Cassel, Gotlia, Nassau, Hanover, Denmark, Switzerland, Norway, and the Austrian Empire, all the children are actually, at this present time, attending school, and are receiving a careful, religious, moral, and intellectual education, from highly educated and efficient teachers. Over the vast tract of country, which I have mentioned, as well as in Holland and the greater part of France, all the children above six years of age are daily acquiring useful knowledge and good habits under the injluence of moral, religious, and learned teachers. All the youth of the greater part of these countries, below the age of twenty-one years, can read, write, and cipher, and know the Bible history, and the history oi' their own coun- try. No chddren are left idle and dirty in the streets of the towns ; there is no class of children to be compared, in any respect, to the children who frequent our " ragged schools ;" all the children, even of the poorest parents, are, in a great part of these countries, in dress, appearance, cleanliness, and manners, as polished and civilized as the children of om' middle classes ; the children of the poor in Germany are so civilized tliat the rich often ^end their children to the schools intended for the poor ; and, lastly, in a great part of Germany and Switzerland, the children of the poor are receiving a better education than that given in Eng- land to the children of the greater part of our middle classes ! These facts de- serve to be well considered. And let it be remembered that these great results have been attained, notwith- standing obstacles at least as great as those which make it so difficult for us to act. Are they religious differences which hinder us? Look at Austria, Bavaria, and the Prussian Rhine provinces, and the Swiss cantons of Lucerne and Soleure. Will any one say, that the rehgious difficulties in those countries are less than those which exist in our own 1 Is the sectarianism of the Jesuits of Lucerne, or of the priests of Bavaria, of a more yielding character toward the Protestant " heretics," than that of one Protestant party in England toward another ? And yet, in each of these countries, the difficulties arising from religious differences have been overcome, and all their children are brought under the influence of a religious education, without any religious party having been oft'euded. But are they political causes, which prevent us proceeding in this great work, in which nearly all Europe has so long preceded us, notwithstanding that we need it more than all the European nations put together ? Are they political causes, I ask ? I answer by again referring my readers to the countries I have enumerated. Under the democratic governments of the Swiss cantons, where it is the people who rule and legislate ; under the constitutional governments of Saxony, Wirtemburg, and Baden, which were framed more or less upon the English model, and vvhere the people have long had a direct influence upon the government ; under the consti- tutional governments of France and Holland, and under all the difierent grades of absolute rule which existed but a few months since in Prussia, the German dukedoms, and the Austrian states, the difficulties of the question have long been overcome, and with such entire satisfaction to all parties, that among the present representatives of the people, no member has ever been heard to express a desire for the change of the laws which relate to primarj^ education. But once again ; perhaps there are some who say, but there is no country which is troubled, as we are, by the union of both religious and political difficul- ties. I again refer my readers to the cases of Hollancl and Switzerland. They will find in these countries the same strong love of independence of action, which we boast so proudly and so justly. They will find also, not only strong religious feuds existing among the Protestants themselves, and pushed to the most shame- ful extremities, as in the case of the canton of Vaud, from which one religious party has lately been driven as exiles, but they will find the still more formidable differences of the Protestants and Catholics arrayed against each other, and seem- ingly preventing all union on any subject whatsoever ; and yet, in all these vari- ous countries, differing as they do in the state of their religious parties, and of their political regulations, in all of them, I say, have all parties consented to join on this one great and important question, the educatioiN of the people. But there are some who say, that if our means of direct education are worse, yet that our means of indirect education are better than those of other countries, and that if our p-aople have not sbh^ls and gotid tea^^hers, they have long had a PRIMARY SUHUULfi Ul' oEK.MA.W. 77 free press, the right of assembling together for political discussion, plenty of cheap and very liberal journals, good reports of all the debates of our Houses of Legis- lature, and a literature free in its spirit, suggestive in its writings, and any thing but one-sided in its views of political and social questions, and that all this serves to stimulate the intellectual energies of the people. As far as regards the middle classes, this is all very true ; but, as regards the poor, it is ridiculously false. Most of our poor are either wholly without education, or else possess so little as to be entirely out of the sphere of such influences, as those I have enumerated. What good can one of our boorish peasants gain from cheap literature, free par- liamentary debates, free discussion, and liberal journals? What advantage is it to a starving man that there is bread in the bakei-'s shop; if he has not wherewith to buy ? What good is cheap literature and free discussion to a poor peasant who can neither read nor think ? He starves in the mid.st of plenty, and starves too with a curse upon his lips. It is utterly false to argue that the peasants would provide themselves with schools and education, if education would improve their condition in society. We can never hope to see the peasants supply themselves with schools. They never have done so in any country, they never will do so in our own. Such a step im- plies in them a great prior development of the intellectual and moral faculties ; a development which can only be obtained by means of education. The peasants are neither wise enough, nor rich enough, to erect or support schools for them- selves, and should government refuse either to do it for them, or to oblige all classes to assist the poor to accomplish this great work, we may rest assured that another century will see no further advances than we have made at present ; our schools are for the most part totally unfitted for their purpose, and our teachers the most ignorant, ill-paid, and least respected set of men in the community. Other countries have long since recognized these truths, and acted upon them. Whilst iu England we have been devoting most of our energies to the increase of our national wealth, the Germans and Swiss have been engaged in the noble undertaking of attempting to raise the character and social position of their poorer classes. To effect this, they have not vainly imagined that schools alone were sufficient, but to the accomplishment of this great end, every social institution and every social regulation has been rendered subservient. They began, it is true, by raising schools, and educating teachers ; but they have continued this great work by reforming their prisons and criminal codes ; by facilitating the transfer and division of their lands ; by simplifying their legal processes ; by reforming their ecclesiastical establishments ; by entirely changing the mediaeval and illiberal con- stitutions of their universities and public schools ; by improving the facilities of internal communication ; and, lastly, by opening the highest and most honorable offices of the state to all worthy aspirants, no matter of how low an origin. Nor have their labors in the cause of social reform diminished, as there was seemingly less immediate need for them. On the contrary, to a traveler in these countries, who has not acquainted himself whh all that has been going on there for the last thirty years, they would seem to be only now commencing, so vigorous and universal are the efforts which are at this moment being made. It is doubtless true, that the social polity of a country should be so ordered, that the whole life of any of its members should be a progressive and continued I'elig- ious, moral, and intellectual education ; but it is no less certain that this great work, if it is ever to have a commencement, must begin at home, and be continued, in the case of the peasant, in the village school, under the superintendence of the religious minister and village teacher, or it can never be accomplished at all. True it is, that at first the evil influence of the home will be stronger than the good one of the teacher and the school. But still, if he understand the conduct of his im- portant work, he will know how to awaken those principles which, it may be, lie dormant, but which nevertheless exist in every child's mind, and which, if once aroused, would be certain in some degree to mitigate the evil influences of home. Thus might we hope, that the cottage firesides of the next generation would prove less injurious than those of the present to the children, who will cluster around them, and that the school would have an auxiliary, and not an antagonist, in the powerful, though now, alas! too often misdirected influences of home. It is only when we have attained this happy result, that we can hope to realize the full bene- ^J^ PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. fits which education is capable of conferring, and which, in other lands, it is at this day conferring upon the people. !So long as the early domestic training is in direct opposition to the education of the schools, so long must the improvement in education be very slow ; but, however slow, it is the only sure means we have of counteracting the effects of a vicious domestic training, and of cleansing the very fount of immorality. The laborer is occupied from twilight on to twilight, and the religious ministers have but few opportunities of bringing higher iutluences to bear upon him. Those, too, who most need improvement, are generally the most unwilling to receive it; and those whose liomes act most injuriously on the younger inmates, are precisely those, who oppose most strenuously the entry of the religious minister, and who are most rarely brought under any ennobling influence whatever. Thus it often happens, that the only way by which we can introduce reform into a home, is through the children ; for. most happily, there is among the poor such a great idea of the benefits to be derived from education, that it very rarely happens that the parent can not be persuaded to send his child to school, when he is enabled lo do so. It is delightful to see how thoroughly this truth has been recognized in ^^'estern Europe, i^'roin the shores of the Baltic and the North Sea to the foot of the great Alpine range, and from the Rhine to the Danube, all the children of both rich and poor are receiving daily instruction, under the surveillance of their relig- ious ministers, from long and most carefully educated teachers. Throughout the plains of Prussia, Bohemia, and Bavaria, among the hills and woods of Saxony and central Germany, in the forests and rich undulating lands of Wirtemburg and Baden, in the deep and secluded Alpine valleys of Switzerland and the Tyrol, in most of the provinces of the iVustrian empire, throughout Holland, Denmai'k, and almost the whole of France, and even in the plains of Italian Lombardy, there is scarcely a single parish, which does not possess its school-house and its one or two teachers. The school buildings are often built in really an extravagant man- ner ; and in Switzerland and South Germany, the village school is generally the finest erection of the neighborhood. In the towns the expenditure on these mon- uments of a nation's progress is still more remarkable. Here the municipal author- ities generally prefer to unite several schools for the sake of forming one complete one. This is generally erected on the following plan : A large house is built of three or four stories in height, with commodious play yai'ds behind. The one or two upper stories are used as apartments for the teachers ; the lower rooms ai'e set apart for the different classes. A town school has generally from eight to ten, and sometimes twelve or fourteen, of these cliiss-rooins, each of which is capably of containing from 80 to 100 children. An educated teacher is appointed to man- age each class, so that there is generally a staff' of at least eight teachers connected with each town school of Germany, and I have seen schools with as many as twelve and fourteen teachers. The rooms are filled with desks, maps, and all tlie apparatus which the teachers can require for the purposes of instruction. I gener- ally noticed, on entering a small German or Swiss town, that next to the church, the finest building was the one set apart for the education of the children. It is impossible to estimate the enormous outlay which Germany has devoted to the erection and improvement of school-houses alone, during the last fifteen years. In the towns, hardly any of the old and inefficient buildings now remain, except where they have been improved and enlarged. In Munich, I directed my conductor to lead me to the worst school buildings in the city, and I found all the class-rooms measViring fourteen feet high by about twenty-five square, and ten of such class-rooms in each school-house, each of wliich rooms was under the con- stant direction of an educated teacher. In whatever town I happened to be stay- ing, I always sought out the worst, in preference to the best schools. In Berlin, the worst I could find contained four class-rooms, each eight feet in height, and about fifteen feet square ; and in the Grand Duchy of Baden I found that the Chambers had passed a law prohibiting any school-house being built, the rooms of which were not fourteen feet high. Throughout Germany no expense seems to have been spared to improve the materials of popular instruction. This could never have been efft-cted had not the expenses of such an immense PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. tjg undertaking been equally distributed over all the parishes of the different states. The burden being thus divided amongst all, is not ftlt by any ; but had the gov- ernment started in the vain hope of being able to bear even a third of the expense, popular education would have been no further advanced in Germany than in Eng- land. But wiser, or more interested in the real success of the undertaking than ourselves, the governments of the different states have obliged each province to provide for the expenses necessary for its own primary education. The systems, so far from having been systems of uxeessive centralization, leav- ing no freedom of action to the parishes, have been alfrays and still are essentially parochial systems, merely under the surveillance, and subject to the check of the central authority. It is the parishes and towns, which tfix themselves for educa- tional purposes ; it is the parishioners and citizens, who elect their own teachers ; it is the parishioners and citizens, who pay their own teachers, and provide all the materials for the education of their own poor ; it is the parishioners and citizens, who determine whether they will have separate schools for their different religious sects, or common schools for them all ; it is the parishioners, who choose the sites of their school-houses, and the outlay they will make on their erection ; and although they have not the power of dismissing a teacher after they have once elected him, without first showing to government a sufficient ground for such a step, yet they are afforded every tiieility of forwarding any complaints they may have to make of any teacher they have elected, to the educational authorities ap- pointed to judge such matters, and to protect the teachers from the effects of mere personal animosities or ignorance. Germany will one day be lauded by all Europe, as the inventor of a system securing, in the best possible manner, guidance by the greatest intelligence of the country, the cheapest manner of working, the fostering of local activity and of local sympathies, and the cordial assistance of the religious ministers. Disputes about separate or mixed schools are unheard of in Prussia, because every parish is left to please itself which kind it will adopt. One of the leading Roman Catholic Counsellors of the Educational Bureau in Berlin assured me, that they never experienced any difficulty on this point. " We always," he said, ''en- courage separate schools when possible, as we think religious instruction can be promoted better in separate than in mixed schools; but, of course, we all think it better to have mixed schools, than to have no schools at all •, and when we can not have separate schools we are rejoiced to see the religious sects uniting in the sup- port of a mixed one. Wlien mixed schools are decided on by the parochial com- mittees, the teacher is elected by the most numerous of the two sects ; or, if two teachers are required, one is elected by one sect, and the other by the other ; and in this case each conducts the religious education of the children of his own sect. But when only one teacher is elected, the children of those parents, who differ from him in religious belief, are permitted to be taken from the school during the religious lessons, on condition that their parents make arrangements for their relig- ious instruction by their own ministers." I went to Prussia with the firm expectation, that I should hear nothing but complaints from the peasants, and that I should find the school nothing but a wor- thy offshoot of an absolute government. To test whether this really was the case or not, as well as to see something of the actual working of the system in the country districts, I traveled alone through different parts of the Rhine provinces for four weeks before proceeding to the capital. During the whole of my solitary rambles, I put myself as much as possible into communioatitm with the peasants and with the teachers, for the purpose of testing the actual state of feeling on this question. Judge, then, of my surprise, when I assure my readers that, although I conversed with many of the very poorest of the people, and with both Romanists and Protestants, and although I always endeavored to elicit expressions of discon- tent, I never once heard, in any part of Prussia, one word spoken by any of the peasants against the educational regulations. But on the contrary, I every where received daily and hourly proofs, of the most unequivocal character, of the satisfac- tion and real pride with which a Prussian, however poor he may be, looks upon the schools of his locality. Often and often have [ been ansv\'ered by the poor laborers, when asking them whether they did not dislike being obliged to educate their children, " Why should 80 PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. I ? The schools are excellent ; the teachers are very learned and good men ; and then think how much good our children are gaining; tlu-y behave better at home, they make our families all the happier, and they are much better able in after-life to earn their own livelihood. No, no; we do not dislike the schools. We know too well how much good our children are gaining from them." I have heard this said over aud over again in different parts of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Wirtem- burg, and Kaden ; aud, indeed, I may add, that throughout Germany, I never heard one single wo-d of discontent uttered against these truly liberal and Chris- tian establishments. Evei-y one of the richer classes, with whom I conversed, corroborated the truth of all that the peasants had told me. I particularly remember a very intelligent teacher at Etberfeld saying to me, " 1 am quite convinced that, if we had a politi- cal revolution to-morrow, none of the peasants would think of wishing to have any great alteration made in the laws which relate to the schools." Recent facts have proved the truth of the assertion.* Several travelers have fallen into the strangest errors in their investigations on this subject, from having confined their attention to the schools of the capitals, or of one or two other large towns. Very few have seen the working of the system in the villages and remote provinces. But it is there only that a fair idea can be formed of the effects it is producing, and of the manner in which it is regarded by the people themselves. * A remarkable proof of the truth of these remarks is, that since the commencement of the German revolutions of 1848, tlie only change in the educational regulations, which has been flemandtd by the people, is, thai Itiey shonid be allowed to send their children to the parochial schools free of all expense, and that the present small weekly pence required from the parents for the education ol each child should be paid out of the regular parochial school rates. This has been conceded, and the peasant.? themselves will now as rigorously en- force the compulsory educational regulations, as the Swiss peasants enforce lawsai least as stringent. PRUSSIA. The system of Public Instruction in Prussia embraces three degrees, provided for in three classes of institutions. 1. Primary or Elementary Instruction, conveyed in schools correspondino: to our common schools. 2. Secondary Instruction, provided for in Gymnasia, Real Schools and Trade Schools. 3. Superior instruction, communicated in the Universi- ties. We shall confine oui- attention to Primary Instruction, and shall present a general idea of the system from various authorities.* As early as the reign of the Elector Joachim the Second, before the kingdom of Prussia existed, except as the Mark of Brandenburg, (1540,) visitors were appointed to inspect the town schools of the Electorate with express directions to report in relation to the measures deemed necessary for their improvement. In 1545, the same elector appointed a permanent council or board, on church and school matters. In a decree of some length, by the elector John George, (1573,) special sections are devoted to the schools, to teachers and their assistants, and to pupils. It is re- markable as containing a provision for committees of superintendence, consisting of the parish clergyman, the magistrates and two notables, exactly similar in constitution to the present school committees. In 1777, a decree of Frederick William the First, king of Prussia en- joins upon parents to send their children to school, provides for the pay- ment of teachers, for the education of poor children, and for catechetical instruction by the parochial clergymen. In 1735, the first regular semi- nary for teachers in Prussia was established at Stettin, in Pomerania. To induce a better attendance at school, a decree of 1736 requires that the parent of every child between five and twelve years of age, shall pay a certain fee, whether his child goes to school or not; this rule beino', as it were, preliminary to the present one of forced attendance. The same decree refers to school-houses erected by associated parishes, showing, that such associations existed previously to the decree for providing pub- lic schools ; similar associations may even now exist, but they are not numerous, forming exceptions to the general rule requiring each parish to have its public school. The decree provides further for the amount of fees to be paid to the teacher by the pupils, the church, or the state, and for aid to peasants who have more than two children above five years of age, by the payment of the fees of all over this number from a school fund. A rescript of 1738, constitutes the clergy the inspectors of schools. Bache's " Report on Education in Europe." Cousin's "Report on Primary Instruction in some of the Sales of Germany, and particularly in Prussia. " Prof. Stephens's " Letter to the Superintendent of Common Schools in Pennsylvania in 1843." Recent School Docu- ments from Germany, by Harnisch, Calinich, Jacobi and others. 6 g2 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. An attempt to provide more precisely, by law, for the regulation of the schools in Berlin, was made by a decree of 1738. This decree requires that teachers shall be regularly examined by the inspectors of schools before being allowed to teach, and prescribes their acquirements in detail. It directs the opening and closing of the schools with prayers ; fixes the hours of daily attendance at from eight to eleven, or seven to ten in the morning, and one to three in the afternoon ; prescribes instruction in spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing, and regulates the emoluments and perquisites of the master. A new impulse was given to public instruction under the reign of Frederick the Great. The regulations drawn up by Hecker, and approved by the king, (1763,) are very precise, and though they have been in part superseded by later decrees, many of their provisions ai-e still in force. They provide for the selection of school books by the consistory ; that children shall be sent to school at five years of age, and be kept there un- til thirteen or fourteen, or until they have made satislactory attainments in reading and writing, in the knowledge of Christian doctrine, and of such matters as are to be found in their text-books ; fix the school-hours, requiring six liours a day for instruction in winter, and three in summer, and one hour of catechetical instruction, besides the Sunday teacliing ; require that all unmarried persons of the parish shall attend the hour of instruction in the catechism, and besides, receive lessons in reading and writing ti-om the Bible. The regulations provide anew for the school- masters' fees, and for the instruction of poor children ; require that the schoolmaster shall be furnished from the church-register with a list of all the children of the age to attend school, and that he shall prepare a list of those who are actually in attendance, and submit boih to the clergyman, in his periodical visits; direct anew the examination of candidates for the situation of schoolmaJler, and refer particularly to the advantages of the seminary opened at Berlhi for preparing teachers for the Mark of Bran- denburg; lay down minutely the scheme of elementary instruction, and actually specify the time to be devoted to the different branches, with each of the two classes composing the school ; require the parochial clergy to visit the schools twice a week, and inspectors of circles to per- form the same service at least once a year. The decree of Frederick regulating the Catholic schools of Silesia, (1765,) is even more particular than the foregoing, It shows the settled policy in regard to educating teachers in special seminaries, now so im- portant a part of the Prussian system, by setting apart certain schools by name for this purpose, requiring the appointment of a director to each, and assigning his duties. In 1787, Frederick William the Second created a council of instruction, under the title of an '-Upper School Board," fOber-Schul Collegium.) of which the minister of state was president. 1 he council was directed to examine text-books, and to pass upon the licenses of masters, on the re- ports of the provincial school-boards. They were authorized to erect seminaries for teachers at the government expense, and to frame their regulations; to send out an inspector from their body to examine any part of'public instruction, and to rectify all wrongs by a direct order, or through the school-boards of the provinces, the school committees or patrons. This organization remained substantially in force until the separation of the departments of state and instruction in 1817. with the creation of a ministry of public instruction. The attributes of tliis upper school board, it will be seen, now belong to that council. The school plan of 1763 was modified by an ordinance of 1794, which in- troduces geography and natural history in the elementary schools, and refers to vocal music as one of their most important exercises ; it also at- tempts, by minute prescriptions, to introduce uniformity in the methods of PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 83 instruction and discipline. The regulation for the catholic schools of Silesia was also revised in 1801. But the most important era in the history of public instruction in Prus- sia, as well as in other parts of Germany, opens with the etforts put forth by the king and people, to rescue the kingdom from the yoke of Napo^ leon in 1809. In that year the army was remodeled and every citizen converted into a soldier; landed property was declared free of feudal service ; restrictions on fVeedom of trade were abolished, and the whole state was reorganized. Great reliance was placed on infusing a German spirit into the people by giving them freer access to improved institutions of education, from the common school to the university. Under the councils of Hardenberg. Humbolt, Stein, AUenstein, these reforms and improvements were projected, carried on, and perfected in less than a single generation. ' The movement in behalf of popular schools commenced by inviting C, A. Zeller, of Wirtemberg, to Prussia. Zeller was a young theologian, who had Btudied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and was thoroughly imbued with the method and spirit of his master. On his return he had convened the school teachers of Wirtemberg in barns, for want of better accommodations being allowed him, and inspired them with a zeal for Pestalozzi's methods, and for a better education of the whole people. On removing to Prussia, he first took charge of the seminary at Koenigsberg, soon after founded the seminary at Karalene. and went about into differ- ent provinces meeting with teachers, holding conferences, visiting schools, and inspiring school officers with the right spirit. The next step taken was to send a number of yoijng men, mostly theo^ logians, to Pestalozzi's institution at Itferten, to acquire his method, and on their return to place them in new, or reorganized teachers' seminaries. To these new agents in school improvement were joined a large body ot zealous teachers, and patriotic and enlightened citizens, who, in ways and methods of their own, labored incessantly to confirm the Prussian state, by forming new organs for its internal life, and new means of pro^ tection from tbreign foes. They proved themselves truly educators of the people. Although the government thus not only encouraged, but directly aided in the introduction of the methods of Pestalozzi into the public schools of Prussia, still the school board in the different provinces sus- Uiined and encouraged those who approved and taught on different sys- tems, such as Dinter, Zerrenner, Salzman. and Niemeyer— all, in fine, who labored with a patriotic purpose, thus allowing intellectual freedom, and appropriating whatever was good from all quarters toward the accom- plishment of the great purpose. To infuse a German spirit into teachers and scholars, particular attenr tion was paid to the German language, as the treasury house of Ger- man ideas, and to the geography and history of the father land. Music, which was one of Pestalozzi's great instruments of culture, was made the vehicle of patriotic songs, and through them the heart of all Germany o . PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 84 was moved to bitter hatred of the conqueror who had desolated her fields and homes, and humbled tiie pride of her monarchy. All these efforts for the improvement of elementary education, accompanied by expensive modifications in the establishments of secondary and superior education, were made when the treasury was impoverished, an«l taxes, the most exorbitant in amount, were levied on every province and commune of the kingdom. Prof Stephens, now of Girard College, in a letter to the Superintendent of Common Schools of Pennsylvania, written from Berlin, at a time when there was at least a talk of the repudiation of state debts, and especially when a distinguished citizen of that state had proposed to divert the money appropriated for the support of common schools to the payment of interest on the state debts, makes the following remarks on this period of the educational history of Prussia. " Prussia, who furnishes us with a pattern of excellence in the present stale of her public schools, atfords us a still more brilliant example in the noble policy by which she su.stained them in times of great public distress. Of all the nations of Europe, Prussia was reduced to the greatest extrem- ity by the wars of Napoleon. In 1806, at the battle of Jena, her whole military force was annihilated. Within a week after the main overthrow, every scattered division of the army fell into the hands of the enemy. Napoleon took up his quarters in Berlin, emptied the arsenal, and stripped the capital of all the works of art which he thought worthy to be trans- ported to Paris. By the treaty of Tilsit, in 1SU7, the king of Prussia was deprived of one-half of his dominions. A French army of 200,000 men were q^uartered upon the Prussians till the end of the year 1808. Prussia must pay to France the sum of 120,000,000 francs, after her principal sources of income had been appropriated by Napoleon, either to himself or his allies. The system of confiscation went so far that even the revenue from the endowments of schools, of poor houses, and the fund for widows, was diverted into the treasury of France. These last were given back in 1811. Foreign loans were made, to meet the exorbitant claims of the conqueror An army must be created, bridges rebuilt, ruined fortifications in every quarter repaired, and so great was the public extremity that the Prussian ladies, with noble generosity, sent their ornaments and jewels to supply the royal treasury. Rings, crosses, and other ornaments of cast- iron were given in return to all tTiose who had made this sacrifice. They bore the inscription, '■ Ich gab gold vm eisen,^'' (1 gave gold for iron.) and such Spartan jewels are much treasured at this day by the possessors and their families. This state of things lasted till after the "War of Liberation," in 1812. But it is the pride of Prussia, that at the time of her greatest humiliation and distress, she never for a moment lost sight of the work she had begun in the improvement of her sciiools. In 1809, the minister at the head of the section of instruction, writes as follows, to some teachers who had been sent to the in^itution of Pesta- lozzi to learn his method and principles of instructing:—" The section of public instruction begs you to believe, and to assure Mr. Pestalozzi, that the cause is the interest of the government, and of his majesty^ the king, •personally, who are convinced that liberation from extraordinary calami- ties is fruitless, and only to be effected by a thorough improvement of the people's education." In 1809, was established the teachers' seminary in Koenigsberg. In 1810. the seminary at Braunsburff. In 1811, the semi- nary at Karalene. In 1812, was established at Breslau. the first seminary, completely organized according to the new ideas, in 1809, the most am- ply endowed and completely organized of all the German universities Primary instruction in prdssia gg was founded in Berlin. Professors were called from all parts, and in ISIO the university was in full operation. In ISll, the old university of Bres- lau was reorcranized, and large grants were received from the government for new buildings and new professorships. Is not this noble policy, on the part of an absolute government, at a time when the nation was struggling for existence, a severe rebuke upon the narrow and short-sighted expedi- ents of those republican politicians, who can invent no better way to pay a public debt than by converting into money that institution on which the virtue and intelligence of the people, and the special safety of a republican state, mainly depend 1" The school system of Prussia, is not the growth of any one period, and is rot found in one law, but is made up of an aggregation of laws and general regulaiions. enacted at different times for different provinces, differing in the condition, habits, and religion of the people, and to meet particular wants, as these have been developed in the progress of the system. An attempt was made in 1819 to prepare a general school law for Prussia, but without success. This is considered by Harnisch and other German educators, a great defect, as it leads to great inequalities of education, and great irregularities of administration in different provinces. The or- dinance of 1819, however, embraces much of the regulations which are applicable to the whole kingdom, while the peculiarities and details of the system must be looked for in the provincial ordinances and special regulations. The authorities which administer public instruction in Prussia are the following: — The chief authority is the minister, who joins to this super- vision that of ecclesiastical and medical affairs. He is assisted by a coun- cil, consisting of a variable number of members, and divided into three sections corresponding to the three charges of the minister. The section for public instruction has its president and secretary, and meets usually twice a week ibr the transaction of business. One of this body is crene- raily deputed as extraordinary inspector in cases requiring examination, and reports to the minister. The kingdom of Prussia is divided into ten provinces, each of which has its governor, styled Superior President, (Ober-Presiderit.) who is assisted by a council called a Copsistory, (Con- sistoriura.) This council has functions in the province similar to those in the ministerial council in the kingdom at large, and has direct control of secondary public instruction, and of the schools lor the education oi' pri- mary teachers. It is subdivided into two sections of which one has charge of the primary instruction in the province, under the title of the School Board, (Provincial Schul Collegium.) The school board, in addition to exercising the general supervision oi' education in the province, examines the statutes and regulations of the schools, insures the execution of exist- ing laws and regulations, examines text-books, and gives permission for their introduction, after having obtained the approbation of the ministry. This board communicates with the higher authorities, through their pre- sident, to whom the reports from the next lower authority, to be presently spoken of, are addressed, and by whom, when these relate to school matters, they are referred to the board tor examination. The next smaller political division to a province, is called a Regency, (Regierungs-Bezirk.) which is again subdivided into Circles, (^Kreisin,) and those into parishes, (Gemeinden.) The chief civil authority in the Regency, is a president, who is assisted by a council called also a regency. This Do'dy is divided into three sfections, having charge respectively of gg PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. the internal afi'airs, of direct taxes, and of church and school matters. The last named committee examines and appoints all the teachers ot elementary and burgher schools within the regency, superintends the schools, ascertains that the school-houses and churches are duly kept in order, administers the funds of schools and churches, or superintends the administration, when vested in corporations, and collects the church and school fees. This committee is presided over by a member of the re- gency called the School Councilor, (Schul-rath.) As councilor, he has a seat and voice in the provincial consistory, where he is required to ap- pear at least once a year, and to report upon their aiTairs in his regency, of which the provincial consistory has the superintendence. It is also his duty to visit the schools, and to satisfy himself that they are in good con- dition. The next school authority is the in.spector of a circle, who has charge oC several parishes. These insTpedtors are generally clergymen, while the councilors are laymen. Ne.\t below the special superintendents is the immediate authority, namely, the school committee, (Schul-Vorstand.) Each parish (Gemeinde) must, by law, have its school, except in special cases, and each school its committee of superintendence, (Schul-Vorstand,) Consisting of the curate, the local magistrate, and from two to four nota- bles ; the constitution of the committee varying somewhat with the char- acter of the school, whetiier endowed, entirely supported by the parish, in part by the province or state, or by subscription. The committee ap- points a school inspector, who is usually the clergyman of the parish. In cities, the magistrates form the school committee, or school deputation, as it is there called, the curates still acting as local inspectors. Thus, there is a regular series of authorities, from the master of the school up to the minister, and every part of primary instruction is entirely within the control of an impulse from the central government, and takes its direction according to the will of the highest authorities. With such a system, under a despotic government, it is obvious that the provisions of any law may be successfully enforced. The cardinal provisions of the school system of Prussia, are : First, That all children between the ages of seven and fourteen years shall ga regularly to school. This is enforced by the school committee, who are furnished with lists of the children who should attend, and of those actually in the schools under their charge, and who are required to enforce the penalties of the law. Second, That each parish shall, in general, have an elementary school. When the inhabitants are of ditierent religious persuasions, each denom- ination has its school, and if not, provision is made for the religious in- struction of the children by their own pastors. The erection of the school- house, its furniture, the income of the master, and aid to poor scholars, are all provided for. The requisite sum comes, in part, from parochial funds, and in part from a tax upon householders. When the parish is poor, it is assisted by the circle, by the province, and even by the state. Besides these elementary schools, most of the towns in Prussia have one or more upper primary or burgher schools. Third, The education of teachers in seminaries, adapted to the grade of instruction to which they intend devoting themselves. Their exemp- tion during their term of study from active military service required of other citizens. A provision for their support during their term of study. A preference given to them over schoolmasters not similarly educated. Their examination previous to receiving a certificate of capacity, which entitles them to become candidates for any vacant post in the province where they have been examined. Their subsequent exemption from ac- tive military service, and even from the annual drill of the militia, if they PRLMARV INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. §7 can not, in the opinion of the school inspector, be spared from their duties. Provision for the removal of the incompetent or immoral. A provision for the support of decayed teachers. Fourth, The authorities which regulate the schools, and render them a branch of the general government, and the teachers in fact, its officers. In a country likePrussia. this connection secures to the teacher the respect due to his station, and thus facihtates the discharge of his important duties. Under this system of organization and administration, and especially with these arrangements to secure the employment of only properly quali- fied teachers, the public schools of Prussia have been multiplied to an ex- tent, and have attained within the last quarter of a century a degree of excellence, wliich has attracted the attention of statesmen, and commanded the admiration of intelligent educators in every part of Christendom. In the provinces, where the improved system has gone into operation with the habits of the people in its favor, it has already reached every human being; and in even the outer provinces, it is. as fast as time sweeps along new generations, replacing the adult population with a race of men and women who have been subjected to a course of school instruction far more thorough and comprehensive than has ever been attempted in any other country. As an evidence of the universality of the system it may be mentioned, that out of 122,897 men of the standing army, in 1846, only two soldiers were found who could not both read and write. But the system aims at much higher results — with nothing short of developing every faculty both of mind and body, of converting creatures of impulse, prejudice, and passion, into thinking and reasoning beings, and of giving them objects of pursuit, and habits of conduct, favorable to their own hap- piness and that of the community in which they live. The result which may be reasonably anticipated from this system — when the entire adult population have been subjected to its operation, and when the influencea of the home and street, of the business and the recreations of society, all unite with those of the school — have not as yet been realized in any sec- tion of the kingdom. Every where the lessons of the school-room are weakened, and in a measure destroyed, by degrading national customs, and the inevitable results of a government which represses liberty of thought, speech, occupation, and political action. But the school, if left as good and thorough as it now is, must inevitably change the govern- ment, or the government must change the school. And even if the school should be made less thorough than it now is, no governmental interfer- ence can turn back the intelligence which has already gone out among the people. It would be easier to return the rain to tlie clouds, from which it has parted, and which has already mingled with the waters of every rising spring, or reached the roots of every growing plant. The following Table exhibits the state of the Public Schools of Prussia, according to the latest official returns published by the government. 88 PKIMARY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. 73 £ o 3 •sndn,! JO -oij i-H T-l r-l tH rH i-H r-l i-( r-< i-H r-l 00 of "i^m •siooqog JO •OfJ CI5rHr-l(MeOi-(■> Oi CO CO Ol .lO-^J^-Or-il;- ,-1 • O • • i-H rH • i-H r-l 1-1 •sjaqoBax i-H100>«r>t^rH000300t*0»-(«d<:OOiOOOOCOCOOOCOCO-x>i- -OOOOt-^<:005<>ac0001>.lAOSOSTJl C6 rH OS rH « -* !«) ooo^o<^503cOcocclOO OS CO rH rH rH ^- 00 ^ CO W rH rH rH ■* ^ 05 CO rH rH Itt rH o ■S[ooqog OOOi'«iilOtr-^»OTjl«OCOW^O^t^'^rH<3^rHCOC»;^l?lt— Ttl00-^rH05t-i*OC0-*(NC0e00^> a 1 § •SWO QO^<»CO^cOOlOCOira'*>CCOCO-!ile5C£.C01^C0 1CCOCOCOira->5 u-r -^ <>1 O ^ >! '>3 rH i7^ f^ iC 1^ r^ CO »C -^1 CO lO 03 Oi CO CO r^ O -_i.-^0_iO_'C_^(N_CO_0 ?a (N l>;^t- CO r-. ;:;> CO lO O t- co~C5 lo oo"co t^ ^ »o co~ oT oT r-T oT crcrric~o"crr r-T cTt^j^^Cco^aT r-T lOCOCO(MrHQOI^OlOCD-*C'3CO--*COt-.rHOl--00I^OOQ0C010 i>^rH_co o^co^t- oq oo^io^a^o_co lo o (M co^^ co-<)ojgoio Oi LO~ CO o ^1 OOCOOl■*■>^^rHOO^->Cl^-COC5lOOi00000030(NrHrHOOCOrHM osoocO-rtiaiaso-^cOt^cMt^CicococOiCrHcOt^rHCOCiOooco lO^O_CO 0_rH^CD rH lC^I>l_O_O_c0 -i'^Oi CO_ 0^05^0 O O 00 lO t- O_00 O r-Trn" r-TrH r-T rn" rT r-T r^ r-T r-T rn" r^ 1 •3 o Koni'/sberg. Gumbinnen. Danzig Marienwerde Posen Bromberg . . Hurl Berlin. Potsdam . . . Frankfurt . . Stettin (!oslin Stralsund. . . Breslau Oppeln LugiTiitz .... Magdeburg . Merseberg . . Rrfiirt Munster Minden Arnsberg . . . (Join p5^ 3 1 < rH(jqCO-*10COJ^QOC20rH(NCO-*L':>COt-OOC10rHiq CO -^ LI CO ^MM z: ^^^^^ STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. 89 In 1848. the population of Prussia was about 16,000,000. According to the foregoing table, there were 24.030 elementary schools, with 2.433.333 children, between the ages of 6 and 14, in average daily- attendance ; 1,202 middle or burgher schools with 91.888 pupils, and lUO higher, or town schools, with 15.624 pupils, making an aggregate of 25,332 public primary schools, and 2,540.775 pupils. To these schools should be added 117 gymnasia for classical education, with 29,474 pupils, and 1,664 professors; 7 universities with 4,000 students and 471 professors, an4 libraries with over 1.000.000 volumes ; 382 institutions, in the nature of infant schools, with 25.000 children, and a large number of schools for special instruction, as for the blind, deaf mutes, commerce, trades, arts, &c.; and Prussia can present an array of institutions, teach- ers, professors, and educational facilities, for all classes of her population, not surpassed by any other country. If to the number of children at school, public or private, we add those who are receiving instruction at home, or who have left school after obtaining the certificate of school attendance up to the age of twelve years, and of their being able to read, write, and cipher, and those who are detained from school temporarily by sickness, we can easily acquiesce in the claim of the director of the Statistical Bureau, by whom the annual, school returns are collected, and published every three years, that every child under fourteen years of age has already attended school public or private, or has acquired that degree of instruction which makes self-education in almost any direction practicable. From an investigation made by the government in 1845, there were, in the whole of Prussia, only two young men in every one hundred between the ages of twenty and twenty-two, who could not read, write, and cipher, and had not a knowledge of Scripture history. According to the foregoing table, there were 34.030 primary school teachers employed in, viz. : Elementary schools. Head teachers, .... 25,914 « '■ Assistants, 2,749 " '•' Schoolmistresses, . ' . . . 1,856 Middle or Burgher schools for boys. Head teachers, . . 898 " " " >' Assistants, . . 197 « « « girls. Head teachers, . . 1,094 " " '• •' Schoolmistresses, . 640 Higher Burgher. Head teachers, 505 " " Assistants, 197 Total, . . . 34,030 These thirty-four thousand teachers had all been thoroughly edu- cated in the studies they were called on to teach, and the best methods of teaching the same in seminaries established for thispurpose, of which there were forty-six, supported by th^ government, in 1848. By means of educational periodicals, and frequent meetings for professional im- 90 STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. proveinent, these teachers are bound together into a great association, stimulating each other to higher attainments, and marching forward a noble army ibr the improvement, and not the destruction of the people. The following statistics will show how steadily the primary schools have advanced in numbers, attendance, and teachers, since 1819: 1. In 1819, the number of schools in Prussia was . . 20,085 In 1825, " " " " , . 21,625 In 1831, " '•' u u ^ ^ 22^612 In 1843, « « " " . . 23,646 In 1846, " « « u ^ ^ 25,332 2. In 1819, the number of teachers in Prussia was < . 21,895 In 1825, « " u a ^ _ 22,965 In 1831, " " " « . . 27,749 In 1843, " . " « « ^ _ 29^631 In 1846, " " (( « . . 32^313 3. In 1825, the number of children between seven and four- teen years of age, was 1,923,200 And the number of these who were attending the schools, was .....,,. 1,664,218 In 1831, the number of children between seven and four- teen years of age, was 2,043,030 And the number of these who were attending the schools, was 2,021,421 In 1843, the number of children between seven and four- teen years of age, was 2,992,124 And the number of these who were attending the schools, was 2,328,146 In 1846, the number of children in public schools, . 2,540,775 These great results have been obtained by the united efforts of the government and the people; but eveij these statistics can not show the improvement which has been made in school-houses, school instruction, and the whole internal economy of the school-room. SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION The primary schools of Prussia. Before presenting an outline of the coilrse of instruction pursued In the common schools of Prussia, gathered from the observations ot distin- guished educators in their visits to a large number of schools of different grades, as well as from published accounts of the organization and studies of particular schools, we will introduce a brief view* of the gen^ eral objects and different degrees of primary education, and of the man- ner in which the schools are established and conducted. Two degrees of primary instruction are disiinguished by the law; the elementary schools and the burgher schools. The elementary schools propose the development of the human facilities, through ah instruction in those common branches of knowledge which are indispensable to every person, both of town and country. The burgher schools ( Beur- gerschulen StadtsChulen]) carry on the child until he is capable of man- ifesting his inclination for a classical education, or for this or that par- ticular profession. The gymnasia continue this education tintil the youth is prepared, either to commence his practical studies in common life, or his higher and special scientific studies in the university. These different gradations coincide in forming, so to speak, a great establishment of national education, one in system, and of which the parts, though each accoriiplishing a special end, are all mutually cor- relative. The primary education of which we speak, though divided into two degrees, has its peculiar unity and general laws ; it admits of accommodation, however, to the sex, language, religion, and future des- tination of the pupils. 1. Separate establishments for girls should be formed, wherever possible, corresponding to the elementary and larger schools for boys. 2. In those provinces of the monarchy (as the Poli.sh) where a foreign language is spoken, besides lessons in the native idiom, the children shall receive complete instruction in German, which is also to be employed as the ordinary language of the school. 3. Difference of religion in Christian schools necessarily determines differences in religious instruction. This instruction shall always be accommodated to the spirit and doctrines of the persuasion to which the school belongs. But, as in every school of a christian state, the dominant spirit (common to all creeds) should be piety, and a profound reverence of the Deity, every Christian school may receive the children of every sect. The T * Mainly in the language of the laW and ordinance, as transljited and condensed by Sir William Hamilton, in an article \n the Edinburgh Review t Called likewise A/'V/p/sc/ii'?f 'I, middle srhnols. and Ifr'ahchu/fn, renl schools: the last, because they are less occupied With I he study ol lau^-uage C Vcrbalia) than v?ith the knowledge of things, (Realia > 92 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ' masters and superintendents ought to avoid, with scrupulous care, every shadow of religious constraint or annoyance. No schools should be abused to any purposes of proselytism; and the children of a worship different from that of the school, shall not be obliged, contrary to the wish of their parents or their own, to attend iis religious instruction and exercises. Special masters of their own persuasion shall have the care of their religious education ; and should it be impossible to have as many masters as confessions, the parents should endeavor, with so much the greater solicitude, to discharge this duty themselves, if disinclined to allow their children to attend the religious lessons of the school. The primitive destination of every school, says the law, is so to train youth that, with a knowledge of the relations of man to God. it may foster in them the desire of ruling their life by the spirit and principles of Chris- tianity. The school shall, therefore, betimes second and complete the first domestic training of the child to piety. Prayer and edifying reflec- tions shall commence and terminate the day ; and the master must be- ware that this moral exercise do never degenerate into a matter of routine. Obedience to the laws, loj^alty, and patriotism, to be inculca- ted. No humiliating or indecent castigation allowed; and corporal pun- ishment, in general, to be applied only in cases of necessity. Scholars found wholly incorrigible, in order to obviate bad example, to be at length dismissed. The pupils, as they advance in age, to be employed in the maintenance of good order in the school, and thus betimes habit- uated to regard themselves as active and useful members of society. The primary education has for its scope the development of the dif- ferent faculties, intellectual and moral, mental and bodily. Every com- plete elementary school necessarily embraces the nine following branches: 1. Religion — morality established on the positive truths of Christianity ; 2. The German tongue, and in the Polish provinces, the vernacular language; 3. The elements of geometry and general principles of draw- ing; 4. Calculation and applied arithmetic; 5. The elements of physics, of general history, and of the history of Prussia; 6. Singing; 7. Writing; 8. Gymnastic exercises ; 9. The more simple manual labors, and some instruction in the relative country occupations. Every burgher school must teach the ten following branches: 1. Religion and morals. 2. The German language, and the vernacular idiom of the province, reading, composition, exercises of style, exercises of talent, and the study of the national classics In the countries of the German tongue, the modern foreign languages are the objects of an ac- cessory study. 3. Latin to a certain extent. (This, we believe, is not universally enforced.) 4. The elements of mathematics, and in partic- ular a thorough knowledge of practical arithmetic. 5. Physics, and natural history to explain the more important phenomena of nature. 6. Geography, and general history combined ; Prussia, its history, laws, and constitution, form the object of a particular study. 7. The princi- ples of design; to be taught with the instruction given in physics, nat- ural history, and geometry. 8. The penmanship should be watched, SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PKUSSIA. 93 and the hand exercised to write with neatness and ease. 9. Singing, in order to develop the voice, to afford a knowledge of the an, and to enable the scholars to assist in the solemnities of the church. 10. Gym- nastic exercises accommodated to the age and strength of the scholar. Such is the minimum of education 1o be afforded by a burgher school. If its means enable it to attempt a higher instruction, so as to prepare the scholar, destined to a learned profession, for an immediate entrance into the gymnasia, the school then takes the name of Higher Town School. Every pupil, on leaving school, should receive from his masters and the committee of superintendence, a certificate of his capacity, and of his moral and religious dispositions. These certificates to be always pro- duced on approaching the communion, and on entering into apprentice- ship or service. They are given only at the period of departure ; and in the burgher schools, as in the gymnasia, they form the occasion of a great solemnity. Every half year pupils are admitted ; promoted from class to class; and absolved at the conclusion of their studies. Books of study to be carefully chosen by the committees, with con- currence of the superior authorities, the ecclesiastical being specially consulted in regard to those of a religious nature. For the Catholic schools, the bishops, in concert with the provincial consistories, to select the devotional books ; and, in case of any difference of opinion, the Min- ister of Public Instruction shall decide. Schoolmasters are to adopt the methods best accommodated to the natural development of the human mind ; methods which keep the intel- lectual powers in constant, general, and spontaneous exercise, and are not limited to the infusion of a mechanical knowledge. The committees are to watch over the methods of the master, and to aid him by their council ; never to tolerate a vicious method, and to report to the higher authorities should their admonition be neglected. Parents and guardians have a right to scrutinize the system of education by which their chil- dren are taught ; and to address their complaints to the higher author- ities, who are bound to have them carefully investigated. On the other hand, they are bound to cooperate with their private influence in aid of the public discipline ; nor is it permitted them to witlidraw a scholar from any branch of education taught in the school as necessary. As a national establishment, every school should court the greatest publicity. . In those for boys, besides the special half yearly examina- tions, for the promotion from one class to another, there shall annually take place public examinations, in order to exhibit the spirit of the in- struction, and the proficiency of the scholars. On this solemnity, the director, or one of the masters, in an official programme, is to render an account of the condition and progress of the school. In fine, from time to time, there shall be published a general report of the state of educa- tion in each province. In schools for females, the examinations take 94 SUBJECTS AM) METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PUUSSIA. place in presence of the parents and masters, without any general invitation. Bui if the public instructors are bound to a Hiithfnl performance of their duties, they have a right, in return, to the gratitude and respect due to the zealous laborer in the sacred work of education. The school is entitled to claim universal countenance and aid, even from those who do not confide to it their children. All public authorities, each in its sphere, are enjoined to promote the public schools and to lend support to the masters in the exercise of their office, as to any other functiona- ries of the state. In all the communes of the monarchy, the clergy of all Christians persuasions, whether in the church, in their school visita- tion, or in their sermons on the opening of the classes, shall omit no opportunity of recalling to the schools their high mission, and to the people their duties to these establishments. The civil authorities, the clergy, and the masters, shall every where cooperate in tightening the bonds of respect and attachment between the people and the school; so that the nation may be more habituated to consider education as a primary condition of civil existence, and daily take a deeper interest in Its advancement. The following extracts from Kay's " Social Condition arid Educa- tion of the People,^'' will show how these provisions of the law, and governmental instructions are carried into practice. The three great results, which the Prussian government has labored to ensure by this system of education are — 1. To interest the dilYerent parishes and towns in the progress of the education of the people, by committing the management of the parochial schools to them, under certain very simple restrictions. 2. To assist the parochial school committees in each county witli the advice of the most able inhabitants of the county ; and-^ 3. To gain the cordial cooperation of the mini.sters of religion. These results the government has gained, to the entire and perfect satisfaction of all parties. The provincial and county councils act as advisers of the parochial committees. These latter are the actual directors of parochial education ; and the clergy not only occupy places in these parochial committees, but are also the ex- officio inspectors of all the schools. The system is liberally devised ; and I am persuaded that it is solely owing to its impartial, popular, and religious oharacier, that it has enlisted so strongly on its side the feelings of the Prussian people. I know there are many in our land who say, " But why have any system at all ? Is it not better to leave the education of the people to the exertions of public charity and private benevolence ?'' Let the contrast between the state of the edu- cation and social condition of the poor in England and Germany be the answer. In England it is well known that not ove half of the country is properly supplied with good schools, and that many of those, which do exist, arc under the di- rection of very inefficient and sometimes of actually immoral teachers. la Germany and Switzerland, every parish is supplied with its school buildings, and each school is directed by a teacher of high principles, and superior education and intelligence. Such a splendid social institution has not existed without effecting magnificent results, and the Germans and Swiss may now proudly point to the character and condition of their peasantry. So great have been the results of this system, that it is now a well known fact, that, except in cases of sickness, every child between the ages of six and ten in the whole of Prussia, is receiving instruction from highly educated teachers, under SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 95 the surveillance of the parochial ministers. And, if I except the manufacturing districts, I may go still farther, and say, that every child in I'rus-sia, between the ages of six and fourteen, is receiving daily instruction in its parochial school. But even this assertion does not give any adequate idea of the vastness of the educational machinery, which is at work ; for the Prussian government is encouraging all the towns throughout the countiy to establish infant schools for the children of parents who are forced, from the peculiar nature of their labor, to absent themselves from home during the greater part of the day, and who would be otherwise obliged to leave their infants without proper superintendence; and, as all the children in the manufacturing districts, who are engaged in the weaving- rooms, are also obliged to attend evening classes to the age of fourteen years. I may say. with great truth, that nearly ail the Prussian children between the ages of four and fourteen are under the influence of a religious education. And let it not be supposed that an arbitrary government has forced this result from an unwilling people. On the contrary, as 1 have said before, the peasants themselves have always been at least as anxious to obtain this education for their children, as the government has been desirous of granting it. A proof of the satisfaction, with which the Prussian people regard the educa- tional regulations, is the undeniable fact, that all the materials and machinery for instruction are being so constantly and so rapidly improved over the whole coun- try, and by the people themselves. Wherever I traveled, I was astonished to see the great improvement in all these several matters that was going on. Every where I found new and handsome school-houses springing up, old ones being re- paired, a most liberal supply of teachers and of apparatus for the schools provided by the municipal authorities, the greatest cleanliness, lofty and spacious school- rooms, and excellent houses for the teachers ; all showing, that the importance of the work is fully appreciated by the people^ and that there is every desire on their part to aid the government in carrying out this vast undertaking. The children generally remain in school, until the completiun of their fourteenth year ; and a law has been issued, for one or two of the provinces, appointing this as the time, after which the parents may remove their children. But if the pa- rents are very poor, and their children have learnt the doctrines of their religion, as well as to read, write, and cipher, their religious minister can, in conjunction with the teacher, permit them to discontinue their attendance at the completion of their twelfth year. " No child, without the permission both of the civil magistrate of the town or village of which its parents are inhabitants, and also of their religious minister, can be kept from school beyond the completion of its fifth year, or afterward discon- tinue its attendance on the school classes for any length of time." If a parent neither provides at home for the education of his children, nor sends them to the school, the teacher is bound to inform the religious minister of the parent ; the minister then remon.strates with him ; and if he still neglects to send his children, the minister is bound by law to report him to the village committee, which has power to punish him by a fine, of from one halfpenny to sixpence a day, for neglecting the first and greatest duty of every parent. If the village committee can not induce him to educate his children, he is reported to the union magistrates, who are empowered to punish him with imprisonment. But it is hardly ever necessary to resort to such harsh measures, for the parents are even more anxious to send their children to these admirably conducted .schools, than the civil magistrate to obtain their attendance. In order, however, to ensure such a regular attendance, and as an assistance to the parents themselves, each teacher is furnished by the local magistrate, every year, with a list of all the chil- dren of his district, who have attained the age, at which they ought to attend his classes. This list is called over every morning and every afternoon, and all absen- tees are marked down, so that the school committees, magistrates, and inspectors may instantly discover if the attendance of any child has been irregular. If a child requires leave of absence for more than a week, the parent must apply to the civil magistrate for it ; but the clergj-man can grant it, if it be only for six or seven days, and the teacher alone can allow it, if for only one or two days. At the German revolutions of 1848, one of the great popular cries was for gratuitous education. The governments of Germany were obliged to yield to this 96 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. cry, and to make it the law of nearly the whole of Germany, that all parents should be able to get their children educated at the primary schools without hav- ing to pay any thing for this education. There are now, therefore, no school fees in the greatest part of Germany. Edu- cation is perfectly gratuitous. The poorest man can send his child free of all ex- pense to the best of the public schools of his district. And, besides this, the au- thorities of the parish or town, in which a parent lives, who is too poor to clothe his children decently enough for school attendance, are obliged to clothe them for him, and to provide them with books, pencils, pens, and every thing necessary for school attendance, so that a poor man, instead of being obliged to pay something out of his small earnings for the education of his children, is, on the contrary, ac- tually paid for sending them to school. This latter is an old regulation, and is one which has aided very greatly to make the educational regulations very popular among the poor of Germany. I made very careful inquiries about the education of children in the principal manufacturing district of Prussia. I remained several days in Elberfeld, their largest manuiiicturing town, on purpose to visit the factory schools. I put myself there, as elsewhere, in direct communication with the teachers, from whom I ob- tained a great deal of information ; and I also had several interviews on the sub- ject with the educational councillors at Berlin, who put into my hand the latest regulations on this subject issued by the government. The laws relating to the factory children date only from 1839. They are as follows : — " No child may be employed in any manufactory, or in any mining or building operations, before it has attained ihe age of nine years. " No child, which has not received three years' regular instruction in a school, and has not obtained the certificate of a school committee, that it can read its mother tongue fluently, and also write it tolerably well, may be employed in any of the above-mentioned ways, before it has completed its sixteenth year. " An exception to this latter rule is only allowed in those cases, where the man- ufacturers provide for the education of the factory children, by erecting and main- taining factory schools." If a manufacturer will establish a school in connection with his manufactory, and engage a properly educated teacher, he is then allowed to employ any children of nine years of age, whether they have obtained a certificate or not, on condition, however, that tliese children attend the school four evenings in every week, as well as two hours every Sunday morning, until they have obtained a certificate of pro- ficiency in their studies. The " schulrath," or educational minister in the county court, decides whether the factory school is so satisfactorily managed, as to entitle the manufacturer to this privilege. This minister also regulates the hours which must be devoted weekly to the instruction of the factory children. " Young people, under sixteen years of age, may not be employed in manufac- turing establishments more than ten hours a day." The civil magistrates are, however, empowered, in some cases, to allow young people to work eleven hours a day, when an accident has happened, which obliges the manufacturer to make up for lost time, in order to accomplish a certain quan- tity of work before a given day. But these licenses can not be granted for more, at the most, than four weeks at a time. After the hours of labor have been regulated by the " schulrath" and the man- ufacturer, the latter is obliged by law to take care that the factory children have, both in the mornings and in the afternoons, a quarter of an hour's exercise in the open air, and that at noon, they always have a good hour's relaxation from labor. " No young person, under sixteen years of age, may, in any case, or in any emergency, work more than eleven hours a day." The children of Chris- tian parents, who have not been confirmed, may not work in the mills during the hours set apart by the religious minister, for the religious instruction, which he wishes to give them preparatory to their confirmation. The manufacturers, who employ children in the mills, are obliged to lay /before the magistrate a list, containing the names of all the children they employ, their respective ages, their places of abode, and the names of their parents. If any in- SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ^>j spector or teacher reports to the civi] magistrate, that any child under the legal age is being employed in the mills instead of being sent to school, or if the police report the infringement of any other of the above-mentioned regulations, the mag strate is empowered and obliged to punish the manufacturer by fines, which are increased in amount on every repetition of the offense. I examined the actual state of things in Elberfeld, one of the most important of the manufacturing districts of Prussia, and I found these regulations most satisfac- torily .put in force. No children w^ere allowed to work in the mills, before they had attained the age of nine years, and after this time, they were required to attend classes four evenings every week, conducted by the teachers of the day- schools ; or, if their work was of such a nature as to prevent such attendance, then they were obliged to attend classes every Sunday morning for two hours ; and this attendance was required to be continued, until the children could obtain a certifi- cate from their teacher and religious minister, that they could read and write well, that they were well versed in Scripture history, and that they knew arithmetic sufficiently well to perform all the ordinary calculations, which would be required of them. As a cheek upon the parents and manufacturers, no child was allowed to labor in the mills, without having obtained a certificate, signed by its religious minister and its teacher, that it was attending one of these classes regularly. If the attend- ance was irregular, this certificate was immediately withdrawn, and the child was no longer allowed to continue working in the mills. But, from all I saw of these schools, and from what the teachers told me, I should say, they had no difficulty in enforcing attendance ; and, so far from it being evident, that the parents were anxious to send their children into the mills, as soon as possible, I was astonished to find even the daily schools filled to overflowing, and that with children, many of whom were thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen years of age. It is very easy for the traveler, who is merely passing through the manvfactur- ing towns of the Rhine Provinces, to prove to himself, how anxious both the peo- ple and the government are to carry all these regulations into effect. Let him only take the trouble of wandering into the streets of such a town, at a quarter to eight in the morning, or at a quarter to one in the afternoon, and he will find them alive with children of remarkably courteous and gentle appearance, all very neatly and cleanly dressed, each carrying a little bag containing a slate and school books, and all hurrying along to school. Let him visit the same streets at any time during the school hours, and he will find an absence of young children, which, accustomed as he is to the alleys of our towns, swarming with poor little creatures growing up in filth, and coarseness, and immorality, will be even more astonisliing and delightful. Before Prussia began in good earnest to promote the education of the people, it was thought there, as it is in England at the present day, that private charity and voluntary exertions would suffice, to supply the country with all the materials of education. In the early part of the eighteenth century the government enunciated, in formal edicts, that it was the first duty of a parish to educate its young. For nearly one hundred years, it trusted to the voluntary principle, and left the work in the hands of generous individuals ; the result was what might have been ex- pected, and what may be observed in England : the supply of the materials of education did not keep pace with the growth of the population. Prussia was little or no better provided with schools in 1815, than it had been in 1715 ; as to the teachers, they were poor, neglected, ignorant persons. Educated persons would not become teachers of the poor ; and the poor were neither able nor willing to pay for the education of teachers for their children. A sufficient number of benevolent individuals could not be found to bear the whole expense of educating the nation ; and even in those parishes, in which the benevolent part of the richer classes had managed to collect funds, sufficient for carrying on such a work for a year or two, it was found, that they were unable or unwilling, for any length of time, to bear alone such a great and ever-increasing burden. After a long trial of this unfair voluntary system, which taxed charitable indi- viduals in order to make up for the default of "th(j selfish or careless, it was found, in 1815, as in England at the present day, that great numbers of parishes had no schools at all ; that of the schools which were built, scarcely any were properly supplied with the necessary bookstand apparatus •, that there were no good teachr 7 98 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ers in the country, and no means of educating any ; and that the science of peda- gogy had been totally neglected, and was universally misunderstood. If then, the people were to be educated, — and the French revolution of 1789 had taught the Prussian government the necessity of enlightening the poor and of improving their social condition, it became but too evident, that the govern- ment must act as well as preach. In a word, the experience of one hundred years taught the Prussians, that it was necessary to compel the ignorant, slothful, and selfish members of the political body to assist the benevolent and patriotic, or that sufficient funds would never be found foi- educating the whole of the laboring classes. The following regulations, therefore, were put into and are still in force throughout Prussia. The inhabitants of each parish are obliged, either alone, or in company with one or more neighboring parishes, to provide sufficient school-room, a sufficient number of teachers, and all the necessary school apparatus for the instruction of all their children, who are between the ages of six and fourteen. I shall show by what parochial organization this is effected. I. Where all the mhahitants of a village are members of the same religious denomination. In these cases, whenever more school-room, or a greater number of teachers, or more apparatus, or any repairs of the existing school-buildings is required, the village magistrate, having been informed of these deficiencies by the district school- inspector, immediately summons a committee of the villagers, called the " Schul- vorstand," This Schulvorstand consists — 1. Of the religious minister of the parish. He is the president of the commit- tee or Schulvorstand. In some parts of Prussia, however, there are still some few remnants of the old aristocracy, who possess great estates ; and where the village is situated on one of these estates, there the landlord is the president of the school committee. This, however, is so rare an exception, that it is notnecessary further to notice it. 2. Of the village magistrate, who is selected by the county magistrates, from the most intelligent men in the parish. 3. Of from two to four of the heads of families in the parish. These members of the committee are elected by the parishioners, and their election is confirmed or annulled by the union magistrates. If the union magistrate annuls the election, because of the unfitness of the persons chosen, the parish can proceed to a second election ; but, if they again select men, who are not fit to be entrusted with the duties of the school committee, the election is again annulled, and the union mag- istrate himself selects two or four of the parishioners, to act as members of the committee. When the village is situate on the estate of a great landed proprietor, he also can annul the choice of the parishioners ; but these cases, as I have before said, are very rare, and are confined almost entirely to the eastern provinces of Prussia, where the Polish nobles still retain some of their former possessions ; for in the other provinces of Prussia, the land is now almost as much subdivided as in France, and is generally the property of the peasants. The members of these committees are chosen for six years, at the end of which time a new election takes place. If several parishes join in supporting one school, each of them must be repre- sented in the school committee, by at least one head of a family. The county court, however, has the power of preventing this union of parishes, for the sup- port of one joint school, — 1. When the number of children is so great, as to make it difficult to instruct them all in two classes. 2. When the parishes are separated too far apart, or when the roads between them are bad, dangerous, or at times impassable. In such cases tliere must be separate schools ; or else the great law of the land, that " all the children must be educated.^'''' would often be infringed. II. Where the inhabitants of a village are members of different religious denominations. Sometimes it happens, that a parish contains persons of different religious opin- ions ; and then arises the question, which has been a stumbling-block to the SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 99 progress of primary education In England, " how shall the rival claims of these parties be satisfied, so that the great law of Germany, that ' all the children must be educated,'' may be carried into effect ?" In these cases, the governments of Germany leave the parishes at perfect liberty to select their own course of proceeding, and to establish separate or mixed schools, according as they judge best for themselves. The only thing the government requires is, that schools of one kind or another shall be established. if the inhabitants of such a parish in Prussia determine on having separate schools, then separate school committees are elected by the different sects. The committee of each sect consist of, the village magistrate, the minister, and two or three heads of families, of the religious party for which the committee is con- stituted. If the inhabitants, however, decide on having one mixed school for all the re- ligious parties, the committee consists of, the village magistrate, the religious min- isters of" the different parties, and several of the parishioners, elected from among the members of the different sects, for which the school is intended. In tliese cases, the teacher is chosen from the most numerous religious party ; or, if the school is large enough to require two teachers, the head one is elected from the members of the most numerous party, and the second from those of the next largest party. If there is only one teacher, children of those parents who do not belong to the same religious sect as the teacher, are always allowed to absent themselves during the hour in which the teacher gives the religious lessons, on condition that the children receive religious instruction from their own religious ministers. One of the educational councillors at Berlin informed me, that the government did not edcourage the establishment of mixed schools, as they think, that in such cases, the religious education of both parties, or at least of one of them, often suf^ fers ; but, he continued, " of course we think a mixed school infinitely better than none at all ; and, when a district is too poor to support separate schools, we gladly see mixed ones established." The gentleman who said this was a Roman Catholic. In the towns, there are not often mixed schools containing Romanists and Protestants, as there generally are sufficient numbers of each of these sects in every town, to enable the citizens to establish separate schools. The children of Jews, however, are often to be found, even in the towns, in the schools of the other sects ; but, owing to the entire and uncontrolled liberty of decision that the people themselves possess on this point, there seems to be little difficulty in ar- ranging matters, and no jealousy whatever exists between the different parties. If a mixed school is established in any parish, and the teacher is chosen from the most numerous sect, and if the minor party becomes discontented or suspicious of the education given in the school, it is always at liberty to establish another school for itself; and it is this liberty of action, which preserves the parishes, where the mixed schools exist, from all intestine troubles and religious quarrels, which are ever the most ungodly of disputes. In leaving the settlement of this matter to the parishes, the government appears to have acted most wisely; for, in these religious questions, any interference from without is sure to create alarm, sus- picion, and jealousy, and cause the different parties to fly asunder, instead of co- alescing. All that the government does, is to say, " You must provide sufficient school-room, and a sufficient number of good teachers, but decide yourselves how you will do this." The consequence is, that the people say, " We can try a mixed school first ; and, if we see reason to fear its effects, we will then amicably decide on erecting another separate one." So that the great difficulty arising from re-^ ligious difference has been easily overcome. The duties of the school committees, when once formed, are :— 1st. To take care that the parish is supplied with sufficient school-room for all the children, who are between the ages of five and fourteen. 2d. To supply the school-room with all the books, writing materials, slates, blackboards, maps, and apparatus necessary for instruction. 3d. To provide the teachers with comfortable houses for themselves and families. 4th. To keep all the school-buildings, and the houses of the teachers, in goo4 repair, often whitewashed, and well warmed. 100 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 5th. To take care that the salary of the teachers is paid to them regularly. 6th. To assist those parents who are too poor to provide their children with clothes sufficiently decent for their school attendance. 7th. To assist, protect, and encourage the teachers. 8th. To be present at all the public exarninations of the school, at the induc- tion of the teachers, which is a public ceremony performed in church before all the parishioners, and at all the school fete days. If the school is not endowed, the committee is empowered to impose a tax on the householders for its support, and for the payment of the schoolmaster ; and it is held responsible by the higher authorities for his regular payment, according to the agreement, which was made with him on his introduction. The school com- mittee, however, can not discharge the teacher, it can only report him to the higher authorities ; for in Prussia none of the local authorities, who are in immediate contact with the teacher, and who might, consequently, imbibe personal prejudices against him, are allowed to exercise the power of dismissing him. This is re- served for those, who are never brought into personal connection with him. and who are not, therefore, so likely to imbibe such prejudices. Neither can the committee interfere with the interior discipline of the school ; it can only inspect the condition of the school, and report to the county authorities. ^A'hen the com- mittee has once elected the teacher, he is entirely free to follow his own plans of instruction, unfettered by the interference of local authorities, as he is presumed to understand his own business, better than any of those about him. If the school-committee neglects its duties, or refuses to furnish the teacher with the necessary apparatus, or to keep the schocil-house in proper repair, or to pay the teacher regularly, he has always the power of appealing to the inspectors, or to the county courts, who instantly compel the local authorities to perform their appointed duties. When a new school is required, the school committee selects the site and plan of the buildings, and sends them for confirmation to the county magistrate. If this magistrate sees any objection to the plans, he returns them to the committee, with his suggestions ; the plans are then reconsidered by the committee, and re- turned with the necessary emendations to the magistrate, who then gives his sanction to them. Before this sanction has been obtained, the plans can not be finally adopted by the committee. It is already very evident, by what I have said, how very much liberty of action is left to the people themselves. True it is, that in the election of members of the committees, as well as in the choice of plans and sites for school-houses, and in the determination of the amount of the school-rate, the county magistrates have a negative ; but this is only a necessary precaution against the possibility of a really vicious selection of members, or of unhealthy or otherwise unsuitable sites for the school-houses, or of a niggardly and insufficient provision for the support of the school. Such a limited interference is always necessarj', where the interests of the acting parties might otherwise tempt them to disregard the spirit of the law, and to sacrifice some great public good to the selfishness or ignorance of private individuals. Every landed proprietor is obliged by law, to provide for the education of the children of all laborers living on his estates, who are too poor themselves to do so. Every such proprietor is also obliged by law, to keep the schools situated upon his estates in perfect repair, and in a perfect state of cleanliness ; to conform to all the regulations, of which I shall speak hereafter, and vv'hich relate to the election and support of the teachers ; and to furnish all the wood necessary for the re- pairs and warming of the school-buildings, and aU the apparatus, books, &c., necessary for instruction. This is what ought to be done in England. If it is right, that the law should grant to the proprietors such full powei's over then* property even after death, and should enable them to tie up their land in their own family for so long a time, and thus prevent the land dividing and getting into the hands of the poor, as it does abroad, it is but just, that the landlords should be Compelled by law to do, at least, as much for their tenants in this country, as they are compelled to do in countries where the poor are much more favored than they are here, and where the interests of landlords are much less protected by law, than they are with us. SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. JQl It sometimes happens, that a parish is so poor, as not to be able to build the new school-house, of which it stands in need. In these cases, in order that the great law of the land " that every child must he educated''' should be carried into exe- cution, it is necessary that the poor parish should receive assistance from without. This is provided for by a law, which requires that each county court shall assist, within its district, every parish, which is not able to provide alone for the expenses of the education of its children. If a county court should, from the number of calls upon its treasury, find itself unable to supply enough to assist all the parishes of the county which need assistance, the government at Berlin grants assistance to the county court ; for, whatever else is neglected for want of funds, great care is taken that all necessary means for the education of the people shall be every where provided. The school organization of the Prussian towns differs somewhat from that of the Prussian villages. I have already mentioned, that the superior village magistrates are appointed by the sUite, and that in each village there is one of these civil magistrates, who is a member of the village school committee, and is held respons- ible, if sufficient means are not provided for the education of the people of his dis- trict. But, in the towns, the magistrates are elected by the citizens ; and, strange as it may seem, the municipal corporations have long been, on the whole, liberally constituted. The privilege of citizenship in any town is acquired, by good character and honest repute. The magistrates, who have been themselves elected by the citizens, can admit such inhabitants of the town, as they think worthy of the position, to the rank of citizens. But all citizens, who possess any ground of the value, in small towns, of 50Z., or in large towns, of about 250Z. in Prussian money, and all citizens who, without possessing any ground, have incomes of at least 35Z. per annum, in Prussian money, are by law entitled to a yote in the election of the town magistrates. The citizens, who are entitled to a vote, elect, every three years, a number of representatives, or, as they are called, town councillors. No person can be elected to the office of town councillpr, unless he possess land of the value, in small towns, of at least 150Z., and in large towns of at least 20i>/., or whose income does not amount to at least 35Z'. per annum. The number of these councillors depends on the size of the towns ; no town can elect fewer than nine, or more than sixty. The manner in which they are elected, differs in different towns, but I believe the ordinary custom is, for each division of a town to elect one or more to represent it in the general council. These councillors, when elected, proceed to the election of a certain number of magistrates, whose offices last from six to twelve years, and these magistrates appoint from among themselves a mayor, who is chosen also for twelve years. The county court, under which the town finds itself ranged, has the power of annulling the election of the mayor, and of any of the magistrates, whom it may judge unfit for their office ; and, in such a case, the magistrates or the town councillors, as the case may be, are obliged to proceed to another election. Such is a bare outline of the Prussian municipal system. With the various civic and political duties of the different authorities, I have no concern -here, further than they relate to the education of the people. In each town a committee is chosen, which is called the " schuldeputation,^' or, as I shall translate it, the school committee. It consists of from one to three, but of never more than three, of the town magistrates, of an equal number of deputies from the town councillors, an equal number of citizens, having the repu- tation of being interested and skilled in school matters, (these are commonly se- lected from among the religious ministers,) and also of the several representatives of those privately endowed schools in the town, which are not supported by the town, but yet fall under the surveillance and direction of its municipal authorities. The number of these representatives varies, according to the size of the tovi'n. "With the exception of the representatives of the private schools, the members of this committee are chosen by the magistrates, who are themselves, as I have be- fore said, elected by the citizens ; but the representatives of the private schools, which are not supported by the town funds, are nominated by the county courts. To these members, thus elected, is joined one member from each of the com- mittees, which are elected from the magistrates and town councillors for tlie differ- ent uiuflicipal affaire, if the former election should not have admitted any such 102 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. members into the school committee. The first ecclesiastical authority of the town is also, ex-officio, a member of the committee ; and if the town contains both Romanists and Protestants, the committee must be composed of equal proportions of members of the different parties. The county courts have the power of annul- ling the election of any member, if they see reason to deem him unfit for the exer- cise of the duties of his office, and in such a case, the town authorities are obliged to proceed to make a new election. The duties of the town school committees are to provide sufficient school-room for all the children in the town ; to elect a sufficient number of teachers ; to pay them their salaries regularly ; to provide all needful apparatus for the schools ; to keep the class-rooms and the teachers' houses in good repair, well whitewashed, and well warmed ; to take care that all the children of the town attend school regularly ; to inspect the schools at stated intervals ; to provide each school with a play-ground ; and to take care that the teachers exercise the children there every morning and afternoon. The funds required for the maintenance of the town schools, are provided from the treasury of the corporation. The town councillors are responsible to the county magistrate and to the central government for the due performance of these several duties. If they neglect any of them, the teachers and inspectors complain to the higher authorities, who oblige them to conform immediately to the general law of the land. Besides these nmnicipal authorities, for the superintendence of the education of the whole town, it often happens, that each school in the town has its peculiar schulvorstand, corresponding to the village committees, which I have already described. These committees, where they do exist in the towns, elect their own teachers, and collect, in their several districts, the necessary school funds from the heads of families dwelling there ; but if any one of the district school committees is not able to provide for the expenditure required to supply the wants of its dis- trict, the town school committee is obliged to come forward and assist it, from the general town funds. The latter committee is the general superintendent and assistant, but the former little district societies, where they exist, are the actual laborers. Difference of religion creates no greater difficulty in the towns than in the country parishes, since the Romanists, Protestants, and Jews can, if they prefer, manage their own schools separately, by means of the little school socie- ties, and are never forced into any sort of connection, unless, where it is agree- able to themselves. The Prussian government seems to have considered the education of the chil- dren of the towns, of even higher importance, than that of the children of the vil- lages ; and to have required the formation of these superior committees in the towns, as a sort of additional security, that all the districts of a town should be amply provided with every thing necessary for the careful education of their children. ' These committees assemble every fortnight, and oftener when necessary, at the town halls ; they have the power of inviting any number of the clergy and teachers of the towns to assist at their conferences, and to aid them with their experience and counsels. In many parts of Prussia these central town committees are superseding the smaller district school societies, so that the funds of all the town schools, and the choice and induction of all the teachers rest entirely with the one central town school committee ; and in the case of towns containing different religious sects, as far as I could gather from what I heard in Berlin — for on this point I could find no express regulation — the Protestant members of the town committee appoint the teachers of the Protestant schools, and the Romanist members the teachers of the Romanist scrhools. But in every town every religious party is at liberty, if it pleases, to separate itself from the central town committee, and to form its own separate school com- mittee, for the management of its own educational affairs. And where ever the union of the diflTerent religious parties occasions any strife and disputes, the small district committees are sure to be formed. Where these smaller committees do exist, they elect the teachers for the schools under their management. Great advantages are, however, insured, when the management of all the schools in any tdwn can be put under the direction of one cdmmittefe, instead of SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 103 each being placed under the direction of its separate committee ; or when all the Romanist schools can be put under the direction of one committee, and all the Protestant schools under the diix'ction of another. For, in these cases, instead of creating a great number of small schools in different parts of the town, each con- taining only one or two classes, in which children of very different ages and very difi'erent degrees of proficiency must be necessarily mingled and taught together, to the manifest retarding of the progress of the more forward as well as of the more backward, several schools are generally combined, so as to form one large one, containing five boys' classes and five girls' classes. In these classes, the teachers are able to classify the children in such a manner, that one teacher may take the youngest and most deficient, anotlier the more advanced, and so on. In this manner, as each teacher has a class of children, who have made about the same progress in their studies, he is enabled to concentrate his whole enei-gies upon the instruction and education of all his scholars at the same time, and for the whole time they are in school, instead of being obliged to neglect one part of his class whilst he attends to another, which is necessarily the case, where children of different degrees of proficiency are assembled in one class-room, and which is always necessarily the cause of considerable noise and confusion, tending to dis- tract the attention of both teachers and children. But, besides the good classification, a further advantage, which results from this combination of schools, is the greater economy of the plan. AVhen each school contains only two class-rooms, four times as many schools are required, as when each school contains eight rooms. And it is by no means true, that a school- building containing eight class-rooms costs as much as four school-buildings, each of which contains two class-rooms. Not only is a great expenditure saved, in the mere erection of the exterior walls and roofs of the buildings themselves, but a still greater saving is effected, in the pui'chase of land, as, instead of increasing the area on which the school is erected, it is always possible to increase its height. Nothing can be more liberal, than the manner in which the Prussian towns have provided for their educational wants. The buildings are excellent, and are kept in most admirable order. The town authorities are held responsible for all this ; and, wherever I went, I found large, commodious, and beautifully clean school-rooms, furnished with all that the teachers could possibly require. Along the length of the rooms, parallel desks are ranged, facing the teacher's desk, which is raised on a small platform, so that he may see all his scholars. On either side of him are large blackboards, on which he illustrates the subjects of his lessons. On his right hand, there is generally a cabinet, for the reception of all the books and objects of instruction which belongs to the school ; and all around, on the walls of the room, hang maps of different countries, and, generally, several of Germany, delineating, in a strong and clear manner, all the physical features of the different provinces and kingdoms which compose the " Fatherland." Tlie school-rooms are continually whitewashed ; and should there be any neglect on the part of the town or village authorities to keep the school -buildings in proper order, or to provide all the necessary apparatus, the teachers have always the power of complaining to the inspectors, or to the country magistrates, who immediately compel the authorities to attend to these important duties. Besides the schools, which are managed by school committees in the villages and towns, and which might be denominated public schools, there is another class, which would fall more properly under the designation of private schools. If a private individual is desirous of establishing a school, as a means of earn- ing his livelihood, or from a desire to offer to the poor of his neighborhood a better education, than they could obtain in the public schools, he is at liberty to do so, on the following conditions : — 1st, That the school be opened to public inspection, on the ground, that as the nation is dii'ectly interested in the moral education of its citizens, so it ought to be assured, that none of the children are subjected to immoral and corrupting influences, during the time when their minds are most susceptible of impressions of any kind, and moet tenacious of them when received. 2dly, That no p/^n^f I^k^ employed as teacher in such school, who has not ob» 104 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. tained a teacher's diploma, certifying his character and attainments to be such, aa to fit him for the office of teacher. 3dly, That the school be supplied with a play-ground, and that the children be allowed to lake exercise there in the middle of the morning and afternoon school hours. 4thly, That at least a certain fixed amount of instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, singing, and science be given in the school. 5thly, That a sufticient number of teachers be provided for the children ; and, 6thly, That the rooms are kept clean, well warmed, lighted and ventilated. The profuse expenditure on all the material of education in the Prussian towns astonished me greatly, accustomed as I had been to the dame schools of Eng- land, and to the empty and repulsive interiors of many of our national school- rooms, with their bare floors and uncovered walls. I took the greatest pains not to be deceived on this point ; and hearing that, owing to some municipal disputes, education had made less progress in Berlin than elsewhere, I requested Professor Hintze of Berlin, to direct me to the worst school in the city, and, having visited several of the more perfect ones, I started one morning to see what was considered a poor school in Prussia. It was managed by a teacher, who had established a school for the poor at his own expense, as a private speculation, and unconnected with the town committees. I found a good house contain ing/owr class-rooms, each of which was fitted up with parallel desks, and was under the direction of a teacher, who had been care- fully educated, and had obtained his diploma. 1 found a good, dry, and roomy play-ground attached to the school, a very agreeable and seemingly intelligent head master, who was owner of the school, and manager of one of the classes ; and the only cause of complaint 1 could dis- cover, were, that the rooms were lower than the generality of school-rooms in Prussia, not measuring more than nine feet in height ; that there was a paucity of maps, blackboards, &c. ; that the desks were placed too closely together ; and that the walls were not so white and clean as in the town schools. But I could not help thinking, while walking through the rooms of this building, if these people could only see some of our dame, and some of our dirty and unfurnished national schools, what a palace would they not consider this to be I The regulations which I have been describing, by means of which the enormous expenses of such a vast educational scheme are divided betvs'een all the different districts of the kingdom, and by means of which each parish is held responsible for the education of its children, have been followed by this splendid result — that, notwithstanding that most of their town schools contain five or six times as many class-rooms as those of our counti-y, the Prussian people have established 23,646 schools, which, in 1844. were attended daily by 2,328,146 children, and were directed by 29,639 highly educated teachers, of whom nearly 28,000 were young professors, who had obtained diplomas and certificates of character at the normal colleges ! Now, could this magnificent result have been attained if the people, the clergy, and the government had not been at unity on this great question ? Could it have been attained, if there had been no organization of the parishes and towns, by which the duties of the different educational authorities were clearly and distinctly defined ? Could the government alone have borne the enormous expenses of establishing such a system ? Could the government have even afforded to carry it on ? And, above all, could private charity alone have effected so vast and splendid a result ? These are questions for my readers to answer for them- selves.- The central committees of each town are required by law to establish, in addi- tion to the primary institutions, which I have described, one or more superior pri- mary schools, the number of which varies according to the population of the town. The education given in them is superior to that given m the primary schools themselves, but is inferior to that given in the gymnasia . It is of a more prac- tical character than the latter, and is quite as good as the education of the chil- dren of our middle classes. These superior primary institutions are intended for all those children, who have passed through the primary schools, and whose parents wish them to receive a better education than that given in the latter SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. jqS establishments, without their having to go through the classical course of the gymnasia. The education given in these superior schocils, as in all the public schools of Prussia, is gratuitous, and open to all classes of society. All the children of the small shopkeepers and artizans, many of the boys, who afterward enter the teachers' colleges, as well as many others, whose parents are to be fuund in the very humblest walks of life, and even children of the nobles, and of the richest classes of society, are to be found pursuing their studies there together, in the same class-rooms, and on the same benches. I have inyself seen sons of counts, physicians, clergymen, merchant*, shopkeepers, and poor laborers work- ing together in one of these classes in Berlin. Above these SM/Jerioj- schools are the real schools and gymnasia, ov coWe^es, where a classical and very superior course of education is pursued, and wheie the children of the more wealthy classes are instructed. They are under an entirely different direction; and all I have to do with them here, is to mention, that even these institutions are open gratuitously to all, who wish to avail them- selves of the education which they offer. Even in these classical colleges chil- dren of poor laborers are sometimes to be found studying on the same benches on which sit the sons of the rich. It is very instructive to observe, that in Prussia, where one would imagine, according to the doctrines preached in England, that the government should, until the late revolution, have feared to advance the intelligence of the people, no one has seemed to have an idea, that too much instruction could be imparted to the children of the poor. On the contrary, every one has acted as if the public order and public morality depended entirely upon the people being able to think. A theoretically arbitrary government h;us been doing every thing in its power to stimulate and enable the people to educate their children as highly as possible, and has been for years telling them, that the pros- perity and happiness of the country depend greatly on the training of the chil- dren ; while here, in our free country, we still find people speaking and acting, as if they feared, that education was the inevitable harbinger of immoralitj' and disaffection . There are also in Prussia a great number of endowed schools, which derive their incomes from the rents of lands, or from the mtere.st of money bequeathed to them by charitable individuals, or which have been founded and endowed at different times by the government. For each of these cases, there is an excep- tion made in the operation of the municipal regulations, which I have described : neither of these clcusses of schools are directed by Schulvorstande, or by the town committees. The teachers for the former class are chosen by the trustees, appointed by the will of the devisor ; the county courts being enabled to annul the elections, if a bad selection is made. The trustees, however, are unable to appoint any person, as teacher, who has not obtained a diploma* of competency from the provmcial committee, appointed to examine all candidates for the teachers' profession. In fact, no person can officiate as teacher, in any Prussian school, unless he has obtained such a diploma. This is the parents' guarantee, that he is a person, to whom they may safely intrust their children. The teachers of the class of schools, which have been founded and endowed by government, are appointed by the county courts. The town committees have, however, the sur- veillance and inspection of all these schools, and are obliged by law to assi-st them from the town funds, if their own do not suffice for their efficient maintainance. The municipal authorities are also obliged to assist all the parents, who are too poor to do it themselves, to purchase the books, slates, pencils. &c., required for the class instruction ; and they are also obliged to provide decent clothing for such children, as are too poor, to obtain a dress sufficiently respectable for school attendance. And here, I can not help remarking, on the general appearance of the children throughout the provinces of Prussia, which I have visited. They were generally very clean, well dressed, polite, and easy in their manners, and very healthy and active in their appearance. In whatever town of Prussia the traveler finds himself, he may always satisfy himself on this point, if he will take the trouble to walk out into the streets, between twelve and two o'clock in the morn- * For aa account of diploma;, see page 1S8. log SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ing, i. e., between tlie houi's of the morning and afternoon classes. In some towns, a stranger would imagine, either that the poor had no children, or that they never let them go out of doors. All the children he would see in the streets would appear to him to be those of respectable shopkeepers. This is a very sat- isfactory proof of the good effects of the school system, as cleanliness and neat- ness among the poor are invariable symptoms of a satisfactory moral and physical condition. The law requires that every school, both in town and country, shall have an open space of ground adjacent to it, where the children may take a little exercise in the mornings and afternoons. This is a very important I'egulation, and is well worthy our imitation. The children, in Germany, are never detained more than an hour and a half in the school-room at one time, except when the weather is too bad, to allow of their taking exercise in the open air. Every hour and a half, throughout the day, they are taken into the play-ground for ten minutes' exercise by one of the teachers ; the a'r of the school-room is then changed, and the chil' dren return refreshed to their work. In the towns this regulation insures other and greater advantages, as it kee])s the children out of the filth and immorality of the streets. In most cases, our town-schools have no yard attached to them, so that, if the children do change the bad and noxious air of the school-room, it is only for the dirt and depravity of the streets, where they are brought under evil influences, much more powerful for injury, than those of the schools are for good. In some provinces of Pruss'a, there are still some few of the old class of great landowners, between who:n, in former days, the whole of Prussia was divided, until Stein and Ilardenburg put the laws in force, which destroyed the old feudal system, and gave the peairants an interest in the soil. It is, therefore, an interest- ing question to examine, what the law requires these landlords to do for the edu- cation of the people on their estates. I have already mentioned, that the selection of the teacher is left to them, but that the government reserves the right of a veto upon their choice, in all cases where an injudicious election is made. Tlie landlords are required to keep in good repair the schools upon their estates, and to pay the school-fees for the children of all the poor laborers living upon them, and not able to pay it themselves. They are also obliged to furnish the materials, required for the erection or repair of all necessary school-buildings ; the fuel required for the school-rooms and teachers' houses through the winter : and, where the school is not endowed, the sum which is necessary for the teachers' salaries. The children of the landed proprietors themselves, often attend the vil- lage schools, and work at the same desks, with the sons and daughters of the poorest peasants — a proof of the excellent character of the education given in the primary schools, and of the high estimation, m which the teachers are generally held by all classes of society. About eight or ten years since all the German schools were conducted on the Bell and Lancasterian methods, the children being left almost entirely in the hands of young and half-educated nmnitors, as in our own parochial schools nt the present day. The results t>f this system Vi'ere so unsatisfactory that they soon occasioned a powerful reaction in the contrary direction. The German govern- ments, perceiving how grievously the mental education and mental development of the children were retarded by subjecting them to the imperfect care of half- educated monitors, prohibited all employment of monitors in the parochial schools. Hence, it became necessary to considerably increase the staff of teachers, as well as the expenditure required for their support. In the towns this has been produc- tive of beneficial results, as the towns can always raise sufficient funds for the support of a sufficient number of teachers. I generally found that each of these schools throughout Germany had a staff of from six to twelve teachers attached to it. each of whom had attained the age of twenty years, liad been specially edu- cated in the classes of the primary, secondary, and normal schools, from his sixth to his twentieth year, and had obtained a diploma certifying his fitness for the pro- fession to which he had devoted himself But in the village schools the results of this rejection of all monitorial assist- ane has been less satisfactory. The villages are not generally rich enough to support more than two teachers, and often not more than one, and this, too, in many caeee, where there are 150 children who attfend the sfchool. In thee© cases, SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 107 therefore, monitors are greatly needed to assist in maintaining order among one part of the children, while the teacher is instructing another part, and to relieve the teacher fro.ii the mure mechanical part of class instruction, so that he may apply h.s undiv.ded attention to those branches of instructions, in wh.ch h.s supe- rior skill, knowledge, and experience are most needed. But the prejudices which the Germans have imbibed against the monotorial system, are, as yet, too strong to allow them to perce've the necessity of employ- inc monitors in the village schools. Whenever 1 addressed a German teacher on th s subject, he immediately answered, " Oh ! we have had enough of your Lan- casterian methods ; depend upon it, we .shall never try them again.'' It was very surprising to me to see, how Universal and how strong this antipathy to monitors WA-i throughout Germany ; but it served to show me, how deep an interest all classes took in the prosperity of the schools, as it was evident that they only rejected this means of lessening the parochial outlay in the support of teachers, because they believed it to be essentially injurious to the sound mental progress of the children. No doubt that the old monitorial system was deserving of all their mah'd C tions ; but it would well become the Prussian educational authorities to consider, whether the means between the old system and the present, such, viz., as the monotorial system pursued in Holland and France, is not the true state of things to which they ought to aspire. In these countries, the teachers train the most promising of their oldest and most advanced scholars as monitors. They give them instruction in the evenings when the day's work in the school-room is over. These monitors are paid by the parochial authorities just enough, to make it worih their whle to remain at their posts as assistants to the schonlmasters until about seventeen years of age, after which time they are removed to the normal colleges to be trained as teachers, whilst other children take their places in the village schools. To these trained and paid monitors nothing is intrusted, but the mere mechanical parts of school teaching, such as the elements of readings writing, and arithmetic. All the higher and more intellectual parts of school education, such as religious instruction, history, geography, and mental arithmetic, are con- ducted by the schoolmaster himself. But the principal service which the moni- tors render to the teachers is, in preserving order and silence in the school, and in watching over those classes, which are not for the time being receiving instruc- tion from the schoolmaster. By this means, one able master, with the aid of two intelligent monitors, may conduct a school of 100 children ; whenevei' the number, however, exceeds 10(1, there should in all cases be, at the least, twfi superior teachers. As I have already said, the want of monitors is felt most in the village schools ; for the town schools are conducted in a totally different manner. Tn a town a greater number of children are found assembled together, and greater funds are always found at the disposal of the school authorities, who, it will be remembered, are elected by the people. In each of the Prussian towns, several great school-houses ai'e generally built, each containing from four to sixteen class-rooms. The num- ber does not, I believe, generally exceed eight in one school-house, and some have not more, but hardly any fewer than four. In Germany, except in the pooi-est villages, different classes are never instructed in the same room. Even in the villages, there are generally two or three class-rooms in the village sclvwl-house, for each of which a separate teacher is maintained. This plan of teaching the different classes in different rooms, adds incalculably to the efficiency of the education given. In each room, only one voice is heard at a time — the voice of the teacher or one of the children. The attention of the children is not disturbed or diverted from the teacher by what is going on in another class. Each roi>m is perfectly quiet. The teacher can be heard distinctly, and can hear every noise in his class. Besides all this, for equal numbers of children four or five times as many teachers are employed in Germany as in England. Each child receives, therefore, four or five times as much assistance and attention from a learned man as a child does in England. The individual progress, therefore, of the children in the German schools (and the same may be said of the Swiss schools.) is very much greater than that of the English children. Over each school-house one head teacher is appointed, who is an elderly and experienced man, and who himself takes the management of the highest class. Under him are appointed a number of younger teachers, coVresponding to the number of class-rooms in the school* 1 08 SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. house. These younger masters board with the head teacher in his house, which is generally constructed large enough to afford loggings for the staff of masters required for all the classes. If the class-rooms do not e.\ceed four, the boys and girls are mi.xed together in the different rooms, and are divided into four classes, according to their proficiency. If. however, the school contains more than four class-rooms, then the girls and boys are separated into two distinct divisions, each of which is divided into three or four classes according to the proficiency of the children. In the town schools, therefore, it is much easier to dispense with moni- tors, as no teacher is perplexed with having to direct different classes in the same room. Each teacher has only to instruct a small number of children of about the same proficiency in the same subject, at onetime and in a separate room. He can, therefore, at all moments engage all his children in the same occupations, keep them all under his constant inspection, and direct their operations much better than where these operations themselves are necessarily of three or four different kinds at the same time. But even in such case, the teachers require the assist- ance of monitors, in the writing, drawing, and ciphering exercises ; or else, as I have often observed, when the teacher's attention is withdrawn from the class, or when he is attending to some individual pupil in one part of the school, the juvenile spirit is sure to begin to effervesce in another, and to produce noise, dis- order, and interruption. This want of assistance for the principal teachers was almost the only fault I could find with the Prussian schools. The school-buildings were generally excellent, and often handsome; the class- rooms numerous, lofty, capacious, and always clean ; for the inspectors take great care that the parochial authoi'ities do not neglect the whitewashing and repairs. The scholars themselves were always exquisitely clean. The rooms were con- stantly whitewashed and scoured. The law obliges the school committees to do this. If any neglect in these particulars is evident, the inspectors and county magistrates are empowered and required to act for the parochial committee, and to raise the funds necessary for the purpose by a parochial rate levied upon the householders. But from the beautiful neatness and cleanliness and from the excellent repair of the school-rooms which I saw in different provinces of Prussia and Germany, it appeared to me, that the people fully understood and appreciated the importance and utility of these regulations. The class-rooms were always well fitted up with parallel desks and forms, and almost always with excellent maps of Germany, on which all the leadmg phys- ical characteristics of the country vi'ere delineated in a strong and forcible manner, and on a large scale ; and also with smaller but excellent maps of other parts of the world. At one end of each class-room is the teacher's desk, raised a little above the others. Behind, and on each side of him hang great blackboards, fastened to the wall by moveable hinges. On these he writes copies of the writing exercises, and draws all his figures, &e.. for the illustration of his lessons: and on all these also each child is called upon in turn to explain arithmetical operations, or to fill up or draw the outlines of a map of some part of Europe, or of one of the principal countries of the world. The space between the teacher's desk and the other end of the room is filled with parallel rows of desks and forms, at which the children work ; for the Prussians are too anxious to make the children interested in their school duties, to think of making education more disagreeable to them than it necessarily is, by forcing them to stand through nearly the whole of their lessons, as they do in many of our national schools to this day. Each school has also a yard, where the children take exercise in the middle of the morning and after- noon school hours, to refresh themselves, and to awaken their faculties, while the windows of the class-rooms are thrown open, and the air of the rooms is thoroughly purified. Some persons seem to imagine th^t, if a school-room is built and children attend it, the results must needs be good ; but it behooves them to examine whether they have left any influence at work upon the children's minds, stronger than the influence for good which the school afl<)rds. If it is so, it seems a little sanguine, to say the least of it, to hope for happy results. The whole system of things in Germany is so entirely different to that in England, that any one who attempts to describ^ it to Englishmen must neoessarily appear to exaggerate. I SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 109 can only say, let doubters go and inspect for themselves, and I am convinced they will own, that I have not said nearly so much as I might have done, in favor of the wonderful efforts the people and the governments are making to advance the great cause of popular instruction. Each child buys its own books and slate. Those children, however, who are too poor to pay the small school-fees, and who are consequently sent to school at the expense of the town or parish in which they dwell, are provided with books, &c., by the town or parochial authorities. The children generally carry their books home with them ; and every morning at a quarter to eight o'clock, a trav- eler may see the 'streets of a German town or village filled with boys and girls, neatly dressed and very clean, hurrying to school ; each of the boys carrying his school-books in a small goat-skin knapsack on his back, and each of the girls carrying hers in a small bag, which she holds in her hand. The cleanliness and neatness of dress which I generally observed among the children very much surprised me, and always served to convince me how the educational regulations were tending to civilize and elevate the tastes of the lower classes throughout Germany. At first, I was often disposed to doubt the veracity of my com- panions, when they assured me that the children I saw were the sons and daughters of poor laborers. The very way in which children of different ranks of society are to be found mingled in the same school, serves to show how superior the civilization of the lower orders in Germany is to that of the English peasants. With us it would be impossible to associate, in the same school, the children of peasants with those of even the lowest of our middle classes. JBut in Germany, I constantly found the children of the highest and of the lowest ranks sitting at the same desk, and in almost every school I saw the children of the lowest and of the middle classes mingled together. In Berlin, one of the teachers, on my asking him whose sons the boys at one of his forms were, requested them to tell me in what occupations their fathers were engaged. From these boys I learned, that one was the son of a clergyman, another of a ph5'sician ; that others were the sons of small shopkeepers, and others the sons of errand-men and porters. Now, were not the children of the errand-men and porters very much more civilized, polished, and, if I may use that that much abused word, more gentlemanly than the same class of children in England, such an association would be totally impossible. And yet this to us incredible state of things, exists with infinitely less discontentment and social dis- turbance than we find among our laboring classes in England. But it must not be imagined that the educational system is in a stationary state, that the people and the government are resting upon their oars, or that Ihey now think that they have done enough, and that they can let the stream bear them on without further exertion. Far, far othervfise ; on every hand extensive improvements are going on, as if they had only commenced last year, to take any interest in the question, and as if they were only now beginning the work, like fresh laborers. Here I found a new and handsome school-house just finished ; there, another one in building ; and here, again, old houses being altered and enlarged. In one town I found them preparing a great building for a normal college ; in another, I found them preparing to remove one of these noble institu- tions to a more commodious and larger set of buildings ; and wherever I traveled, I found the authorities laboring to establish infant schools, as well as to perfect the educational institutions of their several localities. Itsometimes appeared to me as if all the resources of the government must be devoted to this object; whereas my readers must recollect that, except in the cases of the normal colleges, this great work is effected by the people themselves ; and that the enormous expend- iture, by being divided between all the different towns and parishes in the king- dom, is scarcely felt. Since 1816, every year has witnessed a further progress: old schools have been pulled down, new ones have been erected ; the old and less efficient teachers have gradually died off, and their places have been supplied by excellently trained masters who now direct the schools ; the young men who are about to enter holy orders have been obliged to study pedagogy, in order to fit themselves to be inspectors ; the regulations respecting the factory children, which I have given in an earlier part of this work, have been put in force j no SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. the minimum of the teachers' salaries has been considerably raised, and the system of teachers' conferences has been perfected, and put into operation. I shall now show what restrictions exists on the free choice of books by the teachers. The Prussian government lias here had two evils to guard against : one of these was the retarding of the gradual reform of school-books, ^^hich reform will always take place, when the teachers themselves are learned men, when they thoroughly understand the theory and practice of pedagogy, and when they are not fettered by unwise restrictions ; and the other was, the admission into the practical schools, of books of an irreligious or immoral tendency. These two evils are guarded against in the following manner : No book can be used in any school of the provinces, until the authorities com- posing the provincial Schulcollegium, which has the direction of the higher schools and gymnasia, as well as of the normal colleges of the province, have licensed it, or sanctioned its admission. Any book which has been so sanc- tioned, can be employed by any schoolmaster of the province in which it was licensed. There are, in every province, a great number of works on religion, history, science, &c., wliicli have been thus licensed, and from which the teachers are at liberty to choose. But, if a schoolmaster writes a book, which he deems better qualified for school use than those already published, or if he desires to employ a work written by some one else and which is not licensed, he forwards a copy of it, through the inspector, to the provincial authorities, in order to obtain their consent, which is only refused, where the book is positively imperfect or unfit for the young. In the schools, which I personally inspected, I generallj^ found the school-books very excellent, and written either by teachers, or by some person engaged in the educational profession. Coming as they do from men of very long experience in the practice of pedagogy, they are generally vi'ell adapted to answer the wants, which the writers themselves have experienced, in the exer- cise of their professional duties. With the above restrictions, the choice of books is left entirely to the schoolmasters. The character of the instruction given in all the German schools is suggestive ; the teachers labor to teach the children to educate themselves. There is little or no " cram'" about it, if I may use an old university phrase. In most of the best primary schools of England, the teacher still contents himself with the old cramming system ; that is, he tries to crowd the memories of his scholars with facts, and continually exercises their memories, without ever attempting to develop and strengthen iiny of their other intellectual faculties. Now, we know but too well, that a man may have the most retentive memory, and the best stored mind, and yet remain as incapable of reasoning, as improvident, and as irrational as ever. He may be full of facts ; but may be as unable to make any use of them, or to turn them to any good account, as one bereft of the faculties of speech, sight, and hearing. If a man can not use his reasoning powers, he is much better without knowledge; to impart facts to a fool, is like intrusting fire to a madman. The great desideratum for the poor, as well as for every one else in this world, is a capability of using the reasoning faculties ; not that this will always save a man from false ideas and from irrational conduct, but that a man who possesses it will be more likely than any other, to take a riglit view of liis position in life, his duties, and his advantages, and will be more likely to understand the best means of improving them. Next, then, to implanting good principles in the child, the first object of every system of instruction should be, to teach it how to use the high and important faculties, which Providence has given it, as the means by which to insure its temporal happiness and continued self-improvement. Facts are necessary, but facts alone are not enough : to cram a child's mind with facts, without constantly exercising its reflection and its reason, is like feeding it with quantities of rich viands, and denying it all bodily exercise. The German teachers are, therefore, taught that their duty is to awaken the intelligence of their children, far more than to fill their heads with facts, which they would not know how to use, unless their reasoning powers had been first cul- tivated. Tlie schoolmasters do not therefore hurry over many facts in one lesson j but endeavor to make them think and reason about the subject of instruction. The method of instruction is left to the unfettered choice of the teachers, bo SUBJECTS AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. m that it is impossible to speak with certainty of the methods pursued in the majority of the schools ; but in all that I visited, I invariably found the simultaneous method pursued. By tliis the scholars are divided into different classes, and each class is instructed separately. This is not done on tlie old shouting plan, where one 01" two clever boys give the answer, and all the others follow in the same breath, and often without having known w'hat the question was. Not so : the class under instruction first reads a section or chapter from the school-book, relating to the subject of instruction ; the teacher then endeavors to illustrate what the children have been reading, to make them clearly understand it, to assure himself that they do understand it, and to impress it more clearly and firmly upon their memories. All this he does by suggestive questions, which he himself does not answer, until he has first tried whether any of the children can answer tliem for themselves. When a question is put, all the children, who ai'e prepared to answer it, are told to hold up their hands, and the teacher then selects one child, who stands up and gives what he conceives to be the answer ; if he is wrong, another is selected to correct him, and so on in like manner; but until the teacher has called upon some one to answer, not a single word is allowed to be spoken by any member of the class. If no one can answer the question, the teacher, before answering it for the children, excites their curiosity about it by questions and hints, and stories illustrating or partially explaining the subject under discussion ; and when he has succeeded in interesting the whole class in the answer, he then gives it, but not before. By these means, the reflective powers of the children are exercised and trained ; they are taught to think, to inquire angress. Class II, Two hours. Exercises continued. Most of the pupils write without lines, or by direct- ing points merely. Class I. The written exercises in other departments are «(amined, to ascertain the character of the handwriting. No special lessons are given. Drawing. Class IV. Two hours. Drawing straight lines in various directions and of various lengths. Mak- ing definite angles. Drawing triangles, squares, and other rectilinear ligui'es. Class III. Two hoiirs. Drawing of circles and ovals. Class II. Two hours. Drawing of bodies bounded by planes and straight lines in perspective. Drawing of curves. Class I. Drawing from natmal objects, from plaster casts, and models. Singing. Class IV. Two hours suffice to learn fifteen or twenty songs, of one or two verses, by note, and some ten choral songs. Class III. Two hours. Songs with two parts continued. Chorals with one voice. Class II. Two hours. Songs with two or three voices continued. Class I. Two hours. Songs and chorals with three or foiu- parts. Once during the morning there is an interval for recreation in the court-yard of the school, and the pupils are directed in their exercises of marching and count er-inarclting. and the like, by one of tho teachers. The course marked out in the foregoing programme, as far as it extends, seems to me well adapted to educate the moral and intellectual faculties, as well as the senses ; to give mental vigor^ while it ftu-nislies information useful to the pupil ill after life. There are peculiarities in regard to the religious instruction, even as intended for Protestants, which may be remarked in the fifth and third classes, the object of which I do not understand. In other respects, wlien sectarian instruction may be given, as in this school, where all the pupils are of one denomination, the course appears to be good. The manner of communicating the instriiction by conversation and lectures, renders it very effective. Tliere are in all the classes, taken togetlier, twenty-two hours per week devoted to religious instruction here, and eighteen in the other, but the programme does not show a gain in the amount of knowledge communicated. The course in the motlier tongue is fully explained in the progi-amme, and is well adapted to produce fluency and accuracy of expression in conversation and writing. Both this and the foregoing course extend, as they should, through all the classes. The Latm language is introduced with a view to preparation for a gymnasium, in the nomenclature of natural history, the business of the chemist and druggist, and perhaps, to use the language of an accomplished teacher in one of the higlier town schools, " because such always has been the custom," I would give the preference to the course of this school over that of the other, considering the time of twenty seven liours devoted to it more appropriate than of thirty, as in the other. The. French, besides, combining with the German and Latin to give the due proportion of intellectual culture from language, is introductory to the courses m the real schools, whicli are parallel with the gymnasia, and prepare for the polytechnic or other special schools, as the latter do for the university. It is practically useful, too, to the shopkeeper and tradesman of the continent of Europe, and was, probably, formerly more so than at present. The Latin language is begun in tlie fourth class, or at about eight years of age, and the French lan- guage in the third class, but neither occupy more than three hours a week, until a year afterward. These languages occupy forty -seven hours per week, during the entire period through which they are taught. Nothing can be better than the fomidation laid for arithmetic. The pupils are • SEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 131 engaged a year in practical arithmetic before they are introduced to a knowl- edge of abstract numbers. Habits of thought are given by simple exercises in mental arithmetic. The eye is enlisted to aitl the mind by computing with cubes, according to the method in the schools of Holland. Written aritlmietic relieves the mental exertion, aids the memory, and trains the hand. The course is then carried on, combining mental and written arithmetic, and reachmg algebra, which is also, in part, taught mentally. The course of geometry begins with ideas of form, in connection with drawing, according to Pestalozzi's method, which it follows in general. It is thus a pow- erful means of stimulating tlie mind, and, though the time occupied is greater than if the subject were tuuglit in the ordinary way, the results are mucli more satisfactory. If there is latent niathematical talent in a pupil, his powers of invention cannot fail to be drawn out by this method. Natural history is not left to incidental instruction, to be derived from the reading-book, but is directly taught in the last two years. I had not the oppor- tunity of judging of the fruits of this instruction in the seminary school itself, but the pupils of the seminary were pursuing the subject with zeal. In comparing this course with that of the other school, I think it preferable, except in the omission, at the beginning, of an accomit of the domestic animals. There will be, I doubt not, great improvements in teaching this branch at a future day. At present, the plan is hardly formed, and the collections for illustration, where they exist at all, are, in general, quite small. There is, besides, a tendency to make the course too strictly scientific. The system of instruction in geography is begun in the third class, or at nine years of age, with a description of home. History, which in its elements is com- bined with geograpliy, takes a separate place in the second class. The pi-actice of giving biographical sketches instead of mere chronological details, cannot be tt)o much commended. The pupil learns with interest the events of the lives of men who iiave made an impression upon the age in which they lived ; these events form an outline which is easily fixed in the mind, and may subsequently be tilled up in detail. Agam, the discussions of inventions and discoveries in art or science afford relief from the descriptions of battles and revolutions, and serve to show the influence of genius exerted in civil life. The phonic method of teaching to read, wants only the use of words having a meaning, as in Mr. Wood's system, to be nearly perfect. No reading is allowed, however, without understanding not only the words, but their connection, and the ideas conveyed by the sentences. The habit of thus giving paraphrases of subjects, leads to facility of expression, and by combining this with copying from good models, a correct .style is formed. The course of reading of the highest class, includes selections from the German classics. Introductory exercises in drawing precede the instruction in writing ; these might, I have no doubt, be much further extended with advantage.* A good handwriting is produced by the succession of exercises described in the progranmie. The course of drawing, whicli is commenced as a distinct branch in the fourth class, is intended to enable the pupil to sketch correctly, and with facility, such objects of furniture, ma- chinery, (fee, as he may have occasion to represent in liis occupations in after Ufe. The addition of two hours of drawing in the fifth class, would seem to me not to overburden the class with work, while it would add materially to their profi- ciency in this useful branch. Singing is successfully taught, and b}- note. It is considered an indispensable branch of mstruction. and all my convictions are in its favor, whether as a means of developing moral sentiment, or of physical education. Singing by ear might, however, very well begin in the lower classes, and for this purpose the numlaer of hours of instruction per week might be increased from twenty-four to twenty- six in the lowest, and twenty-eight in the fifth class. The time allotted to the different studies will appear better by the annexed table. In regard to the ages of the pupils, inserted in the heading of the columns, it is to be understood that they are those of intelligent and mdustrious boys eutermg at six years, and going regularly through the classes. The subjects of • As has been done for the elements of an English hand, by our countryman, Mr. Rembrandt Peale, in his admirable system of graphics. The forms of the German letters would require a different system. 132 SEMINARY SCHOOL OF BERLIN. instruction are placed in the first column, the number of hours per week occupied by the several classes in the following ones, and the total number of hours de- voted to each subject, while in the school, in the lust column. In forming this total, the number of hours occupied by the four lower classes, the course in each of which is of one year, is reckoned once ; and the number of hours of the two upper classes, each course occupying two years, is doubled. Table of distribution of time in the Royal Smninary School of Berlin. SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. Keligious Instructiuii German Language . . . Eeading Latin Language French Language. . . . Arithmetic Geometry Natural History Geography History Writing Drawing Singing NUMBER OF HOURS PER WEEK. 2 32 26 24 24 From this table it appears that language occupies one hundred and five hours, estimating the time devoted to reading with that for German, Latin, and French, science sixty-four hours, and the mechanical branches, including writing, drawing, and singing, forty-three. It would be erroneous, however, to suppose that the results are in these proportions. Tlie least consideration will show that the pro- gress in different branches in the same school cannot be estimated by tlje time devoted to them ; the intrinsic difficulties of acquisition, the different periods of the course at which they are introduced, and various otlier causes, prevent com- parisons of this sort. Not only so, but the time occupied in the same subjects in diflerent schools, which might be thought to aflbrd an accurate test of C(jiupara- tive progress in them, can not, in reality, be employed for this purpose, without at the same time carefully studying the programmes, to ascertain how the time is applied in each class, and the manner in which it is distributed among the several classes. The two higher city schools just described, afi'ord conclusive evidence of this fact. There can be no doubt, I think, that the Dorothean school is the stronger in language, and the seminary school in science. Such is the general reputation of the two, and such is the tone which the director of eaeh would be likely to give to the school under his charge. The impression which I derived from visiting the two establishnients was to the same effect. The number ol hours per week devoted to language in all the classes of the two schools is, however, ninety-eight for the first, and one hundred and five for the second, and to science, ejghty-two for the former and si.vty-four for the latter ; leading, in both eases, to tiie reverse of the conclusion just stated. If differences in the arrangement of studies, in the power of the teachers, in the metliods and implements of instruc- tion, and even in the pupils themselves, may lead to such results, small differences in the proportion of time allotted to different branches should not, without care- fully checking their results by other comparisons, be assumed to indicate corres- ponding differences in the value of the courses. In following the course of studies of these two schools, it will be seen that those * This includes preparatory geometrical exercises. SEMINARY SCIIOOI, AT WEISSENFELS. J33 of the lowest class, in each, are almost identical. In the next, the seminary school has greatly the advantage in the compactness of arrangement, by which the atten- tion of the pupil is confined to fewer subjects. No less than ten branches are introduced into the prograunne of this class in the Dorothean school, while there are but five in the seminary school. The scientific branches, except those which run through all the years, are introduced later in the latter school, which is in accordance with the principle of concentrating the attention on a few subjects, where it is possible. It appears to me that, in general, it is not proper to introduce these branches early, except as matters of incidental instruction. The separation of the programmes of the two schools, produced as just stated, renders it difficult briefly to compare the courses of the same class in each. A general comparison of the subjects shows that the German language is taught according to the same plan in each, and that the highest class attains the same level in each, as far as the grammar is concerned ; much more attention, however, is paid in the seminary school to the reading courses, as well for the acquisition of reading as an art, and to cultivate a taste for it. as for the incidental knowledge to be communicated. Nearly one fourth of the pupil's time, in the school just named, is devoted to the vernacular. The Latin is begun in the same class in both schools, but the course in the Dorothean school at once takes the lead of the other, and keeps it through- out. The French begins in the fifth class in one school, and in the third in the other ; and, though the programmes terminate at about the same point, there is a greater proficiency made in the Dorothean school. One object, if not the princi- pal one, of learning this language being to speak it, the early commencement is an advantage. In a general comparison of progress in language, the Dorothean school, as already stated, ranks higher than the other. The courses of arithmetic are different, but terminate at the same level ; I have already mentioned my preference for the course of the seminary. Geometry is begun in the fifth class in the Dorothean, and in the fourth in the seminary school ; the courses go on together for three classes, and extend further in the latter insti- tut'on. The differences in the courses of natural history have already been the subject of remark. The course of geography is essentially the same, differing only in the age of the pupil at beginning. History is begun in the fourth class of the Dorothean, and in the second in the seminary school ; it is more systematic in the former, and assumes more the form of biograpliy in the latter ; the range of the two courses does not differ essentially. Taking these branches, classed as scien- tific, together, the superiority is with the seminary school, and thus, in both this and the former case, the judgment which would have been pronounced by refer- ring to the numbers merely, is reversed. SEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEISSENFELS. The Dorothean and Seminary school are described by Dr. Bache as characteristic specimens of the higher burgher school of Prussia. In the same connection he introduces the two following schools, the Sem- inary school at Weissenfels as representing, not a burgher school as it is denominated, but as covering the ground of a well organized ele- mentary school for a village, and the higher burgher school of Pots- dam, as carrying elementary instruction into the domain of secondary education. This is a higher elementary, or lower burgher school, attached to the seminary for teachers at Weissenfels, and is under the charge of the director of the semin- ary. The school is intended not only for the benefit of the citizens of Weissen- fels, but also as a model school, in which the pupils of the seminary may reduce to practice, under the eye of their teachers, the lessons of theory in the art of teaching, which forms an important part of the course of the seminary. The school has four hundred pupils, male and female. They are divided into five classes, in the three lower of which the two sexes receive instruction in com- mon, being separated in the highest. Each class averages thus eighty under the charge of one master, who ie, however, assisted by the pupils of the seminary. 134 SEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEISSENFEL8. Tho following table shows the subjects of instruction, and the amount of time devoted to each. The whole course usually lasts seven years, when the pupil enters at the age of six or seven. TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME IN THE SEMINARY SCHOOL AT WEIS8ENFEL8. ircMBER or Houas psr wkek. StJBJipCTS OF rasTRuenoN. Religious Instruction, German Language, Reading, Inductive Exercises, Arithmetic, Geometry, Geography, History, Natural History, &c.,. Writing, , Drawing, Singing, Total, 34 21 25 1 28 6 17 30 11 17 30 26 26 26 The religious instruction consists in the narration of Bible stories, and in pointing out the appropriate moral ; in Bible history in a more connected form ; in learning Luther's catechism, and committing parts of the Bible to memory. The pupils are also expected to give an account of the Sunday's sermon. The study of German includes the grammar. There are exercises specially of orthog- raphy and syntax in the upper classes. Poetry is also com.mitted to memory. The elements or reading and writing are taught together according to Dr. Harnisch's method. § In the upper classes, the reading lessons are intended not only to give fluency in the art of reading, but also incidental instruction in gram- mar and general knowledge . Direct exercises of induction are in use only in the lowest class. The instruction in arithmetic, extends through fractions ; mental arithmetic preceding written through all the rules. That of geometry, consists merely of the elements of form, according to Pestalozzi. Under geography and history are included both physical and political geogra- phy and biography. With the physical geography is interwoven an account of the productions of nature and art of different countries. In the summer, the pupils are made acquainted with the botany of the environs, and in winter receive lessons upon animals, &c. Writing on paper is a matter of privilege attainable by those who improve suf- ficiently. The others write on slates. The first lessons in drawing are introduc- tory to wTiting ; afterwards it is made a separate branch. The higher classes learn music by note, and sing twice a week in company with the pupils of the normal school. The violin is used in leading the class singing exercises. The discipline and instruction are admirable. The teachers have little occa- sion to use punishment. The instruction is chiefly given viva voce, and the pupils in general appear interested in their studies. A book is kept for the record of delinquences, which is examined by one of the superior masters once a week, and notice taken of the faults recorded. The director examines it once a month, and admonishes those who need it. Corporal punishment is resorted to only in extreme cases. • This column is calculated on the supposition that the pupil remains in the school from six until thirteen years of age, passing through the lowest class in one year, and each of the others in two years. . . ,, x. t i. + As the instruction in writing and reading is combined, 1 have placed half of the numlier of hours under each head. } Of these eight hours, three are combined, reading and writing, and two copying. S See page 200. HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. 135 The two schools first described, will be found to vary very considerably in their arrangements from this one, forming the opposite extreme as it were, of the class, but a connecting link will be supplied by the burgher school of Potsdam, which is intended to cover the ground occupied by both divisions. HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. This school differs from those already described in several particulars, exempli- fying, in its arrangements, the division into lower and higher burgher schools, and carrying the courses of the latter decidedly into the domain of secondary instruc- tion. Its principal objects are to prepare children of both sexes for occupations connected with, or corresponding to, the lower trades, and boys for the higher mechanical occupations, as builders, architects, &c., or for admission into the trade school connected with the government, mechanics', or trade institute at Berlin, and for the gymnasium. This school thus supplies instruction of different grades ; first, elementary instruction of a higher kind ; second, that usually given in the " real schools" of Prussia, and third, that necessary fur entrance into the higher classes of a gymnasium, or grammar school. Hence its studies embrace many subjects and stages of progress which properly belong to secondary instruction, and even to a greater degree than other higher burgher schools. The pupils pursue a course common to all in the three lower classes, or from about six to eleven or twelve years of age, when a separation takes place. Those who are to leave school at thirteen or fourteen, pass into the " middle burgher school class,'- in which the study of Latin and French is dropped, and the time is devoted to religious instruction, German, mathematics, geography and history, the elements of natural history, technology and physics, writing, drawing, and vocal music. Those pupils who are preparing for a higher class of a gymnasium, or who intend to pursue the entire course here, pass from the third class to the "second burgher school class." These arrangements appear to meet the wants of the citizens of Potsdam, for, in 1837, forty-two pupils passed from the third class to the middle burgher school class, and forty-one to the second class of the higher school. Pupils preparing for the sixth class of a gymnasium leave this school in the " second elementary class," or at about nine or ten years of age, and those who aim at the third class of a gymnasium, usually pass from this at the close of the course of the second class in the higher school. The first, or upper class, thus contain only those pupils who intend to enter into active business life on leaving the school, or to enter a special school of arts and trades. On this account, the branches of science which are immediately applicable to such objects, are intro- duced into the course. This class consisted, in 1837, of ten pupils. The complete course is usually gone through at or before sixteen years of age, and entitles the pupil to claim one year of voluntary military service, instead of the three regular years, and qualifies him for appointment in the government bureaux. The six boys' and three girls' classes have twelve ordinary teachers, besides one assistant, and two female teachers. Each of the lower classes has but one teacher, who attends to all the subjects as in the other schools already described. The total number of pupils was, in 1837, four hundred and fifty-six, of whom three hundred and twenty-three were boys. The usual system of change of place in the classes is employed to excile emula- tion, and discipline is mainly conducted by means of a black-book in which a pupil's name is entered at the end of the week or month, when he has had a cer- tain number of faults per week, or per month, marked against him by the teacher. Marks of merit are allowed to cancel those of demerit. The entry is communi- cated to the pupil's comrades, and also to his parents. As far as I have been able to judge of these and similar systems of discipline in day schools, I have not found any marked good effects from them. If a teacher is competent, he keeps up good discipline without them, and if he is not, they are of little or no service to him. In this remark I do not mean to include communications to parents, which are frequently of the greatest utility. The following plan, which apparently bears some analogy to this, but which owes its efficacy to a different principle, is in suc- cessful operation in Dr. Mayo's excellent boarding school at Cheam, in Surrey, England. When a pupil proves insensible to the admonitions of the teacher, and 136 HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. is frequently reported for oifenses or negligence, he is required to show to tho principal a written statement of character from each master after every hour, lie is thus subjected to admonition or other punishment from the principal immedi- ately after committing an offense. For this very strict supervision, one extending over a day or week is substituted when improvement manifests itself, or when the case does not require so great severity. I propose now to give a statement of the courses of the burgher school at Pots- dam, and of the time required for their completion, with remarks and comparisons with the schools already described. The annexed plan of the distribution of time gives also a list of the subjects of instruction : it is arranged exactly like the similar ones already presented. The first two columns of figures on the left hand refer to the number of hours of study per week in the two classes of the higher school. The third contains those of the middle burgher school class, the pupils in which terminate their course here. The next three contain the hours of study of the elementary classes, which are common to the whole school. TABLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME OF THE HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. STTBJrCTS OF DTSTHlreTIOK. 1 i 2 3 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 38 lis a ^ o ° J a 2 3 6 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 34 •^ a' 3 a.>, =5gi s s 2 6 . 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 34 ii» .§ ■« o 3 5* 3 4 2 4 2 2 1 3 2 2 34 b i ul W5^ 1 1 3 5* 4 4 1 4 2§ 2 1 3 2 31 lis w5 X •o t- .£: -TS H 1 2 6t 6 4 ^ 2 4 2 28 24 44 26 40 22 36 18 16 14 10 4 8 8 28 12 20 Religious Instruction, German Language Readmg, Latin, French, Arithmetic, Geometry, Natural History, Geography _-. o ^ J ' History, Technology Pltysics, . Chemistry, Writing, Drawing, Singing, Besides the branches taught in the burgher schools already described, we have in this one technology, physics, and chemistry, and the number of hours attached to them in the foregoing table shows that they are actually taught to a considera- ble extent. These subjects are introduced, and at the same time the amount of study in the languages is increased, requiring an undue degree of labor of the classes, and dividing their attention among too many subjects. Thirty-eight hours of attendance on school per week is certainly too much to require. * Includes orthography, 2 hours ; grammar, 2 hours ; exercises of style, 1 hour. t Includes exercises of memory, 2 hours. t I'reparalory exercises. § Elements of form. H The column of totals refers to the regular progression of five classes, and is obtained by doubling the numbers here given for the three elementary' and two upper burgher school olaEses. HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. 13 Y Latin is begun in the second elementarj* class, where the first rudiments of grammar are learned, and easy sentences translated. This course is oonlinued in the next class. Those vvlio intend to leave the school in the middle burgher school class, may be excused from attending the Latin lessons in the first. The second class of the higher school read Cornelius Nepos, and the first Cassar and Ovid. Their proficiency did not, however, seem to me to correspond at all with the number of hours devoted to this branch, viz., forty. The object of this instruction, for those who do not go to the gymnasium, is stated to be to enable them to pursue the science necessary to their calliiigs, without embarrassment from the terms. I am of opinion that, in such a case, the system pursued in Mr. Wood's school, applied to learning the etymology of compound Latin words, and of the German words derived from the Latin, would answer the end better, with a less consumption of time; and if Latin is to be retained, the number of hours devoted to it in the Dorothean school, (thirty) or in the seminary school, (twenty- seven) seem much better suited to the object in view. I am induced to what may seetn a tedious discussion of these programmes, because they afford different exam- ples of primary instruction, the grade with which our college must begin, and we can not examine too carefully the subjects which should compose it, nor draw too largely upon experience in the details of arrangement. French. This course does not differ materially from those already given. Tele- machus is used as a text-book. The time appropriated to the language appears sufficient, without being burthensome. Both the Latin and French being com- menced in the second elementary class, which contains pupils who intend to leave school at the end of the " middle burgher school class year," it may be supposed that this time is thrown away, as very little proficiency can be made in so short a period ; the force of this objection is, however, somewhat diminished by the fact, that tiie arrangement gives an opportunity for the development of a disposition for language whiefi may warrant a change in the destination of the pupil. In arithmetic, the lovvest chiss is employed mainly in the mental exercises. After they have learned to make figures, they prepare written examples at home. Ill the next class, written arithmetic is combined with mental. The four ground rules are learned with abstract and concrete numbers. P'reparatory exercises in fractions are taught. The first elementary class proceed as far as to include frac- tions, and a part of the class study proportions. The middle burgher school class pjvss on to decimal fractions and the square and cube root. The second burgher school class have their attention in these same parts of arithmetic directed to the technical applications, and besides, begin algebra, and proceed as far as simple equations. The first burgher school class extend their course of algebra through equations of the second and third degrees, progressions, and logarithms. Mer- cantile arithmetic also forms part of their course. These latter subjects, however, can in novvise be considered as belonging to primary instruction. Geometry. Preparatory exercises of form, after the method of Pestalozzi, are taught in the elementary classes, and the higher ones proceed through the ele- ments of geometry, and include mensuration and plane trigonometry. The head master has arranged, for the benefit of his pupils, a course containing the most important elements, and teaches also by lectures, which the pupils are required to write out. The time allotted to this subject is nearly double that of the semi- nary school, and I saw some reason to doubt the propriety of beginning the ele- mentary exercises so early. Knowledge of nature and art. The introduction to this subject, taught in the lowest two classes, is drawn from natural history, physical geography, and physics, and is made the means of inductive exei'cise. The recitations and conversation lectures which I heard, evidently interested the pupils, while they cultivated habits of reflection and observation. They are parallel with the lessons on objects of the English schools, being, however, more extended. The more s}-s- tematic course of natural history of the higher classes, is like that of the seminary school. In summer the pupils make occasional excursions into the country, for practical exercise in this branch, under charge of a teacher ; these excursions, if rightly improved, may be made also the means of cultivating proper relations between the pupil and teacher, but they are liable to abuse, and should be care- fully attended to, in order to prevent such result?. This school possesses a good 138 HIGHER BURGHER SCHOOL OF POTSDAM. collection of plates of natural history,* and has the use of the museum of the trade school, which is under its roof The course of technology, intended to give a knowledge of the principal arts and their processes, lies open to the objection already urged, on the score of over- burthening the pupils with work. Such knowledge, as well as that of physics and chemistry, would be of service in after-life, but I do not see the possibility of teaching it, except in a mere outline, in a short course, and the time allotted appears to contemplate something more. Geography. This course is begun with physical geography. The natural and artificial divisions of the world follow. Then the physical and political geography of Europe is taken up. The course of the upper or middle burgher school class terminates with that of Germany, and especially of the Mark of Brandenburgh, and with a review of the whole. The second burgher school class has the same course with the middle cl;iss. The first takes up mathematical geography, and reviews physical geography more minutely', adding a knowledge of the climate, productions, commerce, manufactures, &e., of the countries studied. Maps are drawn, as an exercise, at home. This geogi'aphical course, which attaches every other part of the information to physical geography, appeared to me next in its success to the inductive plan already described. It is much facilitated by the use of raised maps, on which the natural features of the country strike the eye more forcible than on a common map, where, if the physical details are given, the names and positions of the places, the boundaries, &c., are obscured by them. The course of history, in the lower classes, is like that in the other schools. In the middle class the subject is reviewed, and the history of Germany, and especially that of Prussia, and of the Mark of Brandenburgh is studied. The second higher burgher school class is taught an outline of ancient history, of that of the middle ages, and of later times, and then proceeds to the history of Ger- many and of Brandenburgh. In the first class, the history of Germany, and of modern Europe in general, is continued. In the mechanical branches, the distribution of time agrees with that in the other schools, except in the number of hours allotted to writing, which is here twenty-eight, and in the Dorothean school but sixteen. Vocal music is taught by ear in the lower classes, and by note in the upper. Physical education. There is an interval of a quarter of an hour in the middle of the morning, during which the pupils are free to take exercise, but there is no regular gymnastic or other exercise under the superintendence of the teachers. It is obvious from what has been presented, that the elementary instruction requires raising to a higher level than at present, namely, to that of which an example has been given in the higher elementary school of Weissenfels. That then all pupils whose circumstances permit them to devote a longer time to edu- cation should pass to other schools, of a kind depending upon their destination in after-life, as determined by the circumstances of their parents and their own talents. The tone of these higher schools would, it appears, require to be varied according to the wants of the population among which they are placed, whether that of the country, of small towns, or of cities. In the cities, it has been seen that one class of burgher schools required is provided, and others will be described belonging more properly to a higher grade of instruction, upon the province of which, however, these latter decidedly trench. An example of a systematic arrangement appropriate to a city is afforded by the burgher school of Leipsic, presently to be described. Such a plan would, however, be inappropriate to a small town, where, of necessity, several schools must be united in one. In this case, it would require care to avoid the union of incompatible classes of pupils, causing mutual losses of time, and giving rise to defective habits of study. The same teachers should give instruction in the different departments of the school, in the same or kindred subjects, rather than to miite different classes. The pupil preparing for the gj'mnasium should not be called upon to study the natural sciences or mathematics which he will pursue there, and of which he does not feel the want for admission, nor the student who is to enter an architectural, commercial, or trade school, the classics which the gj^mnasial student requires for his admission. * Bv Fisher of BrealaW. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 139 The subjects and methods of instruction thus far described, belong avowedly and appropriately to the department of primary schools. Those, which follow, aim first, to prepare pupils for the university, and subsequently for the professions of law, medicine, theology, or public office ; and second, to engage in commerce, trade, architecture, engineer- ing, and other kinds of practical business. The schools, where these subjects are taught, belong to the departments of secondary and special instruction. They are introduced here as examples of courses of study which should be provided in all our large cities, in independent schools, or as part of our plan of public high schools. We introduce an account of the Frederick William Gymnasium, with the following summary of the system of secondary instruction in t'russia by Dr. Bache. in his report. The immediate authority superintending secondary instruction is the school board (schul-coilegium) of the province in which the gymnasium is situated. This school board is a branch of the provincial consistory, of which the chief magistrate of the province, the higher president (ober-president.) is the head. One of the councillors of the ministry of puplic instruction, at Berlin, is specially charged with the concerns of all the gymnasia, and is the channel through wliich the provincial autlior- ities communicate with the ministry. The school board consists of tlie president and vice president of the provincial government, and of two school councillors, and holds its meetings in the chief town of the province. They regulate the details of instruction and discipline in the gymnasia, correspond with the directors, appoint the teachers, except the director, who is appointed by the minister, make visits of inspection, and attend the examinations, especially those for passing to the university, and authorize the books to be used in the school and placed in the library. The inspection of religious instruction belongs to the ecclesicastical func- tionaries of the Protestant and Ccifholic churches severally. The royal gymnasia are supported from the funds of the state and the payments of their pupils, and their receipts and expenditures' are under the charge of a special officer, or of the director. The funds of those which are otherwise endowed, are usually under the direction of a committee, or of one of the officers. In 1850, there were 117 gymnasia with l,6l34 teachers and 29,474 pupils, and more than one hundred real schools and other schools of this grade, for special instruction tor particular departments of practical life. The following abstract of a series of regulations adopted by the cen- tral board in 1837, will give a good idea of the general organization of secondary instruction. The regulations embrace the following heads: 1. Admission of pupils. 2. Subjects of instruction. 3. Distribution of teachers and of the subjects of the lessons. 4. The number of hours of teaching. 5. Studies out of school hours. 6. Duration of the courses. 7. Remarks on the regulations tor the examinations. 8. Remarks on the supposed defects of teachers, methods of instruction, &c. 9. Physical education. 10. Religious instruction. The following is an abstract of the remarks upon these subjects. 1. Admission. Experience has fully proved that the admission of pupils at a very early age into the gymnasia is prejudicial to the indi- viduals themselves, as well as to the institutions. Neither the mental nor physical development, nor the attainment, at an early age, are ade- quate to the pursuit of the courses appropriate to a gj'mnasiura, and hence the admission of very young pupils induces an improper lower- 140 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ing of the standard of instruction in these estabhshments. The minis- try, therefore, recommends that pupils be not admitted at an earlier age than ten years, and that the following qualifications be required: 1. Facility in logical and rhythmical reading, both in German and Roman text, and the rudiments of grammar and orthographic writing. 2. Writing from dictation. 3. Practice in the four ground rules of arith- metic, with abstract numbers, and first principles of fractions. 4. Ele- ments of geography, particularly that of Europe. 5. Stories of the Old Testament, and hfe of Christ. 6. Elementary notions of drawing and of form. Two errors on the part of parents are pointed out by the ministry, the influence of whose advice is directed against them : The first is, that children of feeble bodily constitutions should be devoted to literary pur- suits; the second, that young men who have passed the appropriate age for instruction may be advantageously pushed into one of the learned protessions, even if they are required to teach in order to obtaiii the needful education. 2. Subjects of instruction. As the ground work of higher instruction, the following subjects are recommended to be pursued in the gymnasia: 1. Religious instruction. 2. German. 3. Latin. 4. Greek. 5. Math- ematics. 6. Physics. 7. Natural history. 8. Geography. 9. History. 10. Writing. 11. Drawing. 12. Vocal music. Experience has shown that these subjects are particularly calculated to develop the intellect- ual powers, and to give a systematic and practical preparation lor the higher studies. 'J'he same can not be said of the Hebrew, the study of which is specially appropriate only to theologians. A knowledge of the French is not considered essential to the true purpose of a gymnasium. This language has been made a subject of public instruction on account of its uselulness in after-life, and not of its correctness or purity. \\ ith the exception of these two languages, the subjects enumerated above have always been taught in the gymnasia, though in variable propor- tions. No one of them could, with propriety, be omitted, and proposi- tions to that effect will receive no countenance. The ministry does not fear that injury will result to the menial or physical development of the pupils, by pursumg all the branches in their appropriate degree, bat teachers are cautioned against attempts to push one subject at the expense of another; being reminded that the course should be viewed as a whole, which must suffer by the unequal forcing of its parts. The directors of gymnasia are especially required to attend to this point, and the school boards are requested to relieve them from teaching, as far as may be necessary to the insj)ection thus required. If the subjects of instruction, as here laid down, be compared with those of the secondary schools of England, it will be found that what is there regarded as innovation, has been successl'ully used as the course of grammar school instruction in Germany. That the efficiency oi" the course is confirmed by long experience, and that the subjects are recom- mended, anew, as the future course of those institutions. While ancient letters are successfully cultivated, other subjects are not neglected, but their equal ia)portance with the former is clearly asserted, and as clearly proved by results. While the Germans have lost nothing in general literary culture by this system, they have gained much in other depart- ments of knowledge. The scholastic year is divided into two terms, or half years, at the close of each of which there is an examination. At the end of the second half year, the examinations for passing from one class to another are held. The usual vacations are two weeks at Easter, one at Whit- suntide, three in August, one at Michaelmas, and two at Christmas. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ^4^ 3. Distribution of the teachers and of the subjects of instruction. There are, in general, six classes in a gymnasium, of which the lowest is called si.xth, and the highest first. To produce a harmony in ihe methods and degree of instruction, notwithstanding the variety of sub- jects taught, it has, for some time, been the custom in the Prussian gymnasia to assign several subjects of instruction to the same teacher, in the same class. This arrangement is confirmed in the document under discussion. It is recommended that similar subjects of instruction be classed together, to constitute a department, as, for example, German and Latin ; history, geography, and natural history ; and mathematics, and physics. That then the instruction of one or more classes, in one department, be consigned to one teacher; as the instruction of the lower classes in German and Latin; of the two middle classes in Latin. Greek, and French; of the two higher in German, Greek, and French; of the lower and middle classes in history and geography; of the higher classes in mathematics, physics, and mental philosophy. The number of teachers would thus be, in general, in a gymnasium of six classes, two for the two lower classes, three for the two middle, and four for the two higher classes. The ministry further recommend that kindred subjects he taught in different parts of the same term, rather than on different days of the same week, as geography at the beginning of a term, and history at the close ; a Latin and Greek prose author at the beginning of a term, and a poetical author at the close of the term, &c. With a view to induce teachers to take upon themselves the arduous duties of a department, or class teacher, as just explained, the school board are recommended to promote teachers according to merit, not cor\- fining their promotion to the institution in which they may be, but taking the entire range of the province. A promise is made by the ministry to pay strict attention to this rule, in promoting to vacant situations of directors of gymnasia. The class teachers are to have the title of "upper teachers," (ober-lehrer,) the others being designated simply as " teachers." It is obvious that very varied attainments are thus required of the regular, or class teachers, and that the difficulty of finding persons com- petent to discharge these duties, increases very much as the grade of instruction becomes more elevated. Hence the practice in the gymna- sia varies very materially from this recommendation. It is so desirable, in the higher classes, that the teacher should devote much time to his own improvement in the knowledge of his branch of instruction, and that he should have a strong taste for its cultivation, that in general it is found advisable to confine his attention to a single subject, or to sub- jects much nearer akin than those which are classed together in the enumeration just made. This is particularly the case in tiie mathe- matics, beyond the mere elements, the physics and physical geography, the natural history, the less elementary parts of drawing, and vocal music. In the case of the French language, a special teacher, from the very beginning, is absolutely necessary, if the instruction in it is to be any thing more than a matter of form. 4. Number of hours of recitation. This is fixed at thirty-two per week; a number which experience has shown may with propriety be exacted of students, and which is requisite to complete the course of stu- dies. In the French colleges there are but twenty -four hours of regular obligatory instruction per week. This difference alone would go far to explain the reason for the fact, that in the gymnasia, the written course of studies is closely followed in all its departments, while in the royal colleges it is but partially carried out. That in the former, all branches 142 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. are deemed worthy of attention, while in the latter, in practice, some are treated as if they were not appropriate parts of a regular course of studies. The Prussian minister asserts, very justly, that four hours every morning, and two hours in the alternoon, four times a week, may be passed in a well ventilated school room, without injury to health. The condition in regard to ventilation is, however, essential to the truth of the proposition; it is easily realized in the gymnasia, on account of the small number constituting each class. I found, in fact, generally, but little objection to the arrangements, in this respect, in these insti- tutions. I had reason to remark, in the city gymnasia of Prussia, in general, that the appearance of the upper classes betoken a higher state of health than that of the lower, which would not have been the case had they been over worked. The mental labor, on the part of the student, indicated by thirty-two hours per week spent in school, is less than it would be from the same time in an English grammar school, or in one of our own establishments of the same grade, from the mode of teach- ing. Much of the instruction is communicated by conversation and by lecture, during the school hours, which are thus devoted to acquiring knowledge as well as to reciting what has been learned by study at other times. The school boards are requested not to allow this time of thirty-two hours per week to be exceeded, and a general plan for the distribution of time, which will be given below, is appended to the instructions. This plan, however, may be modified according to the circumstances of the institution to which it is to be adapted, preserving, however, the number of hours devoted to religious instruction, to the languages and mathematics, as cardinal points in the system. It is deemed unnecessary to begin the French earlier than in the third class, which would postpone it as late as thirteen years of age. Natural his- tory may be substituted for physics in the second class, and a general PLAN OF STUDIES ARRANGED FOR THE GYMNASIA OF PRUSSIA BY THE MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OCTOBER 24tH, 1837. SUBJECTS OF STUDY) &C. Latin, Greek, German, French, Religious Instruction, Mathematics, Arithmetic and Elements of Form, Physics, Philosophy, History and Geography, Natural History, Drawing, Writing, Vpcal Music, Hebrew for the future Theologians, 30 NUMBER OF HOURS PER WII^K. 30 2 J 2 32 32 32 10 32 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ^43 review of that branch, as studied in the previous years, is recommended, Drawing and vocal music are intended to be carried so far as that the pupil may follow them to advantage ifhis tastes incline that way, The ministry recommends that where several hours per week are devoted to a subject, more than one each day should be given to it, so as to concentrate the attention upon a few branches every day. 5. Study out of school hours. On this subject the ministry remarks, that while it is highly important that the pupil should have preparation to make, requiring the exercise of his own resources, it is not less so that the amount ol" private study should not be carried to an injurious extent. The regulations, therefore, provide that at the beginning of each term there shall be a conference of the teachers, to determine the due amount of such work in the different classes, in detail. Every teacher should keep a book, in which the exercises actually given are accurately noted, so that the director may see at any time how far the decisions of the conference have been conformed to. The written exercises of the pupils must be regularly corrected by the teachers, and at least once a month they must review the exercise books, to ascertain the progress and the propriety of the exercises. German and Latin compositions are to be especially attended to. Themes on subjects with which the pupils are not acquainted, so that they must labor both for the matter and lan- guage, are forbidden. The teacher should not only select subjects known to the pupils for these exercises, but should also explain the manner in which he expects them to be treated. 6. Duration of the courses. The six classes should, according to rule, be passed through in nine years: the three lower, each, in one year, and the three higher, each, in two years; thus a pupil entering at ten would leave the gymnasium at nineteen. The provincial school board may determine the period of the year for the examinations for passing from class to class. In the gymnasia, where the classes are subdivided on account of numbers, and the pupils pass from one section to another at the end of six months, the arrangement is permitted to be con- tinued. Superior excellence in a ^evf departments is not to warrant the pro- motion of the pupil to a higher class ; he must be reasonably proficient in all. 7. Examination for the university. The regulations of 1834, on this subject, are confirmed by the present; certain erroneous constructions, which have been put upon the former, being pointed out. The first of these is, the supposition that the amount which the pupils are able to go over, during the time fixed for examination, determines the character of their certificate of capacity, while, on the contrary, this is given for the general knowledge of the subjects which they show. The fact that this examination requires a previous attendance of two years in the first class, is considered as indicating positively that the course of that class can not be intended to drill for the examination. The next refers to the specific direction in regard to the extent of examination on the different subjects, which being intended as a general guide to the examiners, has been misconstrued so far as to be supposed to furnish teachers who are preparing pupils the means of imparting the least amount of knowledge consistent with their passing. The ministry considers that the qualifi- cations for the final examination have stood the test of experience, hav- ing been found not too high, and calculated to promote sound instruction and not hasty preparation. As, however, the excitement of these ex- aminations appears to act injuriously on certain temperaments, the min- istry authorizes the examining commissions to reduce the viva voce parts of the examination, in cases where they see cause to do so. The J 44 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. ministry declines omitting the examination on the course of religious instruction. 8. Supposed defects of teachers, d^c. The ministry states, as the remark of many intelligent persons, that while so much progress has been made within the last twenty years in the elementary schools, many of the teachers of the gymnasia, neglecting the progress of the science of teaching, still follow the old routine methods; that the teachers over- rate the importance of their special branches, and thus destroy the har- mony of the system; that they imitate the style of lecturing of the uni- versity professors, which renders their explanations ill adapted to the age and state of progress of their pupils, and when, in consequence, their pupils get on slowly, instead of seeing in this fact the necessity for a change of method, they charge the fault upon the classes. The min- istry remarks that it has not the means of judging personally whether such criticisms are well founded or not, but that the provincial school boards, to whom they have been submitted, are of opinion that, in gen- eral, they are too severe. They are made public, however, that the teachers of the gymnasia may reflect upon them. No specific method of instruction, it is remarked, applicable to all varieties of age, preparation, and subjects of study, can be pointed out. Every teacher should observe, closely, the results of his instruction, and adopt I'reely the advice or example of teachers of known ability in their art. The directors of gymnasia are especially enjoined to visit the classes of their teachers frequently, and. to make such suggestions as may seem to be required; they are further expected to set an example themselves of thorough teaching. The ministry considers that the system of class teachers, already described, facilitates the course of observation recommended, by giving the teacher a thorough ac- quaintance with all the members of his class. The importance of making the science of teaching one of observation is thus directly inculcated. The probation of a year, required by the decree of September 26th, 1836, before the admission of a teacher to full standing, being intended to prevent the admission of incompetent teachers, the provincial school boards are enjoined to give effect to the provision, by promoting to the V situations of ordinary or class teachers (ordinarii,) those only who have shown decided capability in their art. The ministry promises to give such an extension to the normal schools for teachers of gymnasia, as shall insure an adequate supply from them. The provincial boards are enjoined to see that suitable books are pro- vided for the gymnasia, and to attend to regulating the details of the programmes of the ditferent classes. This authority obviously leaves the most essential points of instruction within their power. 9. Physical education. On this subject, the document from the min- istry states that representations have been made from many of the directors and teachers of gymnasia, that physical education should be introduced as an essential part of their systems. The necessity for due physical development is admitted ; but it is argued, that in the gymna- sia which receive day scholars alone, an attention to it forms no part of the duty of the teacher, who is merely bound to furnish the requisite time for recreation, and to take care that the health of the pupils is not injured during the hours of recitation by causes depending upon the school. In the boarding gymnasia the case is admitted to be different. A continuance of gymnastic exercises in these establishments, when they have been tried and found beneficial, is allowed, but the compul- sory attendance of day scholars upon them is not permitted. When regular gymnastic exercises are introduced, it is made the duty of the SECOXDARY IXSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. j^g school board to see that a proper teacher is provided, and the exercises must be conducted under charge of the director of the institution. I conless, that the idea of leaving the physical education of children entirely to their parents, especially in the cities and towns where the day gymnasia are usually established, seems to me very unAvise; par- ticularly so in Prussia, where all else is regulated, and where the youth are always glad to engage in gymnastic exercises, when the means are furnished to them. 10. ReUgiuiis education. It is enjoined that this contain the whole doctrine of Christian faith, and that the instruction be given according to a regular plan. The provincial authorities are charged with the communication of the foregoing regulations to the directors and teachers of the gymnasia, and with the superintendence of their execution. Each instructor manages his class in his own way, subject to the advice of the director, and hence, of course, there is considerable variety. Harsh punishments, and personal violence, are discounte- nanced in all the classes. Appeals to the moral sentiments and feelings, and admonitions, are the favorite methods of discipline. I nowhere saw the discipline in better condition than in these schools, the youth of the upper class, especially, going through their duties without the necessity for more than occasional admonition, and exhibiting the decorum of gen- tlemen in whatever situation I met them. The director is the supreme resort when a teacher fails in being able to produce proper conduct on the part of a pupil, and he may dismiss from the institution. This, how- ever, is rarely necessary. The means of securing attention to study do not differ from those in other countries, and already often alluded to. The system of excite- ment is carried to a far less extent, in general, than in the French col- leges. Emulation is encouraged, but not stimulated into ambition. In the lower classes, the pupils change places during the daily recitations; afterward, they are arranged by monthly trials of composition, and at the examinations ; and in the higher classes, from the same composi- tions, and from the results of their marks for daily recitation, and at the half yearly examinations. Prizes are not given as a general rule, though there are some special ones in certain gymnasia, This outline of the system of the gymnasia, as regulated by the cen- tral authority, requires, to complete it, some account of the regulations for the final examination prior to passing to the university (abiturienten- priifung,) and oi"the means of providing teachers. The regulations for the final examination occupy fifty sections, and enter into very minute details ; it will be sufficient for the present purpose to present an abstract of the more important of them under the following heads : 1. The per- sons to be examined, the object, place, and time of the examination. 2. The authorities by whom, and under whose direction, the examination is to be conducted. 3. The character and subjects of the examination. 4. The kind of certificate obtained on passing the examination satisfac- torily, and the privileges attached to it. 1. The persons to be examined, ^c. Those who intend to embrace one of the professions requiring a course of three or four years at a uni- versity, must, before matriculating at the university, pass the ordeal of this examination; the object being to ascertain whether the candidate has made himself duly master of the subjects required for successful entrance upon his university career. The examination must be made in a regular gymnasium, and in some part of the last two months of the scholastic year. To be admitted to the examination, a pupil of a gymnasium must 10 146 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. have been in its first class at least three terms of half a year each, except in cases where pupils have especially distinguished themselves during a year in this class. Three mouths' notice of their intention to stand this examination is to be given by the pupils to the director of the gymnasium, who advises with tliem on their intention, but has no right to prevent any pupil of three terms' standing in the first class from coming forward. Persons who are educated in private undergo this same examination in any gymnasium which their parents may select. They are required to present beforehand the certificate of their masters as to moral con- duct and proficiency, and are examined at a different time from the reg- ular students. 2. By whom the examinntion is conducted. There is a committee for each gymnasium, consisting of the director, the masters who have charge of the higher classes, a member of the ecclesiastical authority of the place, and a member of the provincial consistory. This latter mem- ber presides, and his appointment must be approved by the ministry of public instruction. The ecclesiastical member must be approved by the provincial consistory. Besides these, there is a royal commission ap- pointed by the ministry, and consisting of professors of the university and others, who are present as inspectors at the examination. Tlie teachers of the gymnasium and the local authorities of the school are also present at the oral examinations. 3. Character and subjects of examination. The examinations are of two kinds, written and oral. The subjects are, the German, Latin, Greek, and French languages,* for students in general, and in addition, the Hebrew for those who intend to study theology. Religion, history, and geography, mathematics, physics, natural history, and the elements of mental philosophy. The subjects of the written examination are chosen by the royal commissary present, from a list furnished hy the director of the gymnasium. These subjects must be such as have never been treated specially in the class-room, but not yet beyond the sphere of instruction ol' the pupils. AH the candidates receive the same subjects for compo- sition, which are given out at the beginning of the examination. The* candidates are assembled in one of the halls of the gymnasium, and remain there during the period allotted for their exercises under the charge of one or other of the examining teachers, who relieve each other. The only books allowed them are dictionaries and mathematical tables. The written exercises consist, first, in a German prose compo- sition, the object of which is to discern the degree of intellectual devel- opment, and the style of composition of the candidate. Second : of a Latin extempore! and a Latin composition on some subject which has been treated in the course, the special reference in this exercise being to the correctness of the style. Third : a translation from a Greek author, which h.as not been read in the course, and from Latin into Greek. Fourth: a translation from the German into the French. Fifth: the solution of two questions in geometry, and of two in analysis, taken from the courses in those subjects. Candidates who desire it, may be examined further than is required for passing. Those who intend to study theology or philology, translate a portion of one of the historical books of the Old Testament, or a psalm, into Latin, adding a grammatical analysis. The time allowed for the several written exercises is as follows: For the German, five hours; Latin composition, five hours; Latin extempore, one hour; Greek translation, * In the grand duchy of Po.sen, the Polish lang^uage is also one of the subjects, t An exercise in wliich the master speaks iu German to the pupil, who mpst reijder the (Berman into Latin, in writing. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. J4'7 three hours; translation from Latin into Greek, two hours; French composition, four hours; mathematical e.x'ercises, five hours; Hebrew exercises, wlien required, two hours. Four days are allowed tor the examination in these subjects, and they must not immediately follow each other. The viva voce examination is conducted by the masters who have given instruction in the first class on the subjects of examina- tion, unless the royal commissary directs otherwise. The subjects are, first; the general grammar and prosody of the German language, the chief epochs of national history and literature, and the national classics. Second; the translation and analysis of extracts from Cicero, Sallust, Livy. Virgil, and Horace; the ability of the candidates to render the author with judgment and taste being put to the test, as well as their grammatical and archeological acquirements; parts of the examination are conducted in the Latin language. Third : the translation and analysis of Greek prose and of portions of Homer, with questions upon Greek grammar, Grecian history, arts, and mythology. Fourth : trans- lations li-om the French cla.ssics during which an opportunity is given to the pupil to show how far he can speak the language. Fitth ; ques- tions upon the Christian doctrines, dogmas and morals, the principal epochs in the history of the Christian church, and the Bible. Sixth; arithmetic, the elements of algebra and geometry, the binomial theo- rem, simple and quadratic equations, logarithms and plane trigonome- try. Seventh: in history and geography, on ancient history, especially that of Greece and Rome, and modern history, especially that of the conntry, on physical, mathematical, and political geography. Eighth : in natural history, on the general classification of its subjects. Ninth; in such portions of physics as can be treated by elementrry mathe- matics, and on the laws of heat, light, magnetism, and electricity. Tenth; on the elements of moral philosophy, psychology, and logic. The future theological student must, besides, translate and analyze a portion of one of the historical books of the Old Testament. 4. Tke kind of certificate obtained^ and the privileges attached to it. When the examination is closed, the board already alluded to as con- tiucting and superintending it, deliberates upon the notes which have been taken during its course, each member having a vote. Those students who are deemed to have passed a satisfactory examination, receive a certificate called a '"certificate of maturity," (maturitats-zeug- iiiss.) the others are remanded to their class, and may present them- selves, after an interval of six months, ibr another examination, unless they are deemed entirely incompetent to continue a literary career. Proficiency in all the subjects of examination is, in general, required to entitle a candidate to a certificate, but exception is sometimes made in Ikvor of those who show great attainments in the languages or mathe- matics; and in the case of students of a somewhat advanced age, the direct bearing of the different subjects upon the profession which they intend to embrace is considered. The daily records of the class-rooms are presented by the director of the gymnasium to the examiners, as showing the character of the candidates in regard to progress and con- duct, these points being specially noted in the certificate. The certifi- cate of maturity contains, besides, the name and address of the pupil, and of his parent or guardian; the time during which he has been at the gymnasium, and in its first class ; the conduct of the pupil toward his fellows and masters, and his moral deportment in general; his char- acter for industry, and his acquirements, as shown at the examination, specifying the result in each branch, and adding a statement from the masters of drawing and music of his proficiency in their respective de- partments ; the studies which he proposes to prosecute at the university, 148 FREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OF BERLIN. and to commence which he leaves the gymnasium. These certificates are dehvered in an assemblage of the students of the gymnasium with suitable remarks. The certificate of maturity is necessary to enable a youth to be matriculated in either of the faculties of tlieoioiiy, law, medicine, and philology, in one of the national universities, to be ad- mitted to examination for an academic degree, to be appointed to office in state or church, or to obtain one of the royal bursaries at the universi- ties. Special exception in regard to matriculation may be made by authority of the minister of public instruction. Students wJio have not passed a satisfactory examination, and whose parents demand it, arc entitled to a certificate, stating the branches in which they are deficient; they may enter the university with this, and are registered accordingly. This registry enables them, if they subsequently obtain a certificate of maturity, and the special permission of the minister of public instruction, to have their matriculation dated from the time of inscription. Pupils who have passed through the third class of a gymnasium are entitled to claim one year of voluntary military service, provided they report them- selves at a specified time during their twentieth year. There are two kinds of schools devoted to the preparation of teachers for the gymnasia, called respectively philological and pedagogical sem- inaries, (philologische seminare, padagogische seminare.) One of the first kind is attached to the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Breslaw, Halle, Kunigsberg, and Greifswalde, and one of the second is placed at Berlin, Stettin, Breslaw, Halle, Konigsberg, and Minister. Besides these, there is a seminary for teachers of natural philosophy and the natural sciences, at Bonn. FREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OF BERLIN. This institution dates from 1797, and was at first an appendage to the "real school" of Mr. Hecker. It is now a royal institution, and is independent of the real school, except so far that it has the same director, and that the preparatory classes are in the real school, in which, or in other equivalent schools, the pupils are taught until ten years of age. The qualifications for admission are those con- tained in the general account of the gymnasia. This gymnasium had, in 1837,' four hundred and thirty-seven pupils, divided into six classes, and instructed by fourteen teachers and six assistants. The second and third classes are subdivided into two parts, called upper and lower, pursuing different courses, and both divi- sions of the third class are again subdivided into two others, for the convenience of instruction. The course in each class occupies a year, except in the first, which is of two years. Pupils who enter in the lowest class, and go regularly through the studies, will thus remain nine years in the gymnasium. Tlie numbers of the several classes in 18-37 were, in the first, fifty-four; in the upper second, thirty- two; lower second, forty-seven; upper third division, first, or A, thirty-six; second division, or B, thirty-six ; lower third, division first, or A, thirty-eight ; division second, or B, thirty-two ; fourth class, fifty-five ; fifth, fifty-seven ; and sixth, fifty. Each division averages, therefore, nearly forty-four pupils, who are at one time under the charge of one teacher. One hundred and eight were admitted during the year, and the same number left the gymnasium ; of these, twenty-one received the certificate of matul-ity to pass to the university, viz., ten who intend to study law, three medicine, five theologj', one theology and philo- logy, one philosophy, and one pohtical economy, finance, &o., (cameralistic.) Of these all but five were two years in the first class ; out of this number two were two years and a half in the first class, and three more had been in the gj'mnasium less than two years, having entered it in the first class. The average age at leav- ing the gymnasium was nearly nineteen years, and the greatest and least, respec- tively, twenty-two and between sixteen and seventeen years. It appears, thus, that on the average, the pupils actually enter at ten, and remain nine years, as required by rule. The subjects of instruction are Latin, Greek, German, French, religious instruc- FREDERICK WILLIAM GYMNASIUM OK BERLIN. 149 tion, mathematics, (including arithmetic, algebra, and geometry,) natural philoso- phy and natural history, history, geography, writing, drawing, vocal music, and Hebrew for theologians. The numbers attached to the names of the different classes, in the following programme, show the number of hours of study per week in the regular branches in which the division of classes takes place. In like manner, the numbers attached to the several subjects of study show how many hours are occupied per week in each of the .subjects by the several classes. SIXTH CLASS, THIRTY HOURS. Latin. Inflections of nouns, &c. Comparisons. Conjugation of the indicative moods of regular and of some irregular verbs. Translation from Bluime's elementary book. Exercises from Blume. E.xtemporalia. Ten hours. German. Etymology and syntax. Exeixises in writing upon subjects previously narrated. Exercises in orthography, reading, and declaiming. Four hours. French. Etymology, to include the auxiliary verbs, in Herrmann's grammar. Oral and written exercjses. Readnig and translation. Exercises on the riMes from the grammar. Three hours. Religion. Bible history of the Old Testament. Committing to memory selected verses. Two hours. Geography. Delineation of the outlines of Europe, Africa, Asia, and America, from deter- minate points given. Divisions of the countries, with their principal cities, rivers, and moun- tains. 'I'wo hours. Arithmetic. The four ground rules, with denominate whole numbers. Their applications. Four hours. Writing. Elements of round and running hand. Dictation. Writing from copy slips. Three hours. Drawing. Exercises in drawing lines. Two hours. FIFTH CLASS, TWENTY-NINE HOURS. Latin. Etymology. L^se of the prepositions. The accusative before an infinitive, prac- ticed orally and in writing, and extempore, and in exercises. Ti'anslation from Blume's reader. Ten hours. German. Parsing, reading, and declamation. Exercises on narrations. Four hours. French. Etymology, by oral and written exercises. Easier stories from Herrmann's reader. Three hours. Religion. Explanation of the gospels, according to St. Matthew and St. Luke. Commit- ting to memory the principal facts. Two hours. Geography. Review ol the last year's course. Rivers and mountains of Europe, and chief towns, in connection. Two hours. Arithmetic. Review of the preceding Fractions Four hours. Writing. Running hand from copy slips. Two hours. Drawing. Drawing from bodies, terminated by planes and straight lines. Two hours. FOURTH CLASS, TWENTY-EIGHT HOURS. Latin. Review of etymology. The principal rules enforced by oral and written exercises and extemporalia Translation from Jacob's reader and Corn. Nepos. Ten hours. German. Compositions on subjects previously read. Declamation. Reading from Ka- lisch's reader. Parsing. Three liours. French. Review of etymology. Irregular verbs. Reciprocal verbs. Anecdotes and nar- rations from Herrmann's grammar, and committing the principal to memory. Two hours. ^ Religion. Gospel, according to St. Matthew, explained. Verses and psalms committed to memory. Two hours Geography. Political geography of Germany, and of the rest of Europe. Review of the geography of the otiier parts of the world. Three hours. Arithmetic. Review of fractions. Simple and compound proportion. Partnership. Simple interest. Three hours Geometry. Knowledge of forms, treated inductively. One hour. Writing. Running hand, from copy slips. Two hours. Drawing. From bodies bounded by curved lines. Two hours. LOWER THIRD CLASS, THIRTY HOURS. Latin. Syntax. Rules of cases from Zumpt. Exercises and extemporalia. Inflections formerly learned reviewed. Cornelius Nepos Eight hours. Gree.li. Etymology, from Buitmann's grammar to regular verbs, included. Translation from Greek into German from Jacob's, from German into Greek from Uess's exercises. Six hours. German. Compositions in narration and description. Declamation. Two hours. French. Repetition of inlleclions, and exercises by extemporalia and in writing. Trans- lation of the fables from Ht-rrmaiin's reading book, 2d course. Two hours. Religion. Morals, and Christian faith. Two hours. Geography. Physical geography Europe and the other parts of the world. Two hours. History. General view of ancient and modern history. 'Two hours. Mathematics. Legeudre'sgeometry, book 1. Decimals. Algebra. Square and cube root. Four hours. Drawing. Introduction to landscape drawing. Two hours. UPPER THIRD CLASS, THIRTY HOURS. Latin. Division I. Syntax, from Zumpt. Review of the preceding course. Oral exer- cises in construction of sentences. Written exercises and extemporalia. Caesar Bell. Gall 150 FREDERICK WILLIAM (JVMNASIU.H Ol fJi;i-lLIN. books 1, 2, and 7, in part. Ovid's Metamorphoses, extracts from books 7 and S. Prosody, rules from Zumpt. Ten liours. Greek. JJiDision 1. Etymology, from Buttmann's grammar. Oral and written exercises and extt-mporalia. Jacob's reader. Six hours. German. Examination of exercises on historical subjects. Poetical selections for decla- mation. Two hours. French. Exercises in translation. Written exercises. Extemporalia. Two hours. Religiun. Principal passages from the gospels gone over. General view of the Old Testa- ment writings Two hours. History and Geography. Roman history, from the Punic Wars to the destruction of the western empire. History of the middle ages, three hours. Review of the live general divis- ions of the world, one hour. Four liours. Mathematics. Geometry. Ltgendre, books 1 and 2, and part of 3. Algebra, with exer- cists from Meyer Hirsch. Four houx's. LOWER SECOND CLASS, THIRTY-ONK HOURS. Latin. Extracts from Livy and Caesar de Bell. Civ. Review of Bell. Gall., books 2 and 'A. Synlax. Exercises and extemporalia. Committing to memory exercises from Livy and •JiE.• SDBJKCTS OF STUDY. < M < mm 3 oJ Co < to So i o ■a c i 55 £•5 — a. e- 3 5 5 i 5 5 « 1^ 1 b £ ££ 11 4 8 2 5 8 3 10 2 10 I§ *l£ 0.9 1.0 0.8 Latin, 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 3 2 5 3 4 2 6 3 3 2 5 4 4 2 6 4 4 2 28 22 6 20 12 1.4 1.1 0.3 1.0 0.6 2.9 0.7 0.8 0.6 Flench, English German, Reliorion, Mathematics,* .... 6 6 5 6 7 6 4 35 4 3 6 6 1.7 1.1 1.6 Natural History, . . 3 2 2 2 9 0.4 0.1 1 0.1 Physics, 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 8 0.4 0.4 0.2t 0.2 Chemistry, ' xeography, 3 3 3 3 9 2 2 2 0.4 0.5 0.5 History, 3 2 3 9 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 15 12 2 2 2 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.4 Drawinsr, \V'ritin£i', 2 36 4 36 3 35 2 35 2 2 32 2 2 32 2 2 32 4 15 4 1^ 4 26 6 26 8 26 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.6 Sinsincf Total, Pupils who enter this school between five and seven years of age, and go regu- larly through the elementary classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher classes, or to enter the lowest of the gj'mnasium. It is thus after the fifth class that a comparison of the two institutions must begin. The studies of the real school proper, and of the gymnasium, have exactly the same elementary basis, and they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil, by taking extra instruc- tion in Greek, may pass from the lower third class of the former to the lower third of the latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real schools must be institutions for secondary instruction, since the pupils have yet three classes to pass through after reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to separate the real schools from the higher burgher schools, since the extreme limit of the courses of the latter, with the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables th.^ pupil to reach the lower third class of the gymnasium. In general, a pupil w<5uld terminate his studies in the real school at between sixteen and eighteen years of age. The difference between the subjects of instruction in the real school and the Frederick William gymnasium, consists in the omission in the former of Greek, Hebrew, and philosophy, and the introduction of English and chemistry. The relative proportions of time occupied in the same subjects in the two schools, wiU be seen by comparing the two columns next on the right of the numbers for the seventh class, in the table just given. The first of these columns contains the proportion of the number of hours per week devoted to the different subjects in the six classes of the real school above the elementary, the number of hours devoted to the German being taken as unity ; and the second, the same proportion for six classes of the gymnasium, beginning with the lowest, the same number of hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding column. To bring the natural history and physics into comparison, I have taken the numbers for the * Including arithrrxetic, geometry, algebra, and trigonometry. t These numbers include the entire course. 154 ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN. upper classes of the gjTnnasium in which these branches are taught. Of the courses common to the two schools, those to which nearly equal attention is paid in both institutions, are — the religious instruction, the German, geography and history, writing, and vocal music. The French, mathematics, physics, and nat- ural history, predominate in the real school, the Latin in the gymnasium. The effect of reckoning the first, second, and upper third classes of the gymnasium, does not materially change the proportionate numbers of the courses which are common to the two schools, except as to Latin and mathematics. To show this, the column on the extreme right of the table is introduced, containing the pro- portions for all the nine classes of the Frederick ^^'illiam gymnasium. Tliere were, in 1838, five hundred and ten pupils in this real school, under the charge of fourteen regular or class masters, teaching several subjects in the lower classes, and of six other teachers. Each of the eleven class divisions thus aver- ages about forty-six, who are under the charge of one teacher at a time. The elementary course in the real school is similar to that described in the burgher schools, beginning with the phonic method of reading, the explanations of all the words and sentences being required at the same time that the mechani- cal part of reading is learned. Written and mental arithmetic are taught together in the lowest class. The religious instruction consists of Bible stories adapted to their age ; and verses are committed to improve the memory of words. Tlie ex- ercises of induction are practiced, but in a way not equal to that with objects, introduced by Dr. Mayo in England. Some of the pupils are able to enter the gymnasium after going through the two lowest classes; In regard to the real classes proper, as I propose to enter into the particulars of the course of study of the trade school, I shall here merely make a few remarks upon two of the branches studied in them, namely, French and drawing. The remarks in regard to the French will serve to show how great a latitude a teacher is allowed in the arrangement of his methods, the result of which is, that those who have talent are interested in improving their art by observation and experiment. The French teacher to whom I allude had been able to secure the speaking, as well as the reading, of French from his pupils. From the very beginning of the course this had been a point attended to, and translation from French into German had been accompanied by that from German into French : tlie conversation on the business of the class-room was in French. The pupils were exercised e.specially in the idioms of the language in short extempore sen- tences, and the diiTerences of'structure of the French and their own language were often brought before them, and the difficulties resulting from them antici- pated. Difficult words and sentences were noted by the pupils. Declamation was practiced to encourage a habit of distinct and deliberate speaking, and to secure a correct pronunciation. The chief burthen of the instruction was oral. Without the stimulus of change of places, the classes under this gentleman's in- struction were entirely aliv« to the instruction, and apparently earnestly engaged in the performance of a duty which interested them. If such methods should fail in communicating a greater amount of knowledge than less lively ones, which I belive can not be the case, they will serve, at least, to break down habits of in- tellectual sloth to promote mental activity, the great aim of intellectual education. The drawing department of this school is superintended by a teacher who has introduced a new method of instruction, particularly adapted to the purpose for which drawing is to be applied in common life and in the arts ; a method which is found to enable a much larger proportion of the pupils to make adequate ])ro- gress than the oi'dinary one of copying from drawings.* In this method the pupil begins by di-awing from simple geometrical forms, those selected being obtained from models in wood or plaster, of a square pillar ,t a niche, and a low cylinder, (the form of a mill-stone.) The square pillar separates in joints, affording a cube and parallelepipeds of different heights. The hemisphere which caps the niche may be removed, leaving the concave surface of its cylindrical part. Tlie exer- cises of the pupil ran thus : First, to place upon a board, or upon his paper or * Mr. Peter Schmidt, who now. in his old age. has received from the government a pension in rf turn for the introduction of his method, and the instruction in it of a certain number of teachers. t Seven and a half inches high, and one inch and a half in its £,quare section. CITY TRADE SCHOOL. I55 slate, a point vertically above another, or so that the lines joining the two shall be parallel to the right or left hand edge of the board, paper, or slate. Second, to join them. Third, to place a point horizontally from the second, and at a dis- t:mce equal to that between the first and second points. Fourth, to place one vertically over the third, and at a distance equal to that below the first, and to join the third and fourth. The first and fourth being then joined, a square is formed. After practice in this, the simple elevation of the cube is drawn. Next, a perspective, by the use of a small frame and silk threads, such as is common in teaching the elements of this subject, and by means of which the pupil acquires readily a knowledge of the practice. The drawing of lines in various positions, and with various proportions, termi^iates this division of the subject. The niche and cylinder afford a similarly graduated series of lessons on the drawing of curved lines, and the drawing of lines of diflierent degrees of strength and of shadows is introduced. This is accompanied with some of the more simple rules of shadow and shade. Moi'e difficult exercises of perspective follow from natural objects and from works of art or mechanism, according to the dii-ection to the pupil's at- tainments and the amount of taste which he displays. This method of teaching has been introduced quite generally in Prussia, and with the best results as to the formation of accuracy of eye and of hand. CITY TRADE SCHOOL. The City Trade School was founded to give a more appropriate education for the mechanic arts and higher trades than can be had through the courses of clas- sical schools. It is a great point gained, when the principal is admitted that dif- ferent kinds of education are suited to different objects in life ; and such an ad- mission belongs to an advanced stage of education. As a consequence of a gen- eral sentiment of this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruction of those not intended for the learned professions grow up by the side of the others. The city of Berlin is the patron of the trade school which I am about to notice, as the king is of the real school already spoken of Its stability is thus secured, but the means of furnishing it with the necessary materials for instruction are liberally provided.* The trade school is a day school, and consists of five classes, of which the lowest is on the same grade as to age and qualification at admission, as the fourth class of a gymnasium. It is assumed that at twelve years of age it will have been decided whether a youth is to enter one of the learned professions, or to follow a mechanical employment, or to engage in trade, but the higher classes are not closed against pupils. Of the five classes, four are considered necessary for certain pursuits and the whole five for others ; the courses of all but the first class last one year, that of the first, two years, a youth leaving the school at from 16 to 17 or 18 years of age, according to circumstances. During the year 1836-7, the number of pupils in the several classes were, in the first class, eleven ; in the second, twenty-nine ; in the upper third, forty-three ; in the lower third, fifty- two ; in the fourth, fifty ; total, one hundred and eighty-five ; from which num- bers it appears that a considerable proportion of the pupils leave the school without entering the first class. The number of teachers is nineteen, five being regular or class teachers, and fourteen assistants. Tiie director gives instruction. The following list of the callings to which pupils from this school have gone on leaving it, will show that it is really what it professes to be, a school for the in- struction of those who intend to follow occupations connected with " commerce, the useful arts, higher trades, building, mining, forestry, agriculture, and military fife ;" and further, that its advantages are appreciated by the class for whom it is intended. The list includes the pUpils who have left the school from the first and second classes, in the years 1830, 1833, 1833 and 1837. From the first class, two teachers, five architects, one chemist, twenty-six merchants, one machinest, two calico-printers, two glass-workers, one cloth manufacturer, one silk manufacturer, one miner, thirteen agriculturalists, eight apothecaries, two gardeners, one painter, one mason, one carpenter, one tanner, one miller, one baker, one potter, one saddler, one soap-boiler, one cabinet-maker, two soldiers, one musician, five to * The present director of this school, Mr. Kloden, was formerly director of the hij;her burgher school at Potsdam, and is one of the most distinguished teachers in his line iu Persia 156 ^^"^^ TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. public offices, one to the trade institution, six to gymnasium. From the second class, forty-one merchants, one teacher, one chemist, one machinest, one ship-car- penter, nine agriculturist, one sugar-refiner, three dyers, one tanner, one brewer, two distillers, one miner, two lithographers, one dye-sinker, three apothecaries, one dentist, two painters, two gardeners, three masons, five carpenters, one miller, four bakers, one butcher, one to the trade institution, thi'ee to public offices, two to a gynmasium, one musician, one veterinary surgeon, one soldier, being ninety from the first class, and ninety-seven from the second, in the period of four years. In the course of instruction, the sciences and kindred branches are made the basis, and the modern languages are employed as auxiliaries, the ancient languages being entirely omitted. The subjects embraced in it are — religious instruction, German, French, English, geography, history", mathematics, physics, chemistry, technology, natural histor}', writing, drawing, and vocal music. The courses are fully laid down in the following list, beginning with the studies of the lowest or fourth class. FOURTH CI.ASS, Religious Instruction* The eospel accnrtiiiiff to SI. l.uke, and the Acts of the Apostles explained, with a catechetical development of the truths of religion and ethical applications. Tvyo hours per week. Gfrmim. Grammatical exercises in writing. Recital of poetical pieces. French. Grummatical exercises. Regular ami irregular verbs. Reading from Lauren's Reader One hour of conversation. Four hours. Arithmetic Mental and written, including proportions and fractions, with the theory of the operations Four hours. Geutnetry Introductory course of forms. Two hours. Gejigrnphy. Elementary, mathematical, and phy.sical geography. Two hours. Natural History. In the summer term, elements of botany, with excursions. In the win- ter, the external characters of animals. Two hours. Physics. Introductory instruction. General properties of bodies. Forms of crystals, spec'fic gravity om the school moneys provided for the support of their schools. And when permanently di-sabled, are entitled to an annual allowance from the income of funds provided in each province for this purpose, and for the support of the widows and children of teachers, who entitle themselves to such provision for their families, by a small annual contribution from their salaries. Teachers, who show themselves entitled to promotion to the direction of Normal Schools, are enabled to travel both in Prussia, and other countries, for the purpose of extending their knowledge of the organiza- tion, instruction and discipline of schools. A valuable ordinance passed in 1826, and renewed in 1846, requires the director of a seminary to travel about, once a year, and visit a certain part of the schools within his circuit. He makes himself acquainted with the stale of the school, listens to the instruction given, takes part himselt in the same, and gives to the teacher such hints" for improvement as his observation may suggest. The results of his yearly visits he presents, in the form of a report, to the school authorities of the province. This occa- sional visitation is very useful in clearing up the dark corners of the land, correcting abuses, and giving an impulse, from time to time, to teachers, who might otherwise sink into apathy and neglect. To render the effi- cacy of the seminaries more complete, it is provided that at the end of three years after leaving the seminary, the young teachers shall return to pass a second examination. By an ordinance in J 826, it is provided : " To the end, that the benefi- cial influence of the seminary may extend itself to those teachers already established, who either require further instruction, or who in their own cultivation and skill in office do not advance, perhaps even recede ; it is required that such teachers be recalled into the seminary for a shorter or longer time, as may be needful for them, in order, either to pass through a whole methodical course, or to practice themselves in particular da* partments of instruction." PRUSSIAN TEACHERS Jgg That the foregoing excellent and thorough regulations have not remained a dead letter in the ordinances of the government, but are substantially followed in the practical operations of the system, will be made evident from the testimony of Mr. Kay, an intelligent English traveler, as to the education, social position, and professional standing of the primary school teachers of Prussia, as well as from the accounts which follow of several of the best normal schools in different depart- ments of the kingdom : During my travels in different provinces of Prussia, I was in daily communica- tion with the teachers. I had every opportunity of observing the spirit, which animated the whole body, and of hearing the opinions of the poor respecting them. I found a great body of educated, courteous, refined, moral, and learned professors, laboring with real enthusiasm among the poorest classes of their coun- trymen. I found them wholly devoted to their duties, proud of their profession, united together by a strong feeling of brotherhood, and holding continual con- ferences together, for the purposes of debating all kinds of questions, relating to the management of their schools. But what gave me greater pleasure than all else was, to observe in what esteem and respect they were held by the peasants. If you tempt a Prussian peasant to find fault with the schools, he will tell you, in answer, how good the school is, and how learned the teachers are. I often heard the warmest panegyrics bestowed upon them by the peasants, shovi'ing in the clearest manner how well their merits and their labors were appreciated.* I could not but feel, how grand an institution this great body of more than 28,000 teachers was, and how much it was capable of effecting ; and, when I regarded the happy condition of the Prussian peasantry, I could not but believe, I saw some of the fruits of the daily labors of this enlightened, respected, and united brotherhood. Upon the parochial ministers and parochial teachers depend, far more than we are willing to allow the intelligence, the morality, and the religion of the people. The cordial co-operation of these two important and honorable professions is nec- essary to the moral progress of a nation. The religious minister acts upon the adults, the teacher on the young. The co-operation of the religious ministers is nec- essary to secure the success of the teacher's efforts ; and, on the other hand, with- out the earnest aid of the teacher, the fairest hopes of the religious minister are often blighted in the bud. We must educate the child, if we would reform the man. But, alas ! this education is a labor, requiring a long, persevering, careful, intelligent, and most tender handling. It were much better left alone, than to be attempted, so as to create disgust, or to embitter early associations, or to render virtuous and ennobling pursuits disgusting throughout after-life. On the teacher depends the training of the poor man's child, for poor parents have, unhappily, too little spare time to allow them to perform the greatest duty of a parent. And thus, as the character of every nation mainly depends upon the training of the children, we may safely affirm, that, such as our teachers are, such also will be our peasantry. How essential is it, then, to the moral welfare, and therefore to the political greatness of a nation, that the profession of the teachers should be one, insuring the perfect satisfaction of its members, and commanding the respect of the country ! The teacher's station in society ought to be an honorable one, or few learned and able men will be found willing to remain long in the profession, even if any such men can be induced to enter it ; and it is much better to be without teachers altogether, than to leave the training of our children to men of narrow minds, unrestrained passions, or meagre intelligence. The Prussian government has fully * Since these remarks were written, the course of public events in Prussia has given a very remarkable proof of their correctness. To the National Assembly, which met in Berlin in May, 184S, the people of the provinces elected no fewer than eight teachers as representa- tives ; giving this striking proof of the'people's respect for the ability and high character of the profession. jYO PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. recognized these truths, and has, therefore, done all within its power, to raise the character and social position of the teachers as much as possible. As these efforts have been heartily seconded by the provincial governments and4.he people, the result has been most remarkable and satisfactory. The first exertions of the government were wholly devoted to the improvement of the intellectual and moral character of the profession, and to the increase of its numbers. They determined to make the name of " teacher" an honor, and in itself a guarantee to every parent of the character and attainments of the man who bore it. To attain this end, they denied all access to the ranks of the pro- fession to any but those who proved themselves worthy of admittance. No person can be a teacher in Prussia, or in any part of Germany, France Austria, Switzerland, or Holland, until he has passed a very severe and searching examina- tion, and. until he has produced testimonials from those well acquainted with him, of the irreproachable nature of his moral life and character. This examination, which includes both intellectual and moral qualifications, is conducted by able and impartial men, among whom are to be found the candidate's religious minister, the professors of the normal college at which he was brought up, and at least one of the educational magistrates of the county of which he is a native. He who passes the ordeal is allowed to be a teacher, whether he was educated at a normal college or not. The ranks of the profession are open to all educated and moral men, wherever or however they were educated ; but educated and moral they must prove themselves. It is not, then, to be wondered at, that the men, who are known to have satisfactorily passed this scrutiny, are regarded by all their fellow- countrymen with respect and consideration, and as men of great learning and of high character. This once attained, the next great efforts of the government were directed to the improvement of the social position of the teachers. The government placed them under the immediate protection of the county courts. They also made a law that no teacher, who had been once elected, whether by a parochial commitee, or by trustees, or by private patrons, should be dismissed, except by permission of the county magistrates. This protected the teachers from the effects of the mere personal prejudices of those in immediate connection with them. They then defined the minimum of the teachers' salaries, and this minimum, they have ever since been steadily increasing. It is absolutely necessary, that my readers should not connect their preconceived ideas of an English village schoolmaster with the learned and refined teacher of Prussia. They might just as well think of comparing the position and attainments of the vast majority of our teachers with those of the scholars of our universities, as of comparing those of our schoolmasters with those of the Prussian teachers. I felt, whenever I was in the company of a Prussian teacher, that I was with a gentleman, whose courteous bearing and intelligent manner of speaking must exert a most beneficial influence upon the peasantry, among whom whom he lived. It was, as if I saw one of the best of our English curates performing the duties of a schoolmaster. I never saw any vulgarity or coarseness, and still less any stupidity or incapacity for their duties, displayed by any of them. The Protestant teachers of Germany occupy situations of importance in connec- tion with the religious ministers and religious congregations. They fulfill several of the duties of our curates, clerks, and organists. In both Romanist and Protestant congregations, they lead the choir and play the organ. They act, too, as clerk ; and when a Protestant minister is indisposed, and unable to conduct public worship, the parochial teacher officiates in his stead, reads the church ser- vice, and sometimes also preaches. The musical part of public worship, in both Romanist and Protestant churches and chapels, is always directed by the parochial teacher. The small salary, which they receive for the performance of these duties, serves to increase their incomes ; but what is of much more importance is, that this connection of the teachers with the religious congregations and ministera serves to bind the religious ministers and teachers together, to lesson the labors of each by mutual assistance, and, above all, to raise the teacher in the estimation of the poor, by whom he is surrounded, and thereby materially to increase the effect of his advice and instructions. It was very curious, and pleasing, to observe the effects of the intercourse of PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. ji^j this enlightened and excellent body of men with the peasantry during the last twenty years. I do not hesitate to say, that, at the period of my visit to Prussia, I had never before seen so polite and civilized, and seemingly intelligent, a peas- antry as that of Prussia. ^Vere a stranger introduced into some of the lowest schools. I am quite convinced he would not believe he saw peasants children before him. They were generally so clean and neatly dressed, and their manners were always so good, that 1 was several times obliged to ask the teachers, if I really saw the children of the poor before me. The appearance of the girls was particu- larly gratifying ; their dress was so respectable, their manners was so good, their way of dressing their hair showed so much taste, and their cleanliness was so great, that no one, who had not been informed beforehand to what class they belonged, would have believed them to be the children of the poorest of the people. The lowest orders of Germany are so nmch more refined than our poor, tiiat the children of the rich very often attend the primary schools, while the chil- dren of the trades peojile and middle classes almost invariably do so. The richer parents know that their children will not come into contact with any coarse- ness, and tliat the teacher is certain to be an educated and refined gentleman. This mingling of the children of the higher and lower orders tends to civilize the peasantry still more, and to produce a kindly feeling between the different ranks of society. Eut the primary cause of the great and ever-increasing civilization of the Prussian peasantry is, undeniably, their contact with their refined and intel- ligent teachers. For, whilst the clergy are laboring among the adults, the teachers are daily bringing under the influences of their own high characters and intelli- gence ALL the younger portions of the community. The teachers in Prussia are men respected by the whole community, men to whom all classes owe the first rudiments of their education, and men in whose welfare, good character, and high respectability, both the government and the peo- ple feel themselves deeply interested. In birth, early recollections, and associa- tions, they are often peasants ; but in education and position they are gentlemen in every sense of that term, and acknowledged officers of the county govern- ments. There are more than 28,000 such teachers in Prussia. This great pro- fession offers, as I shall presently show, a means, by which an intelligent peasant may hope to raise himself into the higher ranks of society, as the expenses of preparing for admission into the profession are borne by government. But, as the number of candidates for admission is consequently always large, the government takes every passible precaution, that only such shall be chosen, as are in every respect qualified to reflect honor upon the profession, and carry out its objects in the most effective manner. And so well satisfied are the teachers with their position, that, although their pay is often but poor, yet it rarely happens that any one quits his profession to seek another situation. They are contented with their profession, even when it affords only a bare living, as it always confers a station of respectability and honor, in direct communication with the provincial govern- ments. I made the most careful inquiries upon this subject, and can speak with great confidence upon it. 1 was in daily communication with the teachers from the day I entered Prussia, and I tested the truth of what they told me, not only by comparing their statements together, but also by many inquiries, which 1 made of the educational counsellors and government oflScers in Berlin. Next to Dr. Bfuggeman, one of the head counsellors of the Minister of Education, the gen- tlemen to whom I am most indebted for information on this subject are Counsellor Stiehl, the Chief Inspector of Prussia, who is employed by the Minister on partic- ular missions of inspection in ftll the provinces of Prussia ; Professor Hintz, one of the young professors in Dr. Diesterweg's normal college ; Dr. Hennieke, the director of the normal college at Weissenfels ; Herr Peters, a teacher at Bonn ; one of the teachers at Cologne ; several of the teachers at Berlin ; and sevei-al of the teachers at Elberfeld. From these gentlemen, and many others, I gathered the following information : When a boy is intended for the teachers' profession, he remains in the primary school, until he has completed the whole course of primary instruction, i. e. until he has learned to write and read well, and until he knows the principal rules of arithmetic, the outlines of the geography and history of his native country, a little natural history, and the Scripture history. This knowledge he does not generally acquire before he ie fifteen years of age. jY2 PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. From the age of fifteen to the age of eighteen, before which latter age a young man can not be admitted into any normal college, the education of young candi- dates, who are the sons of towns-people, is different to the education of those, who are the sons of country people. The young candidates for admission into tne teachers' profession, who are the sons of towns-people, enter at fifteen into the classes of the superior public schools of the town, in which schools a number of endowed places are always reserved for poor boys, who have distinguished themselves in the primary schools. The education given in these schools is of a higher character, than that given in the primary schools. It comprehends mathematics, and the rudiments at least of the classics, besides lectures in history, physical geography, and drawing. They remain in these superior public schools until their eighteenth year, when they can seek admission into a normal college. The young candidates for admission into the teachers' profession, who are the sons of poor country people, do not en- joy all the advantages which the children of towns-people possess, as there is sel- dom a superior primary school in their neighborhood, in which they can continue their studies, after leaving the primary school. If the son of a peasant aspires to enter the teachers' profession ; after leaving the primary school, he engages the parochial teacher to give him instruction in the evenings, attends the teachers' classes in the mornings and afternoons, and assists him in the management of the younger children. He continues to improve himself in this manner, until he has attained the age, at which he can apply for admission into a normal college. There are, however, a great many schools in Prussia, established for the purpose of preparing the sons of the peasants for admission into the normal colleges. These preparatory schools generally belong to private persons. Every young person admitted into them is obliged to pay a small fee for his education there. This fee is generally very trifling, but is still sufficient to prevent the sons of the poorest peasants entering them ; and, consequently, these latter, if they live in a country ■tillage, are obliged to content themselves with the evening lessons given by the village teacher, and with the practical knowledge gained by attending his classes in the mornings and afternoons. But it is always possible for the peasants' chil- dren, with industry, to prepare themselves, by the aid of the village teacher, for admission into a normal college. Of these latter admirable institutions for the education of teachers I shall hereafter speak at length ; suffice it here to say, that there are between forty and fifty of them in Prussia, supported entirely by the state, and under the direction and surveillance of the provincial committees called SchulooUegium. There are five or six normal colleges in each province, some of which are set apart for the education of the Romanist, and the others for that of the Protestant teachers. Each of them is generally put under the direction of a priest or of a protestant minister, according as it is intended for the education of Romanist or Protestant teachers, and is provided in the most liberal manner, with every thing necessary for the education of the young students. The education given in them is nearly gratuitous ; no young man being called upon to pay for any thing, but his clothes and his breakfast, whilst, in many cases, even this trifling charge is paid for the poor student out of the college funds. All young men who aspire to the office of teacher in Prussia, and who aspire to enter a normal college, when the yearly vacancies take place, are obliged to submit to an examination, conducted by the professors of these colleges, in presence of the educational counsellors from the county court. No young man can enter the examination lists, who has not produced certificates of health, and freedom from all chronic complaints, or who has a weak voice or any physical defect or infirmity. None but picked men are selected as teachei-s in Prussia. The examination is very severe and searching. For, as there are always a great number of candi- dates for admission into each college, and as the favored candidates are only chosen, on account of their superior abilities, the competition at the entrance examinations is very great. The subjects of this examination are, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, singing, chanting, and the Scripture history. The young man, who has just obtained admission into a normal college in Prussia, and whose education as a teacher has only just begun, is much better educated, even at the commencement of his three years' education in the college, PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. 173 than almost any of our teachers are, when they enter upon the performance of their duties in the schools, and when their education is considered to be completed ! How much superior, therefore, in intellectual acquirements, the Prussian teacher is, when he has completed his collegiate course, 1 need not observe. When the examination is concluded, as many of the most promising of the candidates are selected as there are vacancies in the college ; and, after a sti'ict exam- ination has been made into their characters and previous life, each successful candidate is required to sign an agreement, promising to officiate as a teacher, after leaving the college, for a number of years, equal to those during which the gov- ernment educates him gratuitously in the college. They are then admitted, and are only required to pnjvide themselves with clothes, and to pay about 3/. per annum. All the other expenses of their education, maintenance, &c., are, as I have said before, borne by the state. They remain in these colleges two or three years, never less than two, or more than three. Here they continue the studies which they had previously followed in the primary and superior schools. They perfect themselves in writing, arithmetic, history, geography, and Scripture his- tory, and receive a careful education in the physical sciences, and particularly in mathematics and botany. In some of the normal colleges, the young men also study Latin and the modern languages. Besides this, they all learn the violin, the organ, and piano-forte. I have seen as many as a hundred violins, three organs, and three piano-fortes in one normal college. They also continue the prac- tice of chanting and singing, which they had commenced in the village schools; and when the college is situated in the country, and intended for village teachers, the students learn gardening and agriculture. I became acquainted in Bonn, with the teacher of the poorest school in the town. He could speak French very tol- erably, as well as a little English ; he was acquainted with many of our first wri- ters, and knew the rudiments of the Latin language, in addition to the necessary attainments of a teacher. But the government and the people are not satisfied that, because a teacher has passed through one of these training establishments, he is therefore fit to under- take the management of a village school. Far from it. When the normal college course is finished, the young aspirants are obliged to submit to another examination, which is conducted by the professors of the college in the presence of a counsellor from the provincial schulcollegium, the educational counsellor of the county court, and a delegate from the Roman Catholic bishop, or Protestent superintendent of the county, according as the school is for Romanist or for Prot- estant students. These different .personages ought to be present, but I was assured that, in general, only the educational counsellor of the county court assisted at the examination . At its conclusion, if the directors and professors have been satisfied with the conduct of the young men, during their residence in the college, and have no reason to doubt the excellence of their moral character, and the ortho- doxy of their religious belief, the young candidates receive diplomas marked according to the manner in which they acquitted themselves in the examination, " 1," " 2," or " 3," and signed by the director and professors, and by the mem- bers of the provincial schulcollegium. Those who obtain the diplomas marked " 1," are legally authorized to officiate as teachers, without futher scrutiny, but those who only obtain those marked " 2" or " 3,'' are only appointed to schools for two or three years on trial, and at the end of that time, are obliged to return to the normal college and undergo another examination. It is not, however, necessary that a young man should pass through a normal college, in order to obtain a diploma enabling him to officiate as teacher. Any person, who has received so good an education as to enable him to pass the exam- ination at a normal college, can obtain one, if his character is unimpeachable. By far the greatest proportion, however, of the teachers of Prussia are educated in the normal colleges. When they have obtained these diplomas, the county courts present them to such school committees as require teachers ; and if these parochial committees are satisfied with them, they are elected. In such a numerous body as that of the Prussian teachers, there are always numerous vacancies. The number of colleges and students are so arranged, as to regularly supply that, •which is found to be the average number of yearly vacancies. ^fjA PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. The candidates who have obtained only the diplomas marked "2," or "3," hold their offices, as I have said, only provisionally ; and, in order to be definitely appointed, are obliged, at the termination of their specified period of trial, either to obtain the approval of the local inspector, or to undergo another examination ; and I was assured, that they are sometimes obliged to return three or four times to be examined, ere they can obtain a definite appointment ; such care does the country take, that none but fit persons shall occupy this responsible position. When he is once appointed, however, the teacher is thenceforward a county and not a parochial officer. No person or set of persons in immediate connection with him can turn him out of his situation, without having first obtained the sanction of the county magistrates, After the parochial ministers and householders have once elected him, they have no power to deprive him of his salary or his situation. No one but the county magistrates of the union inspector, who, by living at a dis- tance, are not likely to be atieeted by personal prejudices or parochial disputes, can interfere directly with the teacher, and should the latter deem the interference of even the inspector uncalled for, he can always appeal to the superior authorities, or even to the minister of education himself. The parochial committees have, how- ever, the power of complaining of the teacher to the county magistrates, if they think he is acting unwisely or immorally ; and such complaints always receive immediate and special attention. When any such complaints are made, the county court dispatches an inspector to examine into the matter, and empowers him, if he thinks the teacher worthy of censure, fine, or expulsion, to act accordingly. If, however, the teacher is not blameable, the inspector explains the matter to the parochial authorifies, and effects a reconciliation between the parties. If the inspector should deern the teacher worthy of punishment, and this latter should be dissatisfied with the sentence, he can carry the matter before a justice of the peace ; and if he is not satisfied with his decision, he can appeal to the provincial schulcollegium, thence to the minister of instruction, and thence, if he desires, to tjie king himself; of so much importance docs the Prussian government deem it, to protect the teachers, and to raise their office in public opinion. I have men- tioned that a Prussian teacher seldom leaves his profession ; but that many change their positions. ^^ hen a good and well paid situation falls vacant in any parish, an experienced teacher, vv'ho already occupies some worse paid situation in another parish, and who has obtained credit for his excellent school-management, is pre- ferred by the school committee to the young adepts fresh from the normal colleges. On this account, the young men generally commence with an inferior position, and earn better ones, according as they manage the first they entered. It is evi- dent, how important a regulation this is, as the teachers of the poorest schools are saved from becoming listless and dispirited, and are rendered earnest and indus- trious, in the hopes of bettering their situation, The country is, however, gradually improving the salaries of all the teachers. No village or town is ever allow-ed to lessen the amount it has once given to a teacher. What it has once given, it is obliged to continue to give in future. It may increase it as much as it likes, and the county courts have the power of interfering, and saying, " You have hitherto paid your teachers too little; you must augment the teacher's salary." This is only done, however, when it is known, that the parish or town is capable of increasing the school salaries and is unwilling to do so. The importance of enabling the teachers to conunand the respect of the people, of rendering them independent of those in immediate connection with them, and of protecting them from ignorant interference and mere personal animosity, is so fully recognized in Prussia, that even when the school is endowed, and managed by trustees, these trustees, after havins: once elected a teacher, are not permitted to dismiss him, unless they can prove to the county court that they have sufficient cause for complaint. The teacher, elected by trustees, has the privilege of appeal- ing to the minister of education in Berlin, against the act of the trustees and county magistrates, just as well as all the other teachers of Prussia. The reasons which have induced the Prussian government to render the teachers, after their election, so independent of those in immediate connection with them appear to have been — 1st, Because the teachers of Prussia are a very learned body, and, from their long study of pedagogy, have acquired greater ability than any persons in the art of teaching. They are, therefore, better qualified than any other persons to con- duct the instruction of their children ; but, if those persons who have never studied pedagogy could interfere with them, and say, " You shall teach it in this way or in that, or else leave the parish," the teachers would often be obliged to pursue some ridiculous, inefficient method, merely to please the whims of per- sons not experienced in school management, and the enlightenment of the people would thus be often considerably retarded. 2d. Because, if the parishioners or the pai'ochial ministers had a right to turn away a teacher, whenever he olianced to displease them, the teachers would always be liable to, and would often suffer from, foolish personal dislikes, founded on no good ground. They would thus lose their independence of character, by being Lrced to suit their oonduct to the whims of those around them, instead of being able to act faithfully and conscientiously to all ; or by being exposed to the insults or impertinence of ignorant per.sons, who did not understand and appre- ciate the value and importance of their labors; or by being prevented from acting faithfully toward the children, from fear of offending the parents ; or by being forced to cringe to and flatter the ignorance, and even the vices, of those around them, instead of being able to combat them ; and they would thus generally, by one or other of tliese ways, forfeit at least some part of the respect of the parents of their children, and would, consequently, find their lessons and advice robbed of one-half their weight, and their labors of a great part of their efiiciency. For these reasons, the Prussian government endeavors to give as much liberty as possible to the teachers, and to fetter their hands as little as possible. In the normal colleges they receive instruction in the different methods of teaching ; and, out of these, each teacher is at liberty to follow whichever seems to him the best calculated to promote the growth of the intelligence of his scholars. It is felt, that without this liberty, a teacher would often work unwillingly, and that a discon- tented or unwilling teacher is worse than none at all. In the choice of their books and apparatus, the teachers are allowed an almost equal freedom. If a teacher finds a book, which he thinks better calculated for instruction, than the one he has been in the habit of using, he sends it through the inspector to the educational counsellor of the county court, who forward it to the schulcollegium for approval; and, .as soon as this is obtained, the teacher can introduce it into his school. There are, already, a great many books in each province, which have been thus sanc- tioned ; and out of these, every teacher in the province can choose whichever pleases him most. These school-books are, generally, written by teachers ; and, from what I saw of them, they seemed to evince a profound knowledge of the science of pedagogy. Until a book has been thus sanctioned by the schulcolle- gium, which has the management of the normal colleges and gymnasia of its province, it can not be introduced into a parochial school. The teachers are not assisted by monitors in Germany, as in Switzerland, France, and England ; and this I think a very great error. I have often been in schools in Prussia, where the teacher had about one hundred children of different degrees of proficiency to instruct in the same class-room, without any assistance whatever ; the consequence was, that while he was teaching one class, the others were in disorder, and making noise enough to distract the attention of the chil- dren, who were receiving instruction, as well as that of the teacher, who was giving it ; while the teacher, instead of being able to devote his time to the higher branches of instruction, and to the children, who more particularly needed his care, was obliged to divide it among all, and to superintend himself the verj lowest branches of instruction ; and this, too, at the sacrifice of the order and quiet of his school. When I represented this to the teachers, I w^s always answered, " Yes, that is true ; but then we think, that a young monitor is unable to educate the minds of the children under his care, and is consequently likely to do them much injury." This is, no doubt, the result, if the teachers leave the education of any of his children entirely to monitors ; but he has no need to do this; he ought to employ liis monitors merely in superintending the more mechan- ical parts of instruction, such as writing, and learning the alphabet, and also in preserving order ; he might then himself conduct the mental education of all the children. But this they will not do in Prussia ; they are so afraid of injuring the mental culture of the children, that they positively throw away a very important 176 PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. means for the attainment of this end. In Switzerland, a very different course is pursued ; the teachers are assisted in keeping order, and in teaching the more mechanical parts of instruction, by tnonitors. chosen from among their most advanced pupils. These monitors remain with the teacher, until they are of suf- ficient age to go to a normal college ; they are paid, 1 believe, by the parishes, and are instructed by the teachers in the evenings. From among them, the young candidates for the vacant places in the normal colleges are chosen ; so that the Swiss teachers have often been engaged in schools, and in school management, from their earliest years. Besides this advantage, the country is spared a great expense ; for in Prussia, where they have no monitors, they are obliged to aug- ment the number of their teachers very considerably ; and I have found in a small school, which could have been very easily managed by one teacher and some well trained monitors, as many as three teachers, for each of whom good salaries had to be provided, as well as houses and gardens. Doubtless, it is much better to have experienced teachers, than young monitors ; and hence it is that the town schools in Prussia are very much better than those of other countries, as the town committees can afford to engage a sufficient number of teachers ; but in the poor country parishes this is not the case, and there it is, where -the want of monitors is most severely felt, as a large school is often left entirely to the unaided care of a single teacher. But this very defect in the Prussian system arises from the great anxiety of the educational authorities, that the religious and moral education of the young should not suffer. Still I think it is a very great mistake ; and I am Bure that many schools I saw in Prussia suffer grievously from this regulation. But it will be asked, how are the salaries of the teacheiis provided, and what is their amount? The regulations on this subject are particularly deserving of attention. The Prussian government clearly saw, that nothing could tend more strongly to nullify their efforts to raise the teachers' profession in the eyes of the people, than to leave the salaries of the teachers dependent, either on uncertain payments, or on private benevolence. To have done so would have been to destroy the independence of the profession. The Prussian government, therefore, decreed that, however small and from whatever source the teacher's salary should be derived, its amount should always be fixed before his appointment, and that the payment should be certain and regular. As 1 mentioned before, each succeeding teacher must be paid, at least, as much his predecessor received. The county magistrates have the power of obliging each town or parish to increase the amount of the salaries of their teachers, when- ever they think the town or parish is paying too little, and can afford to pay more. These salaries are now wholly paid by the school or town committees, from the funds raised by local taxation. Before the late law, which made education gratui- tous, they were derived, in part, from the school fees. But the amount of the salary did not, in any case, depend on that of the fees, nor was the teacher ever placed in the invidious position of being obliged himself to collect these monthly payments. They were always collected by a tax-gatherer, appointed by the village or town magistrate ; and when they did not amount to the fixed salary, which the school conmiittee had agreed to pay to the teacher, they were increased by a paro- chial rate, levied on the householders. In many cases, however, the schools are endowed, and for admission into these, no school fees were ever required. But where fees were required, and where a parent was too poor to pay them, the parochial or town authorities were always obliged, by law, to pay them for him. The following are the regulations, which define the minimum of the salaries of the Prussians. Some of_ the country schools have each as many as three teachers ; but the number of teachers in a country school in Prussia does not, generally, exceed two ; and in many of these school, there is only one teacher. Where there are several, one is the head master, and the others are his assistants. The laws relating to their payment are as follows : " The first teacher in a country school, or, if there be only one, then the single teacher shall receive, as his yearly salary and the perquisites of his office, at least : 1st. Free lodging. 2d. The necessary fuel for the warming of the school-room, and of hii own dweUing-house and for his household economy. PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. 177 Sd. A piece of land, as near as possible to the school, of from one to three Prussian acres large ; the tillage and manui'ing of which are to be done at the expense of the parish. 4th. A kitchen garden behind his house, of not less than half a Prussian acre. 5th. The necessary building for his little farming operations. 6th. Free summer pastm-e for at least two cows. 7th. Twelve bushels of rye meal, two cart-loads of hay, and two cart-loads (rf straw. 8th. 71. 10s. in money." [It must be remembered that 11. lOs. in Prusssia, is worth about as much as 121., ($60,) in England, and that this is only the sum which has been fixed by law as the legal minimum, and by no means gives an idea of the amount of salaries paid to the Prussian teachers.] " If the field, garden, or summer pasture for his cows can not be provided by the parish, the county com-t must determine what equivalent in money must be given hinf The second, third, &c., teacher in a country school must receive — 1st. Free lodging. 2d. The fuel necessaiy for warming his house. 3d. 91. in money, (or about 151. in English value.) The teachers of the towns must receive — 1st. Free lodging and fuel. 2d. The first teacher should receive at least 40Z. per annum, and the other teachers at least 30Z. per annum," in English values. I found these regulations among some educational laws issued by the govern- ment in 1845, for one of the provinces; but Dr. Bruggeman assured me, that similar laws were in opei-ation for the whole of Prussia. The above emoluments are the lowest the teachers can receive according to law. The government is about to raise this minifn urn considerably, and to increase the salaries throughout Prussia. Hitherto many have been paid but poorly ; veiy few, however, have deserted their profession, or engaged in other occupations, as they are generally proud of their position, and satisfied with it. Herr Peters, a teacher of a primary school in Bonn, with whom I spent some time, said to me, one day, " The Prussian teachers do not receive high salaries ; but," he added, with emphasis, " however little the salary of a teacher may be above the legal minimum, it is certain, and collected for him by the parochial authorities, without his having to trouble himself about it." The law, as I have mentioned, is very strict in requiring the payments of the salaries to be made with the utmost regularity. It is easy to see how invaluable, for any country, a great privileged class, like that of the Prussian teachers, must be, especially when many of its members are, as in Prussia, chosen by the state from amongst the most highly gifted of the peasant class, and educated at the expense of the country. It is, in fact, for modern Prussia, just what the Roman Catholic Church was, for Europe in the middle ages ; it is a ladder, by which all the genius of the lowest orders may ascend into a suitable field of action. A young peasant boy of promising abili- ties pashed on by the restless spirit, which so often characterizes youth of real genius, and anxious to better his position in the world, or to gain some sphere of action more congenial to his taste, than the farm-j^ard, or the workshop, finds in Prussia, the teacher's career open to him. If he can only distinguish himself in his village school, and pass the entrance examination of a normal college, he* gains a high education at no expense, and is then sm-e (if he conducts himself well, and distinguishes himself in the normal college) to obtain a teacher's place, to put himself in immediate connection with the government, and to gain a very honorable situation, affording him the amplest field for the development and exercise of his talents. A clever peasant in Prussia, instead of becoming a Chartist, enters a normal college, and becomes a teacher. There is no need for a young peasant to despond in Prussia, and say, " Here 1 am, endowed with talents fitting me for another sphere, but shut out by doors, which can only be opened with a golden key." Far otherwise. Free places are retained in the gymnasia for poor boys, who wish to continue their studies ; and from these colleges they can enter either into the ranks of the Protestant or Romanist clergy, 12 1Y8 pnUrisiAN TL:A(n;.iiS or into those of the teachers ; and, in the last case, without having any thing to pay for their education. It is easy to comprehend, how tliis tends to allay political strife and discontent. In our country, this is often occasioned, or, at least, in- creased, by some one or two clever individuals, who find themselves confined within a sphere, too narrow for their talents and energies, and who, by their own rest- less murmui's, arouse the dormant passions of their neighbors, The German governments have been wiser in their day than our freer countries. They have separated the fiery spirits from the easily excited masses, and converted them into earnest, active, and indefatigable fosterers of the public morality, and into guar- dians of the common weal. In considering the salaries and privileges of the teachers, it must also be borne in mind, that they are exempt from taxation, and that they are free from all obli- gation to serve in the army, and to attend the yearly military exercises. On the installation of a new teacher, the parochial or school authorities are obliged, either to send conveyances for the transport of his family and goods, or to pay the expenses of such transport, for any distance less than fifty English miles. But, if the teacher leaves his situation before the expiration of five years, lie is obliged to repay to the local authorities the expenses of this conveyance. Whenever a new teacher is introduced into a parochial school, his installation is a public ceremony, at which all the parochial authorities assist, in order to impress the people with a sense of the importance of his office and his duties, and to encourage among them a respect for him, without which his hopes of suc- cess in his labors must be necessarily very small. The ceremony of installation generally takes place in the parochial church, where the new teacher is presented, by the religious minister, to the civil authori- ties, and to the inhabitants of the parish. The children, whose education he has to conduct, are always present at the ceremony. Tlie Prussian government feels that, unless it can render the profession honoi'able and worthy of men of high characters and attainments, all its attempts to raise the religious and moral tone of the education of the people will be ever unavailing. I have not hitherto mentioned Prussian schoolmistresses, because there are but few ; and because the regulations, with respect to their education, examina- tion, and appointment, are precisely similar to those relating to schoolmasters. Among the Protestants of Prussia there are scarcely any schoolmistresses 5 the greatest part of the Prussian female teachers are Romanists, and for their educa- tion there are several normal colleges established in the Romanist provinces of Prussia. I inquired of the Romanist counsellor in the Bureau of Public Instruc- tion in Berlin, whether it was not foimd difficult to retain the female teachers long at their posts, on account of their making such eligible wives, even for the farmers. But he assured me, that this was not the case, as far as their female teachers were concerned, as they form among themselves a body like the order of the Sisters of Charity, with this distinction, that instead of actually taking a solemn public vow of celibacy, it is generally understood among them, that they shall not marry, but shall devote themselves, during the remainder of their lives, to the duties of school management and instruction. In this respect the Roman- ists have a great advantage over the Piotestants ; for I found, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, just the same objection to the employment of female teachers, as that wliich is experienced among the Protestants of Prussia and of England, viz., that a young woman, who has been carefully trained in a good normal college, until she is twenty years of age, makes so good a wife for men, even in the middle classes of society, that she always married, soon after leaving the college ; and, consequently, that a much greater supply of students and col- leges are required, in order to supply the constant vacancies, which occur in the ranks, and that the expenses of educating a sufficient number of female teachers are, therefore, too great in general to be supported, imless the students pay for their own education, which very few of the young women, who are desir- ous of being teachers, are able to do. In the Romanist cantons of Switzerland, the Sisters of Charity conduct the education of the girls ; and their schools are the best and most pleasing female BQhools I have ever seen. Ilerr Stiehl, one of the Protestant educational coun- PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. I79 setlors and chief inspector of Prussia, confirmed all that the Catholic minister had told me, and stated that, for the reasons above mentioned, the Prussian Pro- testants found it impossible to keep the female teachers long in their situations ; and that the expense of constantly educating ft'esh female teachers, to supply the places of those who married, was too great to be borne. Tlie Prussians, how- ever, in general, prefer male teachers for the girls, even where they can obtain female ; so that in nearly all the schools I visited, I found schoolmasters, and not schoolmistresses, instructing the girls' classes. The Prussians would ridicule the idea of confiding the education of the girls to uneducated mistresses, such as those in our dame,'and in most of our female schools. They can not conceive the case of a parent, who wTjuld be willing to commit his child to the care of a person, who had not been educated, most care- fully and religiously, in that most difficult of all arts, the art of teaching. They think, that a teacher must either improve and elevate the minds of his children, or else injure and debase them. They believe, that there is no such thing as being able to come into daily contact with a child, without doing him either good or harm. Tlie Prussians know, that the minds of the yomig are never stationary, but always in progress 5 and that this progress is always either a moral or an immoral one, either forward or backward ; and hence the extraordinary expen- diture the country is bearing, and the extraordinary pains it is taking, to support and improve its training establishments for teachers. In order to increase the feeling of union and brotherhood, which already exists in a high degree among the Prussian teachers, and in order to encourage them to renewed exertions, and to diminish as much as possible, the feeling of isolation which must always exist, in some degree, where an educated man finds himself placed in a solitary country parish, surrounded by peasantry less culti- vated than himself, and cut ofi:" from the literary society, to which he had been accustomed at the normal college, the govermnent promotes the frequent holding of teachers' conferences, for the purpose of mutual improvement and encourage- ment. These conferences are held very often, over the whole of Germany, Switzerland, France, and Holland, and the benefits resulting from them are very great indeed. In Prussia, there are three kinds of such conferences, of which I shall now give a short account. The fii'st is that of the province. In several of the provinces of Prussia, all the teachers, both Catholic and Protesttmt, assemble once a year, in some town, which has been agreed upon at their last meeting, and on a predetermined day. The duration of the meeting is different in dif- ferent parts ; sometirnes only for one, and sometimes for several days. Tlieir objects, too, are different. Sometimes it is for mutual instruction, whilst at others it is for pleasure. But, whatever be the nominal pm'pose of their assembling, the real end of it is, to produce the feeling of association and brother- hood, which is one of the strongest encouragements to isolated and single efforts. Besides these yearly provincial assemblies, there is also another meeting of - teachers held monthly in every kreis or union. The principal ecclesiastical authority or school-inspector of the union summons and presides over it. This meeting is more especially intended for the pm'poses of instruction, than that of the province. It lasts only one day ; the teachers meet early in the morning, and disperse again in the evening. They dine together at noon, and spend the morning and afternoon in conferences and mutual improvement. They assemble at some town or village in the union on an appointed day, of which the union inspector gives them each notice some weeks beforehand. In the morning, they all meet in one of the schools, or in some great room of the town. A class of children, taken from one of the schools of the trm''d, that somo of the teuchers had converted their PRUSSIAN TEACHER? 185 class-rooms into political lecture rooms, and had selected the political topics of the day as the subject of remark, if not of instruction, it prohibitL^d such subjects being introduced into the lessons by the teachers, and ordered the inspectors to prevent the teachers perverting their schools to such objects as these. The very fact, that such a prohibition was found necessaiy, proves that my own observations were correct. If further proof were needed, it might be told, that the people have elected many teachers as their representcitives in the difl'er- ent Diets ; thus proving their esteem and respect for the able instructors of their children. As nearly all the expenses of the young teacher's education in the normal colleges, are borne by the country at large, and not by himself, it has been thought advisable to require some kind of guarantee, that those, who are educated in the colleges, will really, when their education is completed, labor as teachers in the village schools, ami not merely use their college education as a preparation for other more lucrative situations. In order, therefore, to secure an adequate return for the expenditure of the_ country, it has been decreed by the government : " 1st. That every young man, who is received into a normal college, ghall bind himself, by an agreement, to remain for three years, after leaving the college, at the d.sposition of the government ; and during such three years, to take any situation, which the authorities of the district, in which the normal college is situated, should offer him, or to which they should wish to translate him. " 2d. That if he does not comply with this condition as soon as required to do so, he shall repay to the normal college the cost of the education and mainte- nance, which had been gratuitously given to him." Every year, at a fixed perioil, of which public notice has been previously given in the local papers, the directors and pi'ofessors of each of the normal colleg(,'s hold a public meeting, at which the magistrates of the county and the religious min sters are present, for the purpo.se of examining all young men, who are desir- ous of obtaining admission into the normal college for the purpose of being I etiucated as teachers. These examinations are open to all young men, even of the poorest classes, many of whom enter the lists, as almost all the expenses of the collegiate course are, as I have said, borne by the state, or defrayed out of the funds of the college. Every competitor at one of these examinations must forward to the director of the college, a fortnight before the examination takes place — 1. A certificate signed by his religious minister, and certifying that his charac- ter and past life have been moral and blameless. 2. A certificate from a physician, cei'tifying his freedom from chi'onic com- plaints, and the soundness of his constitution and health. 3. A certificate of his having been vaccinated within the last two years. 4. A certificate of his baptism, (if a Christian.) 5. A certificate, signed by two or more teachers, of his previous industrious and moral habits, and sufficient abihties for the teacher's profession. On the day appointed, all the young candidates, who have complied with the preceding regulations, and who have attained the age of seventeen, are examined at the college, in the presence of the county magistrates, and of the religious ministers, by the directors and professors of the college, in all the subjects of instruction given in the highest classes of the primary schools ; i. e., Geography, German history, Natural history. The fir.st principles of the physical sciences, Sinjjing, The violin. Biblical history. The history of Christianity, Luther's catechism, Writing, Reading, Arithmetic, (mental and common,) Grammar, I Wlien the examination is concluded, a list is made out, in which the names of the young men are inscribed in order, according to the profieiency and ability they have displayed in their examination. As many of the highest in the list are then elected, as -students of the college, as there are vacancies that year, occasioned by the departure of those who have left the college to take the chai'ge of village schools. 186 I'llDSSIAN TEACHERS Those who are elected, as well as their parents or guardians, are then required to subscribe the agreements I have before mentioned ; and the successful candi- dates are then admitted as residents of the college for two or three years, according to the length of residence required by the rules of the college. The time of residence in Prussia is generally three, and never less than two years. The time of residence in the normal colleges in the neighboring kingdom of Saxony is always four years. When the young men have been once admitted into the normal college, their education as teachers commences. It must how- ever, be borne in mind, that the Prussian teacher, when he first enters a normal college, has generally before that period enjoyed a much better education, and knows much more then, than an English teacher does when he undertakes the management of a school. Unless he did, he would not be able to obtain ad- mission into a normal college. When he leaves the normal college, he has had a better general education, than nine out of every ten men who leave our Universities. The education of a good teacher is a very difficult matter, and, principally, for this reason : Nothing, but a very high education can fit an individual for the proper pciformance of that most delicate, difficult, and important duty, the educa- tion of a child. Great learning, even when accompanied with good principles, is often apt to unfit its possessor for the himible duties of a teacher's life ; the mingling, living, and conversing with, and the advising the peasants; the labori- ous and often unnoticed and unrequited labors of the school-room ; the constant ami wearying struggle with sloth, ignorance, filth, bad habits, and immorality ; with the opposition of the prejudiced, and the ignorance of the uneducated parents ; with the misrepresentations of his scholars ; and with the neglect of the community. The learned teacher has all this, and more than this, to contend with. lie finds himself in such a situation, having received an education fitting him for a very different sphere of action, deserving much higher emolument, and inclining him to seek a very ditYerent kind of employment. Such a man, if he has received only an intellectual training, is sure, sooner or later, to fly fi-om his profession, and seek out an employment more congenial to his newly acquired tjistes, or, if he remains at his post, he remains discontented, and, by discontent, totally unfitted to perform his duties aright. Now the Prussian and the German normal colleges have avoided this difficulty in the following manner : They give the teachers a very high intellectual educa- tion, but they give them something more : they educate their habits also ; they accustom the yoUng men, whilst they are in the colleges, to the most laborious and most menial duties ; to combine high intellectual endowments with the per- formance of the humblest duties of a peasant's life ; and to acquire high literary attainments whilst living on a peasant's diet, wearing a peasant's dress, and labor- ing harder than any peasant is ever called upon to do. When, therefore, the students leave the colleges, they find their positions, as village teachers, situations of less labor, of less real drudgery, and of more comfort, than those which they formerly occupied in the colleges. By these means, their sympathies for the labors and simplicity of the class, from which they sprung are cherished, whilst the labors of the class-room are rendered light and easy by comparison with the labors and daily duties of the normal college. Thus, the college does not engen- der discontent, but braces the young teacher to his work, and prepares him to encounter it with pleasure. The education given in the normal colleges of Germany and Switzerland may then be said to consist of two distinct parts : 1st. The intellectual training. 2d. The industrial training. 1st. The Intellectual Training. — This, I have before said, is of a very high character. I have shown what knowledge a young man must have acquired, before he can gain admittance into a normal college. This is only the ground- work of his education in the college. During his three year's residence he con- tinues his studies in — Biblical history, I Luther's catechism, The history of Christianity, | RcaiJiug, writing, aritlimetic, and grammar. PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. , |gY lie furthei" enters upon a new and regular course of study in — Pedagogy, Singing and chanting, Drawing, The violin, piano-forte, and organ. Geography, History, Natural history, Botany, The physical sciences, Besides these subjects of study, the young men generally learn the Latin and French languages, and very often the English also. I met several teachers who knew all three. These latter acquirements are not, howevei', required ; but with- out the former, a yoimg man could not obtain a teachers diploma, or officiate in any school as a teacher, nor would he be accepted by the inhabitants of a parish. The first two years of a teacher's residence in the normal college are devoted almost exclusively to these studies-, the third year is divided between them and the daily practice of teaching in the model schools, connected with the college. Here they first practice as teachers, under the eye and direction of an experi- enced professor, who is able to sliow them how to impart knowledge in the best manner, an.l how to manage and direct all the minutite of school discipline. Those wlio imagine, that any one is fit for the performance of these duties without any preparation, show themselves as ignorant of the duties of a teacher, as they are careless about the improvement and happiness of the people. Besides the subjects of instruction I have noticed, the law requires, that each student shall be taught how to distinguish poisonous herbs ; what are, and how to use, the antitodes of different poisons ; how to treat the more common acci- dents which laborers are liable to meet with ; au'l what remedies and treatment to make use of in cases of scalds, burns, and bites of mad dogs. The teachers are required to impart this instruction to the scholars of the primary schools, so that every person n)ay be capable of acting for himself and without delay, in cases of such daily occurrence, and where a short delay in administering a simple and necessary remedy often proves fatal. The teacher is thus qualified in simple cases to act as the village doctor ; and in country villages, where no surgeon or medical adviser lives wi#iin many miles, the teacher's medical knowledge proves invaluable, both to himself and to the people, among whom he dwells. As the uneducated always esteem a man much more if he exhibits a knowledge of the practical arts and appliances of life, the benefit and use of which they can understiind, than for any reputation he may have of learning, of the use of which they have generally but a vague idea ; so this practical knowledge of the teachers tends greatly to raise them in the estima- tion and respect of their poorer neighbors, and by this means to give greater infiuence and effect to their advice and teachings. 2d. The Industrial Training.— This consists, generally, of the performance of all the ordinary household work, preparing the meals, taking care of the sleeping apartments, pruning the fruit-trees, and cultivating, in the lands always attached to the colleges, the vegetables necessary for the use of the household. The students are required to rise at five o'clock, and to retire to rest by ten at the latest ; and in turn to wait upon the professors and on one another ; to ring the bell for classes, &c. ; to puinp the water required for the daily use of the establishment ; to go to the post-office for letters ; and to teach in the class-rooms of the village school attached to the college. The whole of every day is occupied by the regular routine of these duties, and by attendance at the lectures of the principal and the professors. There is no unoccupied time, and therefore, no time for the formation of idle or immoral habits. The college course is a laborious, severe, but healthy course of life ; bracing up the mind, the body, and the habits, to the exertions of the future career. It is a more than Spartan discipline. Every year, during its continuance, the young men are rigorously examined, to see whether they are making such progress in their studies, as to afford satisfac- tory reason for hoping that, at the end of their course of study, they will be able to succeed in gaining a diploma or certificate of competence. AVhen it is found that a young man is incapable, or idle, and that his progress is not such as to insure his probable success in the iiiial examination fur diplomas, he is removed from the college, to make room for some more worthy recipient of the national bounty, and of some more worthy candidate for the teacher*' pvofeesion. IQQ PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. This training continues, as I have said before, for three years in most of the Prussian colleges. During the whole of this time the young men are urged and stimulated to the greatest exertion, by the knowledge that, at the end of it, they will have to submit to a severe and searching public examination, conducted in the presence of the educational magistrates of the county, of the religious min- isters, and of the professors of the college ; and that on the results of that exam- ination, and on the manner in which they succeed in it, their admission into the teachers' profession, and their future course of life, entirely depend. Unless they can pass this final examination creditably, they can not become teachers ; and even if they do pass it, the value of the situation, to which they may be afterward appointed, depends entirely on the degree of efficiency and diligence which they display at the examination. Every year at a certain period, fixed and publicly announced beforehand, a meet- ing is held in each normal college, by the director and professors of the college, and by the religious ministers and the educational magistrates of the country, at which all the young men, who have been three years in the college, are sum- moned to attend, for the purpose of being e.xamined in all the subjects, in which they have received instruction, during their residence in the college. This exam- ination generally lasts two days. The young men who have completed their third years' residence in the college are then examined in — 1. Biblical history, I 8. Natural history, 2. The history of Christianity, 9. IJolany, 3. Luther's Catechism, j 10. The physical sciences, 4. Rt^arlins, writing, and arithmetic, | 11. Pedajiogy, and class management, 5. Grammar, . 12. Siiifring and chanting, 6. Geography, local and physical, 13. Drawing, 7. History, | 14. The organ, the piano-forte, and the violin. According to the manner, in which each student acquits himself in this examin-^ ation, he I'eceives, as I have before shown, a diploma marked '' 1," "2," or "3," or else is rejeoted, i. e. refused admittance into the teachers" profession, on the ground of incompetency. Jf a student has succeeded so well in his examination, as to gain a diploma marked " 1," he is qualified to take a situation in any school as principal teacher, and to enter at once into the highest and most lucrative situations in the country. This diploma is a guarantee to all to whom he shows it, that he is a young man of good ability, high character and great attainments, and fit to be intrusted with the education of any children of any class in the comnmnity. If a student obtains a diploma marked " 2," or " 3," he can not, as I have before shown, for the first two or three years, take any situation as principal teacher in a school, but can only officiate as assistant teacher until, by further study and diligent application, he has qualified himself to attend another of the general annual examinations, and has there succeeded in obtaining one of the first diplo- mas. Those students who obtain the diplomas marked " 3," are obliged to return the following year, to the college examination, and, if they do not give proofs of having improved themselves, in the interim, in the branches of education in which they were deficient, they are generally, deprived of tlieii; diplomas altogether. Any person, whether he has been educated at a normal college or not, may pre- sent himself at one of them, at the time when the great annual examinaticm is held, and may demand to be examined for a diploma. If he shows a requisite amount of knowledge, and can produce all the certificates of character, health, &c., which are required of the other students at their entrance into the normal college, he may, equally with the rest, obtain his diploma, and afterward officiate as a teacher. But no person without a diploma, i. e., without having given to the country un- deniable proofs of high character, well regulated temper, high attainments, and a thorough knowledge of the science of pedagogy, is permitted to officiate as teacher in Prussia. The connecfion of a German teacher with the normal college does not, however, close when he has obtained a diploma marked " 1," and when he has entered upon his duties as a parochial teacher. The principal of the normal college is commanded by the laws, to pay at least, one yearly visit of inspfection to each of the teachers, who have been educated in PRUSSIAN TEACHERS. ] gg his colleges. The expense of these journeys of inspection, advice and encourage- ment is borne by the state, or rather, as indet-d a great part of the expenses of the normal college itself, by the provincial magis^trates. If on these tours of in- spection, he perceives that any one or more of the teachers requires some further instruction or practice in any department of school instruction ; if he perceives, that a teacher, has allowed his knowledffe of any branch of instruction to lag behind the progress of the science of pedagogy, or to grow dull from want of exercise ; or if the teacher should himself require it, the principal is empowered to remove the teacher for a few months to the normal college, and during the interim, to fill up his place with a young student, or with some young teacher, who has not yet obtained a situation. All the extra expenses, attendant upon this re- moval, as, for instance, the payment of the young substitute, as well as the keeping of the teacher himself during his renewed sojourn in the college, are defrayed by the provincial government. The teacher's salary continues to be paid by the school committee, and serves to support his family during his absence. The normal college in Prussia is, so to speak, the home of all the teachers of the district, in which it is situated. They know they can always apply there for advice ; that they will always find friends there, ready to sympathi7.e with them and to render them assistance ; and that the director and professors understand all their difficulties, and are always able and willing to aid them in obtaining a remedy from the superior authorities. The college is thus the protector and the adviser of the teachers ; it is their refuge in all troubles ; it is the central point for their meetings and reunions ; and it is the place, from which they can, at all times, gain every kind of necessary information, respecting the various objects connected with their profession. They can see there all the best and newest works on the different branches of pedagogy ; all the lately improved apparatus and materials for school instruction ; and all the more recently adopted methods of teaching. They can obtain information there about the general progress of education in general, and of the different arts and sciences in particular ; about their old friends and associates ; and about the character and efliciency of partic- ular books, schools, and methods of instruction. I can not speak too highly of these great and liberal institutions. Tlie spirit in which they have been conceived, is so liberal ; the way in which they have been endowed, is so munificent ; their tone and teaching are so truly healthy and patri- otic ; they are so free fi-om the ignorant cant of dogmatism and from the narrow minded feeling of pedantry ; their discipline is so severely moral and so invigor- ating ; their domestic life is so simple, laborious, and happy in its arrangements ; and they are so entirely in unison with the religious institutions of the country, that no one can visit them without profound satisfaction. Normal schools or teachers' seminaries in Prussia, are divided into pubhc or private, superior or chief seminaries, {Hanpt Seminaire,) and secondary, or small seminaries, (Neber, ornebeusen Seminaire.) By a chief seminary was originally understood such seminaries as were com- pletely organized according to the requirements of the laws. After- wards they were distinguished by the fact, that a special commission of examination was appointed for them, to which commission the director and head teacher belonged. But by recent regulation, a commission for this purpose is appointed to the small, and even the private, as well as to the superior seminaries. They differ pow only by the number of pupils ; and in a few instances, the smaller seminaries require a shorter residence, and train teachers exclusively for country schools. Private seminaries are encouraged, because the annual graduates of the public institutions can not yet supply the annual vacancies in the schools created by deaths, withdrawal, and dismission. In addition to the seminaries in- cluded in the following table, there are five institutions for female teachers, viz. : at Berlin, Kaieersworth, Munster, Paderborn and Marienweider. 190 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. Table n. — location and number of pcpils of normal schools, in 1846. Province. Regency District, Place where located. E ■5, CM d Z "■3 •3 -a J 1 1 13 1 c d Prussia, Konigsberg, K.6nigsbeig, Braunsberg, Eylau. 28 53 70 4 5 P. c. 1809 1810 30 20 10 Gumbinnen, Angetberg, Karalene, 38 70 3 p. p. 1829 1811 25 Danzig, Marienwerder, Marienburg, Graudenz, 53 96 6 C.6£F. C, &P. 1814 1816 46 59 Posen, Posen, Posen, Paradies, 100 78 10 C. 1804 1838 18 70 Bromberg, Bromberg, Trzemessno, 30 15 4 2 P, P. 1819 1829 30 Brandenburg, Potsdam, Berlin, Potsdam, 34 98 3 1 P, P, 1830 1748 Frankfort, Neuzelle, Alt-Dobern, 120 104 10 8 P. P. 1817 10 22 88 24 Pomerania, Stettin, Stettin. Kammin, Pyritz, 50 18 15 4 2 2 P. C, P, 1735 1840 1827 50 Coslin, Stralsund, Coslin, Stralsund, 60 31 5 P, 1806 60 Silesia, Breslau, Breslau, 195 C, 1765 58 Oppeln, Liegnitz, Ober-Glogau, Buntzlau, 150 135 10 8 C. P. 1815 1816 Saxony, Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Gardelegen, 65 49 27 5 4 P. P, 1790 1778 1821 24 12 Merseburg, Eisleben, Weissenfels, Zeitz, 20 68 8 3 4 C. P, 1836 1794 23 Erfurt, Erfurt, Mtxhlhausen, Heiligenstadt, 103 6 32 C. &P, 1820 Westphalia, Munster, Minden, Langenhorst. Petershagen, Btiren, 36 34 80 3 3 5 P, P. C. 1830 1831 1825 Rhine, Amsberg, Cologne, Soest, Briihl, 42 100 4 7 P. C. 1818 1823 36 87 Diisseldort, Kempen, Meurs, 101 96 7 8 P. P. 1840 1820 30 i Coblentz, Trier, Aix-la-Chapelle, Neuwied, Treves, 36 4 P. C. 1816 30 Prior to 1846 there were two seminaries at Breslau ; in that year the Protes- tant seminary, with 130 pupils, was closed, and the pupils were provided for in two new institutions, one at Lowen, and the other at Heinau. The Small Seminary at Zeitz, was abolished in 1846, and those at Stettin, Pyritz and Kam- min, were consolidated into a Chief Seminary at Stettin. The Seminary at Potsdam, is to be transferred (in 1849) to Kopnick, in the neighborhood of Berlin, REGULATIONS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF LASTADtE AND PYRITZ, IN PRUSSIA. The following Regulations of two of the best small (nebeusen) Normal Schools are taken from M, Cousin's " Report on the State of Public Instruc- tion in some of the Stales of Germany, and especially of Prussia.''^ The author introduces them with some remarks on this class of Normal Schools in Prussia. It is no longer true that all of the smaller seminaries are private establishments. The small Normal Schools are almost all private establishments, but the government aids and watches over them, without subjecting them to the same publicity it requires of its great schools. The small Normal Schools differ, generally, from the large, not only in the number of pupils, which is much smaller, but above all as being nurser- ies of village schoolmasters for the very poorest parishes. This is their proper object ; this it is wiiich gives them so peculiar a character, so pro- found a utility. The great schools, it is true, furnish masters for the coun- try as well as for the towns ; and their pupils, — those at least who receive the stipendia, or exhibitions, — are for many years at the disposal of the gov- ernment, which sends them where it likes ; a right whicli, from the well- known rigor of the Prussian government in making all public servants work, we may be sure it exercises. But in every country there are parishes so poor, that one would hesitate to send a schoolmaster of any eminence to live in them ; and yet it is precisely these miserable villages which stand in the greatest need of instruction to improve their condition. This need, then, the small Normal Schools are destined to supply. They labor for these poor and backward villages. To this their whole organization, their studies, their discipline, are to be directed. Unquestionably, the great Nor- mal Schools of Prussia are entitled to the highest respect ; but never can there be veneration enough for these humble laborers in the field of public instruction, whof as I have said, seek obscurity rather than fome; who de- vote themselves to the service of poverty with as much zeal as others to the pursuit of riches, since they toil for the poor alone ; and who impose re- straints on every personal desire and feeling, while others are excited by all the stimulants of competition. They cost scarcely any thing, and they do infinite good. Nothing is easier to establish, — but on one condition, that we find directors and pupils capable of the most disinterested, and, what is more, the most obscure devotion to the cause. Such devotion, however, can be inspired and kept alive by religion alone. Those who can consent to live for the service of men who neither know nor can appreciate them, must keep their eyes steadfastly fixed on Heaven : that witness is necessary to those who have no other. And, accordingly, we find that the authors and direct- ors of these small schools are almost all ministers of religion, inspired by the spirit of Christian love, or men of singular virtue, fervent in the cause of popular education. In these humble institutions, every thing breathes Christian charity, ardor for the good of the people, and poverty. I shall lay before you a description of two ; — one hidden in a suburb of Stettin, and the other in the village of Pyritz in Pomeraiiia. Stettin has a large Normal School, instituted for the training of raasteri jr.j SMALL NoU.MAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. for the burgher schools. An excellent man, Mr. Bernhardt, school-councilor (Schulralh) in the council of the department, was the more powerfully struck by ihe necessity of providing for the wants of the country schools. He founded a small Normal School for this sole purpose, and placed it not in the town, but in a suburb called Lastadie; he laid down regulations for its government, which I annex nearly entire. Small Primary Normal School of Lastadie, near Stettin. 1. This school is specially designed for poor young men who intend to become country schoolmasters, and who may, in case of need, gain a part of their subsist- ence by the labor of their hands. 2. Nothing is taught here but those tilings necessary for small and poor country parishes, whicli require schoolmasters who are Christians and useful men, and can afford them but a very slender recompense for their toils. 3. This school is mtended to be a Christian school, founded in the spirit of the gospel. It aspires only to resemble a village househdid of the simplest kind, and to unite all its members into one family. To this end, all the pupils iiaiabit the same house, and eat at the same table with the masters. 4. The young men who will be admitted in preference, are such as are born and bred in the country ; who know the elements of what ought to be taught in a good country school ; who have»a sound, straightforward understanding, and a kindly, cheerful temper. If, withal, they know any handcraft, or imderstand gardening, they will find opportunities for practice and improvement in it in odd hours. 5. The school of Lastadie neither can nor will enter into any competition with the great Normal Schools completely organized ; on the contrary, it will strive always to keep itself within the narrow limits assigned to it. t). Tile utmost simplicity ought to prevail in all the habits of the school, and, if possible, manual labor should be combined with those studies which are the main object, and which ought to occupy the greater portion of the time. 7. Tlie course of instruction is designed to teach young people to reflect, and by exercising them in reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing, to put it in their power to instruct themselves, and to form their own minds. For the humblest peasant ought to be taught to think ; but to enlighten him, to make bim a ra- ti iullI and intelligent being, does not mean to make him learned. "God willeth tha't all men be enlightened, and that they come to the knowledge of the truth." 8. The instruction ought to have a direct connection with the vocation of the students, and to include only the most essential part of the instruction given in tlie great Normal Schools. 9. The objects of instruction are — religion, the German language, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing. To these are joined the first elements of geom- etry, easy lessons in natural history, narratives drawn from national history (par- ticularly that of Pomerania), and geographical descriptions. The principal object, and the foundation of all education, is religion, as learned from history and the Bible. The principal books are the Bible, the psalter, and the catechism. The school of Lastadie will also strive to excite and cherish in its pupils a love of nature, and to that end will cultivate a taste for gardening and planting. lU. In treating of all these subjects, the pupils must be trained to speak in pure and accurate language ; for after the knowledge of religion and of nature, there is nothing of which the children of peasants stand so much in need, as to learn to express what they know with simplicity, truth, and accuracy. IL The students know enough, when they speak, read, and write well; when they can produce a good composition in the German tongue ; when they can cal- culate with facility and with reflection, and when they sing well ; they know enough when they are thoroughly versed in the Bible, when they possess the most essential notions of the system of that universe which they have constantly before their eyes, of that nature in the midst of which they live : they have at- tained much, when they are Christian, rational, and virtuous men. 12. The period of study is fixed at two years. The first year the pupils learn what they are hereafter to teach to others ; besides which, they assist at the les- sons the masters give to the children of the school annexed to this small Normal NORMAL SCHOOL OP LASTADIE. 293 SchooL In the second year the future teacher appears more distinctly, and from that time every thing is more and more appUed to practice. They continue the whole year to practice teaching, and at the end they receive a set of rules, short and easy to understand, for the management of a school of poor country children. 13. To the school of Lastadie is joined a school of poor children, in which the young men have an opportunity of going over what they have learned, by teach- ing it to others, and of exercising themselves in tuition according to a fixed plan. This school consists of a single class, in order that the students may see how a good school for poor childi-en should be composed and conducted, and how aU the children may be kept employed at once. 14. The number of pupils is fixed at twelve. The pecuniary assistance they receive will depend on circumstances. The instruction is gratuitous. Six pupils inhabit each room. The master lives on the same floor. They take their simple but wholesome meals together. Servants are not wanted. The pupils do the work of the house. 15. The daily lessons begin and end with prayers and psalmody. It rests with the master to fix the hours of devotion (founded chiefly on the Bible and the book of Psalms), as well as their number. So long as the true spirit of Christianity — faith quickened by charity — shall pervade the establishment, and fill the hearts of masters and of pupils, the school wiU be Christian, and will form Christian teachers ; and this spkit of faith and of charity will be productive of blessings to the poor and to the mass of the nation. 16. It will not, therefore, be necessary to lay down minute regulations ; but practical moral training must be combined asftnuch ha possible with instruction. " The letter kiUeth, the spirit quickeneth." But what wiU it not require to im- bue the whole establishment with the true spirit of Christianity, so that masters and pupils may devote themselves with their whole hearts, and for the love of God, to the cliildren of the poor ? 17. \Yhoever wishes to be admitted into this estabUshment must not be un- der eighteen nor above twenty years of age. He must bring the certificates of his pastor, of the authorities of his parish, and of the physician of the circle, as to his previous conduct and the state of his health. He must, moreover, have such preUminary knowledge as is to be acquired in a well-conducted country school, on Biblical history, reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing. Those who join to these acquirements the principles of piano-forte or viohn playing, wiU be pre- ferred. The candidates for admission give notice to the director, and are exam- ined by the members of the departmental authorities who have the care of the people's schools. 18. There is no public examination. The examination on quitting is likewise coi^ducted by the school-councilors of the department, and the certificates of capacity are founded on tliis examination, according to the gradations 1, 2, 3, and are delivered by the departmental authorities. 19. As to the placing of the pupils, it is desirable that they should work some years as assistant masters, in order that they may gradually acquire the neces- sary experience and confidence, and may become well acquainted with children, and with the inhabitants of villages. tJnder this supposition, the age of admis- sion might be conveniently fixed at sixteen ; and this arrangement would be a great relief to aged schoolmasters who are become burdensome to themselves and to their parishes. 20. Particular attention is paid to singing and to horticulture ; as means of ennobling and animating the public worsliip of God, and the general course of a country life ; of providing the pupils with an agreeable recreation, and, at the same time, a useful occupation ; and, further, of combating the grossness of mind and the obstinate prejudices to which uneducated husbandmen are prone. 21. All the students attend divine service in the church of Lastadie on Sun- days. 22. The vacations must not exceed four weeks for the whole year: they are, at Easter, in the autumn, and at Christmas. 23. The establishment has no other revenues than what it owes to the bounty of the minister of public instruction. Tliese funds are employed, — 1. In maintaining the poorest students. 2. In indemnifying the assistant masters of singing and gardening. 13 194 SMALL NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 3. In paying for the school tuition. 4. In paying the expenses of lodging the students. 5. In lighting and warming the school-room and the two lodging-rooms. 6. In extraordinary expenses. The expense of the meals taken at noon and evening, in common, is also chief- ly defrayed from these grants ; the students, however, contribute a Uttle from their own means. The school of Lastadie pays the head master from its own resources. May this establishment (concludes Mr. Bernliardt), which owes its existence to such fervent charity, not be deprived of that blessing, without which it can do nothing ! Assuredly there is not a virtuous heart which does not unite its prayers with those of the worthy and benevolent councilor. The second small Normal School of this description was founded in 1824, in honor of Otto, bishop of Bamberg, who introduced Christianity into Pom- erania, having baptized 4000 Pomeranians in 1124, near the fountain of Py- ritz. When the minister of public instruction granted the license for its establishment, he made it a condition that the students should be instructed in agriculture, not merely as a recreation, but as essential to their destina- tion ; that they should be bound to study gardening, the cultivation of fruit- trees, and of silk-worms. Th'e special superintendence of this house is intrusted to the pastor of the place. The regulations are as follows : — they resemble those of Lastadie in m^y respects, but go into great detail, and are perhaps still more austere as to discipline. Rules of the small Normal School of Pyritz, in Pomerania, I. 1. The purpose of this endowment is to give to every pupil the training and instruction suitable for a good and useful country schoolmaster : this, however, can only be done by the union of Christian piety with a fundamental knowledge of his vocation, and with good conduct in the household and in the schooL 2. Piety is known — By purity of manners ; By sincerity in word and deed ; By love of God and of his word ; By love of our neighbor ; By wilHng obedience to superiors and masters ; By brotherly harmony among the pupils ; By active participation in the pious exercises of the house, and of public wor- ship; By respect for the king, our sovereign, by unshaken fidelity to our country, by uprightness of heart and of conduct. 3. A thorough knowledge of the duties of a teacher are acquired — By long study of the principles and elements ; By learning what is necessary and really useful in that vocation ; By habits of reflection and of voluntary labor ; By constant application to lessons ; By incessant repetition and practice ; By regular industry and well-ordered activity ; according to this command- ment, " Pray and work " 4. Good conduct in the house and the school requires — A good distribution and employment of time ; Inflexible order, even in what appears petty and insignificant ; Silence in hours of study and work ; Quietness in the general demeanor ; Care and punctuahty in the completion of aU works commanded ; Decent manners toward every person and in every place : decorum at meals ; Respect for the property of the school, and for all property of others ; The utmost caution with regard to fire and light ; NORMAL SCHOOL OF PYRITZ. 195 Cleanliness of person and of clothing ; Simplicity in dress, and in the manner of living ; according to the golden rule, " Every thing in its time and place. Let things have their com-se. Provide things honest in the sight of all men." — Rom. xii. 16, 17.* II. 1. All the pupils inhabit one house and one room ; for they must hve in unioD, and form one family of brothers, loving one another. 2. The whole order of the house rests on the master of the school ; he lives in the midst of the pupils ; he has the immediate superintendence of them, of their conduct, and of their labors. He ought to be to those under his care what a father of a Christian family is in liis household. He is responsible for the accounts of the establishment, the registers, the re- sult of the quarterly examinations, and for the formation of the necessary lists. He has the special care of the provisions, the rooms, the library, the furniture. He is responsible to the school-administration for good order in every department, 3. The oldest and most intelligent of the students assists the master. He is called the master's assistant. He must take care — That every one in the room under his care rises and goes to bed at the ap- pointed moment ; That nobody, without the master's permission, leave the house, smoke, or carry candles into the passages or the loft ; That no one wantonly injure the windows, doors, or furniture, or thi-ow any thing out of the windows ; That the utmost cleanhness be observed in the sitting-room, the passage, and the sleeping-room ; That all clothes, linen, books, &c., be in their places ; That no noise be made in going up and down stairs, or in going to the chil- dren's school. It is his especial business to help his companions in the preparation of their lessons, to liear them repeat, to prepare the exercises for the master, and to as- sist him as far as he can in all his business. He ought to be to his fellow-students what a good elder brother is to his younger brothers and sisters. He is chosen, on the master's recommendation, by the school-committee. 4. The humbler sort of household work, such as cleaning and putting in order the rooms, dusting the furniture, fetching water, cleaving wood, &c., is done by the pupils, who serve a week in rotation. The time of service is prolonged by order of the master, in case of negligence. 5. The order of the day is as follows : — In winter at five, in summer at half past four in the morning, at a given signal, all the pupils must rise, make their beds, and dress. Half an hour after rising, that is, at half past five in winter, and five in summer, all the pupils must be assembled in the school-room. The assistant first pro- nounces the morning benediction, and each pupil then occupies himself in silence till six. If any repetitious stand over from the preceding day, they must be heard now. After this, breakfast. In whiter, as well as in summer, the lessons begin at six o'clock, and last till a quarter before eight. Then the students go with their master to the children's school, attached to the Normal School, where they remain till ten, either listen- ing, or assisting in teaching some small classes ; or they may be employed in their own studies at home. To these employments succeeds an hour of recreation, and then an hour's les- son in the estabUshment. At noon, the students assemble in the master's room, where they find a frugal but wholesome meal, consisting of vegetables, meat, and fish, at the rate of two thalers (six shillings) a month. The time which remains, till one o'clock, may be passed in music, gardening, and walking. • I do not happen to have the French version of the Bible. The texts as quoted by M. Cousin do not agree with those in our version. Ver. 11, is rendered by Luther, Schichet euch in die Zeit, Adapt yourselves to the time ; which is not given in our version. The next clause above, I find neither in his version nor in ours. 196 SMALL NORMAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. In the afternoon, from one till three, while the master is teaching in the to-mn school, the pupils accompany liim, as in the morning. From three till five, lessons. The succeeding hours, from five till seven, are, according to the seasons, em- ployed in bodily exercises, or in the school-room in quiet occupations. At seven they assemble at a simple cold supper. From seven to eight they practice singing and the viohn ; then repetitions or silent study till ten, when all go to bed. Two afternoons of each week are free, and are usually spent in long walks. The time from four to six, or from five to seven, is devoted to the practice of music. On Sundays or holidays all the pupils must attend divine service in the church of the town, and assist in the choir. The remainder of these days may be passed by every one as he pleases : in the course of the morning, however, the students must write down the heads of the sermon (the text, the main subject, the distri- bution), and in the evening must give an account of the manner in which they have spent the day. Every evening, as well as on the mornings of Sundays and holidays, a portion of time is spent in meditation in common. A few Sundays after the setting in of winter, and after the festival of St. John (May 6th), the students partake of the Lord's Supper, in company with their masters. Every student, from the time of his admission, must solemnly engage (in token of wliich he gives liis hand to the master and signs his name) to follow the rules of the house, which may be summed up in these three principal maxims : — 1. Order in behavior and in work, combined with the utmost simplicity in all things ; to the end that the students who belong to the poorer classes, and whose destiny it is to be teachers of the poor, may willingly continue in tliat condition, and may not learn to know wants and wishes whicli they will not, and ought not to have the power of satisfying. For this reason, they must be their own servants. 2. As to the course of instruction, the repetitions must always be heard by the forwardest pupUs. Tlie pupils must be made, as much as possible, to teach each other what they have learned of the master, in order that they may perfect them- selves in the art of teacliing. 3. Piety and the fear of God should be the soul of their little commimity, but a true Christian piety, a fear of God according to knowledge and Ught, so that the pupils may do all to the glory of God, and may lead a simple, humble, and serene Ufe, resigned and contented in labor and travail, according to the exhorta- tion of the Apostle : " Fulfill ye my joy, that ye be like-minded, having the same love, being of one accord, of one mind. Let nothuig be done through strife or vain-glory ; but in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves." — Philip, ii. 2, 3. " And as many as walk according to this rule, peace be on them, and mercyj" —Oalat. vi. 16. ( I abstain from all comment on these two sets of regulations, which seem to have been dictated by the spirit of St. Vincent de Paule. The greater number of the small Normal Schools of Prussia are founded and governed in the same spirit. All rest on the sacred basis of Christianity. But be- neath their simple lowly exterior we trace a taste for instruction, a feeling for nature, a love of music, which take away every vestige of coarseness, and give these modest institutions a character of liberality. Undoubtedly all this is the offspring of the national manners, and of the genius of Germany ; yet Christian charity might transplant a good deal of it into our France ; and I should esteem myself happy, if the regulations of the little schools of Lastadie and of Pyritz were to fall into the hands of some worthy eccle- siastic, some good curate or village pastor, who would undertake such an apostolic mission as this. PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. The following account of one of the best primary Normal Schools of Prussia is abridged from the report of M. Stintz, the director of the establishment. 1. DIRECTION AND INSPECTION. The Normal School and its annexed school are placed under a director or principal, subordinate to the royal school board of the province of Bran- denburg, at Berlin, and to the minister of public instruction and ecclesias- tical and medical affairs. The last named authority lays down the principles to be followed in this school, as in all other public schools ; exacts an account of all impor- tant matters, such as the examination of the masters, and any change in the fundamental plan of the studies ; and receives every year, through the medium of the royal school board, a detailed report, prepared by the director of the school. The school board is charged with the special inspection of the Normal School : it must watch its progress, and from time to time send commis- sioners to make inquiries on the spot. It examines also and approves the plan of studies presented every half year, and decides on all questions submitted to the consistory. The director should superintend the whole establishment, observe and direct the master and servants, make reports to the superior authorities, carry on the correspondence, &c. 2. BDILDING. The Normal School, situated near the canal and the Berlin gate, is a large edifice two stories high, with a frontage of 127 feet, and considera- ble back buildings, which, joined to the main building, form a square within which is a tolerably spacious court. The whole comprehends : 1. A family residence for the director or principal, and another for a master ; 2. Three apartments for three unmarried masters 3. An apartment for the steward and his servants, and sufficient con- venience for household business and stowage ; 4. A dining-room for the pupils, which serves also for the writing and drawing class ; 5. An organ-room, in which the music lessons are given, the examina- tions take place, and the morning and evening prayers are said ; 6. Two rooms for the scientific instruction of the pupils ; 7. Four rooms for the classes of the annexed school; 8. Five rooms of different sizes, and two dormitories for the pupils ; 9. Two infirmaries; 10. A wash-house ; 11. Two cabinets of natural history ; 13. Granaries, cellars, wood-houses, &c. 3. REVEN0ES. The annual income of this establishment amounts to $6000, which is 198 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM derived from the state fund and the tuition of the pupils, both of the Nor- mal School, and the annexed primary model school. 4. INVENTORY. The establishment contains the following articles : 1. Things required in the economy of the house, kitchen utensils, tables, forms, &c. ; 2. Sufficient and suitable furniture, consisting of chests of drawers, tables, forms, chairs and boxes, for the class of the Normal School, and the school for practice, and for the masters' rooms, &c. There is also for the poorer pupils, a certain number of bedsteads with bedding ; 3. A considerable library for the masters and pupils, as well as a good collection of maps and globes for the teaching of geography; 4. A tolerably complete collection of philosophical instruments ; 5. A collection of minerals, presented to the establishment by Council- lor Von Turck ; 6. A collection of stuffed birds, and other objects in natural history 3 7. The instruments most required in mathematical instruction; 8. Complete drawing apparatus ; 9. A very considerable collection of music; 10. A very good organ, a piano forte, seven harpsichords, and many wind and string instruments. 5. DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND MAINTENAN yE OF THE PUPILS. To support about eighty pupils, and to preserve cleanliness in the house, a steward has been appointed, whose duties are specified in a con- tract renewable every year. The food of the pupils is good and wholesome, which is proved by the state of their health. Some parents think it needful to send their chil- dren eatables, or money to purchase them. They are wrong, for the children have no such want ; on the contrary, so far from being advan- tageous, these presents only serve to take away their appetite at meals, and to make them dainty and gluttonous. The orphans, and those whose parents are too poor to send them any thing, are exactly those who are the strongest and healthiest. The director is almost always present at meals, to be sure of the good- ness of the food, and to prevent any irregularity in the serving up. Sick pupils are sent to the infirmary, and are attended by the physician or surgeon of the establishment. 6. MASTERS. There are six masters attached to this establishment in which they live, besides the director, who instructs in religion, in the principles of edu- cation, of training, of the art of teaching, and of the methods of study. 7. NUMBER OF PUPILS. The number of pupils is fixed by the regulation at from seventy to eighty, and is now seventy-eight, of whom seventy-two live in the estab- lishment; the other six have obtained a license to remain with their parents in order to lessen the expense of their maintenance. This number is determined not only by the building, but also by the wants of the province. Brandenburg contains about 1300 masterships of primary schools, in town and country. Supposing that out of a hundred places, two become vacant every year, there will be at least thirty mas- ters required for this province ; but these places for the most part pay so badly, that they are compelled to be content with but moderately qualified masters, who, perhaps, have not been educated at a Normal School, and who sometimes follow some trade or handicraft. If then, the Normal School contains seventy-eight pupils who form three classes, one of which PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. jgg quits annually, it will furnish each year twenty-six candidates, which about meets the wants of tlie country. / 8. WHAT IS REQ0IRED OF APPLICANTS FOR ADMISSION. /Once a year, at Michaelmas, twenty-six pupils are admitted. Of these are required — 1. Good health and freedom from all bodily infirmity. (Obstacles to admission would be, exceeding smallness of stature, short-sightedness, or a delicate chest ;) 2. The age of seventeen complete ; 3. The evangelical religion; 4. A moral and religious .spirit, and a conduct hitherto blameless ; 5. A good disposition and talents, among which are a good voice and a musical ear ; 6. To be prepared for the studies of the Normal School by the culture of the heart and mind; to have received a good religious education (which shall include a knowledge of the Bible and biblical history ;) to be able to read ; to know the grammar of the German language, of compo- sition, arithmetic, the principles of singing, the piano forte and violin. A written request for admission must be sent to the director, by June at the latest, accompanied with — 1. A certificate of birth and baptism ; 2. A school certificate, and one of good conduct; 3. A police certificate, stating the condition of the young man or his father, or else a written declaration from the father or guardian, stating the time within which he can and will pay the annual sum fixed by law ; i.e. 48 thaler (61. 16s.) The director enters the petitioners on a list, and in the month of June or July invites them, by letter, to present themselves at the examination which takes place in July or August. . The examination is conducted partly in writing, and partly viva voce J ^">' As a means of ascertaining the acquirements of the candidates, and of judging of their memory, their style, and their moral dispositions, an an- ecdote or parable is related in a clear and detailed manner, summing up and repeating the principal points, after which they produce it in writing, with observations and reflections. The oral examination usually includes only rehgion, reading, grammar, logical exercises, and arithmetic. They are also examined in singing, the piano forte and the violin. After the examination, the talents and merits of the respective candid- ates are conscientiously weighed and compared, in a conference of the masters. The choice being made, it is submitted to the sanction of the royal school board, with a detailed report of the result of the examination. At the end of some weeks the candidates are informed of the decision ; their admission is announced, or the reasons which prevent it stated ; with either advice to give up their project entirely, or suggestions relative to their further preparation. The admitted candidate is bound to bring, besides his clothes and books, among which must be the Bible and the prayer-book used in the establishment, half a dozen shirts, six pair of stockings, a knife and fork, and, generally, a bedstead with all requisite bedding. .^' He is also bound to sign, on his entrance, the following engagement to the director, with the consent of his father or guardian. COPY OP THE ENGAGEMENT WITH THE DIRECTOR TO BE SIGNED BY THE PUPIL ON HIS ENTRANCE. "I, the undersigned, N of N , by these presents, Wnd my- self, conformably with the ordinance of the royal minister ol' public in- 200 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. Btruction, and ecclesiastical and medical affairs, dated February 28th, 1825, with the consent of my father (or guardian) who signs this witli me, to place myself during three years after my leaving the Normal School, at the disposal of the king's government ; and consequently not to subscribe any thing contrary to this engagement; or, in such case, to refund to the Normal School the expenses incurred by the state for my instruction, namely : '1. Ten thaler for each half y^ar passed in the Normal School, and for the instruction received in this period of time ; ' 2. The whole amount of the grants and exhibitions I may have re- ceived ; ' Potsdam, the &c." The applicant rejected, but not advise'd to choose another course, is summoned to a fresh examination the following year. The number of applicants having been lor some time past very great, the author of this report thinks it his duty to warn parents, (especially schoolmasters,) whose children do not evince talent and have not a deci- ded taste for teaching, not to suffer them to lose the precious time which they might employ with much more success in some other career. This respects chiefly the poor youths who can have no claim to the ex- hibitions, unless they give proofs of an extraordinary capacity, from which the state and society may derive a real advantage. The Normal School is by no means designed for those who are unfit for any business, and think, if they can read and write, they are capable of becoming schoolmasters. This notion is so deeply rooted, that you hear fathers declare with all the simplicity in the world — " My son is too deli- cate to learn a business," or "I don't know what to make of my son, but I think of getting him into the Normal School." We reply to such, that the pupils of the Normal School must, on the contrary, be sound both in body and mind, and able to brave the toils and troubles of a career as laborious as it is honorable. Much neglect unfortunately still exists on a subject which is of the highest importance, — the methodical preparation of these young men for the calling it is desired they should embrace. A false direction is often given to their preliminary studies. A young man is believed to be well prepared for the Normal School, if he have passed the limits of elementary instruction, and if he have acquired a greater mass of knowledge than other pupils. It frequently happens, however, that candidates who come strongly recommended from school, pass the examination without credit, or are even rejected. The most immediate and the most important aim of all instruction, is to train up and complete the Man ; to ennoble his heart and character ; to awaken the energies of his soul, and to render him not only disposed, but able, to fulfil his duties. In this view alone can knowledge and talents profit a man ; otherwise, instruction, working upon sterile memory and talents purely mechanical, can be of no high utility. In order that the teacher, and particularly the master of the primary school, may make his pupils virtuous and enlightened men, it is necessary he should be so himself Thus, that the education of a Normal School, essentially practi- cal, may completely succeed, the young candidate must possess nobleness and purity of character in the highest possible degree, the love of the true and the beautiful, an active and penetrating mind, the utmost precision and clearness in narration and style. Such above all things are the qualities we require of young men. If they have reached this state of moral and intellectual advancement by the study of history, geography, mathematics, &c., and if they have ac- quired additional knowledge on these various branches, we can not but give them applause ; but, we frankly repeat, we dispense with all these PRIMARY NORiMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. 201 acquirements, provided they possess that formal instruction of which we have just spoken, since it is very easy for them to obtain in the Normal School that material instruction in which they are deficient. It is nevertheless necessary to have some preliminary notions, seeing that the courses at the Normal School are often a continuation of foregone studies, and that certain branches could not be there treated in their whole extent, if ihey were wholly unknown to the young men when they enter- ed. We have already mentioned the branches they should be most par- ticularly prepared in; but this subject being of the greatest interest, we shall conclude this chapter with some suggestions on the plan to be fol- lowed. I. Religion. To awaken and fortify the religious spirit and the moral sentiments. For this purpose the histories and parables of the Bible are very useful. Frequent reading and accurate explanation of the Bible are necessary. The pupils should be able to explain the articles of faith, and the most important duties, as laid dowfi in the catechism. Many sen- tences, whole chapters and parables from the Holy Scriptures, hymns and verses, should be known by heart ; they should be able to give answers on the most interesting points of the history of the church and the Reform- ation. II. As to general history, there ia no need of its being circumstantially or profoundly known ; but the young men should be able to refer with exactness to those historical facts wiiich may be profitably used to form the heart, to exercise and rectify the judgment, to infuse a taste for all that is grand and noble, true and beautiful. III. Geometry (the study of forms) combined with elementary drawing., the one as a basis for instruction in writing and drawing, and as a pre- paration for the mathematics ; the other to exercise the hand, the eye and the taste. IV. Writing. The copies by Henrich and Henning only ought to be used, which, after long practice, give and preserve abeautitul hand, even when writing fast and much. V. Logical Exercises. These ought to tend to produce in young minds clearness and accuracy of ideas, justness of judgment, and, by con- sequence, precision and lacility in oral and written explanations. VI. Reading. When once the pupil can read fluently, he must be taught to give emphasis to his reading, and to feel what he reads. He should be habituated to recite, and even gradually to analyze the phrases and periods he has just read, to change the order, and express the same idea in different words, — to put, for example, poetry into prose, &c. Thus these exercises serve at the same time to teach him to think, and to speak. We advise also that he be made to declaim pieces he has learnt by heart. VII. German language and composition. Language should be re- garded and treated on the one hand as a means o? formal instruction. — as practical logic ; and on the other as an indispensable object of material instruction. VIII. Arithmetic. This does not include either methods of abstruse calculation or practical arithmetic. Nothing more is required of the pupil than to use figures without difficulty, and to calculate in his head. IX. Singing, pianoforte, violin. The formation of the voice and ear. Skill and firmness in producing sounds. Exercises in elementary sing- ing. Psalmody. ° For the piano forte and violin, as much dexterity as can be expected, and a good fingering for the former instrument. If these suggestions have the effect of inducing a conscientious master to train well even a few young candidates, they will have attained their object. 202 PRIMARY NORiMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. The enumeration of a great number of works from which assistance may be derived, at least facilitates the choice. 9. OUTWARD CONDITION OF THE PUPILS; AND THE NATURE OF THEIR CON- NECTION WITH THE NORMAL SCHOOL, If the young men have no relations at Potsdam who can answer for their good conduct and application, they are all, without exception, bound to live in the Normal School, and to take their food there, paying to the director the sum of twelve thaler (1/. 16s.) per quarter. Each pupil costs the establishment 100 thaler a year. In paying, therefore, the yearly sum of forty-eight thaler, required by law, he defrays only halt' his expenses. A bursar is entitled to lodging, firing, board, candles, and instruction. A half bursar pays only twenty-four thaler a year. He has then only to buy his clothes, to pay for his washing, his books, paper, pens, ink, and whatever is wanted for music and drawing. With respect to lodging, they are distributed into five large rooms, with stoves, appropriated to the pupils ; and they live and work, to the number of eight, twelve, or sixteen, in one of these rooms, which is furnished with tables, chairs, drawers, book-cases, bureaus, and piano fortes. Their beds and chests are put in two dormitories. Each sitting-room, each bed-room, has its inspector, chosen from among the pupils, who is respon- sible for its order. It is the duty of one of the pupils belonging to the chamber to arrange and dust the furniture every day. Neglect in the fulfilment of liis otfice is punished by the continuance of it. So long as the pupils remain at the Normal School, and behave with propriety, they are exempt from military service. AH the pupils are bound to pursue the course of the Normal School for three years ; their acquirements and instruction would be incomplete if they did not conform to this regulation. 10. EDUCATION OF THE PUPILS BY MEANS OF DISCIPLINE AND OF IN- STRUCTION. In the education of the masters of primary schools the wants of the people must be consulted. A religious and moral education is the first want of a people. Without this, every other education is not only without real utility, but in some respects dangerous. If, on the contrary, religious education has taken firm root, intellectual education will have complete success, and ought on no account to be withheld from the people, since God has endowed them with all the faculties for acquiring it, and since the cultivation of all the powers of man, secures to him the means of reaching perfection, and, through that, supreme happiness. To sustain and confirm the religious and moral spirit of our pupils, we adopt various means. We take particular care that they go to church every Sunday: they are not compelled to attend exclusively the parish church of the Normal School ; but on the Monday they are required to name the church they went to, and to give an account of the sermon. Every Sunday, at six o'clock in the morning, one of the oldest pupils reads, in turn, a sermon, in the presence of all the pupils and one master. At the beginning and end they sing a verse of a psalm, accompanied on the organ. A prayer, about ten or fifteen minutes long, is offered up every morning and night, by one of the masters. They begin with sing- ing one or two verses ; then follows a religious address, or the reading of a chapter from the Bible, and, in conclusion, another verse. To obtain amoral influence over the pupils, we consider their individual position, their wants, and their conduct. Much aid in this respect is de- rived from the weekly conferences of the masters, and particularly trom the quarterly report ( Censur) of the pupils, or judgment on the applica- PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. 203 tion, progress, and conduct of each. This is written in a particular book, called the report-book ( Cerisurbuch,) and forms the basis of the certificates delivered to the pupils on their leaving the establishment ; as well as of private advice given at the time. The means of correction adopted, are, warnings, exhortations, repri- mands ; at first privately, then at the conference of the masters ; lastly, before all the pupils. If these means do not suffice, recourse is had to confinement, to withdrawing the stipendia or exhibitions, and in the last resort, to expulsion. But we endeavor, as much as possible, to prevent these punishments, by keeping up a friendly intercourse with the pupils, by distinguishing the meritorious, by striving to arouse a noble emula- tion, and to stir up in their hearts the desire of gaining esteem and respect by irreproachable conduct. It is on the interest given to the lessons that especially depends the application of study out of class. Certain hours of the day are consecra- ted to private study, and each master by turns takes upon himself to see that quiet is maintained in the rooms, and that all are properly occupied. At the end of each month, the last lesson, whatever the branch of in- struction, is a recapitulation, in the form of an examination, on the sub- jects treated of in the course of the month. As to the branches of knowledge taught, and the course of study, the following is the fundamental plan : In the first year for inal instruction predominates : in the second, mate- rial instruction ; in the third, practical instruction* The pupils iiaving then about ten lessons a week to give in the annexed school, (lessons for which they must be well prepared,) follow fewer courses in the school. Our principal aim, in each kind of instruction, is to induce the young men to think and judge for themselves. We are opposed to all mechani- cal study and servile transcripts. The masters of our primary- schools must po.ssess intelligence themselves, in order to be able to awaken it in their pupils; otherwise, the state would doubtless prefer the less expen- sive schools of Bell and Lancaster. We always begin with the elements, because we are compelled to ad- mit, at least at present, pupils whose studies have been neglected ; and because we wish to organize the instruction in every branch, so as to afford the pupils a model and guide in the lessons wliich they will one day be called upon to give. ^ With respect to material instruction, we regard much more the solidity, than the extent, of the acquirements. This not only accords with the in- tentions of the higher authorities, but reason itself declares that solidity of knowledge alone can enable a master to teach with efficacy, and carry forward his own studies with success. Thus, young men of delicate health are sometimes exempted from certain branches of study, such as the mathematics, thorough bass, and natural philosophy. Gardening is taught in a piece of ground before the Nauen gate; and swimming, in the swimming-school established before the Berlin gate, during the proper season, from seven to nine in the evening. Practical instruction we consider of the greatest importance. All the studies and all the knowledge of our pupils would be fruitless, and the Normal School would not fulfil the design of its institution, if the young teachers were to quit the establishment without having already methodically applied what they had learned, and without knowing by experience what they have to do, and how to set about it. * Formal instruction consists of studies calculated to open the mind, and to inculcate on the pu- pils good methods in every branch, and the feeling of what is the true vocation of a primary teacher. Material instruction, or more positive instruction, occupies the second year, in which the pupils go through the special studies of every solid kind, much of which they may never he called upou to teach. Practical instruction, or instruction in the art of teaching, occupies the third year. 204 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. To obtain this result, it is not sufficient that the younger men should see the course gone through under skillful masters, or that they should themselves occasionally give lessons to their school-fellows; they must have taught the cliildren in the annexed school for a long time, under the direction of the masters of the Normal School. It is only by familiarizing themselves with the plan of instruction for each particular branch, and by teaching each for a certain time themselves, that they can acquire the habit of treating it with method. 11. ANNEXED SCHOOL. The annexed school was founded in 1825, and received gratuitously from 160 to 170 boys. The higher authorities, in granting considerable funds for the establishment of this school, have been especially impelled by the benevolent desire of securing to the great mass ot"poor children in this town the means of instruction, and of relieving the town from the charge of their education. The town authorities agreed, on their part, to pay the establishment one thaler and five silber-groschen (3s. 6c/.) a year for each child. On this condition we supply the children gratuitously with the books, slates, &c. which they want. The annexed school is a primary school, which is divided into four classes, but reckons only three degrees: the second and third classes are separated from each other only tor the good of the pupils, and for the purpose of affording more practice to the young masters. The first class, with the two above it, forms a good and complete ele- mentary school ; while the highest presents a class of a burgher school, where the most advanced pupils of the Normal School, who will probably be one day employed in the town schools, give instruction to the cleverest boys of the annexed school. The most advanced class of the students of the Normal School to be employed in the school for practice, is divided into five cxBtus, or divisions, each composed of five or six pupils. Each division teaches two subjects only during two months and a half, and then passes on to two other sub- jects ; so that each has practical exercise in all the matters taught, in succession. As far as possible, all the classes of the school for practice attend to the same subject at the same hour. The master of the Normal School, who has prepared the young masters beforehand, is present during the lesson. He listens, observes, and guides them during the lessons, and afterward communicates his observations and his opinion of the manner in which the lesson was given. Each class has a journal for each branch of in- struction, in which what has been taught is entered after the lesson. As far as possible, the young master who is to give the next lesson, witnesses that of his predecessor. By this means, and particularly through the special direction of the whole practical instruction by a master of the Normal School, the connection and gradation of the lessons is completely secured. It is requisite that every pupil of the Normal School should teach all the branches in the lowest class in succession ; for the master of a primary school, however learned he may be, is ignorant of the most indispensable part of his calling, if he can not teach the elements. 12. DEPARTURE FROM THE NORMAL SCHOOL ; EXAMINATIONS ; CERTIFI- CATE AND APPOINTMENT. The pupils quit the Normal School after having pursued the course for three years ; for the lengthening of their stay would be an obstacle to the reception of new pupils. But they must first go through an examination in writing and viva voce, PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. 205 as decreed by the ordinance of the minister of public instruction and ec- clesiastical and medical affairs, of which we give an abstract: " 1. All the pupils of the primary Normal Schools in the kingdom shall go through an examination on leaving. 2. The examinations shall be conducted by all the masters of the Normal School, on all the subjects taught in the house, i-n the presence and under the direction of one or more commissioners delegated by the provincial school board. 3. Every pupil, before leaving, shall give a probationary lesson, to show to what degree he possesses the art of teaching. 4. After the examination Is over, and exact accounts of the pupils leaving are given by the director and all the masters, a certificate shall be delivered to each pupil, signed by the director, the masters and the commissioners. 5. This certificate shall specify the knowledge and talents of the pupil ; it shall state whether he possesses the art of teaching, and whether his moral character renders him fit for the office of primary schoolmaster. It shall include, besides, a general opinion of his character and attainments, expressed by one of the terms, 'excellent,' 'good," passable,' and answer- ing to the numbers 1, 2, 3. 6. This certificate only gives the pupil a provisional power of receiv- ing an appointment for three years. After that time he must undergo a new examination at the Normal School. But any pupil who, on leaving the establishment, obtained number 1, and has, in the course of the three first years, been teacher in a public school, shall not have to pass another examination. No others can take a situation, except provisionally. 7. These new examinations shall not take place at the same time as those of the pupils who are leaving ; but, like those, always in the pres- ence and under the direction of the commissioners of the school board. 8. In the first examinations the principal object is, to ascertain if the pupils have well understood the lessons of the Normal School, and learn- ed to apply them ; in the last, the only object of inquiry is the practical skill of the candidate. 9. .The result of this new examination shall likewise be expressed in a certificate, appended to the first, and care shall be taken to specify therein the fitness of the candidate for the profession of schoolmaster." For which reason, the pupils on their departure receive a certificate, the first page of which describes their talents, character and morality, and the two following contain an exact account of the result of the examination on all branches of study. Those who have not obtained appointments in the interval between the two examinations, shall present this certificate to the superintendents and school-inspectors of the places where they live, and, on leaving that place, shall demand a certificate of conduct, which_they shall produce at the time of the second examination. Those who have been in situations during the three first years, shall produce certificates from their immedi- ate superiors. All the pupils can not be appointed immediately on their leaving the school : but a great number of them are proposed by the director for va- cant places, and are sought after by the royal government, by superin- tendents, magistrates, &c. ; so that at the end of a year we may calculate that they are all established. M. Cousin, in his '■^Report on Public Instruction in Prussia" after publishing the foregoing account, remarks : " I can answer for the perfect fidelity of this description of the Normal School of Potsdam. I saw this scheme in action. The spirit which dictated the arrange- 206 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT POTSDAM. ment and distribution of the tuition is excellent, and equally pervades all the details. The Normal course, which occupies three years, is compos- ed, for the first year, of studies calculated to open the mind, and to incul- cate on the pupils good methods in every branch, and the (eehng of what is the true vocation of a primary teacher. This is what is called the formal instruction, in opposition to the material or more positive instruc- tion of the second year, in which the pupils go through special studies of a very solid kind, and learn considerably more than they will generally be called upon to teach. The third year is entirely practical, and is devoted to learning the art ofteaching. This is precisely the plan which I take credit to myself for having followed in the organization of the studies of the great central Normal School of Paris, for the training of masters for the royal and communal colleges. At Potsdam, likewise, the third year comprises the sum of the two preceding, and the pupils are already re- garded as masters. In this view there is a primary school annexed to the Normal School, in whicll the students in their third year give lessons, under the superintendence of the masters of the Normal School. The childrer^who attend this primary school pay, or rather the town pays for them, only four thaler (12s.) a year; there are 170. They are divided, according to their progress, into four classes, which are taught by the twenty or five and twenty students, or apprentice masters, in their third year, with all the ardor of youth and of a new vocation. I was present at several of these lessons, which were extremely well given. A master of the Normal School frequently attends one of the classes, and, when the lesson is finished, makes observations to the young masters, and gives them practical lessons, by whjch they can immediately profit. As appears from the prospectus, the musical instruction is carried to a very high point. There are few students who have not a violin, and many of them leave the school very good organists and piano forte play- ers. Singing is particularly cultivated. The course of instruction em- braces not only a little botany, mineralogy, physical science, natural his- tory, and zoology, but exercises in psychology and logic, which tend to give the young men the philosophy of that portion of popular education intrusted to their care. I was present at several lessons ; among others, one on history and chronology, in which, out of courtesy to me, the pupils were interrogated on the history of France, particularly during the reigns of Charles IX., and Henry III., and Henry IV., — a period of which Prot- estantism is so important a feature. The young men answered extremely well, and seemed perfectly familiar with the dates and leading facts. I say nothing of the gymnastic courses, as Prussia is the classic land of those exercises. What struck me the most was the courses, called in Germany courses of Methodik and Didaktik, as also those designated by the name of Pa- dagogik: the two former intended to teach the art of tuition, the latter the more difficult art of moral education. These courses are more partic- ularly calculated for the acting masters, who come back to perfect them- selves at the Normal School ; for which reason they are not entered in the table, or prospectus, which exhibits only the regular studies of the school. These courses are almost always given by the director, who also generally gives the religious instruction, which here comes in its proper place, — that is, first, I ought to add that all the students of the school at Potsdam had a cheerful happy air, and that their manners were very good. If they brought any rusticity to the school, they had entirely lost it. I quitted the establishment highly satisfied with the students, full of esteem for the director, and of respect for a country in which the education of the people has reached such a pitch of prosperity." P.RIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL, AT BRUHL. The Normal School at Bruhl may be regarded as a type of the establish- ment for teachers of the Catholic faith, as that at Potsdam is of the Prot- estant institutions. The following account is abridged from an annual Re- port of its principal, Mr. Schweitzer, a Catholic clergyman. " The town of Bruhl stands in a beautiful plain on the left bank of the Rhine, two leagues from Koln, three from Bonn, and a short' league from the river. It is surrounded by fertile fields and picturesque villages. Di- rectly before it majestically rises the ancient Colonia, with its numerous towers and steeples, and its colossal cathedral. It bounds the view on that side : on the right, the Siebengebirge* traces its gigantic outlines on the blue distance, and on that side presents to the eye a picture of grandeur and repose. From some neighboring hights the lover of natural beauty looks down with admiration on the plains which lie outspread before him, and the silvery luster of the majestic Rhine, which, in its ample windings, rolls peace- fully along, as if it delighted to linger in these smiling regions, while two long chains of hills seem to hold this magnificent plain in their embrace. One of these chains stretches along the left bank of the Rhine, to the Eifel Mountains, and is for that reason called the Vorgebirge — (fore or introduc- tory range) ; at the foot of this chain is Bruhl. The summit is clothed with the forest of Vill, and the undulating sides are dotted with country-houses and pretty villages, the houses of which are half hidden among fruit-trees. At the blossoming season these villages present the most delightful aspect, and help to compose a picture of enchanting variety. It is not without rea- son, then, that Bruhl was the favorite residence of the Electoral Archbishops of Koln, and in former times this little town was far more important than it now is. At the present day Bruhl consists of only 278 houses, among which are many poor mud cottages, and contains only from fourteen to fifteen hundred inhabitants. Since it ceased to be the residence of the Elect- ors, its inhabitants nearly all live by agriculture, and by a small trade. There are only two remarkable buildings, — the palace, which is abandoned, and the monastery. This latter building is occupied by the establishment under my care. '^ The monastery was formerly the nursery of the order of Franciscan fcmonks for the whole province of Koln. After the suppression of the order on the left bank of the Rhine, in 1807, Napoleon gave the monastery and its dependencies to the town of Bruhl, which, in 1812, granted them to Messrs. Schug and Schumacher for the establishment of a secondary and commercial school, whose existence closed in 1822. At the end of that year, the town ceded these buildings to the government, for the establish- ment of the primary normal school which now occupies them. 1. BUILDINGS. " The house is built in a grand style, with three stories, and in a quadran- gular form. The entrance is to the north, and leads by a small fore court, * The cluster of seven mountains nearly opposite to Bonn. 208 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. on the one side into the convent, on the other into the church, which is handsome, light, and lofty. The high altar, of artificial marble, and the organ, are much admired. On the south side are two wings, which give the buildings a handsome and palace-like appearance. From the very entrance, the cloisters are wide, with lofty vaulted roofs, cheerful and well lighted. They run quite round the building, as do the corridors over them on the first and second stories. On the ground floor we have four rooms or halls for study, and a large and very light dining-hall, which serves also for our public meetings, for study and for prayer. Beside it, are two school-rooms, and two rooms for the steward, with kitchen, offices and servants' hall in the basement story, where the porter has also his kitchen and two rooms. The establishment has a pump, abundantly supplied with fine water, near the kitchen ; a rivulet which runs under the two wings is of great importance for purposes of cleanliness. " The director occupies the eastern side of the building on the first floor ; the inspector, the left wing and a part of the southern side ; the steward has the rest of that side ; the right wing and the western side are inhabited by an ancient father and brother of the Franciscan order, — regarded as the last remnant of a once flourishing body, now extinct — and by the master of the school for practice. There are no rooms to the north, only corridors adjoin- ing the church. " The assistant masters inhabit the upper story, in which are also five hos- pital rooms to the south, and two large dormitories for the students to the east and west of the main building. A granary or loft, in good repair, runs over the whole of the building, and affords both steward and masters conve- nient stowage for their stock of grain of all kinds. " Both masters and pupils have ample reason to be satisfied with the rooms for study and for dwelling. The masters' apartments are not hand- some, it is true ; other schools have better : with a little cleaning and dec- oration they might, however, be made very comfortable. The students' dor- mitories are cheerful, and better fitted up than any I have seen in any nor- mal school ; their appearance is very neat and agreeable, with the clean beds all covered alike, which can be done only where they are furnished by the establishment. This house has only one inconvenience, — violent currents of air ; but these might, I think, be remedied. "The outside of the building is as agreeable as the inside is convenient; it is situated on the prettiest side of the town, and has no communication with any other building except the ^lalace, with which it is connected by a covered way, and by the old orangery. It has a magnificent view over a de- lightful country, a large kitchen-garden, a commodious court, and two flow- er-gardens. " The building is of stone, and consequently very substantial ; its aspect is indeed a little hoary now, but a new coat of plaster would soon give it a cheerful appearance. The roof is in good condition, and if once the build- ing underwent a thorough repair, the whole might be kept up at a very small expense. During the past year no great repairs have been done. 2. NUMBER OF STUDENTS. " The number of students is fixed at a hundred ; at this moment there are ninety-two. The object of the establishment is to train schoolmasters for the Catholic parishes of the four regencies of Coblentz, Koln, Aachen, and Dusseldorf. Its position with relation to the government is, in principle, to receive the pupils from its hands, and to render them back accomplished for their task. In the other normal schools the rule is, that the candidates for admission be examined by the schoolmasters, and by them declared fit or unfit to be either entered or immediately admitted; but here it is the cu»- PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 209 torn for them to be examined in the department they come from, without any intervention of the school, and afterward admitted by the director on the nomination of the government. On the other hand, the parting exam- ination rests with the school, under the condition of a special commissioner being present. The pupil declared fit for nomination is not subject to be re-examined by the government authorities. According to its regulations, the school is not only authorized, but obliged, at the end of the first year, to send away the pupils who are judged incapable of attaining the requisite excellence. At the tim? of the last parting examination, the school had been obliged to exerci^ this power in the case of eight pupils, which re- duced their number to ninety-two. 3. HEALTH. "The health of the students was not so good in 1824 as in the preceding year ; as sufliciently appears from the bill for medical attendance for the two years. "In 1823 this amounted to 66 thaler (91. 18s.), in 1824 to 177 thaler (26Z. lis.) But we m^st not forget that the number of pupils in the latter year, as compared with the former, was as three to two. Tliere have indeed been no contagious diseases, and few of a serious character, but frequent inflam- matory and catarrhal fevers, some intermittent and one nervous fever. In- flammatory ophthalmia, attacks on the chest, and palpitations of the heart have not been rare. The physician has paid the pupils great attention, in- deed I might almost say too much ; and I have agreed with him that he shall not order them medicines, except in cases where diet, rest, perspiration, and domestic remedies are insufficient. In order to prevent the young men from abusing the facility of applying to a physician, I have ordered that no one shall, for the future, consult him without my permission. Infectious cutane- ous diseases are avoided by having the pupils examined by the physician on their entrance, and again a week after. If any well-founded suspicions arise, separation takes place as a measure of precaution ; if the appearances of a contagious disease are certain, the pupil is sent home till perfectly cured. 4. ORDER, DISCIPLINE, AND MORALITY. " Without rigid attention to order, we could not hope for the smallest success. In an establishment composed §f various elements, like this nor- mal school, where young men who differ in language (dialect), manners, and education are gathered together, there must be rigorous obedience to rule. In domestic life, the head of the family is the rule ; and in a large es- tablishment, unquestionably those who govern are strictly bound to furnish an example to all under them. They are that spring of the great machine which cannot cease to move without stopping the whole. But it is also ne- cessary that the establishment should have its precise rules, its written code of laws. The govcrnor.s, it is true, fill the place of the law whenever it is silent ; but all, without distinction, ought to know accurately what they must do, and what they may do. For this reason, the undersigned cannot share the opinion of some very estimable teachers who think it not necessary, nor even expedient, that there be written laws for an establishment like the pri- mary normal school ; nay, that their promulgation may operate only as an incitement to break them. Laws seem to me to grow out of the very na- ture of the institution. Gather together a number of young men without laying down any rule for them ; they themselves will soon feel the neces- sity of making laws for tlie government of their intercourse with each other, and will choose one of their body as guardian of these laws. It is, then, natural, useful, and fitting that the managers and masters should make laws 14 210 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. for the school confided to them. If it be true that laws create the tempta- tion to break them, that is a reason why laws for all human society ought to be abolished. Fixed laws'-give to an institution a steady course, protect the weaker against caprice and tyranny, prevent mistakes and precipitation, and, what is more important for the future, they show in a clear and striking manner the necessity of laws for the commonwealth, and train youth to a reasonable and willing obedier.ce to them. The opinion I offer here springs from my general conviction of the utility of positive w^ritten laws, which my own experience has greatly strengthened. For in those infractions of order and discipline which have occasionally happened, I have contented myself with punishing the f;udt by reading the infringed law to the culprit, in a calm but severe manner, either in private or before all the pupils assembled ; and this punishment has never fluled of its effect. " After this digression, which I have thought it expedient to insert here, I return to the order of the house. It is our duty to make the utmost possi- ble use of the daylight, as being more healthful, more cheerful, and more perfect than lamp-light, and costing nothing. In our situation, it would be unpardonable to turn night into day. I make it a great point, too, that the young men should get the habit of rising early, so that in the evening they may lay aside all anxiety and all labor, and give themselves up to the enjoy- ment of tranquil and refreshing sleep. In summer, therefore, we rise at four, and even earlier when the days are at the longest ; in winter at six, in spring and autumn at five. In summer, I and my pupils go to bed at nine or half past, in spring and winter at ten. The pupils ring the rexeille by turns ; a quarter of an hour after, the bell rings again, and all assemble in the din- ing-hall, where the morning prayer is said ; then they all follow me to the church, where I perform the service of the holy mass. One of the students assists in the service ; the others sing the responses ; this religious act, for which we use the prayer-book and psalter of Bishop Von Hommer, is some- times mingled with singing, but rarely, because singing very early in the morning is said to be injurious to the voice and chest. All is terminated in an hour ; and the pupils, after having thus sanctified the first hour of morn- ing, return to the house, make their beds, breakfast, and then prepare for lessons, which begin at seven or at eight, according to the season. In es- tablishing this rule, I had some fears, at first, that rising so earlv and going directly into a cold church in the depth of winter, might be injurious to their health ; but I am always there before them, and I have never suffered. It may be said that I am more warmly clothed than the young men : but then they are young, their blood is warmer than mine, and that restores the bal- ance. Moreover, it cannot but be advantageous to them to hnrden them- selves, while habits of indulgence and delicacy would be extremely unfavor- able to them in their profession. On the Sundays and festivals of the church, I say mass to the students at half past eight in the morning. They sing a German mass for four voices, or simple chants and hymns ; and, on high festivals, Latin mass. During the last year, the pupils of the first class have several times executed some easy masses extremely well. But, generally speaking, I am not perfectly satisfied with our church music : not that our masters and pupils do not do their best, but we have not a suitable supply of church music. The singing in Catholic churches is subject to a particular condition : it must be connected with the acts of the mass ; it must form a whole, distinct, and yet in harmony with the mass, and moreover, must be adapted to each of the epochs of the ecclesiastical year. Now we have very little church music fit for the people. What there is, is in the hands of a few individuals, who do not choose to part with it. There is doubtless an abundance of sacred music suited to every occasion, but it is all in the most elevated style ; and to what good end should the studies of the pupils be pushed so far beyond what can be of use to them in their future sphere of PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 211 action ? Music of the highest order never can nor ought to become the property of the people. Music ought not to be cultivated as a mere grati- fication of a sense ; it ought to help to ennoble and refine the heart, and to form the moral taste. " It does not signify so much how they sing, as what they sing. In pri- mary normal schools music ought not, any more than reading, to be the principal object; it must be regarded and treated as a means toward a higher end, which is, education and moral culture. It is therefore with rea- son that the primary normal schools are required to diffuse a nobler and more worthy kind of popular sacred music ; this is, as regards music, their proper office. A good composer, who would devote himself to this object, might acquire immortal honor. It is to be wished that the higher authori- ties, particularly of the church, would encourage composers who show a genius for sacred music, to fill this chasm. In these remarks I have in view, it is true, only the Catholic church. It is quite otherwise with the Protest- ant, which possesses a great store of psalms ; there is only to choose what are appropriate to the sermon. This greatly f{icilitates the task of the Prot- estant normal schools. In the Catholic worship, on the contrary, the sermon is only a subordinate part of a higher whole, with which the singing must harmonize, adapting itself to the different important moments, and hence the scarcity of simple counterpoint fit for the purpose. To attain the pro- posed end, we ought to have, not only a good organist, but also an able composer, which it is not easy to find. I return to the order of the day. " As the day begins with prayer, so it ends with it. A quarter of an hour or half an hour before going to bed, all the pupils assemble, at the sound of the bell, for evening devotions. A short portion of the holy scripture is read, and after enlarging more or less on a text, and recommending it to im- itation, I conclude by a prayer. During the past year I preached a homilet- Ical discourse on the lesson of the day, before mass every Sunday morning; but as it becomes difficult for me to speak fasting, I now reserve it till even- ing. It has also been decided, that as a means of keeping alive religious and moral feelings, the pupils should confess and communicate once a month, unless particular reasons render it expedient to prolong the interval to six weeks, or, at furthest, two months. The rest -of the day is employed ac- cording to the scheme of lessons and the order enjoined by the minister. The pupils are not allowed to go out, except on the weekly afternoon holi- day ; and this is sufficient for their health, because in all their hours of rec- reation they can take exercise in a garden of two acres which belongs to the establishment. Nevertheless, on fine days I occasionally give them leave to make expeditions into the country, when I think their health will be bene- fited by it ; making it an express condition that they shall take no pipes. " It is good to correct faults ; better still to prevent them. Abundance of arguments have been adduced in support of the principle that we must let children have their will, in order that their will may become vigor- ous, and wait till the time when the reason expands to give it a lofty direc- tion. But this is letting the tares overtop the wheat before we attempt to root them out. Experience proves that the good seed springs up more vig- orously and thrives better when the soil has been cleared of weeds. Dis- cipline ought, therefore, to precede and to accompany the instruction of young men, as docility and modesty that of children. Doubtless external reverence and reserve are but the beginnmg of wisdom ; man must be brought to think spontaneously and without external impulse, of the duties he lies under, so that it may become his inclination to fulfill whatever he has clearly recognized as a duty, to consult nothing but conscience, and to set himself above the praise and the blame of men. This is true and uncon- tested ; nevertheless, the flesh is always weak, even though the spirit be willing ; and there are few of those elect for whom approbation and cen- 212 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL, sure, remonstrances and encouragements, liope and fear, are noi, ..„ces& helps ; and for that reason, such helps are used for great and small, in pri- vate houses as well as m schools, m church as well as in state, and will never iail, if wisely used, to have a salutary effect. A hard ascetical con- straint and discipline are as far from my taste as from my principles ; but experience demands rigorous order in great schools, especially at their out- set. When order has once been thoroughly established, when the will of each has learned to bend to the unity of the collective body, the early se- verity may be relaxed, and give place to kindness and indulgence. As long as I can recollect, I have observed that the education of children is best in houses where this principle is observed. To let children grow perverse and wayward in their infancy through weak tenderness and indulgence, and then to reprove and chastise them with harshness when their habits are formed, cannot be other than a false system. For these reasons we always begin by reading the rules and disciplinary laws of the house, so that the pupils may distinctly know what they have to do ; we then take care that these laws are strictly enforced. The masters, on their side, are careful to show the most punctual obedience to all their duties. We afterward read por- tions of the rules, according to circumstances, and to the demand for any particular part; thus the discipline is strengthened and facilitated. The highest punishment is expulsion ; and last year we were obliged to resort to this twice. In all cases we try to proportion the punishment to the fault, BO as to conduce to the amendment of the culprit and the good of all. For instance, if one of the pupils lies in bed from indolence, he is deprived of his portion of meat at dinner, and for four days, a week, or a fortnight, as it may be, is obliged to declare his presence when we meet in the morning. Being kept at home on holidays, ringing the bell, fetching water, &c., are the only corporal punishments for faults of indolence and infractions of order. Faults of impatience or carelessness, of insincerity or raischievous- ness, of coarseness or any sort of incivility, oifenses against decency or good manners, are punished by notes in the inspection-book, which the culprits themselves are obliged to sign. As to the conduct of the students when out of the house, the authorities and mhabitants of the whole neighborhood unanimously bear witness that the presence of these young men is in no way perceived. It is not difficult to speak to their hearts, and by expostu- lation suited to their age and station, to touch them even to tears. " Of this I could cite several instances, did I not fear prolonging this Re- port. I will, however, give one. Last year the students of the highest class were dissatisfied with the steward, and presented a petition very nu- merously signed, in which they enumerated their causes of complaint, and asked to have him removed. I gave the petition to him, that he might an- swer the charges ; and after he had made his defense, I suffered accusers and accused to plead their cause, at the time of one of the religious lessons. The steward was not irreproachable ; his fiiult was, indeed, evident enough : on the other hand, the complaint was exaggerated, invidious, inexact, and in- considerate ; for several had signed without reading ; others had signed be- cause such or such a point seemed to them just ; others again had shown themselves extremely active in collecting signatures, and had reproached those who refused to sign. The aftlur being clearly and circumstantially stated, the steward had his share of the reprimand, and was deeply affected by it ; others were moved to tears : and the offenders, when the unbecom- ing, inconsiderate, and even criminal points of their conduct were distinctly explained to them, acknowledged their injustice, and promised never to act in the like manner again. " Order and discipline, instruction and prayer, are thus regarded and em- ployed as so many means, general and particular, for cultivating the moral- ity of the pupils ; and the undersigned, during the short time he has had the PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 213 care of the institulion, has had the satisfoction of seeing many vvlio entered it with bad and distressing habits, leave it metamorphosed and renewed. Sedateness and modesty have been substituted for giddiness ; the spu-it of temperance for cr viiig .ifrer sensual enjoyments: and tliose who came to seek but ordinary bread, have acquired a taste for purer and higher food. It is hardly possible that among so many, a vicious one should not occa- sionally creep in ; and last year, among the new-comers, was a cunning and accomplished thief, whose depredations filled the establishment with dissat- isfaction and alarm. It was difficult to find him out, but falsehood and per- versity betray themselves in the end. Heavy suspicions were accumulated during the year on the head of the criminal ; and though there were not pos- itive proofs, he could not so escape our vigilance as not to leave us in pos- session of a moral certainty against him. He was expelled at the examina- tion of last year. Nevertheless, as there was no legal proof, his name was not stigmatized by publicity, and the higher authorities will readily excuse my not mentioning it here, and will be satisfied with the assurance that no misfortune of the kind has since occurred. 6. INSTRUCTION. The business of the primary normal school is to form schoolmasters. It must therefore furnish its pupils with the sum of knowledge which the state has declared indispensably necessary to the intellectual wants of the lower classes of the people, of whom they are to be the teachers, and must afterward fit them to fulfill their important vocation with zeal and vdth a religious will and earnestness. No more than grapes can be gathered from thorns, or figs from thistles, can any thing good be hoped from schoolmasters who are regardless of re- ligion and of morality. For this reason, religious instruction is placed at the head of all other parts of education : its object is to implant in the normal schools such a moral and religious spirit as ought to pervade the popular schools. The course of religious instruction has undergone no change from that stated in the report of last year, except that the several classes have been united for the Biblical part. During the present year we propose to treat the concordance of the Gospels, the history of the Apostles, and some of the Epistles. The course adopted is this : — The series of the concord- ance is established and dictated by the master ; the passages and discourses are explained, and, if thought expedient, learnt by heart by the pupils. For the catechising, or religious and moral instruction, properly so called, the classes are separated. The great catechism of Overberg is taken as a ground-work ; and we treat first of faith, then of morals, so that the latter may be intimately connected with the former, or to speak better, that moral- ity may flow from f;iith as from its source. I regard religion as a disposi- tion or affection of the soul, which unites man, in all his actions, with God ; and he alone is truly religious who possesses this disposition, and strives by every means to cherish it. In this view of the subject all morality is reli- gious, because it raises man to God, and teaches him to live in God. I must confess, that in religious instruction I do not confine myself to any particular method ; I try by meditation to bring the thing clearly before my own mind, and then to expound it intelligibly, in fitting language, with grav- ity and calmness, with unction and earnestness, because I am convinced that a clear exposition obliges the pupils to meditate, and excites interest and animation. As for the historical part, I have made choice of a short exposition of the history of the Christian church, with an introduction on the constitution of the Jewish church. I think it impossible to learn any thing of universal history, that can be useful or instructive to the students, in less than a hundr 214 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. red lessons. It signifies little whether a \'illage schoolmaster know^ the history of India, China, or Greece ; but he ought to know something of the history of the church, because it is, in many points, nearly connected with that of religion. I must confess that, in the measure of time allowed us, I cannot make universal history very interesting or profitable to the pupils ; but it is otherwise with ecclesiastical history. I introduce the theory of education and tuition by experimental psychol- ogy. This course of study is of infinite use, in teaching the science of edu- cation, and of tuition, as likewise in teaching morals and religion ; but I re- gard the school for practice, and the method there pursued, as the best course of pedagogical instruction. I have come to the conviction that, generally speaking, it is necessary to recommend to the pupils of the nor- mal schools, and to all young schoolmasters, a firm and decided plan, leav- ing it to them to modify it as time and experience dictate. It is with them as with a traveler going to a place he has never been at before : it is best to show him the high road, that he may not lose himself; when he is famil- iar with that, he may try cross-roads, if he thinks they will abridge his jour- ney. The masters of the school agree in my views on this point, and en- deavor to act up to them. The following are theu- courses of instruction in their several departments, furnished by themselves. Language :* First class, or class of the first year. — In the first half year we begin with the simplest elements, and gradually go through all the parts of speech, but without their subdivisions. In the second half year we go through the subdivisions in like manner ; so that, in the first year, a thorough knowledge is acquired of the simple and compound elements, as well as of the divisions and subiiivisions of speech. The course of instruction is partly synthetic, and partly analytic ; that is to say, what has been learned in the first manner, is made thoroughly clear in the second, by the analysis of a passage from some author. Second class, or class of the second year. — This class, proceeding in a similar way, goes through the most complicated peri- ods. In the second half year the pupils are familiarized with the most im- portant principles of Iqgic and of etymology. Arithmetic : Second class.f — In the first half year are studied the rule of three, single and compound interest, and discount ; in the second, the ex- traction of the square and cube roots, as far as equations of the first and second degree. The result of this course is a complete familiarity with all the branches of common arithmetic. These two departments of instruction, language and arithmetic, are taught according to the views of the inspector. Geometry : Second class. — In the first half year they get through what re- lates to rectilinear figures and the circle ; in the second, the theory of the transmutation of figures is added ; and after that, the most important prin- ciples of geometry and the measurement of solids. The books of instruc- tion are those of F. Schmid and Von Turck. Drawing : First class. — In the first half year dravdng is carried as far as the knowledge of the most important laws of perspective, so as to place ob- jects, not too complex, according to the laws of perspective. In the second half year they study light and shade. Second class. — During the first half year the attention is directed to the relief and shading of works of art, such as houses, churches, vases, &c. In the second half, the pupils copy good drawings of landscapes, flowers, &c., vdth a view to familiarize them wiih. the style of the best masters. The method adopted is that of F. Schmid. Reading : First class. — Begins by the enunciation of some simple propo- sitions, which are decomposed into words ; the words are reduced to sylla^ bles, and these to their simple sound. This course has been adopted with the pupils, that they may themselves use it with the younger children, and thus acquire a familiar acquaintance with it. It is taught according to the • M. Wagner. t Auother master takes the arithmetic for the first class or first year. PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BEUHL. 215 views of the inspector. Second class. — In the tirst class the principal object is reading- with ease ; in the second, reading with expression. The chief means of instruction consist in the master's reading aloud frequently, be- cause it is considcrc.l ili.it this plan is more nnfiilin'r nnd more easy than any rules. Since, however great the application on the part of both master and pupil, the art of reading is at all times difficult to acquire, this branch of instruction occupies a whole year. Singing : First class. — In the first half year they begin with easy exer- cises in time and melody ; the next step is to easy pieces for four voices. The second half year is devoted to more difficult exercises of the same kind ; so that, by the end of the year, the pupils have acquired a tolerable facility in reading. Natural Philosophy : Second class. — During the first half year the atten- tion is directed to the general and particular properties of bodies ; to those of the elements, water, air, and fire ; then to the theory of sounds, the velo- city of winds, the equilibrium of fluids, and aqueous meteors. In the second half year comes the theory of light, electricity, the lever, the inclined plane, luminous meteors, optics, &c. The principal object is to render the pupils attentive to the most striking phenomena of nature, and to accustom them to reflect upon her laws and secrets. The method adopted here is that of the inspector. During half of last year my* lessons embraced the following points : — Menial Arithmetic. — 1, The knowledge of numbers with reference to their value and form ; 2, addition ; 3, subtraction ; 4, subtraction and addition combined ; 5, multiplication ; 6, multiplication combined with the preceding rule ; 7, division ; 8, varied combinations of the four fundamental rules. Each rule was accompanied by its application, and by examples drawn from common life. My principal aim was to exercise the pupils in applying the rules to practice. I have endeavored also to draw their attention to the the- ory, and especially to the mode of using different rules in the solution of the same problem ; \\ith this view, I have always alternated the oral and written exercises. Arithmetic on the Slate. — Calculation on the slate is based upon mental arithmetic, insomuch that the latter may be considered as a preparation for the former. When the four first exercises in mental arithmetic are gone through, the pupils begin to use the slate. I have labored not only to give them practical dexterity, but also solid knowledge, and mth this aim have accustomed them to try various ways of working the questions. Elements of Geometry. — I have followed the work of Harnisch, and his theory of space drawn from the theory of crystals, and employed by him as a basis to the mathematics. Natural History : Botany. — The principal parts of a plant are first pointed out and named ; then each of these parts are examined separately : — 1, the root, its form and direction; 2, the stem, its internal construction, its figure and its covering ; 3, the buds, their place upon the stalk ; 4, the leaves, their variety according to their situation, their mode of insertion, their figure, their place ; 5, the flower-stalks ; 6, the flowers according to their species, the manner in which they are fixed, theii* composition ; the ca- lyx, corolla, stamina, pistil, the fruit, seed-vessel, and sex of the plants. All this has been shown to the pupils, either in the plants themselves, or in drawings which I have traced on the slate. I interrupted the botany till we could take it up again after Easter, and began Mineralogy. — I have pursued the same course here. The pupils have first been familiarized with the propertie^which distinguish minerals one from another, as their colors, the arrangement of parts, the external form, regular and irregular, or crystalline form ; the polish, texture, transparency, vein, 216 PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. hardness, alteration of color, effervescence in acids : all these properties have been observed by the pupils in the minerals of our collection. To this suc- ceeded the classification of minerals, from which the pupils have learned the names and uses of the most important. Singing. — Having devoted last year, with my singing pupils, to timo, tune, and acoustics, I have, during the past six months, combined the three branches of the art of singing which I had before taught separately, and have practiced them chiefly on sacred vocal music, such as a psalm of Schna- bel's, a chorus from Handel's Messiah, a mass of Hasslinger, and another of Schiedermeyer, a chorus from Haydn's Creation, two songs by Von Web- er, &c. Thorough- Base* — The lessons I have given in this science have been ac- cording to Hering's practical introduction, or to my own ideas. The follow- ing course has been adopted: 1, the theory of intervals; 2, the theory of harmonic thirds, a. if they comprise a scale, b. if they belong to the whole system ; 3, the theory of the chord of the seventh, a. if it belongs to a scale, b. if it belongs to the whole system of chords ; 4, modulation, a. in a free style, b. in a free style, with particular reference to the organ ; 6, written exercises in parts for four voices. Geography. — We have finished Germany and begun Europe: the follow- ing course has been adopted. P'irst we made the pupils acquainted, as ex- actly as possible, with the Rhenish provinces — our own peculiar country ; then with Prussia, then with the rest of Germany. This was done in the following manner: 1, the boundaries; 2, the mountains; 3, the rivers; 4, the natural divisions according to the rivers ; 5, the towns. We then con- sidered Germany in its political divisions, paying attention to the position and natural limits of the countries. All the exercises on this subject were done with skeleton map^ If time permit (though only one year with two lessons a week are allotted to this department), Europe will be followed by a general review of the earth. Writing. — In the writing I have followed exactly the system of Hennig ; by giving, 1, the easiest and simplest letters of the running alphabet to be copied, each letter separately, till the pupil can make them with ease ; 2, words composed of such letters as they have practiced ; 3, at the opening of the course, after Easter, will come the capital letters, in the same way ; 4, English handwriting.f In practicing single letters, I have especially pointed out how one was formed out of another, and the letter they were practicing as making part of that which followed. Afterward copies, written, not en- graved, are placed before the pupils, because these last, according to the opinion of good penmen, discourage the pupils. Orthography. — 1, The object and utility of orthography ; 2, general rules of German orthography ; 3, the use of capital letters ; 4, the regular use of isolated letters ; 5, the division, composition, and abbreviation of words. These rules are alternately put in practice in the dictations. The director, with the assistance of the masters, examines in each department every three months. Instrumental music, on the violin, piano-forte, and organ, is taught by Mr. Richter and Mr. Rudisch, with the assistance of two pupils. 6. SCHOOL FOR PRACTICE. It is difficult, in a written description, to convey a just idea of a school, or of any large establishment for instruction. Nevertheless, I will endeavor to give a brief sketch of this institution, and of the manner in which the pupils are there occupied. The regulations fij from one to three in the afternoon for the lessons of practice. The children of the school for practice are di- • Mr. Rudisch. t t, «. The Italian handwriting, as distinguished from the current German hand. — Tra.nsi.. PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRUHL. 217 vided into eight classes, and one of the pupils from the normal school pre- sides over each of these divisions alternately, so that twenty-four are occu- pied from one to two, and twenty-four from two to three; and while the first twenty-four are teaching-, the others listen, that they may be ready at any moment to take it up and continue the lesson. Tiiis can be done only where a fixed and complete mode of instruction is laid down. The branches taught by the pupils are grammar, reading, composition, writing, drawing, arithmetic, mental exercises, singing, religion. Language is taught partly after Krause, and partly on the plan of the inspector, Mr. Wagner. Reading is closely connected with writing, according to the method of the inspector. The pupils of the higher classes have subjects of familiar compositions given them ; at the same time, tliey are made to learn by heart short letters, narrations and descriptions, because this is deemed the best method of fixmiliarizing children with the language, and enabling them to express themselves with ease in writing. When they have learned a piece by heart, they endeavor to write it without a fiiult, and with the proper punctuation ; the comparison with the original and the correction are left to themselves, that the thing may be more deeply impressed upon their mind. Arithmetic is taught on the system of Schumacher and Jos. Schmid. In the lower classes great care is taken that the numbers are always correct, in order to avoid the inefficient and too artificiMl mental arithmetic of Pesta- lozzi, and to make arithmetic itself an exercise of language. Singing is taught by the two forwardest pupils of the school, who give two lessons in the morning, and drawing by the two most skillful draughtsmen. For exer- cises in hinguage and mental activity, use is occasionally made of Krause's Exercises for the Mind, and Pestalozzi's Mother^s Book. On religion the pupils give but one lesson a week, under the particular guidance of the di- rector. The specifil superintendence of this school is confided to the inspect- or, Mr. Wagner, who, besides a daily visit during the lessons, subjects them to a slight examination every week, to keep up a persevering activity in the young men, and to know exactly what progress is made. The satisfaction of the parents at the pupils' mode of teaching is proved by the regular at- tendance at the school. I am well satisfied with the practical ability hith- erto sho'wn by the pupils. 7 MASTERS OF THE ESTABLISHMENT. Two masters, besi.ies the director, were last year annexed to the estab- lishment — the inspector, Mr. Wagner, and Mr. Richter. The assistant mas- ter, Mr. Rudisch, was added at the beginning of this year. These masters give their entire and undivided attention to the school ; yet they are not suf- ficient for this great establishment ; two pupils and the organist of the town assist in the department of instrumental music. Although the general superintendence rests upon the director, yet, to re- lieve him, one of the masters in rotation has hitherto conducted the special inspection each week. But I see every day more clearly, that the whole inspection ought to devolve upon the director alone ; — in a well-regulated house there should be but one head. The other masters also recognize this principle ; and in the end the director will have the whole superintendence, and, in case ofuieed, will transfer it to the inspector. But as the director and the inspector cannot be always with the pupils, and as it is nevertheless necessary that there should be some fixed person to refer to when disturb- ances or complaints occur, the established custom will be continued of ap- pointing the student wh" is deemed the best fitted as superintendent of liis fellow-students. Tb \ plan may, besides, have a very useful effect in the education both of th» young superintendent and of his school-fellows. 218 NORMAL SEMINARY AT EISI.EBEN i -3 o IS 13 < £ -a O a ^ C8 < .5 « »3 " o . » bl 1 o o o ■^ i) CD Arithmetic. Thorough b organ. Organ. 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O S 1 i c» ca -j3 -J^ 1- bog 5^S c , o to • bo c '~0 c H X 3 3 0) lU hc bo ^ (1; ca (U _ i^ M bO '7 2^-2 "3 — "o eadin horou orgai rithm ramm CI ^ O s « o o S 3 ' .. P c 1 S) Z « Qi £ ■< fiii- of this small parish, and has found full occupation for his benevolent energy . in ihe institiiiion of which he is the founder. We unwittiiij^'ly made our visit of investigation on the great anniversary ; a day for school examinations, for inspecting the hospitals, and for setting apart, for the exercise of their fimctions, wheresoever they may be called, such dea- conesses as have satisfactorily passed through their period of training. The whole place was therefore in its best attire. Windows bright; walls newly colored, and every here and there, where an arch or a peg to hang a wreath upon could be found, active and tasteful hands had transferred the garden's autumnal treasures of flowers to the various chambers of the dwellings. In a room on one side of the street, the floor was covered with beds for the repose of visiting schoolmistresses and deaconesses who had returned to enjoy the day wiih their former associates ; while, on the other, the hall with its table of many covers, and the savor of good food from the kitchen, indicated that the mother was on that day to entertain her children. In short, it was a gala day — the day of all the year when many acquisitions are brought to light, and for which many a studious preparation is made. As all were engaged in the ex- amination of the orphan-school, we had leisure, while waiting, to observe the characteristic furniture of the manse parlor, where, according to the fashion of the country, the pale sand crackled under our i'eet. There hangs a portrait of Mrs. Fleidner. the honored and most useful coadjutorof her husband. She has been a fitting mother of that institution, of which he is the father. Having given out all her strength to it, she was in her prime translated from the land of labor and anxiety to the land of eternal rest. Near her is placed, in meet companionship, a portrait of our Mrs. Fry, whose experienced eye took in at once, with much delight, the utility of the whole in- stitution. On the same wall appears a portrait of Mr. Fleidner's mother, a venerable widow of a former pastor, whose lovely Christian bearing we had occasion to respect and admire, having made her acquaintance in a distant city. She had reared a large family lor the church, and suffered many hardships while her country was the scene of French warfare, being long separated from her husband, uncertain of his safely, and moving from place to place with her young children, at times at a loss for a lodging and all necessary provision. Opposite to these portraits are engravings of some of the Protestant Reform- ers, among whom appear Luther and Calvin ; and in a corner a cupboard with a glass door, furnished with books for sale, chiefly such as are employed in the schools or report their condition. Also the noble set of Scripture prints which was prepared for the institution, but which is now to be found in many seminaries for the benevolent instruction of the young in Germany and Prussia. Presently an amiable and gentlemanly man, who apologized for his imperfect English, came and guided us to the school-room, in which an intelligent teacher was calling forth the attainments of his pupils. The audience consisted of Mr. Fleidner's co-presbyters, the physician, a lew personal friends, the teachers who were that day visitors to the school where they had themselves been trained, and as many of the deaconesses as could be spared from their regular avo- cations. The orphans under examination are many of them the children of pastors and schoolmasters. They looked more vigorous and hearty than most children of their age do in Germany, and are receiving good, sound education, which will fit them to help both themselves and others in future life. We were led from the school-room to the dormitories, and found each con- taining six small beds, and one larger. The deaconess, who occupies the larger bed, is regarded as .the mother of these six children, and fills that office as to washing, clothing, medicating, and instructing them, just as a real mother ought to do. Each bed has a drawer which draws out at its foot, containing all the little tenant's property, and on the opposing wall is himg a tin basin, jug, and tooth-brush for the use of each. The deacone.ss soon feels an attachment to the orphans spring up in her bosom, while she al.so feels responsibility about their neat and healthy appearance, proper demeanor, and attainments of all kinds. We next saw the delinquents' shelter, and two women in charge, one an older, sensible, firm-looking person, whose post is probably never changed, and another younger, her pupil. They showed us with some satisfaction the needle- work ihey had taught to a set of lOwering-browed, iinpromising-lookingf females, 238 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA. who, like their peers in Scotland, gratify their curiosity by side-peeps, but never look you fairly in the face. From ihe educational system of Prussia, it rarely occurs that reading requires to be taught to adults. The senior deaconess spoke mildly and sensibly of some intractable, two or three runaways, some re- conciled to friends, some restored to society, and acquitting themselves well in service. In short, it was a fac-simile of poor humanity, and the uncertain re- sults of benevolent effort at home. These women sleep in small apartments, which fill one side of a long gallery — each contains a bed, a stool, and a box, and in the midst of them is the room for the deaconess, who is, by means of her open door, enabled to observe all movements, and prevent all communica- tions on the subject of past transgressions. The delinquents are shut into their night-rooms. In the infant school department, we did not observe any thing differing from what is to be seen in the best schools of the same style elsewhere, unless we might mention an extensive frame of pigeon-holes, each numbered to indicate the proprietor, and occupied by pieces of bread. In this Normal School have been trained teachers who are now engaged in managing the infant population in many parts of Prussia and Germany. We crossed the little street, and entered, on the opposite side, the hospital, a handsome building entirely of recent erection, in a pretty extensive and neatly laid-out garden, where we (Observed some patients of all ages — the children at play or carried in the arms of their tender-looking nurse — the adults resting on benches in the sun, for the day was cool, or moving feebly as their reduced strength enabled them. Our guide, whom we here discovered to be chaplain to the hospital, led us first into the apothecary's room, where we saw two sensilile, energetic-looking women compounding medicines after the prescription of the physician. They are licensed by government, serving a regular time to the acquisition of this important branch of knowledge, and are always on the spot to watch the effect of their administrations. The place is fitted up like a druggist's shop at home. We forgot to inquire if the counter, within whose railed-off quarter the chief apothecary stood, is rendered necessary by the shop being frequented by the villagers, which seems probable. The other deaconess was working at a mor- tar. From this place we passed to the kitchen, and saw the huge apparatus necessary for feeding such a family, and the extra supply required on that festal day, when their family was greatly increased. The plans for keeping food in that warm country, the cleanliness and beautiful order of the larder and laun- dries, indeed of every corner, was quite remarkable, and the ventilation so per- fect, that even when we ascended to wards occupied by persons in bed, or rest- ing on the long benches, who looked very ill, the atmosphere was tolerably fresh and agreeable. Our conductors dropped here and there a good word to the sick as we passed. In the male wards a part of the attendance seems to be done by men, but each has its quota of deaconesses who have their own charge and re- sponsibility In one chamber we found five women who had joined the estab- lishment a few days before, who were engaged in learning the useful art of cutting out clothing, under two instructors. There was something touching in the ward of sick children, where we saw many eyes beaming tenderness, and many hearts exercising all the maternal instincts, albeit not mothers. Some who were very sick formed for the time the sole charge of one deaconess, while three or four might be intrusted to the care of another. In addition lo minute watchfulness over the body, there is, as they can bear it, an endeavor lo occupy the memory with suitable hymns and passages of Scripture, and to engage their minds on subjects that lead them to glorify God by honoring and loving Him in the days of their youth. The chaplain was acquainted with each face, and its owner's little hisiory, and tried to draw out a little repetition of their small store of Scripture learning. One could not but.remark the useful discipline which such employment must be for ihe young women who are engaged in it, or fail to observe the loving patience with which one or two met the feverish frac- tiousness of their nurslings. _ The office of these ' sisters of charity,' which elevates them above the common sick nurse, and engages them in concerns that touch on eternity, is that of read- ing the Scriptui^es to the sick and aged, and dropping a word of consolation into the languid ear, while they minister to the bodily wants. This they are authorized and expected to do, so that, instead of doing it bv stealth, as a pious NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA 239 sick nurse may do in our hospitals ; or, instead of railing on the poor sufferer who cries out in concern for his soul's health, as an impious one has sometimes been known to do they breathe balm while they turn the pillow, and speak of the way of reconc.iliaiio)i while they endeavor to lull pain. They are by the bed in the midnight hour, and can seize the moment of coolness and clearness to speak to the afflicted — a moment which neither chaplain, nor medical man, nor friendly visitor, may be so happy as to hit upon ; and, while they are forbid- den to be preachers, their living actions, their Chn'siian bearing, and their faith- ful advices, are calculated to drop like balm on the wounded spirit, and have, in many cases, accomplished good which we may justly call incalculable, for its consequences are eternal. After examining the excellent arrangement of the sick wards, we found our- selves in the chapel. It is placed at the lower extremity of the long range of buildings, and so crosses the end of four wards, two on the first, and two on the second story, the door of entrance to the chapel being placed in the center. Each ward has a folding-door of glass in the side of the place of worship, by opening which the Word of God can sound along even to the remoter beds. On communion occasions, the pastor is accustomed to convey the elements into these wards, so that many a fainting soul is thus refreshed, which, in any other circumstances, would be denied the privileges of the house of God. There are, on one side of the chapel, seals where the feeble can recline, and some with muslin curtains, behind which the unhappy or unsightly can find shelter. In this small, but sacred, place of worship, at three o'clock on that afternoon, October 5th, were the deaconesses, whose term of training was satisfactorily come to a close, questioned before the congregation with respect to their wil- lingne.ss to devote themselves to the work of mercy for the next five years, and having assented to the engagement proposed to them, they were solemnly set apart by prayer. They are now prepared to go to whatever city or country, to whatever hospital, or Normal Institution, or private family they may be called, the taste and capacity of the individual of course being consulted ; for it must be carefully explained that there is nothing like a monastic vow of 'obedience to the church' in this affair, and that the engagement is formed subject to being set aside by the claims of nearer domestic duties, if such should arise. Some deaconesses have been called away to assist their own families, some have been lost to the Institution by entering on the conjugal relation. In truth, un- fortunately for their vocation, they are rather too popular, as making excellent wives. But while one regards this circumstance with regret as respects the scheme, it is delightful to contemplate the sister of charity transformed into the rearer of her own children in the tear of the Lord. In conversing with Mr. Fleidner, before taking leave, on the utility of form- •ing such an institution in Scotland, he suggested, as a fundamental and absolute necessity, that it be ascertained that all who are admitted to the school are per- sons renewed in the spirit of their minds, and willing, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, to devote themselves in humility and love to the service of their fellow-creatures for Christ's sake. The two Prussian provinces of the Rhineland and Westphalia are united for its support, and it is under the superintendence of the Protestant Provincial Sy- nod. Above one hundred deaconesses are now at work in different parts of Germany. Sixty are occupied in seventeen ho.spitals and orphan-houses at Berlin, Dresden, Frankfort, Worms, Cologne, Elberfeld, &c. Several are en- gaged for large congregations which have no hospital, and about twenty are sent out at the request of private families to nurse their sick members, (Sec. Five are now at work in the German hospital at Dalston, near London: one of them is matron of the establishment. It can readily be apprehended how uniformity of language, ideas, methods of preparing food, &c., will render these acceptable nurses to their sick countrymen. In this country we lack a little of the German simplicity, and are so nice about distinctions of rank, and what belongs to our supposed station in society, that it may excite strong displeasure if we say that there are many single wo- men in Scotland, of the excellent of the earth, who are not so useful in the church as they might be ; that the reason of this is their want of proper guid- ance in .selecting their work, and of support in its prosecution, and that the deaconess' status in society, and the style ofcharacter and bearing expected from her, is exactly what is wanted to confer the necessary energy and steadiness. 240 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PRUSSIA. At Kaiserswerth, there are scholars not only of the middle classes, but several of the higher ranks of life. The king of Prussia, having taken a lively view of the utility of the Institution, is now forming a large model hospital at Berlin — a baroness, trained under Mr. Fleidner, is its destined matron ; and twelve well- trained deaconesses are without delay to be called into active employment there. The principle on which the deaconess is required to act is that of willingness to be a servant of Christ alone ; to devote herself to the service, without the ■worldly stimulus of pecuniary emolument, and without over solicitude about worldly comforts ; to do the work of charity and self-denial, out of gratitude to her Savior. Her wants are all supplied by the Institution, respectably, but without super- fluity; while the salary paid annually for her services by the family, parish, or hospital, by which she is employed, is paid to Kaiserswerth. Fiom the fund thus accumulated, the supplies of the deaconesses are derived, and those of them who have suffered in health, in consequence of their services, are by it entirely sustained. The deaconess, with her healthful, beaming, loving countenance, distin- guished from her neighbors only by her dark print gown, a white habit shirt, and cap, (a bit of head-gear that one often misses painfully, even on grey- headed German matrons,) looks all animation, attention, and lively collected- ness of spirit. There is at Kaiserswerth the simplicity of real life in this working-day- world, as exhibited by persons whose actions are under the influence of grate- ful love to their Lord and Redeemer, and to their fellow-pilgrims." In 1846, a Seminary for female teachers was established in connection with a new Institution for young ladies, in Friedrickstadt, Berlin. The course extends through two years, and includes the branches and prac- tical exercises before specified. In all teachers intended for governesses, particular attention is paid to music, drawing, and the Italian and French languages, as well as to the literature of the German. In 1847, a regulation was adopted for the examination of female teach- ers in the province of Bradenburg. The examination i's conducted by a committee consisting of one member from the school-board of the province, and the directors and two teachers of the new seminary in Friedrickstadt. It is confined, unless the applicant desires a certificate for a higher school, to the branches taught in the primary schools. It is conducted by written answers to a few questions in each branch, to be lyade out without books, and without conference with each other; in conversation on the same subjects and pedagogical points; and in giving trial lessons in teaching. A record is taken of the examination, and if the result is satisfactory, a certificate is issued by the school-board of the Province. If the pupils of the seminary in Friedrickstadt can pass a similar exam- ination before leaving the institution, they are not subjected to any farther examination. . PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS AS Tlir.V WERE. 241 That the art of teaching, as now practiced in the primary schools of Prussia, was but imperfectly understood b}'' her schoolmasters only a quarter of a century ago, and that a knowledge of good methods was diffused throughout the kingdom only by the well directed efforts of the government, sustained by the self-denying and persevering labors of school officers and educators, in various directions, is evident from the following note appended to Prof. Stowe's address on Normal Schools and Teachers' Seminaries. The noble sentiment of Dinter, quoted by Prof Stowe at the opening of his address, " I promised God, that I I would look upon every Prussian peasant child as a being who could complain of me before God, if I did not provide for him the best educa- tion, as a man and a Christian, which it was possible for me to provide," shows the spirit with which some of the school officers of Prussia have acted. We append a brief notice of this excellent man, and model school officer, together with many excellent suggestions by other emi- nent teachers and officers from other sections of Germany. PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS, A FEW YEARS AGO. The following questions and answers are from Dr. Julius's testimony, before the Committee of the British House of Commons, in 1834, respecting the Prus- sian School System. " Do you remember, from your own knowledge, what the character and attain- ments of the schoolmasters were previous to the year 1819 ?" " I do not recollect ; but I know they were very badly composed of non-com- missioned officers, organists, and half-drunken people. It has not risen like a fountain at once. Since 1770, there has been much done in Prussia, and through- out Germany, for promoting a pr6per education of teachers, and by them of children." " In your own observation has there been any very marked improvement in the character and attairmients of schoolmasters, owing to the pains taken to which you have referred ?" " A very decided improvement." Dinter, in his autobiography, gives some surprising specimens of gross incapa- city in teachers, even subsequent to 1819. The following anecdotes are from that interesting work, Duders Lehen von ihm selbst beschrieben. In the examination of a scliool in East Prussia, which was taught by a subal- tern officer dismissed from the army, the teacher gave Dinter a specimen of his skill in the illustration of Scripture narrative. The passage was Luke vii., the miracle of rai,*ing the widow's son at Nain. " See, cliildren (says the teacher), Nain was a great city, a beautiful city ; but even in such a great, beautiful city, there lived people who must die. They brought the dead youth out. See, chU- dren, it was the same then as it is now — dead people couldn't go alone — they had to be carried. He that wan dead began to speak. This was a sure sign that he was alive again, for if he had continued dead he couldn't have spoken a word." In a letter to the King, a dismissed schoolmaster complained that the district was indebted to him 200705 dollars. Dinter supposed the man must be insane, and wrote to the physician of the place to inquire. The physician repUed that the poor man was not insane, but only ignorant of the numeration table, writing 200 70 5 instead of 275. Dinter subjoins, " By the help of God, the King, and good men, very much has now been done to make things better." In examining candidates for the school-teacher's office, Dinter asked one where the Kingdom of Prussia was situated. He replied, that he believed it was some- where in the southern part of India. He asked another the cause of the ignis- fatuus, commonly called Jack-with-the-lantern. He said they were specters made by the devil. Another being asked why he wished to become a school- teacher, repUed, that he must get a living somehou'. 16 242 SCHOOJL COUNSELOR DINTER. A military man of great influence once urged Dinter to recommend a disabled soldier, in whom he was interestetl, as a school-teacher. " I will do so," says Dip- ter, " if he sustains the requisite examination." " O,' says the Colonel, " he doesn't know much about school-teaching, but ho is a good, moral, steady man, anJ I hope you will rec^pmmeiid him to oblige me." D —0 yes, Colonel, to oblige you, if you in your turn will do me a favor. Col. — What is that ? D. — Get me ap- pointed druui-major in your regiment. True, I can neither beat a drum, nor play a life ; but I am a good, moral, steady man as ever lived. A rich landholder once said to him, " Why do you wish the peasant children to be educated i it will only make them unruly and disobedient." Dinter re- plied, " If the masters are wise, and the laws good, the more intelligent the peo- ple, the better they will obey." Dinter complained that the mihtary .system of Prussia was a great hinderance to the schools. A nobleman replied that the young men enjoyed the protection of the government, and were thereby bound to defend it by arms. Dinter asked if every stick of timber in a house ought first to be used m a fire-engine, because the house was protected by the engine ? or whether it would be good policy to cut down all the trees of an orchard to build a fence with, to keep the hogs from eating the fruit ? (C.) ■ SCHOOL-COUNSELOR DINTER. GusTAvus Frederick Dintek was born at a village near Leipsic, in 1760. He first distinguished himself as principal of a Teachers' Seminary in Saxony, whence he was invited by the Prussian government to the station of School-Counselor for Eastern Prussia. He resides at Konigsberg, and about ninety days in the year he spends in visiting the schools of his province, and is incessantly employed nearly thirteen hours a day for tlie rest of his time, in the active duties of his office ; and that he may devote himself the more exclusively to his work, he lives unmarried. He complains that his laborious occupation prevents his writing as much as he wishes for the public, yet, in addition to his official duties, he lectures several times a week, during term-time, in the University at Konigsberg, and always has in his house a number of indigent boys, whose education he superin- tends, and, though poor himself gives them board and clothing. He has maide it a rule to spend every Wednesday afternoon, and, if possible, one whole day in the week besides, in writing for the press ; and thus, by making the best use of every moment of time, thou-gh he was nearly forty years old before his ca- reer as an author comihenced, he has contrived to publish more than sixty origi- nal works, some of them extending to several volumes, and all of them popular. Of one book, a school catechism, fifty thousand copies were sold previous to 1830 ; and of his large work, the School-Teacher's Bible, in 9 volumes 8vo, thirty thou- sand copies were sold in less than ten years. He is often interrupted by persons who are attracted by his fame, or desire his advice ; and while conversing with his visitors, that no time may be lost, he employs himself in knitting ; and thus not only supplies himself with stockings and mittens, suited to that cold climate, but always has some to give away to indigent students and other poor people. His disinterestedness is quite equal to his activity, and of the income of his publications, he devotes annually nearly five hundred dollars to benevolent purposes. Unweariedly industrious, and rigidly economical as he is, he lays up nothing for himself He says, " I am one of those happy ones, who, when the question is put to them, ' Lack ye any thing V (Luke xxii. 35), can answer with joy, ' Lord, nothing.' To have more than one can use is superfluity ; and I do not see how this can make any one happy. People often laugh at me, because I will not incur the expense of drinking wine, and because I do not wear richer clothing, and five in a more costly style. Laugh away, good people ; the poor boys, also, whose education I pay for, and for whom, besides, I can spare a few dollars for Christmas gifts, and new-year's presents, they have then- laugh too." Toward the close of his autobiography, he says respecting the King of Prus- sia, " I live happiljr imder Frederick William ; he has just given me one hundred TEACHERS' CONFERENCES. 243 and thirty- thousand dollars to build churches "with in destitute places ; he has established, a new Teachers" Seminary for my poor Polanders, and he has so ful- filled my every wish for the good of posterity, that I can myself hope to live to see the time when tliere shall be no schoohnaster in Prussia more poorly paid than a comnion laborer. He has never he.'iitatod, during the wiiole term of jpiy office, to grant me any reasonable request for the helpuig fcrward of the school- eystem. God bless him 1 I am with all my heart a Prussian. And now, my friends, when ye hear that old Dinter is dead, say, ' May he rest in peace ; he was a laborious, good-hearted, religious man ; he was a Christian.' " A few such men in the United States would effect a wonderful change in the general tone of our educational efforts. (D.) IMPKOVEMENT OF SCHOOL-TEACHERS. At the commencement of the late school efforts in Prussia, for the benefit of teachers already in the profession who had not possessed the advantages of a regular training, it was the custom for them to assemble during the weeks of vacation in their schools, and, under the care of a competent teacher, go through a regular course of lessons for their improvement. Of the entire course a care- ful and minute journal was kept and transmitted to the government. The fol- lowing is from the journal of a four weeks' course of this kind, which was held at Regei .vald in 18'21, under the cliarge of School-Counselor Bernhardt. The King gave liis special approbation of this journal, and caused a large number of copies to be printed and circulated throughout the kingdom. The Minister of Public Instruction expresses himself respecting it in the following terms : — " The view presented and acted upon by School-Counselor Bernhardt, that the important point is not tlie quantity and variety of knowledge communicated, but its solidity and acci;racy ; and that the foundation of all true culture consists in the education to piety, the fear of God, and Cliristian humility ; and, accord- ingly, that those dispositions, before all things else, must be awakened and con- firmed in teachers, tliat thereby they may exercise love, long-suffering, and cheerfulness, in their difficult and laborious callmg — these principles are the only correct ones, according to which the education of teachers every where, and in all cases, can and ought to be conducted, notwithstanding the regard which must be had to the peculiar circumstances and the intellectual condition of particular provhices and communities. The Ministry hereby enjoin it anew upon the Re- gency, not only to make these principles their guide in their own labors in the conmion schools and Teachers' Seminaries, but also to commend and urge them in the most emphatic manner on all teachers and pupils in their jurisdiction. That this will be faithfully done, the Mmistry expect with so much the more confidence, because in this way alone can the supreme will of his Majesty the King, repeatedly and earnestly expies.sed, be fulfilled. Of the manner in which the Regency execute this order, the Ministry expect a Report, and only remark further, that as many copies of the journal as may be needed will be supplied." The strongly religious character of the instructions in the following journal will be noticed; but will any Christian find fault with this characteristic, or with the King and Ministry for commending it ? The journal gives an account of the employment of every hour in the day, from half past six in the morning to a quarter before nine in the evening. Instead of making extracts from different parts of it, I here present the entire journal for the last week of the course, that the reader may have the better opportunity of forming his own judgment on the real merits of the system. FOURTH WEEK. Holiday, Oct. 22. — A. M. 6^-7. Meditation. Teachers and parents, forget not that your children are men, and that, as such, they have the ability to become reasonable. God will have all men to come to the knowledge of the truth. As men, our children have the dignity of men, and a right to life, cultivation, honor, and truth. This is a holy, inalienable right, that is, no man can divest liimself of 244 TEACHERS' CONFERENCES. it without ceasing to be a man. 7-8^. Bible instruction. Reading tiie Bible, and verbal analysis of what is read. Jesus in the wilderness. 9-12. Writing, Exercise in small letters. P. M. 2-5. "Writing as before. 5^7. Singing. 8-8|. Meditation. Our schools should be Christian schools for Christian children, and Jesus Christ should be daily the chief teacher. One thing is needful. Jesus ChAt, the same yesterday, to-day, and forever. Tlie great end of our schools, therefore, is the instruction of children in Christianity ; or the knowledge of heav- enly truths in hope of eternal life ; and to answer tlie question. What must I do to be saved ? Our children, as they grow up, nmst be able to say, from the con- viction of their hearts. We know and are sure that thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. Beloved teachers, teach no Christianity without Christ, and know that there cannot be a hving faith without knowledge and love. Tuesday, Oct. 23. — A. M. 6-7. Meditation. Cliristian schools are the gardens of God's Spirit, and the plantations of humanity, and, therefore, holy places. How dreadful is this ph\ce ! This is none other than the house of God. Teachers, venerate your schools — regard tlie sacred as sacred. 7-8 J. Bible instruction. Reading of the Bible and verbal analysis of what is read. Luke xv. 1-10. 8^9. Catechism. Repeating the second article with proper emphasis, and the neces- sary explanation of terms. 10-12. Writing. Exorcise in German capitals, with the writing of syllables and words. P. M. 1-4. General repetition of the instruc- tions for school-teachers given during the month. 4-5. Brief instruction respect- ing school discipline and school laws. 5-7. Singing. 8-8^. Meditation. Teach- ers, you should make your school a house of prayer, not a den of murderers. Thou shalt not kill — that is, thou shalt do no injury to the souls of thy chili Ireu. This you will do if you are an ungodly teacher, if you neglect your duty, if you keep no order or discipline in your school, if you instruct the children badly, or not at all, and set before them an injurious example. The children will be in- jured also by hurrying through the school-prayers, the texts, and catechism, and by all thoughtless reading and committing to memory. May God help you ! Wednesday, Oct. 24. — 6-6|. Meditation. Dear teachers, you labor for the good of mankind and the kingdom of God ; be, therefore, God's instruments and co- workers. Thy kingdom come. In all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God. 6|-8i-. Bible instruction as before, John iv. 1-15. 8^-9. Catechism. The correct and emphatic reading and repeating of the first section, with brief expla- nation of ternn. 10-12. Instruction in school discipline and school laws. P. M. 1-3. Instruction in the cultivation of fruit-trees. For instruction in this branch of economy, the school is arranged in six divisions, each under the care of a teacher acquainted with the business, with whom they go into an orchard, and under liis uispection perform all the necessary work. General principles and directions are written in a book, of which each student has a copy. More cool- ing is the shade, and more sweet the fruit, of the tree which thine own hands have planted and cherished. 3-5. Instruction in school disciphne and school laws. 5^-^. Singing. 8-9. Meditation. The Christian scliool-teacher is also a good husband and father. Blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good beliavior, apt to teach, not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy lucre, patient, not a brawler, not covetous, one that ruleth well his own house, having his children in subjection, with all gravity. He that readeth, let him understand. Thursday, Oct. 25. — A. M. 6-6|. Meditation. Dear teachers, do all in your power to live in harmony and peace with your districts, that you may be ^ helper of the parents in the bringing up of their children. Endeavor to main- tain the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. As much as in you lies, live peaceably with aU men. 6|-9. Bible instruction as before, Luke vii. 11-17. Reading by sentences, by words, by syllables, by letters. Reading according to the sense, with questions as to the meaning. Understandest thou what thou readest ? 10-11. Instructions as to prayer in schools. Forms of prayer suitable for teachers and children are copied an' I committed to memory. Lord, teach us to pray. 11-12. Writing. Exercise in capitals and writing words. P. M. 2-3. Instruction respecting prayer in the family and in the school. Forms of prayer for morning and evening, and at the table, are copied, with instructions that school children shoidd commit them to memory, that they may aid their parents to aa edifying performance of the duty of family worsliip ; that, as the school TEACHERS' CONFERENCES. 246 tlms helps the family, so the family also may help the school. Use not vain repetitious. 3-5. Bible instruction. General views of the contents of the Bible, and bow the teacher may communicate, analyze, and explain them to his chil- dren, yearly, at the commencement of the winter and summer terms. 5^-7. Singing. 8-9. Meditation. Teachers, acquire the confidence and love of your districts, but never forsake the direct path of duty. Fear God, do right, and be afraid of no man. Tlie world, with its lusts, passeth away, but he that doeth the will of God shall abide forever. Friday, Oct. 26. — Meditation. Teachers, hearken to the preacher, and labor into his hands ; fur he is placed over the Church of God, who will have the school be an aid to the Church. Remember them that labor among you, and are over you in the Lord, and esteem them highly in love for their works' sake. Neither is he tiiat [)lanteth any thing, nor he that watereth any thing, but God who giveth the increase. 7-9. Bible instruction. Summary of the contents of the Bible, to be committed to memory by children from ten to fifteen years of a.o-e. 10-12. Bible instruction. Brief statement of the contents of the historical Dooks of the New Testament. P. M. 1-5. Bible instruction. Contents of the doctrinal and proplietical books of the New Testament. Selection of the pas- sages of the New Testament proper to be read in a country school. A guide for teachers to the use of the Bible in schools. 5-7. Singing. 8-9. Meditation. Honbr and love, as a good teacher, thy King and thy father-land ; and awake the same feelings and sentiments in the hearts of thy children. Fear God, honor the King, seek the good of tlie country in which you dwell, for when it goes well with it, it goes well with thee. Saturdai^, Oct. 27. — 6-6^. Meditation. By the life in the fjimily, the school, and the church, our heavenly Father would educate us and our children for our earthly and heavenly home ; therefore parents, teacher.?, and preachers, should labor hand in hand. One soweth and another reapeth. I have laid the founda- tion, another buildeth thereon ; and let every man take heed how he buildeth thereon. Means of education : 1. In the family — the parents, domestic life, hab- its ; 2. In the school — the teacher, the instruction, the discipline ; 3. In the church — the preaching, the word, the sacraments. 6^9^. Bible instruction. Rules whicl) the teaclier should observe in reading the Bible. In analyzing it. In re- spect to the contents of the Old Testament books, and selections from them for reading, written instructions are given and copied, on account of the shortness of the time which is here given to this topic. 10-12. Bible instruction. Gen- eral repetition. P. M. 1-4. Bible instruction. General repetition. 4-5. Reading. Knowledge of the German language, wit!) written exercises. 7-10-J. Review of the course of instruction and the journal. 10^12. Meditation. The prayer of Jesus (John xvii.), with particular reference to our approaching separation. Smidai/, Oct. 28. — 6-J— 9. Morning prayer. Catechism. Close of the term. (In the open air on a hill at sunset) singing and prayer. Address by the head teacher. Subject. What our teacher would say to us when we separate from him. 1. What you have learned apply well, and follow it faithfully. If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them. 2. Learn to see more and more clearly that you know but little. We know in part. 3. Be continually learning, and never get weary. The man has never lived who has learned all that he might. 4. Be yourself what you would have your children become. Become as little children. 5. Let God's grace be your highest good, and let it strengthen you in the diffi- culties which you must encounter. My grace is sufficient for thee — my strength is perfect in thy weaknes.s. 6. Keep constantly in mind the Lord Jesus Christ. He has left us an example that we should follow his steps. Hymn — Lord Jesus Christ, hearken thou to us. Prayer. Benediction. Review of the hours spent in different studies during the four weeks. Arith- metic, sixty -seven ; writing, fifty-six ; Bible, twenty-five ; meditation, thirty-six; other subjects, twenty-si.x ; singing, twenty-eight. Total, two hundred and thirty-eight. From nine to ten, in the morning, was generally spent in walking to- gether, and one hour in the afternoon was sometimes spent in the same manner. Familiar lectures were given on the following topics : 1. Directions to teachers as to the knowledge and right use of the Bible in schools. 2. Directions to teacli- ers respecting instruction in writing. 3. Directions for exercises in mental aritli- metic. 4. Instructions respfecting schobl discipline and school laws. 8. A ool' 246 BERNARD OVERBER6. lection of prayers for the school and family, with directions to teachers. 6. The German parts of speech, and how they may be best taught in a country school. 7. The day-book. Printed books were the following: 1. Dinter's Arithmetic. 2. Dinter on Guarding against Fires. 3. Brief Biography of Luther. 4. On the Cultivation of Fruit-Trees. 5. German Grammar. 6. Baumgarten's Letter- Writer for Country Schools. 7. Luther's Catechism. That which can be learned and practiced in the short space of a few weeks, is only a little — a very little. But it is not of so. much importance that we have more knowledge than others ; but most depends on this, that 1 have tlie right disposition ; and that I thoroughly understand and faithfully follow out the little which I do know. God help me, that I may give all which I have to my school ; and that I, with my dear chUdren, may, above all tilings, strive after that which is from above. Father in heaven, grant us strength and love for this. BERNARD OVERBERG. Among the many devoted teachers and educators, whose example and teachings breathed a new spirit into the schools of Germany, we have been particularly impressed with the character and views of Ber- nard Overberg, who for thirty years was in the habit of meeting the teachers of the neighborhood of Munster, twice a year during their va- cations, and instructing them in the best modes of conducting their schools, and especially in imparting religious in.«truction. We make the following extracts mainly from a memoir of Bernard Overberg, by Professor Schubert, of Munster. In 1780, he became officiating vicar of Everswinkel, and many evt-n yet can remember iiis powers as a spiritual guide and teacher, and the blts>iiigs which attended him. His chief anxiety was for the religious education of the cliildren of the parish, and this at his request was v\hoily given up to him by the rector. In ihi-ee years his manner of teaching became so perfect, that the minister Prince Furs- tenberg was induced to think o) appointing him to the normal school* at Munster. But tirst he determined to hear the teaching himself, and getting into his carriage on Sunday, when he knew Overberg would catechise, he told the post boys to bring him to Everswinkel exactly at two o'clock. He thus got into the church unobserved, and listening unseen, found his expectation exceeded, and therefore oifered the situation immediately. Overberg's disposition and humility inclined him to remain amongst the countrymen who were attached to him, but the offer was really a command from his vicar-general, (which Furstenberg then was,) and he had only to comply. On being desired to name his own salary, his modesty asked only for 200 thalers, (about $150,) with board and lodging in the episcopal seminary at Munster. He entered this, March, 1783, and here he died as prin- cipal, in J 826. The leading object of his intercourse with all, both old and young, with whom he came in contact, was to implant and cultivate a spiritual principle ; a principle coming from God's spirit and continually nourished by it alone, whilst he believed the means for obtaining this to be clear and impressive views of the truth and power of the Christian religion laid deeply in the character during childhood. 'The relation and intercourse between God and man either by natural or revealed means was the great object of his instruction, and being so pervaded by this god- liness himself, his pupils became in some degree warmed by it. " Only that which comes from the heart can reach the heart," was a favorite saying of his ; and all who have heard him, agree in stating that a tone of cheerful piety seemed to * Not a resular normal school, but a gathering of teachers for special iustruUion in methods similar to our teachers' institutes. BERNARD OVERBERG. 247 accompany the studies, even the common reading, writing, arithmetic, mensura- tion, &o., whilst the intellectual faculties thus developed were more easily brought under the power of the will, when the moral faculties were in healthy exercise. Catechetical as his instruction generally was, he avoided the extreme in which it is now used and its attendant error of cultivating the memory of children at the expense of their reflecting, and still more, their moral powers. lie never began with abstract truths of religion, &c., but with the imagination and actual experi- ence of the children ; so that the answer was not mere words or notions of the memory, but the enlargement of existing. ideas. His object was not so much to give information, as to give such information and such views of things, as would draw out all the good and amiable points of the character, and repress the contrary. Tiie office of schoolmaster in the district of Munster, was at that time performed in the more populous parishes by men who, intending to be clergymen, had gone through a part of the studies at the gymnasium, and then stopped for want of money, talents, or other causes ; but in the smaller parishes and scattered country places, it was performed by laborers, who, teaching in winter, returned to their worli in summei'. By far the greatest number of them were, of course, very ignorant and unfit for any intelligent teaching ; but their pay was poor in propor- tion, and many, having no room, made use of some bakehouse, or even an old chapel without a stove, in the cold nights of winter. To tempt them to an inter- nal improvement, Furstenberg began with an external one ; and for this, commis- sioned Overberg to visit all the village schools of the district. Some of the bad, superfluous, and unlicensed were closed, and instead of two or three inconvenient, one more convenient erected ; then every schoolmaster who offered himself for examination, and passed it creditably, had a yearly salary secured him of twenty, thirty, or even forty thalers, (each about 7-5 cents,) according to the population of his parish. The examination was to be repeated every three years, and they who wished to improve themselves were advised to attend the normal school at Mun- ster. The expenses of this attendance were all to be paid for them ; and in order tliat there might be no material omiss'on of their school duties, the attendance at the normal school was restricted to the usual time of their vacation, from August 21, to the beginning of November. On this being settled, from twenty to thirty old scliool masters attended Overberg, and most thoroughly exercised his patience and charity, by their indescribable helplessness and incapacity for learning ; from nine to twelve, and from two to five, he instructed them in the principles of teach- ing, in religion, in Scripture history, in reading, writing, and arithmetic. He carefully prepared himself for this, by one and a half hour's study ; and he spent the rest of the day in reading with the most backward. Hopeless as all this trouble seemed at first, in a few years the result was rich in blessings. As was mentioned in the introduction, Overberg's zeal for the welfare of the ignorant poor produced in many others a similar feeling. Pupils soon came to his lectures whose fervent wish was to become efficient Christian teachers. The example of these influenced some of the more indolent; and many of the school- masters attended him, not only as long as government paid their expenses, but for many years afterwards. Ignorant and unpolished as were the greatest number of them at first, they scarcely ever required a reproof from him, feeling respect and affection when they saw his estimable character shine forth in its simplicity and friendliness. Their studies commenced with prayer ; and the dullest heart must have been, in some degree, moved when Overberg entered and began, " Come, Holy Ghost ;" whilst his simplicity of manner, his want of all appearance of study or learning, with his power and fervor, struck even those most accus- tomed to preaching. The source from whence he obtained all this may be seen from a rule in his diary. " Let in every thing, 1st, the love of God be the moving principle ; 2d, the will of God the guiding clue ; 3d, the glory of God the end. When this is done, then wilt thou walk before God and be perfect." Or more conscisely, " Do and suffer every thing from love to God, according to God's will and God's glory." Again, November 6, 1791, at the end of the course, having thanked God for his support, &c., he adds, " In previous years I felt more ashamed, having more reliance on my own powers, and more inclination to the vanity of pleasing men. This year 248 BERNARD OVERBERG. Thou hast given me a stronger feeling of my weakness, more confidence in Thee, and greater desire to please Thee only." His extreme care in previous preparation, even for teaching the children of the free school, will be seen by a subsequent extract ; and the following shows clearly the great conscientiousness with which he performed the details of his daily in- struction, and particularly that of the young communicants. "April 12, 1790. I thank Thee, O Father in heaven, for the strength Thou gavest me when instructing the children yesterday for the first communion ; sup- port, O Jesus, those whom Thou hast fhus fed with thy flesh and blood ; supply by thy grace what through my fault or theirs was disjileasing in their hearts to Thee ; and help ine to avoid those faults in future. I began too late to watsh their conduct, in order to know their hearts, and so prepare them for thy advent. I persuaded myself I could make amends by my instruction, though this evi- dently requires observation of the character before. Thou knowest, indeed, that T often strove to instruct them from the purest motives ; but how often, when teach- ing, did vanity come in, and how oft get conmiand over me ! I frequently ob- served this at the time, and, struggling against it, got confused, obscure, and injured the children in consequence. Often, when led captive by vanity, I said something or left something unsaid, which I would not have done, had thy glory and the salvation of the children been my sole object ; and this was particularly the case when strangers were present. '' Writing out as much as possible previously was some safeguard against this folly, though it took away from the freedom and more touching simplicity of the lecture. " My getting confused and annoyed when the instruction did not go on as I wished, showed me what mixed motives yet governed me ; my satisfaction de- pended not so much on my own conduct, as on the result of the satisfaction it gave to others ; and although I struggled against all of this, it was not so earnestly as I ought to have done. O Lord Jesus, have mercy upon nie, and blot out all my misdeeds ! Make me a clean heart, and so shall I teach thy babes thy way ! " In order to avoid these faults in future, I will now take down the names of those who will probably attend the communion next year ; so that I may observe the state of their heart and mind, during the whole time. I will pray for them ; and when I think it will do good, I will mention them in the public prayers of the school. But, Lord, how can I have this singleness of view ? Thou must give it, and the strength to act accordingly ; I will fight, unwilling though I be, and do Thou grant that I may endure the fight to the end !" The above app'ies to the Lorraine free school, to which he paid constant atten- tion when conducting the normal school. But to recur to his plan of teaching in this, we may remark his praeti'^e of explaining and illustrating, by examples, the principles of moral philosophy on which teachers ought to proceed. His power of illustrative narration being very great, he could, when necessary, fill up the details of the picture so faithfully, that every one entered into it, and would prob- ably recollect some example from their own experience. Once, when illustra- ting some error in teaching, an old schoolmaster, struck with the ideal picture, cried out in low German, " Oh, Mr. Overberg, that is just what is done amongst us !" Frequently his pictures were highly comical, but respect for him was such as to prevent any one giving way to their feelings. In short, such was the varied talent shown in his lectures, that persons quite indifferent to the subject would crowd to hear them. Overberg was an admirer of nature in the highest and noblest sense, and in the wonders of creation he saw a representation of the Deity. Every leaf, every flower was to him a proof of the power, and goodness, and wisdom of God, and he must have accustomed himself to raise his views from the creature to the Crea- tor from his earliest years, it having, as he said, become a second nature to him. He earnestly impressed upon the teachers the pious consideration of the works of creation, giving them directions for it, and urging them to turn the attention cf the children to them as farly as possible. He thought that a teacher in the country ought occasionally ti^ give his lessons in the open air, and so teach the children to observe for themseives the end for which every thing is made, and how perfectly BERNARD OVERBERG. 249 it is adapted to 't •, whilst views of the power and wisdom of God should thus be brought into lectures on re! gion. Valuable, however, as was the information given to the pupils, it was not more 60 than the example of friendliness, humility, and patience which Overberg showed toward themselves; as when having twice clearly explained some very simple thing, he would quietly go over it again, if the answer of the pupil made it proba- ble it was not clearly comprehended, and thus the other pupils would see in prac- tice what is meant by adapting a subject to the powers of comprehension of the hearer without omitting any principle. The instruction was always closed by one of the church hymns to which he was very partial, and professed even in one of his latter years to have been much ben- efitted by the German hymn in the evening service of a village church. " Were I an ortic ating priest, (said he,) 1 would always use such a German litany instead of a Latin vesper. How impressive is that one beginning ' Have pity, Lord,' " &c. At the conclusion of the course, the students were examined, and provided with situations, and subsequently promoted according to their merit. Thus was he, under God, not merely the founder but the supporter of a system of education rich in blessings to his country, but besides this he had also the peculiar merit of educating a class of female teachers to which probably there is nothing similar elsewhere. Young women, not from necessity but piety, attended some of his lectures in the normal school, and his catechising in the free school, and the majority resisting subsequent temptations to give up their labors, continued devoted to them through life. These were appointed to different girls' schools, and the results were so good, and subsequently so notorious, that many of them were sent for into other countries, whilst others as readers or governesses became blessings to private families. He used to say that women made better teachers than men, and he regretted exceedingly that there was no normal school estab- lished for them at the same time with that at Biiren. His instruction in the Lorraine cloister school consisted in some hours being given three times a week to religion, Bible history, and arithmetic; to this, and particularly to the catechising the children in the church every Sunday, there came persons of all ranks, thinking that they then saw in Overberg a faithful fol- lower of Him who said, " Suffer little children," &c. How important he felt this instruction of the children to be, may be seen from the following extract from his journal : " January 15, 1790. Tliis morning I went into the school without sufficient pre- paration. O God ! help me to improve in this. It is a delusion to imagine that any thing is more necessary or ought to be preferred to this ; want of preparation draws many faults after it, the instruction becomes dry, confused, without point, ranibling ; lience the children are puzzled, their attention distracted, and the em- ployment becomes disagreeable to them and myself I must also be very careful not to go too much into details ; into too extended views, and become too learned for the little ones ; to comprehend and retain one good point is better for them than to hear ten and understand none well, or to miss the most important whilst thinking of the others. " O God, help me ever more and more to imitate the manner of teaching of thy beloved Son, so divinely simple, short, clear, and easily remembered. Grant^tliat before I propose any thing to the children, I may ask myself, ' Is it necessary ? Is it useful ? Is there not something more useful, which ought to be preferred to it ? Is it sufficiently comprehensible ? What is my object in proposing it ? Will it, when known, give them only an appearance of learning, &c. ? If so. away with it.' " " February 7, 1790. Tliou art teaching me, O my God, more and more for my own experience, that of myself I can do nothing. When I fear that the teaching which Thou hast committed to me will not go on well, then I am surprised at its success, and the contrary happens when I say, 'this time I shall succeed.' Is not this an intimation from Thee, not to trust on my own strength ? May thy grace help me to translate this into practice. O God, how many are thy favors ; even to-day I observed that Thou tiikest away my usual impediment to clear and krud utterance, whenever I have to speak in the church to the children. Ever 250 BERNARD OVERBERG. grant me, O Lord, the gi-aee, (undeserving tliough I be, from having so frequently withstood it,) the grace, that in all I do, particularly as regards these children, I may look to thy will alone. O Father, my Father in Christ Jesus, do Thou he witli me, that 1 do not make the instruction of thy little ones needlessly difficult, giving them hard food instead of milk ; chaff" instead of corn ; attending too much to some, and neglecting others. Thou hast permitted me to enter upon a new way of instruction ; if it be not better, if it be not thy ivill that I should go on in it, do thou call me back ; if it be thy will, make it so clear to me, that I err not, and lead the children into by-paths, from which 1 must lead them back again. I am unworthy of thy favor, but Thou wilt not turn away from these little ones, sanctified by the blood of thy Son, and hence I rely on thy assistance May 1 be wholly thine, and so do moi'e for thy honor and the good of others. Oh, may not the trust which others place in me be disappointed." Thus did Overberg 'perform the apparently simple and easy duty of teaching children with a deep and holy earnestness, as in God's sight, and in the strength obtained by prayer. Jle knew and confessed what an important charge is the education of youth in prayer and filial intercourse with God. Such was his earnestness in the common daily teaching, and the blessings for which he prayed, attended it, not merely on the sensitive hearts of the young, but it softened also many hardened by age ; still his earnestness was doubled when the time for the sacrament drew near. He latterly took down, as we have said before, the names of the probable communicants a year before, and began carefully to observe the state of each, and direct them accordingly; the more immediate in- struction was given during an hour and a half daily during Lent, till the Third Sunday after Easter. He then gave them a compendium of the doctrines of Christianity, and to guard himself against digressions, he wrote out his lectures at length daily. These were attended by many adult hearers, particularly of the theological students, many of whom carried away the matter in their note bonks, however little they miglit be warmed by all the piety which animated the author. On Thursdays and Sundays during Lent, no strangers were admitted, because these days were devoted to repetition and examination in previous lessons. Be- sides this public teaching, he instructed, exhorted, and warned them unceasingly in private, according to the character and circumstances of each. He led them as their confessor, to reflect on the truths of salvation, to prayer, and particularly to careful examination of conscience. From time to time he prayed in the school for these communicants, and as the day approached, he sent for the parents, put before tliem their duty to their chil- dren, particularly that of personal example, and he made them promise to fullfil it. AA'hilst the children promised in writing that they would walk accoi'ding to the gospel, avoiding the danger to their faith and virtue, and using the means of grace; for himself, his earnest prayer was that he might be influenced in the selection of candidates, by nothing but their piety, and such was his zeal and anx- iety in all this, that he frequently had some illness when it was over. During the course of the year, after the first sacrament, the communicants were required to go to the Lord's table, from time to time together, and he always pre- pared them for it. Thus had he labored in this, and the weekly instructioTi of the children for twenty-seven years, in the school of the Lorraine cloister ; when this was closed, and the school made parochial, and tratisferred to the parish priest, who relieved him from the labor. The following is a specimen of his manner of addressing his normal pupils: jNIv beloved friends :— If you cherish sentiments of true benevolence, if the welfare of your scholars be of any importance or value to you, engrave deeply on your hearts the recommendations which I am about to address to you, and in the performance of the duties of your vocation, have them constantly presented to your mind. 1. If you desire to honor God, let there be no levity or carelessness in your conduct. BERNARD OVERBERG. 251 You can not use too much caution in this respect in the presence of your pupils ; their eyes are always directed to you, and are certainly far more penetra- ting than is generally imagined. They discover in you faults which you are not conscious of yourself, and these faults often shuck them more, and render you more contemptible in their eyes, than other and much greater ones would do in the eyes of men of your own age. Forget yourself but in a single instance, and you may produce on them an impression, deeper than all your good lessons, and all the efforts you have made for them. Be careful, then, even in the smallest things, as much as possible, not only not to give them a bad e;cample, but even an example which can not in all points be safely followed ; for your example acts with great power on their character ; it may produce immense good, or intinitely greater evil. Children pay more attention to the example of thejr superiors than to their lessons, however good and salutary they may be ; and since they have not dis- cernment to distinguish a slight and very excusable fault from one much greater, or a weakness natural to humanity from an action intentionally bad, they are often less shocked at the last than at the first. It is for this reason tliat we never can be too prudent in the presence of such spectators and such judges. It is precisely in this company, more than in any other, that it is necessary to be 7nost watchful over one^s self; and their society is, consequently, an excellent means of self-im- provement. Avoid, therefore, not only those vices which would cover you with shame in the eyes of all good men, but also those defects and weaknesses which you would not like your pupils to imitate, if even your equals would not notice them. 2. Teach, on all occasions, not only by your words, but by your conduct and habits. Instruction thus given, is for your pupils, not only the most efficacious, but also the most easy. Thus, would you accustom them to neatness .' let them see in you th's good habit, while receiving your instructions on this subject; if you are your- self slovenly in your clothes and in your person, what will they think of your les- sons on neatness ? Would you form them to continuous activity ? never be idle yourself; work cheerfully ; and never let them see you without occupation. Would you introduce order in your school ? never let them sec any disorder, either in your own person or your affairs. Let good order be obvious in the class, in your habitation, in your household. He who throws every thing into confusion, and who, when he wants any thing, has sometimes to seek it in one corner, and sometimes in another, gives to his scholars a very sorry example of good order. Would you wish to teach them truth and fidelity ? never let any thing contrary to truth proceed from your own mouth, even in playfulness, lest this playfulness be misunderstood ; never make a promise or a threat which you can not or will not accomplish ; never leave a promise or a threat unperformed which you have made unconditionally, lest a motive should be attributed to you which would place you in the eyes of your pupils in the shade of suspicion of want of integrity. 3 Inspire in your pupils obedience to, and respect for, their relations and their superiors ; and take particular care not to weaken the consideration which children ought to have for their parents. Do not those tutors commit a great sin, who never display more eloquence than when they chatter in the presence of your pupils on the awkwardness and igno- rance of men of a certain age, or of old men, because they have not learned this or that thing which is now taught at the schools? By acting thus, they not only deprive their children of all respect for their parents, which leads to the most fatal consequences, but they also inspire them with an insupportable pride, which makes them despise all that may be said or done by those older than themselves. 4. Let the fear of God be visible in your actions, and in your manner on all occasions, especially in teaching religion. Manifest always the most serious displeasure when your pupils say or do any thing contrary to the lioly reverence which we owe to God, and take care your- self not to pronounce the name of God or of your Saviour with levity. Seek to have your own heart deeply impressed when you speak of truths of great import- ance ; for example, of the paternal goodness of God toward men ; of his mercy 252 BERNARD OVERBERG. to sinners ; in the sufferings and death of Christ ; of the obedience and love which led hirn to subiuit to tliese suti'erings and this death ; of the favor which he has procured for us ; of the ordinances vvhicli lie has instituted in remembrance of his death; of the great rewards and terr.ble punishments of eternity, &c. Your emotion will manifest itself in your exterior deportment; it will render your words impressive, and will awaken like emotions in the hearts of your auditors. A sim- ple tear which may start in the eye of the master, and which is not the eflect of art, but the involuntary expression of a heart truly softened and penetrated by the importance of the subject, acts very powerfully on the hearts of children, and often produces in them impressions and resolutions which the most Uvely repre- sentations could not have eitected. 5. By active compassion for the misfortunes of your neighbors^ you can ex- cite in the children pity, and teach them the right manner of sympathizino- with their fellow creatures^ in joy and mj adversity. Your manner of conducting yourself toward your pupils, will contribute much toward making them either courteous and charitable men, or morose and indif- ferent to their duties. If you act toward them as a good father ; if all your con- duct .shows them your love ; that you labor with all your power for their real good, and to be useful to them as much as possible ; and (because you love them) that you willingly render them services, and procure pleasures for them, (which may be often in themselves the merest trifles,) you will awaken in many of them, love, and the desire to oblige, for love is contagious. They will learn also from you, to render voluntary service to their companions and to others; this will be the result of your example. In a word, each virtue will appear to them more amiable, and more worthy of being imitated ; and you will be more sure than ever, that they will seek to acquire it, if it be manifest in your conduct. Oh, you can do much, yes, very much, to form the hearts of your pupils, if you will instru(^t them at the same time by your life and by your precepts. The best of opportunities is offered to you ; they are confided to your care precisely at the age when the instinct of curiosity and imitation acts with the greatest force ; when yoa have them daily w.th you, and can thus instill gradually according to their capacity, good doctrines and good sentiments. A drop which falls incessantly wears the hardest stones ; and much more easily can impressions be made on the unformed characters of children. The faults which perhaps they may have vihen you enter into relation with them, are not so deeply rooted that they can not be removed, if you give to the work attention and zeal. Y^ou can really produce more substantial good in their hearts, than their pastors can at a more advanced age. To destroy rooted vices is a difficult task, and often impossible to be accom- plished, whatever efforts may be tried ; but to prevent them, to stifle them in their commencement, to fashion the mind when it is still pliant ; this is a much easier work, and one which, by the blessing of God, will succeed, if the master teach by his actions, as well as by precept. Do not shrink from the task ; it is the most noble, the most respectable, the most imposing that you can undertake. Do not allow yourself to be frightened or arrested in a work so excellent, by the difficulties which it presents, many of which exist only in your imagination. The duty to which I now exhort you, that of leading a life irreproachable and edifying before God and before the children, is a duty obligatory upon you as Christians ; it ought to be of importance to you even if you should not be schoolmasters ; but as such, as directors of youth, who are to be formed by your teaching and by your example, you are doubly engaged to this duty. If, then, you love yourselves ; if you love these little ones confided to your care, and placed under your responsibility ; if you love Him who is their Saviour and yours, follow also his example on this point, teaching like him by words and actions ; be to your pupils on all occasions, " a pattern of good works." (Titus ii. 7.) " Let your light so shine before them, that they, seeing your good works, may do like- wise, and with you, glorify your Father who is in heaven." We add a few suggestions in the same spirit by Zeller, and Becken- dorf— translated from " Le Miroir des Instituteurs, ou Conseils sur 1' Education." C. B. ZELLER. 253 C. B. ZELLER. We have, in our brief sketch of the history of primary education in Germany, alluded to the enthusiastic labors of Zeiler, a pupil of Pesla- lozzi. The following fragment by him on the '• Influence of Example" in a teacher, exhibit the spirit with which he regarded the work of education. Young minds can at all times be acted upon without words, simply by example. The further any person is from what he ought to be, the more does he experience this influence. The less his mind is developed, the more is he urged by a pro- pensity to imitate, to direct and govern himself according to what he sees and hears in the society of other men, better, older, stronger, more skillful, and more experienced than himself. This is a truth that can not be too often dwelt upon, especially in these days, when we attribute so many wonders to the power of words. Yes ; example alone, a life of practice without display, exercises a most marked influence on the soul, the character, and the will ; for the conduct of a man is the true expression of his being, and gives a tone to (or animates) every thing around him ; consequently nothing can remain uninfluenced within the sphere of a living being. There emanates from the active noiseless life of a single individual, power which is to others, either " a savour of life unto life, or a savour of death unto death." This explains to us why parents, simple, and without culture, especially mothers, who perhaps have never opened a book on education, and speak very little to their children, yet offer them every day the example of a lively afFeelion, and a well- employed though retired life, bestow an excellent education •, while, on the other hand, we see the children of well instructed parents frequently turn out ill, who have been acted upon by words alone, rather than by example, and who contem- plate around them a class of beings who exercise no good moral influence. Alas ! that all parents and instructors knew how much power there is in being virtuous, and how little in only appearing to be so ! There can never be any efficacious or happy influence in the example of a hypocrite. Many people avoid showing before children what they really are ; they speak and act in their presence as persons of morality, modesty, and piety ; but it is only a cloak to cover their internal corruption, their self love, and want of charity. These are hypocrites ; their piety is but babbling, a tongue which they have learned, as we learn a foreign language, but it is not their mother tongue ; the fruit is of no greater value than the tree which produces it. It concerns all who are called to occupy themselves in education, to consider the holy lesson taught by a well beloved disciple of the Saviour, in these words : " Be thou an example of the believers, in word, in conversation, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity." 1 Tim. iv. 12. " In all things showing thyself a pattern of good works ; in doctrine showing uncorruptness, gravity, sincerity, sound speech, that can not be condenmed ; that he that is of the contrary part may be ashamed, having no evil thing to say of you." Titus ii. 7, 8. Here we address the following exhortations to all persons, parents or tutors, who are charged with the task of education, beseeching them to give serious attention thereto. 1 . Be what the children ought to be. 2. Do what they ought to do. 3. Avoid what they should avoid. 4. Aim always that, not only in the presence of the children, but also in their absence, your conduct may serve them for an example. 5. Are any among them defective ? examine what you are yourself, what you do, what you avoid ; in a word, your wliole conduct. 6. Do you discover in yourself defects, sins, wanderings? Begin by improving yourself, and seek afterwards to improve your children. 7. Think well that those by whom you are surrounded, are often only the re- flection of yourself. 8. If you lead a life of penitence, and seek daily to have grace given you, it will be imparted to you, and Uirough you to your children. 254 SCHOOL-COUNSELOR BECKENDORF. 9. If you always seek Divine guidance, your children will more willingly be directed by you. 10. The more obedient you are to God, the more obedient will your children be to you ; thus in his childhood the wise Solomon asked of the Loi'd " au obedient heart," in order to be able to judge and govern his people. 11. As soon as the master becomes lukewarm iu communion with God, that lukewarmness will extend itself among his pupils. 12. That which forms a wall of separation between God and yourself, will be a Bource of evil to your children. 13. An example in which love does not form a chief feature, is but as the light of the moon ; it is cold and feeble. 14. An example animated by an ardent and sincere love, shines like the sun ; it warms and invigorates. BECKENDORF. The following questions were prepared by School-Counselor Beck- endorf for the teachers of primary schools in Prussia. I. On awaking this morning, did I think first of God, or of the things of the world ? ■ 2. In commencing the day, have I consecrated myself anew in prayer to my God and Saviour ? 3. Have 1 implored his blessing on the l.ibors of the day, especially seeking his favor for the children confided to my care ? 4. Have I besought him especially for such of the children as have the greatest need of assistance ? 5. Have I commenced the day full of strength and confidence in God ? 6. Have I sufficiently reflected, before school hours, on what I have to do through the day ? 7. Have I suitably prepared myself for my duties ? 8. Are my cares extended equally to all my pupils, or do I manifest more inter- est in some than I do in others ? 9. Has my attention been more particularly directed, and according to their need, to those among them who were weaker or more idle than the rest? 10. Or, consulting only my own taste, have I occupied myself more willingly with the most intelligent, and those most desirous of being instructed ? II. In what manner have I influenced their moral progress ? 12. With regai'd to that which is exterior, have I required order, quietness, suitable manners, cleanliness ? 13. Have I not been guilty of any negligence in these respects, from idleness or inattention ? 14. Have I not from disgust, abandoned to their evil propensities, some children who resisted all my efforts ? 15. Have I not, without confessing it to myself, condemned some among them as incorrigible? 16. And have I not thus neglected one of my most important duties; that of never despairing of the improvement of a single child confided to me ? 17. When it has been necessary to censure, punish, or recall to duty by exhort- ation, have I done it with calmness, reflection, and in an impressive manner ? 18. Or have I yielded to precipitancy, impatience, anger, and want of charity ; or, on the other hand, have I been too indulgent ? 19. Am I in general just with regard to my pupils ? 20. Have I not an ill-judged aversion to some, and predilection for others? 21. On what is this partially founded ? 22. And if I can not in my heart excuse myself for these sentiments, ought I to allow them to have any influence on my conduct ? 23. Have I not thus given to the children themselves reason to accuse me of partiality ? 24. Do I not yield in general to the influence and disposition of the moment, and SCHOOL-COUNSEiOR BECKENDORF. 255 am I not thereby unequal, and capricious ; sometimes veiy kind, and sometimes causelessly in a bad humor, or even passionate and violent ? 25. When it is necessary to i-eprove or punish, do 1 seek always to bear in mind the particular character of the pupil with whom I have to do, in order to guide myself aocoidingly in my reproof or punishment? 26. Din number of students from the college first practice teaching under the eye, and aided by the advice of the teacher. At the end of this long and careful preparation, they are called before the board of examiners. If the young man is a Protestant, his religious examination is con- ducted by the board of examiners themselves ; but if he is a Romanist, a priest it jdned tb the bf>ard, and coliduets the feligioue part of the examination. ROYAL SEMINARY AT DRESDEN 263 The examination last three days. On tlie first day the subjects are — From 1 to 10 o'clock, A. M. Scripture history. " 10 to 12 " " Pedagogy, " 2 to 4 " P. M. Mathematics and the theory of ttiusic. The answers to the questions of the first day's examination are given in writing. On the second day the subjects are — ! Catechising a class of village school children on some subject of elementary TBstruction. {Reading ; Arithmetic; and An object lesson given to school chil* dren. A viva voce examination — In religion ; 1 to 2 " P. M. "{ The Scriptures ; I Luthers catechism ; and I Pedagogy. ! German language ; Logic ; and Psychology. {History ; Geography ; Natural philosophy ; and Natural history. On the third day the subjects of examination are — Organ playing ; Singing •, Piano-forte ; and Violin. If the young candidate, who had been educated for four years in a teachers* college, can not pass this examination so as to satisfy the examiners, he is obliged to continue his studies until he can do so. But if he passes the exaniiiiatron in a satisfactory manner, the examiners grant him a diploma, which is marked '' ex- cellent," " good," or " passable," according to the manner in which he acquilted himself in his examination. If the young candidate does not obtain a certificate marked " excellent," but only one marked " good," or "passable," he can notoflSciate as teacher, until he has spent two years in some school as assistant to an experienced teacher. At the end of this time, he is obliged again to present himself to the board of examiners, who examine him again in the most careful and searching manner. If he passes this examination, he receives another diploma marked " excellent," " good." or " passable," according to his merit, and if he obtains a diploma marked " excellent" he is enrolled among the members of the teachers' profes- sion, and is allowed to officiate either as a private tutor or as a village teacher. But if he can not obtain this diploma, he is obliged to continue to act as an assist- ant teacher until he can do so. Seminar Director Dr. Otto, the principal of the normal college, and a member of the board of examiners, assured me, that it was a common thing for candidates to be examined four or five times, before they suc- ceeded in obtaining a teachers' diploma. When they have at last succeeded, they, as well as those, who obtained the diploma marked " excellent" in the first examin- ation, are eligible as teachers. The school committee of the different parishes elect their own teachers. The only condition, to which this right is subjected, is, that they mtiy not elect any person, who has not obtained a diploma of competence from the board of ex- aminers. When a teacher dies or vacates his situation, the .school committee is required by law to elect another within two months to fill his place. All candidates for the vacant office are examined in the preEcnce of the Ecbool committee and of those 264 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. inhabitants of the parish or town who desire to be present ; and after the examination, the school committee proceed to elect the candidates whom they consider the best qualified to fill the vacant situation. But even after this examination before the paroch'al or municipal school authorities, the suc- cessful candidate is generally obliged to present himself to another committee in Dresden, called the Landeonsistorium, for examination, before he can finally be inducted into his hard-won office. Such is the great the seemingly exaggerated precautions, which are taken by the Saxon people to secure good and efficient teachers for the schools. If, at any of these different examinations, any thing is discovered against the moral or religious character of the candidate, he is imme- diately rejected. His moral as well as his religious character is carefully scruti- nized before his reception into the Training College, and by each of the different bodies of examiners, before whom he is obliged afterward to appear. If his pre- vious life can not bear this scrutiny, or if the principal or professors of his college can not bear testimony to his morality and to his religious demeanor during his residence, he is rejected, and is not permitted to enter the profession. It is easy to perceive how high a teacher, who has passed all these examinations and scrutinies, must stand in the estimation of his country and of those who sur- round him more immediately. As Dr. Otto said to me, " The great number of examinations, that a young man must pass through, before he can become a teacher, is important, not only in preventing any unworthy person ever bi-ing admitted into the teachers' profession, but also, and more especially, in raising the profes- sion in the estimation of the public. The people have a great respect for men, who have, as they know, passed so many and such severe examinations. They attend with more attention and respect to their counsels and instruction." And certainly, until the teacher is respected by the people, his teaching will be produc- tive of but little profit. To be a teacher in Germany is necessarily to be a man of learning and probity. None but such a person can be a teacher. Can we say the same in England ? How many of our teachers are only uninstructed wo- men, or poor uneducated artizans ; or rude and unlettered pedagogues ; or even immoral and low-minded meti ? How many have never been educated in any thing more than reading, writing, and a little ciphering ? How many have never been into a teacher's college ? How many have only been instructed in such a college for the ridiculously short period of six months? How many have never been educated at all ? And yet over Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Holland, and France, every teacher has been carefully trained for some twelve or fourteen years, in preparation for his duties ; has passed at least two, generally three, and often four years, in a teachers' college, under the instruction of learned and high-minded men, conscious of the importance of their work ; has passed with credit several severe examinations, and has only finally been received into the teachers' profession, after a most careful scrutiny into his character and accom- plishments has given an assurance to his country of his fitness for the important duties of his profession. But strange and humiliating as is the contrast between the care, that is taken in Saxony and in England to prepare and elect efficient teachers for the village schools, the contrast between the situations of the teachers in the two countries, after election, is no less sad. In Saxony, as indeed throughout Germany. Sv\itzer- land, Holland, Denmark, and France, great pains are taken to make the teacher's rank in society, and his situation, worthy the acceptance of an educated man. The ti acher is never left dependent upon uncertain charity. If his salary is sometimes small, it is at least fixed and certain. The minimum is fixed by goverment, and no parish or town-committee may offer less than this salary to its teacher. More- over, the teacher is never degraded into being his own tax-gatherer. The pari.sh or town is obliged to arrange with the teacher, before his appointment, how much he shall receive, when he shall receive it, and how he shall receive it. The com- mittee is obliged to collect the funds necessary for cleansing, warming, repairing, and furnishing tTie school-buildings, and for faying the teachers. If they neg- lect to pay the teacher regularly, he can always appeal to the county magistrates, who oblige the parochial or town-committee to perform its duty. Wlien a teacher has become too old, or too weak to perform all his accustomed duties in the Bchool-room, tiie inspector of the disti-iot decides, whether he shall ROYAL SEMINARY AT DRESDEN. 265 be dismissed with a pension ; or, whether the committee shall engage an assistant teacher, to aid him in the school-'oom. The widows and children of deceased teachers are pensioned oft' in Saxony, in the same manner as in Prussia, and the funds for this purpose are raised by the same means. Another most important regulation is, that no person or persons in immediate personal connection with a teacher, shall Lave the power of dismissing him, after he is once elected. It must be evident to all, how much this is tending to lower the independence and respectability of the teachers of England. A pi'ivate pat- ron, a clergyman, or a committee of parishioners has the power in almost every case, in our country, of dismissing a teacher. How often this has been done merely on account of some personal pique, or because the teacher would not sub- mit to their crude notions of how a school ought to be managed ; or fi'om misrep- resentation ; or from mere village squabbles, 1 have no need to remind any of my readers. That such a dismissal is possible, every one will admit. How such a piisiibility must often damp a good and earnest teacher's energy, or undermine his honesty and destroy his usefulness, or at least lower his profession in the eyes of the people around him, is but too evident. But in Germany, no person in im- mediate connection with the teacher can dismiss him on any pretext whatsoever. His judges are distant, unprejudiced, and impartial persons. In Sa.\ony, after the parish has elected its teacher, it loses all direct power over him. The parochial minister or committee can inspect the school, when he or they please. Indeed, it is their duty to do so at stated times. They can advise the teacher and counsel him, but they can not directly interfere with him. He is supposed to understand, how to manage his school, better than any other person in his parish. If he did not, his long preparatory training would have been of little avail. If the clergyman, or any of the parishioners, have any cause of complaint to find with the teacher, and desire to have either dismissed or reprimanded, and obliged to change his plans of proceeding, a complaint must be made to the county edu- cational magistrate, and by him, to the minister of education in Dresden, who, in Saxony, is the only person, who can dismiss a teacher. The county magistrate, on I'eceiving the complaint, immediately sends an inspector to the spot, to inquire into the ground of complaint or dispute ; and after having received his report, the complaint of the parish, and the defense of the teacher, sends them to the minis- ter of education in Dresden. It remains with the minister alone to pronounce the final judgment. This impartial mode of proceeding tends to raise the teachers' profession in the eyes of the people. They see that the teachers are men, who are considered worthy of the protection and support of the government. But above all, it enables the teachei's to act honestly and fearlessly, to follow out the plans they know to be the best, and to devote their whole energies and minds to their duties, without any embarrassing fears of offending employers or patrons, or of endangering their continuance in office. There are 2,925 teachers in Saxony, or one teacher to every 588 inhabitants ; which is not large enough for the wants of the country. In Saxony, as through- out Germany, they will not make any use ol monitors. As they will not avail themselves of the assistance of educated monitors in the more mechanical parts of school teaching, they have therefore been obliged to adopt the forovving expedient. The law ordains, that when there are more than sixty children in any parochial school, and the parish can not afford to support more than one teacher, the chil- dren shall be divided into two classes, when there are not more than 100, and into three classes, when not more than 150 in number: that when there are two cLosses, the teacher shall instruct one in the morning, and the other in the after- noon ; that when there are three classes, he shall instruct each class for three hours daily at separate times ; and that all the children not under instruction shall not attend the school, while either of the other classes is there. From inquiries made by Dr. Otto, of Dresden, it appears that 2,119 of the primary schools of Saxony receive the following salaries, inde- pendently of the lodgings, fuel, and garden, &c. : GUT receive not more than £30; 531 not more than £50 ; 543 not more than £71; 206 not more than £90; 78 not more than £95; 25 not more than £105; 12 not more than £120 ; 9 not mbre thlm £130 ; 7 not mc/re tlmn £138; 1 not mote than £W}. 266 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. Mr. Kay makes the following observation on the public schools of Saxony: Each parent is obliged to begin to educate his children at home or to send them to some school at the commencement of their sixth j'ear, unless the child is sickly and unfit to bear any mental exei'tion. After a child has once commenced attend- ing a school, it must continue such attendance regularly, summer and winter, for eight years; and even on the attainment of its fourteenth year, it may not discon- tinue such attendance, miless it has obtained a certificate, s'.ating that it can read, write, and cipher, and that it is well acquainted with the doctrines of its religion and with the truths of the Scripture history. The examinations for these certifi- cates are conducted by the religious ministers, in conjunction with the teachers. In some few cases, however, where the parents are very poor, the school commit- tees are empowered to permit the parents to remove their children from school at the end of their tenth year, if they can read, write, arid cipher, and know the leading facts and doctrines of the Scriptures. But before they have attained this age, they can not be taken from school, except when they are too sickly or too weak to attend the classes. No child may be employed in any manufactory, or in any manual labor, before it has attained the age of ten years. The Saxons consider the education of young children as a matter of primary importance, to which all else must be made to give way. The morality and the liberty, as well as the social and physical condition, of the people are all considered to be dependent on the early and full development of their moral and intellectual faculties. To the attainment of this end, therefore, every other consideration is made to yield. The Saxons are, as is well known, a commercial people. But still commercial requirements have not outweighed moral considerations. From the age of six to the age of fourteen, every chijd must receive a sound, eflScient, and religious education. Those children, however, who are wanted to work in the manufactories, and who have attained a tolerable proficiency in Scripture history, reading, writing, and arithmetic, are permitted to discontinue their attendance on the daily classes, at the age of ten ; but are re- quired to attend afternoon classes, two or three times a week, during the next four years. Thus, even the factory children receive regular periodical instruction from highly educated teachers, until they attain the age of fourteen.* The most minute and particular regulations are in force in Saxony respecting the school buildings. The law prescribes that they shall be situated as nearly as • The following section, (143) of the School Law, relates to the neglect of school attend- ance. 1. In every parish where there is a school union, there shall be a school messenger. In large parishes which are divided into many schiiol districts, every school shall have a partic- ular mes.senger, besides one for every school district. 2. Excepting on the common vacations, and on those weeks and days when there is no school, the school messenger must ask the teacher, on every school day, after the school hours, what children have been absent without an adequate excuse. 3. In places where there is bnt one school, the school messenger must ask this question at least twice a week, on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and require an account of the last three davs. 4. The next morning, not later than an hour before the beginning of the morning school, the school messenger of every place must go to the parents of the absent and unexcused child, and demand him for the school, or else the reason for his absence. For every such visit the parent must give the messenger six pfennings. 5. If a child does not come after this demand, but remains away unexcused for two days, the school messenger must take him on the third day and conduct him to the school. The fee from the parents shall be one grofchen. 6 A child of a place where there is but one school, who does not come on the Monday or Thursday after the visit of the school messenger, and remains unexcused ; also if he stays away six days without adequate excuse, must be taken by the mcssetiger and carried to the school, and the fee from the parents s:iall be two groschen. 7. If the child slays from the school with the knowledge of its parents after being thus car- ried to it by the messenger, measures for punishment must be taken. 8 If the messenger can not collect his fees, he must apply to the magistrates, whose duty it is to coerce the payment. 9. If the parents are actually too poor to pay the same, the magistrates must demand pay- ment quarterly from the school chest. 10. The magistracy must lend their assistance to the messenger if. without good reason, he is prevented from taking the child to school ; or, if he js improperly treated while executing the duties of his office. ■ PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 26Y possible in the center of the parish, and that a quiet and perfectly healthy site shall be selected. To use the words of one of the regulations of the f~axon Chambers on this subject : " If there is any building which deserves the careful considera- tion of the architect, it is that which is intended for the village school." The government has prepared several plans, with specifications of the cost, &c., for the guidance of the county authorities and village committees. To follow the words of the regulations themselves : " Every school-room must be sufficiently roomy, lofty, well lighted, perfectly dry, and free from damp, of a convenient and suitable form for the management of the school-classes, and in a healthy, open, and quiet situation." • On each of these several heads, a great number of minute and most carefully digested regulations have been made, for the purpose of insuring the attainment of these ends. The minimum of the size and of the height of the school-room has been laid down, and very particular regulations have been made relative to the warming, cleansing, and ventilating of the school-rooms ; to the proper draining of the land upon which the school is to be built and upon which the play-grounds are to be aid out ; to the lighting of the class-rooms ; to the disposition of the de.sks ; and even to the position and construction of the doors. Nothing which regards the school-rooms or school apparatus has been deemed too unimportant, to deserve the most careful consideration, or too insignificant to require the most minute and scientific regulations. The school-rooms in Saxony, as indeed through- out Germany, are well supplied with parallel desks, forms, maps, illustration boards, and all the apparatus necessary to enable the teacher to instruct his chil- dren in an effective manner. In the towns the schools generally contain eight or nine classes. A separate room is provided for each class. A learned teacher, who has received fourteen years' preparatory education, presides over each sepa- rate class. One of these teachers is the general director and superintendent of the whole school. Each of the class-rooms contains about sixty children. The law forbids any teacher to allow more than sixty to be instructed in the same class-room. Each of these rooms is fitted up along its length with parallel desks and forms, facing the teacher's desk, which is raised on a platform about a foot high at one end of the room. They are continually whitewashed and scoured, and are well venti- lated. They are lofty, and always well lighted. The children are never kept in the rooms more than about two hours at one time. They are all taken down into the pfay-grounds at the end of every hour and a half, for ten minutes' exercise, and during this time the windows of the class-rooms are all opened and the air purified. The law requires every school committee in Saxony to furnish their school rooms with at least the following apparatus : 1. A supply of school-books, slates, slate-pencils, lead-pencils, pens, paper, &c. for the use of those scholars, whose parents are too poor to buy these things for their children. 2. Some black painted, smooth, wooden boards, on which the teacher may assist his class-lessons by delineations or writing. 3. A moveable easel on which to raise the blackboards. 4. Some maps, and among these one of the Holy Land ; also some large copies for drawing and writing. 5. A reading machine, like those now used in some of the best of our infaat schools ; and 6. The school committees are advised to furnish, whenever they can afford to do so, a collection of objects for the illustration of the lessons in natural history and physical geography. Besides this apparatus, many village schools are supplied with a library of reading books, from which any villager can take books home, on payment of about a halfpenny a week. To give a general idea of the subjects of instruction in the schools, where the children of the people are brought up, I subjoin a table, which will show what is taught in the primary schools of the city of Dresden, and how the hoiu's of the day are apportioned to the various subjects of instruction. 268 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. The following Time Table in the Dresden Primary Schools, shows the number of hours devoted each week to the different branches of instruction. Class I. Class II. Class III. Class IV. SUBJECTS OF INSTBCCTIOW. Bqjs. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. 6 1 3 3 3 4 3 2 1 2 6 1 3 3 3 4 3 1 1 10 2 6 1 4 4 3 4 3 2 1 1 6 1 4 4 3 4 3 1 6 1 6 1 6 3 3 4 2 6 1 6 3 3 4 2 4 5 1 8 3 2 3 5 1 8 3 2 3 Religious instruction. Recitation. Reading. Writing, j German language. IV. Men- l tal and viva voce exercises. Arithmetic. ( Geography, history, and natural I history. Drawing. Singing. ( Instruction in feminine duties, I such as sewing, knitting, &c. i Preparation for the classes under < the superintendance of one of ( the teachers. 28 37 29 33 25 29 22 22 Total number of hours in each week devoted to instruction. To explain this table it is necessary to remark, that in the town schools, there are generally eight classes instructed in eight separate class-rooms, four for boys and four for girls ; that the fourth class contains the least and the first class the most advanced of the children ; that each class is under the charge of a separate teacher ; and that the girls generally remain in the afternoons for an hour and a half after the boys have left, in order to be instructed in sewing, knitting, &c., by a woman who is paid to conduct this necessary branch of feminine instruction. Since the revolution of 1848, the education in all the primary schools has been made perfectly gratuitous, so that every parent can send his children to any school free of all expense ; except that, which is incurred by providing them with respectable clothing. Besides the day schools, there is still another class of schools, which merits our attention. These are the Saxon Sunday schools. They are to be found in all the towns, in the great parishes, and in the manufacturing district.s. They are opened on the Sunday mornings or Sunday evenings, and are intended for the instruction of all persons of whatever age they may be, who desire to continue their educa- tion, and who are prevented, by their week-day duties, from attending any of the primary or superior schools. They are frequented principally by adults, or by young people above the age of fifteen, who have left the primary schools. These classes are opened every Sunday for about three or four hours, and are conducted bysome of the district teachers, who are paid for this extra labor by the county authorities. The education given in them is not confined to religious teaching. It comprehends besides this, instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, the physical sciences, drawing, and the new inventions of the age. These classes generally assemble on the Sunday evenings, in one of the day- schools of the town or district. The incidental expenses necessary for warming and lighting the room, and for the purchase of the necessary books, &e., are gen- erally defrayed by the voluntary contributions of the students, who attend the classes, and by the benevolence of rich people, who are interested in promoting these useful institutions. When the funds derived from these soui'ces do not suf- fice, the minister of public instruction is empowered to assist the town or other locality, in perfecting and suppoi"ting these schools. In many towns and parishes, however, they are entirely maintained by public subscriptions, and in these cases the students do not pay any thing for their education. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 269 So eager are the Saxon people to gain knowledge, and so well do they under- stand its value, that wherever any of these schools are opened on the Sundays or other holidays, they are, as in France, immediately filled to overflowing, with peo- ple of all ages from eighteen up to fifty, v.ho are desirous of increasing their stock of information, and of unfolding the powers of their minds. Ihe importance of these institutions can not be over estimated. By their means, the people of Sax- ony are always learning, that they have more to learn, and are always renewing the instruction given in the primary schools. The lessons of the primary schools are here continually enforced ; morality and prudence are inculcated ; the union between the teachers and the people is continually strengthened ; the value of education and intelligence is each week shown in a still clearer light; the people are continually brought into a closer connection with persons of a much higher order of intelligence ; the tastes and habits of the people are raised ; and by these means, their independence of character, their prudence, their energies, and all their political as well as social virtues, are progressively developed. 'Ihey do not pretend to supply the place of day-schools. They contain scholars of all ages, young and old, and their teachers are persons, who have studied pedagogy as a science, and who are. in every sense of the word, qualified to teach. As an example of what a Sunday school is in Saxony, 1 may mention one of those instituted at Dresden for adults. It is supported partly by charitable subscription and partly by the municipal authorities of Dresden. Five paid teachers tonduet the instruction given in it. It is open every Sunday morning from 8 o'clock until 12, during which time the teachers attend and instruct the different classes. The instruction is perfectly gratuitous, and a great part of the necessary materials, such as paper, pens, ink, and drawing materials, are provided for the scholars free of expense. The object of the institution is to awaken the religious feelings of the scholars ; to strengthen their moral principles ; and instruct them in reading, writing, the German language, geography, history, arithmetic, and drawing. The way in which the four hours of study are divided between these diflferent studies, may be seen from the following table : LESSON PLAN OF A SUNDAY SCHOOL AT DRESDEN. Murnin^. 1st Class. , 2d Class. 3a Class. 4>h Class. From 8 to 8^ Prayers and Religious Instruction. From Arithmetic and Ele- Mental and Slate Geography and History of 8i to 10 mentary Geome- Arithmetic; frac- Germany ; Use of the o'clock. try ; Extraction tions, both com- Globes and Physical Geo- of Square Root mon and decimal. graphy, especially as re- and the Rules of gards Germany and Sax- Proportion , and ony their application to mechanics. From Drawing; with con- Drawing ; Light German Lan- Arithmetic, 10 to 11 structive Geome- and Shadow Ex- guage ; Or- both Mental o'clock. try and Archi- ercises in Lead, thography, and Slate tectural Drawing. Chalk, Pen and Ink, and Colors. Etymology, and Dicta- tion Exer- cises. Exercises. From German Language; German Language; Drawing prin- Writing and 11 to 12 various Exercises various Exercises cipally from Elocution. o'clock. in Composition. in Composition. Models. No person may officiate as teacher in any school in Saxony, until he has ob- tained from a committee of learned professors, expressly appointed for the pur- 2Y0 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN SAXON V. pose of examining candidates, a diploma certifying in precise and definite terms his fitness for admission into the profession. And, even when a candidate has passed this examination, hfe can not be appointed head teacher of any school, until he has been tried, for two years, as assistant teacher in some elementary school, and until he has after this passed another severe examination.* The preparation for these examinations continues fur many j'ears. It begins at the elementary echools. If a boy wishes to enter the teacher's profession, he must gain a testi- monial from his teacher, stating his diligence and his success in his studies. After leaving the village school, he still continues his studies, either in one of the higher burgher schools, or in one of the real schools or gj'mnasia, until he attains the age of fifteen. When he has attained this age, he lays testimonials of his character and his acquirements, signed by his teacher and his religious minister, before the magistrates of his county, lie is then examined before these magistrates, together with all the other candidates, at the yearly entrance examinations of the *normal colleges of his county, in all the subjects of instruction in the elementary schools. The most promising are then chosen out, and are sent by the magistrates to fill up the vacancies in the normal colleges, of which there are always one or two in each county. The young students remain four years in these colleges, continually engaged in preparing for their entrance into the teachers' profession. The education given in thes(^colleges is, however, perfectly gratuitous, or it is manifest no poor young men would be able to bear the expenses of such a training. In a Saxon class-room one finds a learned professor, who has been educated for many years in preparation for his duties, standing before his class lecturing his children, as if they and he were rational beings. The aim of a German teacher is to avi^aken the njinds of his scholars ; to enable them to think, and to teach them to instruct themselves. lie never tries to cram. The method which is pursued is the suggestive one. The teacher selects the subject of the lesson, whether it be on history, natural history, geography, arithmetic, or grammar; and after the class has read some few pages together, the teacher commences his les- son by questions. When a question has been put by him to the class, all those children, who think they can answer, hold up their hands ; the teacher calls upon them by turns to answer his question, or to correct the answers of theii- companions. If the lesson is in history or geography, the teacher increases the interest of the children by anecdotes or descriptions, and enlists their sympathies on the side of virtue, heroism, and patriotism, by pointing out for notice the brilliant deeds of their country's heroes, and the exploits of their ancestors in resisting the foreign invader, or in conquering the national foes. The teacher addresses his children as thinking beings ; as those, who will one day be men, and who will one day themselves influence the destinies of their nation. The scholar will one day become a citizen ; that is the truth engraven on the German teachers' minds ; their duty and their a*im is to awaken and to nurse into maturity the virtues of the people. As soon as the teacher has been appointed, he and the local inspector are re- quired to prepare a plan of daily instruction, to apportion the ditforent school hours to the difftsrent studies, and to arrange the order and the time for holding ' the different classes. When this so-called lesson-plan has been once determined, the teacher is bound by it, and can not vary the order of his class-instruction, without again consulting with the inspector. The school duties are commenced every morning, and closed every afternoon with prayer and singing. * In the literal words of flie law — " No one can bt! appoiiitKi teacher, , " Isl. Who has not satisfied the examiners appointed by the minister of education, of his fitness to be admitted into the teachers' profession, by passing an examination conducted by them. "2d. Who has not, after the above-mentioned examination, practiced fnr two ycarx as asxistant teacher, or, at least, as private tutor, under the direction, if pdss ble, of an able teacher ; and wlio has not, during this time continued his education, and obtained the entire approbation of his superior teacher. " 3d. Who has not, after these two years, satisfactorily passed a second examination con- ducted by the above-mentioned body of examiners. ■ '4th. Who has not attained his twenty-first year." PRTMARV INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 271 A public examination of all the children is held once every half year in the Bchool-room, and under the direction of the local inspector. Notice of the ap- pointed day is given by the religious ministers from their pulpits; and all the in- habitants of the parisn are invited to attend. The school committee is required by law to be present at these public examinations. These examinations serve to stimulate the efforts cf both teachers and children, to interest the parents in the schools, and to encourage a spirit of healthy emulation among the scholars. At the end of the examination, the inspector pronounces I is opinion on the progress of the children in the presence of the assembled parish ; but all remarks upon the teacher himself are given to him in private, so as not to diminish the respect of the children for him, by showing them that he does not fully understaijd how to instruct them in the most effective manner. 272 NORMAL 5E.MINARY IN DRESDEN. a c Ed a a >• n t 2 < O o n :. 2S o ^3 2 !^ fa 2 5 P s ^ .J u o & H Q a a -a e 11 8 § s Z ^s S:l is If e| »• i c '£ 1 ^ |S ='« ■-g ^ &^ ■a ~ •«•«. s s •a g £ s, ■^ "^ •* <; 5.M £■> <^ eg li -^ 'k s |J ^S $.1 X 1st class. 2d class. common to both. 4h. common to both. 2h. 2h. 2h.' common to both. 2h. — n CI 1-1 — c^ SI — CI CI n -H „• 2 • • „• 2 ■ -• ° "3 CI 5 . . " 3 E ■ ■ . E S ^ . _. g ■= s s --=- rt 1-1 -1 -i X 1st class. 2d class. 2 h, ' "2 h. 4h. common to both. 2 h. ' '2 h." common to both. 3h. 1 h. common to both. 4h. 2h. 1 h. 1 h. 2h. com.non to both. 2h. 3 h. 21.. '2 h." common to both. 2 b. 1 h. 2 h. 1 h. 2 h. 1 h. 1 h. "S 1 1 J= 1. a h c 2: >. 1st class. 2d class. '4h. 2 h. 2 h. 2h. * common to both. ■^•Vn del -^ <^'r-l dCICIr.( • 2 ■ • 2 • do cj S ■ . E . ■ . • ... C J5P.SJ5 JZJZJZ 1-1 CI 1-1 d SI -H >-. 1st class. 2d class. 4h. 4h. 2h. 2 h. ' 2h. • 2h. common to both. 4h. 3h. 2h. 1 h. 1 h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. ' '2 h. 2h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. 1 h. 1 1st class. 2d class. common to both. 4h. common to both. 2h. 2 b. common to both. 2h. Ih. com.iion to both. 3h. '1 h." common to both. 2^h. I h. 1 h. 2h. common to both. ' 3 h. 2h. 2h. 1 h. 2 h. 1 h. 2 h. 1 b. 1 h. 1 1st class. 2d class. 2 h. " ' 2 h. 4h. common to both. 2h. ' '2h.' common to both. 3h. Ih. common to both. 4 h. '2 h.' common to both. 2 1.. 1 hr 1 h. 2h. common to both. 2h. 3h. 2h. 2h. 1 h. 2 h. 1 h. 2 h. 1 h. 1 h. rz 1st class. 2d class. ' 4 h. 2 h. 2 h. 2h. ' 4h. common to both. 2h. common to both. 4h. 3h. 2h. 1 h. 2 h. 2h. coinmon to both. 2h. 11..' '2 h. Ih. 2h. 2 h. 2 h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. ,1 h. X 1st class. 2d class. 4h. 4h. 2h. 2n. 2h. 2h. common to both. 4h. 3h. 2h. 1 h. 1 h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. ' ' 2 h. 2h. 2h. 2 h. 1 h. 2 h. 2 h. 1 h. 1 h. 3 Biblical Knowledge Biblical History Bible Explanation , Catechism . . . Art of Ciuestioning Catechetical Exeri'ises Exercises in Thinking Psychology and Art of Teaching. School Discipline . General History . . German and Saxon History. Eatin . . .■ . . Composition . . . Arithmetic . . . Geography . . . Natural Philosophy •Writing .... Violin Singing .... History of the Church Geometry .... Grammar . . . Reading .... Natural History Drawing .... Thorough Bass . . Organ Piano 1 -i-H— — -^-<-.— — — SlddCIc'lCISISICI ORGANIZATION AND INSTRUCTION BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC, SAXONY. In Leipsic the public primary schools are of three sorts, the first for the use of the children of the poor who receive supplies from the public; the second for those who, not belonging to this class, would still be burthened by the payment of a school fee ; the third, the burgher class. Many of the schools are endowed. The Burgher school is considered by Dr. Bache one of the most complete in its plan of organization in Germany. He thus describes it : This school is designed to educate children of the middle ranks of society, and those of the upper ranks whose parents wish them to receive a public education. It is composed, 1st. Of an elementary school for both boys and girls, which pupils should enter at six years of age. There are three classes, in the lowest of which the two sexes are taught in the same room. The pupils are retained, in general, a year and a half to two years, leaving this department at eight years of age and proceeding to the next higher. 2d. The burgher school proper. Here the boys and girls receive instruction separately. There are six classes for boys, each of which occupies a year. After passing through the three lower classes, the sixth, fifth, and fourth, the pupils begin separate courses, according to their inclination or supposed destination in life. This is at about eleven years of age. Those who are intended for trades, and whose school education must finish at fourteen, to enable them to begin their apprenticeship, pass through the remaining classes, the tihird, second, and first of the burgher school. Other boys who are intended to pursue higher departments of mechanical oc- cupations, or for manufacturers, clerks, miners, foresters, stewards of estates, mer- chants, artists, civil officers, &c., pass into the department called the ^^real school,^'' terminating their course there at about sixteen years of age. Others who are intended for the learned professions go at eleven to a gymnasium, pass through its classes at eighteen, and enter the university, being prepared for a pro- fession at twenty-one. 3d. The '^real schooV or higher burgher school. In this there are four classes, intended to occupy together about five years, and to prepare the pupils to enter a commercial, polytechnic, architectural, or mining academy, according to his vocation. Omitting the girls' school, the scheme thus marked out will appear better by the following skeleton : Elementary School. — Three classes. Pupils 6 to 8 years of age. Burgher School. — Three classes. Pupils 8 to 11 years of age. Higher Burgher School. — Three classes. Pupils 11 to 14 years of age. The pupils are apprenticed on leaving the school. Or, Real Schools of four classes. Pupils 11 to 1 6 years of age, and pass to a polytechnic, commercial, mining, architectural, <^c., academy. Or, Gymnasium (grammar school) of six classes. Pupils 11 to 18 years of age. They pass to the university, where, after a course of three years, they may be admitted to one of the learned professions. A plan at once convenient and rational is thus marked out for a youth's educa- tion, depending upon the views of his parents, their circumstances, and his own talents and dispositions. The first four named schools are united in one building, erected by the liberality of the town of Leipsic, and have the same director. The subjects and the order of succession of the different courses are good ; 18 274 BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. there is a constant reference to the ultimate object of the instruction, and no branches are inserted in the programme merely for the purpose of preparing pupils for the higher classes of other schools. It is, on the contrary, considered better that pupils should obtain access to them through the lower classes of the same school. By detaining them here, injury would be done to both schools. The primary instruction which is common to all the pupils, embraces a moderate number of branches, and terminates at an age when experience has shown that the culture by the ancient languages should be no longer postponed, in the case of those who are intended for the learned professions, and when the studies of others destined for the arts should take a different direction. The question, whether the proper age has been adopted for this separation is wholly one of experi- ence, and the facts in reference to it will be submitted in speaking of secondary instruction. The subjects taught and the time they occupy in the elementary school agtee very closely with those of the first two classes* in the seminary school of Berlin. Drawing on slates and singing are both introduced here, constituting an advan- tage over the other ; they are brought in as a relief from intellectual exercises, and as objects of direct attainment. The number of hours of duty is but four on four days of the week, and two on each of the others. These might, I think, be increased to the standard of the primary schools, twenty-four hours per week, without fear of over-tasking the pupils ; and if a portion of the time were be- stowed on judiciously arranged exercises, the physical as well as moral education would be improved. The moral training of the play-ground is not as yet an ele- ment in any of the German systems. The same master teaches in succession all the studies of his class. The pupils pass from the third to the second class at the end of six months, a change which is favorable to their progress, since at this early age strongly marked differences appear soon after entering the school. With a similar view of fitness m regard to their age, the plan of daily exercises is not rigorously prescribed, but is merely indicated to serve as a general guide in relation to the time to be devoted to the different subjects. I found occasion in this school to remark the danger of defeating the exercises of induction, by making them merely mechanical, by the reception of fixed answers to invariable questions ; and, also, the necessity of selecting very simple melodies for the early exercises in singing; beyond these, the exertion of the voice of the child, so far from being a physical benefit, is a positive injury. My preference for beginning arithmetic with a reference to sensilile objects, that is, by denominate numbers, was again strongly confirmed. It might seem impossible to determine how many pupils of a definite age might, with advantage, be inti'usted to the care of one teacher under a given method of instruction. The average for branches of the same kind is not, however, so wide from the extremes as might at first be supposed. In the simultaneous method, the skill of the teacher is the chief determining quality. The various subordinate ones depending upon the pupil, the particular exercise, the arrangements in refer- ence to ventilation, warmth, &c., will readily suggest themselves. In the midst of all these, the average shows itself to attentive observation. It is easy to see how many pupils are attending to what is going on, and if the teacher be skilled in his art, the number is thus obtained, which a class should not exceed. For the intellectual exercises, I obtained in this way from thirty-five to forty in the Ger- man schools as the maximum number of an elementary class ; the observation in reference to the classes of the best teachers here confirmed these numbers. In the mechanical branches, the number of pupils may be very much increased, without material injury to the instruction, and hence, the classification which suits them is not adapted to the intellectual departments. The principal subjects of instruction in the burgher school, including both the lower and higher departments, are religion and morals, German, French, arith- metic, geometry, natural history, history, geography, calligraphy, drawing, and vocal music, and to these are added in the highest classes technology and physics. The list differs from that of the Dorothean higher city school, and the seminary school of Berlin, in the omission of Latin and the introduction of technology and • See page 133. BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. 275 physics, both which differences mark the proper character of the school. It is not intended that the upper classes shall prepare pupils for the higher classes of the gymnasium, but that those who are to be trained in the classical studies shall have previously passed to the lower classes of the gymnasium, where they properly belong, and where they can obtain the instruction appropriate to their objects. The distribution of time is shown in the annexed table, which is similar in its arrangement to those already given. PLAN OF INSTRUCTION IN THE HIGHER AND LOWER BURGHER SCHOOLS OF LEIPSIC. 8UBJE0T3 BURGBEK SCHOOL FOR BOTS. HiGHBR School. Lower Scbool. a, ?n & & & OF s ° INSTRUOTION. ** >. M-a % 2 •s >^ b-9 ^1 in ■a H c M § » ^ ■" "■ 4 24 Religious Instruction, 4 4 4 4 4 German Language,* 5 6 8 6 8 6 39 French, 2 y y 6 Arithmetic, .... 4 4 4 4+ 6 6 28 Geometry, ..... 2 y 2 6 Natural History, U 3 2 2 2 2^ 12 Technology, ..... 2 2 Physics, ..... 2 2 Geography y y 2 2 2 10 History, ..... 2 2 2 2 2 lU Writing, 1 2 2 3 3 4 15 Drawing, 4 4 3 3 2 1 17 Singing, a 2 2 2 1 1 26 10 Total, 33 33 33 28 28 The increase in the number of branches as the pupils rise to the upper classes, seems to me judiciously made in this plan. At the same time, the number of hours per week is gradually increased, and perhaps beyond the due limit, though it would require longer attention than I could give to this institution to affirm pos- itively that this is the case. Comparing the programme with that of the classes of corresponding age in the seminary school of Berlin, a general similarity appears throughout, although each has distinctive features. In the sixth class, of which the pupils are of the same age with those of the fourth in the seminary school, a few lessons of natural history and geography (" knowledge of home") are given, and with advantage. The number of hours per Week devoted to the different studies is nearly the same in both schools. In the fifth class, natural history and history are introduced in the burgher school, and in its corresponding classes in the seminary school, Latin, French, and geometry. The number of hours of arithmetical instruction is greater in this school than in the other. A similar difference continues in the fourth class, as it is not the object to begin French until after those who leave the school at ifourteen have terminated their course. The elementary exercises of geometry are begun in this class of the burgher school. The third class is the first or lowest of the higher burgher school, and the pro- • This includes the exercises of reading. t In this is included an hour of preparatory exercises for geometry. J Anthropology. § Elementary natural history and natural philosophy. 2*JQ BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. gramme of this and of the second agree in the main with those of the seminary school. Greater attention is devoted to religious instruction, to arithmetic, and drawing, and less to French, in the burgher than in the seminary school. The number of hours given to the first named branch in the burgher school is double that in the other, and the number to the last only one-half, which is, probably, too small an allotment for the object. Technology and physics are taken up in the first class of the Leipsic school, and Latin is continued through all those of the Berlin institution. In regard to the plan of treating the subjects of instruction, the following is a comparison of the two schools : 1. In religious instruction, the general train is the same, being more detailed in the burgher school, and having a special course of morals in the higher classes. In general, the German institutions are very free from an objection urged to a course of religious instruction, in a former part of my report, namely, that it was addressed rather to the understanding than to the heart. There is no express instruction in morals, but it is because the morals of the Scriptures mingle with their daily lessons, and no special course is needed, until a more advanced age, than that embraced by these schools in general. 2. The course of German language (including composition) and reading, is parallel with that of the Berlin seminary school, except in the two higher classes, lu these a turn is given to the compositions to adapt them to the peculiar destina- tion of the pupils, who are also exercised in speaking, by reading dialogues and brief dramatic pieces. In a country enjoying a constitutional government, the art of public speaking may not be neglected by its citizens. 3. The course of French, in the burgher school, struck me as rather defective, probably from the small amount of time which is devoted to it, as already stated. 4. Matheinatics. — The courses of arithmetic and geometry are also parallel with those in the seminary school. The mathematical studies here are extended further in Algebra, and include logarithms, mensuration, and surveying. 5. Natural history, physics, and technology. — The early beginnings of this OMirse are exercises in induction, directed particularly to awaken habits of obser- vation and reflection. Later, some of the more interesting parts of natural history are taken up, and, finally, the subject is treated somewhat systematically, and a technological direction given to it. The physics consists of such popular notions of natural phenomena as should be possessed by all. The technology explains the processes of some of the common arts and trades. 6. The course of geography begins like that already described at Halle, but subsequently pursues the inverse order, giving an idea of the earth as a part of the world, its form, motions, &c. Director Vogel has conceived the plan of pre- senting the parts of the earth always in their just proportions, as upon the sphere, and has contrived for this purpose a globe which may be divided through the equator or through a meridian. The hemisphere being suspended with its plain surface against the wall, presents the convex surface, with its delineations, in true proportion. This idea he proposes to extend, by substituting for maps, in the early recitations, portions of spherical surfaces, with the delineations of the countries upon them. After taking a general survey of the different countries, especially those of Europe, the pupils pass to the geography of Germany. They then enter more into the details of the countries of Europe, draw maps, and, finally, study mathe- matical and physical geography in a scientific form. To carry out his views of the connection of history, natural history, and ethnography with geography, director Vogel has prepared a school atlas upon a new plan. The vignettes sur- rounding the maps contain illustrations of these different kindred branches, and address the eye of the learner, thus impressing the memory with their connection with the countries delineated. For example, around the maps representing the different quarters of the globe are the characteristic plants, animals, and men of the different regions near to the portions of the country where they are found. The more detailed maps of the countries give a view of their natural productions, represent the more prominent or characteristic qualities of the nation, the arts which flourish more particularly among them, and give medallions portraying their great historical characters, or including the names of their distinguished men, or the dati:s of impwtaut historical events. BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. 277 7. The historical course, as far as it is distinct from that last mentioned, agrees, in its general features, with that of the Berlin seminary school, being, however, more minute. 8. Writing and drawing. — In learning to write, the classes begin with small hand, and succeed better than is usual upon that plan, probably from the atten- tion, at the same time, to drawing. The last named branch is taught by Schmidt's method. The teacher has made an admirable collection of models in wood and plaster, of geometrical solids, of machines, of buildings, bridges, and the like, of ornaments, &c., and brings his class forward in this kind of drawing very rapidly. Only the more elementary parts of these collections, however, are used for the classes of the burgher school. 9. Vocal music is taught as in the other schools The particular method which the teacher pursues in his instruction is left much to the individual, the director remarking, justly, that if he is competent to his place, his method must be good. He has for his guide, however, a programme indicating the degree of proficiency which his class must show at the end of the year. In the lower classes of a school like this, if the pupils have been previously well trained, a larger number can be instructed by the simultaneous method than in tile elementary classes, in a subject of the same kind. This advantage is lost as the course becomes higher, and the scale turns again in proportion as individual teaching becomes more desirable, with mcreased individual development and dif- ferences in mental quality. The simultaneous method requires watchfulness on the part of the teacher, not to deceive himself as to the progress of his class. It is, of course, rarely that a question can not be answered by some of them, while the mass may be entirely ignorant in relation to the subject. I have seen both skill and attention fall into the mistake to which I refer. Between each of the hours of recitation there are a few minutes of interval, during which the classes leave the school-rooms. This is an arrangement favora- ble to health, and vi'orthy of imitation. The lower classes have each a teacher for all the subjects, a system which is gradually changed in the higher classes for that of a teacher for a single subject. Drawing and singing are taught by special instructors in the higher classes. The classes for girls are similar to those described, the instruction being modi- fied so as to render it more applicable to the sex. The plan of instruction in the "Real School,^^ the highest of which this estab- lishment is composed, can hardly be said to have received, as yet, its ultimate form. The school belongs to the class of secondary instruction, running parallel with the gymnasium, and preparing for the university of the arts, or polytechnic school, as the other prepares for the imiversity of the learned professions. The branches taught, and which I may enumerate, to complete the description of the institution, are, 1. Religious instruction. 2. German. 3. French. 4. English. 5. Mathe- matics, including algebra ; geometry, trigonometry, plane and spherical ; practi- cal surveying ; a review of arithmetic and technical arithmetic. 6. Physics and chemistry. 7. Natural history. 8. History. 9. Geography. 10. Calhgraphy. 11. Drawing. 12. Vocal music. The separate branches in this school are in general taught by special instruc- tors. The methods of Pestalozzi are considered by the director as less applicable to the higher than to the lower courses. But 1 doubt this, for though much less frequently applied, I have seen them used with good effect in advanced courses. The opposite method takes up less time if the object be to conununicate positive knowledge, and the importance of this object certainly increases, and even be- comes paramount, in the later parts of the student's career. The objection urged to this plan does not apply in the case of those subjects which are contin- uous through a series of years, but to such as are broken up into a number of kindred branches, the elements of which are to be taught at different, and even at advanced stages of the course. The plan of special study hours for those whose parents wish them to be pre- pared for their lessons under the direction of a teacher, has been adopted in this school. 278 BURGHER SCHOOL IN LEIPSIC. Mr. Kay thus speaks of the public schools of Leipsic and Dresden. It was delightful to enter one of these well classified German schools, in which all the children are divided according to their acquirements, into as many classes as the school contains rooms ; one educated teacher is placed over each class, and by having only children of the same degree of knowledge under his care, he is able to give his class-lessons to all his children at one time, without being obliged to divide them, and his thoughts and attention also. Every thing showed us, that all the details of instruction had been thoroughly and carefully considered. The size, careful ventilation, and cleanliness of the rooms ; their arrangement and furniture, and the character of the apparatus, with which they were filled, all told us, that the Saxon people and the Saxon government understood the im- portance of the great work of the people's education, and knew that its perfection depended on a scientific regulation of all the details of school management. I visited, also, several of the primary schools in Dresden, and found them equally admirable for their classification, for the number, size, cleanliness, ventilation, and good arrangement of their class-rooms ; for the character and numbers of the teachers connected with them ; for the scientific character of the instruction given in them ; for the order, quiet, and excellent discipline of the class-rooms ; ' for the suggestive and awakening nature of the methods of instruction pursued in the classes ; for the gentlemanly and intelligent bearing of the teachers ; for the cleanly, healthy, and comfortable appearance of the children, and for the friendly- relations of scholars and teachers. SECONDARY EDUCATION SAXONY. We are indebted for the following account of the gymnasium or school for secondary instruction in Saxony, mainly, to Dr. Hermann Wimmer, of Dresden. Dr. Wimmer* was educated in the common school, gymnasium, anduniversity of his native country; was trained for a classical teacher in the philological seminary of Hermann and Klotz, at Leipsic, and was for several years professor in the Fitzhum gymna- sium or Blochmann college at Dresden, one of the best classical schools in Germany. The gymnasia of Saxony are partly boarding and partly day schools. The most celebrated of the former at Meissen. Grimma, and Schulpforte, were established at the date of the Reformation by the electors of Sax- ony on the foundation of the old monasteries or cloisters, the buildings and funds being thus diverted from ecclesiastical to educational purposes. These schools are known as Furstenschulen, or Prince schools, or Klosterschulen, or Cloister school, from the circumstances of their founda- tion. These old boarding gymnasia are called, by Dr, Wimmer. the hearths of classical learning in Germany. The gymnasium of Pforta, (schola Portensis,) was opened for pupils in 1543, the funds of the old monastery having been sequestered by the electoral Prince Maurice, on the advice of Luther, for this purpose. In 1815, the school passed with the province in which it is located into the dominions of Prussia. The foundation yielded, in 1838, a revenue of $30,000, on which one hundred and seventy beneficiaries (intraners) were lodged, boarded, and in- structed. In most of the boarding gymnasia there are a class of pupils, (extraners,) whose tuition is free, but who board, at their own expense, with the professors. Besides the Fursten, or Prince schools, there were in all the large cities, a gymnasia supported by municipal taxation and private tuition, and managed by the municipal authorities. But within the last few years most of the gymnasia have been merged in the bur- gher or higher elementary school, leaving eight or ten to be aided and controlled by the government, and which are continued as classical schools. These are open day schools, and are situated in the larger cities, where the parents of most of the pupils reside. Between the Fursten, or strictly boarding schools, and the open or day gymnasia, there are two of a peculiar character — the Thomas school at Leipsic, and the Blochmann-vizthum gymnasium at Dresden. The * Dr. Wimmer is now (1852) engaged in preparing for the press in Dresden, his observa- tions on " Education and Religion in the United States" — the results of his visit to this couij. try in 1850-.'jl The work will be sold by B. Westermann & Co., 290 Broadway, New York. 280 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. Thomas school is partly a classical and partly a musical institution ; more than half of its students form the great vocal choir of the Thomas church, and is celebrated for its performances on Saturday's and Sun- day's. Those students called alumni, have their. tuition and board free, and in the latter part of their college life earn some money by their oc- casional singing. A similar musical class exists in connection with other city gymnasia, but the musical instruction is not carried so far. We give a more particular account of the Blochmann institution. BLOCHMANN-VIZTHUM GYMNASIUM AT DRESDEN. The Blochmaim-vizthum gymnasium combines within itself a classical, and a real or scientific school, and a preparatory school, or progymnasium. It is both a boarding and day school, and pai-takes of a public and private character, being under the direction of the government authorities as a public school, and supported in part out of funds left by Covint Vizthum at the beginning of the 1 7th century, for the education of children of the Vizthum and other noble families, and for a number of poor boys who are clothed, boarded, and educated as com- panions of the young nobles to stimulate them by their zeal and diligence. All the boarding students, about eighty, are distributed into nine rooms. The bccupants of a room are under the special care of one of the teachers, who has generally an adjoining dvt'elling-room. He is interested in their moral and intel- lectual welfare, is applied to by the teachers who see any thing in their pupils to commend or to blame, and by the parents who wish to hear something about their physical or spiritual health ; he gives the allowance of money for buying books, clothes, or whatever they want ; briefly, he is the representative of the absent parent, and enjoys usually the respect, confidence, and love of his pupils. They come but occasionally and for a few moments to their room, to get books or something else out of their secretaries, or in stormy days they are allowed to pass a leisure hour there ; but the neighboring teacher has no oversight of them, unless he is disturbed in his studies by their noise, and then he gives them to under- stand, by knocking at the door, that he is at home, which generally suffices to prevent any further interference. The order of the day is exclusively committed to the Inspectors of the day. For every day two professors are intrusted with this responsible ofiiee, so that every oflicer has the ambiguous honor and the tire- some task of sharing with a colleague for one day of the week the command over the whole. On that day he must see that the students rise (at 5 o'clock in the summer, at 6 in the winter,) must be present at the first breakfast, superintend the study hours from 5f A. M. to 8 P. M. (all study in four adjoining class-rooms,) lead singing and praying in the chapel, keep order before the lessons begin, ascer- tain whether all the teachers in the nine classes are present before he leaves for his recitation or lodging-room, must be in the garden at the time of second break- fast fi'om 9 J to lOy, in stormy days go over the classes and rooms, and so again froom 11 or 12 till 3, when the lessons commence again and continue till 4f ; and again from 5| till 8 are study hours, in which he must be every where and nowhere, and on Wednesdays and Saturdays he must be the walking or bathing-compan- ion of half the section. At 8 is supper time ; at 9, the great mass must go to bed, and only such students of the superior classes as are to be trusted, are permitted to study until 10, when the tired inspectors take their last round through the bedrooms, to ascertain whether all are asleep or are likely to be in good order, and then, imless something extraordinary has happened during the day, satisfied vrith themselves and their day's work, they retire to their rooms. Except the day scholars, no pupil is allowed to leave the house to make a social visit without a ticket of permission from his special tutor, signed likewise by the director, where the time of leaving is mentioned and the statement of the time of arriving and leaving again is expected fi-om the hand of the visited person. Besides the three or four study hours, under the superintendence of the two inspectors, which are considered sufficient for the necessary preparation and repe- tition, the students are bound to be in the garden, walking, running, playing, or exercising in some way. It is in this free time, also, that lessons on the piano, in SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. 281 singing, gymnastics, fencing, dancing, and riding, are given. Only the last houi* of the evening is allowed to the older students for staying in their rooms. In this respect the Vizthum gymnasium takes the extreme view, and, for aught we know, the practice of studying in the room, adopted by the other colleges, seems to be generally preferable to that of studying in full classes. But it is the authority of the older^Btudents, on which the practicability and the success of studying in common rooms, without the inspection of quite as many tutors, chiefly depends, and the character of the institution as well as the demand of rational supervision, seem to have been the causes of an arrangement not sufficiently comfortable to make studying the great pleasure of life, as one might experience in the common rooms of the Fiirstenschool, or in the private chambers of students in city gymna- sia. There is a conference of the twelve chief teachers on Saturdays, the Direc- tor being Chairman and the youngest professor secretaiy, in which the events of the week are spoken of and disciplinary measures taken. The private teachers have no access but in cases where they are particularly concerned. Every pro- fessor has the right of punishing, and the private teachers may apply for it to the inspector. To make use of that painful right, the teacher as such is but rarely forced, oftener in the quality of inspector, and it will be understood, almost nevei- as special tutor. Corporeal punishment is forbidden. The common penalty is de- privation of one of the meals ; the highest is imprisonment. It happens in the Bloehmann institution, that to malefactors of inveterate habits flogging is applied, but only to those of the two preparatoiy classes, and by decree of the conference, and in presence of the directors. In the common gymnasia, where professors and students meet with each other only in the recitation rooms, there is less chance of transgressing laws, the law of the class-room being but one, and that every moment impressed upon the mind of the would-be-transgressor by the pres- ence of the law-giver and judge, but habitual indolence and laziness will meet with something more than a sermon on diligence, which would be like casting a brilliant pearl before a swine ; a few involuntaiy study-hours for making a Latin ode appeals better and more successfully to the stubborn heart. It is never too late to mend ; hence expulsion from the college is and ought to be a rare case, and such a victim has usually gone, before, through the dark hole called career, which is known to ninety-nine per cent, of the gymnasiasts more by name than by sight. There is generally speaking, in the German gymnasia, a strict discipline, without any Spartan severity and without Basedow's philanthropical sweetness. Of course, there have been a great many students who never, in their college life, heard a harsh word nor saw a stern look ; but others, who are not well prepared, or are inattentive, or noisy, or have written their compositions carelessly, or com- mitted a misdemeanor that comes to the ears of professors, are generally dealt with in good, plain German, and " without gloves," and a repetition may lead, by a long graduation, or rather degradation, to the hole. In the common gymnasia, the professors do not interfere with the private hfe of the students, unless some charge is brought against them by a citizen. A gymnasium ordinarily consists of four classes, called Prima, (the highest, or seniors,) Secunda, Tartia, and Quarta, (lowest^ or freshman,) and each of these classes are usually divided into two parts, upper and lower. In this institution there are six classes, including the progymnasium. Pupils are received into the progymnasium at nine or ten years of age, and with the attainments of the elementary period. In this school, which has two classes, they remain until from thirteen to fourteen. Its courses are the following : Bible history, and religion, the German language, the Latin, French, history, arith- metic, knowledge of forms, geography, natural history, drawing, and writing. From the upper class of the progymnasium, the pupils pass to the gymnasium, in which there are four classes. The courses are of religion, Latin, Greek, German language and literature, French, mathematics, history, geography, natural phi- losophy, natural history, music, and drawing. From the fourth or lowest class of the gymnasium, the pupil who is not intended to go to the university enters the " real gymnasium," or scientific school, in which there are two classes, and the duration of the studies of which is one year less than that of the classical g|Tnna- sium. In this the French and English, and the scientific studies, replace the classics, except a portion of Latin, which is still kept up. The comses consist of reUgion, German language and literatui-e, Latin, French, English, mathematics, 282 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. physics, chemistry, natural history, mechanics, history, geography, drawing, auJ music. The distribution of the time of study in the principal branches agrees en- tirely with that of the two upper classes of the Royal Real School at Berlin, already described. The arrangements for the superintendence of the pupils in this institution are, in the main, like those of Pforta. Pupils called inspectors are selected, apd super- intend their fellows when in the play-ground and at study, and there are two mas- ters always on duty as superintendents. The physical education of the pupils is very well attended to, and the alterations of exercise and study have a very gno.^ effect. These alterations will appear by the following order of the day : The boarders rise at six o'clock, and breakfast at a quarter to seven. From a quarter to seven to a quarter to eight, study under the superintendence of the two teachers on duty. Pupils living out of the house join in this study hour. Prayers. From eight to a quarter to ten, instruction. Quarter to ten to quarter after ten, play in the garden, and a light second breakfast. Quarter after ten to twelve, in- struction. Twelve to one, instruction in instrumental and vocal music, gymnastic exercises, dancing, or free to play in the grounds under the charge of the two superintendents, At one, the day scholars leave the institution. Quarter after one to two, dinner. Two to three, play under charge of the inspectors. Three to quarter of five, instruction. On Wednesday and Saturday, walks. Quarter to five to quarter after five, lunch and recreation. Quarter after five to eight, study under charge and aided by the inspectors. Eight, supper. At nine the younger pupils retire, the older ones study until ten. The mathematical instruction in this school is continued, even in the higher branches, upon the inductive plan, and is the most effective which I have ever seen. It consists of a mixture of explanation and question, and of oral and writ- ten exercises in the class-room. The recitations are upon the previous lessons, and upon questions given to be solved out of the class-room, and the written exer- cises are solutions of questions and notes of the explanation of the previous lesson. The collections in natural history are superior to those possessed by any other gymnasium which I visited. Both this and the physical apparatus afford very considerable means of illustration in these departments. The chemical laboratory, in a building apart from the house, is very conveniently arranged, both for instruc- tion and experiments by the pupUs. The time of a gymnasium life varies with the progress of the student in literary acquirements. There are generally semi-annual transfers from one division to the other, and in very rare cases it might happen that an excellent student would finish his course in four years, remaining in each division but half a year, and on the other hand, a first-rate idler might stay as long as eight years. Hence, the average number of college years is six. The student, advancing from one class to another, finds there a remaining stock of students superior to himself, if not in talents, at least in acquaintance with the studies and with the professor of the class. After a three months' study and experience, the able student may leap over that boundary and put himself on a level with his older companions ; and then he will be transferred with them to the next class. It is easier to do so in the inferior classes (lower gymnasium, IV. and III.,) where the order of the students is arranged according to their studies in the class, but in the upper gymnasium more respect is paid to the time and common order, though some capital scholar will break through, while some sluggard will be left behind. There is, also, a good deal of difference in this respect between the different schools, some having only annual translations, while only a part of the classes are divided 5 however, the way of advancement is in all the same, except only in the Blochmann gymnasium, where four regular courses of one year and a half each, carry the student in six years through the four undivided classes. History flourishes in the German colleges to a high degree, not only the history of ancient Greece and Rome learned by reading the various authors, but also the universal history of the civilized world. The professor of history may be sure to have an attentive class, eager to hear of old German liberty beside the Roman despotism, of the Teutonic race conquering the Roman Europe, first running wild in their braveiy, then grafting Christian civilization on the healthy stems of the great empire imder Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, and under the Hohen- staufen, of the Franks and Normanns in Gallia, of the Saxons and Angles in SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. 283 Britain, of the Longobards in Italy, of the sea-power of the Northmen, of the free cities of the Middle Ages, of the Reformation, and of the American Revolu- tion. In history and mathematics generally, the divisions of a class are united. However, in those gymnasia where semi-annual transfers are in use, the teacher of mathematics may have a good deal of trouble, whereas history may be taught in short periods, and easily made intelligible to any one by brief introductions or Bome private study. We pass by geography, natural history, and philosophy, which have only a short life in the lowest or highest classes. The circumstances, that mathematics and history are usually taught by one pro- fessor each, facilitates somewhat the teaching, as it at least gives free scope to the professor to make his arrangements as he pleases, while the Greek and Latin are mostly taught by class-teachers. The average number of teachers is eight, five or six of them called professors in some gymnasia, upper-teachers in others ; or according to their rank Rector or Director, Prorector or Rector, Collega III. (Ter- tius,) Collega IV. (Quartus,) etc., and two or three Adjunct! or Collaboratores. Each one of them has his respective class, with several lessons in the adjoining classes. "' It will be understood that this matter depends on the agreement of the conference, and that the colleges, therefore, differ from each other in this respect, sometimes considerably. But to a certain degree it exists even in the Blochmann College, where there is no difference of rank among the professors, and the teachers are appointed not for classes but their respective branches. However, there being four teachers of ancient languages, they have each, besides teaching in all, one class in which they have their chief work. "Wliat ! four and more teachers, only to instruct in the ancient languages ? Yes, and all these have their good week's work. And the ancient languages are not only equally taught throughout the whole college, but even to a greater extent in the highest classes. Besides, an American student has only three recitations a day, a German at least five lessons ; hence it is obvious that a greater nimiber of teachers is wanted in German than in American schools. We have arrived now at an important point of difference. It lies in the char- acter of recitations and lessons. In Germany the student prepares for the les- son ; here the student prepares by learning the lesson. In Germany he receives his entire lesson from the teacher ; here he recites his lesson to the teacher. There he repeats his lesson at home ; here he repeats it before the teacher. Briefly, there he learns almost every thing from the teachers ; here he learns the greater part from his books. We hope not to be misunderstood ; it is the con- struction of the machine, not the managing of it, which we have drawn here in sharp lines ; too sharp, indeed, to be entirely correct, as it is the case with all dis- tinctions of that kind, and yet evidently characteristic. Generally speaking, an American student has for preparing his lesson double the time of the recitation hour ; a German but half the time ; besides that, private study being supposed and required as well there as here. Here the class or lesson-book is the fireman who makes the steam power, and the teacher the engineer who makes it run. There the teacher is both fireman and engineer, and the student need to do no more than re- member his last trip, and bring a suppljtof fuel for his fui-ther progress. Hence the greater number of lessons and teachers. It follows, likewise, that a German student usually has his pen in hand to make notes for recording and repeating, and on the other hand that the professor has the most unlimited liberty in teach- ing what and how he pleases. There is naturally a great deal of danger in that, but a method prescribed to the teacher in spite of his will, disposition or capacity, would bear even more bitter fruits than a method of his own choice, though it were not the best. Yet he is not free in choosing the author, at least so far as he might interfere with other classes, or transgress the established rule of the college on account of the successive order to be observed. That order, adopted by most of them according to the agreement of the most competent judges, is generally the following : IV. Cornelius Nepos, (Phaedrus.) IV. Jacob's Reader. HI. Caesar. Ovid's Metamorphoses, (Tristia.) III. Xenophon. Lucian. Odyssey. II. Cicero's Orations, or Cato and Laelius. II. Herodotus. Plutarch. Plato's Crito or Sallust or Livy. Virgil. lo. Iliad. J. Cicero's Rhetoric or Philos, Tacitus. I. Thucydides. Demosthenes. Plato. (Eu^ Horace. ripides.) Sophocles. 284 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. The two diflferent methods of reading the classics, the thorough and the cur- sory, and the third running between them, are promiscuously used. Let us com- pare the first with the artillery, the second with the cavalry, and the third with the infantry, as the head, the feet, and the large body of the army. The first is a hea%'y, cumbersome mass, moving slowly yet reaching far, and the only means to make a fortress surrender. It requires both learning and skill, and, if well di- rected, it breaks the battle-array of the enemies. So the fii'st method is the chief instriunent for making the pupil master of the classical field. It may appear tedi- ous to stay long on the same spot, where the prospect invites to proceed, but the present place must be wholly conquered with all its environs, while the charms of the view around, the safety from an attack of enemies in the rear, and the con- sciousness of a sure and safe progress, will conquer the worst enemy, the vagrant laziiii';s of mind. No grammatical point, which is not entirely subdued, is to be passed by, no beauty of style to be overlooked, no nicety of thought to be slighted. It is true, not a little learning and taste is required from the oflScer, to make it in- teresting and useful ; for how can he make others at home where he himself is a stranger ? Or how may he avoid the danger of dwelling long on those points with which he has been made acquainted just before, and of caring little about those which did not attract his special attention, as already known to him super- ficially ? Instances of abuse have not been rare in Germay. Some dictated nil the later notes of the best commentators ; perhaps one whole page to explain a single verse, and added at last their own judgment ; others made the foreign vns- dom their own, indeed, but it was not well digested, it could not inspire much interest in classical learning. Still, notwithstanding all this, the danger was not so great as one might imagine, there being a variety of classical teachers in every gymnasium, who bold one another in check, or rather who supply the deficiencies of each other. Thus it happens even, that their foibles turn out as so many ad- vantages for the student. The cursory method we have compared with tlie cavalry. It is good to recon- noitre the battle-field, to take possession of open places, and to destroy the enemy, \\'hen he is put to flight. No one should expect more from cursory reading. On the whole, it is not often used in the German colleges, because it contains not much of educational element, either for character or for learning. However, we think it the best way to let it precede, and follow the first method. It acquaints the pupil somewhat with the language and tone of the writer, and thereby makes the following more thorough reading easier and more interesting. Here the pro- fessor must carry the student over the fences and ditches. It should follow not only that the pupil may enjoy the reading of a larger piece of poetry or prose, and excite lasting attachment to the author, but that it may throw light upon the past subjects, make suggestions better understood and confirm the knowledge of language and style by silent repetition. Here the student must carry the profes- sor, who, however, will make a wise use of bridle and spur. Rapidity of mind and elegance of taste are the chief requisites for giving to the third method of X'eading the right turn and the best success. Every thing good lies between ex- tremes. Most teachers are common foot soldiers, neither laden with learning nor rapid in tastefal perception ; neither fond of standing too long, nor of running too quickly, but they go duly on, as they are commanded by learning or custom. In modern times much has been done toward improving the method by uniting the obvious advantages of the thorough and cursory plan, in order to read more of the author without losing the right understanding and the acquisition of the For " author-lessons," a student is required to know all the necessary words and be able in some degree to translate the following chapter. Four or five per- haps get parts of it for translating. This being done, the teacher commences ex- plaining by asking whatever the character of the passage and the standing of the students allow. In the lower gymnasium the Latin prose is used for repeating and applying the rules spoken of in the Syntax lessons ; in the upper gymnasium grammatical remarks occur seldom, more frequently rhetorical, assthetical and his- torical ones. Etymologj' is never lost sight of, but it is confined to Latin and Greek stems. The students are expected to make notes, to read them over at home, and are sometimes directed to learn the passages that have been read by heart. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONT. 285 The editions of the classics used in the lessons are commonly without notes, and the use of such, as have all somewhat difficult passages explained is forbidden dur- ing the lesson-time. A good teacher keeps the whole class alive chiefly by ques- tioning, and only when nobody has found the right or could find it, he formally begins to instruct. For although the professor is the only source of instruction, the character of classical teaching is such, that it may be easily interwoven with any kind of examination, and few questions, proposed by an experienced and skill- ful teacher, will be so difficult as not to find among the many youths of different acquirements and abilities, at least one who could give a satisfactory answer. We mean an answer that gives a part of the point in question, and leads successively to the full explanation, which afterward the professor in a few words recapitulates. But however correct the single remarks may be, that instruction only deserves to be called skillful and elegant, where every following question seems to originate from the preceding, and the whole series of remarks appears to be more or less internally connected. In Prima, criticism is practiced to some extent, and, we believe, not unsuccess- fully. To be sure to discern hair-breadth philological niceties, or to judge of the genuineness of a passage or a single word, belongs to the sphere of the professional study of philology ; yet not only to give the result with some suggestions about the foregoing researches, but also to lay before the seniors such critical points to be decided as are not beyond the reach of their learning, will undoubtedly strengthen the power and acuteness of judgment in an interesting and profitable manner. But the judgment of the professor himself respecting the choice of the critical point of discussion, and the manner in which it is managed, are in the depai'tment of education, where method is every thing, the chief point to be inquired after. That young men of about twenty years acquainted with language and literature, are qualified to play sometimes the part of critics, is evident, and they ought to be practiced in it. There will be more doubt about the utility of speaking Latin in Prima and partly in Secunda. Of course, the authors are translated into German, but gen- erally explained in Latin. Besides, there is one hour a week set apart in some colleges for Latin conversation. It is true that the students become more familiar with the language in many respects, but the correctness of language and elegance of style are not always much improved by it. Agreeable as that acquirement is, and even necessary as yet for the students to understand the Latin lectures in the university, it is to be considered as subordinate to the achievement of a correct style, and only when the speaking is well balanced by continual exercises in writ- ing, will it exert a great and wholsome influence, and become an essential part of the classical discipline of mind. The exercises in writing Latinare duly appreciated in the German gymnasia. In Quarta and Lower Tertia, where the syntax is accurately reviewed in three or four hours a week, short exercises, suitable to fix the learned rules by application, are made during and between the lessons. A translation-book, not unlike the English Arnold with rules, is often used besides Zumpt's gi'ammar, but the right under- standing and the best exercises come from the teacher. In Upper Tertia and Lower Secunda the German text for translation is prepared by the teachers, in which some care is taken of the weekly reading and of the still fluctuating gram- matical precepts. But in Upper Secunda and Prima, at least for two years, the Latin exercises are free compositions on a given theme. They are not always weekly, but half-monthly and monthly, in order to allow a longer time to larger compositions of six to ten pages, while the review of the same is going on usually two hours a week. These free exercises are not only an important, but also a pleasant task to the advanced scholar, who is beyond the reach of a grammatical blunder, in the possession of all the necessary words, and fond of moving freely in imitating what he has read and in expressing what he thinks best. And Only to him they are useful to whom they are easy. Another help for writing Latin are the " Extemporalia,^'' in which the students, as the name indicates, is obliged to write immediately down in Latin what they are told in German. This quiet com- bination and exchange of the two languages promotes greatly the faculty of think- ing in Latin, necessary to speaking and writing. In one gymnasium we noticed the usage of spending in Prima one hour of the week in making a brief composi- 286 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONV. tion on a given subject, read in Cicero or spoken of during the week. The short time does not allow deep reflection, still it is long enough to the eager student, to make a few periods chiefly with regard to the form, and to apply some elegancies of style remembered from the last Cicero-lesson. It is a matter of course, that free corapo.sitions in the German are made besides, and that they rank quite as high. The teaching of the Greek reveals naturally a somewhat different character, as no reproduction either for speaking or for writing is intended. There is some writing in and for the grammar-lessons throughout all classes, {Rost and Wustc- mann^s Exercises are much used,) but it is easily perceived that the writing is by- work, and tends only to make authors and language better understood. Thus it happens that a young man who reads Homer without wanting the aid of a lexi- con, is sometimes in some perplexity to find a common Greek word, if asked in Gerjnan. And the Greek is not the worse for it, provided that on the one hand is gained, what on the other is lost. It may be supposed, however, that the philo- logist in the university is so well acquainted with the language by reading and explaining Greek writers, that he will be able to write and even to speak Greek tolerably, if compelled to do so. In order to understand and enjoy poetry, one hour is appointed in every class for prosody and metre. The student of Tertia who commences reading Ovid, is pre- pared for it by a long practice of the rules of prosody and of the laws of hexameter distichs. In Secunda it is required of the student to make free verses, hexameters or distichs. Having been introduced into the variegated world of lyrical forms, and enabled to read and appreciate the odes of Horace, the " Primaner" makes little poems of whatever metre, heroic, lyric or dramatic. We hold these lessons and exercises to be very useful, not only to get a correct idea of the poetical but also of the general rhythmical laws of the languages, without which a nice under- standing of prose as well as of poetry is next to impossible. Let us add a few words in regard to private studies. Our readers who have rightly inferred from the large number of lessons, that a German gymnasiast has plenty of work in order to do his public task conscientiously, and very little time left for fancy-studying, provided that he takes a suflScient time for meals, rest, and exercise. On the other band, it is obvious, that not all the authors mentioned above can be read. Yet some acquaintance with all of them is required, and the view is generally taken by the professors, that the reading which can not be done in the lessons ought to be supplied at home. The student, therefore, must work pretty hard to be well prepared for the lessons, to have his weekly exercises, as German and Latin compositions, Greek, metrical and mathematical lessons, ex- actly studied, and to give, as it is required in some colleges, every month a good account of his private studies. There he presents extracts of an author with com- positions of any kind he pleases, in prose or poetry ; and where no such account is given publicly, private studies of the same sort are nevertheless expected. Besides the morning and night hours, the free afternoons of Wednesday and Sat- urday aff(:>rd a longer series of study-hours. There are in the whole about eight weeks vacation. The results of the home-studies are, of course, soon perceived by teacher and pupil, and the loss of time is doubly compensated by the rapid progress and by the ability to make the best exercises in the shortest time. Still, we do not mean merely free and independent reading and working, but chiefly the free spirit of diligence Used independently of the necessities of school, )'et in doing the school-work. The boy of fourteen is now a young gentleman of twenty years. Having made his la^vful run, and having the permission of tlie professors to graduate, he must bite a sour apple and get examined. This " examen maturitatis" is somewhat more diffi- cult and more important than the usual semi-annual or annual examinations, for it will declare him prepared for independent and professional studies, and also decide on the degree of his maturity, ( imprimis," " omnis," " satis," dignus.) All however have laid a good foundation for any kind of scholarship, or likely to read with ease the New Testament (such as are to be theologians are taught the Hebrew in Prima,) the Corpus Juris and Celsus, can understand a Latin lecture or oration, and retain so much during their professional life in the university, as to be able generally to speak Latin after three years, iu the theological, juridical or medical examinations. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN SAXONY. 287 The classical education, as common to all scholars, is here closed. But for those who iuteiid devoting their lives to classical learning and teaching, the philological training continues in the universities. TABLE OF LESSONS IN THE BLOCHMANN-VIZTHUM COLLKGE, (1840,) AT DRESDEN. 1 Religion 2. Languages: A Greek B. Latin (a) Coi-neliusNep. (b/ Grammar (c) Prosody 1. Religion 2. Languages: A. Greek. fa) Homer (b) Lucian (c) Grammar B Latin, (a) Caesar (bj Ovid 1. Religion 2 Languages : A. Greek, (a) Iliad (b) Herodotus (c) Grammar B. Latin, (a) Virgil 3 C. German D. French 6 3. Mathematics (a) Algebra 4 (b) Arithmetic 3 (c) Geometry I 4. History III. 2 (c) Grammar (d) Prosody C. German 2 D. French 2 3. Mathematics : 2 (a) Algebra (b) Arithmetic 4 (c) Geometry 2 4. History II. 2 (b) Cicero (c) Sallust (d) Grammar 2 (e) Prosody 2 C. German 3 D. French E. English 2 3 Mathematics: 5. Natural Hist. 1 6. 7. Geography Drawing 2 2 8. 9. 10. Singing Gymnastics Dancing 2 2 2 (a) Algebra (b) Arithmetic (c) Trigonometry 4. History 5. Natural Hist. 6. Gymnastics 7. Singing 8. Dancing 40 5. Natural Hist. 1 6. Geography 2 7. Drawing 1 8. Singing' 2 9. Gymnastics 2 10. Dancing 1 40 1. Religion 2 B. Latin, E. English 2 2. Languages : (a) Tacitus 2 3. Mathematics: A. Greek, (b) Cicero, phil. cursor. 1 (a) Stereometry 2 (a) A) Sophocles P 2 A) Cic. philos. P 2 (b) Higher proport. 2 B) Euripides S B) Cic. epis. \ 4. History 2 'b) A) Thucydides ; B) Demosthen. \ 2 (c) Horace 2 5. Natural phil. 2 (d) Exercises 2 6. Gymnastics 2 (c) Homer cursor. 1 (e) Latin speak. 1 7. Singing 2 (d) Exercises 1 C. German lit. 3 8. Dancing 2 (e) Greek Antiquit. 1 II. D. French 2 PROGYMNASIUM. I. II. 40 I. Religion 4 „ Hot., Zool., Min., 2 ji Latin 6 9 Drawing 2 1, German 3 „ Calligraphy 2 J, French 4 „ Gymnastics 3 2 Arithmetic 3 }) — Singing 2 Geography 8 »» 34 X SCHOOL OF MINES AT FREVBERG, SAXONY. This celebrated school is one of the richest mining districts of Saxony, and the proximity of the mines permits an easy combinati(«n of practice with theory. Its first object is to furnish educated young men for the corps of mines of the king- dom, but it also admits strangers to its courses at a triding expense for their in- struction, the pupils boarding in the town. General government. The school of mines is under the imrqediate govern- ment of the directory of mines (oberbergamt,) and is thus a branch of the minis- try of finance. The professors form a board for the execution of the general reg- ulations, and one of them is specially charged by the directory with the superin- tendence of the instruction of discipline. , Admission. Applications for free admission to the institution are made to the directory of mines, and must be accompanied by certificates that the applicant is between sixteen and twenty-three years of age, is of good moral character, in sound health, writes German correctly, and understands the grammar of the language ; has made some proficiency in geography and history, can read easy Latin authors, is acquainted with arithmetic, the elements of geometry, and has made a beginning in drawing. If he understands the French or English language, it is a recommendation. The testimonials must be handed between the months of January and June, and the directory decide which of the applicants may present themselves for examination before the professors of the school. Those found qualified in all the courses enter, and others may, in particular cases, be allowed to join the classes, undergoing subsequently an examination in the studies in which tliey were defective. According to an edict of the German diet, in regard to the attendance of foreigners upon the scholastic institutions of any of the German states, strangers must apply to the minister of finance for permission to attend the school and present a testimonial of character and proficiency, and the written ex- pression of their parents' wish that they should attend the school. Admission is, however, freely granted. Those pupils who are in part, or entirely, supported by the goverment, are divided into two classes. The first division includes the regu- lar students, called beneficiaries (beneficianteu,) who pass through a course of four years at the school, and become candidates for the corps of mines ; the other is composed of those who enter for places not requiring more than one or two years of study, or who have passed a superior examination for admission, but can not enter as regular students, in consequence of the want of a vacancy in the corps. Besides these there are two other divisions, namely, Saxons, who pay their own expenses at the school, and foreigners. These diflferent divisions are distinguished by characteristic differences in the uniform which they wear. The gratuitously educated students come under an obligation at entering, in event of leaving the service of the government, to refund the pay which they may have received, and to pay the cost of their tuition. The regular pupils receive a pay proportioned in general to the length of time which they have been in the school. The first class receives from twenty-two to thirty dollars per annum ; the second, from fifteen to twenty-two; the third, from seven to fifteen. The fourth class receive only the compensation to which they maj' be entitled for their work in the mines. Instruction. The courses of instruction are divided into those which are to be pursued by all the pupils, or general, and those which depend upon the branch to wh ch they intend devoting themselves, or special. The first consist of elementary, higher, and applied or mixed mathematics, mechanics and the machinery of mines, general, analytical, and special or technical chemistry, physics, drawing, general and topographical, of shades, shadows, and perspective, and of mining implements, of mining and metallurgic machines and constructions, oryctognosy (mineralogy,) 19 290 SCHOOL OF MINES AT FREYBERG, SAXONY. geognosy (geology,) crystallography the art of mining, metallurgy, civil engineering, mining jurisprudence and correspondence, the French language. The second of special courses consist of the surveying of mines and land surveying, the keeping of books, registers, &c., of fossil geology, for those who are intended as miners, and of the examination of minerals, and analytical chemistry, with special refer- ence to the ores of Saxony, for those who are to serve at the furnaces. These courses are pursued by the regular students according to the following plan : — The first year is devoted to elementary mathematics, to physics, to geog- nosy, to general and topographical drawing, to French, and to general practical operations of mining and metallurgy. All these pupils are allowed at certain times to be present in the mines and at the furnaces, under the charge of miners and smeltors, who act as instructors, and who report at the end of the year upon the character of their pupils. During the second year the courses pursued are — higher mathematics, general chemistry, mineralogy, with practical exercises, crystallography, the art of mining, civil engineering, drawing, French, practical mining, and geological exerci.ses. After this year the student determines whether he will devote himself to mining or metallurgy, and receives special instruction accordingly. The general courses of the third year are — applied mathematics, the art of min- ing, analytical chemistry, metallurgy, technical chemistry, drawing, practical exer- cises in mining and metallurgy, geology, with practical exercises, and fossil geology. The courses of the fourth year are — machinery of mines, theory and practice, mining jurisprudence, examination of minerals, analytical chemistry, and practi- cal exercises of mining and metallurgy. During this year, the pupils who intend devoting themselves specially to mining attend solely to practice in that branch, and thus also with the metallurgists. The particular operation in which they en- gage is regulated by tlie lectures, that the practice of each operation may be ac- quired at the same time with its theory. In relation to the amount of study to be pursued, the government pupils are divided into three classes, those who aim at entire qualification for the coVps, and who, on graduating at the school, go to the university for one year, and those who intend to connect themselves with the department of metallurgy. Among the apparatus for carrying out these courses is an admirable collection of models of machines and of mines. The collection of minerals and geological specimens is large, and besides that of the school, the students have the use of the cabinet of the celebrated Werner, which is kept detached from the other as a memorial of that great man. The library and reading-room, the collection of physical and chemical apparatus, and the arrangements for the study of analytical chemistry, and the assay of minei'als and ores, are all suitable to their several objects. The course of assaying with the blovv-pipe has become quite celebrated. The lectures are continued from October to July, with holidays of from one to two weeks at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. During the summer vacations, the regular pupils make excursions into the other mining districts of Saxony, and even into foreign countries, for their improvement in mining, geology, &c., and are expected to keep a journal of their tours. The short vacations are employed at the school in practical exercises and in lit€rary compositions, unless leave of absence is obtained. There is also one day of each week on which there are no lessons, (Monday,) to allow the pupils to take part both in the mining and smelting operations of the district of Freyberg. Thei-e tire eight professors and five teachers attached to the school, among whom the different departments are divided according to the following plan, in which the number of lectures per week is also noted : — One professor has charge of the three departments of general and technical chemistry and of metallurgy, lecturing on the first, five hours; on the second, three hours ; and on the third, three hours. The professor of theoretical and practical mineralogy lectures on the theory for students of the first and second courses, each three times a week ; gives a ri'petition of one hour, and practical exercises two hours per week. The pro- fessor of geology and crystallography lectui'cs on the first, five hours, and on the second, two hours per week. The professor of physics and fossil geology lectures on the first, four hours, and on the second, t\'io Lours per week. The professor SCHOOL OF MINES AT FREYBERG, SAXONY. 291 of the elementary and higher mathematics gives instruction in the first, four hours, and in the second, two hours per week. The professor of mining jurisprudence ai:d correspondence gives two lessons per week to each of his two classes. Mixed mathematics, mining machinery, and general surveying, are under one professor, who teaches the first and second, four hours, and the third two hours per week. Mining surveying is taught by a surveyor of the corps two hours per week. Drawing and civil architecture by an instructor, the former, six hours, and the latter, three hours per week. Registry is taught by a superintendent of mines. The assay of minerals by an overviewer, five hours per week. The teaclier of French gives four hours of instruction per week. The subjects are in general tiiught by lectures, combined with interrogation after each lecture, and, when the courses admit, with practical exercises. Ihe pupils are expected to write out a fair copy of their notes, and to keep a journal of their practical exercises ; these are from time to time, with the essays which they are directed to write, submitted to the professors, and are presented at the examina- tions. The subject of each recitation, the character of the pupils' answers, and of the exercises, drawings, and journals, are reported to the directory of mines by the professors. At the close of each of the four years there is an examination of the students in the several branches, and they are classified according to its results, and tlie estimate of their work during the year. Students who do not pass satis- faclorily, remain an additional year in the same class, after which, if they are not found proficient, they are dismissed. These remarks apply of course only to the regular students. There are three prizes for proficiency in the upper classes, and two in the fourth, varying in amount from two up to twenty florins, (eighty cents to eight dollars.) Graduation. Graduates of the school are candidates for the corps of mines, and receive the pay of this grade until appointed in the corps. Permission may be obtained to go to a university for one year, after graduating, in which case the candidate, on his return to duty, must show satisfactory certificates of study and conduct. This study of one year at a university is essential to certain situations in the corps, and hence is expected from those who intend to have the whole career open before them. Discipline. The discipline of the school is regulated by laws emanating from the directory of mines, and whicli are very minute. All the pupils without dis- tinction, are subject to these regulations. The means of repressive discipline con- sist of admonitions of various grades, report to the directory, mention in the report to the king, obligatory work in the mines, deprivation of pay, and dismission. This school, from the character of its officers, government, instruction, and loca- tion, offers great inducements to students who wish to become adepts in the prin- ciples of mining and metallurgy, and the sciences introductory to them. GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN. There are four Normal Schools, or seminaries for teachers, in the Grand Duchj' of Baden, viz. : at Carlsruhe, Ettingen, Meersburg, and Miillheim. Before giving a brief outline of the course of instruction pursued in the Normal School at Carlsruhe, we will give a condensed analysis of the plan upon which the primary schools of Baden are organized — drawn from the laws and ordinances now in force. The Grand Duchy is one of the most advanced constitutional states of Germany, and one the best provided with educational institutions. With a population in 1844 of 400,000, there were — Two Universities — one at Heidelberg, with 710 students. " at Freiburg, " 485 " Four Lyceums, or High Schools — a grade below the University. Six Gymnasiums — devoted mainly to high classical instruction. Six Pedagogiums, or Schools preparatory to the Lycea. Fourteen Latin Schools — preparatory to the Gymnasium. Eight Seminaries for young ladies. Four Normal Schools — one at Carlsruhe, for Protestant teachers. Catholic " One Institution for the deaf mutes. One Veterinary School. One Polytechnical School, with 200 pupils. One Trade School. One Military Academy. 2121 Common Schools, each with different grades or classes. School Authorities and Inspection. — These institutions are all under the general supervision of the State, from which they receive in some form aid annually. Their supervision is committed to the Department of the Interior, subordinate to which there exists an Education Department or Council, consisting of one member for each of the four districts or circles, into which the State is divided. In all regulations respecting religious in- struction, the highest authorities of the Protestant and Catholic churches are consulted. For the primary schools, there is a School Board, or committee for each of the four districts, which must be consulted by the local school authornies in the founding of a new school, or suppression of an old one, and respect- ing all changes in the appointment of teachers. The board has the appoint- ment of a School Visitor for all the schools of the district, who holds his office six years, and is paid out of the State appropriation for educational purposes, and a School Inspector for the school or schools in each town and rural parish. The lowest school authority consists of the Inspector as cliairman, the 294 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. nif.jrqr, or hig-hest civil officer of the locality, the vestry of the pnrish among Protestants, the trustees of all ecclesiastical foundations in Catholic com- munities, and the directors of synagogues in Jewish comnuini.ies. These constitute a local or parochial school committee. In large towns, on special applicalion, the State Education Department can appoint a special board to take charge of all the schools, and of any separate school for a particular religious denomination. School ATTENDA^'CE. — Children whose sixth year terminates between the '23d of April of one year and the 23d of April of the year following, are bound to commence their schooling with Easter of the second year. A year is allowed where infirmity or similar disabling causes are proved to the sat- isfaction of the school authorities. The parish clergy, who keep the registers, have to furnish the school au- thorities with a list of all children whose schooling begins at the next fol- lowing Easter. To this a list is added of all children not born in the phce, and which has to be drawn up by the school authorities. These lists are to be handed to the schoolmasters; and one fortnight after the school is opened, the schoolmaster has to return to the authorities the names of such children as attend the school, as well as those of the absent children. The latter are to be forced through the police to attend school, except where thoir absence is excused or explained for reasons hereafter to be stated. Children leave schools also at Easter. Boys on having completed their 14th ye.'ir, and girls their 13th year, or expecting to complete it before 25th April of that year. If by that period children who have attained these ages are not sufficiently advanced in the objects of instruction specified, they may be kept one or two years longer. Every scholar obtains a certificate on his leaving school. Children who have private instruction, or who attend higher institutions, for the purpose of obtaining better instruction, are free of the school, but require a certificate from the school inspectors. Private seminaries must be authorized by the upper school authorities. This authorization cannot be refused where the applicants are in every respect approved candidates as masters ; but such establishments must make good the school money which they abstract from the regular schoolmaster. Every week the schoolmaster is required to give to the school authorities a list of such children as have been absent without leave, or who, having absented themselves, did not satisfactorily account for their so doing, to- gether with number of days' absence. This list is handed to the burgo- master, who forwards it to the parents of the children, and imposes a fine, varying from 2 kreutzers (frf.) to 12 kreutzers (8c?.) for every day of non- attendance. * Studies in Primary Schools. — The studies in the elementary schools are — 1. Religion. 2. German language. 3. Writing. 4. Arithmetic. 5. Singing. 6. General instruction on subjects of natural history, natural philosophy, geography, and geometry ; also on points appertaining to health and to farming. 7. Where there are sufficient means, drawing is to be taught. The last-named subjects are to be treated in such a manner that the more essential first five points are not to suffer by the attention be- stowed upon them. Internal Organization of Primary Schools. — 1. Schools that have but one teacher are to be divided into three classes, to be counted from the lowest afijirsl upward. In the summer half-year the third or highest class has two morning hours of schooling daily ; the second class has also two morning hours, and the first or lowest class has two hours in the afternoon. In the winter half-year the third or highest class has three morning hours of iustruction daily. The second olasa the first afternoon hour alone, and PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. 295 the second in conjunction with the first class or beginners. One of these classes is to be employed in wri.iiig, under tlie inspection of a proper mon- itor selected from the scholars, while tlie other class is taught by the teacher. On half-holidays (Wednesday and Saturday) the morning hours, three in summer and four in winter, are to be proportionally divided among the three classes. 2. When there are two teachers, the elder scholars are to be placed under one teacher and the younger half under the other. The school is tlien di- vided into four classes, each teacher taking two, and each class has instruc- tioa fur three hours daily, boiii in summer and in winter, excepting on half- holidays, when each class has but one hour and a half in the morning. If the number of pupils does not exceed 210, they may be divided into three classes, wiJi the consent of the school authorities. If boys and girls are instructed simultaneously, the division indicated above, into higher and lower classes, each under a se[>arate teacher. Where tiiere are three teachers, one is to instruct the beginners in the two first classes. Where the upper classes are composed both of boys and girls, the elder pupils are under one teacher and the younger ones under the other, or-. the sexes may be separated. With four teacliers, two distinct schools are formed, of four classes each, the arrangements being such as are already indicated. These arrangements, being fixed by the Education Department, in confer- ence with the parochial school authorities and the Inspector, may be modified to suit the exigencies and the means of larger towns or villages, provided that nothing be so arranged as to interfere with the rules that no class is to exceed 70 in number ; that each class is to have three hours' instruction daily, and the upper boys' class to have four in winter, with the exception of half-holidays, when the instruction is to be for them two hours, and for the others half hours. In places where industrial schools for girls are established, no change in these arrangements is to be made in consequence. Changes made, in con- sequence of the aid of an assistant being required from the ill health of the master, or an increase in the number of children, are to be reported to the Inspector, who will report upon them when submitting the results of his in- speciion to the Education Department. 3. The advance of children from one class to another takes place after the examination, wiih the approval of the Inspector, and with due regard to the age and natural powers of the pupils. When the parents do not consent, a child can only be required to continue at sciiool beyonti the legal age on an authorization of the Education Department through the Inspector. 4. Care is to be taken that the pupils assemble punctually at the fixed hours, and they are clean in person and attire. They must also behave with propriety both on their way to and from school and while at school. The injunciions concerning their conduct are to be publicly read to the pupils at the beginning of every half-year, and are to be hung up in every school-room. The pupils can be placed in their respective classes, according to their conduct and diligence, every week or month; but in the first classes oftener, if the teacher thinks it advisable. Permission to absent themselves from a single lesson may be granted by the teachers ; for more than one, the permission must be obtained from the school Inspector. Punishments consist in reprimands, in giving a lower place in the class, in tasks after school hours, and, where obstinate persistence in ftxults i* ob- served, in blows with a cane on the hand in a manner that is not dangerous. The teacher only takes cognizance of faults committed in school, or on the way to and from school. Bad conduct at other times is only punished at adiool whero the parents and guardians palpably neglect their duty. 296 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. 6. The school-rooms should have ten feet in bight, and be built on a scale of six square feet to a pupil. Plan of Instruction. — The aim of the primary school is to cultivate the intellect of the child, and to form his understanding and religious prin- ciples, as well as to furnisli him with the knowledge requisite for his station in life. Instruction must, therefore, be imparted in such a manner as shall improve the mind. The pupil must have his attention sharpened, and his intellectual energies must be brought into activity. He must learn nothing mechanically. The memory must not be cultivated, except in connection with the understand- ing and the feelings. The formation of every idea is to be preceded by the requisite insight into its fundamental principle, whether exemplihed by ob- jects or figuratively. In all explanations the elementary principles must precede the complex views. What has been learnt must be made familiar by frequent application and illustration. The instruction given in the differ- ent classes must correspond with the plan here laid down. Religious Instruclion. — Care must be taken that the lesson in religion does not degenerate into a mechanical learning of sayings and of chapters from the Bible. The pupil's insight into all points must be clear and well grounded ; his feelings must be roused, and his good propensities must be confirmed. The nature of the instruction given in religion is to be regulated in detail by the higliest authority in the various confessions ; it is to be communicated through the catechism and school books approved by these authorities and sanctioned by the State. In this lesson the duties of the citizen are to be enforced. The school is to open and close daily with a short prayer or hymn, and the children are to be kept to regular attendance at church, the subject of the last sermon being a matter for the catechist to examine them upon. Grammatical Instruction. — Grammatical instruction must be connected with exercises in correct thinking, as well as in the fittest mode of giving expression to thoughts. The consideration of the correctness of an idea must precede that of the mode of expressing it. The organs of speech must be exercised until completely formed, and a due modulation of the voice must be cultivated. The writing lesson must teach neatness and a love of form. Arithmetical Instruction. — Comprises the four rules, preceded by proper explanation of the properties and nature of figures, and simultaneously ex- ercised, mentally and in wri.ing. The mental calculation is to precede the written sum on all occasions. After practicing the rules in whole num- bers, fractions, and with given simple or compound quantities in examples applicable in common life. In the second class the construction of simple geometrical figures is to be taught both to boys and girls. In the highest class the use of the square and compass, and the mode of reducing to proportionate dimensions, is to be taught. Musical Instruction. — The classes range as follows : — First class. — Exercises of the ear and the voice. Simple solo airs. Second class. — Duets and easy chorus singing. Third class. — Chorus and ornamental singing. General Instruction. — In natural history and philosophy, geography, his- tory, sanitary points, and agriculture, will be imported by the pieces selected in the reading-books, and can be enforced and illustrated by addiiional ex- amples and reasoning on the part of the teacher. Division of Time. — Half an hour daily must be devoted to religious in- struction, but this time may be prolonged or abridged, according to the Bubiect-matter treated of. PRIMARY EDUCATION IN HADEN. 297 The study of the mother-tongue, combined with reading and writing, is to occupy a portion of 8ix days in the week, in nddivion to copies to be written out of school hours. Arithmetic is to be taken four times, and singing twice in the week. Instruction in matters of general interest is to be given to the second class once and to the highest class three times in the week. The plan of the school is to be arranged between the teachers and the Inspector for every half-year, and a draft of it must be laid before the school authorities once a year, together with the results of the inspection. When the children appear behindliand in particular points of instruction, more time must be appropriated to those in the following year. If the scholars of one school be of different religious confessions, care is to be taken that they receive their religious instruclion at the same hour. If the school belong exclusively to one confession, but is also attended by children of another confession, the instruction in religion must be fixed in the last hour of attendance, that such as do not participate in it may go home, or wherever such instruction may be provided for them. Beside ttie primary schools, the following classes are established by law as part of ttie educational system of this Duchy, and are provided lor in the priauiry school-iiouses. EvK.MNG Classes. — Twice a week, during the winter, in every vil- lage and town, an evening class must he opened under the proper sciiool authority, when young persons who have completed iheir four- teenth year, and have left the primary school, may continue their studies. !Si!NDAY Classes. — All young people who have completed the pri- mary school course, are obliged to attend, in tiie towns for two years and in the villages for three years, a class every Sunday morning, not only for religious, but for secular instruction. Industhial Classes. — As a general rule, men are employed both as principal and assistants in the primary schools, and boys and girls of the same age and proficieticy are taught in the same class-roonis. To enable the girls to acquire the arts of sewing, knitting, &c.. the school committee are obliged to engage some suitable person to attend every school ill which a female assistant is not employed, for an hour at least every aflernoon after tiie boys are dismissed, to instruct the girls from the completion of their eleventh year in the mysteries of stitching, hem- ming, darning, shirt making, knitting. &c. If their mothers wish it. tlie. girls bring ilieir sewing from home with them lor this practice, but if tliey do not bring any material, the committee must provide it. No fee is cliarged lor this industrial training. The inspectors are required to report on the state and progress of these as well as the other classes of the schools. Factoky Schools. — No child may be employed in any manual oc- cupation, until it has completed its eleventh year; nor may any child, even at ihe completion of its eleventh year, be employed in a ftictory, or in an industrial occupation, unless it then attends the so called •' Fac- tory iSchuols." 'I'he laws prescribe, that in these schools — No greater number of children than seventy may ever be educated together at the same time. The secular education given in them, must correspond to that pre- scribed by law, for the primary schools in general. No person may be selected, as a teacher of one of these schools, who has not obtained a diploma from the committee of public examiners for tlie Duchy. Each child attending a factory must receive, at least, two hours' instruclion in the factory school. The hdurs of inrtructiOn Bhciuld prtetfede the morning and aflbrndon's 298 PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. working hours; but where this is impossible, an hour's relaxation must intervene between the hours of labor and the commencement of the hours of study. In the middle of the above-mentioned morning and afternoon work- ing liours, ihe children must be allowed to take a quarter of an hour's exercise outside the mill, and in the middle of the day. there must be an interval of a full hour between the morning and the afternoon work- ing hours. Young people under the age of fifteen, are not to be employed more than twelve hours a day in the factory and factory school together. Such young people are not to be employed in labor before five o'clock in the morning, nor after five in the evening, nor on Sundays or holidays. All masters of factories, who employ young people under the age of fifteen, must render periodical lists of the children employed by them ; giving the names, ages, places of residence, and names of the parents of such children. Any infringement of any of the above regulations will render the manufacturer offending liable to fines, the amount of which is fixed by law. The county magistrates are charged with the strenuous enforcement of these regulations. All the expenses of the education of the children attending a factory before the completion of their fourteenth year, must be borne by the owner ol' the tlictory which they attend. Teachers' Conferences. — In each union (district or circle) the union inspector is obliged, every September, i. e., during the holidays, to send notices to every teacher in his district, to assemble at a place and time specified in the notice. Every teacher, who receives the notice, is required by law to assem- ble at the place and time therein mentioned. Notices are sent also to each of the religious ministers of the union, that (those, who are able, may meet the teachers. The educational magistrate of the county, or some one representing him, is also always at the meeting. The notices are .-ent round as early as the month of May. preceding the meeting. The inspector, when he issues them, sends at the same time to each teacher in his district, one or two questions on .«ome jioint, connected either with the practice, or the methods of teaching, or with some of the various subjects of instruction, and upon which there has been some difference of opinion or practice. Each teacher is required to send to the inspector an answer to these que.'-lions by the month of August. Vt'lien (he inspector has received these answers, he reads them care- fully through, and writes a short and concise criticism of each answer, and reads it to the teachers when assembled at the conference. After the inspector has read the answers and criticisms to the meeting, the leachers proceed to debate the subject among themselves, rising one after another, and addressing the meeting upon it by turn. V\ hen this debate is concluded, three teachers, who had been chosen by the previous meeting, are then called upon to instruct a class of chil- dren before the rest of the assembly, in different branches of instruction. Their performances are then criticised and discussed by the others, who had 'been looking on as spectators. This plan serves two important ends: 1st. It stimulates each of the teachers to aim at continual self-improve- ment, in order that he naay excel his competilors at the yearly meet- PRIMARY EDUCATION IN BADEN. 299 ings, and prove himself worthy of recommendation by the inspector to the more hicrative situations as they fall vacant, and also that he may win the respect and approval of his professional brethren. 2d. It obliges the teachers to think over the various methods of in- struction ; to consider how they may teach in the most effective manner; to avoid bad and slothful habits with their scholars, and to observe how best to catch and retain the attention of their' scholars, and how most effectually to interest them in the subjects of instruction. At these meetings, also, the teacher.s arrange the affairs of their book clubs. Every teacher in each union is a member of the teachers' union book club. They each pay a small sum monthly, and with the sum thus collected, a few books are purchased and sent round from one to another. At the September meetitjgs. they choose the treasurer of their book club, and determine what books are to be purchased. Before tiie meeting is dissolved, a short account of all the proceedings is drawn up; and is then signed by the inspector, the magistrate present at the meeting, and all the teachers, and forwarded to the chief magis- trate of the county, in which the union is situated. The expenses of each teacher, incurred by attending these yearly conferences, are defrayed by the state. 800 NORMAL SEMINARY AT CARLSRCHE. v OJ a d f1 c (11 Hh s: s - 5 &,c 3 ttf c ill- ""p. 2 ^Z20U00<:zi»0-S a ca 0) (U t-b- -c-a OO (^ = '^ E^ ' S c 5oJ 2 3 s £ ■'H = <= 2 £.' .. I. o a (u o OO S S 2 £;'£ 5 £ e S-^rt^ 2 ZZoO(»(nOC-OZ>Q |:5 c :; tio be 9- so S -s bS cCcScxSc W'bb'bb ^'bb 5 3'bb £..S.S S £ E 'S.H O i^ cc o r^ C Z ta !-5 "^ b >; .2 E-E- ^5 &• OOOOOcQOCOZQ OOOh Q^ Oi — -H ^ o o o 2 00 o> o — WIRTEMBERG. WtRTEMBERO was One of the earliest, of the German states to establish a graduated system of public instruction, from the common school to the university, and has always shared largely in all the educational move- ments of Germany. The framework of the school system in operation in 1848, was substantially the same as it was in 1538, enlarged from time to time to meet the demands of the age for new institutions and a more liberal and practical instruction. With a population of 1,750.000 there were the following institutions, aided by the government, in 1847 : One University at Tubingen, with six faculties, seventy-one professors, and ^00 students. Nine Real Schools, with seventy teachers. Six Gymnasia, each with ten professors and three assistants, (that at Stuttgart has twenty-six professors.) Five Lycea, each with seven teachers. Eighty-seven Latin Schools, in which eighty-six classical teachers, sixty- six real teachers, and forty-four assistants are employed. One Protestant Theological Seminary at Tubingen, with fifteen teach- ers, and four preparatory theological schools in other parts, each having six teachers and thirty pupils. One Catholic Theological Seminary. One Polytechnic School, with twenty-one teachers and a course of in- struction embracing four years, for engineers, architects, &c. One Institute for Agriculture and Forestry at Hohenhein, the most complete agricultural establishment in Europe. One Veterinary School, with five professors. Two Orphan Houses, each having 278 orphans. Seven Schools of Art and Drawing. One Superior Seminary for Protestant girls, at Obenstenfeld, with eleven teachers. One Superior Seminary for Catholic girls, at Stuttgart, with thirteen male teachers, and thirteen female teachers. One Institute for Deaf Mutes and the Blind. One thousand four hundred and fifty-five Protestant Common Schools. Seven hundred and eighty-seven Catholic Schools. Six Teachers' Seminaries. These institutions, providing on a liberal scale for the educational wants of the whole community, are all in some way aided by the govern- ment, and subject to its supervision through the Home Department. Subordinate to this department is the Evangelical Consistory, having charge of the Protestant, and the Church Council, having charge of the 302 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG. Catholic seminaries, of the higher grade. Below these, for each of the four circles, or districts into which the kingdom is divided, there are Su- perintendents of each denomination, for the Real and Latin Schools; and School Inspectors for the Common Schools; and Directors of School Conferences, (Teachers' Institutes,) which are held four times in each year, for the improvement of the teachers, at different points. Each locality, comprisinrr thirty families, is compelled by law to have a primary school. Localities containing a population of less than thirty fam- ilies, are compelled by law to unite with a neighboring locality in the establishment of a school. If the neighboring locality is at a distance of more than two and a half English miles, or the road thereto dangerous, then the Government Committee of Education can decree the establish- ment of a separate school even for fifteen families. If in a community of different religious confessions the minority com- prises sixty families, they may claim the establishment and support of a school of their own confession at the expense of the whole community. The expenses are paid by the whole community, without regard to reli- gious confessions, and by each individual in proportion to the amount of taxes paid by him. In poor communities the government contributes in part toward the salary of the schoolmaster and repairs of the school. The salaries of the schoolmaster are, in places containing 4000 inhabit- ants, 350 florins* and house-rent ; in places containing less than 4000 and more than 2000 inhabitants, 300 florins, and house-rent. In a school where more than sixty scholars attend, 2.50 florins, and house-rent. In a school where less than sixty scholars attend, 200 florins, and house-rent. Second schoolmasters receive a salary of 150 florins, and are allowed one room and fuel. An assistant schoolmaster (candidate) receives a salary of 120 florins. In a school Avhere the number of scholars exceeds ninety, two schoolmasters are allowed ; if more than ISO scholars, three schoolmasters; if more than 270 scholars, four schoolmasters; and so on in proportion. The school hours are, in summer, four hours per day ; in winter, six hours per day. The school is under the inspection of the clergyman of the confession to which the schoolmaster belongs, and under the control of the pres- bytery. There is in each district a special school inspector, who is a clergyman. The visitation of the schools is made by the school inspector of the dis- trict, the clergyman, and the presbytery of the community. The attend- ance of every child at the primary school is compulsory, unless he fre- quents a superior school, or receives private instruction, such as he would obtain at the primary school. If parents forbid their children's attendance at the school, or do not allow their receiving private instruction, they subject themselves to a fine, and even imprisonment; and if afterward thev should still refuse to allow the children to attend the school, then the police is re- quested to adopt such measures as will compel the children to visit the * A florin is thitty-eight cents. PTTBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG. 303 school. If a child, by reason of health or otherwise, is unable to attend the public school, then the parents or guardians are obliged to see that he receive private instruction, and, if unable to pay for it, the community is obliged to supply the means. Children who have not frequented the pri- mary schools, are equally obliged to attend the public examinations. The right of selecting a teacher for a vacant school belongs to the local- ity, but in many instances, the locality has ceded this right to the author- ities having the supervision of the semin;iri3s. The professional tunning and improvement of teachers in public institutions are provided for by six Teachers' Seminaries, sixty Teachers' Associations or Conferences, and twelve annual courses of one or two weeks duration, similar to our Teachers' Institutes, held at twelve different places in the kingdom. Tlie candidates for the post of schoolmaster are not permitted to enter the seminary before they have reached seventeen years of age ; nor does their education for that most responsible situation, nor the proofs of their capability (or it, begin at their entrance into the Normal School. Long before that period they must give notice of their intention to devote them- selves to such pursuits, and must undergo a previous preparation of two years ere they are allowed to enter the seminary. The course lasts two years, tuition is free, and the poor receive assist- ance as to board. The Seminary at Esslingen, under Director Denzel, isone of the oldest and most celebrated seminaries in Europe. It was founded in 1757, and with only sixty pupils, it has a director, two chief masters, and three assistants. The director is the author of the most complete treatise on education in any language. It is entitled the " Introduction to the Sci- ence and Art of Education and Instruction for Masters of Primary Schools^ Six volumes, Stuttgart, 1839. The author thus explains the reason of his undertaking the work in his preface to the last edition : '• When, three and twenty years ago, I entered upon my present occu- pation, great exertions were already in progress for the improvement of 'the elementary schools of Germany. Much had been accomplished in particular states, and much active discussion was going on with respect to the methods pursued, and the best means of raising the qualifications of the schoolmaster. But the times required something more than had yet been done for the popular schools. It came more and more to be understood that the school was not merely a place of instruction, but of education ; that the common and necessary acquirements of the arts of reading, writing, and ciphering were not to be the sole or the principal objects of its care, but rather the unfolding and strengthening of the mental and bodily powers of the child conformably with nature and cir- cumstances. When this began to be held to be the province of the ele- mentary school, a new era broke upon it. Viewed In this its new and loftier position, it a.ssumed a totally different aspect, and all relating to it required to be dealt with in a more serious and scientific manner. This salutary change of view respecting the real character and destiny of the elementary school, though long in progress, became at length universal, chiefly through the genius and exertions of Pestalozzi. wliose principles, even where only partially adopted, faciUtated and infused a new spirit into the processes of teaching." 304 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERG. He proceeds to state that, being called at that period to the duty of training schoolmasters, and therefore desiring to find some manual or trea- tise which embraced the entire subject, according to the enlarged views then entertained of it, he was unable to meet with any that satisfied his wishes. Those that he found, either merely embodied the old views or contained fragments only of the new. After many fruitless attempts to compose out of those fragments something that would serve as a ground- work for his course of teaching, he found himself compelled to form a trea- tise for himself; which has grown, with the experience of twenty years, into the valuable '^ Introduction," now widely known by his name. The fol- lowing is the summary of his introdactory course of instruction to teachers: Part I. Chap. 1. Man as an organized, sentiont, and intellectual being. 2. Constitution and qualities of the body and mind. I) 1. Of the body. ^ 2. Of the mind and its principal faculties. A. The feelings. B. The understanding. C. The will. Union of the highest powers in a Christian faith. Varieties ofnatural const! tul ion and disposition, and their causes. 3. On the liability of the faculties and disposition of childliood to lake a wrong direction. 4. On the natural course of development in childhood, boyhood, and youth. (j 1. On the frradii-il development of llie mental powers. 5. Man in his socl;il slate. 6. Man as an immortal being. Part II. 1. On education in general. 2. On the training of the body. 3. On the training of the mind. ^1. On the regulation of the feelings. ^ 2. On the strengthening of the understanding. Observation and attention. Imagination. Memory. Judgment. § 3. On the regulation of the will. The moral sense. Force of habit. The love of what is right. Obedience. Perseverance. Order and punctuality. § 4. Religion— The best means of fixing religious impressions on the mind of a child. 4. On educating boys and girls together. 5. On rewards and punishments. 6. On elementary instruction. 6 1. Sulijects— On the proper periods for commencing each. ^2. Method— The synthetic. . Requisites of good teaching. Apparatus, &c. In his second volume, the author enlarges on some of the principles laid down in the first, and on the spirit and object of the primary school, the best modes of organization and management, &c. The third and remaining volumes form a School .Manual of four complete "courses," for children between the respective ages of six and eight, eight and ten. ten and twelve, twelve and fourteen. The sulijects treated of at length, for the guid- ance of teachers, are object lessons, instruction in readinsi, writing, and ciphering, reli- gious instruction, grammar and etymology, geography, elements of geometry, singing, elements of natural phiio-;ophy and natural hisloiy, composition, &c. General exposi- tions of the principles to be kept in view, and the ends to be aimed at, are given, together with specimens of the lessons in detail, and the substance of a useful course under each head. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WlRTEMBERf!. 305 The following notice of education in Wirtemberg, is taken from Kay's "' Social Condition and Education of the People.'''' I traveled through the kingdom of Wirtemberg from Ulm to a town in the in- terior by night. My companions in the eilwagen, or diligence, were an Oxford Fellow, a German, and a Frenchman. The subject of our conversation, during one part of the night, was, the efforts of the Germany governments and people to educate the children of their poor. The Oxford Fellow would not credit the ac- count I gave him of these efforts, and affected, moreover, to laugh at them as useless and chimerical. 1 saw it would be impossible to make a convert of him by argument, and so, to save words, I ended the conversation by saying, " NN ell, if you arc ever in the streets of a German town between eight and nine o'clock, or between twelve and one o'clock, in the morning, observe what is then going on. and remember what I told you." The next morning it so happened, that we stopped about eight o'clock to change horses, in a small town, about half way between Ulm and Stuttgard. It was just before the primary schools commenced their morning's work. All the children we-e on their way to their respective classes. I made the " Fellow'' get out of the diligence, and regard what was going on in the streets at that early hour. The street in which we had drawn up, was full of clean, neatly-dressed chil- dren, each carrying a small bag of books in his hand, or a little goatskin knapsack full of books on his back.. There were no rags, and no unseemly patched and darned clothes. The little girls were neat, their hair was dressed with a great deal <^ taste, their frocks were clean and tastefully made. Their appearance would have led a stranger to imagine, that they were the children of parents belonging to the middle classes of society. I said to my companion, — " These orderly, clean, and respectable-looking children are, many of them, the sons and daughters of the poorest artizans and laborers." In England, they would have been the " ragged- school children," or the squalid players in the gutters and back alleys. There there was no perceptible difference between the children of the poorest laborer and the children of the shopkeeper or rich parent. They all looked equally clean, re- spectable, polite, and intelligent. I said to the Fellow, " Are you convinced now ?" He turned to me and answered, '' Yes, yes ; this is, indeed, a very in- teresting and very curious sight. I do not any longer doubt the accuracy of all you told me last night. It is certainly very remarkable." That ten minutes taught my companion more than he would have learned by days of argument. The reflection, to which it leads every beholder, is, " are all the children of Germany like these ? Is there no class of children in Germany like those, which grow up in the gutters and alleys of our English towns? No wonder then, if this be so, that there is so much less pauperism in Germany than in England, and that the poor are so much more prosperous, virtuous, and happy, than our own." To give an idea of the liberal scale on which the teachers' training colleges in Wirtemberg are regulated, I shall give the list of the professors and teachers at- tached to the colleges at Esslingen and Nurtingen ; and the subjects of education taught in them. I. The number of professors and teachers at the teachers' college at Esslingen in Wirtemberg, are — 1 Director, who officiates also as first Professor. 3 Professors of the Sciences. 1 Professor of Music. 2 Teachers. 1 Assistant for the Musical Professor. 1 Teacher of the Jewish religion, (he conducts the dogmatical education of the Jewish students.) 1 Teacher of Music for the model practicing school attached to the College. 1 Treasurer and Accountant for the College. 1 Physician for the College. The number of students at this college was eighty. II. Number of professors and teachers at the normal college of Nurtingen, in Wirtemberg. 20 30g PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN WIRTEMBERO. 1 Director, who acts as first Professor. 1 Professor of the Sciences. 2 Head Teachers. 2 Assistant Teachers. 1 Teacher of Music. 1 Teacher of Music, for the model school attached to the College. 1 Treasurer and / ccountant. 1 Physician for the College. The number of students in this college was eighty. The Subjects of Instruction in the teachers' colleges of Wirtemberg, are as follows : — Religion. Moral Philosophy. German Language. History — (General, German, and Scriptural.) Arithmetic. Algebra. » Plane Geometry. Logic. The Principles of Natural History. Physical Geography. The Philosophy of the Human Mind. Pedagogy. Practice in Teaching. Theory of Music. The Piano-forte and Organ. Chanting and Singing. I beg my readers to look at these lists and compare the efforts made by a small province of Germany not containing so many inhabitants as London, with those made by us ; when the numbers of our. working population are, like our com- merce, increasing with such an astonishing rapidity. The educational laws of AA'irtemberg require the parishes to support, for every ninety children, one teacher ; for more than ninety children, two teachers ; for more than 180 children, three teachers; for more than 270 children, four teach- ers ; and so on in like proportion. If a country parish is very poor it is allowed, on proof of its inability to find funds for the support of the required number of teachers, to diminish the number, on two conditions, viz. : — 1st. That very able men are selected ; and 2ndly. That one teacher is provided for every 120 children. INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY HOHENHEIM, NEAR STUTTGARD. 'iVro is the most complete agricultural school in Europe, and extends its useful- iiess iiot only throughout, but beyond Wirtemberg. It was established in 1817, by tLfc/ A ffricultural Society of Wirtemberg, under the patronage of the king, who dovo.Ajd a royal seat, with extensive buildings, to the purposes of the institu- tion. Tht< farm includes nearly one thousand acres, exclusively appropriated to the support of the school, or the practical instruction of the pupils. In 1820 tlie school of ft-restry was united with this, and the pupils now follow, in part, the same couratm. The entire institution is divided into two departments, one of which is intended to give a higher general and practical education than the other. In the higher, the object is Itss the acquisition of manual dexterity in the operations of agricul- ture, than the knowledge required to superintend them ; while in the lower, the practice is the principal end. The latter department ranks with the rural schools of Switzerland and the agricultural school of Templemoyle, in Ireland, hereafter described. In Iha higher school, all the pupils are expected to pay for their edu- cation. In the lower, natives of Wirtemberg are admitted gratis, if their cir- cumstances require it. Foreigners may be admitted to either ; their payments being, however, on a much higher scale than those of natives.* The direction of the establishment is delegated by the Agricultural Society to a director and treasurer, the former of whom has the general superintendence of all the concerns of the institution, while the latter is responsible for its financial state to the society and to the royal exchequer. The director is also an insti'uctor. There are, besides, four regular or ordinary professors, and four extraordinary professors, besides an overseer and steward, for the management of the farm and domestic economy. The treasurer has a book-keeper and an assistant in his department. Pupils are admitted at seventeen years of age, and are expected to possess ele- mentary attainments necessaiy to the prosecution of the courses of the school. Between 1820 and 1836, one hundred and eighty natives and one hundred and eighty-two foreigners have been educated in agriculture, and one hundred and forty-seven natives and one himdred and seventy-seven foreigners in forestry, making a total of five hundred and thirty-nine in the institution. The number of pupils in the higher school in 1836 was seventy-two. That in the lower school is limited to twenty-seven. The pupils of the lower school, in general, come under obligations to remain three years at the institution, in consideration of which their payments for instruc- tion are diminished, in part, in the second year, and cease in the third. They are engaged in the operations of the farm, the garden, and other parts of the es- tablishment, which will hereafter be enumerated, under the direction of the work- men, and under the superintendence of the steward, their time being so distribu- ted that they may acquire practice in the various operations of farming. They are also required to attend certain of the lectures given to the higher classes, and receive instruction at times when they are not engaged in agricultural labor. They receive regular wages for work done, for which they are expected to pay for their maintenance and clothing. Premiums are given to those who display great skill and industry. While in the house, the younger pupils are under the * For the yearly courses at the higher school natives pay forty dollars, and foreigners one hundred ana twenty dollars. For instruction in forestry only, a native pays twenty-four dollars, and a stranger seventy-two dollars. For the three years' inbtniction in the lower si:hool, natives pay fatty dollar*. 308 INSTITDTE OF AGRICULTTTRE AND FORESTRY AT HOHENHEIM. charge of the elder ones, and are under the general superintendence of the over- seer. The same superintendence exists in the rif.ctoiy and dormitories. It sub- serves the double purpose of economy, and of training the elder pupils in the management of men, which is one object of their education. The institution undertakes to find places for those pupils who have given satisfaction while in the school, on their completing its courses. The agricultural course of the higher school may be accomplished in one year, if the preliminary studies of the pupil have been directed with a view to his en- tering, but in general it requires two years. The same period of two years is required for that of forestry. Each scholastic year has two sessions, the one from the first of November to Palm-Sunday, and the other from two weeks after Palm-Sunday to the first of October. The intermediate periods are vacations. The branches of special theoretical instruction are as follows : First: Agriculture. General principles of farming and horticulture, including the culture of the vine. The breeding of cattle. Growing of wool. Raising of horses. Rtaring of silk- worms. Arrangement and direction of farms. Estimation of the value of farms. Book- keep in» SrCond : Forestry. Encyclopeiiia of Forestry. Botany of forests. Culture and superin- tendence of forests. Guard of lorests. Hunting. Taxation. Uses of forests. Technology. Laws and regulations, accounts, and technical correspondence relating to forests Th rd : Accessory brunches Veterinary art Agr. culture technology, especially the man- ufacture of beet sugar, brewing, vinegar making, and distilling. The construction of roads and hydraulic works. Besides these special branches, the following general courses are pursued : First : The Natural Sciences. Geology. Physiology of plants. Botany, as applied to ag- 1-. culture and forestry. Natural history of animals beneficial or noxious to plants and trees. (Jtneral cliemistrv, and its applications to agriculture. Physics and meleuroiogy. Si:-r(i\i(\- Maihematics. Theoretical and practical. Geometry. Elements of trigonometry. Arithmetic. Elements of algebra. The institution possesses the most ample means for the illustration of these courses in its farm and collections. The farm is divided into arable land, about five hundred and one acres ; meadow land, two hundred and forty-two acres ; fiolds set apart for experiments, thirty-three acres ; woodland, thirteen acres ; nursery, sixty-seven acres ; plantation of hops, two acres ; botanical garden, four- teen acres ; ground for exercising the pupils in ploughing, two acres ; garden, one acre; the remainder eighty -five acres. Total, nine hundred and sixty acres. Th^' arable land is cultivated according to five different rotations of crops, that the pupils may have specimens of the varieties of system. The botanical garden, nursery, and experimental farm, are prominent parts of the establishment. There is a large stock of cattle of diflferent kinds, foreign and domestic, and of sheep, that the pupils may acquire practical knowledge of the relative advantages of d liferent breeds, the mode of taking care of the stock generally, and of rearing them for different purposes. Horses are kept for a riding-school, as well as for the purposes of the farm. The institution has a large collection of agricultural implements in use in Wirtemberg, and of models of the varieties of foreign and new implements. These are made in a workshop attached to the school, and afford practice in the manufacture to the pupils, as well as instruction by their use or inspection, with the explanations of the professors. The sale of these im- plements and models also contributes to the support of the establishment. There are two collections of seeds and grain — one as specimens for illustrating the lec- tures, the other in quantities for sale. The pupils learn the mode of preserving them, and useful seeds are distributed through the country. There is a collec- tion of soils of all kinds for the lecturers on terra-culture and the analysis of soils, with specimens of the means of amelioration used in different eases. The collec- tions of natural history, though small, are interesting, from the precise adaptation of the specimens to the objects of the school. They consist of birds, beasts, and insects, and of plants, woods, and rocks. The woods are arranged in the form of a library, the separate specimens having the forms of books given to them, and being covered in part with the .bark. The name is inscribed upon the back. Cross and longitudinal sections are usually found in the same book, forming the covers. Between the covers is a box containing the seeds and flowers of the tree-, the parasites. &o., aad a description. There is a email ooUocton (rf physi- INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY AT HOHENHEIM. 309 cal apparatus, a library, and a laboratory. The following farming and technologi- cal establishments are connected with the school, and worked by the pupils, under the eharg,- of the teachers : namely, a cider-press and appurtenances ; a beet- sugar manufactory, a brewery, a distillery, and a vinegar manufactory. Though I saw better individual collections than these, the whole suite stands unrivaled, as far as my examination extended. Examination takes place every year, which are obligatory upon those forestry pupils who intend to enter the service of the government ; strangers are not re- quired to be examined. Persons wishing to learn the details of the institution, may be received as visitors for a period not exceeding a month, living with the pupils. Each pupil in the higher school has his own sleeping-room ; or, at most, two room together. They bring their supplies of clothing, &c., at entrance. The rooms are kept in order by the servants, who receive a small compensation from the pupil. They take their dinner and supper in a common hall, and order what they please for breakfast from the Stewart's assistant.* This institution has sup- ported itself for several years, which is readily to be understood from the scale of its farming operations. The success of the farm does not depend exclusively upon the productive manual labor of the pupils. It is analogous to the support of a family on a large estate, the members of the family aiding in the work, and con- tributing also in money to their own support, but the working of the farm not de- pending entirely upon their manual exertions. * The dinner and supper cost four dollars a month, which is paid in advance to the Steward. 310 NORMAL SEMINARY AT ESSI.INGF.N. O z irl c c c o c c- g s s £ s I c-^-j^ g g.5 £ S S S S g.S.5-E £P - :_ ^ w .^ I co-5-5 c o ! Ih :^ c c a!«j £ r =.ii = re = o E S ;= S o « oj .2 o 1^ '- (u — O 0- O Oh O Si o o o 'a . C « bS ■S c QJ ii o 5 c o = o S rt.ii 2 o £ 5 2 3 c o .i; -iS =»1J 2-S .2-6 K-r c S <= 2 c O ■= 3 -= O « -z: .•/> '^ ^ '^s ^■k 3'x SfM c ^ O o ^ o O Q.- 5(, D- O Q, S 5;^ e o S s S >;s ' i: o J! 0) ■- bO , O S i = p re re -T- 3 re n. re 2 S « £ <-5e:i-QcC O J re V S >, -n bo bo bi) c-o o E o 4) c c c g BO bi bn re c s S oj cuOfBOjai ?^ 5^ ./■ b o 3 » o m to ^ .2 i .|l"ijre I 2 (i, a, Oh f- Z bb >» Q ^ O o re .2 41 ^ — Z cuoSH n o o n n 3 ^ -o br o-a o i; c c C c-^ bC be bll re o -«; a,Q-a)(naj &>t«->^ I, 2 S = ?^ i:i:^J 3 D.„ bo_- u. .S S'S-S re * 0,00, E-Z 5 5P- o re c a) j- -a -a -a -a :;:i "d ~3 -a -o -o u t^ §-2 - HT! - Sl= V"^ ^ ""^ v-"^ ^^"■P •^^T ^ c o ? t^ ^"^ CQ ._ 4) ;= 5S'^ 5SS - ^,:s ^^,■£ o CkCCc- U-mH [fcr/}^fctBE-ti-!/}^fct»h fcr/3t_ fcTJE-fc W t- fcT}^ D t~ 05 O - (N (N CO ■* lO o o 2 o o O O 2 o 2 o ! E Vi ^ MO MO "> r W) « o g H ^ "3.2 "3 a> e? "v V "3 a « ■i u a Attend mod Life of Chr Catechism, Arithmetic, Attend mod or practis Singing, Compositioi I.E 2 o o > Attend mod or practis Drawing, Attend mod IS .5 S u rt .2 t: a >' school, tions, S(!hool, organ, Sophy, M S -^1 X S 6 "3 z" < ■«." ci; ! O bo 2 S i M ''-611 -^ 3 o > >-■ u £r u b X tt •< M C M o S eg M o M « < Q CO U Q ttend model atechism, rt of questio rithmetic, ttend model or practise eography, atechetical i cises. - 60 u« if-S model actise model o 1 ^ — a, bE 'S s ^ 2 a ttend or pr otany ttend g 2 • = 60 -:; o o 2 o » pa o o z <^<.<.< OO 0-'v~ < DQ-• n <^XJ<< \r'< O > < Q u «"3' a 2 ^-^^ V ■ — '-^ v—-^ ■^v~- a o B ' • • N . . 00 O) rH •-I « « ^ o »- B S B S 2 2 2 2 2 t- OD OS O ^^ -H e» CO lO (0 _H_ •■•■« BAVARIA. Bavaria is divided into eight provinces, 230 chief towns, 351 market towns, and 15,120 villages and parishes. The administration of public instruction is committed to four bodies, as follows : 1. A local committee for each school, appointed by the com- mittee lor each province, after consultation with the district committee. 2. A district committee for each town and village. -3. A provincial com- mission for all of the schools of each province, one of whom only is paid, and he must be a councilor of state. 4. A chief or head commission of four persons residing at Munich, one of whom is paid, and two of whom must be laymen. At the head of this commission is the Minister of Wor- ship and Public Instruction. Tlie second, third and fourth committees are appointed by the ki^, who also appoints from time to time special inspec- tors. The effective management of the schools is with the provincial commission. The special inspectors appointed by the king, are selected from this board. All parents must send their children to some school, public or private, from six to fourteen years of age, or be fined. The support of the schools is borne by parents (varying from seventy-five cents to $1,50 per year in quarterly payments, for each child ;) by a local and provincial tax, voted by each district and province ; and by the state, which appropriates about $300,000 annually, in aid of local and parental efforts. The rate paid by parents and by districts, is collected with the ordinary taxes. The course of instruction is the same as in the primary schools of other states of Germany. Religious instruction is given to the children on sta- ted days and hours. If a school is composed of scholars belonging to dif- ferent sects, the religious instruction is given by the pastor of each sect. Every school according to law must have a small Iiursery-garden un- der the care of the teacher, where the pupils may learn the mode of treat- ing trees and plants. Out of 6065 Qerman schools, it appears from the official reports that 5284 had such grounds attached. By a regulation adopted in 18.16, every teacher appointed to a public school, must have qualified himself at one of the Normal Schools. There are seven of these institutions now in operation, viz. : five for Catholic teachers, at Bamberg, Eichstadt, Speyer, Keiserslautern, £ind Lauingenj two for Protestant teachers, at Altdorf and Schwabach. 314 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. The oldest Seminary is at Bamburg. It was founded in 1777, as a Normal School, according to the meaning at that time conveyed by this designation, — that is, a model or pattern school, to which teachers resorted for observation, and a temporary course oflectures, and was raised into a seminary, composed of teachers, in 1791. The course of instruction in 1846, was as follows : 1. Religion, — explanation of the catechism, Bible History, and eacred songs. 2. German Language, speaking, reading and writing. 3. Geography, including Natural History, and History. 4. Arithmetic. 6. Drawing and Geometry. 6. Penmanship, with constant exercises in composition. 7. Music, vocal and instrumental. 8. Pedagogics, general principles of education, methods of instruction, discipline, and administration of school affairs. The number of pupils in 1844 was thirty-one, for whom there were three permanent teachers residing in the institution, and several teachers em- ployed in special branches from the town. The pupils board in the Insti- tution, and are charged a small fee for the priviteges of instruction, includ- ing board, lodging, tuition, &c., which is, however, reduced from time to time, in consequence of diligence and proficiency. It does not exceed $38 in any case. The coursse embraces two years. Out of study hours the pupils are under the special supervision of two oflfce instructors. For the Protestant teachers there are two seminaries, one at Altdorf> and the other at Schwabach. Jacobi, who was formerly inspector of the Seminary at Altdorf, and is now director of the new Protestant Seminary at Schwabach, published the following outline of a plan for a Seminary, in his Pedagogical Jour- ney in 1847, and which, we may now conclude, he is aiming to realize in the institution now in his charge. " For the location of a seminary I should choose a large town ; for, however much may be said in favor of country towns, there are in large towns more means of culture and teaching: teachers and pupils are more easily provided with board; the institution is subjected to a more constant and intelligent in- spection, and there is less exposure to a change of teachers, on accoi\nt of the desirableness of a town residence to an educated man, and the facilities of edu- cation for sons and daughters. I would have a large, healthy and attractive building, without any thing re- pulsive in or about it, and in it there should be accommodations for the Direc- tor, a housekeeper, and sixty pupils. Each teacher should have his separate department: to one teacher should be assigned Religion, pedagogic and didactic; to another, German Language, lite- rature and history; to a third, Realia, (natural science,) arithmetic, penmanship, and drawing; and to a fourth, the whole course of musical instruction and practice. Each teacher must not only be master of his branch, but must have a practical power and skill to form future teachers in his department, without being obliged to call in aid from any other teachers. Every teacher should be adequately compensated, so as to give his whole time and soul to the institution, and he should rank with the professors in the gymnasia, and be subordinate only to the supervision of the highest govern- mental authority. PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA 316 Every teacher should exhibit sincere piety, exemplary conduct, a glowing zeal in the cause of education, and an enthusiastic attachment to the institu- tions of his country ; found always on the side of education, religion and his king, and above all, of his profession. The Director must be a good theolo- gian, and must be so thoroughly trained in every department of study pursued in the institution, as to be abfe lo answer promptly the questions of the pupils; must be a good musician, and a ready and gifted speaker, so as to be able to touch the heart in leading the devotions and public exercises of the institution. He must also be a man of business habits, and possess a tact in governing and moving others to his purposes. To such a director 1 would cheerfully com- mit the charge of the seminary, and to whom all other teachers must be subor- dinate, so far as the impulse and direction of the instruction and exercises are concerned. I would be very cautious in introducing text books, which may afterward be followed exclusively by the pupils, when they become teachers. Every text boyk used in the school should be subjected to the sharpest competition and most rigid scrutiny, as to its principles and methods. The regulations of the Seminary should be few and general, leaving the de- tails of administration to the Director and a council of the teachers. It would be a matter of indifference to me, whether the pupils studied by themselves, or together recited a particular study in the forenoon or afternoon, provided the best good of all was secured, and the great end of the Institution realized in producing good men, sincere Christians, sound scholars, and faithful and able teachers. From time to time, the Institution should be visited by the highest authori- ties of the church and state, but not by subordinate and local school officers." Bavaria has a population of about 4,250,000, The Educational Insti- tutions consist of 3 Universities, viz., at Munich, with .... 1,329 students, " Erlangen, 300 « " Wiirzberg, 408 « 9 Lyceums, with 3,110 " 24 Gymnasiums, 85.681 " 32 Mechanics' Schools, 7,495 " 70 Latin Schools, 3 Polytechnic Schools, 493 " 9 Nornral Seminaries, 696 " 6,065 German, or Common Schools, 556, i39 " Oiie Institution for the blind ; one Institution for deaf mutes; one Col- lege or Higher Seminary for younar ladies; one Academy of science; one School for artists. The following remarks on the schools and teachers of Bavaria, are taken from Kay's " Social Conditon and Education of the People.''* The statistics differ in some particulars from those given above. When I was in Nuremburg, in the kingdom of Bavaria, I asked a poor man, whether they obliged him to send his children to school. He said, " Yes ; I must either sen> CD SS ■* C! C^ =5_O^0^ 00^ J of r-TitTco's^of lO^r-Tr-T co" (M tn l^OO^^lOOlI^COr-li^eO'MtO CO ii (M r-l CO 3> M ^ CV 'N CO ^ 00 ■ rHt-C0MC3OC0C0i-H CO_^ CO csa r-T r-T.^" r^ CO~ 05" — rH -S3 030r-it-oooo5coiocoeoco l-(M-^t^OOOt-!MC?J~-CDlOCO 00 a c. CO 00 CO r-<_C3 CD_3^Ci^C>^^__05 Cs_ m '>^^-^-.^c^I>^^r-^-^co^r-^c•^ co o ^ CnCO^r-103t-0(M t-'rH CM 01 to CO en CO CD -M CD Ci CO CO 00 CO CO 1.0 CD ^ >ii CO 10 00 CO ^ ^ 1-H CO CO ^ C0»'iCDrHl^OrH-rt1C5rH0-3C0C0 ■*" n ~ rHCDt-COCOOOCOO) OlOSlTi >^ rH CO tN r-H C0_ m ^ _2 ?>« JL 010(M:^01COCD>OCOCOOCO t- ■3 ■= Si; a OCOrHCO?Jt^OOrHCO;^ O4 ^.- J3 _«_ ^M~^ ■ rn" C0"r-r i-T cT O^IOC^QOOOt^Cil^t^OiOOOO] 00 1 = ^ i-OOC-JCOJ^OCD— IrHO^OCO CO M rH ^ Ol CD C^ CO 00 "i CO 10 C- !■- § ■a c '^"cd"^'' jfj^i-rccTj-rarco^r-r^co ^^ CO C-.' 1^ CO t- 03 ut IC CO rH •<}< :M rH O) CD_ 02 ;;) a r—i b :a s -2 "O rHCDOCOOCO■^^Or-lCOC^"lCOCC CO . a ^11 OOi-t-OOCOrHfc£ro- CO S d ■— OOltNOOrHOOCOOCOOCMCC 00 £23 = rH OOJlOrHrH lO(MrH 00 of a ooooooooooooc CaJ 000000000000c © C^O^O CD 00 C •3-' cT cd" co" oT cc~ cT ccT -^ co" riT co" crT of 0-*I^t- :.2 i 1 3 ci O^cJpR _, Eh SUPERIOR EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 339 TABLE II.— INSTITUTIONS OF SECONDARY AND SUPERIOR EDUCATION. Universities. Vienna Gwtz Innsbruck Prague Ollmutz Lemberg Pesth Pavia Padua Total (without Hungary) . Lycea. Salzbwg, with Theol., Philos., and Medicine Linz " " '• " Lai bach " " " '> Klageiifurth " " " Klausenburg '• " " In Hungary, 14* Seminaries for Divines. Vienna (Protestant) Redemptorists (for their order) Admoiit Mantern Turnow * Przemysl S Lemberg Carlowitz (Greek Church) Zara Hermannstadt (Greek) In Hungary, Sf Colleges of Philosophy^ Special Institutions | j?' S^ ' Gymnasia? (Grammar-schools) | pr*°stant Total cost of the higher establishments for education, without including Hungary . . 353 Outlay. 4,718 876 317 3,341 640 1,403 V,3i6 1,260 florins. 165,671 25.372 25,053 66,864 29.525 53,593 ' 80,821 98,646 Buraar. abipa. 256 ! 47 52 j 55 I 112 I 48 \ ■'24 ! florins. 21,583 1,267 3,593 3,065 5,600 4,480 4,200 13,871 545,545 594 43,788 212 167 299 171 330 83 1,179 23,465 12,090 22,160 4,624 8,810 71,149 455 362 2,294 1,409 4,520 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 7 ' 2 8 1 1 5 59 17,007 2,650 4,193 3,010 4,765 15,128 180 30 2,400 54 46,933 25 166 I 3,192 I 127,089 116 14 195 29 3,508 429 248,151 21,775 38 163 • 21 2,400 2,140 29,097 2,026 25,458 I 505.350 2,451 I 12,963 446 j 20,515 13 I 72 1,378 I 35,038 915,328 681 ] 53,850 1,8 50,497 I 1,578,955 1,387 I 104,558 * 2 at I^resburg ; 2 Baab ; 1 Agram, Debreczin, Eperies, Erlau, Grosswardein, Kasmark, Cashau, Oedenburg, Papa, Saros-Patak. t At Kerestur and Torda. i At Krems, Kremsmunster, GOrz, Trent, Budweis, Leitomischl, Filsen, Bnmn, Nikolsburg, Przemysl, Tamopol, Czernowitz, Zara, Milan, Brescia, Cremona, Mantua, Bergamo, Como, Lodi, Venice, Verona, Udine, Vicenza. In Hungary, at Stein am Auger and Szeyechin, 2. § Hungary has 67 Catholic and 13 Protestant Gymnasia. The Mining Academy at Schemnitz has 7 Professors, 233 Students : it costs 11,500 florins, and has 55 Bursarships endowed with 11,000 florins annually. $40 SUPERIOR EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. '3 3 (M C-3 ^ CO CM 1^ OC r-< 2? 3 o si tn CO OS • O I- H CO 1 = 1 ^CM,t-;_ co_ 1 C Ci T-H • CO c^ 5 t- co'oTi-T i-^ ii J3 =o^^ •--. o 1 tH £ 3 n d i-H CO CM CO |a T-H IC - o c D 05 1 d -* 03 • rHi> CO • V 5- i^ OP ti Q.3 t^ CM CO IC ^ Ttl 1.0 ,n 01 O f (>f crc-r,-r,-r uo" H-3 m IC O T: -C '^ ^ CO r- Oi_ ■z 3 C »~* '—< 3 O o"co~ cf os t- lo cs ir CO .-• CM ^ ^ "-C^CO^^J^^^iCt ofof Crfclfr- < O ]5 d 00 CM 10 C -»3 CO CO CO ^ b^ o| ■* » s cc r^ c^f CO 'i ^ Q .3 I^ CM '^ CO < O 03~-^ CO iC^ iT CO d ^•2 ,9 S cro 'o CO C' ea °1 - OS co__ C4 Q '-^'~ C0~ s lA < El < s i ^ b: £ CO .-1 O r-lt- t- < en '^ o 0> lO Tt( O rH o C3 ■S !5 CO ^ .2 H S H 3 t3 rr-* , .2 '3 o "cS §^1 02 P^ 1? ,«2 1 1 i-IB CmChO oo-3<^ OD CO ^ ^ CD a> 3 oT S 3 ? 3 § M^ gPHf.^fe gg fe fep^ <:J ■< m X a S s a H m 3 es n H a H U 2 H g K Z S Ed b & H ts H H Q Z P Z •«1 >J K O t= a h o o H z H n H Z Z E H pa S BS H n H A H B •S b 0. >< < a z s m Attending divine service, sacred music, teaching in Sunday school. 6h' >2 •— _C Oi (U g S g.2 £.2 *jCqdQx?03£) •sofB^qj o — . CJ o n ^ X 2 >> „ =»?? ri H oi 2 w- c g ^ °-^ « C 3 rt f^ b , « rt g •■= £ 5 g ^ 2 ^?.§^ o ^ o c « cs o o ■^ -c 2 u -3 E • ■5 5 Q o g •JuIMBJQ 378 NORMAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE. , >< < Q eS < "7" to CO e» • • • • 'il "J3 a) rf . CO ■A CO m bo ^ . . . . 00 H-« f^J .2 c « i 2 s- s '5 S d 1 o O •i «(N<^" >> 4) - " ^— ^ .c (N .2 - '^ c^ « ;2 D. ' N i: »r >i u ^ o " , OJ O J= ■0 t— 1 >^ OJ " •£ ./■ — X 'H a- -co 41 i < ex o IS ■z; CO cf g — ' 05 bO S £ . . « t« S d ^ O C3 OJ .^ e ct! > o S V CO .E '3 " ^ a. a. E CO = g "^ cn <£- 0011, 03 OJ ? ■a c "" e u CO — SP ■^ !-■ £ - (NO CO o O -! Q m ti » 4) o.ti 1.3 ■5 — rawing, 3 ; me arithmetic, 1, rawing, 3 ; rea 2, eading, 3, eography, 1, 2 inging, 1, 2, a bo 'S P ■< •J •a & OS o Q Q Bh OO) ^-^ m fa O H O > m Q "3 1 -co CO CO cs o o o z S o cs 5 a o t*. « " .« (N 0) Q m M » o .2 V* n o « w rawing, 1, 2 3, rawing, 1, 2, eography, 1, eography, 3, inging, 3, a 13 o t^ s CS o m • - CO 11 •1 •c £ < O , 'k -c i; O O J) S2 I O ^^ (U E bb ra o 1.^ a; CO 500 c E c " ^' I s s e-bo s 0)^ is «-a M D. a. bc 3 la c c 0-^03 1m s z Q ;-r= " =-■; ■—St" !S 's-g " o O 0- S '5. >- a, 5 o — -^ o '-^ bO » s g s E rt c c .5 c ~ S o ~ c g £ 3 > c 3^ 00 QO BJ ?;.2 g.-a§-£. >p.bo c 3 :s 3 £ 6 -< I i bc^ ri 2 bt) Ji bn c E c 0) i_ :i bO— bn M C bO OXCO _ J3 ^•^ o o O J= Z2 o§ EC! § bo C j3 .ii O 'o ? J: ^ ^s rt bo S 3 ^ 3 5J O C^ 3 S80 NORMAL SEMINARY AT LUCERN. o o fa o ►J B Z -< >9 b: M H i z m o b kj H • s a ij •«! S d: o z Ed H < a c£ \j o o b: 8 H IS i- Z Q a u a < a a % CO 3d course. Geometry. 2 c §■2 Tog "a) S 111 • bb *-■ * tiO 5.5 2d and 3d coarse. Geometry. Natural philosophy or history. Gymnastics. 1st and 2d course, Religious instruction, s 1 < • 1st course. History, Arithmetic, Geography, Ix' < a i s o • • 2d and 3d course. Arithmetic, School discipline, Geography, m • 1st course. Art of teach- ing, Arithmetic, Gymnastics, O 3d course. Writing, u be O CO c a. aj o-S -< • and 3d rse, ing, < Gymnastics, 1st and 2d course. Religious instruction. bB a s § o to '!o II o U bo C 1st, 2d, cou Draw Geography, < Q CO Z Q W 2d and 3d course, Composi- tion, i Q O' bo C 'bb B 2d and 3d course, Geography, 1st course. Geometry, ° a" o • aT £ . . 3 O . • Q 3d course, Writing, 3 o c -x: "aj i •a CO c M aT o 2d and 3d course. Arithmetic, Natural philosophy. Gymnastics, 1st and 2d course. Religious instruction, s s 2 O i 3 o u s o bo C 'bb c !» 1st course. History, Writing, Geography, < Q Z O s 2d and 3d course. Grammar and school «.2'' S « a 'bb c to 2d and 3d course. Geometry, Natural philosophy or history. Geography, aT .2' -2 < Grammar and school discipline. • 1st course. Art of teach- ing, Arithmetic, Gymnastics, TO Bj D O s 2S, ^2 Q. HN O 05 o 2 o of 2 J past I to 3, 3 to 4, FRANCE. Before 1789, religious zeal, the spirit of association, the desire of living honorably in the recollection of mankind as the founder of pious or learned institutions, individual enterprise, and to some extent government endow- ment, had covered France with establishments of higher education, and with men consecrated to their service. This was particularly true with regard to schools for classical education, and the instruction generally of all but the poorer classes of society. In grammar schools and colleges, France was as well provided in 1789, as in 1849. In the upbreak and overthrow of government and society, which took place between 1789 and 1794, and which was, in no small measure, the result of the neglected edu- cation of the great mass of the people, these public endowments, many of which had existed for centuries, were destroyed, and these religious and lay congregations, such as the Benedictines. Jesuits, Oratorians. Doctrin- aires, Lazaristes, and Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, were abolished, their property confiscated, and most of them were never again re-estab- lished. From 1791 to 1794, by various ordinances of the Convention, a system of public schools was projected, in which primary education was to be free to all at the expense of the State. Out of these ordinances sprung the first Normal School in France, and the Polytechnic School in 1794. But the promise of good primary schools was not realized, and the Nor- mal School was abolished in the following year. In 1802 the promise was renewed in a new ordinance, but amid the din of arms, the peculiar fruits oi" peace could not ripen. In 1808 Napoleon organized the Imperial Uni- versity, embracing under that designation the governmental control of all the educational institutions of France, primary, secondary, and supe- rior. In one of his decrees, primary instruction (intended for the masses of society) was limited to reading, writing and arithmetic, and the legal authorities were enjoined " to watch that the teachers did not carry tlieir instructions beyond these limits." Under the organization established by Napoleon, and with views of primary education but little expanded be- yond the imperial ordinance referred to, and with even these limited views unrealized, the gov^ernment continued to administer the system of public education till the Revolution of 1830. In the mean time the wants of a more generous and complete system of primary schools had been lelt 382 PRIMARY INSTRUfeTION IN FRANCE. throughout France, and one of the firfit steps of the new government was to supply this want, and most considerately and thoroughly was the work accomplished. Not only were steps taken to increase the number and efficiency of the schools already established, by additional apprbpriations for their support, but the Department of Public Instruction was re-organ- ized. Normal Schools for the education of Teachers were multiplied, and made effective, and the experience of the best educated states in Europe was consulted in reference to the reconstruction of the whole system. There is nothing in the history ot' modern civilization more truly sub- lime than the establishment of the present Law of Primary Instruction in France. As has been justly remarked by an English writer, " Few na- tions ever suffered more bitter humiliation than the Prussians and French mutually inflicted during the earlier years of the present century; and it was supposed that feelings of exasperation and national antipathy thus engendered by the force of circumstances, were ready, on the match being applied, to burst forth in terrible explosion. At the very time, however, when the elements of mischief were believed to be most active in the breasts of a people jealous of their honor, and peculiarly sensitive to insult, the French ministry, with the consent of the King and Cham- bers, send one of their ablest and wisest citizens, not to hurl defiance or demand restitution, but to take lessons in the art of training youth to knowledge and virtue, and that too in the capital of the very nation whose troops, sixteen years before, had, on a less peaceful mission, bivouacked in the streets of Paris, and planted their victorious cannon at the passages of her bridges. There are not many facts in the past history of mankind more cheering than this ; not many traits of national character more mag- nanimous, or indicating more strikingly the progress of reason, and the coming of that time when the intercourse between nations will consist not in wars and angry protocols, but in a mutual interchange of good offices." M. Victor Cousin, one of the most profound and popular writers of the age, in one department of literature, who was sent on this peaceful mis- sion in the summer of 1831, submitted in the course of the year to his government, a " Report on the coyidition of Public Instruction in Germa- ny, and particularly in Pncssia." This able document was published, and in defiance of national self-love, and the strongest national antipathies, it carried conviction throughout France. It demonstrated to the govern- ment and the people the immense superiority of all the German States, even the most insignificant duchy, over any and every department of France, in all that concerned inslitutionsof primary and secondary educa- tion. The following extracts will indicate the conclusions to which • Cousin arrives in reference to the educational wants of his own country. After pronouncing the .school law of Prussia " the most comprehensive and perfect legislative measure regarding primary instruction" with which he was acquainted, he thus addresses himself to the minister: " Without question, in the present state of things, a law concerning primary PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 383 instruction is indispensable in France ; the question is, how to produce a good one, in a conn;rv where there is a total absence of all precedent and all experi- ence in so grave a matter. The education of the people has hitherto been so n 'glecied, — so few trials have been made, or those trials have succeeded so ill. that we are entirely without those universally leceived notions, those j redilec- tions rooted in the habits and the mind of a nation, which are the conditions and the bases of all good legislation. I wish, then, for a law ; and at the same time I dread it ; for 1 tremble lest we should plunge into visionary and impracticable projects again, without attending to whai actually exists. I'he idea of compelling parents to send their children to school is perhaps not sufficiently diffused through the nation to justity the experiment of making it law; but eveiybody agrees in legaiding the establishment of a school in every commune as necessary. It is also willingly conceded that the maintenance of this school must rest with ihe commune ; always provided that, in caseof ii:al il- ity through poverty, the commune shall apply to the departmert, and the depart- ment to the state. This point may be assumed as universally admitted, and may theiefore become law. You aie likewise aware that many of the councils of departments have felt the necessity of securing a supply of schoolmasters, and a more complete ecu- cation for them and have, with this view, established primary iSormal Schools in their departments Indeed, they have often shown rather prodigality thnn parsimony on this head. This, too, is a most valuable and encouragii.g indica- tion ; and a law ordaining the establishment of a primary Normal School in each department, as well as a primary school in each ccmtvnine, would do little more than confirm and generalize what is now actually doing in alniust all parts of the country. Of course this primary Normal J^chool must be more or less considerable according to the resources of each department. Here we have already two most important points on which the country is almost unanimously agreed. You have also, without doubt been struck by the petitions of a number of towns, great and small, for the establishment of schools of a class rather higher than the common primary schools; such as though still inferior in classical and scientific studies to our royal and comn)unal cl- leges might be more particularly adapted to give that kind of generally usetul knowledge indispensable to the large ]iortion of the population uhich is not in- tended for the learned professions, but which yet needs more extended and vaiied acquirements than the class of day-laborers and artisans. &'uch petitions are almost universal. Several municipal councils have voted considerable funds for the purpose, and have applied to us for the necessary auihoiity, foi- advice and assistance. It is impossible not to regard this as the symptom of a real want, — the indication of a serious deficiency in our system of public instruction. You are sufficiently acquainted with my zeal for classical and scientific studies; not only do I think that we must keep up to the plan of study prescribed in our coLleg'^s, and particulaily the philological part of that plan, but 1 think we ought to raise and extend it, an 1 thus, while we maintain our incontestalile superiority in the physical and mathematical sciences, endeavor to rival Ger- many in the solidify of our classical learning. Let our royal colleges then, and even a great proportion of our communal col- leges continue to lead the youth of France into this sanctuary; they will merit the thanks of their country. But can the whole population eiiler learned schools 1 or, indeed, is it to be wished that it should 1 Primary instruction with us, however, is but meager; between that and the colleges there is nothing; -^o that a tradesman, even in the lower ranks of the middle classes, who has the honorable wish of giving his sons a good education, has no resource but to send them to the college. Two great evils are the consequence. In general, these boys, who know that they are not destined to any very distinguished career, go through their studies in a negligent manner; they never get beyond mediocrity ; and when, at about eighteen, they go back to the habits and the business of their fathers, as there is nothing in their ordinary life to recall or to keep up their studies, a few years obliterate every trace of the little classical learning they acquired. On the other hand, these young men often contract tastes and ac- quaintances at coll-gc which render it difficult, nay, almost impossible,- for ihrm to return to the humble way of life to which they were born : hence a race of men restless, discontented with their position, with others, and with them- •elves ; enemies of a slate of society in which ihey feel themselves out of their !S4: PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. place ; and with some acquirements, some real or imagined talent, and unbri- dled ambition, ready to rush into any career el' servility or of revolt. The ques- tion then is, whether we are pre|)ared to make ourselves res|jonsible to the state and society lor training up such a race of malcontents "? Unquestionahly, as I shall ta-ke occasion to say elsewhere, a certain number of exhibitions (bourses') ougfht to be given to poor boys who evince remarkable aptness : this is a sacred duty we owe to talent ; a duty which must be fulfilled, even at the risk of being sometimes mistaken. These boys, chosen for the promise they give, go through their stuJies well and thoroughly, and on leaving school experience the same assi' 1,857,017 Societies 157,431 1 Number of Scholars at the Public Superior Primary Schools for Boys, Directed by Lay Schoolmasters, ..,,... 15,092 " " Schoolmasters, members of Religious So- ^ 15,448 cieties, , . , . 356 Number of Scholars at the Public Schools for Gjjls, Directed by L,s(f Schoolmistresses, 230,213 " " Schoolmistresses, members of Religious ^ 534,960 Societies, 304,747 Number of Scholars at the Private Elementary Primary Schools for Boys, Directed by Lay Schoolmasters 230,383 " " Schoolmasters, members of Religious So- J- 272,935 cieties, 42,r ' [),383 i 2,5523 Number of Scholars at the Private Superior Primary Schools for Boys, Directed by Lay Schoolmasters 3,469 " " Schoolmasters, members of Religious So- ^ 4,272 cieties, 803 Number of Scholars at the Private Primary Schools for Girls, Directed by Lay Schoolmistrfcses, 278,637 " " Schoolmistresses, members of Religious ^ 479,665 Societies 201,"" Total number of Scholars at all the Primary Schools, Directed by Lay Schoolmasters or Schoolmistresses, 2,457,380 " " Schoolmasters or Schoolmistresses, mem» ^ 3,164,297 bers of Religious Societies, .... 706,1 3,637 > 1,028) 7,380) > 3,164,S 5,917) Total number of children attending the Primary Schools in 1843, 3,164,297 Total number of children admitted gratuitously into the Com- munal Schools in 1843 763,820 Total number of children who paid something monthly for their education in 1843, 2,400,447 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 399 TABLE V. SBOWINB THK NUMBER AND CONDITION OF TUB CLA.SSES FOR ADULTS, FOR TOUNO OIRLS, AND FOR YOUNO APPRENTICES IN FRANCE, IN 1843. Number of classes for Adults, 6,434 " " " Young Girls, 160 " " " Apprentices, 36 Number of Infant Schools, Public, 685 > g Private, 804 J ^'^°^ Number of Scholars, In the classes for Adults 95,064^ " Young Girls 5,908 I ,^.09 " Schools for Apprentices, 1,268 f ^'^j*^'^ " Infant Schools, 96, 192 J Number of communes in which there are Adult Classes, . 6,043 Number of Adult Classes, for Men, 6,266 " Women, 168 Number of persons who frequent them, for Men, : 9,451 " Women, :..:..: 4,613 Number of Classes directed by Schoolmasters belonging to a Religious Society, . 125 Schoolmistresses, " " " " 51 Number of Adult Classes in which are taught Moral and Religious Instruction 3,331 Reading, 5,035 Writing, 4,483 Arithmetic, 4,456 System of Weights and Measures, 3,857 Linear Drawing, 271 Vocal Music, 107 Resources of these Classes, Sums furnished by the Communes, 136,836 ) Frano. " " " Departments, 38,350 S- 201,886 « " " State, 26,700) TABLE VI. SHOWING THE NUMBER AND COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF FRANCE, IN 1843. Number of Normal Schools thoroughly organized, 78 Number to which a garden is joined for the purpose of teaching the pupils the culture of trees, , 52 Number of Professors in these schools, . . 495 " " including the Directors 573 Number of hours devoted weekly to the different branches of education : l,t Ye»r. 2d Year. 3d Year. Moral and Religious Instruction 2$ 2i 2i Reading, 3{ 3 2 Writing 44 4i 4 Study of the French Language 6 5i i\ History and Geography, 3i 4^ 3^ Arithmetic, • 5 3j 3 Use of the Globes, 2 2i 2 Elements of Practical Geometry, 4 SJ 3j Elements of Physics and Natural History, . . . 2i 2| 3i " Mechanics, 2 2i 3 Surveying 2 2i 3 Linear Drawing, 3j 4 4j Methods of teaching, l| If 2f Vocal Music 3i 3i Sj Civil Law, 2 IJ U Culture of Trees, : . If H U 400 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. TABLE VII. SHOWING THE STATB OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN 1843, Number of Colleges. Royal, ::::::::::: 4f) ) " " Communal, ::::::::. 312 J ^^^ Number of Scholars in Colleges ::::.... 44091 Number ol' Institutions of Secondary Education, ::::.... 102 " Boarding Schools " " ::::.... 914 " Private Establishments " " 1,016 " Public and Private " " « 2|390 Number of Scholars in the Institutions -which follow the course of a College, 6,066) Number of Scholars in the Institutions which do not fol- > 3l,3lG low the course of a College, 25,250) Number of Secondary Pupils, 69,341 Population of the Departments, 1842, 34,194,875 Proportion in each Department between the population and the total number of establishments of Secondary Educa- tion, 1 estab. for 24,887 Number of Scholars in establishments of Secondary Educa- tion, 1 " " 493 Number of Young Men between eight and eighteen in each De- partment, 3,182,397 Proportion between the total number of Young Men between eight and eighteen, and the total number of pupils in Secon- dary Establishments in each Department, . 1 school for 45 ycung men. CONDITION OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT OF TARN, DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 1^9-50. The most satisfactory insight into the practical working and actual results of a school system, can be obtained, not by looking to any gen- eral summary applicable to the whole State, but to the operations in detail, of a particular school, or of the schools of a neighborhood, or of some of the larger and yet subordinate divisions of the State. For this purpose we select for publication a report on the condition of primary education, by M. A. Domergue, the governmental inspector for the de- partment of Tarn — one of the 86 territorial and civil divisions of the State. Tarn belongs to the old province of Languedoc. and in 1850 had a population of 330,000, distributed through 79 arrondisements, 20 cantons, and 300 communes. In 1828, when M. Charles Dupin projected his intellectual map of France, the department of Tarn was represented by a black spot, to indicate its low state as to schools and education. The report does not cover the whole ground, but shows the progress which has been made in one of the most backward portions of France since the new system went into operation. Primary instruction includes the elementary and superior, the commimal and private schools. Some of these are attended exclusively by boys, some by girls, and some by infants, while others are common* schools ; that is, attended by both boys and girls. There are also classes for adults, a primaiy normal school for masters, and another for schoolmistresses. B0Y6' SCHOOLS. There are altogether in the department 309 communal and 40 private schools. This gives a total increase of 8 schools over the year 1848. But there have been at the same time an increase of communal and a decrease of private schools. This result is doubly advantageous ; for, with few exceptions, the public schools are superior to private schools, both as regards instruction and discipline. With respect to the mode of instruction, the 349 boys' schools are thus divi- ded : — Schools directed according to the mutual mode, 12 ; simulUmeous, 261 ; individual, 21 •, rnixedf mode, 55 ; total, 349. This last mode is the best that can be employed in the schools which have more than 50 pupils ; it demands, on the part of the master, indefatigable zeal, but it gives, in exchange, most beneficial results. There are 314 schools exclusively devoted to Roman Catholics, and 18 to Pro- testants, whilst 17 schools receive children belonging to both. The directors of these IT schools are all Roman Catholics. Civil State of the Teachers. — Of the 349 instructors, 336 are laymen, and 13 belong to religious societies. There are also employed in the schools 49 assistant- brothers. Of the 336 lay teachers, 117 are bachelors, 196 are married, and 23 are widowers. ♦Schools where boys and girls are taiijiht together, are generally termed in this country mixed schools. Common schools are public schools in our school nomenclature. tThis is a combination of the mutual and the simultaneous. 26 402 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN. Number of Pupils, ^c. — The communal schools receive 11,882 boys; the private schools, 1,981 ; in. all, 13,863. If to this number we add 217 boys who attend the common schools, we shall have a total of 14,080 boys, thus showing an increase of 807 over the year 1848. Besides the 13,863 boys admitted into the 349 schools, there are also taught, by the masters of the common schools, 1,234 girls. Of the 14,080 boys, 7,943 pay a school fee, which varies from fivepence to twenty pence a month; 6,137 are instructed gratuitously. The number of gra- tuitous pupils it is hoped will increase ; for the 24th article of the law of the I3th March, 1850, states that '■'■primary instruction ought to be given gratuitously to all children of those families ivho are not in a condition to pay for such in- struction." Moral and Political Conduct of the Teachers. — The conduct of our instruc- toi's is generally very good. With some exceptions, happily few in number, they have all learned that they ought to confine themselves exclusively to the discharge of the duties belonging to their profession, and not to engage in political or mu- nicipal discussions. We can not speak so satisfactorily of the capacity of our teachers. Besides those who have been educated at the Normal School, and whose schools are of a superior order, there are a hundred instructors who were breveted immediately after the promulgation of the law of June 28th, 1833. These know, in general, very little ; they are ignorant of good methods of teaching, and- their schools are conducted with little order and regularity. But they have rendered services, and although they are not at the top of their profession, yet it would be unjust to hurry on their superannuation.* The law which assures to instructors a mini- mum salary of 600 ft-ancs ($125,) will enable us to demand of them more zeal and assiduity. They will not require to seek, in labors foreign to their profession, an increase of pay to assure the daily existence of themselves and their families. But 19-20ths of the instructors of this department will not be able to claim more than the fixed minimum allowance. It is to be regretted that we can not, by means of salaries increasing progressively in proportion to the services performed, excite the emulation of teachers and establish a system of promotion advantageous to the cause of education. girls' schools. There are in the department 54 communal and 163 private schoolmistresses, Tlie increase on 1848 is 18 in number. The communal schools receive 3,669, and the private schools 5,662 pupils; in all 9,331. When compared with the numbers attending school in 1848, there is a decrease of 151 pupils. If we add to the above number 1,234 girls who are taught in the common schools, we shall have a total number of 10,565 girls re- ceiving elementary instruction. Of the 9,331 who are taught by schoolmistresses, 6,674 pay, and 2,657 are educated gratuitously. Of the 1,234 who attend the conunon schools,! 941 pay, and 293 receive gra- tuitous instruction. The communal masters alone receive pupils who pay nothing ; the private teachers receive none. All the schoolmistresses, on the contrary, whether com- munal or private, admit gratuitously a great number of children. There is no need to direct your attention to the fact, that the zeal and the devo- tion of our schoolmistresses are not sufficiently recompensed. Every one is fully convinced of the salutary influence which the education of females exercises upon the morality of a country. We ought, therefore, to find some means of properly rewarding our schoolmistresses for the eminent services which they have rendered, ft is necessary, above all, to encourage the establishment of girls' schools, in order to diminish, as much as possible, the number of mixed schools, which, in spite of the most careful superintendence, present results most unfavorable. As a proof of the low estimation in which these mixed schools are held, take the following facts: --In those communes which possess a girW school, the mean number of * By a recent law a retiring pension is granted to teachers in proportion to their length of service, t These common or mixed schools are conducted by masters. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN. 403 pupils attending is 64 per commune; whereas, in the communes having no girls' school, but, on the contrary, a toys' school open to girls, the mean number is re- duced to nine. There are 189 communes entirely without schoolmistresses; that is to say, in 189 communes of the department the girls are either wholly deprived of instruc- tion, or receive an education which, from being given by a man, is not at all in harmony with the duties imposed upon the sex by society. From these considerations, I have the honor of proposing to you to ask of the general council the sum of 2000 francs, to be appropriated thus — ^1000 francs among private schoolmistresses, many of whom find it difficult to live, and 1000 francs to be divided among the poorest of the communes which shall make sacri- fices to establish communal schoi>ls for girls.* Children attending the Schools. — Out of 1000 inhabitants, 68 children, on an averag.-, attend the primary schools. In 1839, there were only 55 out of 1000 : the progress, then, is real. We are, however, below the average which, for the whole of France, is about 92 in 1000; while some of the departments, such a.s that of Doubs, count 176 pupils out of every 1000 inhabitants. The number of children between 6 and 14 years of age, who do not aetuallj' attend the primary schools, may be reckoned at 20,000. JVIany of these have already left school, carrying with them notions the most imperfect, which they will very soon com- pletely forget. The great majority are condemned to absolute ignorance. School Houses. — The law of 28th June, 1833, compels communes to provide suitable buildings which shall serve both as school-rooms for the children, and dwelling-houses for the masters. The law of 15th March, 1850, has preserved this obligation. Communes are also advised to become the owners of school- houses ; and in 1848 they possessed 86 school-houses, while at the present day they have 99. About 15 new school-houses may be reckoned which shall be completed during the next year. Every where, in the course of my inspection, I have ascertained that the places rented by the comrnunes to serve as schools and teachers'' residences are unhealthy .^ badly ventilated, insufficiently Lighted.^ inconvenient., and inadequate; v:hilst some are in a completely dilapidated condition. Purchase of Books for the Poor. — Rural schools are entirely without good books. Poverty prevents many parents from purchasing such books as are neces- sary for their children, or it makes them select, not those which the teacher indi- cates to them, but those which itinerant booksellers sell them at a very small cost. Serious inconveniences result from this state of things. I believe that it is neces- sary to provide in the budget a grant of 500 francs for the purchase of books for poor scholars. Assistance to Old and Jnfirm Teachers. — The aged instructors have spent their strength in the career of primary instruction- — an office, up to the present time, so badly remunerated. They are now worn out, and will suffer all the hor- rors of poverty, unless the department render them assistance. I solicit for them an allowance of 500 francs. This sum will annually diminish, and, finally, will disappear from the departmental budget; since the new law in reference to educa» lion assures to instructors a retiring pension in proportion to a duration of their services. Infant Schools. — -The department contains 9 infant schools for boys and girls, containing a total of 1001 children. Normal School. — The excellent condition of this establishment continues to deser\ e the praises which have been bestowed on it by the general council of the department, the academic authorities, and the general Inspectors of the Uni- versity. The satisfactory results which it is permitted me to state, are owing to the un- bouuiled devotion and untiring zeal of the director of the school ; to the strict discipline which he maintains with vigor ; to his constant presence at all the ex- ercises of the house ; to the religious punctuality which is every where manifest, an'd which is the best precept on order and regularity which it is possible to give to our future instructors. * Every commune is obliserl by law to support at least one primary school, either of ita own, or in conjunction with neighboring communes. 404 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF TARN. The normal school has rendered immense service to the country : it has given us our best instructors ; it has raised, to a considerable extent, the love of popular instruction ; thanks to it, above all, should M. Charles Dupin trace out again the intellectual map of France, we shall behold the black spot disappear by which the illustrious statistician had stigmatized the department of Tarn. Since 1833 the normal school has produced 174 instructors; of these 120 are communal teachers, and 9 are about to become so ; 1 is assistant master in the normal school ; 3 are private instructors ; 27 have left the profession ; 14 have died in the exercise of their duties ; total 174 who have obtained their brevet on leaving the school. The teachers who have come from the normal school are infinitely superior to their colleagues. They are superior by their capacity — by their faithful observ- ances of rules — and, almost always, by their zeal, and by their conduct towards the local authorities and the heads of families. In the course of my inspections, I have been constantly struck with the marked difference which exists between the teachers who have been educated at a normal school and those who have not been in any special way prepared for the duties of instruction. People par- take of my convictions, in this respect ; and normal students are always chosen, in preference to other candidates, by local committees and municipal councils. Normal School for Females. — The opinion which I have formerly expressed of the importance which I attach to the good education of girls, will, I trust, be sufficient to make you appreciate the strong desire which I have for the contin- uance of exhibitions for female candidates. The normal school is in excellent condition, and the results obtained are satisfactory. At the last examination, out of 13 who presented themselves, 3 were breveted with the numbers 2, 4, and 6. Such is a faithful and impartial account of the state of primary instruction in the department of Tarn. I have endeavored to give, by figures obtained from authentic sources, the results due to the law of 28th June, 1833, and at the same time to establish the starting-point of the law of 15th March, 1850; so that it may be easy, at a later period, to estimate the benefits which the department may have derived from it. N> SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTIONS SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. In addition to tlie regular institutions for primary, secondary, and superior instruction, which belong to the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction, there are a number of schools of the class prepara- tory for the pursuits of life, which are assigned by law to other depart- ments of the government. The Polytechnic School, the Military School of St. Cyr, and the Military College of Fleche, are assigned to the Min- ister of War ; the School of Roads and Bridges, the two Schools of Mines, one at Paris and the other at St. Etienne, to the Minister of Public Works ; the Model Farm Schools, the' District Schools of Agri- culture, and the National Agronomic Institute at Versailles, the School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, Chalons, Angers, and Aix, to the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce ; the Naval Schools at Brest and L'Orient, to the Minister of the Marine ; the Conservatory of Arts and Manufactures, and of Music, to the Minister of the Interior. These schools properly belong to the division of superior instruction, which is not embraced, except in a general view, in the plan of this Report, but as they are intended to complete the course of studies begun in the higher schools and academies of our systems of public instruction, and as they furnish useful hints, both as to studies and their applications, for similar institutions in this country, whether public or private, an ac- count of several of the most important of this class, will be given. France is better supplied with schools of special instruction and vol- untary and incorporated societies for the promotion of literature, science, and the arts, as well as with various forms of active philanthrophy, than any other country in Europe. The stimulus given to the universal mind of France, by the political revolutions which have changed the whole face of modern society, while it has made elementary education more general and active, has also given progress to higher studies, and great scientific undertakings. In addition to 36 learned societies in Paris, recognized and aided by governmental grants — besides a multitude of others unchartered and but little known either to one another, or the public — there were in 1851. in the departments of France 189 learned societies, besides twelve archeological commissions, seventy-eight agricultural associations, and seven hundred commercial societies, to promote the application of science to industry. These associations generally feel the impulse described by Lamartine in his address to his colleagues of the Academy of Literature and Science at Maqon : " You have felt, gentlemen, that knowledge is 406 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. yours only on the condition that you diffuse it ; and to raise tlie low, is to elevate the high. Around you all is progressing. Will you stand alone? Will you suffer yourselves to be overtaken? No; men of leisure or rather workmen — workmen of thought and science, it is for us to be the first to participate in the movement. In a state of civilization where intelligence gives power, rank is maintained only by the maintenance of moral superiority ; when the intellectual order is deranged, disorder is not far off." There were in 1850. one hundred and sixty-six towns in France, in which there were public libraries, containing 5,510,295 volumes ; of these libraries, one hundred and nine contained over 10,000 volumes each. The following summary of the grants comprised in the French Budget of 1847, as voted by the chambers, exhibits the comprehensive charac- ter of the aid extended by the government to educational, literary, sci- entific, and artistic purposes. A. — In the Department of Public Instruction. I. Central Administration and to aid institutions of special instruction, such as schools for idiots, the blind deaf mutes, &c., $112,000 II. University of France — including schools of primary, sec- ondary, and superior education, . . . . . 2,800,000 III. Literature and science — including libraries in Paris and the provinces, museums of natural history, the insti- tute of France, &c., 600,000 B. — In the Department of the Interior. Schools of design, and the fine arts, .... 450,000 C. — In the Department of Public Works. Buildings connected with science, and the arts, . . 100,000 $4,062,000 The above sum is exclusive of special grants in aid of schools of ag- riculture, commerce, and manufactures, or of charitable institutions in which agricultural and mechanical instruction was given, or of expendi- tures fof the galleries of the Louvre, Luxembourg, and Versailles ; amounting to at least another million. The following survey of the Industrial Instruction of France is abridged from an article in the Retae des deux mondes, for 1851, by A. Amphori, entitled, " The intellectual movement among the working classes." In the scheme of institutions devoted to this special instruction, the fii-st rank belong to the conservatory of arts and trades at Paris. This great establishment performs a twofold duty ; it collects models, designs or descriptions of machines, instruments, apparatus, and mechanical tools, and gives public lessons upon the math- ematical and physical sciences as applied in the arts. The first idea of the conser- vatory was conceived in the reign of Louis XVL, by a famous mechanic, who seemed to have even drawn from the very sources of life, wherewith to gift his marvellous mechanisms. The idea of V^aucanson, legislated upon in the year III. of (1794,) the revolutionary era, was not realized until the year VJ. (1796.) Since that time, the conservatory has followed the developments of the national industry ; SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. ^Qfj and its methods of action have been increased in number, with reference to its double purpose. It now includes four departments ; the collections of machines, &c., a technological library, a department for liigher instruction, and a small prac- tical elementary school.* The galleries filled with precious material treasures, form what may be called the archives of the industrial arts. These collections are annually increased, and now fill thirteen gallt^'ies. The department of higher instruction was established about the commencement of the restoration. Up to 1817, there had been at the conservatory only a designer and three demonstrators, who gave advice and explanations to those who come to ask for them. These accommodations, however, remained nearly useless to the public. The regular courses were of more value, as also were those commenced in 1819, upon geometry applied to the arts, industrial chemi.stry, and industrial economy. Besides these three chairs, others were erected, under the govern- ment of July, of industrial mechanics, descriptive geometry, chemistry applied to the arts, industrial legislation, agriculture, and the ceramic arts. The situation of the institution in the midst of a populous neighborhood, furnishes to its lectures an auditory composed chiefly of working men. It is the merit of these lectures, that they are clear, simple, intelligible to all. and susceptible of immediate practical ap- plication. Theory is explained in close contact with practice. The workmen, eager to learn, crowd to these lessons ; they hasten thither from the worksliops every evening. A most fevorable indication is given by the admirable order which reigns throughout this audience in blouses, bestowed in an immense amphitheater, and often overcrowded. Every one is silent and attentive. There is no instance there of the indecorums so frequent in institutions giving a higher order of instruction. The library of the conservatory of arts and trades is appropriated to the mem- bers of the institution. It is distinguished by a fine collection of French and for- eign scientific works ; and contains much which may afford valuable information to practical men in the various branches of industrial art. The lower school, founded under the empire, may be regarded as a primary school of explained labor, (Industrie raisonnee.) Its three courses, of descriptive and elementary geometry, of mechanical and architectural design, and of industrial design, are attended by from a hundred and fifty to two hundred pupils. The conservatory of arts and trades, as at present constituted, contains very val- uable elements of industrial instruction. Workmen, foremen, chiefs of establish- ments, children of mechanics and laborers, come thither to obtain an instruction which shall enlighten their career of labor. The three schools of arts and trades, at Chalons, Angers, and Aix, dependent, like the conservatory, directly upon the State, are devoted more especially to prac- tical instruction. The eldest, that at Chalons, established for a little while at Compiegne, was erected by a decree of the consular government of the year XI. The second, created in 181 1, was placed by the imperial government at Beaupreau, in the middle of La Vendee, to become a new center of activity for that ignorant neighborhood. The third dates only from 1843. The schools of arts and trades are intended to train skillful workmen. Each of them is divided into four work- shops ; the blacksmiths', the foundry, the finishers', and the carpenters'. To the three establishments of Chalons, Angers, and Aix, are appropriated for 1851, .•$200,200 ; but deduct from this the sums received by paying scholars, and from the sale of articles manufactured, and the net expense to the treasury amounts only to about $120,000. Official estimates show that more than half the pupils leaving -go into business, as finishers, founders, blacksmiths, machinists, or carpenters. And numbers of the others are employed in the department of roads and bridges, as overseers or conductors; draftsmen in machine shops, or as architects. The schools of arts and bridges also contribute a remarkably large proportion of the machinists, &c., for the public steamers. Thus, within the last seven years, have been employed more than a hundred graduates of these schools, as foremen or firemen. As to the proportions of theory and practice in the instruction, it is enough to say that * The appropriation to the conservatory in 1851, was S30,000 ; «18,168 for salaries, and the remainder for other purposes. 408 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. the pupils pass seven hours and a half daily in the workshops, and only five hours and a half daily in classes and in the apartments for design. The professors are rigorously obliged, in their lessons, to take the most usual point of view ; that from which the pupil can best see how to use the knowledge he acquires. Since the vote was substituted for ministerial selection of professors, two years since, the courses of instruction have been so arranged as to drop out jhose theoretical gen- tlemen who are unable to do what they teach. The principal advantage of these schools is not, in our opinion, the direct influ- ence which they exert upon the national industry. The two hundred and fifty pupils or thereabout vvlio leave them every year, are scarcely the thousandth part of the workmen who grow -up in France during the same time ; but the schools show a style of instruction which serves as a model for comparison. The pupils carry into private workshops theoretical knowledge which they could not acquire there, and which is most useful in the explanation of practical labor. Although yet imperfect workmen, they improve more rapidly than the others, and sooner become excellent foremen. Although we know that among some foreign nations, habits supply the place of institutions, among us, these schools will stimulate a little our untoward habits. They have another destination, of higher importance ; they may become seminaries of professors for the industrial instruction which the coun- try waits to see organized, and for which we are now endeavoring to prepare a way. Once improved by the practical training of the private workshops and manu- factories, the best pupils of these schools will become most useful in the develop- ment of this special instruction ; which needs a body of instructors adapted to its peculiar needs. An institution established at Paris, the central school of arts and manufactures, also helps the accomplishment of this same work. The similar nature of its in- structions alone justifies the assistance granted it by government, which confers upon it a sort of public character.* During an existence of twenty years, the cen- tral school has fully justified the expectations of its founders, it is devoted to the education of civil engineers, directors of machine-shops, and chiefs of manufacto- ries. Besides the four principal courses studied, the mechanic arts, the chemical arts, metuUurgy and architecture, it instructs its pupils in all the pursuits of indus- trial labor. Since chemistry has left laboratories to enter workshops and to per- fect there the results of manufacturing processes ; since the physical world has been searched for the means of employing heat and steam, which have become such powerful agents of production, industry has ceased to be abandoned to em- piricism. Every manufacture has asked from science methods quicker, surer, and more economical. The central school satisfies this demand. By physical and chemical study, it prepares pupils expressly for the direction of industrial labor, just as the polytechnic school, by the study of mathematical science, becomes a seminary for the department of public works, and for some other special professions. Under these institutions, which have a general character, may be ranked those institutions which we will term local. These may be divided, in respect to their destination, into two great classes ; one, consisting of those whose design is to instruct in the applications of some one science to the industrial arts ; and the other, of those which confine their instruction to the practice of an art or trade ; or to the collaterial knowledge necessary to exercise it. To estimate the actual in-« flucnce of both, they must be considered in the place where they exist. In the northern section, where manfacturing industry reigns supreme, we see only the arts of design as applied to arts and trades, gratuitously taught. The schools of design established in most of the important towns, are generally of recent creation. The oldest date from the restoration or from the empire, except that three or four, have an earlier origin. For instance, the school of Arras, where some instruction is given, which relates partly to industrial occupations, was founded by the states- general of Artois, in 1775 ; that of St. Omer in 1780, and that of Calais in 1787. These institutions are every where much valued among the working classes. Some of them contain classes of as many as a hundred and fifty pupils. Some of them are particularly for children, but most for adults. * The State allows the central school an annual sum of 86,000, which is distributed to can- didates (for prizes) by a vote. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 409 Architectural design and practical geometry, as applied to cutting stone, wood, &c., are often among the studies. In all that populous district which extends from the Belgian frontier to the western extremity of Normandy, and contains such manufacturing metropolises as Rouen and Lille, there are only two small institu- tions which really have the character of industrial schools. Une is at Diejipe ; it is a school for lace-making and open-stitch for young girls. It was founded during the restoration, and increased during the government of July. It receives about three hundred pupils, and while giving them a primary school course of instruc- tion, it also instructs them in an occupation. It has exercised a favorable influence upon the laee manufacture ; there has been organized in connection with it, a boarding department, where some poor girls are supported gratuitously, and edu- cated to become skillful work-women and assistant teachers. The other institutions situated at Mesnieres, in the arrondissement of Rouen, receives about sixty orphan boys, and trains them for business in workshops appropriate for different trades. Some local societies, as the society of workmen at St. Quentin, «Src., endeavor to instruct the laboring classes in some occupations. In our eastern departments, the domain of industrial instruction is less confined. There are there gome schools, some technic institutions, for the working classes. The schools of design are more numerous than in the north, and are more de- cidedly directed towards manufactures. The manufacturers of Switzerland, Ger- many, and England, have more than once had upon their fabrics the marks of the designers, engravers, and colorists, trained in the gratuitous schools of the Ilaut- Rhin. Some schools of design of rather wider scope, do great service to industry. Among these may be especially mentioned the school of Saint- Etienne, where are intructed all the designers employed in the neighboring manufactories, and in par- ticular by the ribbon-makers, who are so very jealous about the good taste of these articles of ornament. Besides instruction in design, there are given from time to time public courses of instruction, established and supported by the towns, and particularly elementary courses in chemistry, in mechanics, physics and mathe- matics, such as may furnish the workingmen with an intelligent understanding of their profession. Among the cities which enjoy to some extent instruction of this sort, may be mentioned Metz, Mulhouse, Colmar, Bar-Je-Duc, Besan^on, Rheims, Nancy, Dijon, Rive-de-Gier, Langres, &c. These institutions are sometimes the results of individual effort ; thus, at Besan^on, a private citizen founded in r829 a public and free course of study upon mathematics as connected with the arts. At Bar-le-Duc, industrial courses were established by an association of subscribers, and were taken charge of by the commune. Local societies, among which the industrial society at Mulhouse is first in influence and resources, have increased the local activity, and give the initiative to the population in general. In Semur, a small town of the C6te-d'-0r, a private society. Some manufacturers have imi- tated this example ; for instance, in the great establishment of Guebwiller (Ilaut- Rhin) gratuitous lessons are given to the operatives in linear design, geometry, and machinery. There are also in the east of France, several institutions devoted more exclu- sively to special purposes. The most important, whose regulations are worthy of most attention, are at Lyons, Strasbourg, Nancy, and Saint-Etienne. Lyons stands first, both for population and manufacturing wealth. Besides the Lamartine school, in which are given instructions in mechanics, physics, chemistry, and design, and also a course in the manufacture of cloth, a number of private institutions give practical instruction in loom-weaving, and the theory of the decomposition of cloth, (decompo- sition des etoffes ;) they instruct also how to set up looms after any required pattern. Instruction is also given in making patterns, in designing for woven fabrics, and in keeping accounts for workshops. These lessons, as will be observed, go to the lieart of the industry of Lyons. It is only to be wished that it were more liberally dispensed ; and that the city would make it gratuitous. Lyons has also schools for teaching designing of figures, stone-cutting, and several schools of design for journeymen carpenters ; but it is to be regretted that payment is necessary for ad- mission to them. Strasbourg has a well organized school of design, maintained by the commune. The practical instruction given there, besides elementary theoretic instruction in mathematical and physical science, includes iron-work at forge and vice, turning, carpentry, lithography, and chemical manipulations. In selecting the workshop for a pupil, reference is had to his tastes and aptitudes. At Nancy 410 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. there has been for several years established a " house for apprentices" on an en- tirely new plan. The results have been considered deserving of encouragement by tlie council-general of the department of the jMeurthe. The apprentices form a family, and call one another brother. Infractions of rules tji'e determined upon by a tribunal composed of all those apprentices who have obtained a certain number of good marks. A good mark is given by vote of all tlie pupils. , The penalties consist of a system oi' reparations founded upon the nature of each fault. Thus, one who breaks silence when silence is ordered, is condemned to keep silence until permitted to break it. If two apprentices quarrel, they must embrace and become companions at play for a set time. The pupils of this establishment labor in the workshops established in it, and attend the communal schools to receive primary instruction. At Saint-Etienne, a school of mines is intended to furnish conductors of mines, and directors of explorations and rnineralogical workshops. As this in- struction is gratuitous, workmen may attend the school to be taught mining. In the department of I Joubs, a practical school of liorology was founded in 1836, at Morteau, for the purpose of preserving and increasing the beautiful employment which is important to the labor of that section. In the leisure of winter, always so long among the mountains, the iarmers, shut in so much by the snow, have no other means of occupying their time. The town of Besan9on, the department, even the supreme government, had encouraged the establishment of the school at Morteau, which seemed to promise great success ; but different causes having di- minished the demand for the clocks from Doubs, the school, after having already done some good, was forced to be closed. Similar institutions have been unable to support themselves at Dijon and Ma^on. The departments and towns ought to have afforded them a more liberal support. The same may be said of a school of another species, for mounting looms, established at Rheims by a local society, in which skillful mounters and weavers had already been trained, but which per- ished for lack of funds. In this same region, at one of the most ignorant points of the department of the Meurtho, a project is being put in execution to which we wish the best success. It is intended to establish a special school for a branch of industry to which, though humble, a considerable population is confined. The inhabitants of the six com- munes of the ancient county of Dabo, at the foot of the Vosges, which was united with' France only in 18(il, have no other means of gaining a living than their forest-rights in the public forests, and the execution of carefully carved wood-work. Their hereditary industry, remaining absolutely stationary, has become surpassed by other products of the same kind, and commerce gradually refuses them. The projected school is designed to instruct these unskillful turners in methods of labor more suited to existing tastes and demands. Instruction will be given in making playthings and domestic utensils, such as those made in Switzerland and in the Black Forest. In order to have some chances of success, it will be necessary to instruct the young, and not the adult workmen, whose traditional habits it would be difficult to alter. These latter, having been exclusively employed in doing coarse work, would find it very difficult to acquii'e delicacy of hand. With this proviso, the plan of the founders of this school appears excellent; when it has suc- ceeded, it will be another good example of what our eastern departments can offer in the way of industrial instruction. The southern section of France is not so favored in this respect ; it presents a similar aspect to the northern. Schools of linear design of trade, architecture or decoration, existing at Marseilles, Avignon, Montauban, Digne, Aude, Grenoble, Tarbes, Grasse, &c., a few courses of instruction in three or four towns in the ele- ments of chemistry, of physics, of mechanics, of geometry, are almost the only in- stitutions for industrial instruction. The town of Nismes alone is better supplied ; perhaps there is not in all France another city where special instruction is given on so extended a scale. A course of design for manufactures embraces instruction in damasked and in stamped flowers. Another course of geometrical design com- pletes the knowledge which the children have received in the elementary schools. The instruction in chemistry comprehends lessons in dyeing, an important branch of local industry. Admission to all the classes is free. A school of vv'eaving, dat- ing from 1836, is liberally opened for theoretic and practical instruction in the manufacture of cloths. The theory is of the processes employed both in brocaded and in plain stuffs ; the practice consists in the actual weaving of the cloths in the SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 411 loom. The town furnishes the tools, machines, and raw material, necessary for the work. B}^ explaining the art of weaving in two aspects, this school has had an excellent influence upon the manufactures of Nismes. It was only necessary to endeavor to gather into it as many foremen and workmen as possible. In this same department, of the Gard, at Alais, has been established a school of master- miners. The instruction has not so high a character or purpose as that at Saint- Etienne, at least in that part(jf the course designed for directors of machine-shops. The practical exercises consist in drawing plans both of the surface of the groniid and of the mines, and in mining in the mints of pit-coal about Alais. The pupils also practice blacksmithiug, wagon-making, and carpentry. Admission is not free, and scarcely any pupils are expected except those maintained by some department, or by some of the coal companies. In our western departments the two large cities of Jiordeaux and Nantes ai'e the only ones which have paid much attention to special instruction. In the capi- tal of ancient Guyenne, in 1834 and 183.5, the municipal council founded public and gratuitous courses of instruction in industrial chemistry, mathematics and me- chanics, as applied to arts and trades. The chamber of commerce also, a rich and' active body, established in 1843 a course of chemistry and natural iiistory. A pri- vate society called the philomathic society, whose assistance has often been valua- ble to the laboring population of Bordeaux, has for six years defrayed the expense of special instruction ; the practical part of which consists in linear design and instruction about the steam-engine. At Nantes, besides that the town maintains a free school of design, founded in 1T89, there is a private society known as the industrial society, whose effi)rts for young workmen are now appreciated through- out France, which is at the head of the industrial training of the masses. It re- ceives from the connnune, the department, and the State, assistance which is increased by private subscriptions. The workmen are counted by hundreds, whose first steps it has guided in the rude career of labor. The object of this society is two-fold ; to give its pupils instruction carefully adapted to their condition, and to arrange for their apprenticeship in different trades. La Rochelle and Brest have also made some effiu-ts to introduce industrial edu- cation in the west of France. At La Rochelle, was established in 1844 a theo- retic course in ship-building ; at Brest, a society called the society of emulation endeavors to instruct in linear design, in drawing plans, &c. In this part of France, all children, not merely of those of easy circumstances, but of all who are not altogether too poor, attend, without exception, the classical schools. They are often interrupted in their studies, by the inability of their parents to bear their prolonged expenses, and rarely succeed in reducing to practice, even at a late period, the imperfect education they receive. Families unable to send their sons to the high school, content themselves with the ordinary instruction. The idea of special instruction is scarcely a germ in this soil, which seems ungenial to it. No- where is the word " professional" applied to insti'uction in a narrower or falser sense. The center of France, excepting the department of the Seine, whose establish- ments deserve a distinct notice, is scarcely less ill supplied than the vi'est. Most of the departments are destitute of graded (serieux) establishments also. Schools of linear design, or of design more or less api>licable to industry, exist only at great distances. There are, however, a few institutions in which some practical instruc- tion is given. For instance, the prytanajum of Menars, established in 1832 in the department of the Loire and Cher, and recently reopened after having been some time shut, is devoted to industrial studies. The plan of the institution is similar to that of our schools of arts and trades, but unfortunately has not as great resources at command. The city of Tours has established a course in physics and chemistry, but it has not been organized upon a sufficiently wide basis to attract many auditors. At Limoges, the municipal council and the agricultural society, by uniting their efforts, have done much good by m( ans of public and free lessons, in geometry, mechanics, design, modeling, and stereotomy. In the Ilaute-Loire, Le Puy received the gift of a free industrial school from private subscriptions, the town paying its annual expenses. This institution, though less complete than that of Strasbourg, is constructed upon the same model, and accommodates a hundred children of workmen. There are some special courses at Le Puy also ; but the practical applications of science are not brought out there. In the department of 413 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCK. the Correze, though small and unkindly treated by natui'e, we see with pleasure, at Tulle, a free school of mechanical geometry. Linear design is applied there to the drawing of figures and of machines, to stone cutting, carpentry, and architecture. At the other extremity of the central section, in the department of the Seine, whose riches and activity contrast singularly with the nakedness and simplicity of the country we are leaving, have been united most of the means of industrial in- struction which are scattered here and there over the surface of France. Paris, nevertheless, contains nothing comparable with the school of weaving at Nismes, with the private institutions for teaching weaving at Lyons, with the national schools of arts and trades at Chalons, Angers, and Aix. We seek there in vain for an organized system of practical instruction, provided with all resources neces- sary to meet the public demand. All the establishments of this class in Paris, except the national conservatory of arts and trades, may be classed in two divisions; one appropriated to those in easy circumstances, or who can pay a monthly fee, the other gratuitous, and thei'efoi'e accessible to the working population. In the for- mer class are the Chaptal municipal college and the Turgot school, in both of which there is a department of industrial teaching ; several schools preparatory to the school of arts and trades ; schools of architecture, horology, &c. From our present point of view, the latter class calls for our especial attention. The number of public establishments included in it is inconsiderable. Besides the small school of the conservatory, there are hardly any other than free classes in industrial de- sign. Design for woven stuffs does not occupy so prominent a place as it ought; the artistic element of design is preponderant, which will not be surprising when it is known that by a singularity of which our administration affords more than one example, these schools are altogether separate from the department of connnerce, and under the direction of that of the fine arts. In the vast field for industrial instruction among the working classes, the prin- cipal burden has fallen upon private institutions established by charity or by econo- mic foresight. In the immense gulf of the capital, the action of these establish- ments does not appear to the indifferent, or to those immersed in business ; but though silent and almost unknown, they are a valuable help to the unfortunate and to the helpless, and very profitable to the community. The institution for appren- tices in the city of Paris, under the direction of M. Armand de Melun, trains up to labor, from the pavements of the cit}' and from garrets and misery, a crowd of children who would otherwise have hastened to populate the prisons. "While their instructors train their minds by primary Instruction, and seek to inspire right sen- timents into their hearts, they are gradually prepared for the actual life which awaits them. Another institution, that of Saint-Nicolas, receives several hundred pupils in two establishments, one at Paris and the other at Issy. Its judicious directors mingle a proper amount of elementary instruction with manual labor. LTnfortunately the limited resources of this establishment do not permit it to furnish a very great variety of instruction. Other similar institutions are entering the same course. The work-rooms for girls are actual industrial schools for the most feeble and exposed portion of the laboring population, and that needing most care. There are also in Paris small school for apprentices, established almost entirely by the contributions of foremen for poor orphans. Such enterprises are worthy of judicious encouragement by the municipal council. Other public and gratuitous courses of study, founded by private societies, with different designs and by different means, are assisting to disseminate technical in- struction among the workmen. When a man has some property, and is thus in a way to fill a useful place in society and to gain his own living, instruction of this kind, carefully adapted to his requirements, dealing with fact rather than with theory, simple, and appealing to the good sense of the masses, is likely to produce excellent moral effects. I do not say that all these qualifications actually exist ; some additions and retrenchments are necessary. The philosophic sentiment of the great task of industrial improvement for the masses is not clearly brought out; and the conditions of true practical instruction are often not fulfilled. Yet many honorable individual efforts have been made in .this direction. They have pro- duced real good, and merit efiective encouragement from the Parisian municipal authority. HISTORY NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. The earliest movement towards the professional training of teachers was made in France by the Abbe de Lasalle, while canon of the Cathe- dral at Rheims, in 1681, and perfected, in his training school for his Insti- tute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, in 1684. In 1794, by an ordinance of the National Convention a normal school was established at Paris to furnish professors for colleges and the higher seminaries. The institution was projected on a scale beyond the prepa- ration which its earliest pupils could bring, and beyond the wants to be supplied. The instruction was mainly by lectures, which were delivered by Lagrange, Laplace, Sicard, Laharpe, and other distinguished teach- ers and men of science. The experiment was abandoned in 1795, and not resumed till 1808, when Napoleon re-established the school in the ordinance creating the " Imperial University of France." It has since been maintained for the purpose of training a class of pupils for profes- sorships in the colleges and secondary schools. In 1810 the first seminary designed for teachers of elementary schools, was established at Strasbourg, through the liberality of Count de Lezai Marnesia, and the co-operation of the Rector of the Academy, and the prefect of the department of the Lower Rhine. It opened in 1811 as a '• Normal class of primary school teachers." No pupil was admitted who was under sixteen yearsof age. or over thirty, or who was not acquainted with the studies pursued in elementary schools. The course embraced four years, and included as wide and thorough range of studies as is now required in the best Normal Schools of France. The number of pupils was limited to sixty, and those who enjoyed the benefit of a bourse, or scholarship, came under obligation to teach at least ten years in the schools of the department. Those scholarships were founded partly by individual liberality, and partly by the department, and by the communes, which sent candidates to the school. Under the organization estabUshed in 1810, with such modifications as experience suggested, this school has continued ifo^ exert a powerful influence on the cause of popular educa- tion through that section of France, and it now ranks not only as the old- est, but one of the best in Europe. The department of Upper Rhine, witnessing the results of this experiment in the neighboring communes, appropriated six thousand francs to found scholarships, for the benefit ot a certain number of candidates in the seminary at Strasbourg. Accord- ing to a Report of M. Guizot to the King, in 1833, it appears that the state of primary education m the two departments constituting the Acad- 414 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. emy of Strasbourg, was far in advance of any other section of France. Good schools were more numerous; fewer communes were destitute of Gchoois; and the slow and defective method of individual instruction had given place to more lively and simultaneous methods of class instruction. *' In all respects the superiority of the popular schools is striking, and the conviction of the people is as general that this superiority is mainly due to the existence of this Normal School." The establishment of two Normal Schools for the departments of Mo- selle and Meuse, in 1830, was followed by the same results, — the estab- lishment of schools in communes before destitute, and the improvement of schools already in operation, by the introduction of better methods. In 1828 a new impulse was given to educational improvement by public- spirited individuals and teachers' associations in Paris, and other parts of France, which led to the establishment of a fourth Normal School in the department of Vosges, and a fifth in that of Meuth. About the same time a Normal course of instruction was opened in the college of Charle- ville, for the department of Ardennes, and the foundations of superior Normal Schools were laid at Dijon, Orleans, and Bourges, as well as a Training School for the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Rouen. At the close of 1829, there were thirteen Normal Schools in operation. The movement already commenced, received a new impulse in the right direc- tion by the Revolution of 18.30, which in this respect was as beneficent as the Revolution of 1791 was disastrous. In the three years immediately following the change of dynasty in 1830, thirty-four new Normal Schools were established in ditferent sections of France, and wherever they were established they contributed to the opening of primary schools in com- munes before destitute, and of diffusing a knowledge of better methods among teachers who did not resort to these seminaries. But the most auspicious event was the publication of M. Cousin's " Report on the con- dition of Public Instruction in several of the States of Germany, and espe- cially in Prussia,''^ in 1832. A considerable portion of this report was devoted to an account of the best Normal Schools of Prussia, and to the most emphatic recommendation of the same policy in France. The fol- lowing valuable suggestions were made on this subject, most of which were subsequently embodied in the Law of Primary Instruction, and the Regulations of the Minister relating to Normal Schools. " I have already remarked, that as every commune must have its pri- mary school, so every department must have its primary Normal School. If the same law which shall render the former imperative on the com- munes, should render the latter equally imperative on the departments, we should have made a great advance. If the law does not go so far as that, you must at all events come at the same results by administrative measures ; you must require every council-general of a department, through the medium of the prefect, to vote funds for the establishment of a primary Normal School, under condition of binding yourself to contrib- ute a greater or less portion of the total expenditure, and to take upon HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 415 yourself, 1. the salary of the director, whom you would nominate; 2. the books, maps, and instruments necessary for the use of the students. It must be laid down as a principle, tiiat every department must have its JJormal School; but that school should be proportioned to the extent and the wealth of the department, and it may, with equal propriety, be small in one and large in another. I take the liberty of referring to a very simple and very economical plan on which a primary Normal School may at first be organized. Choose the best-conducted primary school in the department, that which is in the hands of the master of the greatest ability and trust-wor- thiness. Annex to this school a class called Normal, in which this same master shall teach his art to a certain number of young men of 'the de- partment, who are willing to come to it to form themselves for school- masters. None should be admitted till after an examination, made by a commission appointed by you. This commission must send you the re- sults of its labors ; and it would be well that the admission of the students to the primary Normal School should be signed by you, as is the case in the admission of students to the great Normal School for the instruction of the second degree. This small Normal School ought never to be placed in a very large town, the influence of which would be adverse to that spirit of poverty, humility and peace, so necessary to the students. There is no objection to their being day-pupils, provided they are responsible for their conduct out of the house. Nor is it necessary that all should receive exhibitions, or purses, especially whole purses. In all small towns there are families in which a young man may be boarded and lodged for about 300 francs a year, ($60;) so that 3000 francs, ($600,) prudently divided into whole, half, and quarter purses, would easily defray the cost often or fifteen students. Give the master the title of Director of the Normal School, which would be a real gain to him, inasmuch as it would increase his consideration ; and for the additional labor you impose upon him, give him a salary of 700 or 800 francs. Add a yearly allowance of 400 or 'jOO francs for books, maps, and other things required in teaching ; and thus, for 5000 francs, ($1000,) at the utmost, you have a small Normal Schoolj which will be extremely useful to the department. The pupils should be permitted to leave it if they choose, in a year, provided they be able to go through the examination at quitting, on which depends their obtaining the brevet of primary teacher. Yes, it rests with you, by means of a circular to this effect, addressed to all the prefects of the kingdom, to have in a few months, eighty-four small primary Normal Schools in France. The plan which I propose does not commit you to any future measures, yet it at once covers France with Normal Schools which will supply our first wants. It is for time, zeal, intelligence, and perseverance to do the rest. There must always necessarily be a great difference among the Normal Schools of our eighty-four departments ; but the best way is, to go on gradually improving, in proportion as experience shows you what is required. Even with this wise tardiness, three or four years will suffice to improve all these small Normal Schools, and to raise a great number to the rank of complete great Normal Schools. The difference between a great and a small Normal School consists in this : a small Normal School is only an appendage to a primar}'' school, whilst a great Normal School is an establishment subsisting by and for itself, to which a primary school (and if possible that should comprise both an elementary and a middle school) is annexed. This difference gives the measure of all other differences. In the small Normal School there are only day-pupils, or at most a few board- ers. In the great, the majority may be boarders. In the one, the course may be terminated in a year ; in the other, it should extend through two years, as at Bruhl ; and even, in time, according to the resources of the 416 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. departments and the progress of public education, it might embrace three years, as in most of the great Normal Schools of Prussia, — Potsdam, for example. The departments must be the judges of their resources and ot their wants. A department which wants twenty schoolmasters a year, and which has a certain number of middle or burgher schools, as well as many elementary schools, can very well receive twenty pupils a year ; which, supposing the course to occupy two or three years, amounts to forty or sixty pupils at a time in the school. Then there must be accommoda- tion Ibr boarding them, a large building, a greater number of masters, more exhibitions, (bourses,) more expense of every sort. In the hope that the i'ew great primary Normal Schools we already possess will soon be succeeded by others, I beg your attention to the Ibl- lowing maxims, deduced from general experience, and from all the data I have accumulated here. I. To begin by giving instructions rather than rules ; to confine your- self in these instructions to the establishing of a few essential points, and to leave the rest to the departmental committee. To discuss and decide this small number of points in the royal council; not to multiply them, but inriexibly to enforce their execution. The fewer they are, the more easy will this execution be, and the more susceptible will they be of ap- plication to all the Normal Schools of France ; so that there would be a common groundwork for all ; a unity, which, passing Irom the Normal Schools into the whole body of popular education, would have a beneficial influence in strengthening the national unity. At the same time, this unity would not be prejudicial to local diversities ; for the departmental committee would be desired to apply your general instructions according to the peculiar manners or usages of the department. From the combina- tion of the uniformity of these instructions, with the diversity of arrange- ments which the prudence and intelligence of the committee, and the experience of each year, will recommend, a set of regulations for each Normal School will gradually arise, more or less definitive, and therelbre fit to be made public. The plan of study of the great Normal School at Paris, for the supply of the royal and communal colleges, is the fruit of fifteen years' experience. This school, which was founded in 1810, had no written laws till 1815. We made important modifications in those laws at the Revolution of 1830, and it was not till then that we ventured to print them, as the result, nearly definitive, or at least likely to endure for some time, of all the experiments successively tried. Let us imitate this caution, and begin with a simple set of instructions from the minister. Rules for the studies and the discipline will gi'adually arise. Every year will modify them. The important thing is, to exact an accurate account of the proceedings and results of the year, drawn up by the director, and transmitted to you, together with all the necessary documents, by the de- partmental committee and the prefect, who will subjoin their own opinion. Then, and then only, you will interpose your authority, with that of tJie royal council, which will revise this report every year at the vacation, and pronounce on the improvements to be introduced. II. To attach the greatest possible importance to the choice of a director. It is a principle generally established in Prussia, that the goodness of a Normal School is inexact proportion to the goodness of the director ; just as the primary school is what its master is. What constitutes a Normal School is not a fine building; on the contrary, it is not amiss that it should not be over commodious or splendid. It is not even the excellence of the regulations, which, without a faithful and intelligent execution of them, are only a useless bit of paper. A Normal School is what its director is. He is the life and soul of it. If he is a man of ability, he will turn the poorest and humblest elements to account ; if he is incapable, the best and most prolific will remain sterile in his hands. Let us by no means HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 417 make our directors mere house-stewards. A director ought to be at the head of the mo.st important branches of instruction, and to set an example to all the other masters. He must have long lulfilled the duties of a mas- ter; first, in different classes of a Normal course of education, so that he may have a general knowledge of the wliole system ; secondly, in several Normal Schools, so that he may have experience of difficulties of various kinds; lastly, he must not be placed at the head of a Normal School oi the highest class, till he has been director of several of an inferior class, so as to graduate promotion according to merit, and thus keep up an hon- orable emulation. III. An excellent practice in Germany is, to place the candidates, im- mediately on their leaving the Normal School, as assistant masters in schools which admit of two. The young men thus go through at least a year of apprenticeship. — a very useful novitiate : they gain age and ex- perience, and their final appointment depends on their conduct as assist- ant masters. I regard every gradation a-= extremely useful, and I think a little graduated scale of powers and duties might be advantageously introduced into primary instruction. 1st. Pupil of a Normal School admitted after competition, holding a more or less high rank in the examination list at the end of each year, and quitting the school with such or such a number. 2d. Same pupil promoted to the situation of assistant master. 3d. Schoolmaster succes- sively in diflerent schools rising in salary and in importance. 4th. After distinguished services, master in a primary Normal School. 5th. Lastly, director of a school of that class, with the prospect of gradually rising to be director of a numerous and wealthy Normal School, which would be a post equal to that of professor of a royal college. The human soul lives in the future. It is ambitious, because it is infinite. Let us then open to it a progressive career, even in the humblest occupations. IV. We can not be too deeply impressed with this truth — that paid instruction is better than gratuitous instruction. The entire sum paid for board at a Normal School must be extremely moderate, for the young men of the poorest classes to be able to pay it. We must give only quar- ter or half exhibitions, (^bourses,) reserving two or three whole ones Ibr the two or three young men, out of the fifteen admitted annually, who Btand first on the list ; and even this should not be continued to them the second year, unless their conduct had been irreproachable and their appli- cation unremitting. On the same principle as that laid down above, the elementary school annexed to the Normal School ought not to be entirely gratuitous ; it ought to have no other masters than the forwardest pupils of the Normal School, acting under the direction of their masters. The profits of the elementary school for practice would go to diminish the total cost of the Normal School. As for the middle school for practice, it would be con- trary to the principle of all middle schools to have it gratuitous. V. Divide the studies of all Normal Schools into two parts: during the first, the pupils should be considered simply as students, who.se ac- quirements are to be confirmed, extended, and methodized : during the second, as masters, who are to be theoretically and practically taught the art of teaching. If the Normal course only lasts a year, this part of it ought to occupy at least six months ; if it lasts two years, it ought to oc- cupy a year ; if three years, it would still occupy only a year. The stu- dents in this last year would give lessons in the elementary and middle schools annexed to the Normal School. VI. The examination at quitting ought to be more rigid than that at entering the school. The important thing is to have young men of good capacity, even if they know little; for they will learn rapidly; while some, who might not be deficient in a certain quantity of acquired know- 27 418 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. ledge, but were dull or wrong-headed, could never be made good Fchool- masters. No latitude vvliatever must be left to the Comiiiission of Exam- ination at departure. Here, intelligence must sliow itself in positive attainments, since opportunitj^ to acquire them has been given. Nothing but negligence can have stood in their way. and tiiat negligence would be the greatest of all faults. This latter examination, therefore, must be directed to ascertain the acquired, and not the natural fitness. But in the examination on entering, I wish that the Commission should more particularly inquire into the talents and natural bent, and, above all. into the moral character and disposition. A little discretionary power ought to be confided to it. This applies more especially to those Normal Schools, the course of which lasts two or three years. Three years of study will not give intelligence; but they will give all the necessary attainments in abundance. Vli. It is my earnest desire, that conferences* should be formed among the schoolmasters ol'each canton. I wish it, but have but little hope of it, at least at first. Such conferences suppose both too great a love for their profession, and too great a familiarity with the spirit of association. A thing much more easy to accomplish is, that during the vacations of the primary schools, a certain number of masters should repair to the Normal School of the department to perfe(;t themselves in this or that particular branch, and to receive lessoiis appropriate to their wants, as is the case in Prussia. This time would be very usefully, and even very agreeably employed ; for the young masters would be brought into contact with their old instructors and companions, and would have an opportunity of renewing and cementing old friendships. Here would be an interesting prospect for them every year. For such an object, we musi not grudge a httle expense lor their journey and their residence. I siiould therefore wish that the vacations of the primary schools, wiiich must be regulated by certain agricultural labors, should always precede those of the primary Normal Schools, in order that the masters of the former might be able to take advantage of the lessons in the latter, and might be present at the parting exammations of the third year, which would be an excellent ex- erci.se for the young acting masters. 1 am convinced of the utility of having an inspector of primary schools for each department, who would spend the greater part of the year in going from school to school, in stirring up the zeal of the masters, in giv- ing a right direction to that of the communal committee.s, and in keeping up a general and very beneficial liarmony among the uiaires and the cures. It is unnecessary for me to say, that this inspector ought always to be some old master of a Normal School, selected for his talents, and still more for his tried character. But if this institution, which is univer- sal in Germany, were not popular among us, nearly the same results might be obtained by authorizing the director, or in default of him, some masters of the Normal School, to visit a certain number of the schools oi the department every year, during the vacation of their own school, and to do what would be done by the inspector above named. They would find great facilities from their old habits of intercourse and friendship with most of the masters, over whom they would exercise almost a paternal influence. On the other hand, they would gain by these visits, and would acquire a continually increasing experience, which would turn to the ad- vantage of the Normal Schools. You have seen that in Prussia, besides the visits of tiiecircle-inspectors.the directors of Normal Schools make visit- ations of this kind, for which they receive some very slender remuneration ; for these little journeys are sources oi' pleasure to them, as well as of util- ity to the public. • See notes to Professor Stowe's Essftyy page 243. HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 419 VIII. Let solidity, rather ihnn extent, be aimed at, in the course ofin- Etruction. The young masters must know a lew tilings tundaiaentally. rather lliau .many thing.s supei-ficialiy. Vague and suiJerticial altai'i- ments must be avoidt'd al any rate. The steady co.itinuous labor which must be gone through lo know any t hi ig whatsoever thoroughly^ i.s an admirable discipline lor the mind. Besi.ies, nothing is so proliHc as one thing well known ; it is an excellent starting point for a thousand others. The final examinations must be mainly direcied to the elements. — they must probe lo the bottom, they must keep solidiiy always in view. IX. Avoitl ambitious methods and exclusive systems: attend, above all to results, that is to say, to solid acquirements ; and, witii a view to them, consult experience. Clear explanations on every subject, connect- ed. less and continuity in the lessons, vvilh an ardent love for the business ofteaching, are worth all the general rules and methods in the world. X. A branch of study common to all schools ought to be the French tongue; the just pronunciation of words, and tlic purity and correctness of language. By this m.ans the natio:ial language would insensibly super^^ede the rude unintelligible dialects and provincialisms. In the Nor- mal Schools 'rtlierc; German is still the language of the people, German and F'rench must both be lauglit, in order not to oii'end against local attachments, and at the same time to implant the spirit of nationality. XI. Without neglecting physical science, and the knowledge applica- ble to the arts of life we nui.st make moral science, which is of far higher importance, our main object. Tlie mind and the character are what a true master ought, above all. to fashion. We uuist lay the foundations of moral life in the souls ol'our young masters and theretbre we must place religious instruction, — that is to speak distinctly, Christian instruction. — in the first rank in the education of our Normal Schools. Leaving to the cure, or to the pastor of the place, the care of instilling the doctrines pecu- liar lo each communion, we must constitute religion a special object of instruction, which must have its place in each year of the Normal course; so that at the end of the entire course, the young masters, without being theologians, may have a clear and precise knowledge of the history, doc- trines and, above all, the moral precepts of Chi'istianity. VV'itiioul this. the pupils, when they becoiae masters, would be incapable of giving any other religious instruction than the mechanical repetition of the catechism, which would be quite insutficient. I would particularly urge this point, which is the most ini[)ortant and the most delicate of all. Betbre we can decide on what shoulil constitute a true primary Normal School, we must determine what ought to be the character of a simple elementary school, that is, a humble vUlage school. TUe popular schools of a nation ought to be imbued with the religious spirit of that nation. Now without going into the question of diversities of doctrine, is Christianiiy. or is it not. the religion of the people of France? It can not be denied that it is. I ask then, is it our object to respect the religion of the people, or to destroy it? If we mean to set about destroying it, then, I allow, we ought by no means lo have it taught in the people's schools. But if the object we propose to ourselves is totally ditlerent, we must teach our children that religion which civilized our fathers; that religion whose liberal spirit pre- pared, and can alone sustain, all the great institutions of modern times. We must also permit the clergy to fulfil their first duty, — the superintend- ence of religious instruction. But in order to stand the test of this superin- tendence with honor, the schoolmastej- umst be enabled lo give adequate religious instruction; otherwise parents, in order to be sure that their children receive a good religious education, will require us to appoint ecclesiastics as schoolmasters which though assuredly belter than having irreligious schoolmasters, would be liable to very serious objections of various kinds. The less we desire our schools to be ecclesiastical, the 420 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. more ought they to be Christian. It necessarily follows, that there must be a course of special religious instruction in our Normal Schools. Reli- gion is, in my eyes, the best, perhaps the only, basis of popular educa- tion. I know something of Europe, and never have I seen good schools where the spirit of Christian charity was wanting. Primary instruction flourishes in tliree countries, 'Holland-, Scotland, and Germany; in all it is profoundly religious. It is said to be so in America. The little popular instruction I ev^er found in Italy came from the priests. In France, with few exceptions, our best schools for the poor are those of the Freres de la Doctrine Chretienne. (Brothers of the Christian Doctrine. ) These are facts which it is necessary to be incessantly repeating to certain persons. Let them go into the schools of the poor, — let them learn what patience, what resignation, are required to induce a man to persevere in so toilsome an employment. Have better nurses ever been Ibund than those benevolent nuns who bestow on poverty all those attentions we pay to wealth? There are things in human society which can neither be conceived nor accomplished without virtue, — that is to say, when .speaking of the mass, without religion. The schools tor the middle classes maybe an object of speculation; but the country schools, ihe miserable little schools in the south, in the west, in Britanny, in the mountains of Auvergne, and, with- out going so far, the lowest schools of our great cities, of Paris itself, will never hold out any adequate inducement to persons seeking a remunera- ting occupation. There will doubtless be some philosophers inspired with the ardent pliiianthropy of Saint Vincent de Paule. without his reli- gious enthusiasm, who would devote themselves to this austere vocation; but the question is not to have here and there a master. We have more, than Ibrty thousand schools to serve, and it were wise to call religion to the aid of our insufficient means, were it but for the alleviation of the pecuniary burdens of the nation. Either you must lavish the treasures of the state, and the revenues of the comnnmes, in order to give high salaries, and even pensions, to that new order of tradesmen called school- masters ; or you must not imagine you can do without Christian charity, and that spirit of poverty, humility, courageous resignation, and modest dignity, which Christianity, rightly understood and wisely taught, can alone give to the teachers of the people. The more I think of all this, the more 1 look at the schools in this country, the more I talk with the direct- ors of Normal Schools and councilors of the ministry, the more I am strengthened in the conviction that we must make any eflbrts or any sacrifices to come to a good understanding with the clergy on the subject of popular education, and to constitute religion a special and very care- fully-taught branch of instruction in our primary Normal Schools. i am not ignorant that this advice will grate on the ears of many per- sons, and that Ishall be thought extremely devout at Paris. Yet it is not from Rome, but from Berlin, that I address you. The man who holds this language to you is a philosopher, formerly disliked, and even perse- cuted, by the priesthood ; but this philosopher has a mind too little affect- ed by the recollection of his own insults, and is too well acquainted with human nature and with history, not to regard religion as an indestructi- ble power: genuine Christianity, as a means of civilization for the people, and a necessary support tor those on whom society imposes irksome and humble duties, without the slightest prospect offortune, without the least gratification of self-love. I am now arrived at the termination of this long report. May it be of use to you in the important work which now engages your attention ! My illustrious colleague, M. Cuvier, has already exhibited to France the organization of primary instruction in Holland. The experience of Ger- many, and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon us. National rivalries or antipathies would here be completely out of place. The true HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 421 f neatness of a people does not consist in borrowing nothing from others, ut in borrowing from all whatever is good, and in perfecting whatever it appropriates. I am as great an enemy as any one to artificial imitations ; but it is mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for no other reason than that it has been thought good by others. With the promptitude and justness of the French understanding, and the indestructible unity of our national char- acter, we may assimilate all that is good in other countries without lear of ceasing to be ourselves. Placed in the center of Europe, possessing every variety of climate, bordering on all civilized nations, and holding up perpetual intercourse with them, France is essentially cosmopolitan ; and indeed this is the main source of her great influence. Besides, civilized Europe now forms but one great family. We constantly imitate England in all that concerns outward life, the mechanical arts, and physical refine- ments; why, then, should we blush to borrow something from kind, hon- est, pious, learned Germany, in what regards inward life and the nurture of the soul? For my own part, I avow my high esteem and peculiar affection for the German people; and I am happy that my mission proved to them that the revolution of July, — that revolution, as necessary and as just as the legitimate right of self defense ; that revolution, sprung from the unanimous resistance of a great people to a capricious aggression, an open violation, not of hypothetical rights, but of liberties secured by law, — is not, as its enemies pretend, a return to the impiety, the licentiousness and the corruption of a fatal period ; but, on the contrary, the signal for a general improvement in opinion and in morals ; since one of the first acts of the new government has been the holy enterprise of the amelioration of public education, of which the instruction of the people is the basis." With this preparation, — a good beginning already made in several de- partments, and the long and successful experience of Prussia and other German states before him, — a regulation was framed by M. Guizot, and sanctioned by the Council of Public Instruction, by which, in connection with the law of 1833, a system of Normal Schools has been established and is fast regenerating the elementary instruction in France. The fol- lowing is an outline of the system : Each department is obliged, either alone or in conjunction with other neighboring departments, to support one Normal School for the education of its schoolmasters. The expense of this establishment for building, apparatus, and instruc- tion, is borne mainly by the department, whilst the direction of the educa- tion given in it is vested in the Minister of Public Instruction, who is re- sponsible to the Chambers, of both of which he is an ex officio member, for the right exercise of his power. The immediate management of Normal Schools and of the model schools annexed is committed to a Director who is appointed by the Min- ister, on the presentation of the prefect of the department, and the "rector of the academy. These directors are paid wholly or partially from the public funds set apart by the department for public instruction. If the department refuses or neglects to provide sufficient funds, the govern- ment enforces the collection of the necessary tax; if the department is overburdened, the government contributes its aid. To meet the expense of board, the pupils are assisted by gratuities, or bursaries, which the communes, departments, the university, the state, and even individuals, have established for this purpose. These burses are usually granted in halves or quarters, the rest of the expense being 422 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. borne by the pupils. Of 1944 pupiF-teachers in 1834, 1308 were bursars ol'the departments, 118 of the communes, 245 of the state, and 273 were maintained at their own expense. Every candidate for admission to these institutions, and to the enjoy- ment of a bourse, or any part of one, must bind himself to follow the pro- fession of a parish schoolmaster for ten years at least after quitting the institution; and to reimburse it for the whole expense of his maintenance, if he fail to fulfill his decennial engagement. He must have completed his sixteenth year; and besides the ordinary elementary acquirements, must produce evidence both of good previous character, and of general intelligence and aptitude to learn. Most of the bursaries are adjudged upon a comparative trial among competitors, who are likely to become every year more nnmerous : and the examination for admission is so well arranged and conducted, that it tends to raise higher and higher the standard of previous acquirement. The course of instruction and training to which the youth is thus intro- duced, occupies two years of eleven months each, i. e. from tiie first of October to the first of the ensuing September, and embraces the follow- ing objects: — 1st. iVIoral and religious instruction. The latter, in as far as it is dis- tinct from the former, is given by the clergyman of the particular faith which the pupil happens to profess. 2d. Reading, with the grammar of their own language. 3d. Arithmetic, including an intimate and practical acquamtance with the legal system of weights and measures. This knowledge is made to hold so prominent a part in the program of instruction, as atlbrding the best means of introducing that admirable system into the habits of the French people, among whom, from ignorance and prejudice, it is still far from being generally adopted. '1th. Linear drawing, and construction of diagrams, land-measuring, and other applications of practical geometry. otli. Elements of physical science, with a special view to the purposes of ordinary life. 6th. iVlusic, taught by the eye as well as by the ear. 7th. Gymnastics. 8th. The elements of general geography and history, and the particu- lar geography and history of France. 9th. The pupils are instructed, and, wherever the locality admits, exer- cised also, in the rearing of esculent vegetables, and in the pruning and grafting of trees. 10th. They are accustomed to the drawing out of the simpler legal forms and civil deeds. A library for the use of the pupils is fitted up within the premises ; and a sum is set apart every year Ibr the purchase of such works as the Coun- cil of Public Instruction may judge likely to be useful to the young schoolmasters. The course of study is, for the present, limited to two years, instead of three, which is the term ultimately contemplated as the most desirable. During the second of those years, instruction in the principles of the art of teaciiing is kept constantly in view ; and for the last six months, in partic- ular, the pupils are trained to the practical application of the most approved methods, by being employed as assistants in the different classes of the primary schools, which are invariably annexed to the JNormal, and form part and parcel of the establishment. The director, besides general superintendence, is charged with some important branch of the instruction ; the rest is devolved on his adjuncts, or assistant masters, who reside in the establisimient. Any graduate of a Normal School can attend any of the courses of in- HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 423 Btruction in the Normal School of the department in which he resides, to learn new methods, or improve ':•;? previous acquirements. The depart- ments are authorized to grant assistance to such teachers. The IVormal Schools admit pupils of dillerent religious denominations. All sectarian instruction is avoided in the general lessons, and the j)upils receive this instruction at times set apart for it li'om clergymen of their own church. Until a pupil has obtained a certificate of his proficiency in the doctrines of liis own religion, fi-om a minister of his own church, he can not officiate as a schoolmaster. Any person who ventures to conduct a public school without having obtained from the departmental committee of examination a certificate of qualification, is liable to a fine of two hundred francs. The Departmental Committee, or Commission of Examination, is com- posed of at least seven members appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction, upon the recommendation of the rector of the academy. Three members at least must be selected from among those who have already exercised, or are at the time exercising the function of public teachers, and who are most hkely to unite ability and integrity. It is recommended that one of the seven be a clergyman. " To act." saya the Minister, in a circular addressed to each of the twenty-six rectors, — " to act in concert with the three members belonging to the body of Pub- lic Instruction in these Commissions (V examen, a minister of religion will doubtless be summoned. The law has put moral and religious instruction in the foremost rank; the teacher, therefore, must give proof of his being able to communicate to the children intrusted to his care, those important ideas which are to be the rule of their lives. Doubtless every functionary of public instruction, every father of a family who shall be placed on thia commission by your recommendation, as rector of the academy, will be llillyable to appreciate the moral and religious attainments of the candi- dates; but it is, nevertheless, fit and proper, that the future teachers of youth should exhibit proof of their capacity in this respect, belbre persons whom their peculiar character and special mission more particularly qual- ify to be judges in tliis matter." " Tlie most important of all the duties devolved upon these examining commissions, is that of conferring on the pupil, when he quits the institu- tion, a brevet de capacite. Carelessness, partiality, or ignorance, in the discharge of it, would entirely defeat the main object of the law on primary instruction. This brecet, certifying the holder's fitness to be a teacher, either in the lower or higher grade of primary schools, constitutes his passport to the labors and honors of his profession. With it, and his cer- tificate of good conduct in his pocket, he may carry his skill and industry to any market he pleases, without further let or impediment. There are three grades of certificates of qualification for both element- ary and superior primary; Ires bien, (very good.) bien. (good,) and assez- bien. (sufficient.) which infuses a spirit of competition throughout the pupils of the Normal Schools, and the public schools generally. The system of Normal Schools has remained substantially on this basis to the present time. Every year has extended and consolidated its influ- ence in spite of the interested opposition of old and inefficient teachers, who find themselves less and less appreciated, and the complaint of local committees, who in many instances are disposed to take up with the first teacher who presents himself, whether qualified or not. Their number has increased from forty-three in 1833 to ninety-three in 1849, including ten Institutes belonging to the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, and three for female teachers, under the ausjiices of an association of Christian Education, on a similar plan. In 1834 there were but 1,044 graduates ol 424 HISTORY OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. Normal Schools employed in the primary schools ; in 1848, this number had increased to 10,545. The expense of this branch of the school sys- tem cost in 1841, according to a report of M. Villemain, — To the State, 164,445 francs. « Communes, 23,890 " Departments, . . . 1,081,348 " Pupils, 268,520 Total, , . . 1,538,203 CONFERENCES. OR TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS, AND TEACHERS' LIBRARIES. The suggestion of M. Cousin in his Report* as to the utility of conferen- ces of teachers, was not acted upon by the Council of Public Instruction until 1837. In February of that year, a law was presented by the Minis- ter of this department and passed by the Chambers on this subject. The substance of this law is presented in the following remarks by M. Willm, m his valuable treatise on the Education of the People. " This law treats, in the first place, of the object of conferences ; and then, of their epochs and government. The first article authorizes ' the teachers of one or several districts to assemble, with the sanction of the local authorities, and, under the close inspection of the committee of the department, to confer amongst themselves on the different subjects of their teaching — on the ways and methods they employ — and on the principles which ought to be adopted in the education of children and conduct of masters. Every other subject of discussion must be excluded from these conferences.' In regard to this article, I would observe, that it would not be advantageous for teachers who thus assemble to be very numerous; and that they must avoid coming from too great a distance to the place of meeting. Neither must they be very few in number; because, in that case, there would be too little variety and animation in their labors; but, were they more than twelve or fifteen, each would not be able to take an active part in the proceedings. The second article reminds teachers that the law has placed at the head of the subject-matters of instruction, moral and religious instruction ; and that it is their duty to occupy themselves with it. From this it seems to follow, that teachers belonging to different sects must not assemble together in the same conferences. In Alsace, for example, priests or ministers are generally presi- dents — which is a stronger reason for teachers of different communions not as- sembling promiscuously together. The third article says, that the superior committees will point out to the dif- ferent assemblies the subjects on which the attention of the teachers ought more especially to be fixed. These committees hitherto have, unfortunately, occupied themselves very little with such conferences; some even have opposed their formation, or given them an organization very different from that recommended by the royal council. Can there be no means of remedying this omnipotence of the committees, and regulating that liberty, in such a way as not to risk anarchy 1 According to the fourth article, ' each teacher may beg permission to give an account of what he has read since last meeting, to make observations on the works in connection with primary instruction recently published, to read some essay of his own on the discipline of schools, or on some one of the branches of instruction.' Each may, besides, address to the assembly a verbal communi- cation on the art of teaching, submit to it a doubt or difficulty, which in his daily practice he may have met. The eighth article says that the president of the conferences must always be appointed by the rector of the academy. The president ought, wherever pos- sible, to be selected from such as are not members of the association ; he should be some friend and connoisseur of popular education, without being teacher; he will thus direct the debates and labors of the conference with more authority and a wider range of view ; the information which he displays in the discharge * See page 418. 426 CONFERENCES OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE. of his duties will be more varied and profound ; and he will be, in the midst of teachers, the interpreter of what the world expects from them. Every thing will depend on the manner in which their labors are directed, ' and on the zeal with which ihe teachers engage in them. One of the principal results of conference ought to be, the exercising them in speaking. Speech is the instrument of the ait of teacliing. In the management of a school, and in all that concerns the mechanism of teaching, the teacher ought to speak little; his commands ought to be brief; and, in most cases a word, a gesture, a look will suffice. But in teaching, properly so called, when he is engaged in ex- pounding the first truths of morality and religion, in explaining whal has been read by the pnpils, in narrating to them the history of the Bible or national his- tory, (sacred or profane history,) in telling them of the wonders of the heavens and the earth — then he must be able to speak with fluency, clearness, and pre- cision, if ndt eloquently. Children, like men, are fascinated by the charms of speech. The choicest things, badly saici, p.^vluceon them no impression ; and — like arrows, darted by a feeble and tremb'jng hand — glide, so to speak, over the surface of their mind, and never reach its depths. The essays of the teachers may consist of two kinds. One class may be written on any subjects, but should be analogous to what teachers prescribe to their most advanced pupils — such as some scene of nature or of human life, a grand or-useful thought, an historical fact, &c. These essays ought not to be long; and must be written wilti that correct simplicity, which is as far lemoved from the inelegancies of a vulgar style, as from the far-fetched phraseology of the Wit. These first essays — exercises in composition and thought — will also be a means of perfecting the teachers in the art of speaking. The other kind of essays, treating of some branch of the pedagogic art, may be more directly useful to them. In composing them, theirmemory. their own experience rather than books, ought to be consulted ; and simplicity and truth, rather than novelty and originality, ought to be aimed at. The greatest possible clearness, pre- cision, and actual utility ought to be the distinguishing features of these essays. In some societies of teachers, the same question is offered to the consideration of all the members — thus creating amongst them a species of competition : but as every essay must be read and discu.ssed during the meeting, they would be restricted, in following this mode of procedure, to the composition only of two or three a-year ; or obliged to multiply, beyond measure, the number of the meetings; and in both cases the interest would be, inevitably, diminished. It is desirable, however, that at each sitting, the same subject be handled by two members. The two essays would compete with each other, and occasion a discussion ; M^hich the president would take care to manage, so that all inight speak in rotation, and that no one, while speaking, tat; undue adv.Tntage. Every expression of praise or censure, every ob>ervation tending to shock self- esteem or modesty, ought, on all sides, to be prohibited. If at the termination of the sitting, the majority be not sufficiently instructed, they could cominission the president, or another member, to resume the discus.sion at the next con- ference. On other occasions, to vary still farther the proceedings, the author of an essay could address it soine days before the meeting in the form of a letter, to one of his colleagues, requesting his opinion of it. The letter and rei ly might then be read, and their contents discussed in the ordinary manner. This pro- cedure is preferable, in my opinion, to the practice of several societies in Ger- many. After the reading of an essay, a member is then enjoined to present a criticism of it at next meeting. This method is accompanied with seiious in- conveniences. Self-love becomes a willing co-operator. The critic endeavors, by every means, to find cause for controversy, and believes himself, in some sense, obliged to think diffeiently from him whom he has been appointed to judge. In this manner concord and friendship, so necessary to the prosperity of the association, are, without great benefit to truth, seriously compromised. I would add, that copies of all the essays should be deposited in the library, where every one might consnlt them. I have said that each member may demand permission to make to the assem- bly any communication relative to the art of teaching; to submit to it a ques- tion, a doubt, an observation, which his practice may have suggested to him. Such communications add much to the interest and utility of conferences, By means of them, the experience of each becomes, in some sense, the experience LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE. 427 of all. Those who have been occupied many years in teaching will aid their junior fellow-laborers. In fine, it may happen, and it happen.s but loo often, that, in their relation.s with the local authorities and the parents, differences arise, to disturb the good understanding — the perfect harmony between them and the teacliers. These differences should be submitted in the conferences to the appreciation of their colleagues — to the judgment of iheir compeers. They will thus be less subject to mistakes and anger; and, when necessary, more undaunted in repelling in- justice, and in maintaining their rights. LIBRARIES FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE. The fifteenth article of the Inw of February, 1837, on conferences of teachers, provides for the establishment of libraries for the use of those who attend the conferences. By means of the funds which the parishes or the county have granted for this purpose, or by means of clubbing among the teachers, a library should be formed for those who attend the conferences regularly. The books composing the library should be inserted in a catalogue, Avhich must be verified every year. A copy of said catalogue must be sent to the Minister of Public Instruction. M. Willm makes the following remarks on the subject: " Such libraries may be established by teachers who do not assemble in regular conferences, or associate for such a purpose. A distinguished teacher may he conceived to address the following language to his colleagues, to induce them to establish such a society: 'Two principal objections maybe made against this scheme. In the first place, how, with the scanty resouices at our disposal, can we establish a library, in the smallest degree, complete; and then, amongst such a host of books, whose number augments every day, will not a proper selection be difiicult — even impossible ? In replying lo these ob- jeclions, I will, at the same time, let you know my views on the course to be pursued in the acquisition of books. These views are the results of my own experience, and of the counsels which, in former times, I was fortunate to receive. I do not dissemble the importance of the doubts I am attempting to remove ; the first, especially, seems but too well founded. How, indeed, willi our trifling resources can we hope to establish in a few years a library ever so little worthy of the name 1 We are ten members; each of us will j)ut into the society's strong box, three shillings as entry money, and a shilling per month, or twelve shillings per annum : this is much for us — too much peihaps; and it is to be desired, that, at a later period, this monthly payment be reduced. We will thus have at our disposal, the first year, the sum of one hundred and fifty shil- lings. Of this sum, fifteen shillings must he spent in purchasing registeis!| pens, and paper ; and. by adding ten shillings for small incidental expenses, our in- come will be reduced to one hundred and twentv-five shillings. We must be- come subscribers lor two pedagogic journals, which may cost about twenty-five shillings a year. To lay the foundation of our library, about one hundred shil- lings remain. To found, with a hundred shillings, a library, appears absurd^impossible. But let us forget for an instant the ambitious name of library, and simply say that we unite together for the purpose of procurirg, in one year, ten times more books than each of us singly could purchase, and it will be granted that we are doing a judicious thing, and making an excellent speculation. Will it not be a sufficiently good result of our association, if, instead of one or two works, which Eerhaps each of us might have purchased, besides what are indispensable, we ave at the end of the year irom ten to twenty at our disposal 1. And supposing we continue at this rate for ten years; instead of from ten to twenty, would we not hnve from one hundred to two bundled, and perhaps morel And Cuuld not our collection, then, without too much vanity, be styled a library 1 Great things have often sprung from small beginnings. If you persevere, you will have the merit of bequeathing to your successors a considerable number of 428 LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE. books; and, after two or three generations, the teachers of our district will have for their use a valuable library. Is, then, the thought of working for the future of no estimation to the good man, and is not even that thought for us, as says Lafontaine, a fruit which fo-dai/ we enjoy? Bm, besides the "satisfaction of founding a work for which our successors will bless as, we ourselves will reap Irom it precious advantages. By associa- ting, we unshackle the means of instruction. The books besides, which after deliberation and common consent we procure, will be better selected, than if each had been left to his own knowledge. And if you adopt my views of the course to be followed in the acquisition of books, if you select them according to fixed principles, agreed to beforehand, they will form, in the very firsi year, in spite-of their fewness, a finished whole. Ten, twenty volumes selected with judgment, according to a certain plan, and which, by referring to each other, mutually complete and explain each other, are — in spite of the variety of their contents and immediate object — more valuable than three or four times as many works, excellent, perhaps, but chosen at random and inconsequently. From this, it follows, that after ten years" association, we might have at our command, not only ten times more books than we would have had, if each had been left to his own resources ; but that these books, more judiciously selected, will have a relative value much greater than the same, or double the number of volumes collected at random. An association affords still another advantage in this respect. There are works composed of several volumes, and whose price is such, that the majority of teachers are incapable of procuring them at their own expense. United, we can acquire, if necessary, even very expensive works, and some of these publi- cations may be indispensable. We may, besides, entertain the hope that other teachers will soon join us. I cherish another hope ; I hope, if we persevere, that the communities of our dis- trict, that the higher committee of our parish and the academy, will come to our aid. As we think not of ourselv'es alone whilst we are endeavoring to en- large the limits of our instruction, but of our schools and of the fu'itre, we can, without a blush, invoke the assistance of all who are intei-ested in popular edu- cation — of the citizens who discover in it a means of public felicity — and of the authorities intrusted with its direction. Works, we do not doubt, will pour in from different sources, and, if we seriously wish it, we will soon have at our disposal a stock of books, sufficiently respectable to constitute the nucleus of a DISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY. I come to the second objection — the difficulty of making a suitable selection among so many books. This difficulty is serious ; but in proportion to the scantiness of our means, we are less liable to be misled. This consideration, far from discouraging us, ought only to impress still more deeply the principles which ought to guide our selection. The number of works on all subjects, has, for a century especially, prodi- giously increased. The science of education, for a long time neglected, and treated by some distinguished writers only at distant intervals, reckons, in our days, its books by hundreds — if we comprehend those addressed especially to childhood and.t}'^outh. But we must not be frightened by this mixititude; this riches, in the main, is but apparent. Many of those works whose titles swell the catalogues of the booksellers, are old and obsolete; many others are but imitations and of little value. Good writers of every kind are not numerous ; and even among the good, a selection can be made. The essential point is to know how to select well. As to old books, we will trust to their reputation, ■which seldom misleads ; and as to new books, we will consult enlightened men. Of the works recognized as good, we will always select the best and the most complete. To read m^ich is not the principal point, but to read veil; and to read often the best productions. The fruits which may be reaped from read- iirg, depend as much upon the manner of reading, as upon the excellence of the books read. Our library will be composed of three kinds of works. In the first rank, we shall place such as treat of the art of education; of teaching in general; of primary instruction in particular. It will not be necessary to secure a great number of books of this class; a few solid and complete treatises, which epito- mise the science, will suffice for the commencement. The most essential pre- cepts and the rules tmiversally approved, are found in all good productions of LIBRARIES FOR TEACHERS IN FRANCE. 429 any length. To good treatises, however, to encyclopedic manuals, -which exhibit pedagogy as a whole, and which, I'aithlul to the precept, prove all things and cleave to v;hnt is good — unite what even the ditlerent methods possess of most practical and reasonable — we will add, later works upon the most remarkable special methods. Still later, in a few years, we may be able to admit into our collection a certain number of works already old, which, like Rousseau's Emile, have formed an epoch in the history of the an of education ; then, to keep pace with the progress of the science, we only have to procure, at distant intervals, some good new treatise. The second series of works of our future library, should consist of such as expound either the whole or some branch of primary instruction ; of manuals of religion and morality; of arithmetic, geography, and general or national his- tory : natural history, phs-^sics, hygiane, agriculture, and technology ; written expressly for teachers, children, and the people. Finally, the richest portion of our library might be composed of instructive and rare works, which, while adding to our knowledge, will afford useful relax- ation, and the means of inlusing into our lessons a wholesome variety; of ex- citing and sustaining the attention of our pupils, and of throwing an interest aroimd our teaching. I rank in this third class of books, /r5<, extracts or selections from travels in the different quarters of the globe. They will supply the place of the original narratives, too dear, and which include, besides, generally many very useless details, or things already known. There is scarcely any kind of reading more interesting than the history of travels in distant countries, and which furnishes the most useful materials for the instruction of youth. Secondly, hi.storical works, particularly natural history, selecting, in prefer- ence, such as have been composed for the ypung of schools. We might extract from them, to narrate to our pupils, those traits of magnanimity and devoted- ness to one's country and Immanity, which constitute the beauty and honor of history. Thirdly, I would place in our library a few religious and national poets; good anthologies; selections and collections of pieces in prose and verse ; a few books more especially written for the instruction and amusement of childhood and youth, and which can be read to and by our pupils. Fourthly, popular works which, addressed directly to the people, in towns and in the country, strive to snatch them from the misery of ignorance, to ren- der them better and happier; and which adapt to their capacity, morality, counsels of prudence, and the most interesting and useful results of science in general. Till each parish pos.sess its own library, we shall form, as it were, an intermediate stage, a connecting link, between science and the people. To ex- plain these books, and to facilitate the comprehension of them, we must our- selves be thoroughly acquainted with them. We will find in them, besides, an abundant source of instruction for ourselves and for our pupils. 'In short, my dear Colleagues, our library ought to consist of a small number of works on methods; manuals of all the branches of primary instruction and of the education of the people; and many instructive and popular works. Thus, all works of pure amusement, and "such as are not addressed directly either to schools or youth, to the people or to the teachers of the people, mus't be excluded. By confining ourselves within these limits, our selection will not be difficult ; especially if we be guided by men well versed in such matters. Let us begin the work; let us persevere in the prosecution of it; and soon we shall have to congratulate ourselves on having undertaken it, and on having founded, at the expense of a few light sacrifices, an institution of incontestible utility.' " MEANS OF IMPROVING THE PECUNIARY CONDITION OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE. The provisions of the French law respecting Teachers' Conferences and Libraries, and the remarks of M. Wilhii, are intended to show how teachers, by association, may add to the acquirements of the Normal School, keep pace with new methods and discoveries, clear up the diffi- culties and supply the wants met with in their particular position, and es- cape from that meaningless routine of practices, and dull uniformity of character, to which their profession pursued alone exposes them. But the French law aims, although imperfectlj'. to ameliorate the teacher's condition, and the condition of his family, by guarding against present and future want. On these points M. Willm makes many judicious sug- gestions from which American teachers may profit. " It poverty be always an evil, it is especially so to the teacher; because it prevents him from performing etficiently his duty, and enjoying due distinction. His functions will be doubly painful, if the caies of the morrow deprive him of the e.iergy sufficient to aceampiish his daily task. I demand not wealth for the teacher: 1 ask not that he be rich but he3^ond the reach of indigence; that he be able to live in honest ease, without being obliged to devoie himself to la- bors f)reiga to his profession; that he have the power to continue his studies, to support a f.Hmilv. and to enjoy an honorable repose in his old age — if Heaven accord him length of days — or die undisturbed as to the future lot of his children, if carried away i'rom them in the midst of his career. The condition of the teacher is at present widely different from this. The law of 1833 has unlouhiedly bettered his lot; — and it were imgraleful to deny it. It may be said, indeed, that in general, schoolmasters are better paid in France than in most other countries. In Germ;iny there are a considerable number whj do not gain the minimum salary of four hundred francs; and even in Prussia, the average — every thing included — is, for a town-teacher, eight hundred francs; for a couutry teacher, about three hundred francs; and let us remark that in Prussia, living is much deaier than in France. It is not neces- sary to reckon up in detail our every-day expenses, to be convinced that, with such a paltrv income, it is wholly impossilile to maintain housekeeping on the mist economical principle; and that a family of industrious laborers has much greater chance of prospering than that of a teacher. In France, I repeat, teachers are, in general, much better paid. In towns, it is seldom that they do not gain fiom one thousand to twelve hundred francs; and in several localities their income exceeds this. In the country, there are few whose salary is under five hundred francs; and manv gain a great deal more. But five hundred francs and one thousand francs are but poor remunera- tion for three hundred and sixty-five days' labor ; for to gain even that sum. the teacher is most freq'ii^ntly obliged to add to the functions of schoolmaster, those of beadle organist, and ch^ner; such a sum is loo inconsiderable to support a fimily ; for we alwnys take tor sranied that the teacher is married and has a family: and that so he sets a good example, and is rendced mure q.u:ilified to train men and citizens. The condition of teachers must therefore be improved ; it m:i-l • e rendered more pleasant, and, at thesame time, more respected, not only with a regard to their interests, but especially tor the sake of schools, of the people, and of the stale itself. MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS' CONDITION. 43 J I. Teachers may themselves do much to ameliorate their lot, and raise their condition. They mu.st remember the old proverb — help yoursc/f, and Heaven wll help you. M. ^'chlez, a much esteemed German teacher, thinks that a teacher should always follow some trade, avoiding scrupulously, however, every degrading calling, or which might bring him into competition with the inhabitants of the district. He proposes, as compatible wiih the functions of the teacher of the people, gardening; the cultivation and grafting of trees ; the rearing of bees and silk-worms ; musical instrument-making; "clock-making; bookbindmg; bandbox-making; moulding; painting; the art of turning; the construction of barometers and thermometers ; the duties of copyist and book- keeper — and, finally, private lessons. But many of these occupations would require too long an apprenticeship, or engage 100 much time, to render them lucrative ; or they would need an outlay beyond the ordinary means of a teacher. Country teachers might find a valuable resource, as well as a noble recreation, in the cultivation of a garden of limited extent, which all districts ought to have at their disposal ; and the ground of which, if if could not be purchased, they might almost always find opportunity to rent. The art of gardening, which includes the grafting of trees, the cultivation of useful plants and of flowers, appears the most compatible with the occupation of teachers; between them are close analogies. That art can be learned at small expense, and in a short time. The teacher who, fiom his being well paid, needs not devote himself to pursuits foreign to his profession, might follow it simply for amusement; others would find it a means of improving their con- dition : and the employment would neither be degrading nor fatiguing. I have seen one of these gardens cultivated by a teacher, whose school was a garden bles.sed to him by Heaven. One division of it furnished kitchen vegetables ; another was planted with fruit-trees of the best sorts; a third, was a nursery exceedingly varied, and flowers abounded in every quarter. Often he led to ft his select pupils; his garden was at once a source of pleasure and profit to him- self and of instruction to his school. This example ought to be generally imi- tated. To the cultivation of a garden and orchard, country teachers might join, according to circumstances, ihe rearing of bees or silk-worms. During winter, study and instruction ought exclusively to occupy them, and nothing should prevent their keeping an evening-school for adults, or for young people from fifteen to twenty years of age, as is done in several districts of Alsace. This evening-school, which might be of great utility, would supplement a little in- come ; and it depends but on the interest they had in it, to induce a great num- ber of their old pupils to take an active part in this additional instruction. Bandbox-making and book-binding, would likewise be suitable occupations, but not very lucrative. Shall I inform the coimtry teachers that they have in their own power an- other means of being in less uneasy circumstances, and that this means is rigid economy, a retired and unassuming life ? I have scarcely courage to do so, for the majority are indeed forced to be economical. There is, however, a consid- erable number who frequent inns and cofl^ee-shops ; and who are loo much en- gaged in public amusements, little compatible with the moral authority which they ought to exercise, or with the state of their fortune. Without preventing them, on certain occasions, from mingling with public life, and sharing the honest pleasures of society, they ought to be counseled not to be prodigal of themselves, nor to court these occasions; but carefully to avoid whatever may tend to compromise their dignitv, or lead them into useless expense. In several Normal Schools, the pupil-masters are taught to draw up civil ads, as a srcat many of them will one day become registrars at the mayoralty. Such functions very well correspond with those of teachers in small parishes ■where there are few acts to write, provided the registrar-teacher can abstain from mixing himself up with the mvnicipal p^sions; often very violent in the smallest villages. Some, likewise, compete with the notary, and for a trifling salary, draw out contracts in private. Land-surveying aflx)rds another resource ; a very inconsiderable number can be emploved in it. and little dependence should be'placed on it. In short, besides a life sober and modest, the cultivation of trees, the rearing of bees and silkworms, a little rural and domestic economv, private lessons, the functions of registrar, land-surveying, and, perhaps, book-binding and bandbox- making, are the methods by which teacbera may ameliopate tieir condition, 432 MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS' CONDITION. ■without neglecting their duties, or derogating from their dignity. There is, however, still another resource which might be valuable : it is that which teachers'may find in the assistance of their partners: if they kne\V well how to choose — if they chose not such as are rich, but such as are economical, well- educated, good, and intelligent. I know some who are not only good house- keepers, but who render great services to the community by the examples and lessons they give to the voung girls of the district. Teachers' wives, in the absence of sisters or governesses, properly so called, ought to be able to undertake the teaching of needle-work and other similar branches, as well as the management of infant-schools, throughout all the rural districts. Their rank, as mothers, far from being an obstacle, would adapt them still better for the discharge of such functions; and when temporarily pre- vented from accomplishing them themselves, they would easily find among the young girls they had trained, assistants to supply their place. 2. Communes (corresponding to our parishes, towns and districts) may place at the disposal of the teacher a portion of ground capable for farming, an orchard and garden. To the school-house, which the l-2th article of the organic law- obliges every parish to provide for the teacher, ought always to he annexed, in the country, a piece of ground for a garden. If it were impossible to purchase such a piece of ground, the parish might secure it on a long lease, or supply its place by an annual indemnification of fifty francs to the teacher. In fine, the parishes that possess the means, should be obliged to supplement the fixed legal salary, in proportion to the increase of their ordinary revenue. Several general councils have voted fimds to indemnify teachers who attend conferences, and to aid in the maintenance of libraries established by them. This example ought to be generally imitated. Instead of limiting themselves to making up the exact legal salary of teacher.s, when the revenues of the parishes are defi- cient, the counties ought to aid such as can not raise the salary of their school- masters to the minimum of five hundred francs, comprising every kind of emolument. The majoritv of the general councils vote funds for improving the breed of horses and cattle; whv could they not establish a few premiums for the amelioration of mankind 1 "Whv could they not grant, every year, a few prizes to the best teachers of each district— those whom the reports of the in- spectors and the committees recognized as the best 1 In fine, the parishes— and, they failing, the counties and the state— ought always to provide a mode- rate retiring provision for deserving teachers ; so that they may not dread re- tiring, when age unfits them for the maintenance of discipline. The higher school authorities,— the departmental and county councils,— could add to the pre- mium now required by law. 3. The nation alone can make thorough provision for the necessary amelio- ration of teachers, who are now public functionaries, and intrusted with the ed- ucation of the people. That they may discharge their functions with courage and devotedness, it is necessarv, after they have been properly trained in the Normal Schools, and their morality and capacity well attested, to make them a suitable appointment, so as to enable them to devote themselves exclusively to their school-duties; to live honorably, though unostentatiously, and to con- tinue improving themselves. It is necessary, besides, to afford them a pension when old age renders retreat imperative, and to remove from them all appre- hensions as to the lot of their families should they die prematurely— victims of their zeal in executing their painful duties. Let me be permitted to observe, that the law of June, 1833 — that law, in other respects, so full of wisdom, which grateful posterity will always quote with respect, and from which dates truly good primary instruction in France— that law, I sav. whilst declaring popular schools a public obligation, a social necessity, and raising teachers to the rank of commimal and irremoveable functionaries, has not done enot^h to render their condition what it ought to be, nor sufficientlv armed the executive for the strict execution of the law. The twelfth article savs, that every parish teacher shall be provided with a locality, properly situated for a habitation and the reception of pupils. I have mentioned, elsewhere, how this order of the law has, in many places, been exe- cuted; and in what sense many parishes understand the word properly. The same article guarantees the primary teacher a fixed salary of at least two hundred francs: it is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the minimum should be raised to three hundred francs: it results from calculations made by MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS' CONDITION. 433 the Minister of Public Instruction in his last report, that to raise the minimum to three hundred francs, it would be requisite to add a million to the budget, and that the said sum would I'all to the account of the department. 1 will not ask ■what is a million amid a budget of a thousand millions, and what is a million portioned nut among the eighty-six counties ; 1 know fiial the resources of France are great: her wants are likewise immense. But I will say, that the country should consider no sacrifice too costly to secure a service so important as that of popular instruction ; and that it ought not, in this respect, to be be- hind any civilized nation. The monthly fee, which, according to the fourteenth article, ought to be col- lected by tax-gatherers in the ordinary form, is the principal source of the teachers' income; but the law has left the fixing of if, too much to the arbitrary inclination of the mimicipal councils. An additional paragraph inserted, upon the proposal of M. Antoine Passy, in the third article of the law of receipts, 1841, submits this fee and the number of gratuitous pupils to the approval of the prefects, who, on the advice of the district commiitees, may fix a minimum rate for the monthly iee, and a maximum one for the number of gratuitous ad- missions. The faithful execution of this legislative enaciment would be a great benefit: let me hope, that in the next report of the minister, the lot of teachers shall appear every where ameliorated by its means. We must not believe, however, that it will be so productive as to exempt the legislature from raising the minimum fixed salary to three hundred francs. The law has, at the same lime, wished to guarantee the future of teachers. Two methods presented themselves for this object. To deduct from their fixed salaryfive per cent., as is done with the functionaries of the University, and thus to acquire for them a right to a retiring pension, or to establish simply a savings' or provident-box, in every respect like the ordinary ones; with this diflierence, that the deposits should be obligatory, and that they could not be withdrawn but at the retiring or death of the depositors. The first of these two systems has the disadvantage — in case of the more or less premature death of a teacher — of depriving his family of the amount deducted from his salary in favor of the surviving teachers. The second system, on the contrary, that of savings'- boxes, makes them run no chance of risk ; having reached the end of their career, the product of their economy is restored either to themselves when they retire, or to their families, should they die in the discharge of their duties. It is this last system which the law has sanctioned by establishing sav- ings'-boxes, formed by the annual deduction of a twentieth fiom the fixed salary of each parish teacher. This system has been found fault with, lor producing but a poor resource for a deserving teacher and his family. Indeed, the deduc- tion of a twentieth from a fixed salary of two hundred francs will produce, of capital and interest, at the end often years, only a reserve of one hundred,and twenty francs, five centines ; at the end of fifteen years, only a reserve of two hundred francs, fifteen centines ; at the end of twenty years, it will produce about three hundred francs ; at the end of twenty-five years, a little more than four hundred francs; at the end of thirty years, about five hundred trancs ; and forty years' service are necessary to save, in thie manner, a thousand francs. The same deduction made upon a fixed salary of three hundred francs will produce one hundred and eighty francs, at the end of ten years ; four hundred and fifty francs, at the end of twenty years; eight hundred and forty francs, at the end of thirty years; and about one thousand lour hundred and twenty-five francs, after forty years' service. A deduction of twenty francs per annum would amount, in teir years, to two hundred and Ibrty francs; in twenty years, to about six hundred francs; in thirty years, to about one thousand one hundred and twenty francs ; at the end of forty years, one thousand nine hundred francs. We see that, in supposing each teacher to deposit twenty francs a year, this system would still leave much scope for improvement ; since, after twenty or forty years' hard labor, it guarantees the teacher only from fifty to one hundred francs of revenue. To render these saving-boxes of great importance, it would be necessary, in my opinion, to make the deduction of a twentieth, not only from iheir Jixcd salary, but likewise from the casual one, from the mo atlily fee ; a thing easily done, as this fee must be collected by the ordinary tax-gatherers. A mixed system would perhaps be preferable— a system that would unite, as 28 434 MEANS OF IMPROVING TEACHERS' CONDITION. much as possible, the advantage of savings'-boxes and of deductions made from the salaries, to constitute a fund for retiring pensions. For this purpose, it would be necessary to establish in each chief city, a box, which should be both for savings and deductions, to which the teachers, the districts, and the counties should contribute, and which might receive gifts and legacies. I shall leave to n;ore skillful financiers, the task of developing this idea, and of showing how it might be executed; I limit myself to laying its foundation. Let me suppose a county composed of five hundred districts, and reckoning six hundred and fifty public teachers : this is almost the condition of the Lower Rhine. Let me sup- pose that this county consents to disburse per annum into the schools'-box, the sum of five thousand francs; that, on their part, the five hundred districts pay into it, annually, at an average, ten francs, which is one thousand francs — in fine, that a deduction of ftfteen francs is made from the salaries of the six hun- dred and fifty teachers, which makes annually seven thousand seven hundred and fifty francs; let me suppose farther, that all these payments amount to- gether to twenty thousand francs per annum, and we will have, at the end of ten years, without counting interest, or probable gifts and legacies, a sum of two hundred thousand francs; and, after twenty years, four hundred thousand francs; a capital which, placed at four per cent., would produce sixteen thou- sand francs of interest. This interest would be divided, according to an under- stood ratio, between the deserving and infirm teachers, and the widows and or- phans of teachers deceased. To have a right to a retiring pension, it should be necessary to give proofs of infirmity, or of at least thirty years' service. Widows would lose their claims on remarrying; and the children would cease to receive their portion at twenty-one years of age. It should be understood that the dis- tricts, small in number, which themselves might engage to provide retiring pensions to deserving teachers, should be at liberty to do so, and be exempted from contributing to the county-box. This box — which should, especially and essentially, be a fund ior pevsions — would be a saviiirthe rich; because the object of the institution is the in- struction of the poor. 31. They shall endeavor to give their pupils, by their conduct and manners, a continual example ofraotlesty, and of all the other virtues which they ought to He taught, and which they ought to practise. 37. The Freres shall take the greatest care that they very rarely punish their children, as they ought to.be persuaded that, by refraining as much as possible from punishmetit. they will best succeed in properly conducting a school, and in establishing order in it. 38. When punishment shall have become absolutely necessary, they shall take the greatest care to punish with the greatest moderation and piesence ol mind, and never to do it under the influence of a hasty movement, or when they feel irritated. 39. They shall watch over themselves that they never exhibit the least anger or impatience, either in their corrections, or in any of their words or actions; as they ought to be convinced, that if they do not take these precautions the scholars will not profit from their correction, (and the Freres never ought to correct except with the object of benefiting their children) and God will not give the correction his blessing. 40. They shall not at any time give to their scholars any injurious epithet oi insulting name. 41. They shall also take the greatest care not to strike their scholars with hand, foot, or stick, nor to push thetn rudely. 42. They shall take great care not to pull theirears, their hair, or their noses, nor to fling any thing at them; these kinds of corrections ought not to be prac- tised by the Freres, as they are very indecent and opposed to charity and Chris- tian kindness. 43. They shall not correct their scholars during prayers, or at the time of catechising, except when they cannot defer the correction. They shall not use corporal punishment, except when every other means of correction has failed to produce the right effect. 58. The Frere-director shall be inspector over all the schools in his town ; and when more than one inspector is necessary for one house of Freres, the other inspector shall report to the Frere-director twice a week on the conduct of each Frere, on the condition of his class, and on the progress of his scholars. 444 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. The following remarks on the Training School of this Brotherhood of Teachers are taken from "the Second Report of J. P. Kay Shuttleworth, on the Schools for the Training of Parochial Schoolmasters at Batter- sea." We had frequently visited the schools of the Brothers of the Christian Doc- trine in France, and had spent much time in the examination of their Ecolcs- mires, or Mother-School. Our attention was attracted to these schools by the gentle manners and simple habits which distinguished the Freies; by their sympathy for children, and the religious feeling which pervaded their element- ary schools. Their schools are certaiidy deficient in some of the niceties of organization and method ; and there are subjects on which the instruction might be more complete and exact; but each master was, as it were, a parent to the children around him. The school resembled a harmonious family. I'he self-denying industry of these pious men was remaikable. The habits of their order would be deemed severe in this country. In the Mother School (where they all reside,) ihey rise at four. After private meditation, their pub- lic devotions in the chapel occupy the early hours of the morning. The do- mestic drudger}' of the household succeeds. They breakfast at seven, and are in the schools of the great cities of France at nine. When the routine of daily school-keeping is at an end, after a short interval for refreshment and exercise, they open their evening schools, where hundieds of the adult population receive instruction, not merely in reading, writing, and the simplest elements of num- bers, but in singing, drawing, geography ; the mensuration of planes and solids; the history of 1^'rance. and in religion. Their evening schools do not close till ten. The public expenditure on account of their services is one-third the usual remuneraiioiT of an elementary schoolmaster in France, and they devote their lives, constrained by the influence of a religious feeling, under a rule of celibacy, but without a vow, to the education of the poor. The unquestionable self-denial of such a life; the attachment of the children, and of the adult pu[iils to their instructors, together with the constant sense of the all-subduing presence of Christian principle, rendered the means adopted by the Christian Brothers, for the training of their novices, a matter of much interest and inquiry. The Mother School differs in most important respects from a Normal School, but the extent of this difference is not at first sight apparent, and is one of those results of our experience which we wish to submit. The Mother School is an establishment comprising arrangements for the in- struction and training of novices ; for the residence of the brothers, who are engaged in the active performance of the duties of their order, as masters of elementary day and evening schools ; and it affords an asylum, into which they gradually retire from the fatigues and cares of their public labors, as age ap- proaches, or infirmities accumulate, to spend the period of sickness or decrepi- tude in the tranquillity of the household provided for them, and amidst the con.solations of their brethren. The brothers constitute a family, performing every domestic service, ministering to the sick and infirm, and assembling for devotion daily in their chapel. Their novices enter about the ages of twelve or fourteen. They at once as- sume the dress of the order, and enter upon the self-denying routine of the house- hold. The first yearsof their novitiate are of course devoted to such elementary instruction as is necessary to prepare them for their future duties as teachers of the poor. Their habits are formed, not only in the couise of this instruction, but by joining the religious exercises; performing the household duties; and enjoying the benefit of cofistant intercourse with the elder brethren of the Mother School, who are at once their instructors and friends. In this life of seclusion, the superior of the Mother School has opportunities of observing and ascertaining the minutest traits of character, which indicate their comparative qualifications for the future labors of the order ; nor is this vigilance relaxed, but rather increas- ed, when they first quit the private studies of the Mother School, to be gradu- ally initialed in their public labors as instructors of the people. Such of the novices as are found not to possess the requisite qualification.s, especially as respects the moral constitution necessary for the duties of their order, are permitted to leave the Mother School to enter upon other pursuits. NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. 445 During the period of the novitiate, such instances are not rare, but we have reason to believe, that they seldom occur after the brother has acquired ma- turity. As their education in the Mother School proceeds, the period devoted every day to their public labors in the elementary schools is enlarged ; and they thus, under the eye of elder brethren, assisted by their example and precepts, gradu- ally emerge from the privacy of their novitiate to their public duties. In all this there is not much that differs from the life of a young pupil in a Normal School ; but, at this point, the resemblance ceases, and a great diver- gence occurs. The brother, whose novitiate is at an end, continues a member of the house- hold of the Mother School. He has only advanced to a higher rank. He is sur- rounded by the same influences. The daily routine which formed his domestic and religious habits continues. His mind is fed, and his purposes are strength- ened by the conversation and examples of his brethren, and his conduct is under the paternal eye of his superior. Under such circumstances, personal identity is almost absorbed in the corporate life by which he is surrounded. The strength of the order supports his weakness : the spirit of the order is the pervading principle of his life: he thinks, feels, and acts, by an unconscious inspiration from every thing by which he is surrounded, in a calm atmosphere of devotion and religious labor. All is prescribed ; and a pious submission, a humble faith, a patient zeal, and a self-denying activity are his highest duties. Contrast his condition with that of a young man leaving a Normal School at the age of eighteen or nineteen, after three or four years of comparative seclu- sion, under a regimen closely resembling that of the Mother School. At this age, it is necessary that he should be put in charge of an elementary school, in order that he may earn an independence. The most favorable situation in which he can be placed, because remote from the grosser forms of temptation, and therefore least in contrast with his previous position, is the charge of a rural school. For the tranquil and eventless life of the master of a rural school, such a training is not an unfit preparation. His resources are not taxed by the necessity for inventing new means to meet the novel combinations which arise in a more active state of society. His energy is equal to the task of instructing the submissive and tractable, though often dull children of the peasantry ; and the gentle manners and quiet demeanor, which are the uniform results of his previous education, are in harmony with the passionless life of the seclusion into which he is plunged. His knowledge and his skill in method are abundantly superior to the necessities of his posi- tion, and the unambitious sense of duty which he displays attracts the confidence and wins the regard of the clergyman of the parish and of his intelligent neigh- bors. For such a life, we have found even the young pupils whom we intro- duced into the training schools at their foundation well fitted, and we have pre- ferred to settle them, as far as we could, on the estates of our personal friends, where we are assured they have succeeded. Those only who have entered the Normal School at adult age, have been capable of successfully contending with the greater difficulties of town schools. » But we are also led by our experience to say, that such a novitiate does not prepare a youth of tender age to encounter the responsibilities of a large town or village school, in a manufacturing or mining district. Such a position is in the most painful contrast with his previous training. He exchanges the com- parative seclusion of his residence in the Normal School for the diflicult position of a public instructor, on whom many jealous eyes are fixed. For the first time he is alone in his profession ; unaided by the example of his masters ; not stim- ulated by emulation with his fellows ; removed from the vigilant eye nf the Principal of the school ; separated from the powerful influences of that corpo- rate spirit, which impelled his previous career, yet placed amidst difficulties, perplexing even to the most mature experience, and required to tax his inven- tion to meet new circumstances, before he has acquired confidence in the un- sustained exercise of his recently developed powers. He has left the training school for the rude contact of a coarse, selfish, and immoral populace, whose gross appetites and manners render the narrow streets in his neighborhood scenes of impurity. He is at once brought face to face with an ignorant and corrupt multitude, to whose children he is to prove a leader and guide. His difiiculties are formidable. His thougnts are fixed on the deformity of 446 NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. this monstrous condition of society. It is something to have this sense of the extremity of the evil, but to confront it, that conviction should become the spur to persevering exertion. We have witnessed this failure, and we conceive thai such difficulties can only be successfully encountered by masters of maturer age and experience. The situation of the novice of a Mother School, founded in the centre of a great manufacturing ciiy, is in direct contrast with that of the young student, ex- changing his secluded training in a Normal School for the unaided charge of a great town school. If such a Mother School were founded in the midst of one of our largest commercial towns, under the charge of a Principal of elevated character and acquirements ; if he had assembled around him devoted and humble men, ready to spend their lives in reclaiming the surrounding population by the foundation and management of schools for the poor; and into this society a youth were introduced at a tender age, instructed, trained, and reared in the habits and du- ties of his profession; gradually brought into contact with the actual evil, to the healing of which his life was to be devoted; never abandoned to his own comparatively feeble resources, but always feeling himself the missionary of a body able to protect, ready to console, and willing to assist and instruct him : in such a situation, his feebleness would be sustained by the strength of a corpo- ration animated with the vitality of Christian principle. We are far from recommending the establishment of such a school, to the suc- cess of which we think we perceive insurmountable obstacles in this country. The only form in which a similar machinery could exist in England is that of a Town Normal School, in which all the apprentices or pupil teachers of the several elementary schools might lodge, and where, under the superintendence of a Principal, their domestic and religious habits might be formed. The mas- ters of the elementary schools might be associates of the Normal School, and conduct the instruction of the pupil teachers, in the evening or early in the morning, when free from the duties of their schools. The whole body of mas- ters would thus form a society, with the Principal at their head, actively em- ployed in the practical daily duties of managing and instructing schools, and also by their connection with the Town Normal School, keeping in view and contributing to promote the general interests of elementary education, by rear- ing a body of assistant masters. If a good library were collected in this central institution, and lectures from time to lime delivered on appropriate subjects to the whole body of masters and assistants, or, which would be better, if an upper school were founded, which might be attended by the masters and most advan- ced assistants, every improvement in method would thus be rapidly diffused through the elementary schools of towns. PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOLS OF VERSAILLES AND DIJON. The Prim iry Normal School of Versailles is for the Department of Seine and Oise. It comprises within its ample premises* several establishments for the instruction and practice of teachers. The sciiool itself contains eighty pupils under regular instruction throughout the year, iind furnishes a two months' course to adult schoolmasters. The establishments for practice begin wiih the infant school, and rise through the primary to the grade of primary superior. Of the elementary schools, one affords the y( nng teach- ers an example of the method of mutual, and another of simultaneous in- struction. The primary superior school had been recently established, at the date of ray visit, in 1837. There is, besides, an evening department for the element n-y instruction of adults, taught by the pupils of the Normal School, and also a school of design, which is established here rather for convenience than as properly belonging to the range of the institution. The whole establishment is under the immediate control of a director (Mr. Le Brun), subject to the autliority of a committee, and of the univer- sity, the inspectors of which make reguLn- visits. The eonunittee inspect the school (>y sub-committees once a month, visiting the recitation-rooras of the professors without giviug special notice — ^a plan much to be preferred to that of stated visits. If a member of a committee desires questions to be put upon any particular points, he calls upon the professor to extend his examination, or asks questions himself The director examines the classes frequently, or is present at the lessons. There are eight professors for the various courses, and two "repeaters" (repetiteurs), these latter superintend- ing the pupils when not with the professors, and giving them assistance if required. The repeaters are responsible for the execution of the order of the day in the institution, and for the police, and one of them sleeps in each of the two dormitories. Some of the teachers in the Normal School also give instruction in the model schools, and have charge of the pupils while engaged in the practical exercises. The domestic economy is under the charge of the director, but he is allowed an assistant, who actually dis- charges the duty of superintendence, and who has brought this department into most excellent order.f Tiiere are a certain number of gratuitous places, to which pupils are ad- mitted by competition, those found best prepared at the examination for admission having the preference. Pay pupils are also received at a very moderate rate,| but are exactly on the same footing, in reference to the duties of the institution, with the former. Young men who wish to com- pete for a place, and are not sufficiently prepared, may enter as pay pupils, and thus receive instruction directly applicable to their object. The age of admission is, by rule, between sixteen and twenty-one, but the former limit is considered too early for profitable entrance. The qualifications for ad- mission consist in a thorough knowledge of the subjects taugiit in the ele- mentary schools. The period of instruction is two years. The first year is devoted to the * Used under a former dynasty to accommodate ttie hounds of Charles X. t During the first year of the institution, the fare of each student cost flfty-nine centimes (twelve cents; per day. They had meat twice a day, except on the fasts of the Church, t Five bundred francs, or about one hundred dollars, per annuin 448 NORMAL SCHOOL OF VERSAILLES. revision of elementary studies, and tlie second to an extension of them, and to theoretical and practical instruction in the science and art of teaching. The subjects of revision or instruction are, reading, writing, linear drawing, geography, history, the drawing of maps, morals and religion, vocal music, arithmetic, elementary physics, terraculture, and pedagogy. The religious instruction is given by an ecclesiastic, who is. almoner to the school ; it includes lessons on the doctrines and history of the church, given twice per week. Protestants are not required to attend these lessons, but receive instruction out of the institution from a minister of their own con- fession. Physical education is conducted by means of exercises in gymnastics, by walks, and the practice of gardening. In summer the pupils bathe once a week. The gymnastic exercises are taught by the more expert pupils to the scholars of the model schools, and appear to have taken well among them. The pupils study in a room common to all, and the degree of attention which they pay, and their conduct, are marked, according to a uniform scale, by the superintending " repeater," and reported daily to the director. Once every month the professor examines these classes on the studies of the past month, and reports the standing. Marks are also given for great proficiency and attention, which are reported with the standing. These marks, and those of the examination, are summed up, and when they amount to a cer- tain number for the month, the pupil is entitled to a premium. The premi- ums consist of books uniformly bound, and accompanied by a certificate Report is made of these pupils to the minister of public instruction, and the record may serve them when desirous to secure a particular place. The director assembles the school to hear an account of these monthly reports, and makes such remarks as they may suggest. Besides the more usual school implements, this institution has a library, a small collection of physical and chemical apparatus, of technological speci- mens, already of considerable interest, and of models of agricultural imple- ments. There are also two gardens, one of which is laid out to serve the purposes of systematic instruction in horticulture, the other of which con- tains specimens of agricultural products, and a ground for gymnastic exer- cises. Tiie pupils work by details of tlu-ee at a time, under the direction ot the gardener, in cultivating flowers, fruits, vegetables, &c. They have the use of a set of carpenters' and joiners' tools, with which they have fitted up their own library in a very creditable way.* In the second year they receive lectures on the science and art of teaching, and in turn give instruction in the schools, under the direction of the teachers. Their performances are subsequently criticised for their ithprovement. The order of the day in summer is as follows : The pupils rise at five, wash, make up tiieir beds, and clean their dormi- tories, in two divisions, wliich alternate ; meet in the study-hall at half past five for prayers, breakfast, engage in studies or recitation until one ; dine and have recreation until two ; study or recite until four ; have exercises or recreation, sup, study, and engage in religious reading and prayers ; and retire at ten, except in special cases. Before meals there is a grace said, and during meals one of the pupils reads aloud. In distributing the time devoted to study and recitation, an hour of study is made to precede a lesson, when the latter requires specific preparation ; when, on the contrary, the lesson requires after-reflection to fix its principles, or consists of a lecture, of which the notes are to be written out, the study hour follows the lesson. The branches of a mechanical nature are inter- • A carpenter who came to attend the evening classes was found by the director so intellie;ent, that he advised him to prepare for the school. The yount; man succeeded in entering, at the annual competition, and subsequently, on leaving the school, received one of the best appoint ments of his year as a teacher. NORMAL SCHOOL OF DIJON. 4i9 spersed with the intellectual. The students of the second year are em- ployed, in turn, in teaching, and are relieved from other duties during the hours devoted to the schools of practice. On Sunday, after the morning service, the pupils are free to leave the walls of the institution. The same is the ease on Thursday afternoon. The director has found, however, bad results from these indiscriminate leaves of absence. The discipline of the school is mild, the age and objects of the pupils being such that the use of coercive means is seldom required. The first step is admonition by a " repeater" or professor, the next a private admo- nition by the director. If these means prove inetfectual, dismission follows. The director has great influence, from his personal character, and from the fact that his recommendation can secure a good place* to the pupil imme- diately on leaving the school. The mode of life in the institution is very simple. The pupils are neatly but roughly dressed, and perform most of the services of police for themselves. The dormitories are very neat. The bedsteads are of wrought-iron, corded at the bottom. During the night the clothes are deposited in small bo.xes near the beds. The extra articles of clothing are in a common room. Cleanliness of dress and person are care- fully enjoined. The fare is plain, but good, and the arrangements connected with the table unexceptionable. There is an infirmary attached to the school, which is, however, but rarely used. The schools for practice do not require special description, as their organ- ization will be sutticiently understood from what has already been said of prinuiry schools, and they have not been long enough in operation to acquire the improved form which, I cannot doubt, they will receive under the present able director of the Normal School. The Primary Normal School at Dijon, for the Department of Cote d'Or, in its general organization, is the same as that at Versailles. It ditt'ers, how- ever, in one most important particular, which involves other diflerences of detail. All the instruction, except of religion and music, as well as the su- perintendence, is under the charge of the director and a single assistant, who, by the aid of the pupils, carry on the schools of practice, as well as the courses of the Normal School. This arrangement limits the amount of instruction, and interferes very materially with the arrangement of the stud- ies. The school is conducted, however, with an excellent spirit. An idea of the plan will be obtained from the order of the day, which also contains an outline of the course of instruction. From five to six A. M., tlie pupils say their prayers, wash, &c. From six to seven the higher drvision has a lesson in French grammar. The lower receives a lesson in geography or history alternately. From seven to eight, the higher division has a lesson in geography or history alternately ; the lower division in arithmetic. From eight to half past eight, breakfist and recreation. From half past eight until eleven, a portion of the higher di- vision is employed in the prinuxry schools of practice, and the others are engaged in study. From eleven until one, writing and linear drawing for both divisions. From one until two, dinner and recreation. From two until half past four, as from half past eight to eleven. Recreation until five. From five to six, instruction in instrumental or vocal music for each division alternately. From six to seven, the higher division has a lesson in geome- try, or its applications ; the lower division in French grammar. From seven until a quarter before eight, supper and recreation. From this time until nine, the higher division has a lesson in physical science or natural history, mechanics, agriculture, and rural economy, or book-keeping ; the lower di- * The best pliices, in point of emolument, are worth from fifteen to eighteen himdred franca (about $300 to $360). 29 450 NORMAL SCHOOL OF DIJON. vision in reading. The last quarter of an hour is occupied by both divisions in prayers, after which they retire. This order applies to all the days of the week but Thursday, when, from eight to ten, the pupils receive moral and religious instruction ; from ten to eleven, instruction in the forms of simple, legal, and commercial writings ; and from two to four, engaged in the review of part of the week's studies. On the afternoon of Thursday the schools of practice are not in session. On Sunday, after the duties following their rising, the pupils are occupied in studying and revising some of the lessons of the week. From nine to ten o'clock, in religious reading, aloud. At ten they go to service in the parish chapel, attended by the director and his assistant. Receive moral and religious instruction, on their return, until dinner-time. After dinner, attend the evening service, and then take a walk. In the evening, assemble for conversation on pedagogical subjects, and for prayers. NORMAL SCHOOL* FOR TEACHERS OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, AT PARIS. The " Normal School," intended to furnish professors for colleges, was established in 1794, by the same convention which created the polytechnic school. The organization proposed by the law was upon a scale entirely beyond the wants to be supplied ; and, notwithstanding the exertions of its eniinent professors, the school had but a temporary existence, and ill suc- cess, meanly from the unprepared state of the pupils who had entered it, and to wiiom the kind of instruction was entirely unadapted. There were thir- tee*courses of lectures, and among the professors were Lagrange, Laplace, Haiiy, Monge, BerthoUet, Volney, Bernardin St. Pierre, Sicard, and Laliarpe. The school was suppressed by a decree of April, 1795, and its pupils dis- persed. After the reorganization of the university, in 1806, the expediency of reviving the normal school appears to have been felt, and it was reorgan- ized ill 1808. The number of pupils provided for in the new plan was three hundred; but from 1810 to 18-J6 there were never more than fifiy-eight actually in attendance. According to the plan of instruction, lectures were to be attended out of doors, and interrogations and study to take place witliin the school, under the charge of the elder pupils. The recitations of the pupils to each other were called conferences ; a name which is still pre- served, being applied to the lessons given by the teachers, who are called masters of conferences. The duration of the course of instruction was lim- ited at lirst to two years, but subsequently extended to three. The school was a second time suppressed, in 1822 ; and in 1826 an institution, termed a "preparatory school," was subsiituted for it, which in its turn was abol- ished, and the old normal school revived by a decree of the lieutenant-genen.l of the kingdom, on the 6th of August, 1830. A report was made by M. Cousin, Secretary of the Council of Public Instruction, in October, 1830, the recommendations of which were adopted substantially. New regulations for the course of study, the general arrangements and discipline, have been gradually prepared, and the school has commenced a career of usefulness which it bids fair to prosecule wiih increasing success. The ciiief purpose of the normal school is to give its pupils ample oppor- tunities of preparation for the compe'.hion for places of adjuncts in the col- leges (cours d'agregalion), and its arrangements are all subordinate to this object. In this compeiidon. however, the pupils of the school meet on an equal footing, merely, with all otiier candidates. The officers, in 1837, were, the director, who did not reside at the school, nor take part in the instruction ; the director of studies, the resident head of the establishment; eight masters of conferences for the section of letters; six masters of conferences, and one for the drawing department, for the sec- tion of sciences; two preparers (preparateurs) ; a sub-director, charged wi:h a general superintendence of the pupils, and two assistants, called superin- tending masters. The masters of conferences have, in general, equivalent duties to the professors in the colleges. In 1837 there were eighty pupils in the !-ciiool, of whom forty-nine were supported entirely by the funds al- lowed by the government, and eighteen had half their expenses defr.iyed. The normal school at present occupies a part of the buildings belonging • From Bache's Education in Europe. 452 SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. to the Royal College of Louis-le-Grand, and the college furnishes the food and clothing of the pupils by ngreemeiU with the school. This connection has advantages, and among them, that of enabling the pupils to have some practice in teaching ; but they are more than counterbalanced by disadvan- tages, and the friends of the school are earnest in their endeavors to procure a separate domicile for it. The accommodations for lodging, study, instruc- tion, and exercise, as far as the building and its site are concerned, are cer- tainly of a most limited kind. Admission. — The number of pupils who may be admitted is determined every year by the probable number required to till the vacancies in second- ary instruction. The admissions are made by competition, and for the most successful competitors a limited number of bursaries (bourses) are established, divisible into half bursaries, which are distributed to those who require assis-tance. The candidates enter their names at the academy near- est to their residence, between the fifteenth of June and of July, every year. Each candidate deposits the following certificates, viz., of the date of birth, showing that he is over seventeen and under twenty-three years of ag^ of having been vaccinated; of moral conduct ; of having completed, or l^ng about to complete, his studies, including philosophy, and, if he intends to become a teaciier of science, a course of special mathematics and of phys- ics ; a declaration from his parent or guardian, if the candidate is a minor, that he will devote himself for ten years, from the period of admission, to public instruction. These lists are forwarded by the rectors of the several academies, with their remarks, to the council of public instruction, which returns, before the first of August, a list of those persons who may be ex- amined for admission. This examination is made in the several academies, with a view to select the most prominent candidates, whose cases are to be ultimately decided by competition at the school in Paris. It consists of compositions upon subjects which are the same for all the academies, and of interrogations and oral explanations. For the candidates, as future instruct- ors in letters, the written exercises are a dissertation, in French, on some points of philosopliy, an essay in Latin, an essay in French, a Latin and Greek version, and Latin verses. 7"he oral examinations turn upon the classical authors read in college, and upon the elements of philosophy, rhetoric, and history. The candidates in science have the same written ex- ercises in philosophy and in Latin versions, and in addition, must solve one or more questions in mathematics and physics. The oral examinations are upon subjects of mathematics, physics, and philosophy, taught in the philos- ophy class of the colleges. All the written exercises and notes of the oral examinations are forwarded to the minister of public instruction, and sub- mitted severally to a committee of letters and a committee of science, taken from among the masters of the normal school, the director being chairman of each committee. These committees decide whether the candidates are fit to be allowed to present themselves for examination at the school, and those who are deemed worthy, receive a notice to report themselves on or before the fifieenth of October. Previous to this competition the candidates are required to present tiieir diploma of bachelor of letters or of sciences. The masters of the normal school are divided into two committees, one of letters and the other of science, for conducting these examinations, which are oral, and the result of which determines the admission or rejection of the candidate. On admission, the pupil makes an engagement to devote himself to public instruction for ten years. Instruction. — The present arrangement of the courses of instruction can only be regarded as provisional, improvements being gradually introduced, as observation shows their necessity. The principle declared by the direct- or, M. Cousin, to be that of tiie school in this respect, is worthy of all com- mendation. " When," says M. Cousin, in his Report of 1835-6,* " experi- * Ecole Normale. Reglemeots, programmes, et rapports. Paris, 1837. SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. 453 ence shows the necessity or utility of a measure which the fundamental regulations of the school have not provided for, it is by no means proposed at once to the royal council for adoption as an article of the regulations ; authority is asked to put it to the test of practice, and it is only when found repeatedly successful that it is deemed prudent to convert it into a regula- tion." A close observation of the merits and defects of the system is thus made to pave the way for judicious changes. The full course of the school, at present, occupies three years. The pupils are divided into two sections, that of letters and of science, which pursue separate courses. In the section of letters, the first year is devoted to a revision, and the second to an extension, of the higher courses of the colleges, and the third is especially employed in fitting the pupils to become professors. In fulfilling this object, however, no instruction in the science or art of teaching is given in the establishment, nor is it obligatory upon the pupils to teach, so that, as tar as systematic practice goes, they derive no direct benefit from the school ; it is a privilege, however, which many enjoy, to be called to give lessons in some of the royal colleges, particularly in that with which the school is now connected by its locality. When the pupil intends to devote himself to teaching in the grammar classes of the colleges, or is found not to have the requisite ability for taking a high rank in the body of instructors, he passes at once from the first year's course to the third, and competes, accordingly, in the examination of adjuncts (agreges). The consequences of the low esteem in which the grammar studies are held have been much deplored by the present director of the school,* and a re- form in regard to them has been attempted, with partial success. The courses are conducted by teachers called masters of conferences, who seldom lecture, but question the pupils upon the lessons which have been appointed for them to learn, give explanations, and are present while they interrogate each other, as a kind of practice in the art of teaching. In some cases, the students themselves act as masters of conferences. The course of letters of the first year comprised, in 1836-7 ,f 1. Greek language and literature, three lessons per week. 2. Latin and French literature, three lessons. 3. Ancient history and antiquities, three lessons. 4. A course of philosophy higher than that of the colleges, three lessons. 5. General physics, one lesson. Chemistry, one lesson, the courses being introduced chiefly to keep up the knowledge of these subjects. 6. German and EngUsh language, each one lesson. The conferences, or lessons on general physics, chemistry, and the modern languages, are by pupils who give instruction and explanations to their com- rades. At the end of the first year there are examinations, according to the result of which the student passes to the courses of the second year, or, in the case before stated, to those of the third year, or leaves the school. These examinations are conducted by inspectors-general of the university, named for the purpose by the minister. Pupils who have passed, may present themselves at the university as candidates for the degree of licentiate of let- ters. The second yearns course of letters does not necessarily include any scien- tific studies. The courses of language and philosophy go into the liistory of these subjects. They consist of — 1. Lectures on the history of Greek literature, three lessons per week. 2. On the history of Roman literature, two lessons. 3. On the history of Frencli hteraturc, one lesson. 4. English language, one lesson. 5. On the history of philosophy, two lessons. 6. Continuation of the historical course, two lessons. The recitations are accompanied by suitable written exercises. * Rapport sur les travaux de l'6cole normale pendant l'ann6e, 1835-6. Par M. Cousin, t The distribution of subjects is taken from a manuscript kindly furnished to me by the direct- or of studies, M. Viguier ; it does not agree precisely with the plan mai'ked out in the regulations. 454 SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. At the end of the year the pupils are examined. Those who have not already obtained the degree of* licentiate of letters are now required to do so, or to leave the school. The examinations for this degree consist of compositions in French and Latin prose, on ditferent days. Latin verses and Greelv themes. Explanations of selected passages from the second book of Herodotus, the speech of Pericles in Thncydides, the Gorgias of Pluto, the speecli of Demosthenes against Leptines, the choruses of (E:lipus at Colonos, the Hecuba of Euripides, the combat of Heroiiles and Amyous in Theocritus, the Hymns of Synesius, Cicero de O/'atore and de leg-ibus, the Ger- many of Tacitus, the Treatise of Seneca de beneficiis, the last two nooks of Quin- tilian's Rhetoric, the iifth book of Lucretius de natura rerum, the first book of Horace's Epistles, the second book of Horace's Odes, the Troas of Seneca. These books are liable to be changed, from time to time, on no' ice being given. The candidate is expected to answer the questions on philosophy, literature, history, and philology, to which the reading of the author may give rise. In llie third year of letters, the courses are special, the divisions corre- sponding with the courses of the royal colleges, and consisting of grammar, humanities, and rhetoric, history, and philosophy. Each pupil takes his place in one or other of these divisions, and is not required to follow the courses of the others. The lectures and recitations constituting the entire course of letters of the third year were, during the second half year of 1836-7—1. Latin language and grammar, three lessons. 2. Greek language, two lectures and one lesson, 3. Latin litera- ture, two lectures and one lesson. 4. Greek literature, two lectures and one lesson. 5. Latin eloquence, two lectures. 6. Latin poetry, two lectures, 7. French litera- ture, one lesson. 8. History of the philosophy of the ancients, two lectures. 9. Ancient geography, two lectures. 10. Philosophy, one lesson. The lectures alluded to are those attended by the pupils at the Sorbonne. The following were the courses of the different years in the section of science during the same term, the lectures being those of the faculty of sciences of the university. First year. 1. Astronomy, two lessons per week. 2. Descriptive Geometry, two lessons. 3. Chemistry, two lectures, one lesson, and four hours of manipulation. 4. Botany, one lesson. 5. Philosophy, two lessons, fi. German language, one lesson. 7. Drawing, one lesson, during the week, and one on Sunday. Second year. 1. Physics, two lectures, two lessons, and one hour' of manipula- tion. 2. Chemistry, two lectures. 3. Botany, one lesson. 4. Vegetable physiolo- gy, two lectures. 5. Calculus of probabilities, two lectures. 6. 'Differential and integral calculus, two lectures and two lessons. 7. Drawing, one lesson during the weekj and one on Sunday. Third year. 1. Mechanics, four lectures and two lessons. 2. Chemical analysis, two lectures and one hour of manipulation. 8. Chemistry, one lecture. 4. Natural history, two lessons. 5. Geology, one lesson. 6. Botany, one lesson. 7. Draw- ing, one lesson. On Sunday, the pupils make botanical and geological excursions into the environs. The pupils undergo similar examinations to those of the section of letters, and before presenting themselves as candidates for the place of adjunct, they must have taken at least the degree of licentiate of sciences. They are however, specially relieved from the necessity of matriculating in those courses at the university which they attend in the school, and which other- \vise would be necessary in order to obtain the degree of licentiate. These are, for the mathematical sciences, the differential and integral calculus and mechanics ; for the physical sciences, physics and chemistVy ; and for the natural sciences, geology, botany, «Slc. The examination for the degree of licentiate of mathematical science may be made at the end of the second year, bv pupils of this section of the normal school, and that for licentiate of physical science at the close of the third year, ' SECONDARY NORMAL SCHOOL AT PARIS. 455 The programmes of the several lessons* in both sections are prepared by the masters, and submitted to the council of public instruction every year before the beginning of the course. Besides these lectures and recitations, the pupils are required to attend sucii other lectures at the faculty of letters or of sciences of the university, or any other public institution, as may be designated to them. At the ter- mination of the third year's course, ia the month of July, they are examined in the school, and present themselves as competitors for the places of ad- juncts, according to the special studies which they have pursued. The courses of the school are arranged in reference to the competition for these places, an account of the examinations for which has already been given in the general description of secondary instruction in France. In this competition they are brought in contact with the best talent wliich has chosen a different road to preferment from that offered by the norma! school. Suc- cess in this trial is, of course, not always a fair criterion of the state of the school, but certainly offers, on the average, an idea of the merits of its dif- ferent departments, and is so used in directing their improvement. It may be of interest, therefore, to give the results of one of these competitions, namely, that for 1836. The judges of the competition for the places of ad- juncts in philosophy report ten candidates for the six places; of these, five of the successful ones were from the normal school, but the first was from anotlier institution. For six vacancies in the higher classes of letters there were thirty candidates examined, and of these, two of the successful ones, including "the first upon the list, were pupils of the school. For adjuncts in the sciences there were eight places and nineteen candidates, the school furnishing six of the successful competitors, and among them the first on the list. In history and geography there were eight candidates for five places; the institutions from which they came are, however, not stated. In grammar, there were forty-one candidates for eight places ; of the successful competitors the school sent five, and among them the first on the list. The keen nature of this competition, while it excites the pupils of the school to great exertion, produces a most deleterious effect upon the health of the more feeble. Indeed, their general appearance, when compared with those of other young men of the same age, is far from favorable. It is part of a system which is considered adapted to the national character, but winch is certainly by no means a necessity for men in general, since the teachers of the German gymnasia are prepared without its severe pressure. The collections subsidiary to the instruction are — 1st. A library of works relating to education and to the courses of study, which is open for two hours every day, and from which the students may receive books. This library is under the charge of the sub-director of studies. The students are, besides, furnished with the books which they use in their classes at the expense of the school, and which, unless injured, are returned by them after use. 2d. A small collection of physical apparatus. 3d. A collection of chemical apparatus connected with a laboratory, for practice in manipuL.tion. The courses of manipulation are not, however, carried out to their due extent, and the study-rooms are common to many individuals. The pupils are divided into two sections for study, each of which is in charge of one of the superintending masters. Discipline. — Though there are minute regulations for discipline, the age of the pupils and the character of their pursuits and expectations render the exercise of severity but little necessary. At the tim(f of my visit to the school, in 1837, the youngest pupil was seventeen years of age, and there were but four of between eighteen and nineteen connected with it. Much difference of opinion exists as to whether the frequent permissions to individuals to leave the premises should not be replaced by excursions made by the whole of the pupils, under the supervision of an officer. At • A series of programmes is given in full in M. Cousin's work, before referred to. 456 SECOJiDARY NORMAL, SCHOOL AT PARIS. present, Sunday is a day of general leave of absence, and on Thursday after- noon individual permissions are freely granted by the director of studies. This institution occupies the same rank with those attached to some of the Prussian universities, and intended to prepare masters for the gymnasia. It has an advantage over them in the spirit produced by the greater numbers of its pupils, and by the closer connection with the school, which results from their studying and residing within its walls. It is, in turn, inferior to the seminaries for secondary teachers at Berlin, in the absence of arrange- ments for practical teaching, and in even a more important respect, namely, the want of that religious motive of action which forms the characteristic of the Prussian system. The deficiencies of this great school, in regard to both religious and practical education, struck me, I must confess, very forci- bly.* * In the general tenor of the foregoing; remarks, I have the sanction of M. Cousin, ia the pref- ace to liis-;iccount of the Normal School, already referred to. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL FRANCE. The Polytechnic School of France was established by adecree of the National Convention, dated March 11, 1794, through the inOuence of Monge, Carnot, Fourcroy, and others, under the name of the Central School of Public Works — which name was changed to its present desig- nation in 1795. To prepare a suitable choir of teachers, a certain num- ber of pupils of the right character were trained under such professors as Lagrange, Laplace, Hassenfratz, and BerthoUet. The original object of the school, a diffusion of mathematical, physi- cal, and chemical science, and the graphic arts, has been constantly maintained under the successive changes in the government of France; and although the pupils are not obliged to enter any branch of the gov- ernment service ; in point of fact, most of the graduates become engineers, military, naval or civil, or are promoted to the direction of public works. Since 1800, the school has furnished, on an average, one hundred thoroughly educated graduates for the public service, annually. The general charge oi" the institution belongs to the war department, and the immediate control is vested in a military commandant, assisted by a vice-commandant, both of whom must have been pupils of the school with an able choir of subordinate officers, professors, and tutors. The following account of the school is abridged from President Bache's Report : The school is open to all candidates over sixteen years of age, from any part of France, who give satisfactory evidence of talents and acquirements. Each applicant registers his name at the prefecture of the department in which he resides, and is examined for admission in the district to which he belongs, or where he is under instruction. With this registry is deposited the certificate of the date and circumstances of birth, a certificate of vaccination or of having had the small-pox, and of general health, and an obligation on the part of the parent or guardian to pay the sum of one thousand francs (about two hundred dollars) yearly to the school, in case of admission. The subjects upon which a candidate is examined are — 1. Arithmetic, in all its branches. 2. Elementary geometry. 3. Algebra. 4. Plane trigonometry. 5. Statics treated synthetically. 6. Elements of analytical geometry. 7. The use of the logarithmic tables. 8. Latin, as far as it is taught in the rhetoric class of the colleges, and French composition. 9. Drawing, with the crayon and with instru- ments. If the candidate possesses, in addition, a knowledge of physics, chemistry, German, and of India-ink drawing, they are taken into the account. There are four examiners appointed annually by the minister of war, on the nomination of the council of instruction of the school. Tliese divide between them the different districts in which the examinations are to be held, and repair, at a stated time, between the first of August and tenth of October, to the place ap- pointed. The performance of the candidates is registered according to a scale of marks, as nearly uniform as the judgment of different individuals allows; these registers being compared, the candidates are admitted in the order of merit, thus 458 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. determined, as far as the number of vacancies permits. Tlie successful candidates are informed of the result of their examination, and join the school early in No- vember. They are received by a board (jury) of examiners, who subject them to a second examination, intended to verify the first, and to tlie inspection of a sur- geon. This board consists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the two permanent examiners attached to the school, and the four examiners for admission. There are twenty-four gratuitous placfs for pupils whose families are in needy circumstances ; of these, twelve are at the disposal of the minister of war, eight of the minister of commerce, and four of the minister of marine. These bursaries may be halved. No pupil who is lower than two-thirds from the head of the list, in the order of merit at admission, is eligible to a bursary or half bursary. Besides the students thus regularly entei'ing the school, a certain number of youths are permitted to attend the lectures, (auditeurs libres.) The majority of these are foreigners. The highest executive authority in matters of instruction, is the director of studies. This office was created in 1804, previous to which time the council of instruction had discharged its duties. The director of studies overseers the details of instruction, being immediately responsible to the commandant of the school. He is appointed by the king, on the joint nomination of the council of instruction of the school and of the academy of sciences, and is a member of all boards con- vened in relation to its affairs. A council, termed the council of instruction {conseil d^ instruction,} and composed of the two commandants, the director of studies, the professors of the school, one master, appointed annually by the teach- ers from among their number, and the librarian, who acts as secretary, meets once a month for the discussion of business relating to instruction. When changes are required in the courses or in the examinations, they are discussed in this council and referred to a second, which may be considered as the chief legislative body, in regard to the subjects composing the instruction. This council, termed the council of']mpvo\emen\, (conseil de perfectionnement,) consists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the five examiners in the school, one examiner for admission, three members of the academy of sciences, three professors in the school, and a member from each of the branches of the public service into which the graduates enter. The officers directly concerned in instruction are, the professors and the re- peaters (repetiteurs.) The professors and masters are appointed by the minister of war on the joint nomination of the council of instruction and of the particular academy of the institute in which the subject of instruction is classed. The pro- fessors communicate instruction by lecture and by general interrogations of the pupils. The repeaters conduct the special interrogations, and give aid to the pupils while engaged in study. The title of " repeater" is, no doubt, derived from the original duty of these teachers having been to go over the lessons of the professors. The repeaters do the more laborious work of instruction, and since their substitu- tion for the pupil teachers, who were employed in the early period of the existence of the school, have been considered most important officers. Some of the most distinguished professors have risen from the rank of repeaters. There are two divisions of the pupils for instruction, corresponding to the two years' duration of the courses. No pupil is allowed to remain in one of these di- visions more than two years, nor in the school more than three. To proceed from the first division to the second, or to graduate, an examination must be passed upon the studies of the year then just elapsed. Until 1798, these examinations were conducted by the professors, but now there are examiners, who are not con- nected with the school. Two of these are permanent, and appointed by the min- ister of war on the joint nomination of the council of instruction and of the academy of sciences, and three are appointed annually on the recommendation of the council. The courses of the first year are — analysis, geometry, mechanics, descriptive geometry, application of analysis to geometry, physics, chemistry, French composi- tion, topographical drawing, drawing of the human figui-es, landscape drawing, and India-ink drawing. Those of the second year are — a continuation of the analy- sis, geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, and drawing of the first year, besides machines, geodesy and social arithmetic, architecture, and the German language. POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. 459 Analysis. First Year. Differential and integral calculus, to include the rectification and quadrature of plane curves, and curved surfaces, and llie cubature of solids. Second Year. Ufferential and intefjral calculus continued. Elements of tile calculus of variations aud of finite differences. Formulaj of interpolation, !.s of students, who depend upon their own exertions for a livelihood, and especially for those persons who manage the estates of large proprie- tors, who in England or Scotland are called bailiffs, or stewards, and i;i France, agricultural engineers. The following is abridged from Colman's " European Agriculture and Rural Economy." The term of residence at Grignon is fixed at two years ; but the pupil remains three months after liis studies are completed, in order to digest and draw up the entire management of an estate, and describe its details in every department. The students are divided into classes denominated internals and externals, or resident and non-resident. The former reside entirely in the house, where they are lodged and boarded, and pay about 8U0 franes, or 32 pounds, or 160 dollars, per year. The externals, or non-residents, provide for themselves, or lodge at the houses of the neighboring farmers, and pay a Very small amount for their instruction. This arrangement is particularly designed to benefit poor scholars. Both classes are equal!}' subject to the general discipline and rules of the institu- tion ; and are alike engaged in the same works and studies. There are lectures every day in the week. At the commencement of each lecture, the professor e.xamines the pupils on the subject of the preceding lec- ture ; and they are required often to take notes, aud present a written report ot the lecture. Besides the professors, there are two monitors, who have been educated at the school, who labor with the pupils in the fields. Tliey are ex- pected, and it is their duty, to question the pupils on the subjects which have been treated in the lectures ; to show their application ; to illustrate what may have been obscure ; and, in short, to leave nothing unexplained which is liable to misunderstanding or error. Thers are two public examinations annually, in which the scholars are subjected to a rigorous questioning in what they have been taught. If, at the end of two years, their conduct has been approved, and their examination is met successfully, they receive a diploma from the institution. They are not only employed in the general work oi* the farm, but particular portions of land are assigned to individuals, which they manage as they please, and cultivate with their own hands ; they pay the rent and expenses of m.anure and team, and receive the product or its value from the institution. Certjiin of them are appointed in turn to take care of the different departments of the farm for a length of time — such as the hog establishment, the sheep establishment, the cattle, the horses, the implements, &c. &c. They have likewise adopted a practice, which seems much to be conmieuded — that of employing workmen, 4*76 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. shepherds, cow-herds, &e., from foreign countries; as, for example, from Belgium and Switzerland, that they may in this way become acquainted with the best practices in those countries. The time is thus divided and arranged among them : — they rise at four o'clock in summer, and at half-past four in winter. They go immediately into the stables to assist in the feeding, cleaning, and harnessing of the teams, and the general care of the live stock, according to their respective assignments. At half- past five they take a light breakfast ; at six o'clock they go into the halls of study, and here they remain until eleven o'clock ; at half-past si.x they attend a lecture, or course of instruction, which occupies them until eight o'clock ; at half-past eight they are occupied in reading or in making notes of the lectures which they have heard, and the monitors before spoken of are present to render them any assistance required ; at half-past nine o'clock there is another lecture or course of instruction for both sections, which occupies them until eleven, when they take their second or principal breakfast. From noon until five o'clock, the pupils are occupied in labor or practical operations. The professors, from time to time, take a section, and employ them in land-surveying, in drawing plans, and in level i ngs ; others are occupied in mineralogical or in botanical excursions, or in inspecting the management of forest lands ; others are occupied by their teacher in the practical management of farming implements, in the management of teams in the field, in sowing, and other general operations of husbandry, in a field devoted to these purposes; and a section, to the number of twelve, are every day employed in the direct labors of the farm, in ploughing, digging, harrowing, &c. &c. They work in company with the best laboreis, that they may observe and learn their modes of executing their work. They are required to be attentive to every operation that is performed ; and to present a full report of each day's work to the director-general. At half-past five in winter, and at six in summer, they take their dinner. At seven o'clock in the evening they go again into the halls of study. From seven to half-past eight o'clock there is another course of instruction, or a repetition of what they have had before. Until nine o'clock they are occupied in their journals, or in making notes of their lectures. At nine o'clock the sleeping rooms are lighted, and they retire for the night. There are several distinct professorships. The Professor of Practical Agricul- ture gives two courses ; the one written, the other oral ; and, like the lecture of a clinical pi'ofessor at the bed-side, it is given in the fields. This professor un- derstands not only how a thing should be done, but how to do it ; and he can put his hand to every form of agricultural labor, such as ploughing, harrowing, sowing, managing the teams, feeding the animals, handling every instrument of agriculture, buying, selling, &q. In the words of his commission, his object is at the same time to form the eye and the hand ; to teach his pupil how to learn ; to command, to direct, and to execute. To this end it was necessary to form a complete agricultural organization for practice, independent of the exercises attached to the departments of the other professors. The farm is composed of Arable land, about . . .- . Land in wood and plantations . Irrigated meadows ..... Gardens, including vegetable, botanical, fruit garden, orchards, mulberry planta- tions, osiers, and nurseries . Ponds and water-courses Roads and lands in pasture Occupied by buildings .... 6 The animals on the farm include Animals of draught or labor of different kinds 18 Oxen for fatting ..... 20 Cows of different ages and races, and different crosses . . . . . 100 Sheep, embracing the different kinds . 1100 Swine establishment . . . . 100 670 acres. 365 (1 35 (1 28 « 15 (( 50 « AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 477 There are likewise on the establishment workshops or manufactories, if so they may be called, — For the making of agricultural instruments ; A threshing-house and machine for grain ; A dairy room for the manufacture of different kinds of cheese and of butter; A magnanerie, or establishment for silk-vvonns ; A stercorary for the manufacture of compost manures. To all these various departments the attention of the students is closely called, and they are required to take some part in the labors connected with them. Besides the farm belonging to the establishment, there is a field of one hundred acres devoted exclusively to the pupils, and principally to the culture of plants not grown on the farm. Here they make experiments in different preparations of the soil, and with different manures. Every week two scholars, one of the second and one of the first year, are appointed to attend particularly to the general condition of the farm. Their business is to examine constantly the whole establishment ; the works that are going on in every department ; to look after the woods and the plantations ; the gardens ; the horses ; the fatting cattle ; the dairy ; the sheep-fold ; the swine ; and the hospital ; and to attend to the correspondence, and the visitors. This service lasts a fortnight, and there is a change every week, taking care always that there shall be one scholar of the first, and one of the second year associated. They attend to all the labors on the farm, and to all the communications between the principal director and inspectors, and the laborers. In the veterinary or hospital department of the establishment, they assist the surgeon in all his visits and operations ; take notes of his prescriptions ; make up and attend to the administration of his medicines ; and observe particularly the sanitary condition of the stables and buildings, where the live stock, sick or well, are kept. On Saturday evening, each scholar, to whom this duty has been assigned, makes to his fellow-pupils a full verbal report of what has been done. This report is transcribed into a journal designed for that purpose ; and thus a continued history of the entire management of the farm is kept up. The whole school is divided into sections or classes of twelve each : six of two and six of one year's standing ; and these sections are constantly under the direction of the Profess<:)r of Practical Agriculture. As the establisjliment at Grignon may be considered a model agricultural establishment, it may be useful to go more into detail in regard to the course of instruction pursued here. Once a week there is an exercise, which embraces every thing relating to the management of the teams and the implements. First, for example, in the different modes of executing any work, and using the utensils employed. The harness, the collar, the traces, and how attached, the shaft-horse or the cattle attached to the load, and the adjustment of the load to their backs ; the yoke, the single yoke, the double yoke ; the pack-saddle ; the harnessing of a saddle-horse ; the team for ploughing ; the team for harrowing ; the team for drawing loads ; the team for wagons, and for carriages with all their appurtenances ; every one of these matters is to be practically understood, as well as the whole management of the team in action. In ploughing, the turning the furrow, its inclination, its breadth and depths ; the laying out of fields ; the management of large and small fields ; how to make the first furrow, and finish the last furrow ; to lay the land flat, to break it up in clods ; to plough it at a certain angle, to lay the land in curved furrows : these are all considered, and make part of the instruction given. The preparation, equipment, and use of every agricultural implement — such as ploughs, harrows, rollers, scarifiers, cultivators, sowing machines, trenching machines ; the practice of sowing, the different modes of sowing, whether broadcast, by dibble, or in drills; the application of manure both as to time, mode, quantity, and pi-eparation, and the composting of manures, are matters of inquiry and practice. The cutting of grasses ; the making of hay, and the construction of stacks ; the harvesting of grain, by the scythe or by the sickle ; appendages to the scythe, called commonly the cradle ; and the grinding of scythes ; the making of sheaves, and of shocks, or stacks ; and the loading and the stowing away of gi"ajn, are matters to be understood. 478 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. A practical attention is required to every form of service on the farm ; in the cow-house ; the horse-stables ; the fatting-stalls ; the sheep-fold ; the styes ; the poultry -yard ; the threshing-floor ; the stercorary ; and the store-houses for the produce of the farm of every description. The duties in this case embrace not merely the observation of how these things are done, but the actual doing of them until an expertness is aequii'ed. Leaving the practical department we come now to the course of studies to be pursued. For admission into the institution some previous education is demanded, and the candidate is subjected to an examination before the principal and one of the professors. First, he is required to present an essay upon some subject assigned to him, that his knowledge of the French language and grammar may be ascertained. It is necessary, next, tliat he should be well grounded in the four great rules of arithmetic ; in fractions, vulgar and decimal ; in the extraction of the roots ; in the rules of proportion and progression ; and in the system of measures adopted in France. In geometry, he must be well acquainted with the general principles of straight lines and circles, and their various combinations ; and with the general measure- ment of plane surfaces. In natural philosophy, he must understand the general properties of bodies ; and be acquainted with the uses of the barometer and thermometer. Candidates for admission must bring with them certificates of good character and manners, and must be at least eighteen years old. They are rigidly held to an attendance upon all the courses of instruction at the institution ; and have leave of absence only on the application of their parents or guardians. The studies of the first year are begun with a course of mathematics. Geome- try and trigonometry are made a particular subject of attention ; embracing the study of straight lines, and circular or curved lines on the same plan ; the ad- measurement of surfaces ; the use of the compass ; the recording of measure- ments ; the delineation of measurements ; the surveying of open fields, of woods, of marshes, of ponds or lakes ; comparison of ancient land measures with those in present use ; the use of the square, the chain, and the compass; the elevation of plans ; the construction of scales, and the ordinary divisions of landed properties. The study of various plans in any form ; solid measure ; conic sections, their principal properties, and their practical application ; the theory and practice of leveling ; the method of projections and their application ; cubic measure of different solids, of hewn stones, of rough stones ; the measurement of loose or broken stones, of sand, of lands excavated, of ground filled in, of stacks, and of heaps of manure ; the cubic measure of trees standing, and of felled trees, of beams, and every kind of carpenter's work, of firewood, of walls, arches, and ditches or dikes ; the ascertaining of the capacity of carriages, wagons, carts, wheel-barrows, pails, troughs, barrels and casks, basins or ponds, and different vessels in use, and of granaries and barns, and the determination of the weights of bodies. To all this is added a full course of trigonometry. They are accustomed likewise to the familiar use of the scale, of the square, of the compass, and of the compasses for delineation, and are often occupied in superficial, and in profile drawing. The next course of instruction embraces embankments, the force of earths and liquids, or their pressure, at rest or in motion. The materials employed in masonry ; their uses and application in building — embracing stones, bricks, lime, sand, mortars, cements, plaster ; and all the various modes of building. The laying of walls for foundations ; the erection of walls ; the supports requisite ; and the construction of passages, inclosures, and arohes ; the different kinds of woods, their absolute and relative strength ; their duration, and the modes • of preserving them ; every kind of carpenter's work ; the construction of floors, staircases, scaffoldings, and exterior supports ; the constructions of roofs, in timber, with thatch, rushes, shingles, tiles, slates, zinc, or bitumen ; the paving of roads, the formation of barn -floors, with d.-vy or composition of bituminous sub- Stances which form a hard and enduring suil'ace, are subjects of inquiry. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 479 Next comes instruction in the blacksmith's shop, in the use of the forge, and the other implements of the trade ; and in the various applications of iron and steel, of copper, lead, and zinc. They are instructed, likewise, in the manufacture and use of leather and cord- age ; and in the various details of painting and glazing. The prices or cost like- wise of all these different processes, are, as far as practicable, ascertained ; and the modes of estimating such work are explained. The next course embraces the elements of natural philosophy ; and this includes chemistry, geology, and mineralogy. First, the general properties of bodies, their divisibility, elasticity, and porosity or absorbent powers ; and the special influence of this last circumstance upon the character of an arable soil. The following are all subjects of study; bodies in the mass; the weight of bodies ; means of determining the density of bodies and their specific gravity ; the physical properties of the air ; of atmospheric pressure ; and of the construction and use of the barometer. The study of hydrostatics ; the pressure of liquids in their reservoirs, and against dikes and embankments ; hydraulics; capillary attraction ; the use of siphons and pumps. The study of heat in all its various phenomena, Its effects upon solid and liquid bodies, and the changes which it makes in their condition ; the phenomena of fusion, ebulition, and evaporation ; of vapors ; of the hygrometer or measurer of moisture, and the utility of the instrument ; the conducting powers of bodies ; of metals in particular ; of free or radiating heat ; application of heat to furnaces or kilns ; laws of cold applied to bodies ; power of emitting and of absorbing cold ; measure of heat ; means of determining the mean temperature of any place ; in- fluence of heat and cold upon vegetation ; means of preserving certain vegetables from frost ; construction and use of the thermometer. Meteorology. Explication of the phenomena of dew ; of white frosts ; of clouds; of rain ; of snow ; their various influences upon harvest, and the whole subject of climate. Study of light. Progress of light in space ; laws of its reflection ; laws of its refraction ; action of light upon vegetation. The subject of vision. The polariza- tion of light ; the explication of the rainbow, and other phenomena of light ; the prism. Study of electricity. Conductors of electricity ; distribution of the electric fluid in nature ; power of the electric rods or points ; electricity developed by the con- tact of bodies ; of galvanic piles ; their construction and uses. Atmospheric electricity ; its origin ; the formation of thunder clouds ; action of electricity upon vegetation ; of lightning ; of thunder ; of hail. Chemistry. Simple bodies ; compound bodies ; difference between combination and mixture ; atomical attraction ; cohesion ; affinity ; what is intended by chemical agents. Explanation of the chemical nomenclature, and of chemical terms. The study of simple bodies. Of oxygen ; its properties ; its action upon vegeta- tion, and upon animal life. Nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine, carbon, hydrogen ; their action upon vegetable and animal substances ; their uses in veterinary medicine, and their influence upon vegetation. The study of compound substances. Chemistry as applied to air and water ; their importance in agriculture ; their influence upon the action and life of plants and animals ; the acids, — the sulphuric, the nitric, the carbonic, the chloric ; the alkalies,— lime, soda, potassium, ammonia ; their application in various forms. The salts in chemistry, and their various applications and uses ; their importance as constituent parts of the soil, or as improvements. The subject of marls and of earths, and of various substances deemed favorable to vegetation. Under the direction of the Professor of Chemistry, the students are taught to make analyses of different soils and marls. To this is added a course of Mineralogy and Geology. This embraces the general properties of minerals ; the physical, chemical, and mechanical character of mineral substances the most common. The study of the distinctive properties and situation of those mineral substances which are most extended over the globe, and which are the most in use ; such, 480 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. especially, as the carbonate of lime ; comprehending stones for building, for the making of roads and walls, lime-stones, marbles, sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris ; and all the variety of mineral substances ordinarily found, and of use in agriculture or the arts. A course of Geology follows this, embracing all the leading features of the science, with a special reference to all substances or conditions of the soil con- nected with agricultural improvement. In this case, the professor makes frequent excursions with the pupils, that they may become familiarly acquainted with the subjects treated of in the lectures, and see them in their proper localities ; so that the great truths of geological science may be illustrated by direct and personal observation. Next follows a course of instruction in horticulture, or gardening. Of the soil ; the surface and the subsoil, and practical considerations relative to their culture and products. Of the climate ; the temperature, the aspect and local condition of the land in reference to the products cultivated ; the amelioration of the soil, and the substances to be used for that object, with the modes of their application. The various horticultural operations, and implements employed ; and manner in which the}- are to be executed. The employment of water in irrigation; modes of inclosing by ditches or walls ; walls for the training of trees ; trellises and palings ; and of protections against the wind. The different modes of multiprcation ; sowing, engrafting by cuttings and by layers, and practical illustrations of these different processes. The culture of seed- bearing or grain-producing plants ; the choice of them ; their planting and management ; the harvesting and preservation of the crojjs. Under this head comes the kitchen-garden, and the choice of the best esculent vegetables for consumption ; the nursery, and the complete management of trees from their first planting ; the fruit-garden, considered in all its details ; and the flowci'-garden. The general results of gardening ; the employment of hand, or spade-labor ; the care, preservation, and consumption of the products, and their sale. The gardens at Grignon are upon a scale sufficient to supply all practical demonstra- tions. The next division embraces the botanical garden. Here the whole science of botany is treated in its principles, and their practical application. The study of vegetable organization, with a full account of the prevailing systems and nomen- clature of botany, and the classification of plants. Vegetable physiology, in all its branches, and vegetable anatomy ; comparison of plants in their native and culti- vated states ; influence of cultivation in developing and improving plants ; the propogation of plants in their natural condition, or by artifieial means ; the subject of rotation, or change of crops. The practical application of these botanical instructions ; and especially in the examination of plants or vegetables which may be useful in an economical view. The garden of the establishment embraces what is called a school of trees ; a school of plants for economical and commercial purposes ; and a school of plants for conmion use. These are all carefully classed and distinguished by their proper names. The pupils are accustomed to be led into the gardens by the professor, that his instructions may be fully exemplified and confirmed. The next branch of science taught at the school is veterinary surgerj' and medicine. This embraces a course of anatomy and animal phisiology. It com- prehends a full description of all the animal organs ; and demonstrations are given from subjects, destroyed or obtained for that purpose. The functions of the different organs are likewise described ; the organs of digestion, respiration, cir- culation, and the organs connected with the continuance of the species. Every part of the animal, external and internal, is shown, its name given, its uses explained ; its situation in relation to the other organs; the good points, the faults or defects in an animal ; the peculiarities of different races of animals, with the modes of discriminating among them. The choice of animals intended for different services, — as in horses for example, whether for the saddle, the race, the chase, the carriage, the road, the wagon, or the plough. Next, the treatment of the diseases of animals ; the medicines in use ; their preparation, and the mode of applying or employing them. • AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 481 The next subject of instruction embraces a complete system of keeping farm accounts and journals, with the various books and forms necessary to every department. From this the pupil proceeds to what is called rural legislation, embracing an account of all the laws which affect agricultural property or concerns. The civil rights and duties of a French citizen, and the constitution of France. Property, movable or immovable, or, as denominated with us, personal and real ; of the divisions of property ; of its use and its obligations. Of commons ; of laws relating to forests ; of the rights of fishing in rivers ; and of hunting. The laws relating to rural police ; to public health ; to public security ; to con- tageous or epidemic diseases. The rights of passage of men or animals over the land of another ; if any, and what. Of crimes. Theft in the fields ; breaking or destruction of the instruments of agriculture ; throwing open inclosures ; destruction or removal of bounds. Lay- ing waste the crops by walking over them ; inundation of fields by the stoppage of streams, or the erection of mills. Injury or breaking of public roads and bridges. Poisoning, killing, or wounding animals. The duties of country magistrates ; guards or justices of the peace. Of courts of law. * Of contracts, general and specific. Contracts of sale and prohibitory conditions. Of leases of different sorts. Of hiring labor ; of the obligations of masters and servants. Of corporations, and the laws applicable to agricultural associations. Of deeds, mortgages, bills of e-xchange, commissions, and powers of agency and attorney ; insurance against fire, hail, and other hazards. Of the proof of obliga- tions ; written proof ; oral testimony ; presumptive evidence ; of oaths. Of legal proceedings ; of the seizure of property real or personal, and of bail. The instruction proceeds under various courses, and I have so far given but a limited account of its comprehensiveness, and the variety of subjects which it embraces. The study of the diflferent kinds of soil, and of manures, with all their applica- tions, and the improvements aimed at, take in a wide field. Under the head of soils there are the argillaceous, the calcareous, the siliceous, turf-lands, heath-lands, volcanic soils, the various sub-soils, loam, and humus. Under the head of manures, come the excrements of animals, all fcecal matter, poudrette, urine ; the excrements of fowls ; guano ; noir animalisee ; the refuse of sugar refineries ; the relics of animals ; oil-cakes ; the refuse of maltings ; tanners'-bark ; bones, hair, and horn ; aquatic plants ; green-dressings. The application likewise of sand, clay, marl, lime, plaster, wood-ashes, turf- ashes, soot, salt ; the waste of various manufactures ; mud and street dirt. The plants cultivated for bread ; wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, millet, rice, and the modes of cultivating them. For forage, — potatoes, beets, turnips, ruta-bagas, carrots, artichokes, parsnips, beans, cabbage. Lucerne, lupins, sainfoin, common clover, trifolium incarnatum, vetches, peas, lentils, and plants for natural meadows and for pasturage. To these are added, cobra, rape, poppy, mustard white and black, hemp, flax, cotton, madder, saffron, woad, hops, tobacco, chicory, teazles. The weeds prejudicial to agriculture, and the insects which attack the plant while growing, or in the granary or barn. The production of milk ; and, as already said, the making of butter and cheese. The production of wool ; tests of its fineness ; classing of wools ; shearing of gheep ; weight of the fleece ; washing of wool before br after shearing ; and every particular in reference to the subject. The fatting of beef, mutton, and pork. Choice of animals for this purpose ; nutritive properties of different kinds of food ; in what form to be given ; grains entire or ground ; roots cooked or raw, green or dry ; the value of the pulp of beet-root after the sugar is expressed ; refuse of the starch factories ; of the dis- tillery ; of the brewery ; fatting by pasture or in stalls ; comparison of the live weight with that of the animal when slaughtered. Care and management of the various kinds of domestic poultry, 31 482 AGRICULTURAL SOIIOOI, AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. Care and management of bees, with the constiHietion of hives. Care of silk-worms, and their entire management. All these studies are pursued in the first year of the course ; and the time is so arranged as to afford the diligent pupil an opportunity of meeting his duties, though the period is obviously too limited for the course prescribed. The second year enjoins the continuance and enlargement of these important studies ; the higher branches of mathematics and natural philosophy ; an extended knowledge of chemistry ; and a thorough acquaintance with mechanics, when the scholars with their professor visit some of the principal machine-shops and factories in Paris, or its environs, in order to become practically acquainted with them. The students are further instructed in the construction of farm-buildings of every description ; in irrigation, in all its forms ; in the drainage of lands; in the construction of roads ; in every thing relating to farm implements ; and in the construction of mills and presses. As I have said, organic chemistry is largely pursued with the various manufac- tures to vvhicii it is applicable ; and animal physiology and comparative anatomy are very fully taught. These studies are followed by a course of what is called agricultural technology. This embraces the manufacture, if so it may be called, of lime, of cement, of bricks ; the preparations of plaster ; the making of coal by various processes ; the flaking of starch ; the making and purificatit)n of vegetable oils ; the making of wines, of vinegar, of beer, of alcohol, of sugar from the beet-root, including all the improvements which have been introduced into this branch of manufacture ; and the pupils, under the direction of the professor, are taken to see the various manufactories of these articles, so far as they are accessible in the vicinity. The whole subject of forests, of nurseries, of fruit trees, ornamental trees, trees for fuel, trees for mechanical purposes, are brougiit under the student's notice. This is a great subject in France, where wood has an extraordinary value ; where inmiense extents of ground are devoted solely to the cultivation of trees; and where consequently it is most desirable to understand the proper kinds of wood to be selected for the purpose in view ; the proper mode of forwarding the growth of the trees ; and of removing them without prejudice to their restoration. Under this head comes the culture of Trees for fuel. Trees for timber. Trees for house and ship building. Trees for fruit, including all the varieties adapted to a particular climate. Trees for their oily matter ; such as olives. Trees for their bark ; to be used in tanning, and other purposes. Trees for their resinous ])roperties ; such as pines. Osiers and willows for making baskets. Mulberry-trees for the support of silk-worms. Next to this comes the culture of vines, and the establishment and care of a vineyard — a subject of great importance in France. I have already spoken of the veterinary course of instruction. This embraces the whole subject of the breeding and rearing of animals ; their training, shoeing, and harnessing, and entire management. Under the head of farm accounts, the establishment itself at Grignon is made an example ; the accounts of which are kept most accurately by some of the students, and open to the inspection of all. A journal of every thing which is done upon the farm is made up every night ; and these accounts are fairly transferred into a large-book. To this is added, a particular account of the labors performed, and the occupa- tion of each workman on the farm. Next, a cash-book, embracing payment and sales, which are adjusted every fortnight. Next, an account with the house ; charging every article supplied or con- sumed. Next, a specific account of each principal department of the farm ; such as the dairy, with all its expenses and returns ; the pork-establishment ; the granary, &c. ; which are all balanced every month, so that tlie exact condition of the de^ partment may be known. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 483 As the students are advanced, more general and enlarged views of the various subjects of inquiry are given ; such as, The taking of a farm, and the cultivation or management to be adopted. Tlie influence of climate and soil. The ci'ops to be grown ; and the rotation of crops. Agricultural improvements generally. The devoting of land to pasturage ; to dairy husbandry ; to the raising of animals; to the fatting of cattle; to the growth olj wool; to the production of grain ; to the raising of plants for different manufacturing purposes ; or to such a mixed husbandry as may be suggested by the particular locality. The use of capital in agriculture ; the mode of letting farms ; cash rents ; rents in kind ; rents in service ; laws regulating the rights and obligations of real estate ; the conveyance of real estate ; with the various forms of culture in large or in small possessions, or on farms of a medium size. The above is an imperfect and abridged statement of the subject matters of in- struction and study at this institution, which may be considered as a model establishment ; and a thorough education in the various branches referred to. must be, to any young man, an important and invaluable acquisition. The question comes up. Will such an education make men better farmers? It must be their own fault if it does not. There may be some branches of the prescribed course, which may not appear to have a direct practical bearing ; but there is not one without its use ; if not directly, yet indirectly subservient to agricultural improvement ; and if not immediately applicable to practice, yet intimately connected with the agricultural profession, adapted to increase its power, utility, and dignity, to elevate and adorn it. President Hitchcock, of Amherst College, in a Report to the Legisla- ture of Massachusetts on Agricultural Schools, in 1851. speaks of the above institution in commendatory terms, and of Mr. Coleman's descrip lion as sufficiently accurate of the system now pursued there. The following abstract of the suhjects of study and lectures at the Ag- ricultural school at Grand Jouan is taken from President Hitchcock's Report. AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 485 Agricultural School at Grand Jouan.« The Agricultural school at Grand Jouan, in Brittany, was established in 1S33, by M. Neviere, who had been trained in this department of edu- cation in the Roville Agricultural school. In 1848 it was remodeled by the government and placed under the administration ot" the minister of agriculture. Subjects of Study and Lectures. Mathematical Sciences: — xVrifhmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mechanics, Sur- vej-ing, Leveling, Stereometry, (measuring solid bodies,) Linear Drawing. Physical and Natural Sciences : — Physics, Meteorology, Mineral Chemistry, Mineralogy, (xeology, Botany. Technological Sciences : — 'Organic Chemistry, or Agricultural Technology, Agriculture, xVrboriculture, Sylviculture, Veterinary Art, Agricultural Zoology, Equitation. Noological Sciences : — Rural Architecture, Forest Economy, Rural or Farm Accounts, Rural Economy, Rural Law. Abstract of the course of Lectures on General Agriculture. Agricultural Formation, (Terrain,) — L Soil .•—Constituent Elements, Classi- fication of the Formation : Argillaceous, Siliceous, and peaty soils : Physical pro- perties : Causes which modify these properties : Influence of soil on vegetation. 2. Sub Soil .—Sub soil active : Sub soil inert ; Influence of sub soil on the soil and on the life of plants. Agricultural Geography :-^Aatronomic situation of France: Mountains: Valleys. Plains. Rivers. Agricultural Physics : — Atmospheric Air : Caloric: Light: Darkness. Agricultural Meteorology .' — Winds : Fogs : Dew : Rain ; White Frost : Frost with Ice : Snow : Hail. Climatology .-—Influence of Climate : Climate of France : Regions. Fertilization .-—Considerations preliminary : Fecundity and Fertility. L Improvement: — Clay: Rocks: Sand: Slates: Lava: Plomhage : Irriga- tions : Ditching : Ploughing : IMovement of the sub soil : Colmafage. 2. Stimulants : — Stimulants of Mineral Origin : Lime : Marl : Calcareous earth: Broken shells : Sea sand: the Whiting : Shellfish: Plaster: Fire Ashes : Sulphate ol' Iron : Salts of Potash : of Soda : of Ammonia. Stimulants of Vegetable Origin : — Soot : Ashes : Leached Ashes. 3. Manures : — Animal ^Manures : Excrements : Urine ; Pigeons' Dung : Guano : E.\crement of Animals : Muscular Flesh : Blood : Fish : Fat : Oil : Woolen cloth: Horn: Horsehair: Human hair: Feathers. Vegeto-Animal Manures : — Litter: Horse dung: of Sheep: of horned Cattle : of Swine: of Rabbits. Animnl Manures Mineralized : — Animal charcoal : Bone. Vegetable Manures : — Green crops ploughed in. Manure and Aquatic plants : Turf: poor Vegetables : Oil Cake : Tan : Mesh : pulpy matters : Leaves : Stubble. Liquid Manures : — Urine of the Domestic Animals : Flemish Manures : U^rine Water from Fecularies. Compound Manures : — Manure of Jauffi-et and Lane ! Compost : Slime of Ponds: River Mud : Marine Mud. Breaking up the Soil : — \. Work Animals : Cattle: Horses: Cows: Mules: Asses : Race : Age : Mode of tackling : Length of working ! Treatment : Neces- sary proportion. 2. Instruments : — Plough with or without fore wheels : Harrow : Scarifica- tors : Rollers : Instruments for second dressing : Weeders : Extirpators : Nec- essary proportion. 3. Tillage: — Theory and Practice: Soil: Temperature :* Flat Tillage: Flat Tillage in rows : Flat Tillage in ridges : Tillage by digging and by grubbing. 486 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 4. Methods of moving the earth : — Harrowing: Rolling: Second Ploughing : Butt ages. • 5. Clearing Land : — Heaths : Woods : Peaty lands : Clearing by the hand : by the 1 lough : Hoeing: Destination of the ground. i?;a7'/a'/(g" .-—Arable Land: Morasses: Ponds: Nature and destination of the soil. Irrigation : — Theory and Practice : by Infiltiation ; Renewal of the Water : Planches Dombees. Quantity of water by the acre, and according to the nature of the soil. Value of the bottoms irrigated and not irrigated. Mode of working these almost irri- gated. Fertility and value of the products. Fences : — NA'alls : iJitehes : Hedges, living or dead. Sowing: — Theory and practice: Sowing in lines : at random: selection, re- newal, cleansing, and preparation of the seeds: Burying them by the harrow: by the plough. Method of Treatment : — Weeding : Cleaning of thistles : stripping off the leaves : {EffuiUuge ;) Bringing into the light. Harvesting. General Considerations. 1 . Harvesting of Fodder : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing : Hay mak- ing: Grindstones. 2. Harvesting of Grain : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing : Reaping : Thre-h iig : Luge. '.i. Harvesting of Roots : — Pulling up by the hand : by the plough : Uncover- ing : Cleaning. Selection of the methods of preparing the Soils : — According to atmospheric circniristances : Nature of the Soil : its condition : its destination. Distribution of Labor by Rotation : — Normal conditions : Exceptional con- ditions. Rural Architecture. Materials: — Siliceous, calcareous and argillaceous rocks: Fat, meagre, and hydranl c Lime : Sands: Mortar: Cements: Puzzolana : Plaster: Wood: Iron: Paving Ijrick : Rooting Slate : Tiles : Lead : Zinc : Leather : Ropes. Works : — Foundations : Terracing : Properties of Earths. Masonry: — Foundation Walls : High Walls : for support: for inclosure: Plas- tering : Pise. Carpentry: — Assemblages: Combles : Pans de bois : Partitions: Staircases. Joiners' Work : — Floors : Gates : Windows : Slnitters. Iron Work : — Large Iron : Ironing the Buildings. Roofing :—Y\\iis,: Slate: Tliatch : Zinc: Bitumen. Painting andi Glazing : — Oil Painting: Distemper Paintings: Badidgeon, (coloi-ing) Window glass. Paving and Bricking. Estimate of the Works : — Masonry : Carpentry. Specification : — Form of the works. Edifices: — Stable: Cow house: Sheep fold : Hogpen: Hen house: Pigeon house : Silk wnrin nurser3^ Animal products : — Dairy : Cheese house. Vegetable products : — Barns : Granaries : Wine cellars : Cellars : Corn pits : Ovens. Agricultural Manufactures : — Fecvlary : Distillery: Sugar manufactory. Reservoirs : — Watering places : Wash house : Wells : Cisterns : Ditches for urine : Ponds. Dwelling house : — Form and Proportion. Irrigations: — Dams: Taking out the Water: Sluices: Canals: Weirs: Slopes. Drainage: — Damming up : Trenching: Cespool : Machines for drainage. Routs: — Soil: Slope: Outline: Leveling: Materials: Support: Bridges: Est'iirate of Excavation and Embankment. Group of Edifices composing a Farming Establishment : — Relation to th© fertility of the soil and the culture and extent of the farm. REFORII SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES FOR YOUNG PAUPERS, VAGRANTS, AND CRIMINALS. The frequent wars in which tiie several States of Europe have been engaged, by carrying desolation into the home, the field, and the work- shop, have multiplied the number of orphans and penniless children, beyond the ordinary causes of such visitations, and at the same time by weakening the bonds of law and virtue, have increased the-temptations to a vicious life, and thus swelled the ranks of juvenile criminality. The extreme severity, and almost uninterrupted succession of belligerent operations, growing out of the revolutionary movement of France, left at its close, in every continental State, a larger number than ever before, of poor, neglected, and vicious children to care for, which arrested the attention of government and benevolent individuals, and led to many interesting experiments as to the best means of relief and reformation. To Switzerland belongs the credit of having first applied the princi- ples of domestic and agricultural training to the reformation of young criminals, and to the still higher purpose of preventing pauperisn) and crime, by incorporating these principles into the early education of orphan, pauper, and neglected children. The Orphan House of Pes- talozzi, at Neuhof. opened in 1775. in which he lived with his pupils as a friend, pastor, and teacher, and on which he expended all his limited means; the Rural School for indigent children, established by Fellen- berg in 1805. as an essential part of his great enterprise at Hofwyl. to demonstrate what could be' done to elevate the people by a gooii edu- cation; the Agricultural Normal Scliool of Yehrli. at Krutzlingen, to train a class of practical agriculturists to be skillful teachers; and the Reform School of Kuralli at Bachtelen, near Berne, for vicious and offending boys, — have all established the practicability of accustoming young persons, while engaged in their studies, to habits of useful manual labor, and the wisdom of subjecting all children, and especially the orphan and outcast, to tlie kindly restraints, and humanizing intlu- ences of doa)estic lite. These principles of home, liirm, and shop train- ing have been slowly recognized and introduced among the charitable, preventive, and reibrmatory agencies of other countries. Small rural colonies, arranged in tiunilies. are fast supplanting the great hospitals and a.--ylums where hundreds of orphans, it may be. are well feil, cliilhed ami lo.lged under salaried governors, secretaries, and keep- ers but with little or noihing of that fireside education that ciiliivation of the feelings those Ijabifs of mutual helpand courtesy, that plantation of delightful remembrances of innocent sports and rambles in the field, or that acquisition of ready tact in all household and rural industry, which 488 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. are the distinguishing features of a good New England practical home culture. Pri.sons, of high stone walls and barred windows, where hundreds of young inmates are congregated, with nothing useful for head or hands to do ; or else working in large squads, at some undiversified employment, under the watchful eye of armed men, without the cheering word or sympathy of woman, acting and feeling as a mother, sister, or compan- ion, or the wise counsel and example of men, acting like fathers, bro- thers, or friends — such places of detention and punishments are giving way to farm, reform, and industrial schools, where young criminals, or those who would soon become such in a majority of cases, the neglected and wretched outcasts of tainted homes, the otlspring of vicious and intemperate parents, or the fatherless or motherless boys who com- menced their downward career by committing petty thefts to keep li(e together, or under the influence of bad companionship, and of tempta- tion too strong for their neglected moral culture to resist, — where such children are subjected to kind domestic training, to watchful guardian- ship, and are treated with a long suffering forbearance, while they are acquiring the habit of useful occupation in the workshop or farm, and are getting rid of their wild impulses and irregular habits, in the round of duties and employments of a well regulated household. These rural and industrial schools, especially on the continent of Europe, constitute an interesting chiss of educational institutions. They are of two kinds. 1. Asylums and houses tor pauper, orphan, deserted, and morally endangered children, who are destitute of that education supplied by the common relationship of the family. 2. Correctional and reformatory schools for children and young persons convicted of crime, or acquitted only as having acted without knowledge, but de- tained under a certain age for the purpose of being instructed and trained to some usefuT occupation. In all of them, farm and garden labor form the basis of all industrial instruction ; trade and handicraft are recognized and provided for, but are deemed of secondary impor- tance, except in a limited number of cases. Before giving a particular description of a few of the most interesting and successful institutions of each kind, we will give a brief statement of the principal features of the charitable and reformatory system now in operation in these countries. In each of the cantons of Switzerland, in 1852, there were, at least, one rural or farm school conducted on the basis of a well regulated family. The superintendence is ordinarily committed to a married teacher, who is called the father of the family; and his wife, who assists in the domestic and industrial instruction of the girls, bears the title of mother. The school is open both to girls and boys, an arrangement which, under vigilant supervision and separate dormitories, is attended with but few inconveniences, and facilitates an economy of manao-e- ment, and a judicious distribution of labor, both in employment and in- struction, and the diffusion of a true domestic spirit throughout the whole establishment. The number of inmates average from twenty to REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 489 forty, and when the entire family exceed twenty, it is subdivided into lesser ones of twelve or more, who are placed under an assistant " father." The school instruction occupies three hours in summer, and four in winter; the remainder of the day being devoted to work in the field or garden, or at certain seasons of the year, and for a class of pupils, in some in-door trade or handicraft. Those children who show an aptness to teach, and a peculiar fitness to conduct or assist in estab- lishments of this class, are sent to a rural normal school, like that at Krutzlingen. The subdivision into groups of families is an essential feature of the reformatory discipline in the institutions designed exclu- sively for young criminals, and morally endangered children. This organization in families, with a trial class, or section of six or eight of the best behaved pupils, who are allowed still larger liberty and are intrusted with special duties, into which the new comers are admitted until they can be properly classified, facilitates supervision, fosters a kindly emulation, and permits the application to each child of that sort of care and management best adapted to its character and disposition. The annual cost in the orphan school is about $35 per child, and in the penal colonies about $50 per inmate. In Germany we find the best example of reform schools in the king- dom of Wirtemberg, and at Horn, near the city of Hamburg. In Wir- temberg the large number of children who were driven by the loss of fathers in the wars which ravaged all Europe from 1796 to 1816, and the scarcity of food, to beg or steal for a living, arrested the attention of government; and led to the organization of benevolent societies, and to the establishment of asylums for their relief under the active patron- age of Q,ueen Catherine in 1819. In the reform schools of moral industry in Wirtemberg, the average number of inmates in each is fifty -six. of whom thirty-three are boys and twenty-three girls. If the domestic character and feeling is to be main- tained, it is evident that one "father" and one -mother" can not direct and supervise so large a number. But it must be added, that the age for leaving is commonly fourteen years, though in some the girls are kept a year longer. The aim of the education given in these reforma- tory schools is to correct vicious habits, and to form honest men. good Christians, and useful members of society. Together with constant rehgious instruction every opportunity is taken of inculcating habits of order, propriety, and activity, and of inspiring the children with senti- ments of obedience, humility, truthfulness and honor. Under a vigilant and continuous supervision, account is taken of their good or bad dispo- sitions, of their progress and faults. In some schools the less hopeful are confided to children distinguished by their good conduct, who serve them as guides to bring them back to the right path, and to form them to the discipline of the school. Many, even of tender years, have con- tracted bad habits, which it is necessary to root out at any sacrifice. In such a case the head of a family takes a child particularly suspected, and elicits an entire confession, which is usually followed by a promise 490 REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AOIUCULTCRAL COLONIES. of amendment ; from that time his attention is awakened, and no means are spared to etfect a lasting reformation. Decency is to the mind what propriety is to the body, and every thing that might bring injury to the former is avoided, and a scrupulous watch kept over the latter. The girls and boys only meet at meals, in school and at religious exercises ; at other times, during work, in play time, and in the dormitories, they are entirely separate. Each child has its own bed. In each sleeping apartment there is a male or female overseer who never leaves, and exercises an especial control over those children whom any peculiar cir- cumstance points out to their attention. Through these precautions the union of boys and girls leaves no room for abuse, and all the heads of establishments agree that a too entire separation of the sexes is more prejudicial than useful. The intellectual instruction comprises religious instruction, the history of the bible, reading, writing, the German lan- guage, written and mental arithmetic, the history of Wirtemberg. geo- graphy, and music. Four or five hours daily are commonly given to lessons, according to the seasons and the demands of the field labor. The instruction is given by the head of the family, who is chosen from the certificated teachers. Each school has its little library. Every six or twelve months the children are subjected to an examination. In industrial education agriculture generally forms the basis, and the boys under the overlooker of the farm, perform all the requisite Avork. and also the heavier part of the housework. In most of the schools there are also workshops of tailors, shoemakers, joiners, weavers, bookbinders, &c. The girls are principally employed in household work, sewing, and knitting; but they also take part in the out-door work of the kitchen- garden, the cow-sheds, and the poultry-yard, and assist in the hay and corn harvest. In the choice of these operations it is especially designed to retain them in the humble sphere in which they were born, by care- fully avoiding whatever might tend to turn them against the employ- ments upon which they must ultimately depend for subsistence — such as service, whether domestic or on the farm. Each reformatory school has a separate savings' bank, in which are kept the petty sums allowed to the children in the character of wages, or any presents they may receive, and each child has its little book of account. On leaving, the boj''s are commonly apprenticed to artizans. and the girls go to service. Care is taken to place them with employers of approved integrity, and in Ciiristiun families. The reform school of the Rauhen-Haus. near Hamburg, has attached to it the largest and perhaps the best normal school for institutions of this kind in Europe. It was founded in 1833. by a few charitable per- sons, with the view of assembling and correcting the vicious and morally endangered children of the city. It was at first located in a modest thatch-covered house, whence its name is derived ; hut it has now ii;creased to about a dozen buildings each having its special appli- catioM which are variously dispersed in the niiilst of surrounding gar- dens, and of which several have been erected by the children them- REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 49 1 pelves. The establishment consists of three divisions: 1. The reform- atory school, containing about 100 children, of whom two-thirds are boys and one-third girls. 2. The institute of "brothers," which is com- posed of those assigned to the direction and superintendence of the dif- ferent "(Umi'.ies." and which serves also as a preparator}- or normal school; it comprised 34 brothers in 1847. 3. The printing and agency department. containing a bookseller's shop and workshop for bookbind- ing and stereotyping. The organization of the Rauhen-Haus has been based on that of the natural family. The children are classed in groups of 12 each, forming a family, under a superintendent or father. All these are attached to their common center or father, the director, who presides over the whole. The chapel, the school, and the workshops alone are common to the whole, and serve as a bond of association among the different families. The institute of "Brothers" attached to the reform school of the Rauhen-Haus, forms the basis of the whole organization. It was soon perceived that the work of improvement among vicious and dehnquent children could not be confined to* merely mercenary hands, and that it was a condition of success to employ persons influenced by motives of a higher nature. The brethren of the Rauhen-Haus may be compared, in some respects, to the '■ Freres de Charite" and '' Freres de la Doc- trine Chretienne " in Roman Catholic countries. To qualify for admis- sion to the institute, proof must be furnished of their conduct having been always honorable and without reproach, of the constant practice of Christian duties, of being animated with the spirit of a true religious calling, of freedom from physical infirmity, of good health and a sound constitution, of knowledge of agriculture or of some trade available in the establishment, or of aptitude for acquiring one, of the possession of a certain amount of learning or intelligence, and of the will necessary to profit by the special instruction provided in the institution. Consent of parents is also required. The age of admission for brothers is usually from 20 to 30 years of age. and notwithstanding the strictness of the conditions candidates have never been deficient. The institute, like the school of reform, is supported by private subscriptions and donations. In their relations with the school of reform, the brothers have charcre of every thing connected with the direction of the families and super- vision of the children, who can not be out of their sight by day or nio-ht. They take their meals with them, sleep in their dormitory, direct them in their work, accompany them to chapel, and take part in their recrea- tions and games. They are at first attached to the families as assist- ants, and after a certain time of probation take the direction in their turn; they visit the parents of the children, to report their conduct and progress; they exercise over their pupils, after their departure an active patronage, give instruction in the elementary classes, and keep up the writing and correspondence of the institution. The trans- fer of the assistants from family to family every month, places each brother successively in contact with all the children, extends his indi- 492 REFORM SCHOOLS. OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. vidual experience, and places the experience acquired in each group at the service of all the families. The brothers have also a course of special instruction under the director and two assistants. This occupies 20 hours per week, arranged in a manner to coincide with the working hours of the children, and comprehends religion, sacred and profane his- tory, the German language, geography, pedagogy, singing, and instru- mental music; there is also a special course of EngHsh. The pupils are classed in two courses. The duration of each course is two years, so that the education of each brother occupies an average period of four years. At the expiration of this time they ought to be prepared for being placed, as they usually are, in one or other of the following posi- tions : as chiefs and fathers of families in the reformatory schools, organ- ized upon the plan of the Rauhen-Haus ; as overseers and assistants, or teachers in similar establishments; as teachers in rural schools; £is directors, stewards, overseers, or guardians in prisons of various organ- ization ; as directors or fathers of a family in hospitals and charitable establishments ; as overseers of infirmaries in the hospitals ; as agents of provident and benevolent societies; or as foreign or home missiona- ries. The applications for brothers lo fill these and kindred employ- ments increase yearly, so that the director is compelled to extend the normal institute designed for their preparation. The reformatory schools of France, established since 1840, are not only penal but preventive in their design and discipline. They receive, 1. Young persons of both sexes under twenty years of age. who have been condemned tor some crime ; 2. Young persons, who have been acquitted of criminal charges because they acted without discernment; 3. Orphans and young persons, who are abandoned by their parents, or whom parental example is educating for mendacity and crime; 4. Children, who are without employment, and in a bad way, or on the slippery verge of open vice and crime. The 66th and 67th articles of the penal code of France, sweeps society of all the above classes of young persons, by authorizing the courts and magistrates to send them to a house of correction. Unfortunately this class of penal institutions had no independent existence prior to 1837, and the young criminals or suspected persons were mingled with those of greater age, and deeper depravity in the common prisons. The first step in the right direction was to remove them to a separate quarter of the prison, and then to apprentice out such as showed signs of re- formation and amendment. These steps were found altogether in- effectual in reforming the morals, or inducing better habits in any con- siderable number of this class of persons; and two gentlemen, M. Demetz and the Viscount de Bretigneres de Courteilles, both of them highly educated, and occupying positions of power and influence, the former at Paris and the latter as member of a departmental council, became deeply interested in devising some plan for supplying a happy home and the influence of domestic relations and occupations, for the destitute, the vagrant, and criminal children of their native country. REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 493 Both had visited the reform school at Horn, near Hamburgh, and M. Demetz had become particularly interested in the houses of refuge at Philadelphia and New York for juvenile delinquents. He was asso- ciated with M. Blout in 1837, in a second governmental commission to investigate particularly the moral influence of the prison discipline and prison architecture adopted in this country. Their report is a proper sequel to that of Beaumont and De Tocqueville in 1830. M. Demetz directed his efforts especially to effecting a complete and wide separa- tion, and distinct treatment of vagrant and even convicted youths from adult criminals. •' Society is answerable for its neglect of these young persons. They are abandoned to misery, and, therefore, to mischief Society owes it to herself and to them, rather to prevent, than to punish their crimes. Let these juvenile delinquents be instructed in the doc- trines and motives of the Christian religion. Teach their young hearts the exceeding sinfulness of sin. Show them the woe which awaits the wicked, and the infinite blessedness which will finally encircle the just. Dispel the ignorance, which darkens their intelligence. Bring them up in habits of industry, order, and economy. Try to overcome those vicious propensities, which will soon expand into full-grown crimes. Of the men who end their lives on the gibbet, experience shows that most have been depraved in childhood. No friend has checked the growth of their licentious passions. They have been precocious in badness, and unreproved." On this noble mission M. Demetz and Viscount de Courteilles en- tered, to make a demonstration to the government and benevolent men of France, of a practicable scheme of rescuing unfortunate, vagabond, and depraved boys from desiruciion, and give them the power of ob- taining an honest living. Their plan involved extensive grounds and buildings, which should not present the aspect of prison-yards and walls, but the facilities of education and occupation, and the exercise of the charities of a paternal home. It was to be an agricultural and educational colony. For this purpose they selected an estate a few miles from Tours, within marketable reach of several large towns, healthy and fertile, not highly improved, but capable of profitable culti- vation, and devoid of old and large buildings erected for other purposes. The buildings were erected gradually, as the number of inmates increased, although the plan of the whole establishment was projected at the outset. It consisted in a series of houses, each of a peculiar construction, and each adapted to a family of forty persons. Each family has its yard, fruit trees, and kitchen-garden. The whole is not inclosed by brick walls, or high palisades, but by low, green hedges, over which any person could climb, and through which a boy, so dis- posed, could easily creep without drawing attention. The real confine- ment to the spot is found in the encircling and attractive charities of the domestic life, and occupations of the institution. As soon as the estate had been secured, and the household plan of arrangement, instruction, and discipline determined on, the projectors 49^ REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. endeavored to find, or train, intelligent and devoted teachers and assist- ants, who should understand thoroughly the details of the moral and industrial education which alone presents any prospect of reforming a juvenile criminal, and who, possessing that personal piety, which has its motives in the principles of Christianity, can live, according to a rule of monastic strictness, and yet exercise the habits and afi'ections of a free domestic life, — while subjecting themselves to the shnplicity and rough- ness of country employment, can exhibit the courtesies which are gen- erally associated with city manners, and while voluntarily adopting the dis- cipline of a camp or prison, be neither jailors nor drill sergeants. The raising up of such a class of foremen and teachers, for this and similar institutions, is one of the most valuable services rendered by the pro- jectors of the agricultural colony of Mettray. The department of the colony for training these teachers is called the preparatory school of foremen. The colonists are brought to the institution, not in prison Avagons, with guards and in chains, but by the directors themselves, who em- ploy the favorable opportunities of the jotirney to cultivate an intimate acquaintance with the past history and disposition of the youths. They are encouraged to converse freely with each other, and the new con- ductors, and every exhibition of truthfulness or falsehood, of vivacity or dullness, o'f sobriety or intemperance, of aptitude or aversion to partic- ular employments, is made the data for their right classification as to associates and occupation. On their arrival they are placed in the family best adapted to the characteristics of each — their deficiencies in manners and character, and the facilities for cultivating better habits of life. They are made cleanly in person and dress — they are informed as to the rules of the establishment — the chaplain addresses them solemnly on the new life to which they are called, the advantages they will enjoy, and the practical results which that life is calculated to subserve. They are gradually taught the rights of private property and the love of the domestic hearth, and become familiarized with the sentiments and the duties which that sacred idea implies — and to which most of the inmates of the institution were strangers on their arrival. While they are taught the occupations of the farm and garden, those who have an aptitude for handicraft are taught such trades as are wanted by country people, so that they can find occupation as wheelwright, harness-maker, shoemaker, blacksmith, in a village, away from the great cities — those seats of cor- ruption, want, and vice. Much attention is paid to cultivating the taste and the habit, of inno- cent and rational amusement — as the great safeguard of the young. The principle of all the amusements is to attach them to their own homes, and to make them in some way useful, either as teaching and enabling them to do good to others, or as developing and exercising their own bodily and mental powers. They are taught, therefore, to use the fire-engine, to swim, to save persons from drowning and to use REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 495 the remedies to recover them, to cHmb a mast, to handle the sails and rigging of a ship, &c., and in wet weather they are allowed the use of a lending library, and to play at chess, and more simple games. On spe- cial occasions there are concerts and social sports. The spirit of mutual help and self-government is cultivated. The occupants of each family are allowed to choose by election two of the colonists, (called freres aines, or elder brothers.) whose authority lasts a month, and the directors judge of the condition and disposition of the house by the parties thus selected. These, with the Sisters of Charity, whom one of the visitors to the institution designates as ''angels whom Heaven has given to the earth, and whom the earth gives to Heaven " form the domestic staff of each family. The colonists are also allowed to act as a jury, fining the punish- ments on their companions and themselves, subject to the reversal or mitigation of the directors. The effect, on the whole, has been salutary. In one of the houses a boy was forced by his companion to return a book he had received as a reward, because he subsequently miscon- ducted himself In another they demanded the expulsion of a colonist, who had degraded the family to which he belonged. When a portion of the poorer districts of Lyons was visited by the disasters of a flood, the boys voluntary gave one of their meals to the sufferers, and one of them who refused was compelled by the rest to eat his portion alone at the end of the table. On one occasion, a visitor desired the boys of a family to point out the three best; all eyes were turned immedi- ately toward the three most worthy. " Tell me now, who is the worst?" Every eye was lowered, and a single boy advanced from the rest and said in a whisper, •' Mister, it is me." The chief reward is to be enrolled in the table of honor, which any one who has remained three months without punishment is entitled to. More than half of the boys are, on an average, at any one time, inscribed on this table, and some even for four and six times, who therefore have fallen under no punishment for eighteen months. Of the 1,184 children received at Mettray from its foundation to the 1st of January, 1850, 717 were completely ignorant; 270 had com- menced reading; 143 knew how to read; 54 only knew how to write. The greater number who have left, have been taught to read, write, and cypher. Of 528 who were placed out in various situations, only 46 are known to have relapsed into crime; of these, 33 were children from towns, 19 being from Paris. To meet the great difficulty of obtaining proper moral agency for the management of the young by adding the motives of religion, an order of the agricultural brothers of St. Vincent de Paul has been instituted by M. Bazin, who, so early as 1828, founded the agricultural colony of Mesnil-St.-Firmin, in the depai'tuient of Oise, for rearing orphan children in agricultural labor. This religious corporation, composed entirely of laymen, has for its object to supply directors or assistants to agricultural 496 REPORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. colonies of pauper children, and especially of foundlings. Above all, as being laborers, the agricultural brothers have no uniform but that of labor; and if they are distinguished from other agriculturists, it is by their self-denial, their devotion to the common cause, and by that hope of a divine reward which doubles their powers. The "brothers" are placed in every respect on the same footing with the boys under their charge. They take their meals with them, and have only the same accommodation for rest. There is an institution at Paris of the same general character, called the society of St. Nicholas, founded on a small scale in 1827, but which, since 1846, has contained above 900 children, of very mixed origin, variously collected by charitable societies and generous patrons, and many of them only by the number assigned to each. The payments are 20 francs per month for orphans, and 25 francs for other children; and for this small sum the establishment provides maintenance, instruc- tion, and apprenticeship to a trade. Seventy persons in charge live in the establishment, who, with twenty-five master-workmen, living out of the house, make an average of one employee to every seven or eight children, a proportion wliich insures a vigilant surveillance day and night. The teachers, called "freres,''^ are all laymen; but they extend their care not merely to the instruction, but also to the education of the children, and to make them honest, industrious, and able workmen. The remarkable peculiarity of this school is the organization of its industry in workshops, which are hired, together with the apprenticed services of the children, by master-workmen of approved character in various trades, such as watch-makers, jewelers, engravers, and all the multifari- ous occupations, half arts, half trades, which supply the numerous arti- cles of refinement specially produced at Paris; besides the ordinary trades of baker, shoemaker, tailor, and so forth. The children do not go to these workshops except on the express requirement of their parents, and those employed give, on the average, eight hours and a half daily to work, and two to instruction in classes. The apprenticeship is for two, three, or four years, according to the profession; and, after its close, the young people may remain in the establishment, pursuing their work, and depositing what they earn, beyond the cost of their suste- nance, in the savings-bank. The employers find materials, tools, and skill, and take the profits of the trade, undertaking to treat the children well, as kind and faithful masters. In Belgium, the government has undertaken the work of rescuing the destitute and delinquent children from their evil ways, and converting them into moral and productive laborers and valuable citizens. Be- fore embarking in the enterprise, M. Ducpetiaux, inspector general of prisons and institutions of public charity in the kingdom, was commis- sioned to visit the different states of Europe, and gather their experience in this class of institutions for guidance in the organization of a great reformatory school at Ruysselede. There is a practical question yet REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 497 undecided, at least to the satisfaction of all those who are engaged in this work, whether preference should be given to large, or small agri- cultural colonies. The Belgian view is, that suffirient effect can be produced only by an establisiiment large enough to permit every form of experiment in the organization of a series of various works, graduated according to the capabilities and future objects of the colonists. Such is the design of the reformatory schools at Ruysselede ; and when this institution is. in full operation, it will remain to be decided, whether it is requisite to erect otiier similar establishments on the same scale, or to form branch establishments in communication with the parent institution. In England there are three kinds of preventive and reformatory in- stitutions. 1. Union or district schools for pauper children, connected with the union workhouse. 2. Ragged or industrial schools, for neg- lected and vagrant children in large cities. 3. Reform schools for juvenile criminals. On the 9th and 10th of December, 1851, a '• Conference on Preventive and Reformatory Schools;" was held at Birmingham, at which several of the most active promoters of this class of schools attended and com- pared the results of their observations and experience, with a view of deciding on the proper course of action to be adopted by the legisla- ture and individuals, to reach and reform the '"perishing and dangerous classes" of children and juvenile offenders in England. The following seem to be the results arrived at, as set forth in the report of the proceedings: The children whose condition requires the notice of the conference, are : 1. Those who have not yet subjected themselves to the grasp of the law, but who, by reason of the vice, neglect, or extreme poverty of their parents, are inad- missible to the existing school establishments, and consequently must grow up without any education ; almost inevitably forming part of the "perishing and dan- gerous classes," and ultimately becoming criminal. 2. Those who are already subjecting themselves to police interference, by vagrancy, mendicancy, or petty infi'ingenient of the law. 3. Those who have been convicted of felony, or such misdemeanor as involves dishonesty. The provisions to be made for these three classes, are : For the fiist, free day schools. For the second, industrial feeding schools, with compulsory attendance. For the third, penal reformatory schools. The legislative enactments needed to bring such schools into operation, are : For the free day schools, such extension of the present governmental grants, from the committee of council on education, as may secure their maintenance in an effective condition, they being by their nature at present excluded from aid, yet requiring it in a far higher degi'ee than those on whom it is conferred. For the industrial feeding schools, authority to magistrates to enforce attend- ance at such schools, on children of the second class, and to require payment to the supporters of the school for each child from the parish in which the child resides, with a power to the parish officer to obtain the outlay from the parent, except in cases of inability. For the penal reformatory schools, authority to magistrates and judges to com- mit juvenile offenders to such schools instead of to prison, with power of detention to the governor during the appointed period, the charge of mamtenance being enforced as above. 32 498 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. We make some extracts from the remarks of the different speakers^ for the sake of the facts and suggestions which they contain. The Chairman, M. D. Hill, Esq., Recorder of Birmingham, thus com- ments on the propositions before the conference: The perishing and dangerous classes of society consist of a numerous and in- creasing body of young persons, who are being trained in a way they should not go ; by some they are called the Arabs of the streets ; by others the outcasts of society ; by others again, human vermin. However designated, the terms employed make it manifest that they are sometimes objects of fear, sometimes of aversion, often of pity ; that they are not of society, but somehow for its mis- fortunes interwoven with it. It is this class which forms the head -spring of that ever-flowing river of crime, which spreads its corrupt and corrupting waters through the land. It can not be dried up. It has never yet been puriHed. Nor, indeed, have any well-directed efforts, at all commensurate with the magnitude of the evil, ever been instituted. It therefore, becomes of the very deepest im- portance, not only with regard to the temporal and eternal happiness of that par- ticular class, but for the safety of all, old and young, high and low, rich and poor, that the state of neglect and mistaken treatment in which these miserable beings are found, should cease to exist. * * * The classes in question are divided into two great and important branches : those who are living in ignorance, vice, or neglect, but who have not come under the animadversion of the law, and have not yet received any sentence from its ministers. These form the unconvicted branch. The other branch is composed of those who, for whatever offense, and before whatever tribunal, have come under the grasp of the law. By respectable classes of society, I take not into consideration, when I employ the term, whether the individual is rich or poor. I call that man a respectable father, whatever may be his station, who is imbued with a right sense of respon- sibility to God and his children ; who cares incessantly for their welfare ; and who, while before all things he values a religious and moral training, yet also desires instruction for them in such branches of knowledge as will enable them to fight their way through the competition which besets every path in life. But the class we have in view is deeply below this. The poor but respectable man who discharges his duty to the best of his ability, is far above the negligent parent, and infinitely above the perverting pai'ent, who wilfully abuses his charge. The difference between the highest in the realm and the lowest is measurable ; but the difference between the respectable father and the man who cori-upts his child ie immeasurable, and consequently infinite. Now, the fact is, that these two classes can not be brought into connection in schools. It is a curious circum- stance that the objection does not come so much from the higher class as from the lower. The children of that lower class will not place tlieinselves in a posi- tion to be looked down upon, as they call it. Their love of education and train- ing is not strong enough to overcome this objection ; and you can not persuade them to enter the national schools. But if you could it would still be far from expedient to exert such an influence, because these poor creatures possess great powers for mischief. Thrown upon their own resources they have learnt self- reliance ; they despise all restraint, both for themselves and others ; and they would become the most dangerous leaders into evil courses, and the most fatal seducers of the better trained children, who, brought up under the eye of their parents, have not at their early age the power of self-government to resist the seduction. But there is an advantage to the better class in making distinct schools for this lower branch. Take these children away from the streets ; let them no longer infest the path of the good man's child, and you destroy the danger which, I can tell those who are unacquainted with their humbler neighbors, weighs heavily on the minds of parents in the respectable class, keeps them in fear and trembling, lest their children should be corrupted by evil companions. Again, there is another advantage arising from these separate schools. We find that •whenever a means is given to a lower class by which it is raised in the social scale, a stimulus is applied indirectly, but with great force, to the classes above it. Now, let me go to the second branch, which is composed of two classes. The first consists of those who have been convicted of some petty offense, that does not necessarily imply the loss of honesty. With this class we shall interfere to REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 499 some extent ; but we shall not dethrone the parent altogether. For this it is proposed that schools shall be established called fe<;ding schools. And here steps in the principle of coercion, which it behooves you and the public, and through you and the public, the legislature, maturely to consider. Where, either through neglect or perversion, the parental tutelage has been abused, or through misfortune it has failed — as where the father has done his best, but the child's nature resists his authority — we hold it to be the duty of society to step in and prevent the child falling into ruin. But we do not go beyond what is absolutely necessary. Wa furnish the child with food so that he may be able to attend the school ; and we compel his attendance by some punishment if he does not come ; not so much to operate upon the child as upon the parent, who not unfrequently keeps the child from school to employ him for his own purposes, sometimes to beg, and sometimes to steal. I forbear to state what kind of education is to be given in these schools, beyond saying that literary and scientitic knowledge will be secondary if not ter- tiary. Our object is not to make learned thieves, but plain, honest men. We will sedulously keep in view that labor is, by the ordination of Providence, the great reformer ; and thus is the primal curse wrought into a blessing beyond price. I pass then to the second division of the second branch, which may be termed a third class. There the child has been convicted of an act of dishonesty. And I dwell on that oftense, not more because of its gravity, morally considered, than because it leads to the conclusion that the child has entered on crime as a calling. So long as offenses are clear of dishonesty, as in cases of assault, and so forth, so long no criminal can make them the means of livelihood ; but an offender onoe embarked in the practice of dishonesty will never be reclaimed, except by a long course of reformatory discipline. His daily wants compel him to repeat his offenses until not only his conscience has become indifferent to guilt, but his moral sense is gradually inverted. He prides himself on his zeal and dexterity, and if, as in the case of younger criminals, he assists in the maintenance of his parents and the family of which he is a member, he soon persuades himself that his pursuits are not merely blameless but laudable. Now, then, in my mind — and I here, as elsewhere, speak the sentiments of those I represent— the parent has abandoned his authority, and abdication must be followed by revolution. The child must be taken under the protection of the public ; he must be sent to the reformatory schools ; not, however, for two or three months only ; he must be treated as if he had^ — what he most assuredly has — a dreadful disease upon him ; and he must be kept under treatment until cured. The parental authority is gone ; the boy leaves the home to which he owes nothing but his existence, which has become a curse ; and v^'ill be retained in the school according to the sentence of the judge or the magistrates by whom he was sent. Now, it would not be wise for us to attempt such a violent change, as to call on the authorities so to frame the sentence in its form as to authorize the conductors of the school to detain the child until he is cured ; but when it is felt by the public that the boy is subjected to a treatment which confers an inestimable benefit on him, both as to this life and that to come, then the term of sentence may be, without any shock to public feeling, extended to such a period as will give reasonable expecta- tion that it will be long enough to effect a thorough reformation. And now is the time to enter on the great question : Is it possible to reform these offenders ? I know it is the belief of raany-^entertained in private, but not openly avowed — that to aim at reforming thieves is to attempt impossibilities. I know a shrewd gentleman, who said he would walk a hundred miles to see a reformed thief. I think I could cure him of scepticism, and furnish him, at the same time, with many wholesome excursions. I will not go far into the question myself ; I will leave it mainly to gentlemen present, who have personal knowledge on the sub-- ject — who come here to-day as witnesses, and are ready to depose to most import taut facts. But I must not altogether pass by this vital part of our case. We have an asylum in this county, at Stretton-on-Dunsmore, which was establislied in 1818, by the benevolent magistrates of Warwickshire. It has, therefore, been in existence a sufficient time to enable us to speak with the confidence arising from long experience. At ^rst, while the experiment was new, and the managers found nothing around them from which to derive instruction, the number re- formed was only 48 per cent. But you must recollect that Stretton-on-Duns- 500 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. more is not a prison, nor a prison disguised. There are no physical means of keeping a convict at the place; and, until lately, there were no legal means to bring him back if he chose to depait ; and even now the legal means are not so easily worked as could be desired, as some of us well know. We find, there- fore, that the failures are generally composed of those boys who can not be in- duced to stay until they have felt and become convinced that advantage will accrue to them from remaining ; oonsequently the boys deserting are in general the new comers. The real benevolence of his treatment becomes manifest to the lad if he remain long enough (and no long period is required,) to distinguish between kindness and indulgence. He also makes another discovery equally essential to his contentment with his position. lie finds that the proiessions of good-will towards him, and the strong desire to confer lasting benefits upon him, which he hears from those under whose care he is placed, are sincere. For the first time in his life, perhaps, he finds that he may safely put confidence in those around him, and then, but not till then, does he slowly, but surely, open his heart to wholesome feelings of reverence and aftection. And thus alone can the soil be prepared for the good seed. He remains, then, among a race of beings in whose existence he had previously no more belief than we have in that of fairies and good genii — he remains, and is reformed. I have said, itiat at first the reforms at Stretton were 48 per cent., or in other words, that where 48 were reformed, 52 turned out ill. That proportion has, however, been gradually raised, and the last time I made inquiries on the subject, the reforms had reached 65 per cent. I am afraid, however, that the financial position of the institution reflects discredit on the county of Warwick, and especially on the town of Bir- mingham, which, I grieve to say, has added more to the inmates and less to the funds of the asylum than any other district. There is another institution of which I have some knowledge. In the year 1848 I made my way to Mettiay, near Tours, in France. I was received with the utmost kindness, and admitted into the fullest confidence by M. Demetz, the illustrious founder of the institu- tion — a judge who descended from the bench because he could not endure the pain of consigning children to a prison when he knew that their future would be made worse than their past. I examined or rather cross-examined, each de- partment of the institution, with all that unamiable incredulity which thirty years' practice at the bar may be supposed to have generated ; I began with a sort of prejudice — a determined suspicion — fighting my way backward, step by step, until, as proofs advanced, the conclusion was forced upon me that my position was untenable. I found that at Mettray, where they possess and exercise the power of compulsory retention, and where, for desertion, a boy is sent back to the prison from which he had been withdrawn — the amount of reformation reached to what I at first thought the incredible proportion (but which I fully verified) of 85 per cent. Well, if these two statements obtain your confidence in their accuracy, there ifi an end of the question ; but you shall hear the witnesses to whom I have ap- pealed, who, under different circumstances, and in other places, have been per- sonal cognizant of facts, the relation of which will induce you, perhaps all the more readily, to put faith in those which I have laid before you. If then we take the question of the possibility of reformation as settled, at least for the present, let me touch for an instant on the subject of cost; for, although in public few will idententify themselves with an objection founded on expense alone, yet in private the word cost is pretty frequently heard. Let us see what is our position. We have doubtless the power of postponing our duty to the body of children to which I have referred ; and it must be confessed that we exercise this noxious privilege pretty freely. We have the power of letting them grow up in ignorance, vice, and crime — of neglecting the plant when young and tender — and of toiling to make it straight when old and stiff. But in this, as in all other debts, we pay most usurious interest for our procrastination. Let us now see what the expense is of reforming a boy at Stretton-on-Dunsmore. In order fairly to ascertain that expense, you must not only take the cost of the reclaimed, but of those also who are failures. Just as the carpenter, when he buys his timber, pays an equal price for that portion which he cuts away into useless chips as for that which remains in his finished work ; so that the cost of his roof or his floor is not to be calculated simply by the quantity of wood therein found, but by the whole quan- REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 501 tity required in its fabrication. The cost of reforming a boy, then, under these circumstances, is from £12 to £16 a year. Or, having regard to the whole average time demanded for a cure, about £31. Now, bi't'ore i contrast tliis cost with that of dealing with a criminal in later life, let me call attention to Mettray. The accounts of that admirable establishment are kept on a very perfect system, and with great minuteness — in such perfection that some of our merchants' might study book-keeping with advantage in the counting-house of Mettray. Well, the gross cost of a boy at Mettray is £20 a year ; int then you must know that at Mettray not only the cost of those not reformed is added, but the cost of a most valuable department of the institution, namely, that of a house of refuge, where those who have gone out into the world, if employment fail them, or if they shall be placed in circumstances in which they require the care of a friendly hand, may ever find a welcome and a home. Taking, therefore, the reformed, the un- reformed, and the guests, the gross cost is £20 per annum ; but by the produc- tive labor of the boys the cost is reduced to £12, the average labor of each boy amounting to £8 a year. The total cost of each reformation at Mettray is, as I have before stated, £42 ; greatly above that of Stretton, no doubt ; but then it is to be considered that the reformations at JMettray are 20 per cent, more numer- ous than at Stretton, and a little reflection will convince every one who hears me that the additional 20 per cent, implies the existence of a more powerful, and consequently more expensive, reformatory apparatus at Mettray than at Stretton. The secret lies in the employment of a far greater number of teachers and super- intendents at Mettray in proportion to the number of the lads ; but I can answer for it that the enlightened and benevolent conductors of Stretton would, if their funds permitted, gladly pay the additional cost to obtain the additional success. We will now contrast the cost of a vigilant reformatory administration, taking hold of its subject in his earliest years, with that of our established system, or want of system, by whichever tei'm it maj' be most appropriately designated. Here the lad is left to rove abroad with very short intervals of restraint, living either on misplaced and most pernicious charity, (so called,) or by depredation; but will any one, having the slightest tincture of knowledge respecting such lads, for a moment atfirm that although the cost of their subsistence and evil training finds its way into no account, and therefore does not appear in our statistical tables, it is, in truth, of so small an amount as £12 or £16 a year? I know there is a prevalent fallacy that a cost which does not come out of rates or taxes, or some public fund, is no cost at all. Why, when the thief comes into my house — as he did some time ago — and afterwards being found in the garden, was angrily thrust forth into the highway by the gardener, who did not know that the intruder had £lO's worth of silver plate in his pocket to console him for the in- dignity ; why, when that £10 was gone, was I the less a sufferer because it nei- ther went in rates nor in taxes? Again, if a thief is under the control of the law, you put him on very spare diet — his beer is gone — his tobacco — all are gone. He is ruthlessly bereft of all his luxuries; and no creature on earth revels so wastefuUy in coarse luxury as your thief Such is the burden which the thief at large casts on the community ; and though we have no means of calculating its exact weight, we can not fail to see that, as between the thief in freedom and the thief in custody, the prison must be under prodigal management indeed if he is not less costly to the public when his rations are doled out by the gaoler than when he is roaming at liberty and helping himself Nevertheless, his treatment under the hands of the law is, according to our present system,, a very costly im- post. Of his tendencies in childhood or early youth, which lead by a sure con- sequence to crime, we take little note. He wanders about the streets without control, he forms habits of idleness, he learns to gamble, he' is precocious in de- bauchery, and we let him alone. At length his acts become cognizable by law ; but unless he is singularly unfortunate, his career of impunity is not yet run. In the course of time, however, it comes to an end, and he appeai-s before the mag- istrate for what is called his first offense, meaning thereby his fh-st detection. A short imprisopment ensues, just long enough to dissipate any unfounded horror which he may have entertained of a jail, to blazon his name on the criminal roll, to make him acquainted with the body of which he is now a full member, and to turn his mind to the advantage of exercising his profession in such a manner as to edpape as much as possible the taasualties inoidenl to his way of life. On every 502 REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. committal he is told to take warning, and he does take it, though not precisely in the sense in which it is given. He receives it as a warning, not against crime, but against detection, and acts accordingly. Nevertheless, in spite of all his care, he falls from time to time under the animadversion of the law. Now, I am put- ting aside all higher considerations, and pinning myself down to pounds, shillings, and pence. Fix your attention, I beseech you, on the necessary cost of this pro- cess. Ordinary individuals reqiiire only the care of a physician when the body is ailing, and of a clergyman lis? their spiritual maladies ; but your malefactor demands the constant care of a suite of attendants belonging to neither of these professions. He is apprehended by one or more of the police, who, having sacri- ficed much time and labor to obtain a satisfactory introduction to him, attend him to his new home with the most watchful care. His apartment in this home, or, as it is more commonly termed, his cell in the prison, is by far the most expensive dwelling which he ever entered, except in the pursuit of plunder, and the num- ber and salaries of those who minister to his wants form an item of cost to which his private life has no parallel. When the proper hour arrives, he is handed into his carriage, and set down at the stipendiary magistrates's. * * * And not only is the time of the magistrate employed in his affairs, but the aid of law- yers is called in — ^a class of men who have never been open to the reproach of undervaluing their services. Now, to all the expenses of a prosecution, which are paid for out of the public funds, such as the salaries of judges and recorders, counsel and attorneys, and the various officers of the court, and gratuities to wit- nesses, you must add the value of the time occupied by grand juries and petty juries in their public duties, avoiding, as you must do, if you desire to arrive at just results, the error to which 1 have before adverted, of assuming that when an expense is borne by individuals, and is not drawn from the public funds, it may be left altogether out of estimation. At length, after the drama of apprehension, trial, conviction, warning, and short imprisonment has been repeated, until it has lost all its interest either to actor or audience, the criminal arrives at the vltimum supplicium — transportation, a most expensive process, as I will proceed to show. A petition was presented to parliament by the magistrates of Liverpool, in the session of 1846. This petition set forth the cases of fourteen young offenders, impartially chosen, by which it appeared that the.se fourteen persons had been frequently committed to prison, none less than eight, one as many as twenty-three times. The cost of each of these fourteen youths, in apprehensions, trials, and imprisonments, was, on the average, £63, 8s. Not one of them was reformed, ten of them were transported, the cost of which, and their support in penal colo- nies, must be added. The cost of transportation in each case would be £28. That of control and residence in the colony, £54, at the least. So that each of the ten, who were transported, have cost the country, in those expenses which are chargeable on the public fund applicable to that purpose, a sum amounting to £145, 8s. ! Such is the cost of a hardened offender, more than three times that of a reformed thief at Mettray, and almost five times as much as at Stretton-on- Dunsmore. And so great is even the pecuniary advantage of conversion over perversion. Surely here is matter for deep and humiliating reflection ! Rev. W. C. Osborn, Chaplain of Bath Jail: When I became chaplain of the Bath jail in July, 1843, I determined to keep a most accurate account of all the children who might come under my care. During the first year there were about ninety-eight children sent to jail, of which number no less than fifty-five were first committals. During the following years I kept a strict account of these children, and the result has been of the most dis- heartening character. I can show you in detail the number of committals of each of those childi'en during the six subsequent years, or even up to this time ; and you will be surprised to be informed that within six years these children appeared in our jail no less than 216 times. I ventured to lay before a committee of the House of Commons a statement of the expense of these children. I will not trouble you with the details ; but I may tell you that the result of the calculation was this, that having been in our jail for an aggregate period of twenty-seven and a-half years, having been committed 216 times, we find that in the six years subsequent to their first committals their cost to the public by imprisonment, pros- ecutions, plunder and destruction of property, by their maintenance in unions, REFORM SCHOOLS, OR AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 503 (making a fair allowance for their supposed occasional and temporary periods of honest industry) can not be estimated at a sum much less than £6,063. They have consequently been living most expensively upon the country. In fact, they have cost us a sum of money that would have kept them at a board ino'-school for the whole of the time. Aye ; and having lost all this money, in what position are they at the expiration of the six years ? Fifteen of them have been trans- ported, live have died, five of them are living we know not how or where ; but there are about thirty of them in a condition which must, sooner or later, issue in their being sent to one of our penal colonies. The children committed for the first time in the year ending July, 1844, (pursuing the same mode of calculation,) have in five years cost about £4,000 ; and those committed for the first time in 1845, have already cost about £2,000. Now, in the returns laid before Parlia- ment, on the motion of Mr. Monckton Milnes, j\I. P., it appears that there were in 1848 and 1849, throughout the country, no less than 7,000 first committals of persons under seventeen years of age. But I will take them at 5,000, and assuming that Jiath presents a fair average of cost, the amount lost to the country, or expended on those children alone, who are committed for the first time, is half a million per annum. That is a startling assertion certainly ; but it is fully borne out by the statement as to the cost of juvenile crime, made by Mr. Serjeant Adams, Mr. Rushton, and other witnesses examined by the select committees of the two Houses of Parliament. In the position in which I am placed, I have opportunities of knowing the condition of these children ; and although the sys- tem adopted at Bath is, I believe, as good as, if not better than, that adopted elsewhere, yet I must say, that our treatment of these poor destitute creatures has been, and is, most cruel, unjust, and unchristian. Just look for a moment at these children — many so young that they can scarcely reach the top of the bar with their heads — many so little that when in chapel they have to stand on the seats that they may be seen — children who are so unconscious of the degradation of being in jail, that they will make the zebra-dress they wear supply them with amusement ; and the mode of punishing them is such as to harden, not to reform and instruct them. I can not help feeling that our conduct towards them is most unjustifiable, and I trust that God will not visit us with his anger for oui" treat- ment of these poor, ignorant, sinning, yet unconsciously guilty creatures. We have given them justice — justice without mercy — ^justice without scales — for there has been no measurement of the cruelty of our treatment of them. It has been calculated that there are 700 orphans committed to the prisons of our coun- try every year ; that there are 2,000 committed of those who are deprived of one of their parents ; so that there are nearly 3,000 children every year, who are left without their natural guardians to guide them in the paths of duty, and instill into them the practice of virtue, incarcerated in our prisons. Look at the manner in which many of them become criminal. A man, hardened in crime, gathers these children round him, and makes them his agents ; he sends them to beg, to pick pockets, and teaches them how to do it ; such instances are known to me. He takes them to the very shops they are to rob, points out the shoes they are to steal, the gown-pieces they are to filch ; and being less e.xpert than the adult, they are discovered, and thrown into prison. Thus, while the older villain escapes, the child begins his criminal life, which we know too frequently ends in being sent out of the country as a transported felon. I might give you many cases of this kind ; but I forbear. I would, however, refer for a moment to whipping in prison. It has been determined lately to introduce whipping as an element of punishment. I do not think it is attended with any good effects. It is no uncommon thing to hear these children say, " Oh, sir, whipping will do me no good ; I know all about that ; I have had enough of it before." They have been cuffed and knocked about their whole life long by drunken and brutal fathers and mothers, so to them it is no new thing ; and I point to the state of our jails to show that this system of whipping in our prisons is not calculated to reform but to harden. If we look at some of the crimes — they are called crimes — of which these poor children are guilty, what do we see ? They run away from the union workhouse — their home, they have no other — and what is the penalty ? They are sent to jail. Are the children of the middle classes sent to jail when they run away from home or boarding-school ? A few mouths ago some orphan children ran away from a union workhouse, and went to see the races ; they were 504 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCnOOLS. caught, brought back, and sent to prison for taking away the union clothes, which they hal on them. At the same time the son of a governor of a union lious3 ran away from home for the same purpose. And when he returned was he impri- soned ? No I and we do not wish that he should; but vvhy, then, should we punish by imprisonment in a felon's jail the fatherless ch.ld, while his dest tute condition pleads for mercy and forgiveness at our hands? Their other offenses are acts of vagrancy and petty thefts ; sleeping in out-houses or under hay-ricks, having no better places to lay themselves at night, when driven from their homes, or while wandering over the country. As to their robberies, they are, at least at first, of the most trifling kind, to which they are urged by hunger, temptation, and e.xample. I would, before I conclude, refer for a moment to the condition of these children on being discharged from jail. I need not tell many of the gen- tlemen present that they are in a most deplorable state. They are often without friends, without a home, without one single soul to care for or to think of them. I have said without friends ; but I say it with this exception, that their only friends are criminals, men who, standing at the prison door, and who have been within those doors, welcome them back to their old haunts of guilt, to pursue their evil courses afresh — to associate with them in lodging houses and similar places — to become learned in every thing that is evil, and in every thing that is destructive to society. No wonder that we have so much to complain of in the destruction of property, and in the expense of police, when we allow these chil- dren to go so long uncared for. No one will give them honest employment. A person who was once a prisoner in Bath jail, but who is now a respectable trades- man, wrote to me a few days ago to send him an errand boy. This man was himself a reformed criminal ; but what did he say ? " Don't send me a lad who has been in jail." Does not that speak to every one of us most strongly ? — does it not show how lamentable is the condition of the unfortunate child — unfortunate enough to have ever entered the prison walls, — which circumstance even pre- vents a reformed criminal giving him employment ? Rev. Sydney Turner, Resident-chaplain of the Philanthropic Society's Farm School at Red Hill, near Reigate, Surrey, pointed out the hin- drances to the effectual check of juvenile deHnquency, in the want of proper industrial, correctional, and reformatory schools, and to the want of authority in magistrates to compel attendance at such schools. To illustrate these hindrances, let me refer to the reformatory school with which I am connected, and with which I am best acquainted — the Ph lanthropic Farm School. The philanthropic society, by which this institution has been esUib- lished, was formed upwards of sixty years ago, being the first association, as far as my inquiries go, for the reformation of criminal and vagrant children in Eng- land. Since its formation, in 1788, the society has had about 3,000 children under its care, out of which number something hke two-thirds appear to have been reclaimed from criminal habits, and permanently improved and benefitted. The society used to carry on its operations in London. In 1848-9, however, we fol- lowed the example of Mettray, and removed our school to Red Hill, in the neigh- borhood of Reigate. Now, I may fairly claim for our Red Hill farm school that it has proved three important truths. First, that the reformation of young ofF.'nlers is a very possible thing, if you seek it by the right means, viz. : by k.nJ- n.'ss, relig ous influence, and industrial occupation. Religious influence and teach ng will not alone eftect it; you must add the practical illustrations of patience^ gentleness^ and kindness; and even these together wdl not be thoroughly eft'-ctive without the help of regular and healthful labor. It has proved, I say, that these agencies are at once indispensable, and tolerably certain to succeed. It has proved also, that with regard to the sort of labor you employ there is none so useful, as a means of moral discipline, as country labor — no re- formif.on, in short, so ef{»ct.ve as a free, open, f.\k.m school. The society's sell >oI in London did Lttie as compared w.th what has been don,:- since it was tians- ferre I to Red Hill, wall and gates dispensed w.th, an 1 the boys subjected to the wholesome in.luence of open ai'r, free diseipl.ne, eountiy associations, and i-ounti-y hib ts. The phiiaulhrop c school has prjv.d another th.ng, that the boys lU- CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 595 strueted in it are at no loss to find employment in the colonies. Nearly eighty young s.ttlers have gone out I'roiii the I'aim school, thiity-seven last yeai', and thiity-t-.ght th.s year. Tbesie lads^^iave b..'en welcomed k.ndly, and have- iumui rea:ly emp.oyintnt, and their conduct has been such that we have kttcis from gentleman m the colonies, not to protLSt against the send.ng such lads out, but requesting us to send them some more. Eut in sp.te of all this, what is the feel- ing that continually depresses me and my fellow laborers in the woik ? We feel that we are carrying on an isolated work — that what we do is so little, compared with whrtt is to be done, that our powers and resources are cramped ; that we have no adequate means of detention and restraint, and that we have not suf- ficient pteu))iary means to carry out our cffijrts on such a scale as to make them economical and largely useful. * » * But it may be asked, " What sort of detention do you want ?" I might answer, that we want some such system of juvende correction as they have in France, in Belgium, in Switzerland, Hol- land, and I may now add, in Piedmont also. Let us take it as a principle, that a boy under a certain age shall not be treated on the same footing as an adult ; that h.s age, the neglect or vice of his parents, and the depraving Circumstauees of his chddhood, shall be taken into account. That he shall be considered as a subject for reformatory training, rather than mere punishment. That he shall, therefore, at some early stage of li:s career, while yet open to better intluences, be placed in a position to have the better f-^elings of his heart developed, and to become a vol- untary agent — I say, become a voluntary agent, because while untaught, and while ruled by his criminal habits and assoc.ates. he is not a free agent; he is a slave, and we must free him. Let him then be sent to a correctional school — a school provided, let me add, by the govei'ninent; for I know of no other way in wh.ch the object can be obtained. But the difficulty arises that such treatment of the young criminal would be, or would at least seem to be, more or less an encouragement to crime. Theoretically it may appear so, but practically this might bj obviated. First, by separating the child from the parents by the power of dt-teution, and sending it to a correctional school at a considerable distance. Secondly, by requiring the parents to contr bute a certain am(-uut in aid of the support of the child while deUi.ned in the school. Let this principle be reeog- n zed as an essential that we can not do without, and its practical execut.on enforced in every ])osSible case; it will be most efiectual answer to the objection to wh.ch 1 have refeired. A thrd condition should be, that the discipline of the school should be really and efteetually corrective, so as to aftbrd no temptation to the boy to qual.fy himself for it. Rev. John Clay, Chaplain of the County House of Correction at Pres- ton, submitted some remarks on the question of compelling parents I0 pay for or contribute to the cost of training to habits of morality and industry the children whom they have allowed to become discreditable and dangerous to society. Our juvenile criminals being drawn from a population (North Lancashire) among whom the means of employment are abundant, it will be no matter of sur- prise, though it will be of sorrow, that, in the great majority of instances, the young creatuns who have been allowed to run into crime had parents who were well able to secure for them a su, table training to indut-trious and moral habits. For some nxniths I have kept, a particular account of the earnings of the families to which our juvenile offenders belong. Tak.ng the last 50 committals as suf- ficient to lead us to a general conclusion on the subject, I may state that of these young victims of parental neglect, 6 b.longed to famdi s — most of wh'ch were Irish, passing through the neighborhood, or recently settled m it — earn.ng a precarious and uncertain hvel.hood. 5 belonged to families earning from Ids. to 2i s. weekly. IS "' " " '■ •• 2;ts. to 405. 10 " " " '' " 41. s. to ()!is. " 1 " . " " " upwards of £.3 ifow, with scarcely an exception, these children had been completely neglected 506 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. by their pnrents. Some of them — objects of the jealousy and cruelty of a step- father or stjp-mothcr — had had their homes made insupportable to them, or had been actually driven from them. A few examples may serve to give an idea of the elements of juvenile criminality in one part of the country. A boy of eleven says : " I came from Ireland with my parents two years ago ; three older brothers get Us. altogether in a factory; four of us go about begging. My vareiits do no work at all." Another boy, aged fifteen, also Irish, says : " My mother wont live with my father, he drinks so ; I live with my father in lodgings; he lets nie do as I Lku." The earnings of this father, mother, and boy, are 26». Two boys, brothers, aged, respectively, sixteen and eleven, were committed for the third time for '• tu'eaking and entering a warehouse." On the occasion of a previous committal of these children, I learned that their father had been in the hab.t of readmg to them the demoralizing penny trash containing the lives of Turpin and Sheppard, and that these robbers had been held up to the deluded children as benefactors of the poor ! When the young culprits returned home after the expiration of their imprisonment, they found a step-mother awaiting them. The father, who, on the trial of his children, had been severely and justly reprimanded by the court for his neglect of them — and who seems to have intended to take more care of them when they returned home — only exchanged his indifference to their moral welfare for brutal harshness. The younger child said to me, on his Itist committal : " My father licked me with a rope 'till the blood ran down my back, and my step-mother was watching !" So much more ready are such parents to strike than to teach ! Here is a fathei' — and there are thousands like him — who first corrupts his child's moral instincts, and then cruelly chastises him for the consequences of his own lessons I I must not omit to mention that this man's earnings were upwards of £3 weekly I Many more illustrations of the unchristian training to which mult.tudes of children are ex- posed might be given, but I will pass on to the conclusion which I believe my- self warranted in drawing from the flicts I have submitted — that parents ought to be compelled, by law, to defray part, or the whole, of the expense incurred in giving that religious and industrial education which they themselves have culpa- bly neglected to give. It may be that, in many cases, the parents are unable to contribute any thing towards this expense ; but this inability will often be found to arise from wilful idleness, drunkenness, or other vice ; and when such causes of poverty are proved, I see no just principle which would be opposed to making parents of this character liable to penalty for their misconduct towards their children, and, as a consequence, theirs towards the community. I have, indeed, a strong conviction that if — in justifiable cases — the sins of the ignorant and erring child were visited upon the neglectful or vicious parent, such a proceeding would produce benefit, by reminding or warning fathers and mothers of the necessity of paying more attention to the duties incumbent on them. Whatever may be ultimately devised for fixing upon parents a more decided responsibility for their children's conduct, it is clear — proved by an overpowering mass of dis- tressing evidence — that measures must be taken to rescue the perishing and dan- gerous classes of children from their present condition — for their own sakes — and for the sake of the general safety. Such measures will doubtless involve consid- erable expense. I know well that I now speak in the presence of those who require these measures to be taken from the best and highest motives — who are actuated by the most enlightened views and by the largest charity — who remem- ber that the work they have undertaken is in humble and faithful obedience to One who ''is 7int willing that one of these little ones should perish ;" but I know, also, that the success of the work will depend, in a very great degree, upon obtaining the assent of persons who may desire to see economical advan- tages in the courses proposed. Well, what would it cost, on the one hand, to give Mo or three years' moral and industrial training to a neglected child, who would otherwise enter upon a course of life destructive to himself and dangerous to society? Upon the Red Hill plan, which, under the zealous and untiring care of Mr. Turner, has been crowned with such happy results, it would cost — say for three years — £75. Upon the Aberdeen plan, which seems to me admirably adapted to the circumstances of a large town, and respecting which we shall hear more fully from one of its great founders — the cost for three years would not exceed £15 or £20. But, on the other hand, what would it cost the community CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 507 to permit such a child to pursue its course through a sea of crime, until it is landed in one of our pfnnl colonies? I will endeavor to show this cost; and, in order to avoid any liabil.ty to exaggerate, I take my data, as far as practicable, from official documents. By the last report (1.5th,j of Captain Williams, inspector of prisons ftir the home district, it appears that the entire number of persons sen- tenced to transportation in 1849 was about 3,100. In the inspector's elaborate and valuable tables the ages of the transport convicts are not given, and I there- fore look to the very instruetiv.e criminal statistics published by Captain Willis, the chief constable of Manchester, and to the details which are given in the Liv- erpool calendars ; and assuming that the ages of transpoits, generally, are repre- sented in those returns, it would appear that of the 3,100 1 have mentioned, 43 per cent, are under twenty -one years old — 1,333; 45 per cent, are between twenty-one and thirty years of age — 1,395: and 12 per cent., or 372, are above thirty years of age. Now, it is not taking too much ff>r gi'anted to say that crim- inals, sentenced to transportation before they reach thirty-one years of age, have commenced their criminal career at a time of life when they should have been learning a better way. But society has " ignored^^ their very existence. Let us see what society pays for it* indifference. Offenders, generally, are not sen- tenced to transportation until they have appeared at the bar four or five times. I will, therefore, suppose the expense of between three and four prosecutions, at assizes or sessions, to be £50. The average imprisonment of each offender before transportation may be taken at three years, and the expense of it at £65 ; three yeais' probation in separate confinement, at Parkhurst, or public woi ks, £50 ; removal to the colonies, &c., &c., £35 ; total, £200. So that when 3,000 sen- tences of transportation are passed in a year, we may consider them tantamount to. a notification to the public that a last installment of a sum exceeding half a million sterling is about to be called for I To be as precise as the nature of this inquiry will allow, the 2,728 convicts under thirty-one years of age, to whom I have already alluded as having run the career of juvenile criminality, represent a cost waste of £545,600 ! But let it be remembered that the felonry of this king- dom — and whether juvenile or adult, it belongs to this question to consider the fact — is not maintained, while at large, for nothing. Having investigated to a considerable extent, the rates of income derived by thieves from their practices, and having obtained estimates of the same thing from intelligent and experienced convicts themselves, I believe myself to be within the real truth, when I assume such income to be more than £100 a-year for each thief! Well, then, allowing only two years' full practice to one of the dangerous class previous to his sentence of transportation, I do not know how the conclusion can be escaped that, in one way or another, the public — the easy, indifferent, callous public — has been, and is mulcted to the amount of more than a million. sterling, by, and on account of its criminals annually transported ! But its criminals who are not transported ! still living on their dishonest gains, or in our costly prisons I We must not forget them in our calculations of the cost of crime, though it will be sufficient for my present purpose merely to refer to them, and to say that I am convinced that their cost to the community in and out of prison amounts annually to some mil- lions ! This assertion may be somewhat startling ; I will only state one fact in support of it. Some years ago a conmiittee of inquiry into the annual depreda- tions of the Liverpool thieves, stated the amount of those depredations at seven hundred thousand pounds ! Need more be said on the economical part of this momentous question ? Need I ask you to balance between the charge of training the young outcasts of the country to godly and industrious habits, and the waste of money, time, and souLs, consequent upon our neglect of an undeniable Chris- tian duty? •* * * To show the good effect of prison discipline on juveniles, I can offer the direct testimony of gentlemen filling the posts of superintendents to our county police, to show the same thing. My last report, which contains full details of these police returns, is that for 1848 — according to which, it appears that of sixty-three young offenders, under twenty-one years old, who had re- turned to their homes after discharge from prison — eleven could not be found, ten were no better, three were improved, and thirty-nine were more or less reformed. I almost fear that I draw upon your credulity in making this state- niLnt; but believe me that the law of " kindness,'' so eloquently enloleed by the learned recorder of Ipswich, can do, by the Divine blessing, much good even in a 508 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. prison. It was not that these children stood most in need of reading and writing, of learning their eatcehism, of committ ng to memory chaptei's fiom the Holy Scriptures — tiiey stooi most in need of what had never yet approached them — of soMuth.iig to t.mch, soften, ami humanize their hearts and desires. I believed that, in al.nost every instance, these misled creatures had never in their lives heard words or tones of kindness or affect. on ; that they never had dared to sup- pose that tyiy one cared for them, or desired, for their own sakes, that they should learn to speak and do things that are right. I endeavored to show them their mistake — that there were people who felt for them, who pitied them, who loved them ; who earnestly desired to promote their happiness both heie and hereafter. These endeavors were not unsuccessful ; and I found that as the heart sotteued and opened, so the mind expanded ; and the readaig and scrip- tural teaching, which, otherwise, would have been mechanical and irksome, were received with eager thankfulness, as something conducive to the great object of repentance and amendment. Rev. T. Carter. Chaplain of the Liverpool Jail, spoke in reference to the inadequacy of the existing system of prison discipline to secure the reformation of juvenile criminals, and the present cost to society for the conviction and punishment of this class. Liverpool has one of the largest jails in the kingdom. The commitments during last year were upwards of 9,300. Of that number, upwards of 1,100 were juvenile offenders, under sixteen years of age; and of these the proportion of recommitments amounted to more than 70 per cent. This one fact must give you some idea of the inefficiency — the utter uselessness — of such institutions as the Liverpool jail for the reformation of criminals. Indeed — and I say it ad- visedly — if it had been the object in Liverpool to devise a scheme for the promo- tion rather than the prevention of juvenile crime, no contrivance could have been h.t upon better calculated to accomplish that object than the Liverpool jail. And yet that jail has been held up as one of the best regulated in the kingdom, under the old system ; and that I believe with justice ; and if these are the results of one of the best regulated, I leave you to judge what must be the case with others, not so well conducted. Now, I must invite your attention to the manner in which these juveniles are treated. The course followed with them is to send them from the police court to the jail in the prison van, wherein they are mixed with offenders of all classes and ages. On arriving there, they are first taken into the reception room, which, I may statti, on the female side has six compart- ments or cells opening out from it — three on each side ; and sometimes there are as many as five persons crammed into these cells, which, when designed and built under the direction of Howard, were intended to hold only one. In these Cells, girls are mixed with adults, and remain often from tour o'clock in the after- noon unt.l two next day, when they go befoi'c the surgeon, in order to satisfy him that they have no disease which shall disqualify them fiom mixing with other jjersons. When they have passed that muster, as I may term it, the juvenile offenders are sent into what is called the school class. In this class, there have been as many as sixty girls under sixteen years of age ; and yet there are but twelve rooms or cells for them to sleep in, and here they are doomed to remain from half past seven in the afternoon until seven o'clock in the morning in winter, so that the inmates pass the whole of that interval in a situation where they can not poss.bly be under the control or supervision of the officers, and are left to un- restricted conversation, which you can readily imagine to be of such a character as not to tend to their edification. Now, it so happens, that with the best inten- tions on the part of the matron and the female warders, who have tlie charge of them, it is quite impossible to prevent the mixing of the unsophisticated with experienced thieves. There are many instances in which the same cell has con- tained five girls, one of whom has been under sentence of transportation — two others in jail, and convicted of felony several times before — while the remaining two were novices in guilt, and young in the cai-eer of vice. Now, what must be the result of such a state of association ? It is right that the criminal should be i-eformed because I hold that the object of improvement is not merely the pun- CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. gQg ishment, but the reformation of the offender. And yet the very first step we take in Liverpool, with a view to that object, is to mix up children of seven or eight years of age — for we have one now waiting for trial who is not eight years olj — vvith persons who have been for a long period hardened in a career of vice. When I tell you that I have one of my own children of the same age, I need not assure you that I never look on one of those poor little saplings without feelings of the deepest commiseration. These children are or have been, as dear to their parents, as mine are to me, and I feel that when they are taken into jail for the purpose of punishing their crimes and reforming them, you have no right — I have no right — the country has no right — to put these unfortunate little ones in such a position as must inevitably issue in their utter depravation. Such, then, is the result on the female side of the prison ; on the male side matters are no better. * * * What, I would ask, can it be but ruinous and disastrous, as our jail returns ex- hibit ? I have already mentioned the proportion of recommitments ; and I can Illustrate, from my own inquiries, the after careers of some of these offenders. I take a page, then, at random from the school register of four years ago, and I find that of the thirty whose names are upon that page — not selected cases, but taken in the order in which they came to jail — eighteen have been transported ; two are now in jail, having been frequently recommitted in the mean time ; one out of the thirty is in employment ; one has emigrated ; two have died, one imme- diately after being discharged, the other shot in the streets during a public dis- turbance ; leaving six, out of the thirty, whose history I have not been able to trace, but who, in all probability, have quitted the town and neighborhood of Liv- erpool, to visit Birmingham or Manchester, or some other large town. I find, also, that the average number of times in jail of these thirty is eight and a half; the average time spent by them in jail is fifteen months ; the cost to the borough of Liverpool^ on the average, is £32, 15s. ; while the further cost of transporta- tion of those eighteen averages £48 ; the gross average expense of each of these thirty criminals being £62, 7s. The cost of every young criminal to Liverpool is illustrated in a memorial of the magistrates to Parliament, asking for a reformatory school, in the following statement : — That the costs of apprehension, maintenance, prosecution, and pun- ishment, was of No. 1 £129 5 61 No. 8 £72 1 4i No. 9 52 9 7j No. 10 64 18 9| No. 11 28 10 41 No. 12 39 8 101 No. 13 26 10 10- No. 14 47 7 71 And thus these offenders cost the public £888 9 1 It thus appears that the avei-age cost of these fourteen prisoners was about £63, 8s. ; while I have shown that the average cost of thirty boys, who were not selected, bear in mind, as the worst cases ; not taken at random, but in the order of their commitments, was £62, 7s. ; showing almost coincident results. And here I must inform you that I have not taken into account the co.st of maintenance in the colonies, and the loss of property by the community. If I did it would add immensely to the calculations I have laid before you. And yet I may say, that in Liverpool jail, which was referred to by the late excellent inspector of prisons, Mr. Hill, as one of the cheapest in expenditure in the kingdom, the average cost per head of the prisoners is only £12, whereas in many other jails it is £15, and in some nearly double. But great as is the expense of juvenile crime, the charge entailed upon us must not be estimated solely by the expense incurred on account of the offenders whilst they remain in that category. After they reach the age of seventeen or eighteen, they pass out of the class of juvenile offenders, and become adults, their habits of crime becoming more fully developed, and the ex- pense, of course, being greatly increased. I find that, taking forty-two individ- uals — male adults — at this moment in Liverpool jail, who were first received there as juvenile thieves, the aggregate commitments amount to 401, or 9i times each on the average. The average career in crime was five years and four No. 2 71 2 10^ No. 3 74 1 10| No. 4 71 13 1 No. 5 47 9 3 No. 6 64 6 6^ No. 7 99 2 51 510 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. months. These are all known thieves, and their cases are looked on (humanly speaking) as entirely hopeless. Under present circumstances the course pursued can only have a corrupting and vitiating eft'eet upon those who have not yet arrived at years of maturity. Of the forty-two instances to which I have referred, there are six under sentence of transportation. One first commenced his career of crime at the age of nine years, and has been nineteen times in jail ; and when I mention that, I need not bring forward any further proofs of the uselessness of all attempts at reformation, so long as there is not a radical change in the present vicious arrangements. There is another of twenty years of age, who, since being sentenced to transportation, has made a violent and determined attempt on the life of one of the officers of the prison. 1 will show the same results with the females. Out of twenty-six females, all of whom commenced as juveniles, I find that twenty-five have been in jail, on the average, seven times each ; the other I do not think it fair or proper to bring forward as an average example, because she has been fifty-seven times in jail. The average time each is known to spend in jail is five years. Now, I think 1 have established my posi- tion that the Liverpool jail, although singled out for special condemnation by the inspector of prisons, is the most eflictual institution that can be devised for trans- mitting and propagating crime. Such is the evil, and such its extent. What can we look to as its remedy ? Rev. Francis Bishop, Minister of the Liverpool Domestic Mission Society, submitted some remarks, which pointed out the preliminary- training school for the young criminals of Liverpool. In four of the best streets, occupied by the honest and industrious working classes in Liverpool, there are 411 children between the ages of five and fourteen. Of that number 206 go to a day school ; 29 to evening ragged schools; and 176 go to no school at all. Now, if we look at those streets which supply the inmates of the prisons — the worst class of streets — we find most disheartening results. An inquiry instituted about a year ago gave the following statement, which is equally applicable to the present state of matters. In Eriek street, there were 436 children, between five and fourteen years of age, and of these only 51 went to school — some of them only to an evening school — leaving 385 who went to no school whatever. In Crosby street, which was referred to by the reverend gen- tleman who last addressed you, there were 484 children, between the ages of five and fourteen, only 47 of whom went to school, leaving 437 who received no education at all. In another of this class of streets, which is very populous, an inquiry w;is made yesterday morning. The street to wliich I refer is called New Bird street, and it was intended to have ascertained the condition of the whole of the inhabitants as regards education ; but it was found that the time was too short, and accordingly only the fii'st three courts were taken — not selected — but taken in order. Well; it was found that there were 119 children between the ages of five and fourteen; and only 3 out of that number went to school. In- cluding the front houses adjoining these courts, we found that there were 163 children between the ages I have mentioned ; and of that number 16 went to a day school ; 4 to an evening ragged school ; and no less than 143 to no school at all. Now, these are very startling facts, and I mention them merely to afford you a fair specimen of the educational condition of the streets of Liverpool in which the classes whose welfare we are met to promote, reside ; and although I believe that the juvenile population of Liverpool is somewhat worse than that of great towns generally, yt I am afraid that the condition of Birmingham, Manchester, and London, is not greatly superior in this respect. * « * My opinion is that we shall never be able to reach this class of juvenile offenders so as to operate effectually in diminishing their numbers, until we make the parents feel, and that through the pocket. They must be made to understand, by being required to contribute to the maintenance of their children, when they come within the grasp of the law, that they can not throw off with impunity the sacred obligations which the Ahnighty has imposed on every parent. I will say no more than that compulsory attendance nmst also be enforced on the vagrant class — that class who are on the high road to crime — by some such mode as that adopted in Aberdeen. CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. gjj Mr. William Locke, Honorary Secretary to the London Ragged School Union, remarked: It is now about eight years since a few friends in London joined me in the establishment of the ragged school union ; but since then we have managed to increase the number of schools, in London alone, from sixteen to one hundred and two. We have now about fifteen thou.sand children, who are being taught in these schools ; above one hundred and sixty paid teachers ; and above one thousand three hundred teachers who give voluntary assistance. Now, although I have no wish to shrink from the work, yet I have come here to declare that we are not equal — depending as we do upon voluntary contributions alone — to the great task we have undertaken. It is true that in some of our schools we have the ragged now clothed, the dirty become clean, and the riotous made orderly, so that many who visit us can not see the difference between these and any other schools. These desirable results are brought about by collateral cases, such as the clothing clubs, the industrial classes, the mothers' associations, and kindred institutions, which come in with powerful assistance to improve the habits, ap- pearance, and nature of the children. But still with all that aid, we are unable to cope with the great evil, or to put a check upon juvenile crime; and we feel that still there is a very large class we make little improvement upon. This class consists of vagrants, mendicants, and petty thieves, who require to be fed before they will be taught, and for whom more industrial, refuge, or feeding schools are required than our funds can sustain. There is, in London, a very large number of children coming under that category. Lord Ashley, in the House of Com- mons, some years ago, said there were 30,000 of them ; but my opinion, at the time, was that the number was much larger. I believe that there can not be less than 200,000 of them in the entire country, and from this class, I am quite sure, come nearly all the juvenile criminals in our prisons. They are the very seed plot of crime. Now, how are we to meet this mass of vice and wretchedness? Many of them are starving in the streets ; many of them are indeed " perishing for lack of knowledge as well as feed." In three points of view this great class have been considered, viz. : — as expensive — as dangerous — and as perishing ; but there is another point arising from these ; they are greatly to be pitied. With regard to the expense, no one can doubt but that it is excessive, not only as respects the property they steal, but in their apprehension, their trial, their main- tenance in prison, and their transpoi'tation. We have information from some of these boys, who live by thieving, of the great sums of money they expend in the course of the year, that would astonish you all, filched from the pockets, or houses and shops, of the industrious classes. They are dangerous, with regard to society, in disturbing the peace and morality of the neighborhood where they dwell ; but, in another sense, tiiey are dangerous, viz. : in their evil example thus shown to the better class of children, and in innoeulating others with their vicious habits. But they are also perishing, and the objects of our deep commiseration. They are without education or instruction of any kind ; they are ignorant of all good ; they are criminal, in many cases, from dire necessity, and " more sinned against than sinning." They are not, therefore, to be visited with the same kind of pun- ishment we inflict upon adult criminals. Nay, I hold it to be now an acknowl- edged principle, that we should not treat as criminals those children who had no sense of right and wrong — and I very much doubt if we have any just right to punish children for breaking laws with which we have never made them ac- quainted, or for violating duties which we have never taught them to respect. Look for a moment at their pitiful and forlorn condition ; in one night Lord Shaftesbury found no less than thirty-five of these poor children sleeping — hud- dled together under the dry arches by Field Lane, Smithfield. Night after night fancy these boys — or just picture to yourselves one of them herding there un- washed, unfed, uncared for by the thousands around — to snatch a weary sleep; and coming out from his hard, damp, comfortless bed in the mornirig — it may be in a cold, dull, winter's day — without friends, without a home, without a single soul in all the wide world to care for or to guide him. How, I ask, is it possible for such a lad, starving for bread, to escape the commission of crime? These children, without character and without any employment, must be vagrants or thieves in order to Uve — ^and therefore are they to be deeply commiserated. 512 ONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. Some of these very bo)-s we have succeeded in rescuing. Thank God for it. From one of them (I ineiin one of those found in Field Lane) who emigrated, we have a letter stilting that he is earning 3os. a vveeii as a printer in JNIelbuurne, (a most gratifying fact,) and thanking us most heartily for all that has been done tor liim. And will any body tell me that these children have not hearts, and can not be reformed ? I could tell of cases, not by tens but by hundreds, in which boys and girls, taken out of the mire and the gutter — the very sweepings of the streets — as it were, have become honest and useful members of society. Out of some 400 boys whom we have sent to the colonies from various schools, we have hardly heard of a single return to criminal practices ; but on the contrary, we find that in almost every ease they are doing well, and earning an honest livelihood. * * * As regards those children we can not reach — those who need to be fed, and even lodged, ere they can be taught — how can we expect to gather fruit from thistles, or to draw pure water from a muddy source? We may endeavor to reform them after falling into crime, and it is our duty ; but the chances are that we shall only be partially successful. Would it not be far better to prevent them falling into crime at all ? It was truly and eloquently said by Dr. Guthrie, that it is a beauti- ful sight to see the life-boat dashing through the waves to save the shipwrecked mariners ; but much more beautiful was it to behold the lighthouse beacon which might prevent the wreck altogether. I perfectly agree with the committee on juvenile crime of the county of Aberdeen, a short passage from whose report I beg leave to read. They assert: "That the present mode of deahng with juvenile offenders has not attained the end desired ; that neglected outcasts, for whom neither the funds of the public, nor the generosity of private individuals, have cared, have been allowed to grow up in the midst of a Christ'an people, without any instruction in the first princi- ples of religion and even morality, and are not, at least in the first instance, the legitimate objects of vindictive punishment — that it is just and right, before inflict- ing punishment, and bi'anding for life with the character of a felon, to give the outcast child a chance of improvement — to put clearly before him the path of duty; and if after this training, he wilfully depart from it, then society has done its duty by him ; and if he incur merited chastisement, he must, in his heart, ac- knowledge that he has deserved it." This being the case, it strikes me that the work will never be thoroughly done by private benevolence. A great public good should be the work of the public. When I first took up the subject of ragged schools, they were merely evening schools, for gathering in fro.m the streets outcast, neglected children. Such I still consider to be the genuine r;igged school. But now, when we find it necessary for a large class to be fed, and clothed, and lodged, and cared for, and sent abroad, &c., &c., I am inclined to say I can not undertake all this. The paris^h or gov- ernment must help us ; and it is their duty, on the score of economy, philanthropy, and self-preservation, to do so. A. Thompson, Esq., Chairman of the Aberdeen County Prison Board, made a short statement of the Industrial Schools in Aberdeen, established mainly at the suggestion, and by the efforts of Mr. Sheriff Watson. We have now had an experience of ten years, the first of our schools having been established in October, 1841. We commenced that school with about twenty boys, and we gradually increased the number to seventy or eighty, which is about the utmost limit our experience leads us to believe an industrial school ever ought to be alloweil to attain. Two years afterwards we established a small school for girls; that school has since been divided into two, and in each of these there are now from sixty to seventy schi'lars. But we found that, although we were able to accomplish a certain amount of good in the city of Aberdeen, still we had not by any means attained all the good we desired. We found the streets infested by little vagrants and beggars ready to commit all sorts of annoying depre- dations. We therefore resolved to avail ourselves of a local act of ParJiament, by which it was provided that begging and vagrancy were crimes punishable by the magistrates. You will be perhaps surprised to learn that in Scotland we have CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 5^3 no vagrant act, and that vagrancy is not an offense there which, of itself, and alone, can be punished, as in England — but in the city of Aberdeen this power is possessed by the magistrates, under the provision of the local police act, and they gave the aid of their authority to the gentlemen who wished to extend the opera- tion of the industrial schools to a class of children still lower in the social scale than those who were already in attendance. xVccordingly, orders were given on a certain day in the year 1S45, to the police, to capture every little vagrant boy or girl whom they might find in the streets, and in the course of two hours seventy- five were collected — and if you can conceive seventy-five dirty ragged little chil- dren, trained up in all sorts of vice and wickedness, and unaccustomed to any sort of restraint, collected together in our small apartment, you may form some idea of the scene of confusion and uproar which ensued. The whole of the first day was spent in endeavoring to bring them into something like order, and in furnish- ing them with the only thing they seemed to appreciate, viz. : three good substan- tial meals. When dismissed in the evening, they were informed that they might return the next day or not just as they pleased, but if they did not come back they would not be allowed to beg in the streets. Kext morning, to the delight of all interested, almost the whole of them returned, and the system has been pur- sued from that day to this. When we begun this plan there were in Aberdeen 280 children known to the police, who hved constantly by begging and petty thefts. For the last seven or eight years scarcely one had been seen, cases do occasionally occur, but they are very rare. W"e have almost completely succeeded in extirpating the race of juvenile beggars in Aberdeen. The next step in the history of our experience is perhaps the most interesting of all. Our establishment at first, of the boys' and girls' school, certainly cleared the streets of one part of the juvenile delinquents, but neither the worst nor the most dangerous class. Those whom we caught on the second occasion were those training up manifestly to fill our prison cells. Now what are the results as to them ? The number of boys and girls in the schools last described are generally about Kill — of those who have been at this school, seventy-one have since we opened been placed in situations where they are now maintaining themselves by their own honest industry : and what is perhaps still more satisfactory, of the whole 171 who have passed, or are now passing through our hands, not one indi- vidual has been taken up by the police for any offense great or small. When the schools were first started — like many other new and untried schemes — they met with considerable opposition, but a few resolute friends stood by them. The first success was not very obvious, and after they had been opened about two years the funds fell off", and we experienced that " excruciating agony," want of money, which was referred to by one of the gentlemen who has preceded me, and, in consequence, the number of children in the schools was reduced to the lowest possible point. But by this time the scheme had begun to take some little hold of- the public mind, and I am rejoiced to tell you that the working classes of Aberdeen came forvi'ard and expressed an earnest desire that the schools should not be given up, but that if possible they should be carried on and extended. They offered to raise subscriptions among themselves, and subscription papers were ac- cordingly carried round, both among the higher and among the lower classes, and I have to say, that of the whole amount contributed, two-thirds came ft'om the hard earnings of the working men and the working women of Aberdeen. By this most happy and timely addition to the funds we were enabled to get over the difficulties which threatened us, and we have been just able to keep moving ever since. The total number of children at all the schools is somewhere about four hundred. There are still two or three more statistical facts which I wish to place before the meeting. We were much annoyed in the county of Aberdeen by the number of juvenile vagrants who came out from the city. We employed the rural police to prepare returns to see what effect the juvenile schools were producing. The first return was not thought of until the year 1845. We were then informed that in that year (184.5) the rural police apprehended G'2 little children, or juvenile vagrants, who were traveling alone throughout the county, begging or stealing on their own account. In the year 1846, the number was reduced to 14 ; in 1847 it was further reduced to 6 ; in 1848 the number was again 6 ; in 1849 it was re- duced to 1 ; and in 1850 it rose again to 2 ! so that we have pretty thoroughly disposed of that class of offenders. 514 CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. It is a practice with us, as it is I believe in England, for women to go out beg- ging through the country, attended by children, sometimes their own, and some- times hired, with the sole end and object of exciting compassion, and obtaining additional alms. In 18-41 the rural police stopped in the county of Aberdeen 1,2U3 of these persons. That number was gradually reduced year by year, until, in 1850, there were only 387 — less than a third of the number we had nine years before. There is another test which, with your permission, T shall furnish you. In the year 1841, before the schools were opened in Aberdeen, the juvenile commitments to the Aberdeen prison amounted to 61. In the year 1850, the number was re- duced to 14. But I can give you a still more striking evidence of the value of these schools. In 1845 we were obliged, in a great measure, to close the doors of our schools, for the reasons which 1 have already mentioned. I have stated that in 1841 there were 61 juvenile delinquents; in 1842 the number was reduced to 30 ; and in 1843, when the schools were partly closed, the number rose again to 63. Now here, I think, is correct evidence of how the schools are working. Open the schools, and keep the children in regular attendance, and the juvenile vagrants disappear; juvenile crime is diminished — shut the doors, and they immediately reappear, flourish, and increase. We have, in addition to our proper schools, what we term a child's asylum, and this is an essential part of the system. It is a place to which any child found wan- dering or deserted is conveyed in a friendly manner by the police. It is attached to the House of Refuge, and the directors of that establishment give every possible facility for superintending the management of the children. The children are kept here until the committee meet. Formerly thej' met every day, but now it is not necessary to do so ; they are summoned when required. Each case is investi- gated most minutely; if it appears that the parents are able to take charge of the children, or that they ought to do so, they are sent for and remonstrated with, and induced, if possible, to do their duty. If it appears that they have a claim upon any parish, then a coi'respondence takes place between the committee and these parochial authorities, and the child is sent to its parish ; but in the greater number of eases the child is placed at once in one of our industrial schools. The object of this minute scrutiny is to prevent improper persons getting upon our very limited funds. We wish to keep these funds sacred for the persons who are really suita- ble objects, and who belong to the city. In all our schools the system is the same. As a general rule, the children learn about four hours' lessons in the day, four to five hours' work, one to one and a half hours' play, and three good substantial meals. Much has been said to-day, and the importance of the question can not be denied, as to the policy of compelling the children to attend these schools. Hitherto our experience has shown us that no compulsion is necessary beyond the attraction of the three substantial n)eals. Most of them were previously unaccus- tomed to a regular supply of wholesome food ; they soon learn its value, and re- quire no other inducement to return daily to their work and lessons ; and I ven- ture to say that the attendance of these poor children, the very outcasts of society, at these schools, is more regular than among schools of a higher class. With re- gard to time, I may state that they come in summer at seven and in winter at eight o'clock in the morning ; there is then an hour or an hour and a half's religious and miscellaneous instruction, such as geography, facts in natural history, and occa- sionally a singing lesson. The children then spend a short lime in play, and after- wards breakfast. From ten to two they work. At two o'clock they dine, and after some recreation they work from three to four, and from four to seven they have lessons suited to their different ages, and at seven they have a plain substan- tia! supper, and a short religious exercise follows ; after which the whole are dis- missed to their homes. Now this plan of sending them back to their homes is a point upon which we have had many an.xious consultations. The propriety of allowing them to return to their degraded and debased parents was questioned by many as being calculated to destroy the moral influence which the school exercised over them. But our e-xperience tends to show that the reverse is the case. I frankly admit that it is a doubtful question, and many exceptional cases may occur ; but we know also instances in which the saving knowledge of truth obtained at school has been communicated to the outcast parents through the httle child. We think, then, that we have been successful in Aberdeen to a great extent, and, in- CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. 5I5 deed, even beyond the extent we hoped to obtain when these schools were first established. The two great principles which we have endeavored to act upon are these — to show the children from the first that we really and truly love them, and desire their good, aud that all our exertions, whether in the way of teaching, or feeding, or remonstrating with them against evil conduct, are solely and only with the desire of doing them good, and that lesson the children themselves seem to have learned. But above and beyond this, we have sought to base our every step upon God's revealed word. * * * We have been told truly to-day of the expense the public are put to in keeping the youthful convict in prison. If I re- member aright, the lowest estimate was £18 or £20 a year. That is precisely our own experience in Scotland. But when we get hold of these children, and instead of sending them to prison, bring them to our industrial schools, we find the whole expense of teaching and feeding them is under £5 a year. And of that expense, on an average, about £1, 5s. is saved to the school by the work, of the children. So that we can bring up children — so far as man can do it — honestly, and industriously, and religiously, at an expense of £3, 15«. per annum. Whereas, if you send them to the poor-house, they cost about £10 per annum each with us, and I believe a larger sum in this country. If they are sent to prison, we know that the expense is from £1S to £25 ; and if we send them upon the distant voyage to Australia, we know that the cost altogether amounts to a sum not much, if at all, under £300 sterling. Upon an average of cases, we find that five years' training in the industrial schools is sufficient to make the child a useful member of society ; and suppose the expense to amount to £5 per annum, we have then the choice of making one of these children an honest and virtuous member of society for £25, or of sending him ultimately into a penal settlement, at a cost, including his previ- ous training in crime, of about £300. It appears to me that there can be little choice to a wise man in the matter. Sir, I have often thought, when I have passed a little ragged urchin in the street, one of the numerous class who are being trained up to a life of crime and misery, '' My poor little fellow, you are just a bill of exchange for two or three hundred pounds sterling, drawn upon the public of Great Britain, and the last farthing of that sum you will certainly cause us to pay before your career is ended." Much has been said to day of the expense of our prisons, but that is, after all, trifling compared with the enormous expense, and the serious loss the country is put to, by the depredations these persons commit. A single instance was alluded to, in which a large amount of plunder was carried off; and you yourself, Mr. Chairman, alluded to a case that had occurred in your own family. But it is not the plunder from the rich, and the quantity of plate, jewelry, and money, that is so taken, that creates the greatest amount of inconvenience ; but it is the extreme suffering caused to the working and industrious classes by having their hard-earned property taken from them. If you look at the records of trials and convictions before judges, and in police offices, you will find that a large number of cases occur in which the property is stolen from this class. Many of them, too, are afraid to appear to prosecute, and no small part of those crimes are committed against the poorer classes of society, which never appear at all. Rev. H. Townsend Powell, Chairman of the Warwick County Asylum, (who has given, without fee or reward, his time, attention, and talent, to the institution for twenty-six years.) gave the following account of the earliest reformatory institution of England, which is sit- uated at Stretton-on-Dunsmore in the county of Warwickshire : The institution commenced its operations in 1818, and in 1827 it was clearly ascertained that up to that period forty-eight per cent, of the whole number who had been subjected to the experiment had been permanently reformed. It was also made clear that a saving had been effected in the county expenditure, result- ing from the diminished number of prosecutions, the cost of which was charged on the county rates. Under the second master, the proportion of reformations was 58 per cent, of those who had quitted the institution. Under the present master, it has risen to 64 per cent ; and, if we take the latter part of his time only, since the last improvement in management has been introduced, it has risen to G3 per cent. 5ig CONFERENCE RESPECTING REFORM SCHOOLS. The system adopted is a system of kindness and persuasion, blended, neverthe- less, with salutary coercion and correction. « * * Xhis is effected by daily setting before him the comforts of a well-ordered family — by occupying and inter- esting his mind — by sending him on little embassies of confidence, and exciting in him a feeling of respect for himself and his own character, and inducing him to participate in that esprit du corps which regards the honor of the institution, of which he is a member, as if it were his own. * * * It is acknowledged by all that " evil communications corrupt good manners ;" and therefore all ai'o anxious to separate uncontaminated juveniles from old offenders; but it is not so generally acknowledged that association is no less availing for the propagation of good than evil. * * * I adopted the conclusion that association is no less availing for the purpose of reformation than it is for the purpose of contamina- tion, and that the difference is this : where the preponderating moral influence is in favor of evil, there evil will increase : on the contrary, where the preponderat- ing moral influence is in favor of virtue and religion, there virtue and religion will flourish and abound. This principle has been invariably borne in mind in con- ducting the institution at Stretton-on-Dunsmore, and I can not help thinking that if it were in a more favorable locality, and a power of detention, but without bars, and gates, and walls, were given us by law, we should be able to exhibit a yet more favorable result than any which has yet appeared. But, if we are to carry on our experiment on a larger scale, I would still urge the adoption of the sugges- tion contained in the memoir of 1827, viz. : that the institution should consist of one or more establishments, under the same general surveillance, but varying in strictness of discipline ; so that the return of the criminal to honesty, should be accomplished by a coresponding return of liberty. In pursuing this subject, we will introduce a particular account of the organization and management of several of the institutions referred to in the foregoing discussion, and will begin with the Rauhen-Hause at Horn, near Hamburgh, which may be regarded as the pioneer and model of all the others. REFORM SCHOOL OF THE RAUHEN-HAUS. HORN, NEAR HAMBURG. The Redemption Institute, or Rauhen-Haus. at Horn, four or five miles out of the city of Hamburg, was established by an association of benevolent individuals, aided by a legacy of Mr. Gercken, in 1833, for the reception of abandoned children of the very lowest class. From the beginning it has been conducted by Mr. T. H. \A"ichern who has made it the mission of his life, to reclaim this class from habits of idle- ness, vagrancy, and crime, by making them teel the blessing of a Chris- tian and domestic life, and the pleasure of earning their own bread, and of doing good to others, by their own industry. His first step was to procure a plain dwelling, and to remove every thing from without or within which gave it the appearance of a place of punishment or cor- rection ; and in this house he has resided with his own family. Into the bosom of his own family he received three boys of the worst description, and in the course of a few months, nine others of the same stamp, mak- ing them feel at home, and yet with full liberty to go away if they wished, but recognized by him, and his wife, and his sister, as members of the same household, and fellow-laborers in the garden and the farm. By forgetting or forgiving the past, and encouraging every effort on the part of these depraved outcasts of society, to form better manners and habits, by addressing them always in the look and tone of heartfelt in- terest in their welfare, bj^ patient and long suffering forbearance with their short comings, by touching exhibitions, at appropriate times, of the character and teachings of Christ, by regular instruction in the branches of an elementary education, by alternate recreation and employment, of which they receive the return not only in their own comfortable lodging and support, but in small but constantly accumulating savings. Mr. \\ ichern succeeded in working remarkable changes in the character of a large majority of all who became inmates of his family. By degrees the establishment has been extended from a single house to nine, on the original plan of not increasing the size of each, so to im- pair its domestic character, and to make each family to some extent an independent community, having its own house — father and mother, its own garden, table, fireside, ^nd family worship ; and yet all the lamiliea uniting in larger meetings and operations, as neighbors and a community, and all looking to Mr. Wichern as the patriarch of the whole estab- lishment. The following account of the institution is taken from the Re- port of M. Ducpetiaux, inspector general of prisons to the minister of jus- tice, preparatory to the organization of the reform school of Belgium. 518 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. The reform school of the Rauhen-llaus, at Horn, near Hamburg, was founded in 1833, bj' a society of charitable persons, and by the aid of private contributions, for the purpose of receiving and reforming vicious and unfortunately situated chil- dren. Commenced in a modest building roofed with thatch, from which it has taken its name, it now occupies about tvventy-tive acres of ground, upon which have been built, as they have been needed, a dozen houses, more or less spacious, each one of which has its proper destination. These houses are, 1. The old thatched house, the cradle of the institution, serving for the dwell- ing of a family composed of twelve children and their chief. It contains, besides, the apartments of one of the principal instructors, a preparatory department for children entering, and the business otlice, of which more will be said below. 2. The bakery building, with the storehouse for grain ; containing also the gar- dener's lodgings, and those of five apprentices and a printing assistant. 3. The 8wiss house, occupied in the lower story by the printing office, and above by the boys' infirmary and the store-room for paper. 4. The working house, containing in the first story a number of workshops for carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, spinners, wooden-slioe makers, &c., and above, apartments for a family of boys and a number of brothers. 5. The bee-hive is occupied in the first story by a family of boys, and above by the lodgings of a number of brothers and the teacher of an elementary class. 6. The girls" house, accommodating two families of little girls, one of which oc- cupies the lower story and the other the upper. 7. The tower building containing the chapel or oratory, the library, the school- rooms, tlie preparatory department for girls, sundry rooms used by the children and bi-others, the apartments of the second head instructor, &c. 8. The mother house, containing, besides the apartments of the director and his family, the kitchen, the laundry and store-room of provisions, lodging for some girls, the chambers for strangers, and some other premises for the use of the es- tablishment. 9. The stables, the horse stables, store-room of farming tools; together with the apartments of the farming overseer, and the sheds serviiig for barns and store- rooms. 10. The bookbinding and stereotyping shop. 11. The fi.sher's cabin ; lodging a family of boys and a group of brothers. 12. The shepherd's cabin ; containing in the first story a division of new comers with their overseer ; above the brothers' infirmary, and the apartments for pupils re-entering the establishment. 13. The wash-room and its appurtenances. All these buildings are scattered and grouped picturesquely about, among the gardens belonging to the establishment. Several of them have been built by the children, with the help of the brothers overseeing them. There are three divis- ions in the establishment. 1. The reform school for children ; which contains on an average 100 pupils, of whom two-thirds are boys, and one-third girls. 2. The institute of brothers, including the officers of the institution and assistants ; and which serves also as a preparatory or normal school for the young men intend- ing to join the "inner mission'' founded by M. Wichern. The inner mission is intended, among other things, to train chiefs of families, overseers for reform schools, prisons, charitable institutions, hospitals, agents for Christian associations, (Eible societies, mutual aid societies.) working missionaries for home and colonics, &e. The institute contained 34 brothers in 1847 ; at which period 20 had left the establishment, and were acting in some of the above capacities, in Germany, Switzerland, and America. 3. The printing establishment and business office, including a bookseller's, a bookbinder's, and a stereotyper's shop. These three departments, although attached to a common center, have each their separate existence, accounts and appropriations. They all originate from the private association, and are sustained by subscriptions, gifts, and legacies. The reform school has chiefly a local character, and draws its support principally from the city of Hamburg. The institute of brothers is of a more general cliaracter, and IS accordingly principally supported by beneficent persons elsewhere. The print- ing office and business establishment was organized by a stock company, and REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 519 its profits are applied in certain proportions to the two other sections of the es- tablishment. The pupils of the reform school are classed in groups of 12 children. Each family under the supervision of a brother or sister, according to the sex of the chil- dren, occupies, as we have seen, a separate habitation, consisting of a sitting-room and a common sleeping-room. There are five families of boys, and two of girls ; and besides a preparatory department for new comers, before their admission and regular location in families. To each family is attached a group of brothers, of whom one fills the place of chief or father, and the others a.ssist him or supply his place in regular order. The officers, &e., employed in the govei'nment supervision, and other services of the establishment, are, 1. the director and his family. This post has been filled since the origin of the institution, by M. W ichern, with remarkable distinction ; it is chiefly to his efforts and persevering zeal that the Rauhen-Haus owes its com- pletion and prosperity ; 2. three instructors ; 3. three or four foremen or assist- ants ; 4. brothers, whose nun)ber is various and increasing ; 5. two sisters or as- sistants ; 6. twelve workmen in the printing and business establishment, merely paid wages, and not lodged on the premises. The instruction given to the pupils does not differ from that given in good Ger- man primary schools. The labor performed is of various kinds, and executed by separate families and pupils. They include the domestic labors, the housekeeping and hnuse-vvork, fiild and garden culture, and certain industrial occupations, whose profits are added to the resources of the establishment. Under the first class of occupations are, shoe-making,^ making and mending clothes and bedding, carpentry, wooden-shoe making, woolen thread-spinning, in which the young children are employed, baking, masonry and painting, house- kee|jing, cleaning house, furniture, &c. The farming work is directed by a farming overseer. The land is principally cultivated by the spade ; and the large kitchen-garden furnishes abundance of legumes (beans or peas) for the consumption of the establishment. There are several head of cattle on the farm. Tliere has been established a basket-making shop, which employs a number of children during winter. The workshops proper are the |n'inting shop, the bindery, lithographing shop, coloring shop, stereotypery, and wood-engraving shop. A silk-weavers' shop has also been in operation since I84fi. The girls are chiefly busied in the household, and fill the places of servants, cooks, washerwomen, ironers, laundry-women, and seamstresses. The younger assist the elder ; they pick legumes, make and mend coarse linen, knit and mend stockings, and keep the rooms in order. They all keep in order and mend their own clothes. All this work, except the printing and bookbinding, is performed under the di- rection and supervision of brothers or sisters, who, as a general rule, are expected to understand, at entering the establishment, some one of the occupations prac- ticed there. The physical ti-aining of the Rauhen-TIaus is at once simple and healthy. Noth- ing is neglected as to care of bedding, clothing, neatness, and sanitary regulations. Although the establishment is very healthy, a physician visits the establishment regularly. The food is frugal, but abundant. It usually consists, at breakfast, of soup thickened with buckwheat flour cooked in milk ; at dinner, of sf)up of various kinds, rice, barley, beans and others, with potatoes ; to which are added in sum- mer, green legumes, and meat regularly twice a week ; at supper, of a piece of bread and a glass of beer, or of the remains of dinner. The children are not put on allowance, and may eat as much as they please. The brothers eat at their own ordinary, except at supper, when they dine at a common table, presided over by the wife or mother of the director, at which also sit children whose birthdays are celebrated. The children are admitted at from eight to ten years of age, and remain at the establishment until after their confirmation, or until they can be placed in good sit- uations, or returned to their families without inconvenience. In 184.5, of 82 chil- dren, four (girls) were from 8 to 10 years old ; 31 from 10 to 14 ; 29 from 14 to 16, and 18 from 18 to 23 years. No child, unless orphan or abandoned, is re- ceived without the oonsent of it& parents. 520 ^ REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. During ten years after the foundation of the establishment, the average age of the children, at the moment of their entrance, was 12 years and 6 months and a half, and at the time of their dismission, 17 years, two months, and two-thirds. It follows that the average duration of their stay, was 4 years, 2 months, and J^ths. From ISol to ]!!<47, there were 120 admissions. Pupils wlio can not re-enter their fami- lies, are usually apprenticed to masters carefully selected from among honest and pious artizans. There is no difhculty in getting these situations, and the apprentices from the Rauhen-Ilaus are even sought after, on account of the education and practical training which they have received at the establishment. The institution continues to exercise a beneficiary patronage over its graduates. Apprentices in the neigliborhood are regularly visited every week or every fifteen days, according to the distance, by the brothers, who carry them good advice, and converse with them on subjects interesting to tliem. Every fifteen days they meet in the after- noon or evening, in summer at the Rauhen-Haus, and in winter in the town, under the presldence of the director. They attend also at the festivals celebrated from time to time at the establishment. As active a correspondence as possible is maintained with the elder pupils who are at distant ]>]aces or in strange countries. The existence of tiie institute of brothers, and its extension within the last few years, as well as the situation of the brothers in different parts of Germany, facili- tate reports, and contribute to maintain, outside the establislnnent, the spirit which reigns within. The girls are usually placed at service. There is established a patronage fund, vv'hich pays expenses of apprenticeship, &c., occasioned by procuring situations. At the beginning of 1844, of 81 children who had left the establishment, 33 were apprenticed to artizans or mechanics, 7 entered at service as farm-laborers or domestics, 7 had become day-laborers, 11 (girls) had become servants, 9 became sailors, 3 entered the army, 1 prepared himself for the university, 5 continue at the school ; the occupation of 3 is unknown, and 2 children belonging to a family of vagrants have not been able to be kept to any regular occupation. Of this num- ber, 27 including the sailors, eillier have no fixed residence, or are living at a dis- tance ; 16 have returned to their families, and consequently have ceased to sustain regular relations with the establishment ; 38 remain in regular and more or less frerjuent communication with it. According to information very carefully collected about the conduct of these 81 children, (i or 7 only are conducting ill ; two of these were impixsoned for theft; all the others, 74 or 75, have given no cause for complaint, and some have distin- guished tliemselves by activity in labor and sound morality. A result so favora- ble would be very satisfiietory in ordinary life ; it therefore testifies much more strongly in favor of the organization and discipline of the Rauhen-IIaus, which, as we have already said, receives only vicious or condemned children, or those whose primary instruction has been entirely defective. At first sight, the organization of the Rauhen-Haus establishment present noth- ing ; fault even might be found with the confusion of the buildings, scattered here and there, and an absence of centralization which would seem calculated to cause difhculties in supervision, and to be contrary to economy. But these apparent faults disappear upon studying the interior organization of the institution, and upon considering the purpose of its creation. This purpose was to restore a family to the children ; to place them vi'ithin a sphere of relations, duties and affections calculated to change their habits, to reform their character, and to elevate their souls. The organization of the Rauhen-Haus hjis therefore been modeled upon that of the natural family. The children are classed in groups of 12 ; each group forms one family ; over each family is one overseer, who fills the place of a father. All the families besides, are gathered about a common center, and are under the authority of a common father, the director who presides over the entire institution and watches over its general interests. Each family occupies a separate tenement. This is usually in the lower story ; it in- cludes a common sitting-room, furnished with benches, tables, and cupboards, and having on one side a sleeping-room, and a small apartment serving for washing- room, and for a depository for housekeeping utensils. These apartments are distin- guished only by neatness and plainness ; they have no ornaments, except gifts pre- sented by friendly bauds. Eaoh dwelling has a yard for exercise, more or less REDEMPTION INSTITDTE AT HORN. 521 shady, and a small garden in which the children raise the beans and peas needed for their own consumption. AH these little gardens are inclosed within the prin- cipal garden of the establishment, and form with it a whole by no means destitute of beauty and harmony. The chapel, school, and workshop, are common to all, and serve as a common bond between the members of different families, who meet each other in them at certain intervals. In the morning, in summer at 4 past 4, and in winter at 5, the bell rings, as the signal to rise. The brother or sister repeats a short prayer ; the children make their beds, wash and comb themselves, and usually, in summer, the boys run and take a bath in a small river running through the middle of the estate. Each family then puts its house in order ; the rooms are cleaned, the furniture dusted. If there be time to spare, it is used in study and reading, or in working in the gar- den. At 6 the bell rings again, and each family, under the conduct of its overseer, proceeds, Bible under arm, to chapel, to attend domestic divine service. This service which is performed with soleiimity, lasts about an hour, at the end of which time each family returns home, where it finds breakfast ready. Half an hour is allowed for this, during which the brother reviews and explains, as may be necessary, the preceding instruction. From half past seven to twelve, the families disperse and form new groups. This time is occupied in school (usually for an hour,) and in manual labor in the gardens and workshops. At 12, all the mem- bers of each family meet again for dinner ; one of the children has set the table ; two others have been to the central establishment for provisions ; the meal is begun and ended with a short prayer repeated by the brother, who partakes of the same frugal fare with the children, and takes advantage of this intercourse to put liimself on familiar terms with them. After dinner comes play-time ; the children play, take care of their flowers, or read ; the servants wash and set away the cooking and eating utensils. At one the bell gives the signal for returning to work which is continued till half past four. From half past four to five, supper and rest. From five to seven, the time is again divided between labor and study. From seven to eight each family is within its own habitation, where it may busy itself in rela.xation or in whatever manner it pleases. At eight comes the evening divine service, which, like that in the morning, calls all the members of the institu- tion together in the chapel. Bedtime is from eight to half past nine, and the day ends as it begun, by a short prayer i-epeated by the brother who lodges in the same dormitory with them, but who sits up much longer than they. The occupations of Saturday are in some measure different from those of the other days of the week, 2 or 3 children are designated in each family, to clean up the house completely ; from 5 to 6, the whole family together puts the yard and garden in order, so that all may be neatly arranged for Sunday. From six to seven, the brother or sister presides at a conference, where are discussed the events of the past week, and matters of interest to the family ; the arrangement of labor for the next week is made, and the children in charge of them selected ; the servants for the time being restore the utensils which they have had in charge, and which are committed, after examination, to their successors, who become re- sponsible for them in their turn. This species of rotation maintains the activity and stimulates the emulation of the children, at the same time that it accustoms them to domestic occupations, and gives them a taste for, and habits of, order and neatness. Sunday is consecrated to worship and rest. Except while in chapel, each family remains together during the whole day. In the morning, at a proper time, the children change their linen, and put on their festival clothes, which generally differ from each other in form and color. The family appointed for that purpose, according to a succession previously designated, goes, with spades and rakes, to the burying- ground of the children who have died in the establishment, to put in order, to re- place flowers and shrubs, and to keep it in good condition. In the afternoon, after having attended divine service, each family, if there is time, goes to walk with its overseer. This walk has usually an object ; sometimes to visit a teacher or a far- mer in the neighborhood, sometimes to see some remarkable site, monument, or establishment. These excursions are varied by games or singing. Sunday is also the day for visits from parents ; and some children whose conduct is good, receive by way of reward, permission to visit their families, in the town or vicinity. And 522 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. all the school, meeting together again, attends evening service, vs^hich concludes the day. Every day after morning service, the director holds a short meeting, at which the children and the assistants attend. At this meeting faults committed the day before are noticed, and the director admonishes or punishes ; the particular ar- rangements of the day are announced ; necessary directions to the assistants given, and a review made of the children, to see that they are clean and neat, and their clothes in good order. Every Monday, the director holds a meeting of the assistants, at which special reference is made to every child ; the director listens to the observations of the brothers, and gives them instructions. Lastly, on Saturday evening there is held a special meeting for the discussion of matters pertaining to labor, economy, supervision of workshops, &o. The two head teachers assist the director, and occupy his place, if needed. They have charge in particular of the supervision of families and workshops. All the premises are also visited once or oftener, every day. In each vestibule are two registers ; on one of them is an inventory of the furniture, and on the other the inspector enters whatever remarks his visit may have suggested. The organization of the Rauhen-Haus is so contrived, as we have remarked, as to attach the pupils to the institution, and to unite them and their overseers together, as if they were members of the same family. To appreciate the influence exerted for this purpose, we must, so to speak, descend into the depths of the es- tablishment, and investigate the little events which vary its existence. We will only mention, under this head, the festivals at which the pupils and assistants meet several times a year. These are of two kinds ; one confined to a single family, as those which celebrate the birthday and baptism of pupils or brothers, the arrival or departure of one of them, &c. ; the others are the general festivals at which all the families and assistants meet, together with the friends and benefactors of the establishment. i\t these, which take place monthly, the boxes intended to receive voluntaiy gifts are ornamented with flowers, and carried solemnly to the chapel by two little girls. They are opened before the assembly, and prayer is offered for those persons whose charity contributes to the support of the institution. The an- niversary of the foundation of Rauhen-Haus is celebrated every year, with solem- nity ; but of all these solemnities, the most remarkable are those at Advent and at Christmas. We shall be thanked for giving, on this subject, some details which we find in the tenth report of the director, (184.5,) and which give, at the same time, an idea of the spirit reigning within the establishment, and of the artless char- acter of its members. "From the commencement of autumn may be discerned the symptoms of joy at the approach of Christmas. A new life seems to animate the families of boj-s and girls. All is excitement ; one is thinking of the gift which he expects, another of that which he means to give ; imagination is active ; plans fail and succeed ; when all arrangements are in good train, each family is hard at work within its own par- ticular circle ; every body is carefully keeping a secret : the brothers and sisters help the children at their work. As the important day approaches, activity redoubles ; not a leisure moment is lost ; the weekly evening which each family has at its disposal, is especially devoted to these mysterious preparations. What is their design ? To prepare Christmas presents wherewith to surprise the director and his family. Sometimes they are models of the Rauhen-Haus buildings ; some- times of religious edifices •, or pictures in relief of scenes from the Bible. Some of these models are five or six feet high, and executed with remarkable care and accuracy ; in the chapel may be seen the altar, the pulpit, the organ, the stalls, the bells ; the workshop is supplied with all its tools, the chamber with its furni- ture, beds, chairs, tables, stoves, &c. All these articles are carefully hidden until the day of their solemn exhibition. Meanwhile, at Advent, begins the religious instruction introductory to the coming festivals ; by which their minds and hearts are both prepared. The Christmas songs are practiced ; and soon are in every mouth ; those lately arrived learn them from the elder ; their meaning and relig- ious signification is explained. During the last week of Advent, joy resounds from all sides. On the Sunday before Christmas, each family, under the direction of the brother its supervisor, goes about the neighborhood to invite to the feast the respectable poor, with whom the establishment has constant connection. These REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 623 good people must also have their gifts ; and the pupils take upon themselves this responsibility, and appropriate to this purpose their small savings. In these visits they sometimes see wretched spectacles ; but a picture before their eyes serves to put good thoughts and useful remembrances into their minds. At last the holy day is come. All is properly prepared ; the day passes ; it is evening. The large vestibule of the "' ^Mother House" is opened, and each family arrives in procession, carrying the gift which it has patiently prepared. All the articles, whose bulk is sometimes considerable, are arranged in the middle of the room, and are ornamented with wroaths and evergreens ; the Christmas tapers are lighted, and when all is in complete order the director and his family are in- vited to behold the spectacle prepared for them. Their arrival is greeted with shouts and songs ; the hall glitters with lights ; all gather in groups and admire the result of the labor of each family ; paintings, transparencies, inscriptions, tes- tify to the sincere alFection of the children towards their benefactor ; and certainly, to him, this testimony is not the least precious of their gifts. During the same evening, the assistants and brothers receive the gifts designed for them. The pro- gramme of the rejoicings of the next day is communicated to the assembly, the Christmas songs which have been printed are distributed, and after having re- turned thanks to God by hymns and prayer, the families return in the same order to their respective dwellings. Next day the bell proclaims the grand festival. All arise in haste by lamp- light ; the children put on again their festive garments and gather at the " Mother House," where was held the joyous meeting of the preceding evening. All sing the hymn of the day, and after having returned thanks to God, they return home to breakfast. Divine service takes place as usual. Meanwhile the kitchen is in unusual activity. At noon, all members of the establishment take their places at a large table, and partake of a repast, whose most delicate dishes have been sent as presents by friends from the town and neighborhood. Some of these friends, some former pupils, some parents, seat themselves among the children, and become with them members of one large family. There is joy in every heart ; singing succeeds : and before the feast is finished, come the poor invited several days before by each family. All rise, in a few minutes every thing is put away in its place, and every trace of the repast has disappeared. Each family, with its guests, returns to its well-warmed home, to familiar entertainment ; where the children sing their prettiest songs, to do honor to their visitors. About half-past two, there arrive from every direction the friends of the institution, who, for the sake of at- tending this ceremony, have often traveled several leagues in inclement weather, and in the depth of winter. The bell rings anew, and the families proceed to the chapel, conducting their poor visitors, who at their arrival take their seats at a table spread expressly for them. The chapel ornamented with foliage and ever- greens, looks like a thick grove. Although of considerable size, it can scarcely hold the numerous audience assembled at the solemnity. The director reads the gos- pel for the day, between whose verses are sung hymns appropriated to the occa- sion. A discourse chiefly addressed to the poor and to visitors from abroad, reviews the purpose, origin, and progress of the institution. Then come forward the schools of the neighborhood, with their instructors at their head ; one offers a prayer and sings a hymn in memory of the pupils dismissed from the Rauhen- Haus ; another invokes the protection of God for poor and abandoned children ; another implores pity upon all prisoners ; all then unite their voices in a conclud- ing hymn, after which each school deposits its modest offering in the box appointed for receiving gifts to the establishment. It is time to proceed to the decoration of the feast to the memory of absent friends. This is the moment which is awaited with so much impatience by the children from the beginning of the Advent. From the commencement of this period, all the school meets at noon to listen to the reading of those passages of scripture which announce the coming of the Messiah ; which is followed by the singing of a hymn. The chandelier of the chapel is furnished with as many can- dels as there are days in Advent ; every day one more of these is lighted, so that the number of lights constantly corresponds with the approach of the festival. We left all the members of the institution in the chapel. No sooner have the ceremonies above described terminated, than is commenced the lighting of all the topers in the ohandelier, a^d also of a multitude of wax candles skillfully arranged 524 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. throughout the building, which quickly glitters with light. This illumination is generously furnished by the friends of the establishment. The appearance of the chapel, with its tapers, its candles, its green boughs and ornaments, is truly mar- vellous. The spectator, especially if for the first time, is overpowered by the en- thusiasm of the pupils and the guests. As the illumination proceeds, the singing concludes ; when it stops, the director, amidst profound silence, reads the follow- ing passage from St. Matthew : " When the Son of Man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory," &c. After this reading the pupils come forward by families towards the poor guests, and give them the little presents which they have prepared for them ; then each family in succession sings another song, and the ceremony concludes with a prayer and concluding chant, in which all the assistants join. The poor return home, carrying salutary impressions and joj'ful recollections ; the children return to their homes until 6 in the evening, when another signal calls them to the chapel. Some of the friends of the institution, present in the afternoon, have departed ; but others have arrived to be present at the ceremony of the evening. In the interval, tables are arranged in the chapel, on which are put the Christmas gifts for the families and the children : which gifts also are supplied by the inexhaustible kindness of the benefactors of the institution. These gifts are of all descriptions ; books, images, wall-cards, (cartes murales.) little arti- cles of furniture, tools, etc. ; they are accommodated to the wants, and commonly satisfy the desires of each. It is delightful to see the pleasure which is afforded by the sight of this little exhibition. Scarcely is the saloon opened, when all, small and great, pupils and visitors, hurry in, crowding together as if in a fair, where each selects the article which pleases him best. Thus ends the day, which, of all the days in the year, is most ardently desired, and leaves the .most delightful impressions. This day has more to-morrows than one ; each family renews its own memory of it, within itself Let us transport ourselves to one of these renewals, some weeks after Christmas. It is Sunday evening, a new comer would imagine that the festival had been postponed for that family, and that it was celebrating it for the first time. Evergreens and green pyramids ornament the saloon, and upon the table the presents are arranged. The organ, the violin, and the flute, accom- pany all kinds of singing ; the joy is as great and as uncontrolled as at the gen- eral feast. The guests have not been forgotten ; and an invitation to the private festival of a family is never neglected. The day before, the children sent written invitations to comrades in other families, who are present at the designated time. Among them is a newly admitted pupil, who must be shown the manner of keep- ing Christmas. The director's family has also been invited, and comes, bringing Christmas cakes or other little presents of the same kind, which are the more wel- come as they are more unexpected. While all are rejoicing, the door opens and there enters, accompanied by a dozen pupils and a brother, a messenger in strange costume, carrying an immense game-bag, and a feathered hat. There is surprise in every face, for nobody expected any such apparition. Meanwhile the messen- ger comes forward, and delivers to each member of the family a large letter ad- dressed to him. All hasten to open them ; and after removing several envelopes, it appears that each letter contains a small present. Who was the messenger, and whence come these tokens of friendship ? Another family got news of the festi- val, and promptly determined to contribute to it; and so each of its members selected from his own property a gift to a comrade in the other family. One pupil was appointed to take charge of the gifts, and all accompanied him to enjoy the surprise of their brothers, and to partake in their joy. It is unnecessary to say that the impromptu visitors receive a cordial welcome ; they take seats at the table and partake of the modest supper which is prepared ; the singing goes on, and the festivities of the evening prolonged to a later hour than usual, end, as always, by prayer to God." The institute of the brothers of the Rauhen-Haus, like the school of foremen at Mettray, forms an essential part of the organization. M. Wiehern, like M. M. Demetz and de Bretigneres, has perceived that the work of reforming vicious and condemned children could not be intrusted to mercenary hands ; and that it was necessarj' to accomplish it, to use motive higher than those of temporal interest. The brothers of the Rauhen-Haus are to a certain extent similar to the brothers of REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 525 charity, and brothers of Christian doctrine, in Catholic countries. To be admitted to the institute, they must furnish procjf that their conduct has always been honor- able, and safe from all reproach ; that they have always done the duty of a good Christian, and that they have truly a religious vocation ; that they have no infir- mity, and enjoy good health and a robust constitution ; that they understand farm- ing, or some trade useful in the establishment, or at least that they have sufficient mechanical talent to learn some one of these occupations ; that they have a certain amount of education, or the intelligence and disposition necessary to profit by the special course of instruction intended for them in the institution. They are also required to have the consent of their parents to their entering the proposed career, and the certificate of their exemption from military service. Their age at admis- sion is usually from twenty to thirty years. Notwithstanding the strictness of these conditions, candidates are never wanting, and their number is usually even greater than that of disposable places. The institute of bi'others is supported, like the reform school, by subscriptions and private gifts, and has its own separate treasury, finances, and accounts. The brothers, in their connection with the reform school, have charge of the di- rection of families, and of the supervision of pupils confided to their care. They keep them in sight, night and day; they eat with them, sleep in their dormitory, direct their labor, accompany them to chapel, partake in their recreations and sports. Attached at first to families, as assistants, after a certain time of appren- ticeship, they undertake, in rotation, the direction. They visit the parents of the children, and report to them tlieir conduct and progress ; exercise an active and beneficial supervision of the pupils, after their departure from the school ; teach the elementary class ; assist the director in religious instruction and in the writing and correspondence of the estiiblishment. The monthly enrolment or rotation of brothers in each family brings each brother successively in contact with all the pupils, enlarges their experience, facilitates their apprenticeship and assists in teach- ing practical knowledge, and as it were, brings into contact with all the families the experience acquired in each. Besides these duties, the brothers in turn attend a special course of instruction presided over by the director, with the assistance of the two head teachers. This course occupies twenty hours a week, so distributed as to correspond with the working hours of the children, and including religion, sacred and profane history, German, geography, pedagogy, singing and instrumental music ; there is also a special course in English. The brothers are classed in two divisions, an upper and lower, each directed by one of the teachers. Each course lasts two years, so that the complete instruction given to each brother occupies, on an average, four years. At the end of this time, the brothers should be prepared to fulfill the duties of the " Inner Mission," whose agents they are. These duties, as we said at the beginning of this account, are as various as the needs which the mission under- takes to satisfy. The brothers, accordingly, at leaving the institute, are usually placed in one or the other of the following positions : Chiefs or fathers of families in reform schools organized like that of the Rauhen- Haus ; overseers and assistants for moral discipline, in establishments for children; instructors in the same ; instructors in agricultural schools ; directors, stewards, overseers, or vv'atchmen in prisons of different kinds ; directors or fathers of fami- lies in hospitals and charitable institutions ; overseers of infirmaries ; agents of benevolent or mutual aid societies ; missionaries and preachers in colonies to Amer- ica; missionaries within the country, for journeymen and traveling apprentices, &c., &c. The number of demands for brothers for these different purposes, or other simi- lar ones, increases every year ; so that the director is continually trying to extend the normal institute intended for their preparation. The printing office, the bookselling shop, and their dependencies, attached to the establishment in 1842, contribute the double purpose proposed by the founders; they furnish occupation for a number of children during their stay at the Rauhen- Haus, at the same time that it teaches them an occupation which they can practice after leaving ; and also serve as a means of propagating the principles and views which liave governed the work undertaken by M. Wichern with such unusual per- severance and so much success. Here is published yearly a double report on the situation of the reform school, and the condition and progress of the institute of 526 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. brothers and of the Inner Mission. There is also issued a review, appearing twice a month, under the title of " Flying Leaves," (Fliegende Blatter,) which is in- tended not only to inform the public of matters concerning the Rauhen-Ilaus, but also to give news of charitable establishments and operations at home and abroad. We have not examined the spirit governing these publications, and extending throughout the establishment, and consequently have not formed opinions on it. Some term it exaggerated ; for our own part we are pleased to see there the ex- pression of a sincere and profound conviction, and of a true Christian sentiment of compassion for evils and miseries requiring prompt relief. The accounts of the different sections of the Rauhen-Haus are kept by the di- rector, under the control of the administrative committee of twenty members, chosen from among the founders and benefactors of the establishment. Each sec- tion has its separate treasury and accounts. The treasuries are eight in number, namely : 1. Treasury of Iho reform scbool. 2. " '• " iiisritufe of brothers. 3. " " " printing office. 4. " " " business establishment, and book shop and dependencies. 5. " " " childrens' savings, where account is kept with each, of expenses and receipts. 6. *• " " brothers' savings. 7. " " " patronage of the institution. 8. " " " private gifts for particular purposes. The accounts of 1844-45, fix the receipts and expenses of the school as follows : RECEIPTS. From subscriptions $2,107 40 " voluntary gifts, 632 80 " payments for board, 1,186 80 " charity box, 165.68 " sundry receipts, 35.42 Total, 4,828.08 This amount does not include farming produce, receipts from workshops, private gif\s for particular purposes, nor gifts in kind, which make every year a considera- ble sum, and diminish by so much the receipts of the establishment. EXPENSES. Maintenance and repairs of buildings, $365. 14 Insurance against fire, 25.70 Expenses of pupils leaving 13.70 Board, 2,110.00 Oil and light, 119 42 Fuel 323.70 Washing, 100.84 Expenses of onler— supervision, 78.84 Clothing of children 178.00 ' Physician and drugs 47.14 Expenses of supervision, 208 56 Salary of director, 428.56 Farming and other tools, 48 28 Furniture and cooking utensils, 220.56 Salaries, 143 70 Expense of school, 24 00 Expense of cultivation, 224 00 Cattle, 78.5(i Rents 59 42 Expense of receiving children, 3. 14 Presents to children, 4.56 Printing and postage, 7.42 Sundry expenses, 14.84 Total, 4,828.08 There were in the school in the same year, 100 persons — 86 children, and 14 officers. The expense per head was therefore $51.71 ; or counting children only, $60.00. The capital of the establishment, at the same time, was $4,178.46 ; and its in- ventory of buildings and real estate, represents a value of $6,538.10. REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 62V We append the following notices ot" this excellent institution by two distinguished American educators. Prof. Stowe. in his Report on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe, selects the establishment at Horn, asatibrding a striking exam- ple of the happy influence of moral and religious instruction in reclaim- ing the vicious and saving the lost. Hamburgh is the largest commercial city of Germany, and its population is ex- tremely crowded. Though it is highly distinguished for its benevolent institutions, and for the hospitality and integrity of its citizens, yet the very circumstances in which it is placed, produce, among the lowest class of its population, habits of deg- radation and beastliness of wliich we have but few examples on this side the At- lantic. The children, therefore, received into this institution, are often of the very worst and most hopeless character. Not only are their minds most thoroughly depraved, but their very senses and bodily organization seem to partake in the viciousness and degradation of their hearts. Their appetites are so perverted, that sometimes the most loathsome and disgusting substances are preferred to whole- some food. The superintendent, Mr. Wichern, states, that though plentifully sup- plied with provisions, yet, when first received, some of them will steal and eat soap, rancid grease, that has been laid aside for the purpose of greasing shoes, and even catch May-bugs and devour them ; and it is with the utmost difficulty that these disgusting habits are broken up. An ordinary man might suppose that the task of restoring such poor creatures to decency and good morals was entirely hopeless. Not so with Mr. Wichern. He took hold with the firm hope that the moral power of the word of God is competent even to such a task. His means are prayer, the Bible, singing, affectionate conversation, severe punishment when una- voidable, and constant, steady employment, in useful labor. On one occasion, when every other means seemed to fail, he collected the children together, and read to them, in the words of the New Testament, the simple narrative of the suf- ferings and death of Christ, with some remarks on the design and object of his mission to this world. The effect was wonderful. They burst into tear.s of con- trition ; and during the whole of that term, from June till October, the influence of this scene was visible in all their conduct. The idea that takes so strong a hold when the character of Christ is exhibited to such poor creatures, is, that they are objects of affection : miserable, wicked, despised as they are, yet Christ, the Son of God, loved them, and loved them enough to suffer and die for them — and still loves them. The thought that they can yet be loved, melts the heart, and gives them hope, and is a strong incentive to reformation. On another occasion, when considerable progress had been made in their moral education, the superintendent discovered that some of them had taken nails from the premises, and applied them to their own use, without permission. He called them together, expressed his great disappointment and sorrow that they had profited so little by the in.structions which had been given them, and told them that, till he had evidence of their sincere repentance, he could not admit them to the morning and evening religious exercises of his family. With expressions of deep regret for their sin, and with promises, entreaties, and tears, they begged to have this privilege restored to them ; but he was firm in his refusal. A few e;ve- nings afterwads, while walking in the garden, he heard youthful voices among the shrubbery ; and, drawing near unperceived, he found that the boys had formed themselves into little companies of seven or eight each, and met, morning and eve- ning, in different retired spots in the garden, to sing, read the Bible, and pray among themselves; to ask God U:> forgive them the sins they had committed, and to give them strength to resist temptation in future. With such evidence of re- pentance, he soon restored to them the privilege of attending morning and evening prayers with his family. One morning .won after, on entering his study, he found it all adorned with wreaths of the most beautiful flowers, which the boys had ar- ranaed there at early daybreak, in testimony of their joy and gratitude for his kindness. Thus rapidly had these poor creatures advanced in moral feeling, relig- ious sensibility, and good taste. In the spring, Mr. Wichern gives to each boy a patch of ground in the garden, 528 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. which he is to call his own, and cultivate as he pleases. One of the boys began to erect a little hut of sticks and earth upon his plot, in which he niipht rest during the heat of the day, and to which he might retire when he wished to be alone. When it was all finished, it occurred to him to dedicate it to its use by religious ceremonies. Accordingly, he collected the boys together. The hut was adorned with wreaths of flowers ; a little table was placed in the center, on which lay the open Bible, ornamented in the same manner. He then read with great serious- ness the 14th, 1.5th, and 24th verses of the exviiith Psalm : " The Lord i.s my strength ami my song, and is become my salvation." '•Thevoice of rejoicing and salvation is heard in the tabernacle of the righteous." " This is the day which the Lord hath made. We will rejoice and be glad in it." After this, the exercises were concluded by singing and prayer. Another boy afterwards built him a hut, which was to be dedicated in a siinilar way ; but when the boys came together, they saw in it a piece of timber which belonged to the es- tablishment, and ascertaining that it had been taken without permission, they at once demolished the whole edifice, and restored the timber to its place. At the time of harvest, when they first entered the field to gather the potatoes, before com- mencing the work, they fortned into a circle, and, much to the surprise of the su- perintendent, broke out together in the harvest hymn : " Now let us all thank God." After singing this, they fell to their work with great cheerfulness and vigor. I mention these instances, from numerous others which might be produced, to show how much may be done in reclaiming the most hopeless youthful offenders by a judicious application of the right means of moral influence. Hon. Horace Mann in his " Educational Tour," thus describes his visit to the Rauhen-Haus. It was opened for the reception of abandoned children of the very lowest class, children brought up in the abodes of infamy, and taught not only by example but by precept, the vices of sensuality, thieving, and vagabondry, children who had never known the family tie, or who had known it only to see it violated. Ham- burgh, having been for many years a commercial and free city, and, of course, open to adventurers and renegades from all parts of the world, has many more of this class of population than its own institutions and manners would have bred. The thoughts of Mr. Wichern were strongly turned towards this subject while yet a student at the university ; but want of means deterred him from engaging in it, until a legacy, left by a Mr. Gercken, enabled him to make a beginning in 1833. He has since devoted his life and all his worldly goods to the work. It is his first aim that the abandoned children whom he seeks out on the highway, and in the haunts of vice, shall know and feel the blessings of domestic life ; that they shall be introduced into the bosom of a family ; for this he regards as a divine institu- tion, and therefore the birthright of every human being, and the only atmosphere in which the human affections can be adequately cultivated. His house, then, must not be a prison, or a place of punishment or confinement. The site he had chosen for his experiment vvas one inclosed within high, strong walls and fences. His first act was to break down these barriers, and to take all bolts and bars from the doors and windows. He began with three boys of the worst description ; and within three months, the number increased to twelve. They were taken into the bosom of Mr. Wichern 's family ; his mother was their mother, and his sister their sister. They were not punished for any past offenses, but were told that all should be forgiven them, if they tried to do well in future. The defenseless condition of the premises vvas referred to, and they were assured that no walls or bolts were to detain them ; that one cord only sliouid bind them, and that the cord of love. The effect attested the all but omnipotent power of generosity and affection. Children, from seven or eight to fifteen or sixteen years of age, in many of whom early and loathsome vices had nearly obliterated the stamp of humanity, were transformed not only into useful members of society, but into characters that endeared them- selves to all within their sphere of acquaintance. The education given by Mr. Wichern has not been an aesthetic or literary one. The children were told at the beginning that labor was the price of living, and that they must earn the? "wn REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 529 bread, if they would secure a comfortable home. He did not point them to ease and affluence, but to an honorable poverty, which, they were taught, was not in itself an evil. Here were means and materials for learning to support themselves ; but there was no rich fund or other re.sourees for their maintenance. Charity had supplied the home to which they were invited ; their own industry must supply the rest. Mr. NMchern placed great reliance upon religious training ; but this did not consist in giving them dry and unintelligible dogmas. Pie spoke to them of Christ, as the benefactor of mankind, who proved, by deeds of love, his interest in the race, who sought out the worst and most benighted of men, to give them in- struction and relief, and who left it in charge to those who came after him, and wished to be called his disciples, to do likewise. It is strange that, enforced by such a practical exemplification of Christian love as their fatherly benefactor gave them in his every-day life, the story of Christ's words and deeds should have sunk deeply into their hearts and melted them into tenderness and docility ? Such was the effect. The most rapid improvement ensued in the great majority of the children ; and even those whom long habits of idleness and vagabondry made it difficult to keep in the straight path, had long seasons of obedience and gratitude, to svliich any aberration from duty was only an exception. As the number of pupils increased, Mr. Wichern saw that the size of the family would seriously impair its domestic character. To obviate this, he divided his company into families of twelve, and he has erected nine separate buildings, sit- uated in a semi-circle around his own, and near to it, in each of which dwells a family of twelve boys or of twelve girls, under the care of a house-father or house- mother, as the assistants are respectively called. Each of these families is, to some extent, an independent community, having an individuality of its own. They eat and sleep in their own dwelling, and the children belonging to each look up to their own particular father or mother, as home-bred children to a parent. The general meeting every morning, — at first in the chamber of Mr. ^V'ichern's mother, but afterwards, when the numbers increased, in the little chapel, and their frequent meetings at work, or in the play-ground, form a sufficient, and, in fact, a very close bond of union for the whole community. Much was done by the chil- dren themselves in the erection of their little colony of buildings ; and in doing this, they were animated by a feeling of hope and a principle of independence in providing a dwelling for themselves, while they experienced the pleasures of be- nevolence in rendering assistance to each other. Mr. Wichern mentions, with great satisfaction, the good spirit of the architect who came upon the premises to direct in putting up the first house. This man would not retain a journeyman for a day or an hour, who did not conduct with the utmost decorum and propriety before the children who were assisting in the work. Instruction is given in reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, and drawing, and, in some instances, in higher branches. Music is used as one of the most efficient in- struments for softening stubborn wills, and calling forth tender feelings ; and its de- privation is one of the punishments for delinquency. The songs and hymns have been specially adapted to the circumstances and wants of the community, and it has often happened that the singing of an appropriate hymn, both at the gatherings in the mother's chamber, which were always more or less kept up, and in the little chapel, has awakened the first-born sacred feeling in obdurate and brutified hearts. Sometimes a voice would drop from the choir, and then weeping and sobbing would be heard instead. The children would say, they could not sing, — they must think of their past lives, of their brothers and sisters, or of their parents living in vice and misery at home. On several occasions the singing exercise had to be given up. Frequently the children were sent out to the garden to recover them- selves. An affecting narrative is recorded of a boy who ran away, but whom Mr. Wichern pursued, found, and persuaded to return. He was brought back on Christmas eve, which was always celebrated in the mother's chamber. The children were engaged in singing the Christmas hymns when he entered the room. At first they manifested strong disapprobation of his conduct, for he was a boy to whose faults special forbearance had been previously shown. They were then told to decide among themselves how he should be punished. This brought them all to perfect silence, and after some whispering and consulting together, one, who had formerly been guilty of the same fault of ingratitude, under still less ex- cusable circumstances, burst out 'in a petition for his forgiveness. All united in it, 84 530 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. reached out to him a friendly hand, and the festival of the Christmas eve was turned into a rejoicing over the brother that had been lost but was found. The pardon was not in words merely, but in deeds. No reference to the fact was after- wards made. A day or two after, he was sent away on an errand to the distance of half a mile. He was surprised and affected by this mark of eontidence ; and from that time never abused his freedom, thouoh intrusted to execute ei)nimiss:ons at great distances. But he could never after hear certain Christmas hymns with- out shedding tears ; and long subsequently, in a coiiKdential communication to Mr. "VYichern, respecting some act of his former life, (an unburdening of the overladen conscience, which was very common with the inmates, and always voluntary ; for they were told on their arrival, that tiieir past life should never be spoken of unless between them and himself,) he refei-red to the decisive effect of that scene of lov- ing-kindness, upon his feelings and character. One peculiar feature of this institution is, that the children are not stinmlated by the worldly motives of fame, weahli, or personal aggrandizement. The superin- tendent does not inflame them with the ambition, that if they surpass each other at recitation, and make splendid displays at public examinations, they shall, in the end, become high military officers, or congress-men, or excite the envy of all by their wealth or fame. On the other hand, so far as the world's goods are con- cerned, he commends and habituates them to the idea of an honorable poverty; and the only riches with which he dazzles their imaginations are the riches of good works. He looks to them as his hope for redeeming others from the sphere whence they themselves were taken ; and there have been many touching in- stances of the j'eformation of parents and families, for whom the natural affection first sprang up in these children's hearts, after they had learned the blessings of home and what the ties of nature really are. One of the most interesting effects of this charity is the charity which it repro- duces in its objects; and thus it is shown that, in the order of nature, the actions of good men^provided they are also wise — not less than good seed, will produce thirty, or sixty, or a hundred fold of beneficent fruit. Mr. Wichern makes a great point of celebrating Christinas, and the friends of the school are in the habit of sending small sums of money, and articles of various kinds to adorn the festival. This money has often been voluntarily appropriated by the children, to charitable purposes. They frequently give away their pennies, and instances have happened where they have literally emptied their little purses into the hands of poverty and distress, and taken off their own clothes to cover the naked. On one occasion, six poor children had been found by some of the scholars, and invited to the Christ- mas festival. There they were clothed, and many useful and pleasing articles, made by the givers, were presented to them. One of the boys read a passage from the history of Christ, and the Christmiis songs and other songs of thanks- giving and praise were sung. To the sound of the organ, which a friend had pre- sented to the little chapel, some verses welcoming the strangers, succeeded. The guests then departed, ble.ssing the house and its kind inhabitants; but who can doubt that a voice of gladness, more precious than all worldly applauses, sprang up unbidden and exulting in the hearts of the little benefactors ? But among numerous less conspicuous instances of the change wrought by wise and appropriate moral means, in the character of these so lately abandoned chil- dren, the most remarkable occurred at the time of the great Hamburgh fire, in May, 1842. In July, 1843, I saw the vast chasm which tlie conflagration had made in the center of that great city. The second day of the fire, wlien people were driven from the city in crowds, and houseless and half frantic sufferers came to the Rauhe-Haus for shelter, the children, some of whom had friends and relatives in the city, became intensely excited, and besought Mr. Wichern for leave to go in and make themselves useful to the sufferers. Not without great anxiety as to the force of the temptations for escape or for plunder that might assail them in such an exposed and tumultuous scene, he gave permission to a band of twenty-two to ac- company him, on condition that they would keep together as much as possible, and return with him at an appointed time. Tliis they readily promised ; nor did they disappoint him. Their conduct was physically as well as morally heroic. They rushed into the greatest dangers to save life and property, and though sometimes pressed to receive rewards, they steadily refused them. At stated intervals they returned to the appointed place to reassure the confidence of their superior. On REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. 53 1 one occasion, a lad remained absent long beyond the time agreed upon, but at last he appeared, quite exhausted by the labor of saving some valuable property. Mr. Wichern afterwards learned from the owner, not from the lad, that he had steadily refused the compensatinn offered to, and even urged upon him. When the com- pany returned home at the ap|)oiuted time, he sent foi-th another band under the care of a house-father, and these exerted themselves in the same faithful and effi- cient manner. This was done as long as the necessity of the case required. From this time the Rauhe-Haus was the resort of the poor and homeless, and not for days only, but for weeks. The pupils shared with them their food, and even slept upon the ground to give their beds to the destitute, sick, and injured. I can hardly refrain from narrating many other facts of a similar character connected with this institution, for if the angels rejoice over a rescued sinner, why should not we par- take of that joy when it is our brotlier who is ransomed ? In his report for 184.'), Mr. Wichern says, the institution was actually so im- poverished by the demand made upon it at that time, and the demands upon pub- lic chai-ity have since been so great in that unfortunate city, that the inmates have been almost reduced to suffering from the necessaries of life, particularly as he was induced to receive several children rendered homeless by that calamity. To this object, however, even the children of the house were ready and willing to con- tribute portions of their wardrobe, and they submitted cheerfully to other priva- tions. Mr. Wichern regretted above all other things the necessity of refusing many applications, and it is but doing ju.stiee to the citizens of Hamburgh, to state, that on an appeal made by him for iunds to erect a new building, they were gen- erously and promptly raised by those who had such unusual claims upon their charity. A single remark, I must be allowed to make. When an individual effects so much good, it seems to be often thought that he accomplishes it by virtue of some charm or magic, or preternatural influence, of which the rest of the world can not partake. The superintendent of the Rauhe-Haus is a refutation of this idea. Laboriously, perseveringly, unintermittingly, he uses mkans for the accomplish- ment of his desiied ends. VN'hen I put to him the question, in what manner he produced these transforming effects upon his charge, his answer was, " Ry active occupations, music, and Christian love." Two or three things should be stated in explanation of this compendious reply. When anew subject comes to the Rauhe- Haus, he is first received into Mr. Wichern's own family. Here, under the wise and watchful guardianship of the master, he is initiated into the new life of action, thought, feeling, which he is expected to lead. His dispositions are watched, his character is studied ; and as soon as prudence allows, he is trans- ferred to that one of the little colonies whose house-father is best qualified to man- age his peculiarities of temperament and disposition. Soon after the opening of the establishment, and the increase of its numbers, Mr. Wichern found that it would be impossible for him to bestow the requisite care and oversight upon each one of his pupils which his necessities demanded. He oast about for assistance, and though he was able to find those in the community who had enough of the spirit of benevolence and self-sacrifice to undertake the difficult labor to which his own life was devoted, yet he soon found that they had not the other requisite qualifica- tions to make their benevolent purposes available. He could find enough well-in- tentioned persons to superintend the workshops, gardens, &e., but they had not intellectual competency. So he could find schoolmasters who could give good lessons, but they were not masters of anj" handicraft. He was therefore driven, as he says, to the expedient of preparing a class of teachers, to become his auxiliaries in the work. For this end, he has superadded to his original plan a school for the preparation of teachers ; first to supply himself, then to send abroad to open other institutions similar to his own, and thirdly to become superintendents of prisons. This last object he deems very important. Questions about prison-architecture, ht says, have given a new literature to the world ; but as yet, nothing, or but little, is done to improve the character or increase the qualifications of prison-keepers. I have often felt the force of th's remark, in the numerous continental prisons which I have visited. Though the masters of the prisons have generally appeared to be very respectable men, yet the assistants or deputy-turnkeys have very often seemed to belong to a low order of society, from whose manners, conversation, or treatment of the prisoners, no good influence could be expected. 532 REDEMPTION INSTITUTE AT HORN. This second institution of Mi'. Wichern is in reality a normal school, which the necessities of his situation suggested, and forced him to establish. During the ten years of the existence of this institution, there have been one hundred and thirty-two children received into it. Of these about eighty were there on the 1st of July, 1843. Only two had run away, who not either volunta- rily returned, or, being brought back, had not voluntarily remained. The two unreclaimed fugitives committed offenses, fell into the hands of the civil magistrate, and were imprisoned. Who can reflect upon this history, where we see a self-sacrificing man, by the aids of wisdom and Christian love, exercising, as it were, the evil spirits from more than a hundred of the worst children whom a corrupted state of society has en- gendered ; who can see this, witliout being reminded of some case, perhaps within his own personal knowledge, where a passionate, ignorant and perverse teaeher, who, for the sake of saving a few dollars of money, or from some other low mo- tive, has been put in possession of an equal number of fine-spirited children, and has, even in a short space of time, put an evil spirit into the bosom of them all ? What is most remarkable in reference to the class of institutions now under con- sideration, is the high character of the men, for capacity, for attainments, for soci;il rank, who preside over them. At the head of a private orphan house in Potsdam, is the venerable Von Tiirk. According to the laws of his country. Von Turk is a nobleman. His talents and acquisitions were such that at a very early age, he was elevated to the bench. This was, probably, an office for life, and was attended with honors and emoluments. He officiated as judge for fourteen years ; but in the course of this time, so many criminal cases were brought before him for adjudi- cation, whose only cause and origin were so plainly referable to early neglect in the culprit's education, that the noble heart of the judge could no longer bear to pronounce sentence of condemnation against the prisoners ; for he looked upon them as men, who, almost without a parado.x, might be called guiltless offenders. V^ hile holding the office of judge he was appointed school inspector. The para- mount importance of the latter office grew upon his mind as he executed its duties, until, at last, he came to the full conception of the grand and sacred truth, how much more intrinsically honorable is the vocation of the teacher, who saves from crime and from wrong, than the magistrates who waits till they are committed, and then avenge them. He immediately resigned his office of judge, with its life- tenure and its salary ; traveled to Switzerland, where he placed himself under the care of Pestalozzi ; and, after availing himself for three years of the instructions of that celebrated teaeher, he returned to take charge of an orphan asylum. Since that time he has devoted his whole life to the care of the neglected and destitute. He lives in as plain and inexpensive a style as our well-off farmers and mechanics, and devotes his income to the welfare of the needy. I was told by his personal friends that he not only deprived himself of the luxuries of life, but submitted to many privations in order to appropriate his small income to others whom he con- sidered more needy ; and that his wife and family cordially and cheerfully shared such privations with him for the same object. To what extent would our own community sympathize with, or appreciate the act, if one of the judges of our higher courts, or any other official dignitary, should resign an office of honor and of profit to become the instructor of children. Even now, when the once active and vigorous frame of the patriarchal man is bending beneath the weight of years, he employs himself in teaching agriculture, to- gether with the branches commonly taught in the Prussian schools, to a class of or- phan boys. What warrior, who rests at last from the labors of the tented field, after a life of victories ; what statesman, whose name is familiar in all the courts of the civi- lized world ; what orator, who attracts towards himself tides of men wherever he may move in his splendid course ; what one of all these would not, at the sunset of life, exchange his fame and his clustering honors, for that precious and abound- ing treasury of holy and beneficent deeds, the remembrance of which this good old man is about to carry into another world ! Do we not need a new spirit in our community, and especially in our schools, which shall display only objects of vir- tuous ambition beiore the eyes of our emulous youth ; and teach them that no height of official station nor splendor of professional renown, can equal in the eye of Heaven, and of all good men, the true glory of a life consecrated to the welfare of mankind ? REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, METTRAY, NEAR TOURS, IN FRANCE. The institution or colony of Mettray, four miles from Tours, was founded by M. Demetz and M. le Vicomte de Bretigneres de Courteilles, both gentlemen of wealth and high social position, who, associating them- selves with other philanthropists, founded in 1837 a society, whose object is thus expressed : 1. To exercise a benevolent superintendence over children of tender years, who have been acquitted of crimes in consequence of their youth, and which may be confided to their care by the State ; to procure for these children, placed in an agricultural institution, a moral and relig- ious education, as well as an elementary instruction ; to teach them a trade; to accustom them to the healthy toils of agriculture, and to pro- cure them situations at the expiration of their term, in the country, at the homes of artizans, or small farmers. 2. To watch over the conduct of these children, and to give them all the aid of their patronage as long as they shall need it, or for three years. The founders of Mettray accepted the sublime doctrine of Christianity, which authorizes a belief in the possibility of regeneration, and permits not to despair of the most abandoned human being; and they have made religion the fundamental principle of their system. "' On religion," writes De Tocqueville, one of its founders, " depends the future of all penitentiary reform." The practice of religion, the love and habit of labor, the spirit of family association, the emulation of example, the cultivation of honor, the habitual obedience to law, and a self-imposed restraint on the use of liberty — these grand and simple ideas embrace all the reforming in- fluence, all the moralizing power of Mettray. Placed here with a view to their restoration to society as freemen and productive laborers, they are here ingeniously indoctrinated with the spirit of the family, habit- uated to social duties, a self-regulated liberty, and to the constant occu- pation of their choice. No armed police, no walls, no bolts, no keys, honor alone preserves at once discipline and freedom. " Why," said a visitor, " do you not escape ?" " Because there are no walls, and it would be disgraceful," replied the colonist of Mettray. The details of organization, instruction, employment, and administra- tion^ and the results, economical and reformatory, of this interesting enterprise, will be found clearly set forth in the following report of a visit made by M. Ducpetiaux in 1849, and included in his Report to the Minister of Justice in Belgium. 534 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. The following account of the school of Mettray is taken from notes made during a visit there in September. 1849. with special reference to certain matters of organization, administration, discipline, and statistics; Its purpose was altogether practical ; for which reason, it enters into details which are usually overlooked in visiting such an estabhshment, only to form a more or less complete idea of it, or to write a description. There was another purpose, in addition to this, namely: to observe the effects of the revolution in France of 1848 upon the school of Met- tray, and to judge of the strengtii and vitality of an enterprise com- menced by private efforts. Our fears on this subject have been quite relieved. Mettray has resisted both the political and financial crisis; and notwithstanding the decree which, by suppressing mechanical labor in the prisons, has broken up its workshops and confined its pupils en- tirely to agriculture, and the material reduction in its resources, we found it in its usual prosperity, and under its usual admirable discipline. The peculiar character of this establishment is owing to the qualities of its otficers. There are there two men — M. Demetz and Viscount de Courteiljes — bearing titles, and enjoying all the advantages of fortune and high social position, who devote themselves exclusively to an unobtrusive and wearisome employment. Their virtues and their example have gathered around them a band of young men animated with the same spirit, and who have sacrificed unhesitatingly their own interests to that of the work in which they are associated. Unfortunately, this number has recently been diminished by the necessity of retrenching the expenses of the establishment within the bounds of the strictest economy. The reform in this direction has only operated upon the corps of officers. Some, thinking their number too great, thought it might be reduced without inconven- ience. This, however, was not the opinion of the committee sent in 1849, by the committee on labor of the national assembly, to visit the school of Mettray. This commission declared in its report, that the school was a great source of good, and would save to society a still greater sum of evil ; and ended by say- ing that the government could receive nothing but honor from taking the school of correction at Mettray under its protection. Hon. M. Gillon, representative from the department of the Meuse, spoke with regard to the officers, as follows : "The large expense at Mettray is owing to the number of persons employed; but this large number is required by the plan of the school, which is, to use moral influences, and to use them so well that the children will remain honest people all their lives. It is of great importance to them to leave the school witii health improved, mind educated, and knowing an occupation which puts them above want ; but moral reformation, the social affections, the principles of honesty and religion, good habits and qualities of heart, are a thousand times more important; and these it is impossible to bestow upon the children without costly and numer- ous preparations. It would be possible, instead of building a separate house for forty only, to lodge them in large rooms like barracks ; instead of placing a head of a family over every forty children, an overseer might take charge of eighty or a hundred ; but in that case the personal influence of the directors or of their subordinates, coming from a more distant point and extending over a greater sur- face, would be less deep and thorough, and the effects less salutary and lasting. Nature gives only a few children to one father. " That cheaper arrangements might have been made, we do rot deny ; but it is difficult to believe that in that case such complete and satisfactory results would have followed. Certainly those which we actually witnessed at Mettray do not appear to have been too dearly purchased." Notwithstanding the justice of these observations, an imperious necessity forced the directors to dismiss twenty assistants ; by which a saving was made of $3,585. After this reduction, the officers and assistants of the school and their salaries were, at our visit in September, 1849, as follows. REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 5^5 Two directors, without salary. One assistant direclor, willnouf salary. One general agent at Paris, witliout salary. One ctia()la n. S36U. and lodging One principal secretary, S400, lodging, board, and uniform at 612 per annum A. — Officers. One treasurer, $400. and same. One book-keeper and chashier, $240, and same. One head teacher, $200, and same. One head overseer of labor, $240, and same. Eleven chiefs of families, $100, lodging, board, I One singing-master, (employed also as clerk,) and uniform at $12 per annum. $100, and same. B. — Chiefs op Families 00, lo anni One jailor, $100, and same. C. — Sub-Chiefs op Families. Twelve sub-chiefs of families, 40 dollars, D. — Foremen of Mechanical Workshops. One master tailor, $60, with board and lodg- ing. One master blackmith, $230. and lodging. One master wooden-shoe maker, $180, and lodging. One master wheelright, $180, and lodging. One foreman of painting, glazing, and lighting, $120. and lodging. One master carpenter, $140. and lodging. One master rope-maker, $140, anil lodging. Two masons, paid by the day, at (1 Ir. 75c.) 35 cents. E. — Agricultural Foremen. Ten agricultural foremen, $60, with board and I Two gardeners, paid by M. Courteilles, but lodging. I whose labor is given to the school. F. — Teamsters. One head wagoner, $80, with board and lodg- I Three drivers — two at $60, one at $50, with ing. I board and lodging. G. — Other Assistants. One watchman, $120. I One farm watchman, $60, with board and One domestic, $60. with board and lodging. lodging. One messeiiger, .$60, with board and longing. | One miller, $200, in full. All those in lists B, C, D, E, F, and G, have also a uniform, except the gard- eners and the miller. H. — Sisters of Charity. Seven sisters of charity, $30, with lodging and maintenance, except clothes Of the seven, one is the superior ; the others respectively have charge of ex- penditure, cooking, washing, work-room, infirmary, and pharmacy. The medical supervision is intrusted to a physician of Tours, who visits daily the sick of the school. The entire number of officers and assistants, paid and unpaid, is 65, besides ? sisters of charity. Their proportion to the number of the pupils, is one to seven. The amount of salaries is $6,410 ; of other allowances, $4,565, namely : Board of maintenance of 55 assistants, at 20 cents a day, average, $4,015 Uniform of same, at average of $10 per annum, 550 Total, $4,565 The whole expense for personal services is therefore $10,975; that is, for 522 pupils, an expense of $21 a year each. Each individual employed may have twelve days' vacation a year, which are arranged according to his own convenience and that of the establishment, but so that not more than two are absent at the same time. The preparatory or training school of foremen continues to answer the purpose of its creation ; it is an actual seminary from which the establishment draws its best and most devoted officers. Admissions to the preparatory school are not allowed, except for very particular reasons, before the age of sixteen years ; they are much more frequently at sev- enteen and eighteen. No fee is demanded for the instruction ; the school provides for them, and gives them an education in the knowledge requisite for overseers, teachers, and farmers. They occupy a separate location, in the building with the infirmary. Tliey occupy, in case of need, the places of the lieads and sub-heads of families, act as substi- tutes generally, and serve as clerks. After a certain period of probation, those who have not the necessary qualities or capacity, are sent home to their femiliea. 536 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, Al METTRAY. Of 157 pupils admitted to the preparatory school, up to 1st January, 1849, 36 are still at Mettray, where they fill the places of secretary, treasurer, cashier, teacher, store watchman, conductor of labor, chiefs and sub-chiefs of families; 9 have left Mettray, to enter the profession of teaching ; 14 are engaged in dif- ferent occupations, (roads and bridges, railroads, insurance offices, trades ; ) 10 have entered the army ; 5 are farming overseers; 31 are practicing industrial occupations; 51 have left the school for want of capacity ; 1 is dead. Tlie school of foremen has now 12 pupils, of whom several intend to teach, and the others to practice horticulture or agriculture. NUMBER ADMITTED. The school proper has increased only slowly and progressively. During the ten years since its foundation, its numbers have enlarged as follows : December 31, 1840, 77 " 1841, 134 " 1842, 176 " 1843, 221 " 1844, 339 December 31, 1845, 376 " 1846, 425 " 1847, 528 " 1848, 526 " 1849, 560 The last reports on the condition of the school, in 1848 and 1849, furnish some interesting statistics, from which an opinion can be formed upon the actual condi- tion of the school, and the results up to this time of the arrangement and disci- pline introduced there. One thousand one hundred and eighty-four children have been admitted into the school, from its establishment in June, 1839, to December 31, 1849. In 1849 alone, there were 144 admissions. Of this number were present, January 1, 1850, 546. In November, 1849, the number of pupils was 563 — the greatest since the opening of the school. Of 1040 children admitted up to 1st January, 1849, 237 were illegitimate, 742 born of a first marriage, 61 were of parents married a second time. During the same time there entered 13 children under 7 years old, 222 imder 12 years old, and 805 over 12. The 560 scholars who composed the school in the end of 1849, were occupied as follows: 336 farming, 71 gardening, 141 learning trades, 12 cooks, lamp- lighters in infirmary, &c. The occupations learned at Mettray are almost all connected with the labors of the field. Such are the trades of the wheelwright, blacksmith, farrier, carpenter, mason, wooden-shoe maker, shoemaker, tailor, rope-maker, sail-maker. The pupils have not made any additional clearings ; but they have dug a hundred acres of land, eighteen inches deep. They have also made and repaired all the roads of the school and the farm. The soil of the latter, although presenting some dif- ficulties on account of the boulders scattered over it, is nevertheless, in general, fertile. It produces gi-ain of all kinds, wine, cider, various fruits, legumes, fodder, madder, &c. The decree of the Provisory Government which put an end, in the beginning of 1848, to labor in the prisons and benevolent institutions, forced the authorities of Mettray to close half their workshops, and to send the hands to agricultural labor ; which explains the large number of pupils employed there. This change has not taken place without great embarrassments, and difficulties of daily occurrence. All peculiarities and characters are not fit for agricultural labor. The apprentice to a carpenter, a wheelwright, or blacksmith, who was just about becoming a journeyman, regretfully remembers his trade ; becomes disgusted with the labor of the farm ; and murmurs, and is dissatisfied at the government which condems him to involuntary labor. It is not now, as formerly, the preference or the talent of the children which must be consulted, but the ne- cessities of the new situation of the school. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the conduct of the pupils has continued good, as is shown by the register of honor. The average number of names in this re- gister, during 1849, has been 224 ; of whom are registered — For the first time, 56 For the second time, 29 For the third time, 18 For the fourth time, 22 For the fifth time, 19 For the sixth time, 16 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 537 For the seventh time, 12 I For the eleventh time, 5 For the eighth time, . . ., 1 | For the twelfth time, 4 For the ninth time, 9 P'or the thifteenth time, 4 For the tenth time, 8 | For the fourteenth time, 5 And one, each of the following numbered times — fifteenth, sixteenth, seven- teenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first. In 1847, of 509 pupils, were registered 226 names; in 1848, of 522 pupils, were registered 257 names ; and the same year 46 names were erased. The children remain in the school, in general, for a period of not more than tliree years ; and as the register of honor is written up every three months, it is easy to see why the number of names entered more than twelve times, is very small. Since the opening of the school, 528 pupils have been put in situations, 105 of whom were placed during 1849. Of these 528 — 150 are in military service, either by conscription or voluntary enlistment — 127 in the army, and 23 in the navy ; 17 are married, and most of them have children ; 150 have remained of irreproachable deportment ; 26 have conducted moderately well ; 6 have run away from their guardians ; 46 have relapsed. Of these last, .33 arc from towns, and 19 from Paris — the remaining 11 from the country. Their number may at first sight appear painfully large, but on considering the condition in which these children have been placed, it seems surprising that it is not greater ; for, of 528 children leaving during ten years, 43 were foundlings ; 46 are of parents re- married, (step-children;) 222 have neither father or mother; 106 are illegiti- mate ; 18 are of parents living in concubinage ; 142 are of families of bad repu- tation ; 77 are of parents now in prison. With such parentage, was there not good reason to fear for their future? At Mettray, as at most otlier schools of the same class, it is often noticed that the children sent from the towns show repugnance to agricultural labor. Of 200 pupils from the department of the Seine, 9 only have finally settled in that em- ployment. These children belonged mostly to families of mechanics, who spoke contemptuously, in their letters, of rural occupations. The children born in the country fortunately have different feelings. The annual reports furnish interesting details of the nature and results of the patronage extended to the dismissed pupils, and of the efforts made to find them situations. The success of these operations in 1848 and 1849, has surpassed the expectation of the directors. The number of pupils in situations increases year!}', and forms a numerous outside population, constituting really a second school, out- side the first. The correspondence of the officers with these young people is daily, and requires special agents and continual care. There is, in truth, almost no end to the assistance given to the pupils of Mettray. The establishment sus- tains to-day more than 509 pupils, whom it has really adopted, and whom it watches vigilantly ; and this number Is Increasing dally. But this occasions no fears to the authorities of the school, because they are convinced that for so good a work, there will never be any lack of sympathy. The pupils are permitted, when out of work, and until there is a good situation found for them, to re-enter the school and take their place temporarily in the family of which they formed a part. This receives them like a brother, and divides its food with them. The pupils who continue to conduct themselves well for two years after leaving Mettray, receive from the directors a symbolic ring with the device, " Faithful- ness surpasses all," (Loyaute passe tout.) The penalty of continued misconduct is the replacement of the pupil in the central establishment. This was inflicted during 1848 but three times — twice for innnorality, and once for assisting in an attempt to run away. The sanitary condition of the school is very satisfactory, and the number of deaths has been very small. From its foundation in 1840 to 1849, during 10 years. It has lost only 59 children. The number and per centage of deaths during that period has been as follows : Year. 1840 Number. 2 7 1 Rate. 1 to 51 1 to 26 1 to 40 1 to 47 1 to 144 Per cent. =: 2 = 4 — 2A = 2\ Year. 1845 Number. 4 Rate. 1 10 84 1 10 76 1 to .50 1 to 51 1 to 134 Per cenl. 1841 1842 .... 1846 mr .... VS48 lSi9 7 10 17 3 — 2 1843 .... 1844 ... 3 5 = 5 = S 538 REFORM SCHOOL. OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. Of the 17 pupils deceased in 1848, thirteen were diseased with pulmonary consumption, one with typhoid ftver, one with tuberculous meningitis, one with scrofulous consumpt.on, and one with dropsy. In 1849, of four deaths, two were from pulmonary consumption, one from typhoid fevei', and one from scrofula. This small mortality is the more surprising, because cholera and dysentery made great ravages in 1849 in Tours and the vicinity. The amount of mortality depends especially upon the health of the children when they arrive at the schools. According to the reports of tlie physicians em- ployed at Mettray, that place is perfectly healthful. The pupils liave up to this time escaped all the epidemic maladies which have ravaged the country. Inves- tigation of the register shows that the number of children admitted to the infirm- ary decreases in proportion to the increase of the length of their stay in the school ; which proves that their constitutions are invigorated under the regimen there established. Of 1184 children admitted at Mettray, up to December 31, 1849, 717 came completely ignorant; 270 had some notions of reading; 143 knew how to read 5 54 only knew how to write. The pupils have 14 hours of school instruction a week, divided as follows : Re- ligious instruction, 2 hours; reading, writing, and arithmetic, 10 hours; vocal music, 2 hours. The chaplain also teaches the catechism an hour every day, to those children who have not received their first communion^generally 9-lOths of the whole. The elementary instruction given to the pupils is equivalent to that received by the mechanics in the towns. The classes are formed in each family under the direction and supervision of the head instructor. The cliiefs and sub-chiefs have assistants chosen fi'om among the pupils, and who receive daily a special lesson two hours long from the head instructor. At certain peiiods of the year, each family selects six of its best scholars who, together with those se- lected by the other families, write compositions. These exercises are followed by the delivery of prizes. By this double arrangement, of the daily classes in the families, and the meeting of them all, is secured all that emulation which springs from the strife of many competitors. One of the general inspectors of primary schools, who was recently sent to Mettray by the minister of public instruction, sums Up as follows the amount of instruction given at the time of his visit : "The pupils are children deprived, for the most part, until they come to Met' tray, of all instruction, moral or intellectual. All that is indispensable for them is the first rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and instruction in re- ligion. In addition to this, however, have beeh taught to the more intelligent, linear drawing and singing church music. Lessons in vocal and instrumental music are given to the best pUpils, by way of reward. Upon the whole, I am of the opinion that the school of Mettray deserves the testimony of your highest good wishes, and that it will be proper to grant to it a subsidy from the public funds, for the increase of the joint school established there for foremen and pupils." Besides the practical instruction resulting from the employing of the pupils in agriculture, they attend, once a week, a course of lessons in agriculture, horticul- ture and veterinary practice. The directors of Mettray propose to adopt for this course the course of study of the agricultural schools ; they also intend to estab- lish a special agricultural school for young persons other than the members of the school pi-oper, who may wish to study such a course, regarding for this purpose the usual course of cultivation in the neighborhoods The division of the pu|)ils into families is a characteristic of the discipline at Mettray : each family occupies a separate building, containing its dormitory, re- fectory, and school. This house is 39 feet long by 2U feet wide, and containing a basement and two stories. The outer room of the basement serves for a work- shop ; in some of the houses it is divided into compartments by a partition low enough to permit a single overseer in the middle, to inspect all the divisions, and high "enough to prevent the children, when seated, from seeing each other, or com- municating. The air circulates in the open space above, so as to keep all the com- partments at the same temperature, whatever the number of children employed in each. The first and second stories are each thrown into one spacious room, wliich, by an ingenious arrangement, serves in turn as dormitory, refectory, play- REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 539 room in bad weather, and school -room. Two beams, fixed by a hinge at one end, are erect d against the wall, one on each side of the door. To arrange the refec- tory, these are lowered and resled on uprights; in vvh.eh posit. on they separate the room into two diV:sioiis, leaving a passage in the niiddie fur the overseers ; boards are la.d crosswise the room, upun the beams, resting npDii them and the wall, and the refectory is ready. To prepare the dornn'tory, nisiead of the boards ate arranged haminocks, stowed along the walls, which are taken down and hung to the beams. These hammocks are slung parallel to each other, but so that of every two children, the head of one is toward the wall, and of the other toward the beam. This arrangement hinders talking, and facilitates supeivisinn. Above eaclr is a cupboard containing the effects of the pupil, which he isreijuired to keep very neatly. At one end of the room is a small alcove shut in from it by blinds, permitting the occupant to look tlirough without being seen. Here the '" chi^f of the family'' sleeps. He has the supervision of two sections of 20 children each, and is assisted by a " sub-chief" and two " elder brothers," chosen from among the pup.ls. This arrangement is the same for all the houses except two, one of wli.oh serves for the lodging of the chaplain, and the other contains the business oftices of the school. The space of 33 feet, wh cli separates the houses from each other, is oc- cupied by sheds which serve as depositories for farming, and for shelter from rain. The house where the youngest of the children are lodged has been placed, by a touching inspiration, under the protection of Mary, the patron of the altiicted and of the motherless. The other houses have carved upon their fronts the names o( the individuals or towns whose l.berality contributed to the foundation of iMettray. The ten houses are arranged upon two sides of a spacious court, planted with shrubs and covered with turf Atone end of it is the church, a siinple and ma- jestic structure, rustic yet elegant ; at the other is a pavilion which serves as a dwelling house for M. de Metz, one of the directors. In front of this are erected the mast and spars of a ship, with their rigging and sails. This apparatus, wh'ch is quite perfect, is to be used for the exercises of the naval apprentices. It was presented to the school by the niinister of marine. To the right and left of the church are two buildings containing a large school- room, a store-room of farming tools and models, lodgings for assistants ; behind it is the house of correction, surrounded with a walled court-yard. This is a small prison consisting of cells, built so as to form a prolongation to the church ; so that the children when shut up may attend divine service, and s?e the priest at the altar, without leaving their cells, or seeing one another. This is arranged simply by drawing a screen. Around the house of correction are arranged the farm-yards and buildings, a handsome range of stables for cattle, barns, a piggery, horse-stables, a dairy, &c. ; and a little further the cemetery. The principal stable, which can accommr)date fifty head of cattle, is divided lengthwise by a wide passage, on both sides of which are arranged the mangers. Near the entrance to the establishment, but a little on one side, is a separjite building containing the infirmary, the laundry, the school of foremen, the apart- ments of the sisters of charity, the kitchen, the wash'i'oom, the bakery, the shop, &c. ; before it is the gymnasium and its apparatus ; behind it, the kitchen-garden. All the buildings have been erected after the plans of the architect M. Hlouet, who has himself directed the operations in the most honorably disinterested man- ner. From the accounts which we have seen, it appears that each house for pupils cost $1,520; the cow-house $.5,089.40, and the chapel and prison, .$18,934.20. Adding to the price of each house the sum of .$480 for movables and other ex- penses, we have a total of $2,000 ; equal to an annual expenditure of $100 for each family, and of $2.50 per pupil. The cemetery which stands some distance from the buildings, forms a parallelo- gram, where the graves are arranged in regular order. At the head of each is planted a cypress ; in the middle of the cemetery is erected a cross. The " elder brothers have the care of the cemetery. All the children attend the funerals : and the directors, on the.se occasions, address them in simple and touching words, which make upon their minds the impression which the funeral ceremony makes upou their imagination. 540 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. The expenses of the school are so calculated as to furnish each pupil with neces- saries, but with no superfluities. The bedding consists of a simple hammoelc, a small grass mattress, a pillow, a pair of sheets, and one or two coverlids, according to the season. The wardrobe given to each pupil at his admission, contains, 1 shirt, $1 .2 :» ; 2 blouses, $1 .34 ; 3 pair pantaloons, $2.07 ; 2 pair gaiters, $0.30 ; 1 cap, $0.40 ; 1 straw hat, ,$0 25; 1 pair shoes, $1.20; 1 pair wooden shoes, $0.23; 2 blacking-brushes, $0.10 ; 1 hair-brush, $0.0.3 ; 1 comb-brush, $0.05 ; 1 comb, $0.05; 1 black neckcloth, $0.20; 1 red do., $0.15; 1 woolen blouse $1.21 ; 1 woolen waistcoat for winter, $1.00 ; 1 pair drawers of fustian for winter, $0,40; total, $10.20. The shirts, and washed clothes in general, are owned in common ; and are changed often enough to obey the requirements of neatness. These clothes in- clude for each child 3 shirts, 3 handkerchiefs, and 2 pair winter stockings. At leaving, the pupil also receives a complete wardrobe, viz., 2 pair pantaloons, 2 blue blouses, 1 waistcoat, 1 cap, 1 pair suspenders, 3 cotton shirts, 2 cravats, 3 pocket-handkerchiefs, 3 pair under stockings, 1 pair shoes ; of which the expense is estimated at $ti.OO. The labor and age of the children require substantial nourishment, which is fur- nished as follcjws : Two days per week. Bread, 26^ lb. (7.50 gr.,) costing, $0.03.6 Dinner ; meiit, four-tenths of a pound, legumes, bread, and soup,... 0.02 Supper ; potatoes and butter ; salt and onions, 0.01 Drink, 0.00.4 $0.07 Five days per week. Bread, 26i lb $0.03.6 Dinner; beans or other legume, butter, salt, onions, 0.00.6 Supper ; legumes, butter, 0.01.6 Drink, 0.00.4 $0.06.2 The weekly board of each pupil at Mettray cost, September, 1849, $0.45 ; at the reform school of Ruysselede, at the same time, it was not over $0.28. The daily arrangement of time varies with the seasons. [See appendix.] At entering the school, the pupil is intei'rogated as to his birth, the condition of his family, the fault which brought him before the court, and in short all the de- tails of his short and often sad history. This information is entered in a register, where also is written afterwards v^'hatever concerns each pupil, his stay at the school, his conduct and situation after his departure. An examination of this moral account is very interesting ; it shows the good effect of the management and dis- cipline of the establishment. We made minute investigations into the elements of these modest annals, for the purpose of preparing a similar S3'stem, which we have introduced into the reform school at Ruysselede. After having been examined, the pupil is placed in a family, and set at work either on the farm or in a workshop, in a manner suitable to his age and strength, and as much as possible, to his individual fitness. It has been considered proper to teach or continue the child in the occupation of his family, if it have an honest one, for the pupil, at the expiration of his term,, should naturally return to his parents, and render them his services. This very practical considei-ation demands respectful attention. The classification by families establishes among the pupils who compose them a sort of community of interest and bf)nd of brotherhood. All feel under obligations to each, and each to all. Interest and emulation are excited among the pupils with as much skill as propriety. Part of the work is given out by tasks ; and the self- respect of the pupils urges them to show themselves worthy of this mark of confi- dence. They are taught to consider it honorable to be useful to their comrades, and especially to their masters ; and accordingly none are employed in detached services ; for cooking, baking, in the kitchen-garden and infirmary, in waiting upon the foremen's table, except those whose conduct has been good. From time to time are held general meetings of the pupils in the workshops ; the children decide on each others merits, and the highest receive a small individual reward. REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 54 1 which is placed in the savings-bank. No regular wages are ever given for labor. Neither the payments nor prizes, of which we have spoken, are given, except to pupils whose names are upon the register of honor. The distribution is made once a week for the school, and once a month for the workshops ; the amount may average $5.00 per pupil. The elder brothers have a special payment of !$0.20 a month, besides a ration extra on Sunday, and for them, likewise the payments made for labor and good conduct are doubled. The classification of the pupils by families, as above remarked, is the peculiar characteristic and the pivot of the discipline of the school. The families are formed by means of a nucleus, around which are arranged and aggregated the new pupils. This plan allows of the preservation of the family feeling, and of its peculiarities and associations. The regulations inserted after this notice give complete information as to the organization and discipline of the famiUes, and the privileges and duties of the chiefs, sub-chiefs, and elder brothers. The elder brothers, chosen by the pupils within each family, can not inflict pun- ishments ; they only note marks for ill conduct. These bad marks are read by a director, on Sunday, in the general meeting of all the officers and pupils. In this same meeting, the director gives a detailed account of the situation of each family, distributes penalties and rewards, gives news from pupils gone and in places, reads extracts from their correspondence, and communicates all matters of interest to the school. Each chief of a family makes a special report on the conduct of the pupils ; this is read at the meeting of the chiefs of families and officers, which takes place every Saturday afternoon. At this meeting, over which a director presides, is arranged the outline of the report for the general meeting on Sunday, tlie list of rewards and punishments, &c. The punishments are as follows : 1. Public admonition; 2. standing still — deprival of play; 3. dry bread for one or two meals ; 4. being shut in a cell on Sunday ; 5. imprisonment in lighted cell ; 6. ditto, in dark cell, (the duration of this imprisonment is never told, but it is not generally more than two or three days. The imprisoned pupils perform two hours' exercise a day, at an ordinary step, and at the gymnastic step, in the yard around the house of correction. During these exercises, the more culpable wear handcuffs ;) 7. dungeon for not more than three days ; 8. erasure from register of honor ; 9. replacement in the central establishment. Some offenses are adjudicated by the pupils themselves, who are appointed a jury for that purpose; the directors reserving only the power of moderating tha verdict. When a gross offense is committed, the foreman sends the offender to the " hall of reflection," an isolated apartment, where he remains some time before being visited by a director. During this interval, the child recovers from his auger, the director then hears his story, and punishment, if necessary, is never inflicted on him while irritated. Rewards are individual and collective. The latter are bestowed upon families, and consist of public eulogies, and of presents and tokens of remembrance, which are preserved with care. The others consist of eulogies, public likewise, gifts of articles of daily usefulness, rewards for labor and for application while in school, and favors of different kinds. But the principal encouragement, and that most valued, is registration in the register of honor, which is granted only to pupils who have been three months without punishment, and who have, besides, distinguished themselves for good conduct. All these ingenious details, showing the high order of intelligence which pre- sides at Mettray, and also a profound knowledge of the character of children, have been more or less imitated in most of the other reform schools, and espe- cially at that of Petit-Bourg, where we find the elder brothers under the name of monitors, the jury of pupils, the weekly meeting of officers, the register of honor, &c. We have seen that the industrial organization at Mettray received a rude blow by the decree of the provisional government (in 1849) above-mentioned. At the time of our visit, however, the workshops were beginning to be re-established. Of the 11 families in the school, 7 were more especially occupied in agriculture; the 4 others, although furnishing a certain number of agricultui'ists and horticxil- Winter wheat, 150 Spring " 7^ Winter oats, , 52 Spring " 8l( Mangel wurtzel, lit Peiis 3- In(Jian curn , 10 Potatoes , , 8J Beans , , , , 7^ 542 REFORM SCHOOL. OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. turists, were chiefly employed in the workshops, at wheelwrighting, blacksmith- ing, locksmithing, carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, rope and sail-making. To have the right of changing to another woikshop, the pupil must rank among the fii'st three of his family, and be registered in the register of honor. The school cultivated, at first, only 80 acres ; it has now extended its improve- ments to more than 500 acres. Of this extent it owns about 37 acres ; the re- mainder is leased from neighboring proprietors. In 1847, the division as to crops was as follows : Acres. Acres. Winter vetches, , 20 Spring " 15 Grnpe vines, , , 20 Meadow 62J Hemp 3 Kilohen-garden 22J Jerusiileni artichokes, ,, 2i Clover, sant'oin, 23 Wood 10 Total 49H' There are, moreover, 15 J acres, occupied by play-grounds, roads, buildings, underwood, and pastui'e, making a total of 505 acres, the entire domain of the school. Numerous springs rise from the slopes. A small river and a brook flow the whole length of the farm, from northeast to south. The brook is used to irrigate an extent of 37^ acres. The river can not b^^ used for that purpose, being used by a number of mills, very near each other. The school has no manufacturing establishment ; but it owns a grist-mill with three run of stones, to which miglit be added a cleaning machine, or a machine for cutting woolen rags. The farm- ing apparatus is sufiicient. Three families of pupils live on three farms worked by the school. A fire which occurred upon the farm of Gaud.eres, but which was soon put out, occa- sioned this arrangement. It was supposed that one watchman was not sufficient during the night. Providence, as it always does, brought good out of evil ; aux- iliary schools have thus been founded, which may serve as models for establish- mjnts smaller than ftjjttray. We know that this system of small schools has long existed in Switzerland and Germany, where it lias produced the best results. It has been advocated in France by the lion. M. de Rainneville, who has put it in practice on his farm of Allonville, near Amiens. M. Achille Duclesieux has also devoted himself enthusiastically to its introduction into Brittany, having suc- cessfully established an experimental school at Saint Ilan, (Morbihan,) Besides the chief and sub-chief of the family occupying it, there is attached to each farm at Mettray a farming overseer and a female liousekeeper. Each farm occupies from 75 to 100 acres. The buildings are so arranged as to contain, bisides the barn and stable, the necessary room for the housekeeping and lodging of the family. There is a common kitchen, and a separate room for the chief. The apartment of the pupils is arranged so as to serve in turn for sleeping room, refectory, school-room, and covered play-ground. It is usually from 45 to 52 feet long, and from 23 to 26 feet wide. For securing a healthy atmosphere are used ventilators, in the ceiling. The furniture consists of a hammock for each pupil, three pair of tables, twelve benches, shelves along the wall for stowing property, two cupboards, the sub-chiefs bed, and the cooking apparatus and farming tools, An inventory is given in appendix F. The cost of furnishing the establishment, and putting it in working order, may be estimated at (1,100 to 1,200 francs) $220 to $240. The school furnishes provisions for, and directs the administra- tion of the three farms, although each of them has its separate accounts, kept by the chief of the family. In other respects, the regulations and discipline of the detached families upon the farms, are quite the same as those of the families resident at the central establishment. In case of sickness, the pupils are carried to the central infirmary and treated there. Every Sunday the detached families pass the day at the cen- tral school, and join in the exercises, meetings, and sports of the other families, Thus is maintained the common bond among them. Agricultural labor is the principal occupation at Mettray now, and the existing workshops can be considered only as dependencies upon the agricultural establisljr REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 543 ment. This state of thinjEfs demands the greatest care ia cultivation, which unfor- tunately is by no means in a satisfactory condition. Being pressed by circum- stances, and by the necessity of extending the ai'ea of cultivation in proportion to the growing number of inmates, the direotoi-s at Mettray have had to struggle with great local difficulties. Much of the land hired requires labor, long, costly, and difficult for children to perform. Many large stones must be moved before the plow or spade can be used. Tliis slow operation is hardly performed before the leases expire. The school, therefore, probably does not recover its advances, and the proprietors of the land, aind not the school itself, receive the advantage of its severe labors. Add to this the frequent change of the farming overseers, each using a different system and diflerent processes, and it is easy to account for the unfavorable pecuniary result of the agricultural operations of Mettray. In 1848. this branch of the establishment incurred a considerable debt, which has probably now been paid ; but the necessity is demonstrated of a radical and intel- ligent reform in this department. The directors are seriously occupied about this matter ; if we might offi.'r them our advice, it would be, to inquire in the first place if it would not be best to limit cultivation to the land already cleared and in good condition, and to turn the rest, if possible, into meadows. By concentrating upon the former the labor and the manure which have proved insufficient for too extended an area, there would no doubt be obtained crops better, and relatively more abundant. The kitchen-garden in particular should be so enlarged as not only to answer the demands of the establishment, but to yield a surplus, which would probably find a market in the neighborhood and at Tours. The school at Mettray has ever since its its origin enjoyed lively sympathies, commanded not only by its object and its usefulness, but also by the personal character of its founders. General and municipal councils, courts of appeal, civil and commercial tribunals, royal and private families, all have hastened to its aid. Juries have made collections for it. M. Leon d'Ourches has given to Mettray $32,000. Others, instead of giving money, have generously provided the school with farming tools, clothes, books for the library, pictui'cs, vases, and ornaments for the church. These unostentatious ofTerings have been considerable. The government has not confined itself to paying all the personal expenses of the children confined there, but has also assisted the establishment with considerable annual appropriations, The ordinary expenses from 1839 to 1848, were . . $117,519.74 E.xtraordinary do., 96,297.38 Total expenses, $213,817.12 Receipts from without, $187,365.98 " at home, 12,071.27 Total receipts, Balance of expenses over receipts,. . . . $199,437.25 $14,379.87 The annual expense for maintenance of pupils, assistance of dismissed pupils, school of foremen, and advancement of cap' tal, (amortissement du capital,) divided by the number of pupils at Mettray, gives ihe following results : Year. 1840 Populntion. .57 113 per Expense head per day. ... $0,46,1 21.4 Year. 1845, , Population. 34.5,... per Expense head per day. .. «0.26 9 1841 1846 1847, 400, . . . .27.9 1842 160 .20.9 .28 3 459,... .26.1 1843, 188,.... 1848 509,... .20.1 1844 289 .26.3 1849 536,... .19. It appears that the expense has regularly decreased, according to the increase of the population. This diminution has continued through 1848 and 1849, in spite of the breaking up of the workshops and of the consequent decrease of profits on labor. This result is due to the economy introduced by the directors into different branches of the service. By persevering in this course, reorganize ing its mechanical labor, and adopting a system of agriculture which shall put an end to deficits and bring in a profit, the school of Mettray will undoubtedly suc- ceed, in a short time, in overcoming the difficulties which it has hitherto encoun- tered, and in settling its organizjition upon a firm financial basis. This is the more necessary, since the government, after 1849, pays oply 14 cents a day, )44 REFORM JSCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. instead of 16, for each pupil, and only $14.00, instead of $16,00, for wardrobe at entrance. APPENDIX. A. — Employment of Time. Summer SUNDAYS AND FEAST-DATS. Hours. WORKINO DATS. 5. Rise, make beds. 5^. Dress, wash, &c. 5j. Distribution of work. 7|. Breakfast, and play. 84. Distribution of work. 12|. End of work. 2. Sciiool begins. 3i. Distribution of work. 6i. Instrumental band practice. 1%. End of work ; put up tools. 8. Supper. 8J. Prayer ; evening singing. 9- Bedtime. 10. Curfew. 5. Rise, arrange beds, and clothes, &c. 5J. Dressing, washing, &c. ; prayer. 6. General cleaning up. 7. Breakfast, and play hours. 8. Mass. 94. General meeting for discipline. 104. Play. llj. Military exercise • exercise with fire- pump. Dinner and play. Vespers and benediction. Gymnastics. Moral lesson, by director, or school. Baths, or play. Supper. 7j. Prayer, singing, and arrange property. 84. Bedtime. 10. Curfew. Note.— Elder brothers are chosen the first Sunday of each month Winter Season. SUNDAYS AND FEAST-DAYS. Hours. C. Rise, make bed ; order, effects. 6A. Dress, wash, &c. ; prayer. 6J. General cleaning of house, &c. 7i. Breakfast, and play. 8. Mass. 9i. General meeting for discipline, &c. lOi. Play. Hi. Exercises; military, and with fire engine. 1. Dinner, and play. 2. Vespers, and benediction. 3. Gymnastics. 5. Moral instruction, or school. 6. Reading class. 7. Supper. 7J. Prayer, singing ; oraermg, effects. 8J. Bedtime. 10. Curfew. Note. — Elder brothers are chosen on the first Sunday of each month. B. — Regvlatwns of Infirmary. 1. The infirmary is directed by a sister of charity ; it is a place of quiet and repose ; silence must always be observed there; order and propriety must always reign there ; children making troulile will be marked the first time, and punished by the sister, if they renew their disorderly conduct, they will be removed to a cell, where their med- icSil treatment will be continued. 2. The police regulation of the infirmary belongs to the superior of the sisters of charity, and to the sister having charge there. The pupils must treat them with obedi- ence and respect ; failure to do which would be ungrateful. 3. Each bed is numbered. 4. Each pupil entering the infirmary will be taken thither by the chief of the family, who will deliver him directly into the hands of the sister in charge. The sister will enter in a register opened for the purpose, the pupil's name, the letter of his family, the number of the bed he occupies, and the date of his entrance. 5. At the first visit of the physician shall be entered, if practicable, in a special column, the nature of the disease. 6. Two registers shall be opened, one for the entrance and discharge of pupils, and the number of days passed in the infirmary, and the other for prescriptions and medical observations. Hours. WORKING DATS. 6. Rise, make beds. 6i. Dress, wash, &c. 6.V. Distribution of work. 11 Breakfast, and play. 84. Distribution of work. 12-45. End of work. 1. Dinner, and play. 2. Distribution of work. 6. School. 7. Supper. 1%. Prayer, singing. 8. Bedtime. 10. Curfew. Instrumental music three times a week, at noon. REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 545 7. A journal shall also be kept by the sister, of the conduct of the children in the infirmary, in which she shall enter the punishments inflicted by her, and the offenses requiring severer penalties. The foreman on guard shall come for this journal every Saturday, and carry it to the council, where it shall be read, and shall carry it back, every Sunday morning. 8. In the absence of the sister, the pupils shall obey the pupil in charge, who shall make note of all offenses, and report them to the sister. 9. Each pupil shall come to the infirmary dressed in a cap, neckcloth, blouse, panta- loons, and shoes, and shall have his comb and hair-brush. The sister shall give the chief of the family a receipt for the linen and other effects brought by the pupil. If any pupil shall come without the above articles, the pupil in charge of the infirmary shall get them from the chief of the family alone. JO. Every pupil discharged from the infirmary shall be delivered to the foreman on guard, to wliom the sister shall send word by the pupil in charge, at a quarter before eight in the evening, on Monday and Friday, when he goes to supper. The foreman on auard, at his return lo duly, shall send the pupil to the chief of his family. To facilitate this service, the sister shall give the list of pupils leaving, daily, to the over- seer of labor, who shall insert it in hi.s report. 11. The coming of the physician shall be announced by a signal. The fiupil in charge of the infirmary shall touch the bell, upon which the foreman on guard shall cause the trumpet to sound. This visit takes place twice a week, on Monday and Friday. 12. The chief of the house of correction shall report to the physician, at each visit, the sanitary condition thereof 13. No pupil shall be taken to see the doctor without-the written certificate of the chief of his family. The night guard is especially charged to take them to the doctor, upon proof that they have such certificate. 11. There shall take place a dressing (pansement) every day at half-past eleven, for sick pupils. The foreman on guard shall conduct them to it regularly, with an elder brother, so that the pupils shall be at the infirmary at iialf-jiast eleven. 15. Any pupil falling sick during working hours, shall be put forthwith under charge of the chief of his family, who alone shall have authority to conduct him to the infirmary. In his absence, the sub-chief shall perform this duty in his [)lace. IG. The treatment ordered for pupils sick at the familj', shall be explained by a note which the sister shall send to the chief of the family, who shall superintend the execu- tion of the directions. 17. Whenever the directors shall enter the infirmary, all pupils not confined to their beds shall place themselves at the foot of their beds, and remain there until the gen- tlemen go out. C. —Regulations for Chief of Family. 1. The school is divided into families of 40 children. Each of them is directed by a chief, who is under the immediate supervision of the head secretary. 2. The insignia of the chief of a family are two ornaments worked upon the sleeves, and black velvet on the cap. He has authority over all officers of a grade lower than his own. 3. The chief of a family has under his orders a sub-chief and two elder brothers, who assist him in the supervision of the family. He reads, every month, to his sub- chief and elder brothers their duties. 4. The chief of a family has charge of the education of its children. He oversees their primary instruction, under the direction of the teacher. He has charge of their dress and support, attends to their wants, corrects their faults ; in a word, he is the father of the family, and is to fulfill all the duties of the station to the children, as if he were so in every respect. 5. The chief of the family keeps the journal and all papers belonging to the family. He has charge of the correspondence of those who can not write, but he is forbidden to mail them until they have been left unsealed at the business office of the administration. 6. He is responsible for all the property and keeping of his house, linen, furniture, bedding, clothing, lighting, in short every thing upon the inventory of the family. 7. The chief of a family should understand the platoon exercise, for the purpose of managing his family the better during general meetings. He presides over all the sports and movements of the family, watches over its order, and its work, the good condition and neatness of his house, and all his children. He makes an inspection of property daily, and one of clothing weekly. 8. He lives all the time with his family. He rises first, and goes to bed last. He keeps at hand the keys of his doors and cupboards, shuts the house at night after curfew, during religious services, Sundays and feast-days. 9. The chief of a family inflicts punishment upon his children, conducts to the parlor those who have committed a grave offense, and to the infirmary those who are sick. He sends to the night-guard, with a written certificate, all children of his family whom the doctor should see, and who are not permitted to be so seen without such certificate. 35 546 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AORICOLE, AT METTRAY. 10 He is to visit at least twice a week, those of his children who are in the cells or the infirmary, and to report such visits to the directors. 11. Every Saturday he receives from the sister having charge of the washing, the clean linen, and every Monday he delivers her the dirty linen. He is forbidden to retain any thing. He receives also for safe keeping all articles given to the good pupils. 12. Whenever the chief of the family is not at the same time foreman of a work- shop, he is occupied during working hours in some of the business offices. 13. He directs a division in school, attends the music class, gymnastics, baths, and all the meetings of the whole school. 14. He performs in his turn the service of day and night watchman, and of waiting on visitors. 15. The chief of a family has leave of absence for a day every month, and every year a vacation. Whenever he wishes to be absent from the school, he will notify the secretary the evening before, who will report the same to the directors. 16. The chief of the family is allowed to be up, in his room, until curfew ; at which time every one else in the house must be in bed. 17. The chief of the family is recommended not to have any thing about which may tempt the pupils. 18. The chiefs of the families will send all the children to the foremen of the work- shops, and the latter will send the children, at their return, to the chiefs; during these movements, the pupils should always be in their ranks. The chiefs of families will not detain any pupil from his work, or call him off from it, without having received written orders therefor. 19. If the chief of a family finds its impossible to perforin his duty, from sickness or any other valid reason, he will immediately notify the secretary, who will fill his place. 20. The chiefs of families will call the children down from their meals by sound of trumpet, for the purpose of sending the sick to receive the physician's visit, or the dressinif, every day at 25 minutes past one at latest. 21. For communications relating to their duties, the chiefs of families are to report themselves at half-past ten every morning to the director, who will attend to their requisitions, and give his personal attendance at their families, if it should be required. D.— Regulations of Sub-Chief of Family. 1. Each family is divided into two sections. The sub-chief commands one of them, under direction of the chief 2. The insignia of the office of sub-chief are a lace sewed upon the sleeve. He commands all officers of a grade below his own. 3. The sub-chief is under the immediate orders of the chief, and should pay him obedience and respect. 4. The sub-chief assists the chief in supervision, and in taking care of the pupils during play-hours, in the sleeping and eating rooms, and whenever the family is together. 5. He fills the place of the chief, when the latter is absent. He should understand the theory, and be able to command the manoeuvres, of the platoon exercise. 6. The sub-chief notes all offenses committed by the pupils, and reports them to the chief, who alone has power to inflict punishments. 7. The sub-chief keeps the attendance roll of the family, by letters and numbers. He calls the roll three times a day, and keeps himself constantly certified of the presence of the pupils. He marks all the effects of each pupil with his matriculate number. 8. He has speciaf supervision of the pupil in waiting, and of those whose duty it is to clean up after every meal, and on Sundays. 9. The sub-chief teaches one division of pupils. He should be present at music class, exercises, gymnastics, baths, and all times when the school is together. 10. He performs in his turn the duty of day and night watch, of waiting on visitors, and of filling the place of foreman of a workshop. 11. The sub-chief is allowed to sit up in his room at night until curfew, when all others in the house must be in bed. 12. From the first distribution of work until breakfast, the sub-chief may attend in the monitor's class, to compilete his education. 13. The sub-chief will not be absent on any pretext, without having notified his chief. 14. The sub-chief has a day's leave of absence every month, and a vacation every year. Whenever he may wish to be absent from, the school, he will notify the secre- tary in writing the evening before, who will report the request to the directors. 15. The sub-chiefs are recommended not to have any article about them, which may tempt the pupils. IG. Whenever from sickness, or other valid reason, the sub-chief can not perforo) his duties, he will forthwith notify the secretary, who will supply his place. REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLOME AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. 547 17. The sub-chief will not join in any of the plays of the pupils. He is forbidden to read or write, during the hours of recreation, with his colleagues, or any one else. Note. — The best chief is not he who speaks loudest ami punishes ol'tenest, but he who gives just commands, whose words are concise, persuasive, and such as to command respect, and . who punishes seldom. The intelligent chief should study the character of his children, so as to be able to adapt his words and manner to the age and peculiarity of each. E — Rebilatio.ns for the Elder Brothers. 1. The elder brother is chosen by the pupils, by secret ballot. He must be chosen from among the names on the register of honor. If the director approves the choice which has been made, he announces the appointment for one month, gives him an embrace, and attaches to his sleeve the lace which i.s the ensign of his office. The elder brother will merit the title and the confidence bestowed upon him, by exemplary conduct, 2. The elder brother may be re-elected. 3. There are to be two elder brothers in each family. 4. At the first sound of the trumpet the elder brother will rise, will order the rest to rise, will dress himself promptly, assist the young children, and help the chief and sub-chief in the supervision of the dormitory, and of washing and dressing. 5. In the family and workshoji, in all the exercises within the house, and wherever he may he, the elder brother will assist his chiefs in supervision, will see that all move- ments from place to place, within the house, are made with propriety, silence, order, and regularity. He will reprimand pupils committing the slightest error, and will mark in a book used for that purpose, those who do not obey his first admonition. 6. When the family is together, the first elder brother carries the colors, and stands at the right hand of the first rank ; the second behind him, in the rear rank. They will dress the ranks of the pupils, and should learn to direct the manoeuvres of the piatooa exercise. 7. The elder brother will assist the chief and sub-chief in supervision of sports. It is there that he is to occupy himself earnestly in preventing disputes, imprudence, and impropriety, in rejiroving gross expressions, and lorbidding dangerous games. 8. It is the special duty of the elder brother, through the pupil in charge, to maintain the dormitories, the interior of the house, and the sheds, in constant neatness. 9. The elder brother, under direction of the chief and sub-chief, will announce bed- time, and will see that the proper movements are orderly made. 10. The elder brother, who shall see any grave violation of rules, shall immediately report it 10 the chief of his family, or the loreman of his workshop. 11. An elder brother is designated every day in turn, to assist at the dressing (at the infirmary.) 12. The elder brother is exempt from all extraordinary services. We can not better close this extended account of the Mettray jnsti- ' tution, than by quoting the published opinions of an English and Amer' lean observer. M. D. Hill, Esq., recorder of Birniingham, thus speaks of a visit to Mettray in 1848: "In the year 1848 I made my way to Mettray, near Tours, in France. 1 was received with the utmost kindness, and ad- mitted into the fullest confidence by M. Demetz. the illustrious founder of the institution — a judge who descended from the bench because he could not endure the pain of consigning children to a prison when he knew their future would be made worse than their pasl. 1 examined, or rather cross-examined, each department of the institution, with all that unamiable incredulity which jhirty years' practice at the bar may be supposed to have generated; 1 began with a sort of prejudice — a determined siispicion — fighting my way backward, step by step, until, as proofs advanced, the conclusion was forced upon me that my position was untenable. I found that at Mettray. where they possess and exer- cise the power of compulsory retention, and where, for desertion, a boy is sent back to the prison from which he had been withdrawn — the amount of reformation reached to what I at first thought the incredible proportion (but which I fully verified) of 85 per cent." 548 REFORM SCHOOL, OR COLONIE AGRICOLE, AT METTRAY. Mr. Coleman, in his European Agriculture, after giving a brief de- scription of Mettray, as an agricultural institution, remarks: "When one looks at the innumerable herds of children, turned, as it were, adrift in a great city, not merely tempted, but actually instructed, stimulated," and encouraged in crime, and observes them gradually gathering in and borne onwards on the swift current with increasing rapidity to the pre- cipice of destruction, until escape becomes almost impossible, how can we enough admire the combined courage, generosity, and disinterested- ness, which plunges in that it may rescue some of these wretched vic- tims from that frightful fate which seems all but inevitable? 1 do not know a more beautiful, and scarcely a more touching, passage in the Holy Scriptures than that which represents the angels in Heaven as. rejoicing over a repenting and rescued sinner. It is, indeed, a ministry worthy of the highest and holiest spirits, to which the Supreme Source of all goodness and benevolence has imparted any portion of his Divine nature. "If we look at this institution even in a more humble and practical view, as atibrding a good education in the mechanical and agricultural arts, its great utility can not be doubted : and much good seed will be sown here, which, under the blessing of God, is sure to return excellent and enduring fruits. "I should have said before, that there is connected with the institu- tion a hospital which was a model of cleanliness, good ventilation, and careful attendance ; all the services of which were rendered by those indefatigable doers of good, the Sisters of Charity." AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL PETIT-BOURG. The Agricultural school of Petit-Bourg was founded in 1844, by the society for assisting poor children and youth, foundlings, abandoned children and orphans, in France, and especially within the department of the Seine and Seine-et-Oise. The society of which Count Portalis was president, is located at Paris ; and the school occupies the ancient property of M. Aquado, at Evry-sur-Seine : which includes a large chateau and its dependencies, and a park of about 150 acres, bounded partly by walls, partly by the railroad of Oorbeil. The estate is beauti- fully situated upon sloping ground on the river Seine. Water is brought to it by extensive works, from a distance of several miles. It is conducted plentifully into the kitchen-garden, (ten acres, inclosed with high walls and intersected with ten other low walls for montreuil espaliers,) after which it enters large basins which serve for swimming-baths, and to supply the wash-rooms and other domestic uses. Paved or sanded yards, alleys of horse-chesnuts. ploughed land, large and beauti- ful meadows, and copses, afford opportunities for exercise, sufficient for all purposes. In the kitchen-garden are a poultry-yard, a small piggery, and a building with eleven front windows, containing good cellars, and in the basement story, apart- ments used in the working of the kitchen-garden, and for workshops for trades not noisy. The first story is occupied by the laundry, the drug shop, the room for convalescents, the infirmary, containing 16 beds and warmed by a stove, and by apartments for sundry persons employed in the institution. In the upper story are several cells for punishment. Within the same garden, a large building, formerly used as an orangery, has been fitted up for the use of the pupils ; it contains a spacious dormitory, which will contain, if necessary, 160 children ; there are also two school-rooms, one for the assistants and the other for the pupils, and a wardrobe. The large apartment is arranged to serve successively for a sleeping-room, school-room, refectory, and covered play-ground. By a simple, easy, and rapid manoeuvre, all the furniture of the room disappears as if by enchantment ; the tables rise close to the ceiling, and while the movable posts supporting them are placed in receptacles where they do not obstruct the room, the hammocks which were near the windows are moved close up to the wall, and those in the middle of the room rise to hide and ventilate themselves in the garret, by means of trap-doors. The idea of this arrangement was borrowed from the agricultural school at Mettray, and is to be found in the school of Val d'Yevre and in other establishments of the same kind. The dormitory contains four rows of hammocks, and two aisles, at the ends of which are the more elevated hammocks of the overseers ; who by this means can see all that passes in all the beds of the children without trouble. It is lighted dur- ing the night, and ventilated by apparatus hke that used in most of the prisons of Belgium. Above the dormitory is a garret which serves for a drying-room .; and con- nected with the same building is a shed, which is used as a repository for farming tools, and for stables and cow-house. The chateau is occupied in the basement by apartments for schools and for the family of the director. The first story is partly occupied by sleeping-rooms for the pupils. The kitchen and its appurtenances, the pantry, the wash-room, the milk-room, &c., are in the cellars, which are of great extent. At the time of our visit, (September 2, 1849,) the number of scholars was 130. It was about being increased to 250, by receiving a number of ytning criminals, 550 HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETITBOURG. acquitted in court as having acted without discernment, but detained under the 66th article of the penal code. This addition has since been made ; the young prisoners have taken the place of poor and orphan children, and consequently the estiiblishment at Petit-Bourg must now be reckoned among the reform schools. The information collected by us relates to the first period of organization ; which fact should be recollected in reading what follows. The scholars at Petit- Ijourg may be divided into two classes ; 1 . poor children and orphans, placed here by the hospitals and asylums at an expense of $24 a year, besides clothes ; 2. boarders, paying $70 the first year, and $50 for each subse- quent year, always besides clothes. The number of this last class is 30. The age of admission is generally set at eight years ; the time of staying in the school may be as long as 5 yeai's. This length is required, in fact, by the interest both of pulpit and school ; by imparting mechanical skill to the former, and thus enabling him to repay part of the expense borne for him by the latter. The ofliicers of the school are fourteen, viz. : A director without salary, having only lodging, board and fuel, washing, &c., for himself and family. This place is filled by M. Allier, who may be considered as the real originator and founder of the institution. A book-keeper, paid $160.00 A teacher, " 200.00 An overseer of farming, " 200.00 A gardener, " 140.00 A horticulturali.st, A cutler and blacksmith, A carpenter, A wagon-maker, Two farm laborers, A cook, Two overseers, one {It $80, and one at $40.00. paid from $80.00 to $100.00 Several women are also employed in different capacities, in the laundry, wash- room, infirmary, on the farm, &e. All these persons receive lodging, board, and general maintenance. They wear no particular costume, and may be married. The pupils arrive at half-past four in summer, and at half-past five in winter. Their bedtime is, nine in summer, and eight in winter. Each pupil has his own wardrobe, marked with his number. The dress is a blue blouse for work, a Scotch blouse for Sunday, and gray linen pantaloons in summer. In winter, the pantaloons are of cloth of the color of yellow earth, and under the blouse, a waistcoat with sleeves, of the same material with the panta- loons. Instead of wooden shoes are worn, in summer, laced boots, and in winter, clogs with wooden soles. The cap is of felt, varnished on the top only, and with the words " Petit-Bourg'' in front. Each pupil has also a woolen overcoat for severe weather. Recently pantaloons have been introduced, made of two different colors, to prevent escapes as much as possible. The bedding consists of a hammock, containing a mattress and small pillow of grass, a sack, instead of sheets of linen or cotton, one cotton coverlid in summer, and two in winter. In the infirmary, the pupils have, upon an iron bedstead, a grass mattress, a woolen mattress, a coverlid of cotton and another of gray woolen, two common sheets, and a pillow of feathers. Besides the dormitory, there are other sleeping rooms, containing from 15 to 20 pupils. Each sleeping-room, is lighted all night, and has its monitor, who is chosen from among the pupils, and charged to preserve o7-der and silence. Besides these overseers, an overseer on guard passes continually through all the sleeping- rooms in succession, during the night. At eight o'clock in the morning the pupils have a piece of bread for breakfast; at noon and at night, soup, and one dish besides. They have meat three times a week, including Sunday ; salt meat twice, and fresh meat once. Their only drink is water. The elementary instruction given to the pupils comprehends reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. There is added a little land-surveyinsr, geography, linear design, singing, gymnastics, swimming, and use of fire-engine. There is also a course of agriculture and horticulture for those pupils intending to become farmers. HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT BOURG. 55 1 The religious instruction is given by the priest of the commune, who acts as chaplain. The pupife attend the village churcli, which is situated within the park inclosure. As soon as the pupils arrive at the school, they are employed for about a fort- nigTit in the kitchen-gardens, or in the fields, to allow thein to gain health and Ktreiiglh, in which they are often deficient. They are then admitted to the work- shops ; their occupation being selected as nearly as possible with reference to their especial aptitude for it. Several workshops have been established ; of tailors, shoemakers, locksmiths, carpenters, cabinet-makers, house-painters. According to the agreements made with the foiemen of these workshops, the labor of the children is disposed of to them by contract, and they account to the school for it, at a fixed pricre per day for each pupil. This price varies of course, according to the nature of the occupation •, but it ought during the first year, to amount to an income averaging $16.00 for each pupil, and equal to one-third of the expense of their board and maintenance. This income the second year, ought to average $46.00 ; and to cover the entire personal expenses of the pupil. Afterwards, to the end of the apprenticeship, this income should increase so as to bring to the school a net profit equal at least to the advances of the first year. A part of this income should be laid up for a reserve fund for the pupil. The amounts applied to this fund should be entered in a book in the saving's bank, and it was supposed that the society would be able to add to it, from beneficiary funds, a greater or less amount, according to the conduct of the pupil in the workshops, his capacity, and his devotion to his fellow-pupils and to the school. All sums thus entered in the bank-book, should draw interest at 3 per cent., and should not become the property of the pupil unless he have observed punctu- ally the agreement made between the society and his family. Departure before the time agreed upon, besides giving a right of civil action against the family, should deprive the pupil of all his rights to any sum in bank, and of participation in all other favors which the society might bestow upon him at the time of his going, such as wardrobes, tools, pocket-money, nomination of a patron, &c. These ingenious contrivances to receive the apprenticeship of the pupils, reim- bursement of their expenses to the society, and provision for their future welfare, do not appear to have answered the expectations of their originators. The con- tractors have failed, or have not accepted the conditions attempted to be imposed on them. Consequently, except a few workshops of small importance, working entirely for the institution, agriculture is the principal and almost the only occupa- tion of the pupils. At the time of our visit, the employments were arranged a follows : Farmers, 86; gardeners, 11; horticulturists, 5; tailors and menders, 10; shoemakers, 3 ; carpenters, 3 ; cutlers, 3; painters, 2; cooks, 2; clerks in offices, 3 ; in infirmary, 1 ; in steward's office, 1 ; total, 250. The domain includes about 250 acres, of which 10 are in meadow; about 100 acres besides are leased, at $30 per year per acre. There have usually been about 25 horned cattle ; but a murrian which recently appeared among them has obliged the administration to sell them. There are 12 horses. The most lucrative and most useful branch of cultivation is that of the kitchen-garden, part of whose pro- duets are sent to market. The garden itself, which is a large one, seems to be well laid out. Irrigation is practiced in it, as by the market-gardeners at Paris. The sale of flowers, fruit, and legumes, furnish a principal revenue of the establish- ment. There are handsome green-houses, containing over 14,000 pots. The moral and disciplinary regulations of the school, are described in the report of M. Allier, the director, to the general assembly of May 1 1th, 1845, at the Hotel de Ville of Paris, contain some excellent provisions. Unfortunately the absence of the director at the time of our visit, and the shortness of our stay, rendered it im- possible for us to ascertain whether this excellent system had been exactly followed. But below is such information as we have extracted from the above-mentioned report, or received from the assistant who directed our visit. The pupils are classed according to their conduct, in four divisions, viz. : Division of probation. I Division of reward. " " amdicration. | " •' punishment, 552 HORTICFLTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT-BOtTRG. As a means of stimulating their emulation while at work, %,sub-classification has been adopted, which cons.sts in arranging the pupils, in each workshop, into first, second, and third divisions. Each of these divisions has a little flag of a particular color. To belong to the first division is the highest ambition of the members of the other divisions. The same amount of work considering their relative strength, having been distributed to the pupils, and the time necessary for performing it being carefullj' calculated, the pride of each little group is set in action, and there results a pleasant strife to conquer in the game, which is silent as a game of chess, and as absorbing, and which, besides the honor of victory, does not lack material inducements ; for a certain prize is delivered at the end of every month to the first division, and encouragement to the second. '' It is pleasant." says the reporter, " to see with what earnestness and good-will the children ply tiie plane, the hammer, the file, the spade, the rake, and look around to see where their comrades and adversaries are ; for not only is there a struggle between two divisions, but also between the individual members of each division, for the first, second, &c., place in the division. The first in each divis- ion is the standard bearer. " In this manner the hours pass rapidly away without punishment. At the end of the task, joy shines in the eyes of the victors, and the shame of the vanquished seems impatient for the revenge which shall give them the standard or the place of honor. " At each judiciary meeting, good marks are also given to those who have done their work quickest and best, and bad ones to those who have labored ill or slowly. It often happens that the children gain an hour or two, by finishing their tasks before the appointed hour ; this time they may dispose of at pleasure, in play, in working in other shops, in reading or drawing, &c. ; but they usually ask for more work, or kindly assist their slower comrades, for the purpose of preventing the bad marks to which the latter are liable ; for where the honorable rivalry of labor ends, there brotherly love begins. " This system, which puts into action the powerful motives of interest and pride, while it preserves fraternal friendship, needs no commentaries. It is simple and true, because it is taken from nature. To judge of it, all that is necessary is to look at one's own heart and to question one's self" The pupils assemble once a month for the special purpose of electing by ballot the monitor-general of the school and the monitors of the separate workshops. This operation is performed without any intriguing, and it has been remarked that the best scholars are chosen unanimously, or by an immense majority. The di- rector, however, reserves a veto upon this choice ; although he has very seldom been obliged to use it. Tlie appointment of monitors by their peers is copied from the appointment of elder brothers at Mettray ; as is also the appointment of a jury to try offenses committed by the pupils. The pupils usually accuse themselves, and affix, according to circumstances, the maximum or minimum of punishment. These spontaneous condemnations are submitted to the approval of their brothers the monitors, who revoke or confirm them ; and are then carried before a supreme tribunal, of the officers, assistants and foremen of workshops, who give a judgment in the last resort. " Although a little new and prompt," says the report formerly quoted, " our justice is none the less real justice, and tends daily to lessen the number of cul- prits and of those condemned more than once. It has this advantage ; that the guilty can not claim to be innocent, nor to be too severely punished ; for both monitors and we ourselves most often interfere to mitigate penalties, and some- times to pardon, limiting ourselves to a reprimand. " Meanwhile, if (which is very rare) any pupil denies the accusation brought against him, then public information becomes the duty of all pupils having cogni- zance of the fact charged ; that no culprit may escape who aggravates his offense by a lie, and that no innocent person may be punished. In this case an inquest is held, before which the overseers and witnesses are heard. Accu.sers and defend- ers arise for the occasion among the pupils, and from monitors and assistants who decline voting upon the judgment pronounced in first instance by the monitors, and finally by the tribunal of assistants." The punishments are as follows, in the order of their severity : 1. Simple reprimand. ■ HORTICULTimAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT BOnRG. .5.53 2. Detention, with or witliout labor, from the recreations of the week- 3. Detention from the recrc-ations of the Sunday. 4. Dry bread for one or more meals. 5. Passage from a higher to a lower division. 6. Lighted cell, witli labor. 7. Dark cell, without labor. 8. Erasure of name from register of honor. 9. Loss for one or more months of votership and of eligibility. 10. Inability for one or more months to receive letters of pardon. 11. Inability for one or more months to partake or be present at distributions of alms. 12. Inability to see and embrace one's parents at the visit next after con- demnation. 13. Inab'lity for one or more months to carry the standard. 14. Inablity for one or more months to assist sick companions. L5. Inability during one or more months to be chosen to assist at family festivals. All these punishments are dreaded most on account of the shame accompany- ing them. It is likewise to be noticed that the severest are those which are of a purely moral character. Expulsion from the school is only inflicted upon pupils considered wholly incorrigible. There is a similar gradation of rewards, based upon the same principle, as follows : 1. Honorable mention. This is a public complimentary notice, addressed to the pupil deserving it, to encourage him to do still better in future. 2. Passage to a higher division. 3. Registration in the register of honor. This registration is for two months ; and is the privilege of the division of reward only. 4. Encouragements. These are small books. 5. A. crown over the place occupied by the pupil, in the school, or shop, or both, as he has deserved it in one, or the other, or both. 6. Tools of honor. These are offered and gained as prizes. 7. Prizes. These are usually books useful in the occupation of the pupil, moral tales, liistory, books of piety, &c. 8. Becoming standard-bearer of division. 9. Selection by their comrades to attend the family festivals. Once a month, the officers, assistants, and foremen, meet in the evening of Sunday around a table frugally furnished, as usual, but with one additional dish. The monitors are, ex officio, invited. .After the desert, the singing master assembles the pupils present, and sings with them rt-ligious, moral, or national songs. After the singing, all separate, promising to endeavor to make the worst scholars worthy of attending at these modest feasts. 10. Letters of pardon. These letters, which are only given with great reserve, empower those holding them to pardon pupils undergoing punishment, except in certain grave cases, of which the director is judge. 11. Permission to watch with the sick. This also is a rare privilege, and cul- tivates among the pupils sentiments of benevolence and of fraternal affection. 12. Honor of carrying and bestowing the alms of the school. The alms-chest is replenished in several ways. 1. One Sunday a month, all the officers, assist- ants, foremen, and pupils, go without meat, and the consequent saving is deposited in the alms-chest. 2 Once a month there is taken from the amount credited to each pupil in the savings-bank, 4 cents ; that is, 48 cents a year. A monthly collection is also made among the officers, a-ssistants, and foremen, and the amount, along with that taken from the deposits for the pupils, also put in the chest. With this money the pupils of the division of reward, or those who have per- formed some laudable action, are enabled to go, on the first Sunday of each month, to carry to the aged poor of the village, sometimes garments, sometimes bedding, sometimes medicine, but never money. Nothing has been neglected which might awaken the moral sense in the chil- dren of th(» school, or contribute to elevate their souls. For the same purpose the walls in ditFerent places are covered with such phrases as the following: Silenoe. 551 HORTICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETIT-BOURG. God sees us. Idleness impoverishes and degrades. He «ho will not work should not eat. Labor enrielies and honors. Let us be brothers. Benevolence elevates man. Children, grow up by labor. Men, some time labor will make you great. Religion is goodness, every where and always. To love the poor is to love God. Evening and morning, after the usual prayer, the pupils address another to God for their instructors and benefactors. Once a year a mass is sung for the repose of the souls of such instructors or benefactors as are dead ; after which ceremony, flowers are laid upon the graves of dead pupils. There was much difficulty, particularly at the beginning, in finding competent and active assistants, and such as would be devoted to the success of the undeitak- ing. Frequent changes in consequence occasioned great embarrassments. To encourage the agents of the school, they were given an interest in its profits, by I'eserving to them a percentage upon the produce of labor and of the workshops. The amount thus voluntarily distributed is retained by the society, and entered in a book called the book of division of profits. No one is permitted, on any pretext, to draw any or all of these funds ; and if any assistant or foreman leaves the school improperly, or is sent off for ill conduct, the amount so credited to him on book becomes the property of the other assistants and foremen, being divided equally among them. A second book, cal'.ed the savings-bank book, is also keptfor entering the reten- tion of 5 per cent, on all salaries. It is not permitted to draw this deposit ; but at the departure of the assistant or foreman, for whatever reason, it is paid to him, unlp.«s retained by the society as indemnity for damages due from him, for this book is kept to habituate the assistants to economy, and to put a sort of caution- money into the hands of the society. The same use is made of funds entered upon the book of division of profits, in case of malversation or loss. The amounts entered on the savings-bank book pay 3 per cent, to the depositor. The sums entered in th 'se two books, together with the savings which some of the assistants are able to lay by, form considerable reserve funds. Saturday evening every week, all the ofhcers, assistants, and foremen, meet in a family council, and consider all the praiseworthy or reprehensible actions of the pupils under their ordirs. By this means no fault, however small, and no good action, however insignificant, can happen during the week, in school-room, court, workshop, dormitory, or play-ground, without being noticed. While the teacher for instance, praises a scholar for his conduct and progress in study, the foreman of his workshop may find him stupid and lazy. By such contradictions attention is drawn to the child ; all watch him to better advantage, and after a few weeks of study and minute observation, the true character of the child is discovered, and often his good qualities are brought out even by means of his faults. This meeting has another purpose, to arrange a line of conduct for each pupil, to be followed out next day at an assembly called the meeting of emulation ; at which the ofheeis, assistants, and foremen of workshops are present, as well as the pupils and visitors. At this meeting are performed the duties of the jury above-men- tioned, and rewards and punishments are distributed. The idea of this meeting was copied from the school of INIetlray, which, although there seems to be some unwillingness to avow it, has served as the type of the organization not only of the school of Petit-Bourg, but also of most other establishments of the same kind erected in France within a few years. Petit-Bourg has not a school of foremen like that at Mettray, but it endeavors in a similar manner to form among the pupils a seminary for assistants who may suc- cessively fill vacant places. The patronage of the scholars on leaving the school is nearly on the same basis in the two establishments. A patron is named for each pupil, who, in concert with the establishment, endeavors to find him a good situation. To understand the financial condition of the school of Petit- iBourg, we have ex- HORTICULTITRAL REFORM SCHOOL OF PETTTBOURG. 555 amined the accounts and estimates of the few last years, and have arrived at the following results : III 1M5. for 118 pupils, the expenses were $15,032.80 ; being $127.57 each, per year, and .$.).'25 each, per day. In 1846, for 123 pupils, the expenses were $.17,631.12, after deducting income of farming and workshops. The items of this expense are as follows : Board of pupils, $00.10.4 per day each, $1,661.08 Clothing, 12.48 " year, " 1 ,535.03 Bedding, J.24.2 " " " 152.73 Washing, 1.95.2 " " " 240.07 Fuel, 58.2 " " " 71.74 Light 2.93.8 " " " 361.32 Mending clothes, 5.(12 " " " 617.76 School expenses, 39 " " " 47.95 Sundries 80.21 Rent, taxes, insurance, 1 ,554.41 Repairs. &c., furniture and buildings, 746.65 Expenses of ofHees and management, 2,678.05 Salaries and maintenance of assistants, 6,880.38 Entire expense, 19,627.38 Income from cultvation and shops, 1,996.26 Net expense, 17,631.12 The expense for each pupil, during 1846, therefore was $143.34 ; or .$0.39 per day. In 1847. the estimates for an average number of 125 pupils presented the fol- lowing valuations : Salaries and maintenance of officers, &c., $6,720.00 Maintenance of pupils, $60 each, 7,500.00 Fuel, lights, washing 800.00 Taxes, repairs of buildings 640.00 Expense of management, freight, traveling, 2,320.00 Shops, cattle, manure, &c., 1,000.00 Contingencies, 400.00 19,380.00 T, •. < Kitchen-garden, $1,000.00) o nnn nn Receipts, { rp-,, . t "^ j t , ,^nn i\n t 2,000.00 ^ ' ( Tilled land, woods, &C.. 1,000.00 ) _J Net expense, 17,280.00 The expense per pupil, in 1848, was therefore $139.04, or .$0.38 per day, not including rent. In 1849, the expense was diminished by the increased number of pupils to $94.67 ; or $0.25 each, per day. The school purchased the estate of Petit- Bourg, in 1846, for ,$54,t>00, raised by the grand lottery established for the school at that time, the net accruing from which, was more than $100,000. Connected with the prison of " La Roqtiette," in Paris, is an institution called the '• Patronage Society," which has been formed voluntarily by benevolent indi- viduals. Its object is to guide and provide for young prisoners on their liberation. Each boy has a patron who exercises an influence over him, even during his confinement, by counsel and exhoi'tiition. On his being set at liberty, his piitron comes or sends for him, and places him in some situation for which he has fitted himself in the workshop of the penitftitiary. Instead of being thrust out of the gates with rags on their backs, with whch they entered them, and with just .suificient money to lead them into temptation, as was formerly the case, the poor lads are at present furnished with decent clothes, and gain at once an employment ;md a respectable livelihood. Their patrons visit them fVequ 'ntly, superintend their conduct, and by the aftletionate sympathies they show them, encourage and confirm thern in a virtuous course of life. They call them their children, and the reciprocal affection wliich often springs up between the little 55(5 PRISON OF LA ROQUETTE, IN PARIS. outcasts and their protectors is really very beautiful. Numerous cases have oo- cuiTfii where youthful vagabonds and thieves have become exemplary characters through the parental kindness of the gentlemen who have adopted them. One instance is mentioned, in the society's reports, of a former inmate of " La Ro- qut-tte" having formed an attachment to an amiable and industrial girl, when not liaving money to meet the expenses of his marriage, his patron gave him the means, was present himself at the wedding, and furnished the lodging of the new-married couple with chairs, tables, a bedstead, and some linen. The most unequivocal proof of the value of the society's exertions consists in this, — that before its existence, out of 217 youths that were liberated between the years 1831 and 1833, 99 were recommitted several times and for grave offenses; whereas since the association has entered upon its mission, out of 269 lads tiiken under their charge only 51 were again sentenced to a second term of imprisonment. And it is to be observed that the 99 recommittals above specified were merely those wh.ch took place in Paris, under tlie real names of the offenders ; how many more happened in the provinces, and under false names, can not be ascer- tained. But all who are pos. lively recommitted, whilst under the superintend- ence of the society are known, as they can not quit their situations without the fact being oonmiunicated to their patrons. A report of the society affirms that of those who have been guilty of no fresh transgression against the law, 58 were not ordy laborious, economical, and submissive to their masters, but join to those qualities virtues which must gain them general esteem ; that 124, without being so remarkable, are nevertheless excellent young men, and good workmen, who give every kind of satisfaction to their employers and protectors; so that out of 2fi9 juvenile delinquents there are 182 thoroughly reformed, who are the joy and glory of the society. AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. The following account of one of the most interesting educational in- stitutions of Belgium, is mainly a translation from a Report* by M. Ducpetiaux, Inspector General of Prisons and Charitable Institutions, to the Minister of Justice, on Agricultural Colonies, Rural Schools, and Schools of Reform, for indigent vagrant and mendicant children and youth, in 1851. 1. Purpose of the Reform Schools; preliminary measures ; basis of organi- zation. The attention of government has long been directed to the condition of the poor youth, beggars, and vagrants, who are sheltered in the alms-houses and imprisoned by the courts. From the misfortunes which have of late years fallen upon the population both of East and West P'landers, the number of these cliildron and youth has rapidly increased. According to a return made in 1848, this increase, for the three years preceding, was as follows : YOUTH REGISTERED. 1845. 1846. 1847. TOTAL. In prisons, 2,575 5,886 9.352 17,813 In alms-houses, 1,823 2,914 3,697 8,434 Total, 4,398 8,800 13,049 26,247 Thus, in the short space of three years, 26,247 children and youth of both sexes were registered as admitted into the prisons and alms-houses. There are un- doubtedly repetitions in this number ; the same children are recorded twice, thrice, or even oftener, on the same register. But on the other hand this estimate did not include children admitted into prisons with their parents ; numbering, during the same period, some thousands. It is to be remarked, besides, that the principal alms-houses, being entirely filled during the crisis of distress, were obliged to limit or even to suspend admission. Hence a great part of the increase in the number imprisoned. Shut out from the alms-houses, many of these unfortunate people, to escape from hunger, cold, and death, asked admission into the prisons, and even committed small misdemeanors in order to gain the right of such admission. So wretched a spectacle has shown the necessity of energetic measures to oppose a barrier to this invasion of poverty, and to snatch this mass of unfortunate youth from influences which, by perpetuating their degradation and their misery, expose society to incessant perils and increasing expense. The department of justice ]>repared a plan, chiefly with this design, for the es- tablishment of special reform schools, for poor youth, beggars, and vagrants of both sexes. This plan was presented to the Chamber of Representatives, Nov. 17, 1846 ; and was thoroughly examined by a committee of the central section, {section centrale,) which reported on it, May 6, 1847. The government prepared a new plan, based on this report, which it submitted to the Chamber of Representatives, * Colonies Agricoles, Ecoles Rurales et Ecoles de Reforme pour les indijrents, les mendiants et les vagabonds, et spfcialement pour les enfants des deux sexes, en Suisse, en Allemagne, en France, en Angleterre, dans les Pays-Bas et en Belgique. Rapport address^ a M. Tesch, Ministr0*de la Justice, par M. Ducpetiaux, Inspecteur G^ngral des prisons, iic. Bruzelles, 1661. 558 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. Feb. 28, 1848. This having been thoroughly discussed by both Chambers, was passed into a law concerning alms-houses and reform schools, April 3, 1848. The fifth article of that law enacts that the regular alms-houses shall be used ex- clusively fur the reception of adult paupers, beggars, and vagrants. That the gov- ernment shall erect special establisliments for young paupers, beggars, and vagrants of botli sexes, under sixteen years of age. The.se establishments shall be so oi'ganized as to employ the boys, as much as possible, in agriculture, and to instruct them in such labt)r as may be profitably practiced in the fields. The two sexes shall always be placed in distinct and sepa- rate establishments. By article 7, the expense of support to be paid by the communes for the youth admitted into these establishments is never to exceed, for the communes of each province, the expense of support of the inmates of the alms-houses of each province. The oi-ganization, management, and discipline of these establishments are de- termined by royal decrees, vviiich are not to issue without hearing the permanent deputations of the provinces in which they are situate'd. Six hundred thousand francs (about $12(1,000) is appropriated for the land and buildings for these establishments, and for fittings, furniture, and other necessary expenses. The government is to make an annual report to the legislature, of all action under the above law, and of the condition of the institutions established in confor- mity with it. Government engaged actively in the execution of the law of the 3d of April, 1848. The necessary preparatory investigati(jnsand operations occupied a porti(mmunication witli the canal, and with the railroad from Gand to Bruges ; the transhipment and transport of manure has been facili- tated by the construction of a whai'f and of a large cistern at the edge of the canal ; lastly, a steam-engine of five horse power has been erected for milling grain, rais- ing water, heating the main building, and cooking for the workmen and cattle ; arrangements are in progress for connecting with it an elevator, a thi'ashing ma- chine, a straw-cutter, a turnip-cutter, &c. All these machines will economize labor, and will enable the managers to employ to the best advantage the strength and skill of the laborers, instead of employing them in turning wheels and in other purely mechanical and monotonous labor. 3. Arrangement of the buildings of the school and farm. The buildings of the reform school are regularly arranged, and may be consid' ered under two heads, viz., the school proper, and the farm. 1. The .school comprehends all the necessary buildings for the offices the opera- tions, and the accommodation of the officers ; which occupy the two wings toward the road. The central building contains, in the lower story, the dining-room of the pupils, furnished with tables seating 500 children, two school-rooms, the princi- pal office for business and the dining-room of the officers ; in the secona story, AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 559 four large dormitories, each furnished with a hundred and twenty-four cots, a su- perintendent's chamber, and wash-stands for the pupils. In the garret is a large reservoir tilled by the steam-engine, which distributes water to all parts of the es- tablishment. The rooms on the first floor are warmed by a furnace. To the right of the central building, facing from the road, are the kitchen of the pupils, the bakery, the steam-engine with its appurtenances, the pantry ajid the store-rooms ; to the left, the kitchen of the officers, a plunge-bath or swimming- bath, baths, a fire-pump, and in the second story, the infirmary of the pupils with its dependencies. Lastly, the play-ground of the pupils is bounded on three sides by a building of one story, over wliich are ample granaries ; in this building are the workshops, the forge, carpenter's shop, spinning and weaving rooms, the tailor's, shoemaker's and sti-aw-weaver's shops, &e., as well as a temporary wash-house, to serve until the completion of the girls' school. The chapel stands at one corner ; it is built in a style at once simple and elegant ; and near it, as in the reform school at iMettray, is a small cell for such young beggars and vagrants as are sent to the school for punishment, and for the pupils in such aggravated or exceptional cases as require such quarantine or discipline. 2. The farm buildings, standing near the school, comprehend a dwelling-house for the farmer and the farm laborers, stables for from 80 to 100 head of cattle, a dairy, two stables for 12 horses, two piggeries, a sheep-fold, a poultry-yard, two covered receptacles for manure, a roomy barn, and a large carriage house for vehicles and farming tools, over which are lofts for hay. A watering place for the cattle, and large cisterns for liquid manure and for drainings complete these ar- rangements : which on the whole and in detail, furnish a real model farm. All the buildings which we have enumerated, together with the two court-yards of the school and the enclosure around which sUmd the mills and wood-houses, form nearly a regular parallelogram, of 135 metres long, and 200 wide, (about 450 feet by e.iO.) 4. Extent and division of the estate. The property of Ruysselede contains 126 hectares, 89 ares, 10 ceiitiares, (about 320 acres;) it forms an isosceles triangle with the vertex to the northwest and the base to the southeast. It is bounded on one side by the new road laid out by the establishment, and on the others by public roads, so that it is quite separated from the estates adjoining. It is divided into squares, chess-board-wise, generally containing froni 1 to 3 hectares (2^ to 7^ acres) each, and separated by rows and avenues of larch, fir, and wild cherry, which last serve for cart-paths, &c. The soil is a gray sand, without any mixture of clay, and therefore light, friable, and easily worked. But it also, to become productive, requires careful cultivation, and large quantities of manure, especially liquid manure. For this reason the au- thorities of the school have concluded an arrangement with the jail (maison de force) at Gand, for the annual delivery of about 10,000 hectolitres (about 4,200 hogsheads) of solid and liquid manure. 5. Measmes of organization ; decrees and instructions. The department of justice, which has jurisdiction over the reform school, has successively t-aken different measures for their organization. The royal decree of March 8, 1849, determines the number, duties, and salaries of the officei's, and ap-- points a committee of from three to five members of the legislature for the inspec- tion and supervision of the reform schools. The decree of May 7, 1849, com- pleted this arrangement by determining the mode of filling vacancies and the jurisdiction of the committee. The continued imprisonment by the commissioner of beggary and vagrancy causing much inconvenience, the decree of February 28, 1850, ordered their im- mediate transfer to the reform schools, where they will serve out their terms in separate quarters. A royal decree of the same date with the last, extends the provisions of the decree of December 14, 1848, for the assistance of liberated convicts, to young paupers, beggars, and vagrants, at their dismissal from the reform schools. There is to be opened in each of these establishments a register of the offers which may be made by farmers and other employers, to hire, on certain conditions, such of the pupils as may p(issess the requisite qualifications. The mmisterial circular of March 2, 1850, calls the attention of public proseca- 560 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. tors to the purpose of the refi)rm schools, and furnishes invariable rules for the arrangement of transfers to, and among them. Another circular, of the same date, sends similar instructions to the governors of provinces. Lastly, the royal decree of July 3, 1850, specifies the conditions and forms of admission to the reform schools, and of dismission from them. By this decree, and by the law of April 3, 1848, the reform schools are especially designed. 1. For young paupers, under sixteen years of age, who present themselves vol- untarily for admission, with a certificate from the municipal authority of their place of settlement, or from the municipal autliority of the neighborhood where they happen to be, or where their usual residence is. 2. For young paupers liolding a certificate from the permanent deputation, from the gdvernor 250 " 50 both, Total, 21 These officers receive, besides their salaries, the emoluments specified in the decree of March 8, 1850, viz. : board, lights, fuel, washing, furniture, and medical attendance in sickness, except that tlie dii'eetor, who lieeps house does not receive board, washing, or furniture. The overseers have, besides, a uniform valued at 50 fi'ancs, (10 dollars,) and the laborers, each a suit of clothes valued at 20 francs, (4 dollars.) There are two tables for the officers ; one for the officers proper, pre- sided over by the chaplain, the other for the farm laborers, at the head of which is the farmer. All those employed, except the director, are single; a condition rendered necessary by the arrangements of the establishment, and the impossibility of accommodating families in it. At some future time it will be proper to exam- ine the practicability of preparing some tenements for families. Having started in the present footing, (a partir du present exercice,) there will be room for the em- ployment of some additional officers, and particularly for an increase in the num- ber of overseers, proportionable to that in the number of pupils. These overseers should be chosen, by preference, from among practical mechanics, and should have the direction of some of the workshops. The remaining shops may be entrusted, as at present, to the oversight of paid workmen ; such as those vi'hom the estab- lishment lias already engaged as a locksmith and blacksmith, a machinist and fireman for the steam-engine, a wheel-vvright, &c. The officers, before receiving a definite nomination or engagement, are taken on trial, and undergo a sort of noviciate, which test their zeal and their aptitude. This plan has succeeded perfectly. 12. Plan for erecting school of foremen. During the investigations pending the establishment of the reform school, it had been suggested to connect with it a special school for foremen, like that of Mettray and at the Rauhe-Haus at Hamburg ; but it was abandoned as difficult, compli- cated, and expensive. But although it has not been thought practicable to gather from elsewhere the material for a seminary of capable and faithful workmen, it has been understood that the institution would endeavor to educate within itself such subordinate agents as it might require. Tliis furnishes an opening to those pupils who may be distinguished by good conduct or capacity ; and already, after scarcely eighteen months of operations, there took place, at the beginning of the present year, the formal emancipation of one of them, a young man of activity and intelli- gence, and quick at all kinds of work, who has taken his place among the labor- ers upon the farm. Others will surely follow his example, and under its stimulus will be ambitious of the honor of serving such an establishment where tliey have found (so to speak) a new existence, and the certain prospect of ultimate success. 13. General dietetics. The diet of the pupils has been assimilated as much as possible to tliat of agri' cultural laborers. It is simple but abundant ; plain, but healthful. 14. Provisions. The food is furnished according to a bill of fare at the average expense, accord- ing to the price current of about 21 centimes (4 cents) a day for each pupil. This expense is certainly less than in any other similar establishment, in this or any AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 563 other country. The pupils nevertheless have meat twice a week ; for which pur- pose hogs are killed on the farm, and their flesh served up alternately with beef. The bread is rye, unbolted. The grain, potatoes, legumes, milk, and butter, are the productions of the establishment, which diminish the amount of actual expen- diture. With the extension and improvement of the present cultivation, these crops will increase, and ultimately, when there shall be as much land under culti- vation as will be required by the full number of pupils, it is to be hoped that the establishment will itself furnish all the essentials for its own consumption, lo. Clothing. Each pupil receives at entering the following articles : 5 shirts, 2 pair panta- loons, 2 pair working pantaloons, 1 vest, 2 blouses, 2 neck cloths, 2 pocket hand- kerchiefs, 1 btlt, 1 cap, 1 straw hat, 2 pair understockings, 1 pair shoes, 2 pair wooden shoes, (sabots,) 2 towels, I comb, and 2 brushes, (1 for clothes, 1 for shoes.) The expense of this wardrobe does not exceed from 32 to ?>5 francs, ($6.50 to $7.00,) according to size. Most of these articles have hitherto been furnished from the workshops in the jail of Gand •, but as soon as the workshops of tiie reform school are organized, it will make and finish, as far as possible, all the ne- cessary clothing and bedding for its inmates. The tailors' and menders' shop is already in operation ; even the youngest of the children make straw hats ; the spinning and weaving shops are begun, and will be in action before the end of the winter. The shoemakers' shop is i!i a like state of forwardness. The only diffi- culty is in finding foremen capable of directing the young operatives ; but the activity of the director will undoubtedly soon remedy it. 16. Sleeping arrangements. The bedsteads are of iron, with a press for clothing ; the bedding consists of a straw mattress, a pillow, a pair of linen sheets, and one, two, or three cotton cover- lids, according to the season. The bedsteads, which are manufactured at the jail of Gand, cost only 22 to 23 francs ($4. .50 to $4.75J each, including the press, which is also of iron. They are arranged in four rows in the dormitories. These are lighted all night, and besides that, the overseer can see from his chamber, at a glance, all that passes ; a night watch has been organized. An overseer, attended by two pupils, passes through all the premises, and especially through the dormi- tories, to see that all is in good order. 17. Fire and light. These are put upon the most economical footing. The entire first story of the central building, including the eating room and the schools, is warmed by the steam-engine. Lamps are used for lights, and the colewort (colza) cultivated on the farm furnishes part of the oil. The temporary wash-room is managed by pupils, in anticipation of the organization of the school for girls, who will take charge of the washing and laundry departments of both establishments. 18. Health. The healthy conditir)n of the school gives a testimony in favor of the regimen in- troduced. Many of the children, at their entrance, were infected with diseases more or less severe, with rickets or scrofula. But both diseases and symptoms have rapidly disappeared before pure air, field labor, and regular living. This is so true, that it is easy at a glance to distinguish by their appearance pupils lately ad- mitted from those who have been inmates for a longer time. The latter are gener- ally strong and active ; they are rosy, and their whole appearance denotes health. In 1849 no infirmary was opened ; in fact, there was no case of distinct disease, and cor»|equently no death ; and the medical department, including the visits of the inspecting physician, cost only 95fr., 34c.. (about $20.00.) In 18.50, from a number of pupils averaging 1 71, there were only 12 admissions to the infirmary. The number of days under treatment was 72, giving an aver- age of 6 days to each patient. The whole expense for drugs and materia medica of all kinds, both for the pupils and for such laborers as were hurt or bruized dur- ing the building, was only 48fr. 94c., (about $10.00.) There was no death. Children sick with severe or incurable diseases, and consequently unfit for all labor, are sent to the infirmary of the alms-house at Bruges, by an arrangement made with that institution. The reform school pays for their support and treats ment at the rate of 50 centimes (about 10 cents) a day each. 19. Moral training. The moral training has been the object of more paternal care, if possible, than 564 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. the physical. It has been supposed that the poor children sent to the reform ' school needed food for the soul, no less than for the body ; that it was designed not only to snatch them from misery, disease, and death, but to change their habits, to correct their vices, to teach them their duties, to relieve them of their almost hereditary degradation, and to elevate them in their own estimation, as well as in that of society. Notwithstanding the difficulties inseparable from an entirely new organization, and the embarrassments occasioned by building, from the first entrance of the first pupils they have been held under a strict but kindly supervision ; and up to this time there has occurred no act of insubordination of a nature seriously to interfere with the steady discipline of the establishment. 20. Successive admission of pupils. The successive admission of pupils, a few at a time, has contributed much to this result, by facilitating the work of the officers ; it has also resulted in the for- mation of a class in which the newly arrived pupils are enrolled. 21. Classification. The school is divided, at present, into 5 divisions of from 50 to 60 pupils each, arranged as much as possible according to age. There is an overseer to each division. Each division is separated into two sections ; over each section is a cap- tain (chef) and assistant, (sous-chef,) selected by the director from among such pupils as distinguish themselves for good conduct and industry. Each division has also a trumpet, (clairon.) 22. Exercises of the day. The division of time is so regulated as to occupy every moment of the pupils, to prevent fatigue by variety and frequent succession of exercises, and to prevent them from escaping supervision. It varies somewhat, according to the season ; and is at present arranged as follows, for summer and winter, Sundays and feast- days : 1. Summer. HOURS. HOURS. 5 Rise. I to 5.i Working hours. 5 to 5J Prayers, washing, (soins de pro- 4J " 5i Catechism for children not having pretre,) bed-making, roll-call. received their first communion. 5^ " 6J Exercise and maneuvres. 5J " 5J Supper. 6| " 6J Breakfast. 51 " 7i School instruction. 6| " 7 Arrangement of labor. 7i" SJ Gymnastics. 7 "11 Workina; hours. 8J" 9 Roll-call, reports. 11 "12 Singingclass, practice by the band, 9 Prayers, bed-time. (repetition pour la fanfare.) Saturday, 5 to 8, cleaning work- 12 " 12:J Dinner. shops, baths, &c. 12i " 1 Play. 2. W inter. HOURS. HOURS. 5 Rise, 1 to 2 Gymnastics and military exer- 5 to 5J Prayers, washing, &c., bed-mak- cises. ing, roll-call. 2 " ^ Working hours. 5| " 6J Singing class. 4i '• 5| Catechism for children not having 6J " 7 Breakfast. received their first communion. 7 " 7^ Arrangement of labor 5J " 6 Supper 7i " 12 Working hours. 6 " 8 School instruction. 11 " 12 Practice by the band, (rgpgtition pour la ianfare.) 8 " 8i Roll-call, report. 8i Prayer, bed time. Saturday, 1 to 4^, cleamng work- 12 " 12i Dinner. 124 " 1 Play. shops, baths, &c. 3. Sundays and feast-days all the year. 5 54 I' 8? 9] 11 12 13i to 5i " 7J Rise, prayer, washing, iiitr.< and carpenters 13 | 13. Strawplaiters, hat and basket 8. Blacksmiths and locksmiths, 8| weavers 40 9. Wheelwright's apprentices 2 14. Mending roads with gravel, break- 10 Coopers " 2 ing stone, 28—125 11. Machinist's " l| C— -Domestic service. 15. Baker's assistants, 2 16. Washernui 11 17. Oo(]ks and pickers, 12 18. Monitors of neatness, 15 19. Waiting on officers, 2 20. Cooking lor officers, 3 21. In Infirmary, 1 22. Acting as porter 1 23. Trumpeter on guard, 1— 24. Sick in infirmary, Total, 2 It will be seen that all the pupils are occupied, notwithstanding the winter • there is no want of work ; and if the number of arms were greater, it would not be difficult to use them. About sixty of the children are under 12 years old. These are employed in the easiest and least fatiguing work ; they plait straw and make hats for the whole school. The older and stronger are set at work requir- ing more strength and intelligence. But whenever weather permits, or an emer- gency demands, they all leave the workshops for the fields, where they render whatever assistance they are able. There are several advantages in this change of occupations ; the succession and variety satisfy the curiosity of the children, sustain their activity, and preserve them from the inevitable fatigue of monoto- nous and uniform labor; allow of consulting their preferences and aptitudes, and will have the general effect of giving them simultaneous practice in different occu- pations, which will be of assistance to them hereafter. 55. Inducements to labor ; absence of pay. The pupils receive no wages ; before being paid for their work, they should make up the expense of their maintenance, education, and apprenticeship. Be- sides, an alms chest has sufficed to supply the necessary outfits at their depar- ture. For pecuniary emolument have been substituted elevation to higher classes ; emulation ; moral encouragements ; praises bestowed upon industry and progress. The plan has perfectly succeeded. The pupils labor with gaiety and good will, and they do not even dream of money, which indeed they would not know what to do with while remaining in the establishment. 56. Condition of property at occupation ; extension of clearing and cultiva- tion ; kitchen-garden., nursery, and orchard. ■The agricultural operations have gone on as usual during the past year. At the occupation of the land, in the end of 1848, the fields presented a most de- plorable aspect. Neglected, exhausted, overgrown with weeds, and with couch- grass, which still persists in growing, in spite of care and repeated hoeings, they seemed to defy the most persevering eff"orts. During 1849, nevertheless, about 63 hectares (1 60 acres) were put under cultivation. In 1850, the clearing has been continued, and cultivation extended, in the whole, over about 98 liectares (245 acres.) A kitchen-garden has been laid out, occupying about 4| hectares AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OP RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 573 (10 acres,) arranged in the best manner; the walks are bordered with fruit trees, and it is surrounded with a hedge of gooseberry and raspberry bushes, and mul- berry trees. One side of the kitchen-garden is a small nursery of fruit, forest, and ornamental trees, intended to furnish material for plantations and for the instruc- tion of the pupils. For the same purpose there has been laid out an experimen- tal field, where grain and seeds of dift'erent sorts and of the best varieties are planted. Thus will be discovered those best adapted to the soil of the establish- ment, and whose cultivation will present most chances of success. The orchard was infected with an unhealthy blight ; and contained only a few mangy and withering apple trees. It has been renovated, and now serves for a pasture for young cattle. 57. Manure. (Method of procuring manure, during early part of farming operations.) 58. Rotation of crops. (Area in diftVrent crops ; rotation used.) 59. Lost harvest ; estimate of value of property. (Items of calculation in estimating totals of ^ming expenses.) 60. Agricultural accounts. (Reference to appendix for details.) 61. Balance of receipts and expenses. (Summary of expenses and returns from farming operations.) 62. Average product per hectare. (Names, quantities per hectare, and value of crops.) 63. Experiments in cultivation ; necessity of proportioning cultivated land to amount of labor and of required provisions. (Outline of experiments made ; need of enlarging cultivated area stated.) 64. Number of cattle. (Names and number of stock.) 65. Farm apparatus. (Names and number of vehicles and hnplemeuts.) 66. Inventory of provisions in store. (Value of provisions on hand.) 67. Revenue of property in 1848 and 1850, compared, (Condition of establishment, and revenue, at those dates.) 68. Medals received by the reform school at the agricultural exhibitions of Ghent and Bruges. Notwithstanding its recent organization, the reform school sent specimens of its productions to the exhibition opened at Ghent, September, 1849, where it received a silver medal for its flax, which was remarkably good. In 1850, at the agricul- tural exhibition of Bruges, it took seven new medals, besides the agricultural decoration of the second class, bestowed upon the head farmer. These remuner- ations compensated labor ; and the remembrance of them will not fail to stimulate the zeal and activity of both pupils and officers. 69. During the three years, 1848, 49, and 50, there have been made to the school appropriations amounting in all to 602,500 francs (120,500 dollars,) as follows: Francs. Dollars. 1848, 4,000 = 800 1848, 171,500 = 34.300 1849, 195,000 = 39,000 1850, 232,000 = 46,400 Total, 602,500 = 120,500 70. Summary and classification of expenses. Preparation, maintenance, clearing, building, &c., $2,900.00 Price of property ; building, &c., 61,936.77 Agricultural expenses, 4,780.07 Workshop expenses, 18.61 Salaries and paid wages, 4,464.55 Total. 74,100.00 27,656.90 6,170.08 485.96 12,087.06 46,400.00 $2,900.00 89,593.66 10,950.16 504.57 16,551.61 120,500.00 5*74 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 71. Receipts. During the last two years, the receipts of the establishment have amounted to 118,152 francs, 25 cents. (.$23,630.45 ;) of which $11,210.67 has been paid into the trea.sury for board of pupils and from sales of produce, and $12,419.77 were in kind, bein^ value of produce raised and consumed in the establishment. 72. General financial results. The result of the financial summary, omitting the expenditures for farming and for workshops, which are more than balanced by existing values of property, cat- tle, machinery, tools, raw material, and provisions in store, is as follows : 1. There has been expended from the sum of 600,000 francs, ($120,000,) ap- propriated to the reform school by the law of April 3, 1848, 447,968 fr., 34 cts., ($89,593.67,) in the organization of the school for boys. 2. There therefore remains, available for establishing the school for girls, 152,032 fr., ($30,406.40.) 3. The expense of management and support of the boys' school for 1849 and 1850, was 82,758 fr., ($16,551.60.) The number of days' maintenance of pupils for the same time, vvas 89,508 ; the average expense per day was therefore 90 centimes, (18 cents.) But in this estimate are included the expenses of furniture, (fcc, bedding and clothes for 500 children ; which are in fact advances, not prop- erly charged to the account of ordinary expenses for the two seasons for which the estimate is made. After deducting these extraordinary expenses from the ex- penditure for 1850, as well as personal expenses carried to the farming account, the actual expense for the year, of the boys' school is as follows : Francs, c. Dollars. 1. Board of officers, 9,483.32 = 1,896.66 2. Other housekeeping expenses of officers, ... . 6,172.81 = 1,034.56 3. Sleeping expenses of officers, 177.00 = 35.40 4. Uniforms of overseers, 119. 06 == 23.81 5. Board of pupils, 13,676.65 = 2,735.33 6. Wardrobes of pupils, 2,025.00 = 405.00 7. Sleeping expenses of pupils, 640.00 = 128.00 8. Heating of establishment, 287.21 = 57.44 9. Lights for establishment, 1,403.76 ^ 280.75 10. Apparatus for personal neatness, 198.59 = 39.72 11. Wa.shing, 651.74 = 130.35 12. Office expenses, 188.77 = 37.75 13. School expenses, 731.60 = 146.32 14. Religious expenses, 200.40 = 40.08 15. Infirmary expenses, 48.94 = 9.78 Total, 35,004.85 = 7,000.97 The number of days' maintenance being 62,462, there follows : fr. c, $. cts. Dailly expense per head for board, 0.21.89 = 0.04.38 " " « " other .0.34.15 = 0.06.83 Giving daily expense of support, 0.56.04 = 0.1 1.21 The expense of board and maintenance of the officers may be stated as follows j francs, o. Dollars. 1. Board, 4,560.88 = 912.17 2. Cook's wages, 206.50 = 41.30 3. Washing, 355.59 = 71.12 4. Fuel for cooking, 49.84 = 9.97 Total, 5.172.81 =■ 1.034.56 Number of days' maintenance, including cook's, 4,667 ; consequently, Fr. c. $. cu. Daily expense of board, per head, 0.97.72 = 0.19.54 " " other " " 0.10.56 = 0.02.11 Whole daily expense of board and housekeeping, . 1.08.28 = 0.21.65 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUVSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 5^5 Lastly, the farm household has cost as follows : Francs, c. Dollars, cu. 1. Board, 2,424.19 = 484.84 2. Lights, 70.00 = 14.00 3. Heating, 35.00 = 7.00 4. Washing, 246.18 = 49.23 5. Clothing for laborers, 27.36 = 5.47 Total, 2,802.73 = 560.54 The number of days' maintenance is 3,301 5 consequently, Fr. c. $. CIS. Daily expense per head, of board, 0.73.43 = 0.14.69 " " " « " other, 0.11.47 ^ 0.02.29 Daily expenses per head, of all, 0.84.90 = 0.16.98 If it has been possible, dm-ing 1850, to reduce the daily expense each of the pupils to 56 centimes (11 cts.,) it may be hoped that this rate will be reduced yet more when the school shall be enlarged to its full extent, and when the general expenses of officers and government shall be apportioned upon a greater number. The high rate of expenses for the former years resulted from the necessity of buying in market or in trade the greater portion of the provisions, fodder, and manure, used in the establishment. The production of these articles will not be upon its true economic footing, until the school shall provide for all its essential needs from the produce of its own cultivation and its own workshops. To accom- plish this purpose, we repeat, that it is indispensable to put at least 200 hectares, (500 acres) under cultivation ; that is, at the rate of one hectare (2-| acres) to five souls, of a total population of about 1,000. It will otherwise be difficult or im- possible to reduce the expenses to the amount to be paid by the communes, and much more to 20 or 25 centimes (4 or 5 cts.) a day, as desired. 73. Expenses for 1851. 74. Estimate for 1S52. 75. Erection of school for girls. 76. Filling of complement of hoys'' school. 77. Insufficiency of the school, necessity of an auxiliary establishment. According to the statements of the alms-houses, the number of boys from 6 to 18 years old, in those establishments, January 1, 1848, had arisen to 542. Since that time there has been a slight decrease, but there are now nearly 500, includ- ing the young beggars who have been transferred from the alms-houses of Bruges and Cambre to Ruysselede. Besides, this last institution is destined to receive certain classes of children who have not heretofore been sent to the alms-houses. If now we consider that the period of remaining at Ruysselede is longer than that usually passed in the alms-houses, it is evident that the reform school is altogether incompetent to receive all that class of population for whom it was intended. Hence the necessity of attaching to the school at Ruysselede an auxiliary school capable of containing from 100 to 150 children. The reason of recommending such a subordinate school is the considerable expense necessary for a new sepa- rate establishment ; while an auxiliary school, like the detached farms at Mettray, would cause only comparatively a small one. This auxiliary, situated as near as possible to the principal school, would be under the same government with it. It would be sufficient to erect upon the farm leased or bought, a building large enough for sleeping-room, sitting-room, refectory and school-room, with two or three apartments for the overseers. The housekeeping could be done at the farm-house. In matters of religion, the pupils might be associated with the people of the village. Perhaps an an'angement could be made with the village schoolmaster to give a daily lesson. Before being sent to the branch school, the pupils should stay long enough at the central school to acquire the necessary discipline and education. Every Sunday, if the distance be not too great, they might go to that establish- ment, and engage in the ordinary exercises there. This arrangement is evidently as simple as economical. Under good direction, with land enough (60 to 80 hectares— 150 to 200 acres,) the auxiliary school, in- stead of causing extra expense, would cause an actual saving to the principal Bchool. 5*76 AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 78. Conclusion. To judge of the reform school at Ruysselede, and to appreciate the results ob- tained there up to this time, it is necessary not to lose sight of the date of its es- tablishment, and the short time since the entrance of the first pupils. Its experi- ence is hardly begun ; the foundations are laid, but they are yet to be submitted to the test of daily practice. If the expectations of government have hitherto been realized and even surpassed, in some respects, this result must chiefly be attributed to the devotion and zeal of the committee, the director, of the officers generally ; but it is far from this point to definitive success ; and to attain this v^'ithout miscarjiage, requires a steady perseverance which nothing can discourage, and the firm resolve to overcome the difficulties and obstacles which can not fail to present themselves. When the agricultural department shall be on a thorough footing, it will be proper to extend and perfect it so as to bring the amount of production up to the demands of the population. The stable, the dairy, the piggery, the poultry-yard, should furnish regular profits. The inexperience of the young beggars w^ho had never handled a tool before in their lives, their idleness, which great pains were necessary to overcome, their vicious and enfeebled constitutions which had to be built up, were so many obstacles which must be taken into account. But now that these embarrassments are in great part removed, that the school and the farm have a definite organization, that the pupils have acquired, with the habit of dis- cipline, a degree of strength and skill, undoubtedly the attention of the authorities can be more particularly directed to financial matterSj and can take cognizance of many details hitherto necessarily neglected. The workshops in process of organization will also help to lessen the expense of the establishment. The combination of mechanical and agricultural labor will afford opportunity to vary occupation and to distribute them accordingly to the fitness and future intei-ests of the pupils. Each of these should learn at least one trade completely, and the rotative method at present introduced in the farm-work is accommodated to this design of the apprenticeships. The department of insti'uction should be completed. The children should do no work without having it explained to them. A purely mechanical and entirely uniform occupation brutifies the workman, while varied and intelligent labor in- creases his power and elevates his mind. Already, during the past spring, the head gardener has held classes at which he has explained to the pupils under his charge the theory of the operations which they are called to practice in the ground ; these might be arranged likewise for other departments of labor. There will be also a permanent course of linear di'awing, for the benefit of carpenters, lock- smiths, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, &c. All the pupils will be taught the funda- mental rules of arithmetic ; which will enable them to make the calculations con- nected with their work, and to keep the simple accounts required in it. After providing for present exigencies, it is necessary to care for those of the future. The extension of assistance to the pupils at leaving the reform school, may be very advantageously used in prescribing certain conditions of apprentice- ship or hire. Among these conditions will be a stipulation for the sending back to the school, in certain cases of pupils guilty of misconduct, or not possessing the qualifications requisite for the business they have undertaken. This arrangement will have the double advantage of facilitating the finding of places, and of preserv- ing over the pupils, after their dismission, a guardianship, the want of which is now felt as a defect. It will also be proper that the authorities of the school should have the privilege of putting out the children, on proper occasions, without waiting for the prescribed time of dismission, as well as that of prolonging their stay, when there is no opportunity of finding places for them. Later, when the reform school shall have come into complete operation, and shall have been fully developed, the means may be sought of favoring the emigration of those pupils who are not bound to their country by family ties, and who may find abroad, means of occupation and of success in life unattainable in Belgium. To this class belong foundlings, abandoned children, orphans, children of those condemned to infamous punishments, &c. But it should be clearly understood that the patron- age and protection of government will follow these young emigrants to their new country, and that a return is always open to them if their hopes abroad should fail. The reform school will thus become a sort of nursery of material for colonization, AGRICULTURAL REFORM SCHOOL OF RUYSSELEDE, BELGIUM. 511 both at home and abroad. Thus prepared, pursued by young and vigorous men, animated with a lol'ty sentiment of devotion, the work of colonization, which would surely fail if intrusted to a few miserable artizans, men generally weakened by privations, idleness and vice, would, we are confident, be crowned with full success. The pupils sent from our preparatory schools would accomplisli a mission analo- gous to that of the hardy pioneers who patiently laid the foundations of the gran- deur of the United States, by opening to the population which followed in their footsteps abundant sources of labor and of gain. One of the greatest difficulties in tlie organization of reform schools is undoubt- edly the finding of capable and devoted officers, willing to associate in the reform undertaken by government. To overcome this difficulty it has already been con- templated, as has been mentioned above, to estiiblish at Ruysselede a school of foremen and overseers, like the institutes of Mettray and of Horn, and the nor- mal schools of Switzerland. Economical consideration caused the postponement of this plan, which however might sliortly be resumed by the help of the advanta- ges of this institution, \yithout additional expense. The captains and assistants of sections, and the monitors of the workshops and schools, already form a sort of preparatory class of all necessary classes of officers ; whose members might be employed not only at Ruysselede, but also at any auxiliary or similar establish- ments hereafter to be created. To assist and encourage this arrangement, the most capable and deserving members of this class might be admitted to attend the course of instruction in the normal schools, or in the agricultural, arboricultural, or horticultural schools recently erected under the patronage and with the assis- tance of government. This would prove a valuable stimulant and reward of emu- lation, and one from wliich the reform school would reap a rich return. This object, held out to legitimate ambition, would be the crowning feature of the sys- tem which we are seeking to apply ; a system which aims at the reformation and reinstatement in society of the numerous population of young pariahs who have scarcely any other prospect in life than an alms-house, a prison, or an early death. The arrangement for prolonging the stay of the children in the reform schools will not only tend to insure their reformation, but will also secure the return, by their labor, of part at least of the expenses of their education and apprenticeship. Its result will be that these expenses will be strictly limited within the amount of the public appropriations. We have already seen that in 1852, the finances of the school had been established upon a footing so economical as to require the ad- ministration of the institution to use its own income to cover its expenses. If, as we hope, this requirement has been satisfied, the economical problem of the es- tablishment of reform schools may be considered solved. Henceforward these in- stitutions may be established upon a satisfactorily stable foundation, and there need be no hesitation in aUowing them all the development of which they are capable. 3V REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM JUVENILE CRIMINALS, AT RED HILL, NEAR REIGATE. The Reformatory School and Farm, at Red Hill, near Reigate, in the county of Surrey, was established in 1849, by the Philanthropic So- ciety, the oldest association in England, and one of the earliest of its class m Europe, having been founded at London in 1788, to provide a refuge, and the means of industrial, moral, and intellectual instruction for juvenile criminals, and the destitute offspring of convicted felons. The first step taken by the society was to collect in a hired house, in the neighborhood of London, known as St. George's Fields, some dozen chil- dren, under a master-workman and his wife, whose duty it was to over- seer their labor in some simple branch of handicraft industry. Gradu- ally the plan was enlarged so as to embrace three houses, under the charge of a master^workman — one devoted to shoemaking, the second to tailoring, and the third to carpentry, until the whole was merged into one great establishment, surrounded by a high wall, with a chapel, resi- dences for tiie officers, and workshops for tailors, shoemakers, brush^ makers, basket-makers, printers, carpenters, &c. The destitute and criminal youth — at first of both sexes, but afterwards the girls were ex- cluded — were here received and instructed in some useful trade, as well as in the elementary branches of education, and then bound out as ap- prentices to master-workmen in the city. The institution, by its meas- ure of success, demonstrated the practicability of making a favorable change in the personal, industrial, and moral habits of neglected and criminal children, but it did not adopt from time to time modifications of its system, and especially, did not supply the deficiencies of family discipline and influence, in which the worst habits of this class of children have their origin. As the population of the city spread to and around the premises, its location became unhealthy, and objectionable on other grounds. In 1846, Mr. Sidney Turner, now the resident chaplain, and mana- ger, came into the active management of the institution, and gradually effected a change in its plan of operation. In company with Mr. Paynter, a police magistrate, and Mr. William Gladstone, the treasurer of the society, he visited the Mettray colony near Tours, as well as other industrial schools on the same general model ; and on their return, a plan was devised for a reformatory school, in which farm-labor should be the principal, and the trades and handicrafts the secondary occupations of the inmates. After some difficulty in procuring an eligible situation, an estate of about 140 acres, known as the Red Hill farm, near Reigate, in REFORM SCHOOL ANP FARM. AT RED HILL 579 the county of Surrey, on the Brighton Railway, was obtained on a lease of 150 years, with the privilege of purchase at any time, on speci- fied terms. Buildings werfe erected for a dwelling-house for the director. a farm-house and appurtenances, a chapel, school-room, and two lodg- ing houses, each capable of accommodating fifty-six children and their overseers. The school at Red Hill was commenced in April, 1849, by the admis- sion of three lads ; and in the course of two months of fifteen more, mostly above fourteen years of age, and from country districts. At the close of the year there had been admitted sixty-five boys, including those which were at the institution in London. The following sketch of a visit to Red Hill within a year after it was opened, which was originally pub- lished in Chambers' Journal, will throw light on the organization and practical working of the institution. On alighting at the Red Hill station, we were received by a neat young groom, who drove us in a small vehicle, very carefully and well, over a mile and a-half of rougliish road to the chaplain's residence, into which we were politely ushered by another youth, who announced us to our host. '• Surely," I said when that gentleman arrived, " neither of those lads were ever convicts ?" " Yes," was the reply ; " one was convicted once — the other, who is from Park- hurst, twice ; but they are both so thoroughly reformed, that we trust them as fully as we do any of our other servants — some times with money to pa\' small bills." On advancing to a sort of balcony to look around, we found ourselves on the top of one of that low range of eminences known as the Surrey Hills, with, if not an extensive, a cheerful and picturesque landscape to look upon. Immediately to the left stood a pretty group of buildings, comprising the chapel, a school-7-oom, and two houses, each to contain sixty boys ; the foundation-stone of the first hav- ing been laid by Prince Albert no longer ago than the 30th of April. These un- pretending but tasteful Gothic edifices, relieved, as they were, by a back-gi-ound of thick foliage, which stretched away at intervals to the boundaries of the estate, gave a sylvan, old-English character to the scene, vi'hieh will doubtless be en- deared to the memory of many an emigrant when laboring out his niission in the Antipodes. In front, in a dell, beyond a cuttiner through which the South- Eastern Railway passes, and half-hidden by tall trees, the farm-house in which the boys, now on the farm, are accommodated, partially revealed itself; while beyond, a cottage, in which the bailiff of the estate lives, was more plainly seen. Dotted about the farm — of which our terraced point of view afforded a perfect supervision — were groups of juvenile laborers steadily plying their tasks. One small part}' were grubbing a hedge, their captain or monitor constructing a fire- heap of the refuse ; a detachment of two was setting up a gate, under the direc- tion of a carpenter ; a third group was digging a field of what we afterwards found to be extremely hard clay ; and a fourth was wheeling manure. We could also see flitting to and fro, immediately about the farm-house and offices, several small figures, employed in those little odd jobs that the *" minding " of poultrj', the feeding of pigs, the grooming of horses, and the stalling of oxen, entail upon the denizens of a farm-steading. The systematic activity which pervaded the whole estate, and the good order in which every thing appeared, bespoke rather an old-- established than a recently-entered farm. Having been gratified with this scene, we descended, under the guidance of our reverend host, to take a nearer view of the operations. On our way, he informed us that the extent of the farm is no more than 140 acres; but that, small as it is, he hoped, with some additions readily obtainable, that as many as 500 boys would be eventually trained upon it. It appears to have been admirably chosen for the purpose. These acr.es include every variety of soil, from light sand to the stifFest of clay, the generality of it consisting of ferruginous marl, the color of which o80 REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL. doubtless gave the name to the hill over which it is chiefly spread. The more stubborn part of the estate will not only supply what is chiefly required — labor — but will also be th^^ means of instructing the pupils in the proper method of culti- vating consolidated soils ; while tlu modes of dealing with lighter land will be exemplified in the more f.iible sandy earths. While approaching the nearest knot of young laborers, it happened that the recollection of a visit I had paid some years ago to the town-house of the society arose vividly in my mind. I rememb.'red well, that although generally heathy, some of the boys seemed pale, and when you addressed them, answered furtively, and did not look straight into your face. But the ruddy, smiling countenance which was now turned up to return the pastor's greeting, formed a striking con- trast to what I had noticed on the previous occasion. It beamed with health and pleasure : the first due to a free life in the country, changed from a pent-up ex- istence in town; and the latter to the aftable kindness of his treatment. The boy was '' puddling'' (ramming earth round the foundation of) a gate-post, and replied to certain suggestions respecting his mode of doing his task in a frank, fearless, but perfectly respectful manner. We passed on to the hedge-grubbing. Th.s is hard work, and the boys were plying away manfully. Will lent force to every stroke of the pick, and every incision of the ax. The moment the director came in sight, a smile rose to every face. A large, spreading, obstinate root was giving a couple of the young grubbers a vast deal of trouble, and the superior, supposing the boys were not going about their task in the best manner, suggested an altera- tion in their plan. It was pleasing to see, instead of a servile or a dogged acqui- escence in this hint, that the elder lad at once gave his reasons for the mode he had chosen for unearthing the root. A short argument ensued between the mas- ter and pupil, which ended in the decision that the latter was right. This showed the terms on which these two individuals — who might be described as antipodes in station, in morals, and in intellect^ — stood towards each other. The law of kindness (the only code practiced here) had brought both into perfect rapport. No restraint existed, exc'pt that imposed by pi'opriety and respect. The monitor or captain of this group was also " drawn out" by oui' cicerone to explain the means by which he kept up ventilation in the burning heap which he was repkn- ishing with refuse. This he did not manage very scientifically, but in a manner which showed he thoroughly understood the principles of combustion, and that his mind, as well as his hands, were engaged in the task. At Red Hill free intercourse is cultivated and courted. No discipline is en- forced which involves punishment so severe as to be much dreaded, and not the slightest restraint upon personal liberty is imposed. Any boy is free to leave the farm if he chooses to make his escape ; there is neither wall, nor bolt, nor bar to hinder him. Five instances only of desertion have occurred since the school has been in actual operation. Of these misguided youths, who were all of the young- est class of inmates, three have i-etui-ned of their own accord, begging to be again admitted ; two others were sent back by their friends, the desire of seeing whom was the motive of their elopement. Although the labor is severe, the clerical chief has managed to instill into those under his charge a patient endurance, if not a love of it, and a tolerance of the restraints it imposes, far superior to the templat ons of the miserable lawless liberty of their previous careei' of crime. It shoull, however, be remarked, that the lads in the Farm School have all suffered for th 'ir ofF>ns:;s, by imprisonment, or some other penalty, b.-fore their admission to it, and come mostly as volunteers under the impulse of repentance, and a de- sire to do better for themselves. The " colons" of Mettray, on the contrary, are all " detenus" — are literally convicts still under the sentence and restraint of law. " Those boys whom we have left," I remarked, " are possibly the best-disposed m the school, and never were deeply dyed in crime ?" " On the contrary," was the reply, " among them are youths who have not only been frequently convicted and imprisoned for felonies, but were, before coming here, hab tually addicted to faults which the laws do not punish. They seldom spoke without an imprecation, were frequently intoxicated, and were guilty of other vices, which one would imagine their youth precluded them from indulging in. Yet you now find them expressing themselves with propriety, and conduct- ing themselves quite as well as most of the farm-boys in this parish." At the extremity of the estate, beyond the bailiff's house, was a party of REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL. ggl younger boys digging a field of obstinate clay nearly as hard as unbaked brick. The superintendent, who directed their operations, gave them a good character for perseverance, and added, that he was some times surprised at the aptitude displayed by the boys wlien farm-tools were first put into their hands. Although their previous mode»of life proved they could never before have been used to delving, draining, trimming hedgerows, etc., yet the intelligence many of them displayed when set about such work for the first time caused their instructor — whose former experience had lain among country parish apprentices — to marvel greatly. The truth is, the schemes and contrivances — criminal though they were — in which these lads were forced to engage to relieve the miseries of their old mode of life, have a tendency to sharpen their wits and brighten their intel- lects. As the most hardened metal takes the highest polish, so these youths, when thoroughly reformed and trained, are most often the brightest workmen. To each their benignant pastor gave a kind word, even if it were one expres- sive of disapprobation for some fault ; of which he pointed out the evil consequen- ces with such plain and convincing reasoning, that the delinquent expressed con- trition either in words or by a more expressive, because more spontaneous, look. He had manifestly tried to study each character, and adapted his alignments to suit its peculiarities, using such means of cure as were most efficacious for the special moral diseases under which the patient happened to labor. In this lies the true secret of all reformatory efforts undertaken for the j'oung. As in medicine, so in morals nuieh depends upon adapting the remedies to the character and kind of disease. To bring every sort of mental obliquity under one mode of treatment, or one set of rules, is as irrational as if a physician were to treat his patients in classes, and administer to each class the same physic. Noth- ing can be more plain, than that, to cure immorality, the moral sentiments must be addressed ; and this is impossible, or at most ineffectual, where the peculiari- ties of each moral ailment is not studied, and where any system of general routine is followed. Conversing on this topic, we arrived at the farm-house, where we saw the scholars engaged in a variety of home duties — from baking and storing bread to mending stockings, in which useful avocation we detected two juniors in an out- house. In the evening, at six, the boys were assembled in the school-room for instruc- tion and prayers. An additional interest was occasioned by the circumstance of the resident chaplain having only the day before returned from a second visit to Mettray. After a prayer, and the reading and exposition of an appropriate chapter from the Testament, he gave the assembly an account of what he had seen, and read the answer to an address he had taken over to the Mettray boys from them- selves, which we translate as follows : " The Boys of the Agricultural Colony at Mettray to the youths of the Philanthropic Farm-School. " Dear Friends and Brothers in the Lord : Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Turner, your respected directors, have come to visit our colony, and we can hardly tell you how much pleasure we felt when Mr. Gladstone, after speaking to us about the farm-school, read to us your address. "Thanks, dear friends, for this generous impulse of your hearts. You have well understood our feelings. Yes, we are — we shall always be — your brothers. The same love, of what is good animates us both. '' Tears of joy and thankfulness glistened in our eyes as we heard your kind wishes for us; and our honored and excellent directors, the Viscount de Cour- teilles and M. Demetz, have been equally moved by them. Your sentiments are indeed noble and Christiali. " Dear brothers, we all owe much to God, who has directed the honored friends by whom both we and you are superintended. Do you pray — let us pray — for the founders of both our schools. Let us pray for their happiness, and for the welfare of the asylums which they have opened. When you kneel down each night before God, think of us in France, who, on our part, will add to our peti- tions a prayer for you in England. " Like us, you say you have erred — you have known trouble. But like us, too, you have resolved to have done with your past life of disorder. You will suooeed 582 REFORM SCHOOL AND FARM, AT RED HILL in this, dear friends, for the providence of God has sent you enlightened and Christian friends. You have found in Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Turner what we have found in our worthy founders and directors. Let us follow their lessons. So shall we march among the foremost in the path of honor and virtue in which they lead us. • " Dear friends, we form this day an affectionate alliance with you— one that shall last. The ring which our directors send will be the substantial symbol of this union of our hearts with yours. You will see these words engraved on it, ' God, honor, union, recollection'— words which are our motto. Let them be also yours. Let us be grateful. Let us join together in strife against what is evil. Let us support one another in what is good. Let us love each other to the end. '• Dear friends and brothers, health and happiness to you all. (Signed by the elder brothers and monitors,) '' Lanos, Bellonet, Angey, Mauchin, Guy, Josset. Mari, Collot, Souvigne, Hebert, Chevalier." This was, the bearers of it were assured, the veritable composition of the sub- scribing boys. It was read on this occasion amidst the most profound attention. When the assembly broke up, the lads separated to their play-ground in an or- derly manner. The young groom, however, departed for the sUible to prepare the vehicle for our departure ; for our most interesting visit was nearly over. In a parting conversation with the resident chaplain, he told us that thirty-six reformed boys had already been sent to Algoa Bay ; and that, despite the storm of disaft'ection raised in Cape Colony against the introduction of convicts, the lads were well received. They had scarcely stepped on shore, before every one of them was engaged, and the accounts since received of them were highly favor- able. Although the important results which will assuredly flow from this experiment can only be carried out by the extension of its plans, yet large numbers of pupils in such estiiblishments would, for the reasons we have given, be an evil. Cen- tralization and generalization would be as inevitable as they are much to be dreaded. To do any good, the mind of each boy must be influenced separately; and in a large school, this would be impossible for one superintendent to accom- plish. The Philanthropic School is now within manageable bounds, and the chap- lain knows each lad almost as intimately as he does his own children ; but when the establishment is extended to 500 pupils, as is contemplated, much of his influ- ence over individuals will cease. To obviate this, it is intended to make each " family" consist of sixty individuals, guided by a master (with an assistant) and his wife. The softening restraint instinctively imposed by the mere presence of a woman — setting aside her higher influences — will be most beneficial. Much — all, we may venture to say — will, however, depend upon the taet, temper, de- meanor, and patience of these most important functionaries. It is here, indeed, that the point of diflnculty in etFecting the reformation of vicious habits and im- pulses in the young presents itself Jf early all reformatory systems have failed from the unskilfulness, from the want of long-suftering forbearance, and of prompt but kindly firmness, on the part of those to whom the task of reformation has been confided. It is the possession of these qualities by the reverend principal, in an eminent degree, which has brought about the pleasing state of things we have described at the Red Hill Farm, and we look with some anxiety to the time when, notwithstanding his general supervision, the smallest of his functions will have to be delegated. As we arrived at the Red Hill railway station for our return journey some time before the train stai'ted, we employed the interval in making inquiries as to the character the Philanthropic boys bore among their neighbors, who, we were pre- viously informed, had at first looked upon the new colony with dread.* Every account we received was, we are happy to find, favorable : the ex-criminals had not occasioned a single complaint. * A bargain bad nearly been concluded at one time for a farm to the north of the metropo- lis ; but so ^reat was the horror of the contiguous gentry, that one of them actually presented the society with a donation ot JEIOOO, on condition that the scene of reformatory operations should be removed ; and accordingly it was shifted to Surrey. BELGIUM. In the educational history of Belgium, the advocates of the right and duty of the Stale to interpose its authority to aid parents, neighbor-* hoods, and municipal bodies in establishing schools of different grades, and subjecting them to constant, vigilant, and intelligent supervision, and thus protecting itself against incompetent teachers and the conse- quences of parental and municipal neglect, can find abundant, if not wholly conclusive arguments against the claims of the church on the one hand, and of the unabridged and unaided liberty of parents in the educa- tion of children on the other. Certain it is, that at no period of the his- tory of Belgium, has education been made at once so comprehensive and universal as while under governmental organization and inspection. During the undisputed supremacy of the Catholic church — and no coun- try in Europe has remained so firm to its traditional faith and the authority of the church of Rome — while itf njoyed the advantages which result from the doctrine and example of a learned and pious clergy, and from numerous monastic and other religious institutions — there was a large body of the people uninstructed. On the union of the territory which now constitutes the kingdom of Belgium, with Holland, under the designation of the kingdom of the Netherlands, the king undertook to e^rtend over it the system of public education which was commenced in Holland under the auspices of the '• Society for the Public GoocV in 1784, and adopted by the government in 1806, and which had re- sulted in diffusing over the whole country a high degree of popular intelligence. The new system of public schools began to operate in the Belgic pro- vinces in 1817, when a Normal school was established at Liege, and during the twelve years from that time to 1829, the progress and quality of popular education was greater than at any former period, and greater than in the twelve years following, during which the system was broken up, and the church and the voluntary system again prevailed. The number of children who attended the elementary schools in the winter of 1817, was 152,898; and in the winter of 1828, they amounted to 247.496, being an increase of 94,589. In 1817 the salaries paid by the govern- ment to teachers in the rural communes, was 157,580 francs; in 1828, 488,150 francs, showing an increase of 330,570 francs During this 5g4 PUBLIC maxRUCTioN in Belgium. period, 1,146 school-rooms, and 668 houses for teachers were erected, or thoroughly repaired and fitted up. Well organized schools, under coni- petent teachers, were established in nearly every commune, and the whole were subjected to a vigilant and intelligent inspection, and im- provement was rapidly and universally extending. Antiquated and awkward routine was replaced by rational and pleasing methods of teach- ing; uniformity of class-books was introduced; normal classes and associations of teachers were established for the professional training of all who applied to teach in the popular schools ; in short, the whole plan of proceeding was regular, thorough, and responsible, through a system of inspection, examination, reports, and full publicity. The popularity of the system of elementary schools was destroyed by the efforts of the government to control the institutions of secondary and superior education, and especially by the measures adopted to enforce a Protestant influence from Holland into institutions supported by the Catholics, who constituted a large majority of these provinces. In 1816 the king issued a decree for the organization of the upper branches of public instruction. By this decree three universities were created — at Louvain, at Ghent, and. Liege — each to possess the five faculties, of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, mathematical and phys- ical sciences, philosophy and letters. In 1822, an edict was published forbidding all persons to exercise the functions of schoolmaster in the higher branches of education who had not been authorized by the central board of instruction ; and by a decree of 1822, this edict was extended to all associations, civil and religious, and all persons were forbidden to take vows in any religious fraternity, without permission of the government. In 1825 all independent schools and seminaries were suppressed, and a philosophical college was established at Louvain, in which all who were destined for the ecclesiastical state were required to pass two years in study as a necessary condition for admission into any episcopal seminary. This movement was followed by a loud demand for liberty of instruc- tion, of the press, and of worship on the part of the Catholics, and finally a concordat was concluded with the court of Rome and the government of Holland, in virtue of which the episcopal theological seminaries were again opened, and the bishops left at liberty to provide at their own dis- cretion for the instruction of the pupils. In 1830 the Nassau dynasty was banished from Belgium, and a con- stitutional monarchy was formed, under which the equal liberty of all creeds and religious communities was guarranteed, and the entire lib- erty of instruction proclaimed. The practical adoption of this principal was productive of great im- mediate injury to primary education. The best schools in all the large cities, which had grown up under the fostering care of the government, and the stimulus of constant and intelligent inspection, and the exclusion of incompetent teachers, were broken up. and their places supplied by a PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 585 large number of private and parochial schools, too small in the attend- ance of pupils to admit of a thorough system of classification as to age and proficiency, and too limited in resources to command the services of well qualified teachers. The societies of teachers and friends of ed- ucation which had sprung up for the encouragement and improvement of the profession, and for the production and use of good books, were discontinued, and a period of public apathy succeeded, in which broken down tradesmen, and men who had proved their unfitness for otlier work requiring activity and culture of mind, found employment as teachers, and especially in sciiools where there was no longer any or- ganization enforced by the local authorities as a test of qualificattSn for the business of instruction. '' In ten years," said one of the most intelli- gent school officers in Brussels in 1840, "education has gone back in this country one hundred years." ''The contrast between Holland, as it now is, and Belgium, in educational matters is striking " remarks an intelligent traveller in 1842. "Nothing can be more deplorable than the mockery of education, which the people in the rural districts are sat- isfied to let teachers, or those who profess to be teachers, practice." So rapidly was Belgium sinking below its former position, and in the scale of European nations, in the condition of popular education, ihat the attention of government was arrested, and the well-directed eflbrts of individuals were enlisted to apply the remedy. The public mind was used by a series of popular tracts '"on the condition of primary instruction and the necessity of improvement," from the pen of M. Ducpetiau.x, who also published in 1838 an elaborate work on primary instruction in which the schools of Belgium were contrasted with those of Prussia, Saxony, Holland, France, and Switzerland. A course of normal instruction was provided in connection with a private seminary of M. Vandermaelon in 1839, and societies of teachers were again formed to assist in establishing a system of public schools. So thoroughly were a portion of the Cath- olic bishops satisfieil that the contest which had arisen between the ultra liberal and the ultra church party — the one excluding all religious instruction and all clerical officials from the schools, and the other not only making religion an element in family and school education, but making every teacher an ecclesiastic, and subjecting the schools entirely to clerical inspection and control as a part of the organization of the church, was highly detrimental both to the cause of religion and edu- cation — that in 1842 tiiey gave in their adhesion to an orgatiic law, which, while it secures to the whole people a sound secular education, provides for religious instruction, and guarrantees to the clergy a high degree of Influence in the schools. The system of public instruction in Belgium embraces, 1. Primary schools, including day schools for children of the usual school age in other countries, infant schools or asylums, and Sunday schools and evening classes for adults, whose early instruction has been neglected. , 2. Superior primary or high schools in all the large towns. 586 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 3. Secondary or intermediate schools, called athenaea, preparatory to the university. 4. Normal schools, to qualify teachers both for elementary and second- ary schools. 5. Superior schools or universities, with faculties, of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. 6. Special schools for industrial education, and particular classes. 1. Primary Instruction. The system of primary instruction established in 1842, embraces three classes of schools — primary, superior, and normal. Every commune (the smallest territorial and civil subdivision of the State) must have at least one public elementary school, unless the instruction of all the children is provided for to the satisfaction of the government, in private endowed, or denominational schools. These schools^must be free to the poor, and can be made free to all, by vote of the communal council. The studies in the primary or elementary school, includes religion and morals, reading, writing, the scheme of weights and measures as defined by law, the elements of arithmetic, geography, and the French, German, or Flemish language, according to the locality of the school. Instruction in religion and morality is placed under the direction of min- isters of the sect to which the majority of the pupils belong. Children belonging to other communions need not attend during such instruction if their parents object. The schools are establi.shed and managed by the communal council, or administrative authorities of the villages and cities, subject to the supervision of the government, through cantonal and provincial in.^ spectors. An inspector is appointed by the king, through the minister of public instruction for each canton or judicial district, on the nomination of the provincial council, whose duty it is to visit at least twice in every year all the schools in the district, and furnish a detailed account of them to the provincial inspector. The cantonal inspector holds his office for three years, and is paid a per diem sum for his services. He must keep a regular journal of his visits, in which he must enter the results of his observation. He must also hold a conference of all the teachers in his district once in three months, for examination and discussion of their methods of teaching, and text-books used. An inspector is also appointed for each of the nine provinces, whose duty it is to visit all the schools of the province once in the year, preside at the c*antonal conferences of teachers, make an abstract of the journal or register of the cantonal inspectors, and submit a complete report of the condition of primary instruction in the province to the minister of the interior at Brussels. The provincial inspectors assemble once a year as a central commission, under the presidency of the minister of the department. The teachers must be chosen from among candidates, who have for PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 587 two years at least, and with approval, pursued the studies of a normal school, either of the State or, ii" private, of one that has submitted to the inspection provided for in the law. Every teacher must receive a cer- tificate of quahfication from a board consisting of a lay and clerical member, the former appointed by the State, and the latter by the eccle- siastical authorities. He may be dismissed by the provincial inspector on consultation with the communal council. The cost of the primary schools is borne by the communes, and in- cluded in their taxation. The provinces only interfere when the appro- priation made by the commune is equal to the product of two centimes per cent, of the sum paid in direct taxes. The grants of money by the legislature are specially designed for establishing infant, Sunday, evening, and apprentices' schools. When the government is satisfied through the provincial inspector, that tlie instruction given by endowed, or private schools, is adequate to the wants of tiie commune, it may relieve the commune from the obligation of supporting a public school. 2. Superior Primary Schools. The law of 1842 provides for a superior elementary school in every large city, which, by the act of 1850, were connected directly with the next higher grade of schools in the system of public instruction. In 1846 there were twenty-six of these schools; in one of the best in each province, a normal course was provided for teachers of the schools below. 3. Secondary, or Intermediate Schools. Prior to 1850, in most of the cities and large towns, there were one or more institutions, known as athenaeum. Latin school, gymnasium, &c., some of them public and some private, some under lay and others under ecclesiastical control, some for day and others for boarding pupils, and all designed to supply a middle course of instruction between the primary school and the university. In 1850 a law was passed to pro- vide a class of public schools under the name of atheneeum and second- ary schools, to meet the double purpose, of preparation for higher literary studies, and for the practical pursuits of life. The schools are of two grades, higher and lower intermediate schools. The higher grade, known as athenaeum, includes two sections, one for classical and the other for industrial instruction. Pupils, destined for collegiate studies, have a course of six years, in which prominence is given to the ancient and modern languages, and studies wliich are preliminary to the lec- tures and professional studies of the university. This course is similar to that of the gymnasia of Germany. Pupils destined for either of the four special schools of arts, engineering, mines, or war, have a course of four years, which include, in the lower grade, linear and mechanical draw- ing, surveying, and other applications of geometry; and in the higher, mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, and the elements of industrial economy. This course resembles that of the real schools of Germany, 588 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 4. Superior Instruction. Higher instruction is dispensed by four universities; two supported by tiie Slate, ai Ghent and Liege; two being free of all governmental control, one at Louvain, avowedly and intensely Catholic in its tone and management, and the other at Brussels, founded by an association, and professedly free from all denominational bias — the religious instruction of the pupils being left to parents, and the ministry of the several de- nominations, with which the pupils are connected. Each university is composed of four faculties — law, medicine, science, philosophy and let- ters; to these, at Louvain. there is a faculty of theology and canonical law. In 1850 there were about 1,400 students in the several departments of ihe four universities. There are two academical degrees — that of candidate and doctor^ which are bestowed, not by the university, but by a board of exam- iners, composed of men eminent for learning and science; eacii faculty or department having its separate sub-board, which is appointed by the king annually, two being nominated by the senate, two by the lower house, and iliree by the ministers of the government. This board hold its session at Brussels, and awards after a public examination, [concour) certificates and titles to those who are possessed of the greatest scien- tific and literary knowledge, without reference to the place, institution, or teachers, when this knowledge and ability has been acquired. The degree of doctor is accessible only to those who pursue the professional studies of law, medicine, or theology, and can not be conferred on any one who has not received the degree o\' cqndidate. 5. Inuubtrial and Special Instruction. Industrial instruction is given in institutions of three grades; higher instruction in the special schools of arts and manutiictures and mines, attached to the university of Liege, those of civil engineering and of arts and manufactures annexed to the university of Ghent, and the superior institute of commerce at Antwerp ; intermediate instruction in the industrial departments attached to all the athenaja and high schools ; primary instruction in the industrial schools for workmen. The preparatory school at Liege is intended to qualify pupils for the special schools for public service. The course of study, occupj'ing two years, includes all the studies necessary for preparing mining engin- eers, practical chemists, and mechanics. The course in the special mining school, occupying three years, inclqdes courses in applied me- chanics, mineralogy and geology, industrial inorganic chemistry, indus- trial natural philosophy, exploration and working of mines, assaying, metullurgy, industrial architecture, mining, legislation and industrial economy. A diploma of mining engineer is delivered to those who pass the requisite examinations, and the pupils of the school are first exam- ined for vacant places in the corps of engineers. The special sciiool of arts arid manufactures is divided into two sections, one for instruction in tlie applications of science to chemistry and mineralogy, and the other PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. g89 for the construction of machines. The course of study in the former occupies four years, and in the latter, three. Pupils pass^ing the re- quired examination receive the diploma of civil engineer of arts and manufactures, or of engineer and machinist. The number of pupils in all these schools, lor the academic year 1852-3, is 84; there being 42 in the preparatory school, 11 in the mining school, 16 in the school of arts and manufactures, 15 others, pursuing different courses. The special school of arts and manufactures at Ghent is organized similarly to that at Liege, but is not yet in operation. The superior institute of commerce at Antwerp, is also not yet in operation. It is intended to teach the science and art of commercial business. Youth are prepared for the higher special instruction in the indus- trial department of the higher intermediate schools, or in the lower in- termediate schools; with which two grades, the Ibllowing institutions may also be classed, namely: the industrial schools of Ghent, Liege, Verviers and Huy ; the provincial special school of commerce, industry, and mines, of Hainault; the provincial special school for master miners, attached to the college of Charleroi ; the industrial and literary school of Verviers; the State veterinary and agricultural school alCureghem- lez-Bruxelles, and the schools of navigation at Antwerp and Ostend. Here may also be classed the intermediate agricultural and horticul- tural schools established by government in 1849 and 1850, either by arrangements with municipal authorities for connecting special depart- ments with the existing schools, or by agreements with private persons to convert farms or gardens into special schools. These are of two classes ; 1, those designed to instruct the sons of land-owners, farmers, &c., in agricultural science ; and 2, those designed to train good master- workmen. Of the first class, are Number of pupils. The, agricultural department of the school at Tirlemont, ... 15 " ' " " " " « " Chimay, ... 27 " " " " " industrial school at Leuze, . 39 « « « « <( u u u Verviers, 16 " « " " la Trapperie, 22 " " " " Bergen-op-Zoom, 30 " " " " the school at Oostacker, .... 25 " horticultural school at Genelbrugge-lez-Gand, 27 Of the second class, are The practical horticultural school at Vilvorde, 29 " " agricultural " " Ostin 22 " " " " « Rolle, 25 " school for making farm tools at Hain-Saint-Pierre, ... 12 Whole number of pupils, . . . 289 The total expense of these schools is $24 923.31, of which they receive from the State, $21,445.33. 590 PUBLIC INCSTRUTION IN BELGIUM. Primary industrial instruction is given in the following schools: 1. The school of arts and trades at Tournay, to which children are admitted to the number of about 80, at 12 years of age and upwards, and where they are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, and at the same time the beginning of a trade. There are for this purpose five workshops ; of carpentry, weaving, construction, founding, and hose- making. 2. The manufacturing or working schools, 740 in number. Lace- making alone is taught in 586 schools; lace-making, knitting, and sew- ing, in 135, and other trades in 19. In 479 of them, the pupils receive primary literary instruction, with the industrial training, 3. The apprentice schools, numbering 78. Their design is either to introduce new improvements into ihe trades of weaving and spinning, or to introduce new branches of industry, and thus to obviate the diffi- culties arising from the introduction of spinning machinery into the country, where a large portion of the population were accustomed to support themselves by spinning by hand. The military school is one of the most important military establish' ments in Belgium, and is for the purpose of training officers of all arms. The instruction is given by a corps of not less than 18 professors, 14 tutors, and 6 masters. The pupils, whose number varies from 100 to 125, are divided into several sections, as follows: 1. Infantry and cav- alry sections, (course two years.) composed of subalterns and young men admitted on public examination. 2. School proper, (course two years,) composed of pupils admitted by the minister of war, after exam- ination. 3. School of application, (course two years.) of sub-lieutenants of engineers or artillery, wlio have been through a two years' course 'in the school. 4. Section of artillery and engineer officers, (course two years,) of lieutenants of artillery and engineers not having studied in the school, and placed there to complete their studies. 5. Section of Turkish pupils, comprises young officers of ditferent arms of the Turkish army. The military school corresponds with the three schools in France, called the school of Saint-Cyr, the polytechnic school, and the school of application (at Metz.) Military schools of lower grade are: 1, the school for soldiers' chil- dren at Lierre, (course occupying five years, besides preparatory class,) composed of legitimate children of officers, subalterns, soldiers, and assistants in the war department, intended to furnish graduates fitted to become subalterns in the army; 2, regimental schools organized from the staft-officers, and forming part of the regimental battalion of reserve. These schools are of two grades, and are for the instruction of ignorant soldiers. There also exist regimental evening schools, for subalterns, corporals, and soldiers. Thus the Belgian army has a social organization, quite as fit for peace as for war. The officers who leave their military employment easily find civil occupations. Veteran subalterns, on account of their PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIIM. eQj habits of order and discipline, are in request, as policemen, on railroads, as postmasters, and town tax-gatherers; the countrymen who return home after two years of service, carry with them the benefits of the primary course of instruction. Thus the army, a means of security in war, becomes an element of improvement in peace. There are two veterinary schools, one at Brussels and the other at Liege. The school at Brussels embraces a complete course of instruc- tion in agriculture. The government supports three " conservatories" of music, the oldest at Liege, with an average attendance of 250 pupils; a second at Ghent, with 300 pupils; and the largest at Brussels, with 400 pupils. Every third year a concour is held for competition in musical composition, in which the successful competitor receives 10,000 francs for the purpose of a four years' tour in other countries. Besides these national schools, there are several local schools of music, by which a taste for this de- lightlAil art is made general. There are over fifty schools and halls of drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture, supported or aided by the government, with over 7,000 pupils. A national exhibition is held every three years, at which numerous prizes and premiums are offered for competition. A national observatory is maintained at Brussels, and learned socie- ties for the cultivation of science, literature, and the arts, are hberally patronized by the government. The geographical institute of M. Van- dermaden has largely contributed to the advancement of this branch of useful knowledge. In 1848 there were (burteen public libraries, each having over 10,000 volumes, and all comprising 509,100 volumes. The government supports two schools for deaf mutes, one for the blind, six for orphans, and three for young criminals. Normal Instruction. Normal in.struction commands much and increasing attention from the Belgian government. Besides two normal schools for teachers and professors in the secondary and superior schools, there exist for primary teachers the following public normal schools, so called because entirely or partly supervised and supported by the government : Two government normal schools, established and supported by the State. Seven normal departments annexed to higher primary schools, estab- lished and assisted by government. Seven episcopal normal schools, established and maintained by the Catholic bishops, but which have been placed under government super- vision and regulation.?, and are assisted by its funds. Besides these public normal schools, there are others not officially recognized as pub^ lie schools, viz. : the remaining episcopal normal schools, and private establishments. There are also periodical meetings ol' public primary teachers, which 292 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. resemble the teachers' institutes of the United States, and which are called conferences. They are conducted by government officials, and partly at its expense, except a few which have been established by the teachers themselves. Teachers' Conferences. — These are held quarterly during vacations, and conducted by the provincial or cantonal inspectors. Their sessions are short, generally occupying only one day, and never more than three. They are held within and tor certain specified districts, the public pri- mary teachers within which are legally bound to attend them. Instruc- tion is given by the presiding officers, and by the teachers themselves, on various educational subjects; the inspectors usually presenting theo- retical and scientific matter, and the teachers explaining their various methods. tSc-c. The subjects to be discussed at each conference are announced at the close of the preceding one, and each teacher is ex- pected to prepare himself on them at home. Private teachers and non- professional persons are not allowed to attend the meetings, unless for special reasons. An allowance of from twenty to thirty cents a day is paid to each member. Each teacher is required, after his return home, to prepare an account of the proceedings of the meeting, and to forward it to the inspector, who selects the best for registration, as the public record of the meeting. Libraries for the use of the teachers belong to each conference, furn- isiied generally in the first instance by the government, and sometimes increased by the contributions ol" teachers and other friends of education. The number of works in these libraries in 1848, was 5,908, in 9,352 vol- umes, estimated to be worth about $2,700. The number of teachers' conferences held in Belgium was, in 1846, 349 ; in 1847, 460 ; and in 1848, 635. The average length of their busi- ness sessions was five or five and a half hours. The exercises at one of these conferences were as follows, according to the record made by one of the teachers present: The session commenced at 10 A. M., with the signing an attendance-roll by the teachers, and a short prayer by th§ religious inspector. The civil inspector, who with his ecclesiastical brother presided over the meeting, proceeded to com- plain that sundry teachers had failed to present their reports of the previous meeting, and caused them to promise to do it. Several reports of that meeting were then read. At this point the provincial inspector, M. Courtois, arrived, and assumed the direction of the business. The order of the day being the best methods of teaching writing, M. Daulie gave an account of his method. His first lessons are for the position of the body and of the pen, and then follows the tracing of straight lines, curves, and ovals, from copies upon the blackboard. M. Chevalier d'Herchies exhibited his method at the board ; it consists in drawing various ovals, from which he forms the different letters. M. Courtois, the inspector, recommended the use of pasteboard slates for young pupils, as a means of teaching them early to write, and of keeping them occupied and still. He further remarked that instruction in writing might be divided into three parts; 1, formation of straight lines, curves, and ovals; 2, formation of letters, and of words in large and half text ; 3, writing fine hand, and formation of different characters and forms of letters. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 593 The session was suspended at twelve, and recommenced at half-past two. The provincial inspector notified the teachers that they must keep school all the year ; and it would become his duty to take rigorous measures with those who should not fulfill this obligation. In reply to M. JDeltombe, who said that some- times there were no scholars, he said that he could not admit that there was a total want of scholars, that such a case was impossible. M. Miissou explained his nietliod of teaching the catechism. He uses the sim- ultaneous and individual methods, with explanations from time to time. The ecclesiastical cantonal inspector, M. Brohez, said that these explanations should be prepared under the direction of the priest. He also directed the atten- tion of the teachers to the pronunciation of the catechism and of the prayers. An exercise followed in teaching French, and another in grammar, the latter being a method of distinguishing between the verbal adjective and the present participle, illustrated upon the board. Cantonal inspector Dubois gave instructions in agi'iculture and gardening, and recommended the teachers to communicate such instruction to their pupils. The provincial inspector .stated a curious fact with regard to transplanting the beet. It has two rows of roots, always pointing to the east and west, which in transplanting must be set in the same direction, otherwise the growth of the plant " is much retarded. Inspector Dubois informed the meeting that the next conference would take place October 19, 1848, and that the subjects for discussion would be methods of teaching arithmetic, and the first three centuries of Belgian history. Normal Schools. The inspection, management, and instruction of the State normal 6chools, the normal departments annexed to the higher primary schools, and the episcopal normal schools, are substantially alike in the three classes of institutions. All candidates for entrance are examined by a "jury," composed partly of government inspectors and partly of the instructors. The courses of study occupy three years. The pupils are usually required to board and lodge upon the school premises. The regular graduates have the first right of examination for vacant situations as public teach- ers; and government, besides the assistance given to the normal schools by erecting buildings and bearing part of the current expenses, appro- priates about $12,500 annually in sums usually of about $40 each, to the assistance of a number of the more meritorious pupils. Schools of application are annexed to all the normal schools, being the primary schools of the neighborhood. The following account of the government normal school at Lierre will give a fair general representa- tion of these schools. Normal School at Lierre. Candidates for admission to the normal school at Lierre, are first exam- ined by the provincial inspectors of primary instruction, who are charged in particular to see that none are admitted who are inflicted with any deformity or infirmity incompatible with the occupation of teaching. If suitable, they are then examined by a committee or "jury" of two inspectors and three of the faculty of the school, in reading, writing, religion, and morals, the grammar of their own and of the French lan- guage, the four fundamental rules of arithmetic, the legal system of weights and measures, the elements of geography, particularly of Belgian geography, and the principal facts of Belgian history. S8 594 PUBLIC INSTRUCnON IN BELGIUM. The course of study at Lierre, occupying three years, embraces the following subjects, viz: religion and morals; sacred and church history; reading, writing, and book-keeping; grammar and composition; geogra- pliy and hislory, especially of Belgium; arithmelic. and its business applications ; elements of theoretical geometry, and of mapping, land measuring, and leveling; elementary algebra; portions of the natural sciences applicable toevery-dayhfe; agriculture and horticulture, graft- ing and pruning; theory of education, pedagogy and methodology; hy- giene, !is applicable to children and schools; elements of constitutional law ; knowledge of the constitution and laws of Belgium, and of the most usual forms under them, church and school laws ; singing and plain chant, playing the organ, harmony and accompaniment ; drawing, linear, ornamenal, and architectural. During the third year of the course, the pupils are required to teach the different classes in the schools of application or practice annexed to the normal schools, under the direction of the professors of pedagogy and methodology. The instructors are a director and sub-director, who are ecclesiastics, nine professors, an adjunct professor, and a gardener-demonstrator; the full complement of pupils being 150. The pupils board and lodge within the institution, and the entire ap- portionment of their time, occupations, and recreations, is under the con- trol of the school authorities. The whole establishment is under the hygienie supervision of a physician, who directs any measures necessary for the health of the inmates. There is a library of educational works, which receives a co])y of every ■work published by government, or by its assistance, and some philo- sophical and chemical apparatus, maps, and models for drawing. The entire expense of the school at Lierre, for 1848, was $6,943.22, of which S5,395.33 was paid for salaries. There is an examination at graduation, according to the result of which three grades of diplomas are given. At present (1848) all the graduates of the normal schools are employed in teaching. The gov- ernment continues the bounty above mentioned, for three years after graduation, to such recipients of it as do not find their salaries, as public teachers, sufficient for their support. Femalk Normal Education. There are fifteen religious establishments and boarding-schools for females designated by government, to a certain number of pupils in which a bounty is paid similar to that given to male normal pupils. These institutions are under government inspection, and the beneficia- ries in them are employed as public teachers after their graduation. The course of study is substantially similar to that of the normal schools for males, some studies, as geometry, agriculture, horticulture, and con- stitutional law, being omitted, and needlework and the application of drawing to the cutting and fitting of dresses being added. HOLLAND. The first impulse to improved primary instruction in Holland was given by some benevolent citizens of Groningen, who, in 1784, founded the " Society for the Public Good." They were encouraged and supported b)^ the government, in their efforts to prepare school books, train schoolmasters, and excite attention to tiie state of schools. In 1806 the various edicts and regulations, published from time to time, were digested into a law, by M. Van der Ende, and were generalized for the guidance of the country at large. The French invasion curtailed the means applied to education ; still the Dutch system was, as early as 1812, thought worthy of a special inquiry by Commissioners deputed from the University of Paris, at the head of which was M. Cuvier, who reported with no small admiration respecting it. On the restoration of peace in 1814. the first care of the king was directed to the state of public educa- tion, which by the law of that year was restored to the footing of 1806. Every province was divided into educational districts, and- a school in- spector was appointed to each district. A provincial School Commis- sion was named from among the leading inhabitants of each province to co-operate with the inspectors, and a sum was charged on the budget for the educational outlay, from which the traveling expenses of the commis- sioners were to be defrayed. The governments of the towns and provinces were charged with the cost of maintaining the schools, for which they provide in their local bud- gets. Teachers were classified into four ranks, according to their qualifi. cations and acquirements, and received their appointments from Govern- ment. A sum was also destined for the encouragement of associations of teachers, who were to meet to confer on school management, to visit each other's schools, and to study in common the duties incumbent on their profession. The best known methods of instruction were sought and tried, and a catalogue of the best school books was prepared and pubhshed in the course of the year 1814. In 1825. a prize was offered by the " Society for the Public Good," for the best essay on the advantages and disadvantages of the monitorial sys- tem, and the simultaneons or class system of instruction. The prize was awarded to a dissertation by M. Visser, Inspector of Primary Schools in Fries-land. In this essay, the system of monitorial instruction is analyzed. 596 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. and proved to be unsound on every point which bears upon education in the best sense of that term. This essay was published and widely distrib- uted by the society, and contributed to form and strengthen the opinion which prevails in Holland, against the method of mutual instruction. In 1S16 the Normal School at Haarlem was established, to supply a deficiency which was felt for the training of teachers, through the influ- ence of M. Van der Ende, who is esteemed, the fither of education in Holland. A similar institution had previously been commenced on a small scale at Groningen, by the Society of Public Good. Up to the es- tablishment of the Normal School at Groningen, teachers had been trained in Holland, by serving a sort of apprenticeship from the age of 14 to 16 or IS, as assistants in the larger schools, during the day, and receiving a course of special instruction, for one hour every evening. This, as far as it goes, is a cheap and excellent mode of professional training. But the experience of fifteen years satisfied her statesmen and educators, that this was not sufficient. It made good schoolmasters, but not inquiring and creative teachers. It produced rather routine than intelligent teaching, and arrested the progress of improvement, by perpetuating only the meth- ods of those schools in which the young teachers had been practiced as as- sistants. To obviate this tendency, and to give to teachers a broader and firmer basis of attainments and principles, Normal Schools were es- tablished. The two modes are now continued together,* and in connec- tion with the stimulus of the severe examination through which all teach- ers must pass, and of the direct and constant inspection to which all schol- ars are subjected, they have made the elementary schools of Holland inferior to none other in Europe. President Bache, in his Report on Edu- cation in Europe, pronounces them superior to those of the same class in any of the European states. The attendance of children is not made compulsory on parents, but, what is equivalent to such an enactment, it is provided by law, that out- door relief shall not be administered to any family, where children are al- lowed to run wild in the streets, or grow up as vagrants, or are employed in any factory without a previous elementary training. The schools are not made free to parents by governmental contribu- tion or local taxation, although both of these modes of supporting schools are resorted to. The schools are in the first place made good, by pro- viding for the employment of only well-qualified teachers, and then the schools, thus made good, are open to all parents without exception or dis- tinction, and all are required to pay a tuition fee, which the government provides shall not be large in any case. The result is universal educa- tion throughout Holland. In Haarlem, with a population of 21,000 in 1840. there was not a child of ten years of a,ge, and of sound intellect, who could not both read and write, and this is true throughout Holland, accord- ing to the testimony of intelligent travelers, and is borne out by the fol- lowing official table, (page 60S,) as to the school attendance in 1846. • Spp page S44 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IX HOIXAND. ggY The superiority of public elementary instruction in Holland, is attribu- ted, by her own edQcators, and by intelligent foreigners, who have visited her schools in the rural districts, as well as in the large towns, to that system of special inspection, combined with specific and enforced prepa- ration of all candidates for the office of teacher, and subsequent gradation of rank and pay, according to character and skill, which has now been in operation nearly half a century, ever since the first school law of the Ba- tavian Republic, in 1806, drawn up by that wise statesman, M. Van der Palm. The following extracts will give at once this testimony, and an intelligent account of the system of inspection. Baron Cuvier, in his •' Report to the French Government on the estab- lishment of Public Instruction in Holland,''^ in 1811, after speaking with special commendation of the system of inspection, remarks : " The government is authorized to grant to each province a certain sum to meet the compensation, and the expenses of travel, and meetino- of the inspectors. The mode of choosing them is excellent; they are taken from clergymen, or laymen of education, who have signalized them- selves by their interest in the education of children, and skill in the local management of schools ; from the teachers who have distinguished them- selves in their vocation ; and in the large towns, from the professors of the Universities and higher grade of schools." Mr. W. E. Hickson, now Principal of the Mechanics Institute in Liver- pool, in an "Account of the Dutch and German >ScAooZs," published in 1840, remarks : "In Holland, education is, on the whole, more faithfully carried out than in most of the German States, and we may add that, notwithstand- ing the numerous Normal Schools of Prussia, (institutions in which Hol- land, although possessing two. is still deficient.) the Dutch schoolmasters are decidedly superior to the Prussian, and the schools of primary instruc- tion consequently in a more efficient state. This superiority weattribute entirely to a better system of inspection. In Prussia, the inspectors of schools are neither sufficiently numerous, nor are their powers sufficiently extensive. JNIr. Streiz, the inspector for the province of Posen, coniessed to us the impossibility of personally visiting everyone of the 1.635 schools in his district, and admitted that he was obliged, in his returns, to depend to a great extent upon the reports of local school committees. In Hol- land, inspection is the basis upon which the whole fabric of popular in- struction rests. The constitution of the Board is well worthy of attention ; there can be no judges of the qualifications of teachers equal to those whose daily em- ployment consists in visiting schools, and comparing the merits of differ- ent plans of instruction. But the power given to the inspector does not end here: by virtue of his office he is a member of every local board, and when vacant situations in schools are to be filled up, a new examination is instituted before him into the merits of the different candidates. It is upon his motion that the appointment is made, and upon his report to the higher authorities a master is suspended or dismissed for misconduct. Through his influence children of more than ordinary capacity in the schools he visits, are transferred, as pupils, to the Normal Schools, in or- der to be trained for masters; and througli his active agency all improved plans or methods of instruction are diffused throughout the various insti- tutions of the country." ' 598 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. M. Cousin, in a Report to the minister of Public Instruction in France, in 1836, " on the state of Education in Holland," wliiie giving a prefer- ence to the school law of Prussia, in its provision for Normal Schools, and the classification of pubhc schools, and especially for the support of the higher class of primary schools, assigns the palm to Holland, in the mat- ter of school inspection. " The provincial boards of primary instruction, with their great and various powers, constitute, in my mind, the chief superiority of the Dutch over ihe Prus- sian law. They resemble the Sckid-collegium, which I'onns a part of every pro- vincial consistory in Prussia; but they are far better, for the Schtd-rolkginm is not composed of inspectors. It sends out some of its members to inspect, as occasion requires, but inspection is not its function. It judges from written documents, and not from ocular proof, and is generally obliged to rely upon the sole testimony of the member sent to inspect; whereas in Holland, the board, being both inspsctors and judges of inspections, are on the one hand better judges, in consequence of the experience they have acquired in a con- stant routine of inspection ; and, on the other hand, they are better inspectors, by what they learn at the board, when acting as judges and governors, a com- bination eminently practical, and uniting what is almost every where sepa- rated. ***** Every inspector resides in his own district, and he is bound to inspect every school at least twice a year, and he has jurisdiction over the primary schools of every grade within the district. Without his approval no one can either be a public or a private teacher ; and no public or pi ivate teacher can retain his situa- tion, or he promoted, or receive any gratuity ; for no commissioner has any power in his absence, and he is either the chairman or the influential member of all meetings that are held. He is thus at the head of the whole of the pri- mary instruction in his particular district. He is required to repair three times a year to the chief town of the province, to meet the other district inspec- tors of the province, and a conference is held, the governor of the province presiding, which lasts for a fortnight or three weeks, during which time each inspector reads a report upon the state of his district, and brings before the meeting all such questions as belong to them. As each province has its own particular code of regulations for its primary schools, tbunded upon the law and its general regulations, the provincial board examines whether all the pro- ceedings of the several inspectors have been conlbrmable to that particular code; they look to the strict and unilbrm execution of the code ; they pass such measures as belong to them to originate, and they draw up the annual report which is to be presented to the central administration, and submit such amend- ments as appear to them necessary or useful, and of which the central adminis- tration is constituted the judge. Under the Minister of the Interior there is a high functionary, the Inspector-general of Primary Instruction ; and from time to time a general meeting is summoned by the government, to be held at the Hague, to which each provincial board sends a deputy ; and thus, from the In- spector-general of the Hague, down to the local inspector of the smallest dis- trict, the whole of the primary instruction is under the direction of inspectors. Each inspector has charge of his own district, each provincial board has charge of its province; and the general meeting, which may be called the assembly of the states-general of primary instruction, has charge of the whole king- dom. All these authorities are, in their several degrees, analogous in their nature; for all are public functionaries, all are paid and responsible officers. The district-inspector is responsible to the provincial Board of Commissioners ; and they are responsible to the Inspector-general and the Minister of the In- terior. In this learned and very simple hierarchy the powers of every member are clearly defined and limited." Mr. George Nicholls, in a " Report on the condition of the Laboring Poor in Holland and Belgium" to the Poor Law Commissioners of England, in 1838, remarks: "The measures adopted in Holland to promote the education of all classes, PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND 599 have apparently resuited from the conviction that the moral and social charac- ter of the people, their intelligence, and their capacity lor increasing the resour- ces of tlie country, must in a great measure depend upon the mani.er in which they are trained for the fulfillment of their several duties. The state has not rendered education actually obligatory upon the municipalities, neither has it required evidence of the education of the children of the j:ojrer classes by any educational test; for a sense of the importance of education pervades the entire community — it is sought by the poor for their children, with an earnestness simi- lar to that observed in the more wealthy classes in other countries; and in Holland, the direct interference of government is confined to regulating the mode of instruction, by means of an organized system of inspection. This system, however much it may interfere with the liberty of the subject, has certainly some advantages. The poor, who have no means of judging for themselves, have, in the ceitificale given 10 e\'ery schoolmaster, some sort of guarantee that the person to whom they send their children is not an ignorant charlatan, professing to teach what he has never learned, and in the next place it secures to those who devote themselves to the profession a much higher rate of remuneration than they would receive if, as with us, every broken-down tradesman could open a school when able to do nothing else. This exclusion of absolute incapacity is also a means, and a verj' powerful one, of raising the character uf the profession in popular estimation. With us, any man can be- come a schoolmaster, as easily as he can a coal-merchant, by simply putting a brass plate on his door; but in Holland, (and the same .system is very general in Germany,) .some degree of study is rendered indispensable, and the whole class, therefore, stand out from the rei't of the communit}' as men of superior at- tainments, and enjoy that consideration which men of cultivated minds every- where command, when not surrounded by coadjutors below rather than above the common level. In Holland, there is no profession that ranks higher than that of a school- master, and a nobleman would scarcely, if at all, command more respect than is paid to many of those who devote their lives to the instruction of youth. The same personal consideration is extended to the assistant teacher or usher. We were much struck with the difference in the position of persons of this class abroad, from their lot at home, when we were visiting a school for the middle classes at Hesse-Cassel. The school contained 200 children, and was supported partly by the town and the government, and partly by the payments of the schol- ars. The charge for daily instruction was from Is. 8d. to 5s. per month. The children were distributed in six classess — to each class a separate master or as sistant teacher. We were conducted over the establishment by the head mastei or director of the school, and the first thing which drew our attention was the ex treme ceremony with whfch we were introduced to each of the assistant mas- ters, and the magy apologies made by the professor for interrupting them, although but for a moment, in their important labors. We saw those treated as equals, ■who are in England often estimated as only on a rank with grooms or upper servants. The most important branch of administration, as connected with education, is that which relates to school inspection. All who have ever been anxious either to maintain the eihciency of a school, or to improve its character, vvill appre- ciate the importance of the frequent periodical visits of persons having a knowl- edge of what education is, and who are therefore able to estimate correctlv the amount and kind of instruction given. Let a school established by voluntary subscriptions be placed to-day upon the best possible footing, if no vigilance be exercised by its founders, and if the master be neither encouraged nor stimula- ted to exertion by their presence, his salary will speedily be converted into a sinecure, and the school will degenerate to the lowest point of utility." Professor Bache, in his " Report on Education in EuropeP in 18(38, to the Trustees of Girard College, remarks: " The system of primary instruction in Holland is particularly interestingr to an American, from its organization in an ascending series; beginning with the local school authorities, and terminating, after progressive degrees of represen- tation, as it were, in the highest authority; instead of emanating, as in the cen- tralized systems, from that authority. A fair trial has been given to a system 600 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. of inspection which is almost entirely applicable to our country, and which has succeeded with them." The school .system of Holland consists of a brief law, of only twenty-three articles, drawn up by M. Van der Palm, the distinguished Oriental schol- lar, in ISOl, and modified by M. Van der Ende, in 1806, and a series of Regulations drawn up by the slate department having charge of this sub- ject, to carry out the provisions of the laAV. The law was so Avisely framed, and was so well adapted to the spirit, customs and habits of the people, that it has survived three great revolutions : first, that which converted the Batavian Republic into a kingdom, at first independent, but afterward incorporated with the French empire ; next, that which dethroned Louis, restored the house of Orange, and united Holland and Belgium in one monarchy ; and lastly, the revolution which again separated the two countries, and restricted the kingdom of the Netherlands to its former lim- its. During these thirty years, the law of 1806 was never interfered with ; it could only be altered by another law, and when the government, in 1829, in order to please the Belgian liberal party, brought forward a new general law. which made some very objectionable changes in that of 1806, the chambers resisted, and the government were obliged to with- draw the bill. The following provisions will show the spirit and scope of the law, and general regulations. IX. ' The school inspector of the district is authorized, in concert with the local authorities, to intrust one or more known and respectable persons with a local inspection, subordinate to his own, over the school or scliools, and also over all the teachers of both sexes in the place, whether village, hamlet, or oth- erwise, and lor each separately. X. In all the more considerable towns and places, the parochial authorities, in concert with the school inspector of the district, shall establish a local su- perintendence of the primary schools, which shall consist of one or more per- sons, according to local circumstances, but so as each member shall have a particular division, and all the schools in that division shall be confided to him individually. These persons shall collectively constitute, with the school in- spector of the district, the local school board. XVII. No one shall be allowed to become a candidate for a vacant school, or to establish a new one, or to give private lessons, without having first obtained a certificate of general admission. In like manner, no one shall be allowed to teach any other branch than that for which he shall have received a certificate of general admission. XXII. The instruction shall be conducted in such a manner, that the study of suitable and useful branches of knowledge shall be accompanied by an exer- cise of the intellectual powers, and in such a manner that the pupils shall be prepared for the practice of all social and Christian virtues. XXIII. Measures shall be taken that the scholars be not left without instruc- tion in the doctrinal creed of the religious community to which they belong; but that part of the instruction shall not be exacted from the schoolmaster. XXX. The provincial* and parochial authorities are recommended to take the necessary steps : * The constitution of Holland is somewhat singular, and would seem at first sight to be founded upon what perhaps may one day be recognized as the true theory of representative government, that of progressive, intermediate elections. The rate-payers elect the Kiczers, the Kiciers elect the Hand or town council, the town council elect a certain proportion of the members of the provincial govern- ments, and the provincial governments elect the lower chamber of the fitates General, or House of Commons. The States-General consist of two chnmliprs. The upper chamber is somewhat of a House of Lords, but not ljereilit;,iy. 'J'lic niemlier^ fifty in number, receive 250i. per ammm for traveling ex- PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 601 1. That the emolnmentsof the teacher (principally in rural parishes) be set- lied in such a way that his duties, when creditably performed, may obtain for him a sufficient livelihood, and that he be rendered as little dependent as possi- ble, bv direct aid, upon the parents of the children who frequent his school. 2. That attendance at the schools be strictly enforced, and that they be kept open throughout the year." REGUL.4TI0NS RESPECTING THE EXAMINATION OP THOSE WHO DESIRE TO BECOME TEACHERS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. I. The teachers shall be divided into four classes, or grades, according to the amount of knowledge required, and according to the examination which they shall have passed. VII. In ihese examinations, the object shall be to ascertain not only the ex- tent of knowledge of the candidate in the branches he is proposing to leach, but also his power of communicating that knowledge to others, and especialh^ to children. VIII. Before proceeding to the examination properly so called, the examin- ers shall endeavor to ascertain, in conversation with the candidate, his opin- ions on morals and religion ; the sphere of his attainments, both with regard to the most indispensable parts of primar}^ instruction, and to foreign languages and other branches which he proposes to teach; together with his aptitude to direct, instruct, and Ibrrn the character of youth. IX. The subjects of examination shall be as follows : 1. Reading from different printed and written characters; and whether with a good pronunciation and a proper and natural accent, and with a knowledge of punctuation. 2. Some words and phrases designedly wrong shall be shown to the candi- date, to ascertain his knowledge of orthography. 3. To ascertain his acquaint.'ince with the grammatical structure of the Dutch language, a sentence shall be dictated to him, which he shall analj^ze, and point out the parts of speech; and he must give proofs of a familiar acquaintance with the declensions snd conjugations. 4. The candidate shall write some lines in large, middle, and small hand, and shall make his own pens. 5. Soine questions in arithmetic shall be proposed to him, confinin? this especially to such as are of common occurrence, and which shall be sufficient to show the dexterity of the candidate in calculations, both in whole numbers and in fractions. Questions shall be ]nil to him on the theoretical parts, and especially on decimal arithmetic. 6. Some questions shall be proposed on the theory of singing. 7. DilTerent questions shall be proposed relative to history, geography, nat- ural philosophy, mathematics, and such other branches of knowledge as the candidate proposes to teach. 8. A passage in French, or in any other language in which the candidate wishes to be examined, shall be given to him to read and translate. A pas- sage in Dutch shall be dictated to him. to be translated by him, either in writ- ing or viva voce, into the language which forms the subject of the examination. He shall be required to give, de improriso, in the same language, a composition in the form of a letter or narrative, (tec, all for the purpose of a.=;certaining the degree of acquaintance he possesses with the language in question, in or- thography, grammar and punctuation. penses. The lower chamber, hefore the Revolution, consisted of 110 members, now but of fifty-five. The provincial governments are : North Brnbnnt, 42 members. | Friesland .54 members. Gnelderlund, 90 " Overvssel 5.T Holland 90 " Groningen, 36 Zenland, 40 " Dreuthe, 24 " Utrer.lit 36 " | Tlie members of these provincial governments are not elected bv the town ronncils, but by the no- bility; the town councils, and Kiezers of the country districts, nearly in equal proportions. " General business affecting more than one province, is referred to one or other of tw6 committees, or provincial cabinets, elected by the members of the provincial governments. On these committees one member sits for each province. 602 PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. X. The examination upon the acquirements of the candidate havinisr been compleied, the ex;nniners shall proceed to inquire inro bis capacity for teach- ing; thej' shall question him as t(j the manner of teachins< children to know the letieis, figures, and the first principles ; then reading, wrilirg, and arithme- tic. The^' sliall then require him to relate .some story or poj'tion of history, in order to discover the degree of talent he po?sesses to present things to children with clearness and precision ; care shall he taken, if there be a convenient op- portunity, and if it he thought advisable, to have some children present, of dif- ierent ages, and of different degrees of attainment, in order to ascertain more particularly his skill in practical leaching. XI. Finally, the examiners shall propose some questions upon the principles to be followed in rewards and ptiuishments; as also in general on the best meth- ods to be adopted, not only to develop and cultivate the intellectual faculties of children, but most especially to bring them up in the exercise of the Christian virtues. XII. When the examination is concluded, the examiners shall deliver to the candidate, who desires to obtain a general admission as a master, and has given proof of sufficient ability, a deed of that admission, according to the extent of his ability; and in this shall be stated, as distinctly as possible, the extent and the nature of the talents and of the acquirements of the candidate, as proved by his examination ; and it shall declare the rank he has obtained, if it be in the first, second, thiid, or fourth class, and consequently such a. general admis- sio.i as shall giVi him a right to apply for the situation of a master, accord- ing to the rank which has been assigned to him. .Finally, the said deed shall declare the branches of education, and the languages for which he shall have obtained the general admission. XIII. The schoolmistresses or teachers of languages who shall have passed an examination, and have given sufficient proofs of their ability, shall also re- ceive a deed which shall contain, besides a declaration of the extent and amount of their acquirements and talents- as proved by the examination, a general ad- mission either for the oihce of schoolmistress or teacher of languages. That deed shall moreover expressly declare the branches of study and the languages which the person examined shall be entitled to teach. XIV. All the deeds mentioned in the iwo preceding articles shall be alike throughout the whole extent of the republic, both in the matter and the foim. If they are issued by a provincial board of education, they shall be signed by the president and secretary, and the seal of the board shafl he affixed to theni. The deeds issued by an inspector, or by a local board, shall be signed by the in- spector only, or bv the secietary of the local board. XV. The certificates for the first and second class, issued by a provincial board, shall entitle those who obtain them to be masters in all primary schools, public as well as private, of the two classes', in all places throughout the repub- lic, without exception ; whereas the deeds. issued by a local board shall confer no privilege beyond that locality. XVI. The certificates for the third class, as Avell as those for the fourth or lowest class shall confer the privilege of becoming teachers, except in schools established in places whose wants are proportioned to the rank and capacity of such masters, and which are .situated within the jurisdiction of the provincial board. XVII. In order that the provisions contained in the two preceding articles may be more easily carried into efl^ect, the schools in small towns and less con- siderable places, more fully described in Art. 9 of regulation A, shall be classed by the different inspectors and by the provincial boards, into higher, middle, and lower schools, upon a principle hereafter provided. Tliis classification, which shall be submitted to the provincial authorities for approval, shall be solely for the purpose of preventing the principal school falling into the hands of incompetent masters; while, at the same time, it leaves the power of placing a very able master over the smallest school. XVIII. In the towns or places of greatest importance, no master of the fourth or lowest class shall be eligible to either a public or a private school. The local boards are even recommended to take care, as much as possible, that the tuition in the schools of their towns shall not be entrusted to any other than •maslers of Ihe first or serond clo.ss. XXIV. A list containing the name, the rank, the nature, and the extent of PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. 603 the abiliiies of each of those who shall have obtained deeds of general admis- sion as master, mistress, oi' teacher of languages, shall be published in the peri- odical work entitled ' Bydragen tot den btaal,' ifcc, (which is still pub- lished./' It is impossible not to see that the stimulating effect of a series of ex- aminations of this character, before a tribunal composed of qualified judges, must produce a class of teachers for the work of primary instruc- tion uneciualed in any other part of the world. But the soul of the whole system is inspection, or in other words, active and vigilant superintend- ence.— ^intelligent direction, and real responsibility, — all of which are in- volved in the system of inspection carried out in Holland. Without inspection there can he no competent tribunal for the examination of teachers ; without inspection, local school committees and conductors of schools would be irresponsible to public opinion, inert and negligent ; without inspection there would be no person constantly at hand suiiiciently informed upon the state of education to suggest the measures required ibr the promotion of its objects; without inspection there Would be no dif- fusion of new ideas, no benefiting by the experience of others, no rivalry in improvement, no progress. Tiie tbllowing extracts will show the man- ner in which the duties of inspection are provided for. KEOULATIONS FOR SCHOOL INSPECTORS, AND FOR THE BOARDS OF EDUCATION IN THE DIFFERENT PROVINCES. II. "Each inspector shall make himself acquainted with the number and situations of the primary schools, and also with the state of primary instruction throughout the whole extent of his district. It shall be his duty tosee that, be- sides the necessary number of ordinary schools, there shall be a sutficient num- ber of schools for children of tender age. organized in the best possible manner, and also schools of industry. Finally, he shall take care, that proper instruc- tion in all branches of primary education may be obtained, according to the circumstances and wants of the different parishes. III. He shall make it his business to become personally acquainted with the different masters in his district, and with the extent of their fitness, and shall keep a note thereof IV. He shall make it his special business to excite and maintain the zeal of the masters ; and for that purpose, he shall at fi.xed periods require a certain number of them to meet him, either at his own house or in other parts of bis district, and as frequently as possible.* V. The inspector shall be bound Lo vk't twice, a year all the schools in his district, which are directly subject to his supervision. He is hereby e.xhorled to repeal those visits at different times, either when a particular case calls for it, or for the general good. ., VI. In visiting the schools which are under his direct supervision, he shall call upon the master to teach the pupils of the ditferent classes in his presence, those which are in different stages of progress, in order that he ma v judge as to the manner in which the instruction is given and regulated. He shall also in- quire if the regulations concerning primary instruction, as M-ell as the regula- tion tor the internal order of the school, are duly observed and executed ; and he shall pay attention to every thing which he believes to be of any importance. At the CLinclusion of the visit, the in.spector shall have a private" conversation with the master or mistress, upon all he has observed: and according as the case may be, he shall express approbation, give them advice, admonish, orcen- sure them, upon what he may have seen or heard. Every school inspector * In compliance with the spirit of this nrticle, societies of schoolmasters have been formed, under the nusjiices of the inspectors, at different times, in the districts of eiich province, which keep up a rivalry of improvement. They meet at stated times, generally every month. 604 PRIMARY Sf'HOOI.S IN HOLLAND. shall keep notes of all remarks and observations which he shall have made in the course ofliis visits, to be used in the manner hereinafter provided. IX. They shall pay parlicnlar attention to improve the school-rooms; to the education of the children of the poor, and esjecially in the villages and ham- lets; to regulate and improve the incomes of the masters; and to the schools being kept open and attended without interruption, as much as possible, during the whole year. XVIII. The ordinary meetings of the boards shall be held in the towns where the provincial authorities reside, at Ifeast three times a year; the one during Easter week, the other two in the second week of .Inly and Oclolier. XXIV. At each ordinary meeting, each member shall give in a written re- port: — 1. Of the schools he has visited since the last meeting, staling the time of his visit, and the observations he then made regarding the state of the schools, in all the ditiererit particulars. •2. Of the meetings he has held of the schoolmasters for the purpose of com- municating Avith them respecting their duties. 3. Of the examinations which have taken place before him of masters of the lowest class, and of the higher classes. 4. Of the changes and other events which shall have taken place in his dis- trict, relative to any school or sclioolmaster, since the last meeting, and es- pecially all vacancies of masterships, the deljvery of deeds of call, nomination, or special appointment of every degree and of every class, setting forth the most important circumstances connected with them: the appointment of local inspectors in jilaces of minor extent; the changes that may have occurred in the local schoril boards; the inspection of a new primary school or school of in- dustry; the admission of any teacher of languages; the drawing up of any rules for the internal order of schools ; the introduction of schiol books, other than those contained in the general list of books, in the private schools of both classes; the measures that have been taken to regulate and improve the incomes of the masters; the measures that have been taken to secure the schools being uninterruptedly kept open and attended; any difficulties they may have en- countered ; the encouragement or otherwise which the masters may have met with ; and the examinations of pupils in the schools. The inspector shall fur- ther point out the particular parts which he wishes to have insetted in the above mentioned monthly publication, {Bydragen.) XXV. From these written documents and other private information, as well as from the written reports of the local school boards, (as mentioned in the fol- lowing article,) every school inspector shall draw up annually, previous to the meeting held in Easter week, a general report on the state of the schools and of primary instruction throughout his district. -He shall state therein the reasons why he has not visited, or has not visited more than once, any particular school in the course of the preceding year. He shall state such proposals as appear to him deserving of attention, and which may tend to the improvement ofpri- marv instruction. XXVI. In order that the school inspectors may not omit to mention, in their annual report, any of the particulars stated in the preceding article, the local scliool boards, or their individual members, in so far as concerns the schools placed under their individual inspection, shall draw up a report in Avriting, simi- lar to that required from the school inspectors, before the end of Februarv at latest. XXIX. At the conclusion of the ordinarj' meeting held in Easter week, each board shall forward, or cause to be forwarded within the space of four weeks, to the Secretary of State for the Home Department, besides the documents men- tioned in the preceding article, 1. One of the two authentic copies of the annual general summary. 2. The originals of the general reports of the different members of the boards. 3. The originals' of the annual written reports of the different local boards. 4. A detailed statement, taken from the report f)f each of the members, of the proposals which each board shall be desirous of bringing under the considera- tion of the next annual general meeting, or which it has been resolved to lay before the provincial authorities." PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN HOLLAND. i]U5 REGULATIONS RESPECTING THE GENERAL ORDER TO BE OBSERVED IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS. I. " The primary schools shall be open without intermission the whole year, except during the times fixed for llie holidays. II. During the whole time devoted to the lessons, the master shall be present from the beginning to the end ; he shall not be engaged in any thing which is unconnected with the teaching, nor absent himself from school, except for rea- sons of absolute necessity. III. The master shall take care that the pupils do not unnecessarily go out of school ; and especially that they be quiet and attentive; and, when in the play- ground, that they always conduct themselves in a peaceable, respectable, and motlest manner. IV. When the number nf pupils shall exceed seventy, measures shall be taken for providing a second master or an under master. V. The pupils shall be entered, as much as possible, at fixed terms in the course of the year. VI. At the "opening and at the breaking up of each class, a Christian prayer, solemn, short, and suitable to the occasion, shall be said daily or weekly. At the same time, a hymn, adapted to the circumstances, may be sung. VII. The pupils shall be divided into three classes, each of which shall have its distinct place; and on every occasion when the school meets, each shall receive the instruction that belongs to it. VIII. The instruction shall be communicated simultaneously to all the pu- pils in the same class ; and the master shall take care that, during that time, the pupils in the two other classes are usefully employed. IX. The instruction in the different classes, and in the different branches taught, shall be as much as possible conveyed by the use of the black board. X. When the master shall think it advisable, he shall reward the most ad- vanced pupils l)}^ employing them to leach some parts of the lessons to the beginners. XI. The master shall take care that the pupils be at all limes clean in their dress, well washed and combed, and he shall at the same time pay the strictest attention to every thing that may contribute to their health. XII. The school-rooms shall be at all times kept in proper order; for that purpose they shall be ventilated in the intervals of school hours, and cleaned out twice a week. - CO I ) O CM J>- O CO co^cTc^ir^i-ro (M C3 05 CO o (^l Ol CO CM i-l i-H -cO'^i-Hioicioco-«*io:)i— I COOO-^COCOr-HO^OiOOCO i-HCOiOCMiOi-HlCOlOdt— CO" Co"u:r r-T r-T OC5'rJ<0(MCO'^l>-lLCOC:> oo^^^cccMooccG'iir-o C^iCOOit-^^OlG^i— tCOr-lO r-T-^jTio" r-T r-Tl^T r-T CO»— tCi=J5lOI>-i— llCTjHi^CO >Jr^CM I CD >0 • Oi O CO I— ( Tjl J r-H CO • CS 1— ( CO OS co^oT I i-T - CO _- _- , - COO'lr-OO •J>-0000t-lOi oocooi-^t-cocMt-corHas rHQOcOOii--i-*CO-^i>-t-,-H rH--0"^.— lCOCOOiiOC>l-^CM lo" oT oT lo~i^-^ lo^ ccT lo" co' io"i>^ . 05 o t^ b- i ^ CO CO G<1 1— I cDcoi>-"^C:>Ir^i— •C'l'^cocs O -:t^ t^ Ci »ft -* -- -- crrco'co'cC' o CO c^ i>^ CO ■ ilMG'l^Mi— iT-H G (M T-H tH T-r _„^-. .C000st:-^0'<^C01:^ - - - ■■ CM O CO t- 1 ^.^- _ CO -rJH cooot— t— c:'■^ooc:■-- o^,-^■ri^^J~a^'^co" o'o ;=: 5 ^ ' : 8:cD £? •^ a CO > t5 ^ ■"3 2 a > 9. a, c a §a ag s g si bo a a oj ca =3 S .:ii a 1^ o =^ o "E O t. o bn ,a.a w a 5"^ -. (H a; '3 o oS ■a a r^ &c >^ ■*"' 3 a S a oj o n3 03 13 a a • tn o <0 > a ft uw fto o ^- 43 ^ ^ PRIMARY SCHOOL THE HAGUE, HOLLAND. The following description of a Primary School at the Hague, with some remarks on the classification of public schools is copied from Bache's '■'■Report on Education in Europe.^'' The definition of a primary school, as given in one of the regulations issued to complete the law, covers a wide field. According to it, a primary school is one in which youth is instructed in the first principles of knowledge, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and the Dutch language, or the more advanced branches, such as the French, or other modern languages, or the ancient languages, geography, history, and other subjects of that description. There are several different kinds of schools, corresponding to different grades of instruction in these branches. Infant school instruction is included in the primary department, but it is not yet fully developed. The lowest schools are those for the poor, (armen-scholen) and which are entirely gratuitous. The children enter at from six to seven, and from twelve to fourteen. As supplementary to them are evening schools, principally intended for revising former courses, and which should be attended until sixteen or eighteen years of age. As the attendance in these latter schools is not obligatory, the proportion of those who receive instruction in them, varies much in different localities. The next are called intermediate schools (tusschen-scholen) in which the pupils pay a trifling fee.* Both these are, in general, public. Some have been estab- lished by the school committees, and after a few years have become self-supporting. The grade of instruction is rather higher than in the schools for the poor, but as the law does not prescribe any particular programme, it varies much in the dif- ferent parts of Holland — a school which would be called intermediate in a small town, ranking below one of the gratuitous establishments for the poor, in one of the chief cities. The amount taught, depends, other circumstances being the same, upon the average age to which the children remain at school, and therefore varies also in different parts of the kingdom. The next grade, or burgher school, (burger school) is, in general, a private establishment. It is distinguished from both the classes just enumerated by a larger fee,t and in general, by a higher grade of instruction ; but while, in a single town or district, it is easy to perceive this gradation, yet it is scarcely pos- sible to observe it on a comparison of the country at large. In some places, the last mentioned school is called the Dutch school, to distinguish it from the fol- lowing class. The school denominated the " French School," is the highest of the primary division, and is, in general, a private establishment, though frequently of the kind classed by law with private schools, but superintended in reality, by the local school committee itself. Besides the branches taught in the other schools, the courses of this embrace the French language, of which the pupils acquire a gram- matical knowledge, and which they are enabled to speak with considerable facility. These schools prepare their pupils for entrance into active life, and serve also in some degree as feeders to the grammar or Latin schools. The instruction * For example, in an intermediate school at Rotterdam, which I visited, eight cents a a week. t The school fee at the burgher school at Haarlem is between eix and seven dollars a year. 39 610 PRIMARY SCHOOL AT TilK HAGUE. in French is not, however, an exclusive mark of this grade of institution, as the descendants of the French emigrants, constituting the Walloon congregations, continue the teaching of this language in the gratuitous schools for the poor, con- nected with their churches. While, in point of fact, there is not the regular fourfold division of primary instruction which thus appears, it is difficult to draw a separating line. The inter- mediate school connects the school for the poor, and the burgher school, while, in the burgher schools, the same branches are studied as in the French schools, except the French language. The less number of children under the charge of one master, the greater age to which the children in general remain at school, the generally greater capacity of the master, from the higher salary which his talents command, the greater family cultm-e of the children before coming into and while in the school, render the average progress in the burgher school of a given place, superior to that in the intermediate school, and in this latter higher than in the school for the poor. I must say, however, that in more than one case, in the same place, I could detect no difference in the school itself, between the intermediate and the burgher school, except in the greater comfort of the accommodations of the latter ; and I have already remarked that, in comparing the establishments of different places, the name is not an accurate guide to the grade of the school. A sketch of the arrangement of the primary schools themselves would, I have thought, be rendered more compendious, without injury to its fidelity, by select- ing for particular description one of the schools for the poor, which, as a class, rank higher in Holland than in any other of the European States, and engrafting upon the account of this, remarks on the methods of other schools ; concluding by a brief statement of the particulars in which the intermediate, burgher, or French schools differ, in general, from the assumed type, or from each other. Before doing so, however, there are some points fixed by the school regula- tions, which require notice. The first is, that the system of instruction must be that called simultaneous, or in which all the pupils of a class take part at once. In practice, this requires to be varied by questions adapted to individuals, and the classes, therefore, must not be too large. In the intermediate schools I found, more commonly, classes of from thirty to fifty, the lesser number being well adapted to the method. With a well trained master, and a class of moderate numbers, this kind of instruction is the most lively that can be imagined, and when judiciously varied, by questions put to all, but which only one is permitted to answer, it is also thorough. The method of mutual instruction is not at all favored in Holland. A very decided and general opinion against it, appears early to have been brought about by the comparison of the English schools with their own. A prize was offered for the best dissertation on the subject, by the society for public utility, and taken by M. Visser, inspector of primary schools in Freesland. This excellent disser- tation, which was published and widely distributed by the society, no doubt con- tributed to form or strengthen the opinion which prevails at this day. The only approach to the monitorial system in the schools of Holland, is, that pupils who have an inclination to teach and who will probably become teachers, are put in charge of the lower classes of a school. Thus, also, some of the best monitors of the Borough-road School in London, are boys who are likely one day to follow the career of teaching. There is, however, a very wide difference between the use of a few apprentices to the profession, and that of a large num- ber of monitors to give instruction. I had occasion to observe, however, that in many cases there was a want of life in the younger classes entrusted to these inexperienced teachers. If they are to be used, it would be better to employ them in classes which have some training, even though nearer the teacher's age and attainments. The next point is in regard to religious instruction in the schools. There is unbounded toleration of religious creed in Holland, and while the necessity of religious instruction in the schools has been strongly felt, it has been made to stop short of the point at which, becoming doctrinal, the subjects taught could inter- fere with the views of any sect. Bible stories are made the means of moral and religious teaching in the school, and the doctrinal instruction is given by the pas- PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE. 611 tors of the different churches on days appointed for the purpose, and usually not in the school-room. The last point is in regard to the choice of school books. The publication of them is not left to open coaipetition. Every book, before it can be used in a pub- lic school, must be submitted to the examination of the minister of the interior, acting, of course, by deputy, and if approved, is admitted to the list of books which may be used in the schools. PYom this list, the provincial board of pri- mary schools select those which they consider best to be used in their province, and from their list the teachers choose such as they approve. In private schools, the teacher selects his own^ books, but he must report a list of them to the inspector. There are two normal schools for the education of teachers for the primary schools, one at Groningen, established by the society for public utility, the other at Haarlem,* by the government. Formerly, all instructors were prepared in the different primary schools. They began to teach as early as twelve years of age, attending the evening school to make up their loss of time during the day. At sixteen, they had served their apprenticeship, and were admissible to the fourth grade of teachers. This method prevails still to a considerable extent, but as it has been found to produce rather routine than intelligent teaching, the two nor- mal schools have been established to supply the defect. The material of elementary intellectual instruction consists in most countries, of reading, writing, arithmetic, and a knowledge of the mother tongue, to which the geography of the country, and sometimes general geography, natural his- tory, linear drawing, and vocal music are added. Special exercises of the per- ceptive and reflective faculties are also included in the more improved intellectual systems. While the material is thus nearly the same, nothing can be more dif- ferent than the results produced by the schools, according to the use which is made of it. In some, the means are mistaken for the end, and if the pupil is enabled to read, write, and cipher mechanically, the school is supposed to have done its duty. In others, these branches are employed as the means of develop- ing the intellect, as well as for the communication of u.seful knowledge ; accord- ing as one or the other view is taken, the instruction is arranged in conformity with it. In Holland, the intellectual methods of Pestalozzi ■ have taken deep root, and the enlightened state of public opinion, in regard to elementary education, prevents, in a great degree, a mechanical system of teaching The plan of the school for the poor at the Hague, to which I now proceed, will justify this remark. To render it clear, I shall, even at the risk of dwelling rather long upon it. present first the essential features of the instruction ; next show the chief steps in the entire course, from which a just idea of the character of the whole of it can be formed, appending to this, some remarks upon the methods of teaching, and the text books. Then, by separating the exercises of the classes, and attaching to each the number of hours devoted to it per week, I shall show that this is no theoretical programme, but one formed for practice ; and this will further appear, by stating, in conclusion, some of the results which I witnessed at an examination of the pupils. This school, I should remark, though ranking with tlie best of those which I saw in Holland, is not distinguished above several others of its class, and in its intellectual character, seemed to me decidedly below many of the intermediate schools, where the pupils are less numerous. It is therefore no exaggerated state- ment of what is obtained between the ages of six and twelve or fourteen. The subjects of instruction, including intellectual and moral, are — Exercise of the perceptive and reflective faculties. Learning to read acccordins to Prin- sen's method, inchidinsr the spelling of words and the analysis of words and simple sen- tence.s. The composition ofsimple sentences with irinted letters A knowledge of the dif- ferent kinds of printed and written letters. Writing from dictation for orthograpny. Cor- rect reading of prose and poetry. Grammar of the Dutch language. Geography of Hol- land. History of Holland, including its chronology. Writing, beginning and ending with writing on th^ blackboard. Linear drawing. Arithmetic by indnction. Mental and written arithmetic, with a knowledge of the Roman numerals. Practical Arithmetic, to decimal fractions inclusive. The theory of numbers. Moral and religious instruction. Vocal music. * Established in 1816. 612 PRIMARY SCHOOL AT THE HAGUE. As natural history does not appear either in this programme or in others of primary schools, I was at the pains to ascertain if any thing was taught in relation to a branch so eminently calculated to promote early religious impressions, and found that incidentally information was given on the habits of animals, and some of the phenomena of the physical world. It will be observed that in this school, as in general, physical training forms no part of the system. In Holland, the gymnastics, so popular in Northern Germany, have never been permanently intro- duced, even in the boarding-schools. The nature and extent of the instruction in the branches enumerated above will be best understood by the folllowing list of progressive exercises : — 1. Exercises of thought, reason, and inteUigence. 2. Rkading. Prinsen's Reading Tables. Vowels and consonants from the Jettter-box. Composition of words on the reading-board. Explanation of words and simple sentences. Spelling from memory. Exercises in reading different printed and written characters. Simultaneous reading from a series of books graduated to the capacity of the class. Expla- rialion of words met in reading. Composition of sentences on the reading-board. Writmg (rom dictation for orthography. Correct reading. Composition of simple sentences. 3. Grammar practically. Conjugation of verbs, 'Ar. PCHOOI. AT If AARI.F.M. the misfers. Tiie ob -crvntions nnd ronorts are turned to r.cconiit j , sn^^^f- quent meetinnfs with his class. The pupils do not board togetiier in the normal school, but are distributed throujjli ihe town, in certian f,.miiies selected by the direcior. They form a pari of these families during iheir reddenee with them, being respon^dble to the he.'d for the time of their absence from the house, their hours, and con- duct. They take their meals with the f imilies, and are furnished with Ji study and sleeping-room, tire, lights, &c. The director pays the moderate sum required for iliis accommodation from the annual stipend allowed by government.* The efficiency of such a system depends, of course, upon the linl/its of f nuily life of the country, and upon the locality where the school is established. In Holland and Haarlem the plan succeeds well, and has the adv.intage that the pupils are constantly, in a degree, their own masters, and must control themselves, and tliat they are never placed in an artificial state of socie.y or kind of life, which is the case when they are collected in one estab- lishment. The director m .kes frequent visits to these f nnilies, and is in- formed of the home eharicter of his pupils. The discipline of a normal school is, of course, one of the easiest tasks connected wish it, for impro- prieiies or levities of conduct are inconsistent with the future calling of the youth. Admonition by the assistant and by the director are the only coer- cive means resorted to, previous, to dismission. The director has authority to dismiss a student without consulting the minister, merely reporting the fact and case to him. Though this power may be important in increasing his influence, yet it has been necessary to exercise it but three tir "s in twenty years. There are two vacations of from four to six weeks each, duri ig which the pupils, in general, return to their friends. The school has a lending library of books relating to teaching, and of miscellaneous works. This useful institution supplies for the primary schools, every year, from eigh+ to twelve well-prepared masters, who propagate throughout the coun- try the excellent methods and principles of teaching here inculcated. * This annual stipend is ninety dollars. Puppoaina; that a student has an entire bursary, he will reciuire some additional lumis lo support him while at the school; for his board, lodgina;, &c., cost iwo dollars per week, which, for the forty-two weeks of term-lime, amounts to eighty- four dollars, leaving him but six dollars for incidental expenses. DENMARK. Public instruction has long received much attention in Denmark. It is necessary to be able to read respectably, and to have received some religious instruction, in order to be admitted to the communion of the Lutheran church : and such admission is substantially indispensable to apprenticeship, or other industrial employment, and to marriage, so that the people are better instructed than those of most countries in Europe. At the time of the reformation, there existed in every town, and in connection with the religious houses, a large number of Latin schools, containing in some cases from 700 to 900 pupils, in which also were classes for elementary instruction. Various royal ordinances were pro- mulgated, from 1539 down to the present day, extending or modifying the provisions for public education which existed prior to that date. The present school system, however, dates from 1814, at which time an ordinance was published, reorganizing the system of primary and sec- ondary instruction. 1. Each parish must furnish and maintain sufficient schools and teachers for the primary instruction of all children within it, in reading, writing, arithmetic, and the Lutheran catechi.sm, to which are often added gram- mar, history, and geography. The emoluments of the teachers, although small, support them comfortably, as living is cheap. They commonly receive from $200 to ^250, a small part of it in money, and the rest in provisions, besides the occupancy of a house and several acres of land. Similar but larger schools exist in the cities. There are 4,700 primary or parochial schools with about 300,000 pupils. 2. The secondary schools are the high or grammar schools, about 30 in number, in the cities and large towns. Of these the most eminent is the academy at Soro, established in 1536, from the funds of a Cistercian monastery, founded about 1150 by Archbishop Absalon. In these schools are taught Latin and Greek, French and German, mathematics natural sciences, geography, history, and all the branches of a thorough high school education. There are also about 30 real schools of a simi- lar grade, but giving instruction more adapted to commercial pursuits. Here may also be classed the higher burgher schools of the cities. Female schools of this grade exist, but they are mostly private ; indeed, there are many private schools, both for boys and girls. ^ 620 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DKNMARK. 3. Above these schools are the two universities, for Danish students, at Copenhagen, founded in 1479, and for German students, at Kiel, founded in 1665. The university of Copenhagen contained, in 1841, about 1.260 students, and 40 professors and instructors. Its revenue is about $72,000 a year, and its Hbrary contains about 110,000 volumes. There is annexed to it a polytechnic institute, or school of arts, in which instruction is given in the application of science to industrial occupations. The university of Kiel contained at the same time about 390 students, and about fifty professors and teachers. It receives a revenue from the State of about $30,000 a year, and has a library of 70,000 volumes. Besides the above-mentioned university revenues, the students at both pay fees to the professors, whose lectures they attend at Copenhagen, after the rate of from two to four dollars for a course of lectures, (one a week for six months,) and at Kiel, about a dollar for the same. 4. There are eight normal schools, in which the course of instruction occupies three years, and includes Danish, mathematics, natural sci- ences, writing, pedagogy, history, geography, gymnastics, and drawing. The Lancasterian system of instruction, which was very generally tried and rejected in Germany, succeeded much better in Denmark. It was permissively introduced in 1822, and actively advocated by M. D'Abrahanson, aid-de-camp to the king, and by others, and spread with 60 much rapidity that in three years it was used in 1,707 schools, and in 1830 in 2,673, of all' grades. It has, however, been considerably modi- fied, and as now used is called the reciprocal or Danish system, to dis- tinguish it from the original mutual, or Lancasterian. The royal chancery is the highest board of educational inspection. The baliff and provosts of each town inspects its schools, and the pastor and " school palroons" those of each parish. The school patroons are all having a revenue, estimated, to equal or exceed 32 tuns, or 1,520 bushels of corn. The institutions of special instruction, besides those already men- tioned, are a medical school, a pharmaceutical school, a foresters' school, a military high school, a land-cadets' academy, a sea-cadets' academy, (lower schools for sea and land military service,) an academy of fine arts, a school for the blind, and one for deaf mutes. Considerable funds are used in paying pensions to teachers' widows, and to retired or invalid teachers. Iceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, with a population of 70,500, is remarkable for the universality with which elementary in- struction is diffused, not by schools, but by the family. The only school on the island is a gymnasium for the higher studies at Bessestad, which was endowed in 1530. SWEDEI. The system of Public Instruction in Sweden, consists ol^— I. Two Universities; II. Secondary Scliools, Grammar Schools, and Practical Schools ; III. Primary Schools, or schools for the people. I. There are two universities, Upsula, with an average attendance of 1000 students, and Lund, with about 450 students. At the head of each university is the Chancellor, who is always a person of rank, elected by the professors and confirmed by the king. The present Crown Prince holds this otfice in both institutions. The professors em- brace the four faculties — theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. To each faculty belong a number of stipendiary professors and assistant lecturers. Attendance on the lectures is not compulsory on the stu- dents, nor are they required to remain for any specified lime. Every candidate for any degree conferred by the university, must pass a satis- factory exammaiion. II. Secondary instruction is given in " Schools of Learning" (Lar- dams Skola) and Gymnasia. The former, is a lower grade of Gymna- sium. Both are classical schools; and in the two, the pupils are instructed m religion, geography, history, writing, mathematics, Latin and Greek, the German and French languages, and the elements of natural history. Besides these, there is a class of schools, called Apolo- gist Schools, in which the course of instruction is as thorough as in the Gymnasium, except in the classics. According to an official report in 1843, there were twelve Gymnasia, tbrty-one Schools of Learnmg, forty Apologist Schools, and two Cathedral Schools, connected with the uni- versities. All these institutions are almost entirely supported by the State ; the government appropriating nearly $100,000 a year for sala- ries of teacher's. In these schools the children of the gentry, govern- mental officials, and professional families, are educated, but are not closed to any child qualified to enter. III. T'ne government as early as 1684, in order to make tne lowest form of instruction universal, ordered that before any person could be admitted to the rite of confirmation, (which was necessary to marriage.) the curate should be satisfied of his or her ability to read ; and up to 1822. the peasantry of Sweden was tnought to be the most intelligent in Europe. But in consequence of inquiries instituted about that time by a voluntary association, it was found that home and parochial school 622 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. education had been for a quarter of a century neglected, and in 1825 a a general system was introduced; but up to 1842, the establishment of schools had gone forward so slowly, that it became necessary to pass a law making it compulsory for every district to erect at least one school with an a])proved teacher. Every parish is divided into districts, and whenever a districts does not contain population or wealth enough to maintain a permanent teacher, it is visited by an itinerating teacher, who is permanently em- ployed by the school board of the parish, to teach at ditferent periods of the year in ditierent localities of the parish. The school board consists of a chairman and committee elected by the district, whose duty it is to provide a school-house, and elect and employ teachers. Each teacher is entitled to a minimum salary, con- sisting of sixteen barrels of corn, lodging, firewood, pasture, food for one cow, and small piece of land to cultivate for a garden. If the district can not furnish this, the government makes a grant in aid.. The course of instruction comprises religion, geography, Swedish and universal history, mathematics, geometry, natural history, music, and gymnastics. All children between the ages of nine and fifteen must attend school, unless it can be shown that they receive instruction at home. The Lancasterian, or mutual method of instruction, is very widely adopted. The inspection of all the schools, belongs to the bishop and the chap- ter of the Cathedral. The school board of each district, makes an an- nual report of the state of the schools to the cathedral chapter of the diocese, by which body a report is forwarded every three years to the government. According to the last triennial report, (July, 1850.) the population of Sweden was 3,358,867 ; and of this number, the following children of the legal school age (over nine and under fifteen years) were receiving instruction as follows: — 1. In Primary Schools — stationary, . . . boys, . . . 81,422 " •' " ... girls, . . . 62,104 2. In Primary Schools — ambulatory, . . boys. . . . 67.120 •' " " " . . girls, . . . 59.058 3. Secondary Schools, boys, . . . 6,223 4. Private Institutions, boys, . . . 7,087 •' " girls, . . . 10,377 5. Educated at home, boys, . . . 55,827 " " " girls, . . . 73,169 6. In Sunday Schools, boys, . . . 13.177 " •' " , girls, . . . 12,541 The number of masters employed by the school board in stationary schools, was 2,107 ; and in ambulatory schools 1,351, of whom 218 were clergymen, and 690 church organists. By the act of 1842, a Normal Scnool or Seminary for the training of teachers was instituted. The pupils receive a fixed saiary for their support from the government, in consideration of which, they obligate themselves to teach for at least three years m the primary schools. NORWAY. Education is very generally diffused in Norway. The existing Bchool system much resembles that of Denmark, and was established at the same time with it, in 1814. The parishes are obliged to maintain good school-houses. Jind to pay the salaries of the teachers. These sal- aries usually afford a comfortable support, and are paid partly in money, and partly in produce ; the use of a house being often added. Ability to read tlie Bible, and a certain amount of rehgious knowledge, are prere- quisites to confirmation. The law, moreover, as in Prussia, enforces attendance at school for a certain period. And almost all Norwegians possess a competent knowledge of reading, writing, arithmetic, Bible hi.slory, and the catechism, to which some acquaintance with geogra- phy, grammar, and history, is often added. The educational institutions of Norway may be described as follows: 1. A university at Christiana, founded in 1811. This contains, gen- erally, about 28 professors and 700 students. It has a library of 50,000 volumes, a botanic garden, and a museum. 2. Colleges preparatory to the university. These exist in Christiana, and in most of the large towns, and usually possess libraries and mu- seums. There are also in Christiana schools of drawing and archi- tecture, and a school of commerce and navigation. 3. Twenty-one citizens' schools, in the large towns, with 1.079 pupils. In these are taught, besides the usual studies before named, mathe- matics, English, French, German, and Latin. 4. Fifty-five schools for laborers, with 6 602 pupils. 5. One hundred and eighty-three permanent country schools, with 13,693 pupils. 6. One thousand six hundred and ten itinerating schools, with 133,362 pupils. These are taught in the thinly peopled districts, a month or two a year each, where the people are too poor to support permanent schools. 7. An asylum for deaf mutes, at Drontheim. 8. Sunday schools exist in all the principal towns. 9. Libraries are maintained in most of the parishes by the Society of Public Good. In 1837, one seventh of the population were receiving instruction in the public schools. RUSSIA. The first school in Russia was established in 1017, at Kief, by Valde- mir the Great, for the instruction of the clergy, and placed under the "care of the bishop. A few years later, (1031,) Jaraslaff, the son of Valdemir, establislied a school at Novgorod for the education of 300 sons of the clergy and nobility. The following directions are handed down as hav- ing been given by the bishops of Kief, to the masters of his schools— and. whether so given or not, are worthy of the serious attention of every teacher. Instruct the children in trutli and virtue, in book science, good manners, and charity ; in the fear of the Lord, which is the beginning of wisdom, and in purity and humiUty. Instruct them not in anger and severity, but with joj' and art'ec- tionate treatment — with sweet precepts and gentle consolation that they may neither become weary nor Weak. Teach them diligently and frequently ; and give them tasks according to their powers, so that they may not faint and droop ; but above all things, instruct them assiduously out of the law of the Lord, for the ad- vantage of both soul and body ; and restrain them from foolish and improper language. Previous to 1700, education in Russia was confined to the clergy and a few noble families, and the only seminaries for this purpose existed in connection with religious houses, and were taught and managed by the clergy. Peter the Great, was the first to establish schools to educate youth for the civil and military services of the empire, and by degrees a large number of scientific and literary institutioiis, and a well-organized system of public instruction, have been established — limited however in their benefits to the government, to the higher interests of science and literature, and mainly to the children of nobles and official functionarie.«, and the higher class of merchants — and all based on the cardinal ideas of Russian policy, that all the moral and intellectual forces of society must be merged in the will of the Czar. Peter I. founded the first naval school, and school for engineers at St. Petersburg, and schools in which navigation was taught, at Pskow, Nov- gorod, Moscow, Jaraslaw, and Wologda. The number of the cloister schools were increased, and the nobles were commanded to send their children to school— and the privileges of these schools were extended to other cla.sses of people. In 1724, before his death, he projected the plan of the imperial academy of sciences, which was opened "by his 40 g26 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. successor in the following year. Peter also invited a large number of learned men to teach in his schools at St. Petersburg, and particularly to instruct Russian youth to take charge of schools in other parts of the kingdom — thus introducing the plan of normal instruction. By his pur- chases and encouragements to professors, he founded the museum of natural history, the museum of fine arts, and the school of mines. The Empress Anna, founded the first corps of cadets, a military academy for young nobles, at St. Petersburg, and forbade all promotion among soldiers, and subordinate officers, who could not read. She also ibunded schools at Astrachan for the Calmucks, and at Kasan for the Tartars, and directed one of the officers of the government to report to her annually on the condition of public instruction. The Empress Elizabeth, imposed fine.? on all nobles and public func- tionaries, who did not educate their children at home, or in the church, or public seminaries. She founded the university of Moscow, in 1755, and the academy of arts in 1757. Paul III. increased the number of military schools, and educated at the e.v'pense of the government in these schools, the sons of the poorer nobles. He also fbundeij schools for the orphan children of military men, and founded an institute in St. Petersburg for the sons of private sol- diers, and subordinate officers, in the garrisons of the city. Catharine U., applied her vigorous mind to extending the educational policy of the government. During her reign, and at her suggestion, the imperial free economical society was founded in 1765, by Count Woron- zow, and other noblemen, for promoting scientific and useful knowledge. Under the patronage of successive emperors, it has grown up into one of the most important educational institutions of Russia. It has estab- lished an agricultural school with a model farm ; a collection of draw- ings and models of machines, tools and implements used in every depart- ment of labor ; instituted and aided experiments to perfect industrial methods; held public exhibitions of domestic industry; sent out indi- viduals to study the workshops, factories, and farms of other countries; published a large number of useful didactic tracts on agriculture, and other occupations, and diffused a large amount of information on public health, &c. Catharine was instrumental in founding the academy of St. Petersburg, for the cultivation of the Russian language and litera- ture. She projected in 1783 a system of public schools of two grades, styled upper and Lower — the former for the capital of every district, and the latter for every family in every large city. In the lower schools were to be taught reading, writing, the catechism, and sacred history; in the upper, in addition, drawing, mathematics, the history and geogra- phy of Russia, natural history and philosophy, and the Latin and. Ger- man languages. She commenced her system in St. Peter.«burg, and invited Jankevitch de Marievo, an eminent teacher and school officer in Austria, to superintend the work. So successful was he, that in 1790 the system had been introduced in one hundred and seventy towns. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 627 The inspection over them was confided to the governors of provinces, and a regular appropriation of the provincial funds was made towards their support. This empress founded the normal gymnasium, which is now the imperial normal school of St. Petersburg, two marine schools, a school of commerce, and a school of mines, and several female semina- ries, one of which still bears her name at the capital. Alexander, on assuming the government, declared that he regarded public instruction as the first condition of national prosperity. To him belongs the credit of the more thorougn organization of the public schools, by the appointment of a minister of public instruction in 1802. Under the regulations of this olhcer, and by the direction of the Czar, the schools were divided into four grades, viz. : 1. Universities. 2. Gov- ernment schools, or gymnasia. 3. District schools. 4. Parish schools. The whole empire was divided into seven circles or districts, to each of which was assigned a university. The oHicers of the univeisily circle have the supervision of the schools of tlie three lower grades, viz., a gymnasium or classical high school, in the capital of each province or government ; the district school, in the capital of each subdivision of a province : and the schools in each parish in every city and village. The results of this system of public schools in bringing children of dif- ferent classes and creeds together, and in stimulating inquiries into the organization of society, and the operations of government was thought to bode no good to the stability of things as they were, and during the reign of the present emperor, as well as during the later period of his predecessors, while much attention and large appropriations were be- stowed on education— the aim has been to educate children of each class in society by themselves, to repress freedom of discussion in the univer- sities, and to multiply special schools to train up oificers to fill ditierent departments of the public service with an intense national spirit, as will be seen in the following summary of educational institutions drawn from various recent authorities. I. Public schools or iuslitutions, under the ministry of public instruc- tion. — There are 6 universities, 1 head normal school at St. Petersburg, 3 lycea, with a course of instruction almost as extended as that of a uni- versity, 77 gymnasia, 433 district schools, 1,068 town, and 592 pensions, or boarding-schools established with the permission of the minister, besides schools of the above grades in Poland. All of these schools in- clude about 200,000 pupils. II. Military schools. — These institutions receive the special attention of the emperor, and a large portion of the appropriations for educational purposes. There are three classes: 1. School of cadets or military col- leges, nominally under the direct management of the emperor, which he delegates^ to the Grand Duke, heir apparent. The emperor visits them frequently in person, and looks into all the details of discipline and instruction. There are about 9,000 military cadets. 2. Schools under the direction of the navy board — studying to become ollicer.s, pilots, and master-workmen in the navy yards. There are about 4,000 628 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. pupils of this class. 3. Schools for children of soldiers in service, or who died in war — under the minister of war. These schools are scat- tered throughout the empire, and number 170.000 children. III. Ecclesiastical schools. — Several of this class of schools are amongst the oldest of the empire, dating back to the introduction of Christianity, and were mainly instrumental in maintaining any degree of intelligence in the Russian clergy. Peter I. increased their number, and improved their condition by degrees ; and they still constitute an important educational agency in the State, not only as theological schools for educating the clergy, but for elementary instruction gener- ally. In respect to management, they are divided into two classes: those which belong to the Greek church', under the holy synod and a committee of the body, and those which belong to other forms of wor- ship, which are under the direction of tlie minister of the interior, and the consistory of each denomination. The ecclesiastical schools are of two grades. The higher seminaries are strictly theological schools, of which there are 21 belonging to the Greek church, 13 to the Catholic, 14 to the Armenian, 8 to the Lutheran, 11 to the Mohammedan, and 2 to the Jews, Avith over 4.000 students. Besides these^ there are elemen- tary schools for the sons of the clergy, viz.: 407 belonging to the Greek church, 275 to other denominations with over 70,000 pupils in attendance. IV. Schools under the minister ofjinance, — These comprise, 1. school of mines, which are of three grades, inferior, middle, and superior semi- naries—the latter only being strictly schools for teaching the art. These schools receive mainly the children of miners — thus perpetuating the occupation from father to son. There are 5,000 children in the gov- ernment schools of mines, and about half the number in schools sup- ported by proprietors of private mines. 2. Schools of commerce, a practical institute of technology, a forest institute, and a school of land surveying and design, numbering in all about 3.000 pupils. The schools under the minister of finance, employ 461 teachers, and instruct about 8,000 pupils. V. Schools under the minister of the interior. — These are schools of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy, all independent of the university fac- ulties ; rural schools for the cultivation of the vine, and for agriculture in general; schools for some of the subaltern officers in the civil service, and schools for orphans and poor children. These schools include over 15,000 pupils. VI. Schools under the minister of domains of the crown. — These in- clude several agricultural colleges, and 2,696 village schools for children of the peasants, giving instruction to 14.064 males and 4,843 females. VII. Schools under the general direction of 7'oads and bridges. — These include two schools of civil engineering, and one for conductors and managers of roads — instructing 665 pupils. VIII. Schools under the minister of justice. — These include three law schools independent of the faculties of law in the universities, with 600 students. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 629 IX. Schools under the minister of the emperor's household. — These in- clude the academies of the fine arts at Moscow and St. Petersburg, a scliool of arcliitecture, a school of music — containing in all over 1,000 students. X. Schools under the minister of foreign affairs. — These include schools of modern languages, and one especially to train interpreters in the Asiatic tongues. These schools instruct over 800 students. XI. Schools under the reigning empress. — These include the found- ling hospitals, the boarding-schools for young ladies in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, and schools for daughters of indigent and invalid offi- cers, besides several houses of industry, schools for the deaf and dumb, an^ blind. In all of these schools there are over 90,000 children. XII. Schools aided by the government, but not including in the above. Among these are schools in the German colonies, in Tartary, &c., numbering in all over 50,000 pupils. The above classes of schools, mainly supported by the government, and, to a large extent, devoted to educating young men for different de- partments of the public service, are instructing about 600,000 of the population. This number is exclusive of the number of children who are receiving a home education, which is estimated by M. de Krusens- tem at 597,000, making an aggregate of about 1.200,000 of the youthful population under instruction, a much larger number than is generally conceded. Independently of the institutions occupied directly in the education of youth, Russia has her academies of science, learned societies, pub- lic libraries, museums, and galleries of the fine arts. Her public libra- ries include nearly 1,000,000 volumes. The following notice of the system of public instruction in Russia, appeared in the Annuaire des deux mondes, for 1851-52. Two principles seem to preside over the system of instruction in Russia, the universities are not open to all, nor liave they the power of teaching in all branches of learning. It is mainly since 1848, that the young generation has been re- stricted by the measures taken to keep it isolated from contact with the opinions that have extended over the other countries of Europe. The Russian government makes no secret of this, and the report presented to the Emperor in 1851 upon the condition of public instruction in 1 850, does not conceal the intention of the supreme power. This official report assumesas basis the emperor's own idea, that religious teaching constitutes the only solid foundation of all useful instruction. Besides the plans adopted by the Holy Synod and by the Minister of the Interior, to carry out this principle, the ministry of public instruction aids it in various ways. The chief inspector of religious teaching is aided by an adjunct charged with the duty of visiting monthly, and examining the scholars in the schools and " gymna- ses" of St. Petersburg, in their religious studies, and every month he must make to the minister a report upon the progress and tendencies of this teaching. Eccle- siastical inspectors have been established at Kiew, Kharkof, and Kasan, as they were at Odessa in 1848. Upon these functionaries devolves the task of supervising the teachers and their mode of instruction. In conformity with the will of supreme power, the Holy Synod has directed all ecclesiastical schools to frame for religious study a plan similar to that of the university, the superior normal schools and the Ij'ceums of Richelieu, Demidoff, and Prince Bezboradko. This plan includes dogmatic and moral theology, and church history. In that of the universities there is also included a course of ecclesiastical jurisprudence. Religious studies in sec- g30 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. ondary schools and gymnases are also regulated by a special plan. To complete this system, the emperor has ordered the suppression of instruction in philosophical learning by lay professors in the universities of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkof, Kasan and Kiew, in the lycea of St. Petersburg, and the Richelieu lyceum at Odessa, and professors of theology have been nominated for these establishments, to fill the chairs of logic and experimental psychology. The plan for instruction in these branches has been arranged by concert between the Holy Synod and the State. In the university of Dorpat, all philosophical teachinff is restricted to this course of logic and psyehologj', which has been confided to a theological professor. The faculties of philosophy, formerly divided into two sections, have now been re- solved into special departments, one of history and philology, the other of physics and mathematics. In order to maintain the teachers in the new spirit of this sys- tem, there is in each university attached to the department of history and philology, a class of normal instruction obligatory upon all the students of that department, upon all pensioners of the crown who aspire to the position of teachers in gymna- ses, or in district schools, and upon all paying students who are being prepai'ed for private teachers. It is also in furtherance of these pi-iiieipals that the emperor has, since 1849, limited to 300 the number of paying students, admissible to the universities, no exceptions to this restriction being made except for the course of medical study, and for that of theology in the universities of Dorpat. " To com- plete these meiisures," says the official report, ''his majesty has deigned to per- mit that henceforth, among the student candidates for admission, the prefei'ence shall be given to those, who being equally with others fitted by preparatory in- struction and good conduct, may, by their rank and by existing regulations, have the right to enter the civil service." Here we see the prevailing ideas of instruc- tion and the mode of its restraint, so injurious to philosophical studies, and how it has become a peculiar privilege of the youth who by birth are admissible to em- ployment by the State. University education is divided into 8 districts or circles ; St. Petersburg, Mos- cow, Kharkof, Kiew, Kasan, Dorpat, Odes.si, Wilna, Warsaw. The university of St. Petersburg, has now three faculties, each subdivided into two sections ; the faculty of history and philology, composed of the sections of universal and oriental literature ; that of physics and mathematics, of those of mathematical and natural sciences, that of law, divided into the sections, juridicial and commercial. In 18.50 this university had fiG professors and employees, with 386 students, of whom 288 were sons of nobles, ecclesiastics or government func- tionaries. The circle of St. Petersburg, embraces the 8 provinces of St. Peters- burg, Novgoi-od, Pskow, Vologda, Archangel, Olonetz, Moliilew, and Witepsk. It contanied in 1850, 13 gymnases, 64 district schools, (of which 5 ft)r nobles exclu- sively,) 96 parish schools, of which 17 belonged to parishes of worship other than the Greek ; 2 model boarding-schools for young girls, 9 boarding-schools attached to gymnases and 1 to a district school, and 192 private institutions. The whole number of pupils of both sexes was 20,162, of whom 11,474 were children of nobles, ecclesiastics, " notable" burgesses, and merchants. The circle of Moscow embraces the 9 provinces of Moscow, Vladimir, Kalouga, Kostroma, Riazau, Smoleusk, Tver, Toula, and Taroslav. The university of Mos- cow, has four faculties, history with philolog;^-, physics with mathematics, law and medicine. The circle of Kharkof includes the provinces of Kharkof, Koursk, Vo- ronega, Orel, Tambof, and the territory of the Don Cossacks. The university of Kharkof has the same number of faculties as that of Moscow, with like subdivisions. So also is organized the university of Kiew. This circle contains the provinces of Kiew, Volhynia, Podolia, Tchernigov and Puttawa. The university of Kasan, has 4 faculties, and its circle extends over the provin- ces of Kasan, Nijui, Novgorod, Peuza, Astracan, Saratof, Simbirsk, Orembourg, Perm, and Viatka. The university of Dorpat is one of the most important in the empire, although within its circle a smaller extent of territory is embraced, it includes only the three provinces, Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland ; but these are the most intelligent and enlightened in the Russian empire. This university has 5 faculties, theology, law, medicine, history with philology, physics with mathematics. The provinces of Ekatherinoslaw, Cehersou, Taurida, Bessarabia, the cities of Odessa and Tagauray, with their suburbs and dependencies, constitute the circle of PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA, g31 the university of Odessa. The Richelieu lyeeuni, which presides over this circle, has 3 feeulties — of law, commercial and financial course, and physics with mathe- matics, attached to it is an institute for study of Oriental languages. The provinces of Wilna, (jrodno, Minsk, and Kowno. have a distinct adminis- tration under the name of the circle of Wilna, although that city has in fact no university. Wilna was formerly an intellectual center of Poland ; its university involved in the final catastrophe of Polish nationality was suppressed in 1832. Such also is the position of the circle of Warsaw, it has no university ; it is com- posed of the provinces of Warsaw, Radom, Ploek, Lublin, and Augustovo. The institutions forming it are of two classes, the first includes the institute for nobles at Warsaw ; that of agricultural science at Marimont, the gymnasse of industrial scisnce at Warsaw, and the school of fine arts attached to it, the institute for teach- ers of elementary schools at Radzimine, 3 liigher professional schools of technology, 6 district industrial schools, 97 Sunday schools for apprentices and the Rabbinical school of Warsaw. In the second class are six gymnases, 18 district classical schools, 1,259 elementary, of which 5 are .Jewish. There are also schools main- tained by private support ; of these there are -54 higher and 113 primary, some for boys or girls separately, and others for both sexes. Public instruction in Poland is continually the object of most minute precauticm. In 1850 three classes for higher instruction were commenced in the Warsaw gymnase, but under closest restrictions. Only pupils who, by force of existing regulations, have the right to enter the gymnase, and whose parents live in the city or its environs are admitted to these classes. The governor-general of the kingdom can alone make any ex- ception. Each class is limited to 50 scholars, who pay each an annual fee of 45 silver roubles. From the terms of the official report we understand them to be subjected to the strictest supervision. Two gymnases were, in 1850, suppressed and replaced by district classical schools. The report adds that, *' to prevent an unsuitable crowding of pupils at the gymnase of industrial science at Warsavi^ the administration has found it necessary to, 1st. Found in tliat capital two separate district industrial schools; 2d. To increase to 20 roubles the fee paid by each pupil of the gymnase without exception. 3d. To impose upon the candidates a stricter examination, and only to admit from among those applying from the provinces those in whose favor there may be important reasons for making exceptions. 4th. To organize branches attached to the two government elementary schools for the purpose of withdrawing from district schools the children of poor parents.'' Siberia possesses some educational establishments, yet in their infancy. The 4 governments of Tobolsk, Torusk, Yeunisseisk, and .Tukoutsk, have 3 gymnases. The emperor decided, in 1850, that in those of Tobalsk and Torusk, the study of Greek should be replaced by that of Tartar, at the option of pupils. A history of the Old and New Testament, translated into IMongolian by IVI. Kovalewski, professor of the university of Kasan, has been printed by order of the government for distribution among the still heathen population of some regions of Siberia. Besides these institutions for Christians of various creeds, Russia has .also a cer- tain number of schools for Jews exclusively, they still maintaining in this empire their exclusive existence. To sum up, the higher institutions comprise the normal schools of St. Petersburg, 6 universities, 3 lyceums, having in all 3,521 students, (233 less than in 1849.) The secondary institutions of the empire number 2,149 with 116,936 pupils, (3,656 more than in 1849,) and in the kingdom of Poland they are 1,561 with 82,942 scholars, (1,2T9 more than in 1849.) Private schools do not flounish ; of these there are in the empire but 2,260 male and female teachers. The censorship belongs to the university of public instruction. It underwent on the 19th of July, 1850, a new organization, " more suitable to the requirements of the age." By virtue of another decision, sanctioned by the council of the em- pire, efficient measures have been adopted to prevent the fraudulent introduction of prohibited books from foreign countries. A temporary commission (for two years) has been constituted as experimental, to examine all books designed for in- struction of youth. Its report states that the whole number of volumes imported in 1850, is 641,123. In Poland, the censorship authorized the publication of 327 works; the importation being 58,141 volumes, forming 15,986 works. The military schools are under district administration which the emperor long a^o took under his personal direction, delegating it to the Grand Duke, Michael 632 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. Paulovich, who retained it until his decease, (September, 1849,) and it is now among the powers of the Grand Duke, heir apparent. The progress and improve- "ment in these has been considerable according to the " Abridged statement of the conduct and condition of the military schools, during the twenty-five years of the reign of his majesty the emperor." The military schools are now divided into three circumscriptions, those of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the West. The circumscrip- tion of St. Petersburg includes 12 institutions, the corps of the emperor's pages, the school of ensigns of the guard, first and second corps of cadets, that of Paul, of Count Araktoheef of Novgorod, of Finland, of Alexander, (childrens,) of Georgia, and the regiment of nobles.* The second circumscription, that of Moscow, con- tains 11, the first and second corps of Moscow cadets,t that of Alexandria for orphans, those of Bakletine at Ords, of Alexander at Toula, of Michael at Voronega, of Tambof. of Neplinef at Orenburg, and that of Siberia. The report mentions the corps of Kasan as " projected." The corps of cadets of Polotsk, of Peter at Pultawa, of Alexander at Brzie.sc-Litevvski, and of Wladimir at Kiew, compose the circumscription of the West. The number of schools is 27, of which 23 were in complete operation, 3 in process of organization, and one " projected" in 1850, they had 9,504 pupils. Numerous and important improvements had been intro- duced into military instruction, both in scientific and practical study, and in moral instruction. Their administration has by no means lost sight of its guiding princi- ple, respect for throne and altar. It is this principle that, since 1849 and 1850, governs, more absolutely than ever, the Russian universities. If it is the basis of civic order, it is a fortiori the foundation of military discipline which insures the repose of Russian society. Thus all the material and military strength developed in Russian society, are concentrated in the hands of government. Religion gov- erning public instruction, and the Czar in turn goj'erniug the clergy, all the moral force of the land obeys a single movement. * The higher schools of engineering and artillery " Michael's," are independent of the cir- cumscription, t To the first corps is attached a branch for children. GREECE. The modern kingdom of Greece, as created by a convention of the governments of France, Great Britain, and Russia, and tiie king of Ba- varia, in 1832, occupies a considerable portion of the ancient Greek states, formerly the primitive seat of European civilization. Amid the noblest ruins of the ancient world, the Greeks had preserved a distinct existence as a people, and something of the purity and richness of their beautiful language. From 1750 to 1800, many Greek youth resorted to the uni- versities of Europe, and returned to establish schools, and diffuse a love of learning among their countrymen. About the beginning of the pres- ent century, schools were commenced at .Athens, Saloniki, Scio. Rusa, Tschesne, Athos, Cydonia, and other large towns, by which a spirit of liberty was breathed into the youth of the nation, which resulted in the opening of the war of independence, in 1821. Many of these high schools were closed adraid the din and devastations of the war — but it was one of the leading features in the policy of the provincial govern- ment and of the dictatorship of Capo d' Istrias to establish elementary schools from 1826 to 1831. During the period of the regency, and before the arrival of king Otho, through the efforts of Mr. Maurer, one of the regents, a system of national education was commenced. The fol- lowing statistics will indicate that the progress already made, is not inconsiderable. The public educational institutions of Greece and their statistics, for 1851-2, are as follows : University of Athens, 39 professors, 590 students; classed as follows: of philosophy (sciences and belles-lettres,) 66; theology, 10; law, 109; medicine, 278 ; pharmacy, 37. Of the 590 students, 281 are from the kingdom of Greece, and 309 from other Greek provinces. The annual expense of this institution is $23,560. 7 Gynmasia (classical high schools,) with 43 professors and 1,077 pupils, of whom 847 are from independent Greece. 79 Secondary schools (called Hellenic, because based upon the study of Greek.) with 133 professors and 3,872 pupils ; 4 private institutions and three supported by the communes, with 25 professors and 511 pupils j I seminary, with 4 professors and 30 students. 634 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GREECE 1 Normal school for training teachers for the cornmunal schools, with 7 professors and 60 students. 338 Communal. schools for boys, with 366 teachers and 33 864 pupils. 31 Communal schools tor girls, with 40 teachers, and 4 380 pupils ; 17 private schools for girls, with 25 teachers and 1,479 pupils ; the school of the Philecpaideutic Society for the higher instruction of girls, with 13 professors and 464 pupils. One agricultural school at Tiryns, with 20 scholars. One military scliool, with 20 professors and 64 pupils. There are also, at Athens, a school called the polytechnic school, being the beginning of a school of arts and trades, a library of about 70.000 volumes, a rich cabinet of natural philosophy, a museum of natural his- tory, an anatomical museum, a museum of pathological anatomy, an observatory, a medical society, a society of natural history, an archeol- ogical society, a society of the fine arts, and a botanic garden. According to statistical returns of the kingdom of Greece for 1853, the population is 1.002,112. Of this number, from 700 to 750 are teachers or professors, and about 47,000 pupils, of whom about 6 250 are females. The number of young Greeks studying in the universities of France, Germany, and Italy, is from 350 to 400. Of these, 31 having finished courses of study in Greece, are maintained at the expense of the Greek government ; 11 of them are studying medicine, 6 fine arts, 6 literature, 1 law, 1 physical and mathematical science, and 6 theology. Ionian Islands. By the treaty of Paris in 1816, the seven islands — Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ceeigo, Ithaca, and Paxo, having in 1840 a popula- tion of 200.000, were declared "a single, free, and independent state," under the protectorate of the sovereign of Great Britain, who is repre- sented by an officer, called the Lord High Commissioner. Under the direction of the government, a system of public schools exists, consist- ing of, 1 University at Corfu, with .... 2 Gymnasia with 6 Superior district schools with . 1 Agricultural School and Model Farm, with, 100 District schools with, .... 78 pupils 140 C( 300 (( 80 (( . 6,000 (( ITALY. Italy comprises, 1. The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, with 5,068,000 inhabitants. 2. Tlie kingdom of Sadinia, .... 5.292,000 " 3. The Duchy of Parma, .... 479,900 " 4. The DucliyofModena, .... 490,000 " 5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, . . . 1,752,000 " 6. Tlie Republic of San Marino, . . . 8,200 " 7. The State ofthe Cliurch, .... 2,970.000 " 8. Tlie kingdom of Naples, .... 8,373,000 " In all of these States there is legal provision made for public education, besides a large number of schools connected with religious houses and charitable institutions. The institutions and endowments for charitable purposes exceed in number and amount those of any other portion of Europe. I. Lombardy and Venice. The system of public instruction in the Austrian dominions in Italy, is substantially the same as in Austria proper. It embraces, 1. elementary schools of two grades ; 2. technical schools; 3. gymnasiums ; 4. lyceums; and 5. universities. The following caccount of the system and the schools, is taken from a valuable work on " Italy and the Italians, by Frederic Von Raumer. According to the principal law on the subject of schools of an inferior order, there are two gradations of elementary schools, from those with one class to those with three or four. To these are added what are called technical schools. In the lower elementary schools the first principles of religion are taught, together with reading, writing, and ai'ithmetic. The higher elementary schools are intended for those who purpose devoting themselves to the arts or sciences. The teclini((al schools are chiefly intended to prepare youth for commerce and agriculture. The law compels parents to send their children to school between the ages of six and twelve, and a fine of half a lira per month is incurred by those who neglect to do so; but is not enforced in Lombardy. Mlierever circumstances allow of its being done, the education of boys is separate from that of girls. x\. building for school, and the necessary supply of desks, forms, &c., must be provided by the commune. In the cold and mountainous districts only are the school-rooms warmed in winter. The books prescribed for these schools vary in price from forty-two centesimi to a florin. In the higher elementary schools, religion, orthography, Italian grammar, the elements of Latin, mathematics, natural philosophy, geography, and natural history, are taught. In the technical schools instruction is given in modern Ian- g36 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. guages, — English, German, and French. The clergy are recommended, not merely to give religious instruction; but also to take charge of some other of the lessons. The general superintendence of religious instruction, is committed to the bishcips. For opening a private school, an express permission must be obtained from government. The elementary schools in Lombardy* amounted In number, in 1835 1836 1837 to 4,422 4,470 4,531 including private schools, 701 995 726 In 1837, there remained only 66 communes without an elementary school for boys, so that, if the education be not general among children, the fault must arise less from the want of public institutions than from the want of good-will. The outlay for elementary schools amounted, in 1837, to 507,000 florins. Of this 21,000 florins were derived from endowments, 423,000 were contributed by the com- munes, and 63,000 wei-e defrayed by the State. Of every 100 schools, 84 were public, and of every 100 pupils, 59 were boys and 41 girls. About three-fifths of the children of a suitable age attend school ; and of those that do so, 91 per cent, attend public, and 9 per cent, private schools. The teachers (including 2,226 clei'gymen, directoi's, and school authorities) amount in number to 6,284. The infant schools are attended by 2,026 children, and directed by 93 teachers ; their yearly revenues amount to about 16,000 florins. Thus we every where perceive the cause of education advancing, and the several communes n)anifest their praise- worthy sympathy by constantly increasing votes for the support of schools. In immediate connection with the higher order of elementary schools are the gymnasiums, of which some are public, some communal, some in immediate de- pendence on the bishops, and other private institutions. In Lombardy, in 1837, there were 10 imperial gymnasiums, with 96 teachers and 2,865 pupils; 8 com- munal, with 1,291 pupils. The private gymnasiums were attended by about 1,168 pupils. None but teachers who have been strictly examined are allowed to give lessnns in a private gymnasium, the pupils must all be entered on the list of a pub- lic school, to which they are bound to pay a yearly contribution of two florins, and at which they nmst submit to periodical examinations. Private gymnasiums must adopt the course of study prescribed for public institutions, and must not allow their pupils to remain less than the regulated period in each class. Those in- tended for the church, for the medical profession, or for that of architecture, must be educated at a public school, and those intended for the law are subject to a variety of stringent rules. All the elementary schools of Lombardy are placed under an inspector, and an- other officer has the gymnasium under his control. All vacancies for teachers are thrown open to public competition, and it is only after examination that they are confirmed in their appointments by a government order. To every gymnasium are in general attached a rector, a religious teacher, four professors of grammar, and two of humanity, {d^ vmanitd.) To limit the number of those who crowd into the learned professions, it has of late years been prescribed that no pupil shall be received at a gymnasium before his tenth or after his fourteenth year. From this regulation, however, constant exceptions are made, as it has been found that a rigid enforcement would have the effect of excluding the cleverest and most industrious childi'cn. Corporal punishments have every where been abolished. On Sundays all the pupils of a gymnasium attend church. Not more than 80 pupils must be included in the same class. Thursday is always a holiday. On eacli of the other five days there are only four school hours. The holidays, in addition to those on occasion of the church festivals, last from the 9th of September to the 1st of November. The regular couse of study in each gymnasium last six years, during which the pupil has to pass through four classes of grammar and two of humanity. In the first grammatical class are tauoht : Italian, the rudiments of Latin, arithmetic, geography, and religion. In Jhe second class, the same course is continued, but Roman antiquity, and the geography and history of the Austrian monarchy, are added. In the third grammatical class, Greek is added ; and in the fourth, Latin * In 1834. there were in the Venetian part of the kingdom 1,438 schools, with 81,372 pupils, and 1,676 male and female teachers. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. gSY prosody. In the first humanity class are taught rhetoric, poetry, algebra, geogra- phy, history, and religion ; in the second, the same subjects continue to employ the pupil. A pupil who does not intend to study medicine, or to go into the church, may obtain a dispensation from Greek. Ill every branch of study, the school-books are prescribed by the higher au- thorities. Latin and Greek are taught exclusively through the medium of anthol- ogies and selections, in which there are difhcult extracts intended for the more advanced pupils. A new law was promulgated in 1838 on the subject of technical or commercial schools. These are intended to prepare the future trader and mechanic, and are therefore to give a practical direction to their studies, always keeping in view the interests of the Austrian monarchy and those of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. The towns in which these schools are established must furnish a suitable building and all the requsite furniture, &c. \ the rest of the charge is defrayed by govern- ment. Each teacher gives from 4 to 15 lessons weekly, and their salaries vary from 400 to SOti florins. Each school is divided into three classes, into the junior of which a boy may pass from the grammatical first class of a (gymnasium. In the fii'st class of a technical school, (the first class always means the lowest,) the pupil is obliged to attend weekly 2 lessons of religion, 3 of Italian grammar, 3 of geography, 4 of mathematics, 3 of zoology, 6 of drawing, 4 of writing, in all 25 lessons, of an hour each ; in addition to these, there are 2 lessons of German, and 2 of French, the attendance on which is optional. In the second class, botany is substituted for zoology. In the third class are given 2 lessons of religion, 3 of Italian style, 7 of natural philosophy, 3 of mineralogy, in all 15 obligatory lessons. In addition to these, there are 5 lessons of chemistry, 5 of commercial science, 5 of book-keeping, and 3 of commercial correspondence. Of these the pupil may choose whether he will attend the lessons of chemistryand one of the other three subjects, or whether he will attend the last three without chemistry. There is also a special school for Veterinary surgery, with 5 teachers, 41 pupils, and an expenditure of 71,643 IJre! Chemistry, with 3 teachers, 15 pupils, and an expenditure of 6,750 lire. Midwives, with 3 teachers, 71 pupils, and an expenditure of 24,432 lire. This last institution is in connection with the lying-in and foundling hospitals. For future theologians, on leaving the elementary schools, distinctinstitutions are provided in the episcopal seminaries, of which there is one attached to every see. The largest, at INIilan, in 1837, contained 403 pupils; the smallest, at Crema, only 10. In these the teachers are appointed by the bishop, but satisfactory proof of their capacity must be given to the temportil authorities. Mr. Von Raumer adds the following remarks : In the first place, the elementary instruction is so simple, and the natural progress so evident, that there appears in this respect, to be no very important difference between the German system and that of Lombardy. The only thing to be wished for is, that the number of good teachers may increase in proportion to the number of pupils. To the credit of the clergy be it said that, in addition to the regular hours of religious instruction, they sometimes take charge of one or two other branches, a course perfectly consistent with the duties of their profession. Secondly — the limited number of school-hours at the gj'mnasiums is explained by the work which the children are expected to do at home, and the incompati- bility of an Italian temperament with long confinement. The work to be done at home is, however, much less considerable than at a public school in Germany ; and the vivacity of the Italian temperament might just as reasonably be adduced as a motive for subjecting to a more strict and continuous discipline, besides, in other parts of Italy, we shall see that the number of school-hours is greater. On other grounds, therefore, must be decided the question, whether an increase in the number of lessons be desirable or not ; and also, whether it would not be better to give two lialf-holidays in the week, as with us, than to sacrifice one whole day out of six, as is done in Lombardy. Thirdly — I have to observe that under the word grammar is included not only Latin, but every instruction in the native language. Greek is thi'own too much 638 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. into the back-ground ; and, however laudable it may be to attend to the geog- raphy and history of Austria, it may be much doubted whether it be well judged to assigu to them so marked a precedence before every other kind of historical instruction. Fourthly — the reading nothing but fragmentary collections is defended on the gi'ound that it is expedient to make a pupil acquainted with a variety of authors, and with the different kinds of Latin and Greek. It must be owned that, in our German schools, where a contrarj' system prevails, many a young scholar becomes acquainted with all the delicacies of one author, without being able even to con- strue another, with whose particular style he happens not to be acquainted. It would perhaps be better to combine the two systems, and not to make the acquire- ment of dead languages the main object, where the student is in point of fact in- tended for some more active pursuit ; otherwise, the student, instead of having his character strengthened and his judgment improved by the full impression of ancient greatness, is likely to conceive a disgust of all classical studies, and never to take a Greek or Roman into his hand again, when once he has left school. Who will deny that such is with us the rule, and the contrary the exception ? Fifthly — It may be doubted, perhaps, whether it be advisable to draw the future theologian, like other students, into the full current of temporal affairs ; and it is just as doubtful whether it is advisable to detach him completely from the world, and yet require him, when he comes to mingle in it, to understand, to estimate, and to guide it. Sixthly — Whether our public schools in Germany are not more efficient, and whether they do not prepare the student better for the university than those of Lombardy are questions that do not admit of a doubt. On that very account, however, the lyceum and the course of philosophy have been established. Seventhly — to a most important point, namely, that in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom all public instruction, whether in the elenientaiy schools, or at a gj'm- nasium, a lyceum, or a university, ]s altogether gratuitous. lam auare of the motives by which the demand of payment is usually justified ; nor do I require to be told that what is given away rarely fails to be undervalued ; nevertheless, there is something gratifying in the idea of education without any cost to the parents : much anxiety is thus prevented, as well as many little selfish manoeuvres. The following notice is given of the lyceums and universities. It is generally thought that the gymnasium affords but an insufficient prepara- tion for the study of divinity, law, or medicine, and even for those who, without purposing to devote themselves to either of those professions, intend to compete for appointments to certain public offices. For such students, therefore, a two years' course is opened at the lyceum, or in the philosophical faculty of a university. Before completing this course, a student can not be entered for either of the three other faculties. In Prussia we have no corresponding regulation. The subjects here treated of at the lyceums are with us either attended to at the public school, or may be studied at the university simultaneously with divinity, jurisprudence, or medicine. Here no student can enter a lyceum without a certificate of maturity from the gymnasium ; nor can he be entered for either of the three faculties, without a certificate to show that he has passed through the intermediate two years' course, which is never curtailed, though, with respect to some of the lectures, it is left to the option of the students to attend them or not, as they please. The discipline under which they are kept is tolerably strict. They must not go to a theater, ball, or any place of public amusement, without express permission, nor are circulating libraries allowed to lend them novels or the Conversations- Lexicon. On Sun- days they must go to church, and six times a year they must confess and receive the communion. There are in Lombardy seven imperial lyceums, one civic at -Lodi, and eight episcopal, connected with the seminaries. They are attended by 1,600 students. The imperial lyceums cost the government about 1.37,000 lire annually. In the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom there are two universities, those of Padua and Pavia, where the course of study is under the control of the directors of the several faculties, who in their turn are responsible to the governor of the province. The directors propose candidates to fill up vacancies, suggest modifications in the PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 539 course of study, see that the professors arrange their lectures in a suitable manner, that they do not wander away from their subjects, and that they lead a moral life ; the directors are also to examine class-books and academical discourses, to be frequently present at the lectures, to take part in the deliberations of the senate, to call the faculties together, and to superintend the election of a dean. These directors, who are not professors, are said to have all the real power in their hands, the rector being a representative without influence, and the functions of the dean being confined to the care of some matters of a purely scientific char- acter. Every thing belonging to discipline and the maintenance of order is also in the hands of the directors. An ordinance relating to the university of Padua, dated the 8th of April, 1825, declares that institution to be immediately under the gubernium. A general assembly includes not only the directors, deans, and professors, but likewise all doctors who have graduated at Padua, and reside in the city. Tiie rector is elected annually from the different faculties in succession, and not only the pro- fessors but also each of the doctors just mentioned has a voice in the election, and is himself eligible to the dignity. The senate selects three candidates from the faculty next in s'lceession, alter which a majority of votes determines the election, subject to the confirmation of the government. The rector calls the senate together twice a year, when a report is read of all that has been done by him dur- ing the interval. His power, however, in this respect, is greatly cramped, espe- cially by means of the directors. The dean must be a doctor of the faculty to which he belongs, but, in that of law or medicine, must not himself be a professor. In the other faculties, professors are eligible to the dignity of dean. The dean is to keep an historical chronicle of every thing relating to the faculty. All lectures are gratuitous, with the exception that twelve lire are paid by the higher order of nobles on entering their names, nine by the inferior nobles, six by a wealthy citizen, and three by any other student. With respect to the relation between doctors and professors, the law says : the faculties are considered as academical corporations, distinct (separati) from the professors. Although the doctors, therefore, do not belong to the body of instruc- tors, they have a central point of union, to consult together, and place their sug- gestions before the authorities. They likewise serve the state, as an assembly of well-informed men, whose opinion may be consulted and listened to. The university of Padua has the four customary faculties. The senate consists of the following persons : the rector, four directors, four deans, and four ancients among the professors. There are six ordinary professors of divinity, eight of law, twelve of medicine, nine of the philosophical sciences, besides a few deputies and assistants, but not, as with us, a set of extraordinary professors and private tutors. The general assembly, including the doctors, consists of twenty-four theologians, fifty-seven jurists, twenty-four physicians, and thirty philosophers. The university course, for divinity in law, lasts four years ; for medicine and surgery, five ; and for those who study surgery only, three or four years. Every half-year the students are examined. At the end of two years they obtain the dignity of bachelor, and at the end of three, that of a licentiate. The dignity of doctor is not conferred before the end of the fourth year, nor till after a general examination. The candidate must publicly defend a Latin thesis, but no mention is made of any essay required to be printed. The university of Pavia has no theological faculty, but in every other respect the same constitution as that of Padua. There are at present thirty-eight professors, three adjuncts, and eleven assessors. Of these eleven professors and two adjuncts belong to the ])hilosophical faculty ; four professors and one assessor to the mathe- matical division of the faculty ; eight professors and one adjunct to the legal ; and fifteen professors and ten assessors to the medical faculty. The mathematical division of the philosophical faculty is chiefly intended for the education of land-surveyors and engineers. A student fean enter it on completing his course of philosophy. I will only add a few brief remarks as when treating of schools, by way of insti- tuting some comparison between the German and Italian universities. In the first place, the lyceum and the course of philosophy owe their institution evidently to a consciousness that a blank existed between the degree of information acquired at a gymnasium and that necessary for prosecuting the study of either of 640 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. the other three faculties ; but here a doubt suggests itself, whether it would not be simpler, more economical, and more beneficial, to assign to the gymnasium a part of the instruction afforded by the lyceum, and the remainder to the university itself. I scarcely think it well-judged to compress all these subjects into the space of two years, and then to confine the student entirely to matters connected with his in- tended profession, without allowing him the relief of variety. Would it not be better to permit the young men, as is done at our German universities, to attend philosophical and historical lectures, simultaneously with those on theology, medi- cine or law ? It is true that, owing to the greater liberty allowed to our students, they frequently absent themselves from all lectures but those connected with the pursuit on which their future livelihood is to depend. In such eases it is not to be denied that the stricter regulations of Italy may be preferable. The director of a faculty is an officer wholly tmknovvn with us, and the object of liis appointment is evidently the maintenance of a stricter discipline. The en- largement of the faculty by the admission of resident doctors is another arrange- ment unknown in Germany. It may have the effect of avoiding nmch partiality and e.xclusiveness ; but it may be questioned whether, on the other hand,^ it does not tend to weaken the corporation. Many objections might be made to the number and succession of the lectures, and certainly our better universities in Germany present greater variety and more completeness. The Italians, on the other hand, might argue, that this variety is carried much too far with us, breaking up the course of study into a multitude of fragments, in a manner quite unsuitable to the student's advancement. A new law was promulgated on tbe 6th of September, 1838, for the foundation or restoration of two academies of arts and sciences at Venice and Milan, and measures are now in progress to effect the realization of this plan. Each eeademy is to comprise three classes: real members, honorary members, and correspon- dents. The first are to receive salaries of 1,200 lire, and the further assistance to be afforded has, for the present, been fixed at 45,000 lire. II. Sardinia. The system of public education embraces, 1. elementary schools in each commune, in which reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious in- struction is given. 2. Upper schools in the large towns under the direc- tion of the clergy. 3. Four univer.sities. 4. Special schools of agricul- ture, of arts and manufactures, of civil engineering, &c. We have no recent statistics respecting these schools. The following notice of higher instruction is taken from the Anmiarie des deux Mondes, for 1851. Public instruction under the regime of the old monarchy was not without its fame. The university of Turin, founded so long ago as the 15th century, was fully organized by the middle of the 1 6th, and gradually became the center for students from all northern Italy. It owes its rapid progress much to the careful solicitude of Victor Amadeus II. In 1720, it had but 800 students ; in 1730, two thousand. This university was the focus of intellectual activity in Piedmont, the other institutions for instruction having been but slowly developed. The system of exclusive privileges, the varying laws, the influence of a hier- archy which mainly governed the elementary schools, all the assemblage of feudal and ecclesiastical institutions embracing government and society, naturally caused great confusion in the organic principles of instruction. A serious and fundamental reform was attempted in 1 847 by the royal decrees of 30th November. The old administration of the university was abolished, and a special ministry of public instruction created. The formation of a high council to assist the minister completed on the 27th December, following this effort of the State to centralize the system by placing it under uniform and stricter supervision. But the present orgaiiization only dates from the law of 4th October, 1848, which, inspired by the recent revolution in the principles of political legislation, imprinted upon the institutions for public instruction, of every grade, a new type. The duties of the ministry and of the various councils destined to act Under its orders were fixed by this law. All the universities, secondai'y and elementary PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. Q^l schools of the kingdom, are placed under the control of the minister of public in- struction. Schools for the deaf and duiab, those of agriculture, of arts and man- ufactures, of veterinary medicine, forests, civil engineering, of the marine and a few other special schools, are the only exceptions to the rule laid down by this new law. Subsequent legislation has developed these principles. The high council consists of nine regular members appointed for life, and five transient whose term of service is three years. Both classes are chosen by the king among professors either retired or in service, of the various faculties of the kingdom, excepting two of the regular councillors who must be selected among the savans or distinguished literary men. Each university, and each faculty, is directed by a council. In each university exists a permanent board, chosen out (if its council, charged with direc- tion and supervision of the institutions for secondary instruction. Every college that has a professorship of philosophy has also its council. Elementary instruc- tion is dii'eeted by one general council for the whole kingdom whose authority is in the island of Sardinia delegated to the university councils, aided by a board of e1euient;u-y instruction in each province. In all the pnivinccs, the State is represented by a sort of rector \>ho is entitled regio proveditore. But the movement of this system is derived from the minis- ter and his high council. The resemblance of this to the former high council of the universities in France is obvious. The Piedmontese council prepares and examines projects of laws and regulations relating to public instruction, it arranges a general plan for studies, it examines and appi'oaches the outlines of the courses of study presented to it by the university boards, and also the class- books. The reports of inspectors of schools and scientific institutions, those of the university boards and of the provincial councils presiding over elementary in- struction, are also submitted to examination by the high council. Among the most important duties of this body, we may number the obligation of presenting to the minister, once in three years, a general report upon the condition of instruc- tion in the kingdom, and among its most important powers, that of deciding upon questions of discipline, and upon charges preferred against professors of universi- ties and secondary schools, and elementary inspectors, the accused party to be heard. There are in the kingdom four universities, for Piedmont one at Turin, and one at Genoa ; for the island of Sardinia two others, one at Cagliari, the other at Sassari. These universities confer the higher academic degi-ees. The university schools (»f Chamberi and Nice, dependencies of the Turin university, have profes- sorships of law and medicine, and students of medicine can pass two years of the required course in them. Each royal college established at an episcopal see, has a faculty of theology for instruction of youth designed for the priesthood. Nearly all the chief provincial towns have a professorship of civil law for those intended to be notaries or advocates. University instruction is divided into five faculties, theology, law, medicine and surgery, belles-lettres and philosophy, physical and mathematical science. These are subdivided nearly as in the French plan. The most important difl:erences are that of the study of canon law, a branch of the law faculty, and that of the some- what confused organization of teaching in philosophy. A distinction is made be- tween rational and positive philosophy. The course of positive philosophy which occupies three years includes but one year of philosophy properly so called, moral ; the other three are devoted to various branches of exact sciences. Embraces with geometry, general chemistry, mineralogy, zoology and physics, ancient lit- erature and modern Italian. Mr. Von Raumer. in his " Italy and the Italians," remarks ; A collection of laws for tliL- regulation of schools was printed in 1834. Ac- cording to these, the instruction given in the elementary schools is gratuitous. The lessons begin and end with prayer. The gymnasiums (collegi) are divided into six classes: three junior, one of grammar, one of humanity, and one of rhetoric. The branches of instruction and class-books are prescribed. Besides the ordinary teachers, every gymnasium has a prefect, who is often changed, and whosL' duty it is to enforce discipline among teachers and scholars, and a spiritual dire. Under the last named, the following exercises occur daily. Every morn- ing; 1. a quarter of an hour of rehgious reading; 2. the hymn, Veni creator; 41 g42 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 3. according to the season, the Anibrosian hymn, and other extracts from the Ufficio delta beata Vergine ; 4. mass ; 5. hymn of the litanies of the holy vir- gin ; 6. spiritual instruction ; 7. the psalm Laudate Dominum^ and a prayer for the king. In the afternoon : 1. a quarter of an hour of religious reading; 2. hymn and prayer ; 3. three quarters of an hour explanation of the catechism. The school lasts 3i hours in the forenoon, and 2^ hours in the afternoon. Thurs- day is a whole holiday. Where the funds of the school are insufficient, a boy in the three junior classes pays 15 francs a year, and in the upper classes, 20 francs, besides 8 or 12 francs on being promoted from one class to another. The salaries of the teachers are paid partly by the government and partly by the towns, and amount to from 750 to 1,200 lire per annum, with some trifling addition in case of long service. The retiring pensions also depend on the period of service, but the highest pension never exceeds the lowest salary. Where the ability is the same, clergymen are always to be preferred. No teacher must cause any thing to be printed either in or out of the kingdom without submitting his manuscript first to the ordinary censorship, and to the censorship of the riforma. The magistrato di riforma is a kind of ministry of public instruction, and has a consiglio di riforma under it in every province. Among its other duties, occurs that of pre- scribing what books shall be used in instruction, although, in the episcopal semi- naries, and some others under the guidance of ecclesiastical orders, such as the Jesuits, the Barnabites, &e., it has little influence. The scholars of the gymnasiums are not allowed to read any books which have not been either given or furnished by the prefect. They are forbidden to swim, to frequent theaters, balls, coffee or gaming houses ; to perform in private plays, and the like ; and it is the business of the police to see these prohibitions at- tended to. There is in Turin one head university, with four faculties ; and thei'e are sec- ondary universities (universitd secondarie) in Chamber!, Asti, Mondovi, Nizza, Novara, Salu'zzo, and Vercelli, either for the study of medicine alone, or for medi- cine and jurisprudence together. The universities have no legal right to make proposals for the appointment to vacant places, and there is consequently no can- vassing. This is by some regarded as an advantage, though it is stated on the other band that hasty and partial nominations are more frequent on this system. There are three academical degrees, those of bachelor, licentiate, and laureate; and the holidays are on the whole more frequent than with us. The students are not only under strict scientific superintendence, but also under the close surveillance of the police. No student is allowed to choose his dwelling or leave it without permission of the prefect, who often appoints the place where he is to lodge and board. Whoever wishes to receive students into his house must undertake the respon- sibility for* their observance of the laws which regulate their going to mass and confession, fasting, and even their clothing and their beards. Neglect of these rules is punished by exclusion from the examinations, or from the university itself. With respect to the great abundance of devotional exercises, I may be per- mitted to remark that, though the reference to piety and devotion, as to that which should mingle in all sciences and in every action of our lives, be undoubt- edly praiseworthy, and for Catliolics it is right to prefer Thomas a Keiflpis to Ovid as a school-book, I can not help doubting if the constant repetition of these prescribed forms be really advisable. Without considering that many must re- gard them as mere loss of time, it would be scarcely possible to avoid one of two errors — either that of an over-estimation of mere external observances, and a consequent disregard of true inward holiness, or an indifference and disgust easily excited in young minds, when the highest and holiest subjects become matters of daily and mechanical routine. In the second place, that the school instruction should devolve wholly on Cath- olic clergymen may have one advantage in an economical point of view, since, being without families, they are better able to maintain themselves on a small in- come ; but it can scarcely escape the objection of bestowing onl}^ of one-sided education, or avoid the danger of having many branches of instruction under the superintendence of those who are themselves little instructed ; unless ecclesias* rics should be obliged to devote themselves to studies foreign to their vocation. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 643 The existence of a lurking wish to extend and strengthen by this means the power and dominion of the church is the more evident, as establishments for edu- cation are daily arising, which are entirely withdrawn from tempwral influence. I repeat that such a system as this appears to me quite as one-sided and disad- vantageous as the opposite one. In the third place, what is called the philosophical course, is here, still less than in the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, such as to afford any compensation for the meagerness of the education afforded at the gymnasium. How, for instance, can a single lesson or lecture a week in Greek grammar make amends for many years' academical study of that difficult language, or afford any preparation for the studies of the university, in themselves meagre enough ? Besides, there is merely a choice offered to the quasi-student, whether he will learn Greek or history. Should he prefer history, he must renounce Greek altogether, Fourthly, much might be said against the subordinate universities above-men- tioned. They were established at a time when the unquiet dispositions of the Turin students had turned towards politics, and occasioned much trouble to the government, which endeavoi-ed to weaken them by scattering them thus over the country. It may be doubted, nevertheless, whether this lasting resource against a merely temporary evil has proved really effectual. It is at all events likely that the number of ignorant students has been thereby increased, and the instruction deteriorated from the diminution of the number of learned professors. The German universities sometimes exhibit the dangers of too much liberty, those of this country the evils of too much restraint. The time must come in a young man's life when even paternal authority must ceascr^much more, then, the discipline of a school. III. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The means of education provided by the central government, munici- pal authorities, or charitable endowment are: — 1. infant schools, of which, in 1850, there were 22, numbering over 2,000 children. 2, Ele- mentary schools, of which there is at least one supported by the com- mune, and a number of schools of mutual instruction supported by vol- untary associations. In these schools, there is no charge for tuition. 3 Schools for secondary education embracing 4 colleges for nobles. If gymnasiums or classical schools. 16 seminaries or boarding schools foi girls, called conservatori. The seminary at Florence, has 600 boarders. In'^'all of these schools there are over 5.000 students. 4. Three univer^ sities. viz.: at Pisa, (founded in 1138.) with 580 students; at Siena, (founded in 1331,) with 300 students; and at Florence, (called the academy, and founded in 1428.) with 230 students. Mr. Von Raumer, remarks : " In so highly polished a land as Tus- cany, the value of education and instruction has by no means escaped the attention of the government and of individuals ; yet much still re- mains to be done, and schools and universities appear to be very scanty in comparison with the number and revenues of the clergy and espc" cially of the monks. Indeed, the Italians do not acquire knowledge by means of their universities, but in spite of them ; and how can govern^ ments be surprised if many, both old and young, have eitherno ideas at all, or false ones, of passing events, of social relations, states, constitu- tions, and governments, since every genuine avenue to science and ex- perience is cut ofTli-om them by the perverse one-sidedness and silly ap- prehension of their rulers !" g44 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY IV. States of the Church. The Roman, or Papal States, or States of the Church are divided into 21 provinces, of which those lying west of the Apennines are styled Legations, while that of Rome bears the name of Comarca. This ter- ritory was at various times, — most of it from 755 to 1273 donated to the Holy See. The general supervision of ail the educational institutions is committed to a Commissioner of Studies, while the local management of the elementary schools is assigned to a committee of which the parish priest is one. The means of elementary education are very geneyally provided either by parish schools, or by schools conducted by various reli- gious orders. Higher education is dispensed by seven universities, several of which are among the oldest in the world. The institutions for elementary education in the city of Rome are: 1. Orphan asylums. Of these there are a large number richly en- dowed and well regulated, of which some are for boys and others for girls. The San Michael, is supported by the government, and furnishes in- struction not only in the elementary studies but in various trades, to over 400 orphans of both sexes- In this class of institutions there are about 2,000 boys and girls. 2. Parish schools ibr poor children — established by the rector of the parish, assisted by the commission of charitable subsidies. There were in 1847, eleven of these schools with about 1,000 scholars, between the ages of 5 and 12 years. 3. Schools conducted by religious orders, devoted by their vows to teaching. i. Schools conducted by a religious order established by Calasanzio, a native of Spain, who opened a free school in Rome, in 1597. which at one time numbered over 1.000 poor children in one of the poorest districts of the city. He died at the advanced age of 92 years, after his " Con- gregation to the poor" had been erected into a religious order, by #ie pope, the members taking in addition to the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, the vow of instruction. The members are called Padri Scolapi, and the schools Scolapi, (contracted from schole pie.) or pious schools, of which there are now three, with over 1.000 pupils. ii. Schools of the Fathers of the Christian doctrine or teaching." This religious congregation, devoted to teaching, is composed of a fraternity established by Cesare de Bees in 1592, (Congregazione degli Agaiisti,) and another founded by two priests in 1559. They have two houses, and educate about 700 pupils. iii. Schools of the Brothers of the Christian doctrine, a fraternity con- nected with the order of teachers established by De Lasalle in 1684, in France, and transferred to Rome in 1702. As they profess to teach only the elementary studies, they are sometimes called the Ignorantelli. They have three houses and instruct about 1,200 children without fee or reward. In these schools, much time is given to religious instruction and ob- PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. g45 eervances, and the methods which were once in advance of other schools, ate now antiquated and formal, to which these fraternities adhere with the tenacity of religious faith. 4. Elementary schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor girls. In one of these, the cojiservatori^ sixty girls are boarded, lodged, and in- structed ; and as soon as they are of suitable age, are taught to spin, weave, make gloves, and other profitable handicrafts. 5. Regional or district schools. Rome is divided into wards, or dis- tricts, in which are maintained, partly at the expense of the gov- ernment, and partly by a small charge on the parents, 246 district or regional schools, (scholae regionarie,) with about 5,000 children. These schools are of three grades— Jij-st, those which receive boys and girls under five years ; second^ those which receive only girls, in which they are taught, besides the elementary studies, to sew, knit, and embroider ; third, those which receive only boys over five years. In a few of the two last grades of schools, the course of studies is extended so as to em- brace the studies of our public high schools. 6. Schools established by individuals and associations — such as the school of Prince Massieno in one of the poorest districts of Rome — the evening schools established by Casaglio, an engraver in wood, in 1816. and extended by others. These schools belong to the primary grade, and are intended mainly for the poorer classes. V. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. A system of public instruction was established for this kingdom dur- ing its occupancy by the French, embracing the three grades of schools : 1. primary ; 2. secondary ; 3. superior. 1. The law requires at least one elementary school in every commune, for reading, writing, arithmetic^ and the catechism. This provision is not very generally enforced. There are a number of primary schools taught by religious congregations, such as the Christian Brothers, and the Fathers Scolapi. In 1847, there were 2,500 primary schools. 2. Secondary instruction is supplied by 780 gymnasia, or classical schools, besides 4 lycea. which confer degrees. There is a large semi- nary for girls at Naples, and another at Palermo, besides a number of conventual seminaries for female education. 3. Superior education is dispensed by 4 universities: — at Naples, (founded in 1224;) at Catania, (founded in 1445;) at Palermo, (founded in 1447;) at Messina, (founded in 1838,) with an average attendance of about 2,300 pupils. PORTU&AL. The direction and supervision of public instruction in the kingdom of Portugal, is committed to the minister of the home department. The system is as follows : 1. Primary instruction is given through 1,190 elementary schools; some of them conducted on the monitorial, and others on the simultane- ous, method. To train teachers for these schools there is one normal school, at which the government supports thirty students. 2. Secondary instruction is imparted through a class of institutions called Lycea, (of which there were 27 in 1850,) in which the Portuguese and Latin languages, mental and moral philosophy, rhetoric, history and geography in reference to the commerce of the country, arithmetic, and geometry in their applications to the arts and manufactures. In some of the Lycea, located in the principal cities, there are classics of theology, the German and Hebrew languages, and commercial law, including particularly, insurance, exchange, &c. ; while in those located in the country, rural economy is introduced. Besides these there are 350 classical schools. 3. Superior instruction is given in the university of Coimbra, founded in 1279, in which there are five faculties, viz. : of theology, law. medi- cine, mathematics and philosophy, and a library of 60,000 volumes. 4. Special instruction is given in a polytechnic academy, a naval academy, a military school, a school of mines, three schools of medicine, a school of civil architecture, a school of painting, and several schools of design. 5. There are several institutions for the encouragement of science and arts. Among these are, the royal academy at Lisbon, the historical society, the national library at Lisbon with 80,000 volumes, the conserv- atory of arts, twelve museums of coins, antiquities, and specimens of mineralogy, and other departments of natural science, an academy of music, and seven botanic gardens. SPAII. Amid the revolutions of the government and of the country for the last half century, the friends of popular education have not been able, till within a few years past, to make much progress in organizing a system of elementary schools. The universities, and high schools, (many of them in connection with the religious orders) have with diffi- culty been kept open for the children of the rich and noble. In 1839, under the auspices of an association, including among its members and patrons several of the noblest names of Spain, a normal school for the training of masters in the Lancasterian system, as pursued in the Borough Road School, in London, was established in Madrid. Through the agency of teachers trained in this school, many new schools were opened in different parts of the country, and new life was infused into many schools for poor children connected with convents. In 1849, '• on the representation of the Minister of Instruction and Public Works, respecting the desirableness of giving a new organization to the Nor- mal Schools of Elementary Instruction, and in view of the need that exists of forming suitable inspectors for this branch of education," the following royal decree was promulged, which we copy from a recent re- port of the British and Foreign School Society. ROYAL DECREE RELATIVE TO EDUCATION. (1849.) T\tle I. — Of Normal Schools. 1. The normal schools of elementary instruction shall be limited to the following, namely : the central school of Madrid ; nine superior schools ; twenty elementary schools in the Peninsula, and two in the Balearic and Canary Islands. 2. The central normal school shall preserve its actual object and organ- ization, and shall also form the superior school for the university district of Madrid. The other university districts shall each have its superior school stationed in the town where the university exists ; but in case this should be impracticable, it may be established in another place near to it. The towns in the Peninsular where elementary schools are to be placed are the following: Alicante, (or, instead of it, Orihuela,) Bada- ioz, Burgos, Caceres, Ciudad Real, Cordova. Cuenca, Gerona, Guada- lajara, Huesca, laen, Leon, Lerida, Lugo, Murcia, Orense, Pamplona, Santander, Soria, and Vittoria. 3. The central normal school shall communicate directly with the 648 NOHMAL PfHOOLS IX SPAIN. government; the superior schouis shall be under the care of the rectors of the universities ; and the elementary schools under the directors of the institutes, as delegates of the rectors. 4. The instruction which is to be given in the superior normal schools shall continue for three years, and shall embrace the following matters : Religion and morals ; reading and Avriting ; the grammar of the Spanish language, together with some idea of rhetoric, poetry, and Spanish literature ; arithmetic in its full extension, with the legal system of weights and measures; the elements of algebra; the principles of geometry, with their application to the uses of common life ; the industrial arts, and agriculture; geography and history, especially of Spain ; those principles of natural philosophy, chemistry, and natural history, which are indispensably necessary for forming a general knowl- edge of the phenomena of the universe, and for applying them to the more common uses of life ; a practical knowledge of agriculture ; peda- gogy, or the general principles of education, and methods of teaching. 5. In the normal elementary schools the period of teaching shall be for two years, and the following matters shall be embraced: Religion and morals; reading and writing ; Spanish grammar; arithmetic, with the system of weights and measures; the elements of geometry ; lineal drawing ; the principles of geography, and a sketch of the history of Spain ; some ideas of agriculture ; and knowledge of the methods of teaching. 6. The programme of studies in the superior schools shall be formed on a plan to meet, as far as possible, the convenience of those who have studied two years in the elementary schools, so that they may pass their third year in them. 7. In the superior schools there shall be both internal and external pupils; the elementary schools shall only have external pupil.=!. The age of entering in reference to becoming a candidate for a mastership in the normal schools shall not be under seventeen, nor over twenty-five. 8. There shall be in each superior normal school a head master, with an annual salary of 10.000 rials, (£100*;) a second master, with 8,000 rials; and a third, with 7,000 ; a director of the practical school, with a salary corresponding to that of a superior master, according to the royal decree of the 23d of September, 1847 ; an assistant or usher to the director, with half the salary assigned to the said master; an eccle- siastic intrusted with the instruction of morals and religion, with 2,000 rials of gratification, and the assistants that may be required. 9. In the normal elementary schools there shall be a chief master, with 8,000 rials a year of salary; a director of the practical school and his ushers, with the same salaries as those with the same names as already mentioned for the normal superior schools ; the ecclesiastic for the instruction of religion and morals, with a salary of 1,500 rials ; and the necessary assistants. 10. The appointment of masters shall be by the government, through means of a public exhibition or trial, giving, notwithstanding, a prefer- ence to those now actually holding these situations. The directors of the practical schools, and their assistants, shall be appointed by the several town councils, according to the form prescribed for the ordinary schools. 11. In order that the instruction in agriculture may be conveniently given in the normal superior schools, and may be extended afterward to the other schools in a uniform manner, the masters that may be named for this object shall come in the first place to Madrid, with the * 100 reales de vellon are about equal to jEl, or $5,00. NORMAL SCFIOOLS IN SPAIN. g49 enjoyment of their salaries in the Ibrm of a pension, in order that tiiey luiiy, for the time judged necessary, make a special study of lliis science, and acquire the otlier branches of knowledge connected with it, unless they should previously possess all the knowledge required in this par- ticular branch. 12. By the 11th article of the law, dated 21st July, 1838, all the provinces of the kingdom are under obligation to contribute to the sup- port of these normal schools, and also a certain sum is assigned lor tiie same purpose in the general budget of the state. Tlie respective quotas of the expenses incurred by these establishments shall be as follows: The province of Madrid shall contribute 12,000 rials annually; the provinces of tlie first class 8,000 ; those of tlie second class, 7,000 ; and those of the tliird, 6,000 The government shall contribute a sum equal to the salaries of the directors and second masters of the supe- rior schools, together with all tlte costs of the central school. Each province shall contribute tor the support of two pupils in the superior school of their respective districts, a sum equal to that contributed by the government to each eslablislunent, according to their re.spective localities. The expenses of school materials and attendants shall bo paid by the })rovinces severally where the schools are settled, wlielher superior or elementary. To aid in these expenses, each establishment sliall be entitled to the matriculation fees of the students, and the con- tributions of the children. The practical schools attached to the nor- mal schools shall continue to be supported as they hitherto have been, by the several town councils. The preservation of the buildings in proper repair shall be the duty of the same councils. Title II. — Of the Conditions and Examinations for obtaining the iSitiialion of a Master. 13. Every candidate for the situation of master in the elementary schools must have studied two years in some one of the normal schools of the two classes. 14. Every candidate for the situation of master in the superior schools must have studied a third year in one of the schools of the same class. 15. Every candidate for an elementary school, the salary of which ascends to 4.000 rials, must obtain the title of a superior master. 16. In future the examinations lor a superior school shall take place only in schools of this class. Those for an elementary school shall be held as hitherto, in any of the provinces. Title \\\. — Of Inspectors. 17. In each province there shall be a school inspector, named by the government. Candidates for this otfice must have studied three years in the central, or in one of the superior schools, and have acted as a master for at least five years. At present all the directors and masters of the existing or suppressed normal schools shall be eligible tor this situation. 18. The salaries of the inspectors shall be, in the provinces of the first class, 10,000 rials ; in those of the second class, 9.000 ; and in those of the third, 8.000 ; they shall also be paid traveling expenses, and these shall be considered equal to one-third of their annual salary. Both the salaries and the traveling expenses of the inspectors shall be paid by the provinces, and shall be included in their budgets. 19. The provincial inspectors shall be, ex-offcio, members of the Superior Commission of Primary Instruction in their respective provinces. 20. The said inspectors, in those provinces where a normal elementary school is situated, shall be uridfr obliiiation to teach in the same, at 650 SCHOOL INSPECTION IN SPAIN. certain times of the year, such branches as shall be assigned to them. They shall also supply the places of directors during their absence or illness. 21. There shall be likewise six general inspectors, named and paid by the government, having each the salary of 12.000 rials. To obtain the office of inspector-general the candidates must have held the situation of director of a superior normal school, or that of master in the central school. 22. The principal object of the general inspectors shall be to visit the normal schools, and the ordinary schools in the capitals of the prov- inces. They shall also attend to all the commissions intrusted to them by the government for the general ad vancementof elementary instruction. 23. The inspectors. botTi general and provincial, are prohibited from holding either a public or a private school, or of acting as masters in any establishment, except as is stated in Article 20. Title IV. — Of the Secretaries of the Superior Commissions of Ele- mentarij Instruction. 24. The secretaries of the superior commission of elementary instruction shall be appointed, as vacancies occur, from the masters who have obtained the title to a superior school. The government shall name them from a list of three proposed by said commissioners. Their office shall be considered incompatible with any other employment, including that of a master in any of the schools. 25. The salaries of the secretaries shall be, in Madrid, 12,000 rials ; in provinces of the first class. 9,000 ; in those of the second. 8,000; and in those of the third, 7,000. They shall defray the costs of their own sta- tionery, but not those of postage or f rinting. These salaries and com- mission expenses shall be, as heretoicre, a provincial charge. 26. In extraordinary cases, and when demanded by authority, or the provincial commission, the secretaries may be employed to visit any par- ticular school, but so as to be absent not more than fifteen days. 27. Regulations and special directions shall be made to fix the rou- tine of the schools, the powers and duties of the inspectors, and all other necessary points for the suitable fulfillment of this decree. SCOTLAND, The parochizJ schools of Scotland have been the pride of her own peo- ple and the admiration of enlightened men in all countries. The founda- tions of the system were laid in 1494. In that j'ear it was enacted by the Scotch Pnrliament, that all barons and substantial freeholders throaghout the realm should send their cliildren to school from the age of six to nine years, and then to other seminaries to be instructed in the laws; that the country might be possessed of persons properly qualified to discharge the duties of sheriffs, and to fill other civil offices. Those who neglected to comply with the provisions of this statute vVere sub- jected to a penalty of £20. In 1560, John Knox and his compeers hold the following memorable language, in the " First Book of Discipline," pre- sented to the nobility. " Seeing that God has determined that his kirk here on earth shall be taught, not by angels, but by men ; and seeing that men are born ignorant of God and of godliness; and seeing, also, that he ceaseth to illuminate men miraculously, of necessity it is, that your honors be most careful for the virmous education and godly lip-bringing of the youth of this realm. For as they must succeed to us, so we ought to be careful that they have knowledge, and erudition to profit and comfort that which ought to be most dear to us, to wit, the kirk and spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ. Of necessity, therefore, we judge it, that every several kirk have one schoolmaster appointed ; such an one, at least, as is able to teach grammar and the Latin tongue, if the town be of any reputation. And further, we think it expedient, that in every notable town, there should be erected a coll-ge, in which the arts at least of rhetoric and logic, together with the tongues, be read by sufficient masters, for whom honest stipends must be appointed; as also that provision be made lor those that are poor, and not able by themselves or their friends, to be sustained at letters. The rich and potent may not be permitted to sutTer their children to spend their youth in a vain idleness, as heretofore they have done ; but they must be exhorted, and, by the censure of the kirk, compelled to dedicate their sons by good exerci'^es to the profit of the kirk, and commonwealth ; and this they must do, because they are able. The children of the poor must be supported and sus- tained on the charge of the kirk, trial being taken whether the spirit of docility be in them found, or not. If they be found apt to learning and letters, then may they not be permitted to reject learning, but must be charged to continue their study, so that the commonwealth may have some comfort by them ; and for this purpose, must discreet, grave, and learned men be appointed to visit schools, for the trial of their exercise, profit, and continuance; to wit, the ministers and elders, with the best learned men in every town. A certain time must be ap- pointed to reading and learning the catechism, and a certain time to grammar and to the Latin tongue, and a certain time to the arts of philosophy and the other tongaes, and a certain lime to that study in which they intend chiefly to 652 ELEMENTARY EnilCATION IN SCOTLAND. travel for the profit of the commonwealth ; which time being expired, the chil- dren should either proceed to further knowledge, or else they must be set to some handicraft, or to some other profitable exercise." In 1615, an act of the Privy Council of Scotland empowered the bish- ops, along with the majority of the landlords or heritors, to establish a school in every parish in their respective dioceses, and to assess the lands for that purpose. This act of the privy council was confirmed by an act of the Scotch Parliament, in 1633 ; and under its authority, schools were established in the lower and the more cultivated districts of the country. But the system was still far from being complete ; and the means of obtaining elementary instruction continued so very deficient, that it became necessary to make a more complete and certain provision for the establishment of schools. This was done by the famous act of 16G6, the preamble of which states, that •• Our Sovereign Lord, consider- ing how prejudicial the want of schools in many places has been, and how beneficial the establishing and settling thereof will be to this church and kingdom, thereibre, his Majesty, with advice and consent, &c." The act went on to order, that a school be established, and a schoolmaster ap- pointed in every parish ; and it further ordered that the landlords should be obliged to build a school-hou.?e, and a dwelling-house for the use of the master ; and that they should pay him a salary, exclusive of the fees of his scholars ; which should not fi^ll short of 5Z. lis. Id. a year, nor exceed 111. 2s. 2d. The power of nominating and appointing the school- master was vested in the landlords and the minister of the parish ; and they were also invested with the power of fixing the fees to be paid him by the scholars. The general supervision of the schools was vested in the presbyteries in which they are respectively situated ; who have also the power of censuring, suspending, and dismissing the masters, without their sentence being subject to the review of any other tribunal. It has been usually expected that a Scotch parish schoolmaster, be- sides being a person of unexceptionable character, should be able to in- struct his pupils in the reading of English, in the arts of writing and arithmetic, the more common and useful branches of practical mathematics, and that he should be possessed of such classical attainments as might qualify him for teaching Latin and the rudiments of Greek. It would be no easy matter to exaggerate the beneficial effects of the elementary instruction obtained at parish schools, on the habits and indus- try of the people of Scotland. It has given to that part of the empire an importance to which it has no claim, either from fertility of soil or amount of population. The universal diffusion of schools, and the consequent education of the people, have opened to all classes paths to wealth, honor and distinction. Persons of the humblest origin have raised themselves to the highest eminence in every walk of ambition, and a spirit of fore- thought and energy, has been widely disseminated. At the period when the act of 1696 was passed, Scotland, which had suffered greatly from misgovernment and religious persecutions under the reigns of Charles II. and his brother, James II., was in the most unprosper- ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 653 ous condition. There is a passage in one of the discourses of the cele- brated Scotch^ patriot, Fletcher of Saltoun, written in 1698, only two years after the act for the establishment of parochial schools had been passed, that sets the wretched state of the country in the most striking point of view. •' There are, at this day in Scotland, besides a great many families very meanly provided for by the church boxes, with others who, by living upon bad food, fall into various diseases, two hundred thousand people begging figm door to door. These are not only no way advantageous, but a very grievous burden to so poor a country. And although the number of them be, perhaps, double to what it was formerly, by reason of this present great distress, yet in all times there has been about a hundred thousand of these vagabonds, who have lived without any regard or subjection, either to the laws of the land, or even those of God and nature. No magistrate could ever discover which way one in a hundred of these wretches died, or that ever they weie baptized. Many mur- ders have been discovered amongst them ; and they are a most unspeakable oppression 10 poor tenants, who, if they do not give bread, or some kind of pro- vision, to perhaps forty such villains in a day, are sure to be insulted by them. In years of plenty many thousands of them meet together in the mountains, where they feast and riol for many riays; and at country weddings, markets,- burials, and other the like public occasions, they are to be seen, both men and women, perpetually drunk, cursing, blaspheming, and fighting together. These are such outrageon,s disorders, that it were better for the nation they were sold for the gallies or the West Indies, than that they should continue any longer to be a burden and a curse upon us." No country ever rose so rapidly from so frightful an abyss. In the au- tumn circuits or assizes for the year 1757, no one person was found guilty, in any part of the country, of a capital crime. And now, notwithstandinor the increase of population, and a vast influx of paupers from Ireland, there are very few beggars in the country; nor has any assessment been imposed for the support of the poor, except in some of the large towns, and in the counties adjoining England ; and even there it is so light as scarcely to be felt. This is a great and signal change. We can not, in- deed, go quite so far as those who ascribe it entirely to the establishment of the parochial system of education. It is, no doubt, most true, that this system has had great influence in bringing about the change ; but much must also be ascribed to the establishment of a regular and greatly im- proved system of government ; to the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions. by the act of 1748 ; and to the introduction of what may. in its applica- tion to the vast majority of cases, be truly said to be a system of speedy, cheap and impartial justice. Certainly, however, it was the diffusion of education that enabled the people to avail themselves of these advan- tages ; and which has, in consequence, led to a far more rapid improve- ment; than has taken place in any other European country. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland has ever taken an active interest in the parochial schools. Immediately after the passage of the act of 1696. the Presbyteries were instructed to carry it into effect, and Synods, to make particular inquiry that it was done. In 1704, the Assembly undertook to supply schools to such part of the highlands and islands as could not be benefited by the act of 1696. In 1705, ministers were ordered to see that no parents neglected the teaching of their chil- 654 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. dren to read. In 1706, it was recommended to such as settled schoolmas- ters, " to prefer men who had passed their course at colleges and univer- sities, and have taken their degrees, to such as have not." In 1707, Synods and Presbyteries were directed to send into the General Assem- bly returns of the means and condition of the parochial schools. The internal dissensions of Scotland and other causes, however, Avith- drew the public attention from the schools; and the advance of society in other respects, and the want of a corresponding advance in the wages of teachers, and the internal improvement of the schools, all combined to sink the condition of parochial education. In 1794, the General Assembly be- came roused to the subject. Visitation of the schools was enjoined on the clergy ; and they were particularly instructed to inquire into the qualifi- cations of the teachers. In 1802, the Assembly issued the following dec- laration, &c. : " That parochial schoolmasters, by instilling into youth the principles of reli- gion and morality, and solid and practical instruction, contribute to the im- provement, order, and success of people of all ranks ; and are therefore well entitled to public encouragement: That from the decrease in the value of money, their emoluments have descended below the gains of a day laborer: That it has been found impossible to procure persons properly qualified to fill paro- chial schjols : That the whole order is sinking into a state of depression hurt- ful to their usefulness : That it is desirable that some means he devised to hold forth inducements to men of good principles and talents to undertake the office of parochial schoolmasters: And that such men would prove instrumental in counteracting the operations of those who may now, and afterward, attempt to poison the minds of the rising generation with principles inimical to religion, order, and the constitution in church and state." In consequence of this declaration by the Church of Scotland, and of the complaints which were sent up from all parts of the country. Parliament, in the course of the next session, passed the famous act of 1803, which or- dains as follows: " That, in terms of the act of 1696, a school be established, and a schoolmas- ter appointed in every parish, the salary of the schoolmaster not to be under three hundred marks, (16/. 135. 4d..) nor above four hundred, {221. 4s. 5d. :) That in large parishes, where one parochial school can not be of any effectual benefit, it shall be competent lor the heritors and minister to raise a salary of six hun- dred marks, (33^. 6s. 8d.,) and to divide the same among two or more schoolma.s- ters. as circumstances may require : That in every parish the heritors shall provide a school-house, and a dwelling-house for the schoolmaster, together with a piece of ground for a garden, the dwelling-house to consist of not more than two apartments, and the piece of ground to contain not less than one- fourth of a Scots acre; except in parishes where the salary has been raised to six hundred marks, in which the heritors shall be exempted from providing school-houses, dwelling-houses, and gardens : That the foregoing sums shall continue to be the salaries of parochial schoolmasters till the end of twenty-five years, when they shall be raised to the average value of not less than one chal- der and a half of oatmeal, and not more than two chalders; except in parishes where the salaries are divided among two or more schoolmasters, in which case the whole sum so divided shall be raised to the value of three chalders ; and so toties quoties at the end of every twenty-five years, unless altered by parliament: That none of the provisions of this act shall apply to parishes, which consist of a royal burgh, or part of a royal burgh : That the power of electing schoolmas- ters continue with the heritors and minister, a majority of whom shall also de- termine what branches of education are most necessary and important for the parish, and shall from time to time fix the school-fees as they shall deem expe- oient: That the presbyteries of the church shall judge whether candidates for ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND. 555 schools possess the necessary qualifications, shall continue to superintend paro- chial schools, and shall be the sole judges in all charges against schoolmas- ters, without appeal or review." In the year 1828, as the statute had provided, a small addition was made to the emoluments of the parochial schoolmasters, the maximum salary having been increased to 34i. As. Ad., and the minimum to 251. 13s. 3d. The deplorable scenes of outrage and murder, which occurred in the streets of Edinburgh on the 1st of January, 1812, made the city clergy anxious to devise some means for diminishing the mass of crime and misery which was then brought to light. The scheme first proposed, and carried into execution, was to establish sabbath schools in all the parishes within the royalty, to which they gave the name of the Parochial Institu- tions for Religious Education. It was soon found, however, that the use- fulness of these institutions was greatly limited, in consequence of a very great number of the children, for whose benefit they were intended, being unable to read. It was therefore proposed that, in connection with the sabbath schools, a day school should be established, which was accord- ingly opened on the 29th of April, 1813. This day school took the name of the Edinburgh Sessional School, from the circumstance of its being superintended by a minister or an elder from each kirk-session* in the city. The object of this school is to give instruction to the children of the poor in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Five gratis scholars may be recom- mended by each kirk-session ; but the charge to all the others is sixpence per month. For many years the average attendance has been about 500; so that the school-fees, together with occasional donations, and a small share of the collections made annually at the church doors for the parochial institutions. h pursue the business of teaching. 4. Another effect of the extension of tlie national industry in these departments was to withdraw from school a great proportion of the children of tiie laboring classes at a very early age ; and it was plain that the shorter the period of educa- tion, so much the more need that the masters should be competent to employ it to good account. 5. It was observed that there is a tendency in the occupations connected with some of the branches of industry now mentioned, to impair the character of do- mestic education among the laboring classes ; and the remedy was looked for in the school. The school came, on this account, to he considered, rather more than it had been, as a place not merely of instruction, but of general education — as appropi-i- ating, in fact, somewliat more of the office of the parent. It followed that the general cliaracter and manners of the masters became to the promoters of schools a matter of still greater interest than beft)re ; and the same could be. at once, dis- covered and formed, or in some degree influenced, in the Normal School. 6. There was another and more special reason for the ostiiblishment of schools of this sort, in the improvements which had been recently introduced upon the methods of elementary instruction, and this chiefly in the Sessional School, Market Place, Edinburgh. To establish a normal seminary might well be considered as tiie readiest mode of diff'using a knowledge of such improvements; and according- ly the Sessional School now mentioned was among tlie first, if not the first in Scot- land, which came to be employed for normal purposes. 7. It became more commonly known than before, that institutions of the kind had been tried in Prussia, Germany, and France, and with results that might well tempt the experiment elsewhere. These circumstances suggested the formation of a seminary for the preparation of teachers, in the hope of thereby amending much of what was seen to be amiss in the state of education throughout the country ; and accordingly the education Bouglit aid of the Committee of Council, which was granted to tlie extent of 10,- 000/. for building purposes, and 1,000/. annually, towards the current expenses of the two institutions. — the sums to be divided equally between them, and the Gene- al Assembly obligating itself to appropriate a like sum to the same objects. Each seminary is superintended by a Sub-committee of the General As- sembly's Education Committee, who appoint the masters, regulate the expenditures, the rate of school-fees, the terms of admission, and other matters. Each seminary has a fund applicable to its uses of 1,000/. besides a revenue from school fees, amounting to about 250/. more. Both are open to candidates of all religious denominations, and to .'students who do not reside, as to those who do reside in the institution. About one-half of the students are admitted free, (their expenses of board and tuition are paid out of the permanent resources of the Committee)- — one quarter reside in the institution at their own expense, and one quarter reside out of the institution and pay their own board, and an admission fee of one guinea. The average number in attendance is fifty. The board of instruction consists of a Rector, a first, second and third master, who give their time wholly to their respective seminaries, and three other masters who teach only for certain hours in each day. EDINBiniGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. 663 The opportunities of instruction in the arts of teaching arid of school management, which form the distinguisliing object of tliese schools, have been provided in three different ways- — by piactice, by example, and by lecture. The students are appointed to teach, and to observe the teaching of the masters in the model or practising schools, which are constituent parts of the seminaries, and which, though intended at the same time for the " instruction of the children of the poor," must be regarded mainly as subservient to the normal office of the institutions with which they are connected. Tlie attendance at each school amounts to about 550. The methods employed in the practising schools are not distinguished from those which are common in other schools of tlie better class. Normal schools may be expected to teach something of the nature of all methods of any recognised value ; but their practising departments must be con- ducted on some single, congruous system. The simultaneous method, accordingly, is practised in both schools, but v*ith that care to ascertain the impression made upon the minds of individuals, without which that mode is incomplete. The monitorial plan is not employed in cither school, simply becavise the aid it furnishes is not there needed ; but a semblance of it is presented in the teaching of the students. The Glasgow school has still some features of the system on which it was originally conducted — the gallery exercises, among which is the admirably conducted Bible lesson, frequent singing, much precision in the movements of the classes, regulated gymnastics, a style of interrogation that supplies great part of the answer, and that negation of all distinctions by means of places or reward, which has been noticed as marking with less questionable propriety, the order of the students when classed together for their separate instruction. In the Edinburgh school, each student is occupied in instructing a section of the pupils two hours daily. One section of the children is placed un^er charge of two students, who teach that section alternately for the space of fourteen days. Another section in a diflerent stage of- progress then succeeds, and remains under the same charge for the same length of time ) and so on, till, in the course of two months, an occasion of teaching has been given to each, in all the branches and in every stage of progress. Meantime, their manner of conducting their respective sections is observed either by the rector, who is present in the practising school for this purpose one hour and a half daily on an average, or by one or other of the masters, who employ tw^o hours daily in like manner, — each master, however, confining himself to a distinct section of the school. The students are thus under direct observation, during the greater part of the time they are employed in teaching : and afterwards, in their private class they receive the remarks which the rector and the masters may have made upon the manner in which they severally appeared to have performed their tasks. They are, next, allowed to see the masters teach daily, for a certain length of time, amounting on an average to one hour and a half. On these occasions, all the students are present at the same time, and all the branches are taught in rotation, upon the days specified in the Time-table appended. They are required to mark closely everything in the masters' mode of conaucting the different lessons, and to note down their remarks for their own benefit afterwards. The notes are subsequently examined : and it is soon perceived, in the character of their own succeeding practice, how far they had profited from the example of the masters. Lastly, they have all, both male and female, an opportunity of attend- ing a weekly lecture delivered by the rector upon the theory and art of 664 EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. teaching, the design of -which is described as being " to counteract the ten- dency of the practical engagements of the elementary school to degenerate into mere routine and a copy of the superintending master." The course consists of twenty lectures, occupied with the various topics set forth in the appended Syllabus. If the object of the common school be not merely to instruct, but to educate ; not merely to inform the understanding, but to cultivate the entire character, the object of the normal school is assuredly no less com- prehensive. The schoolmaster, it is always to be remembered, is a moral teacher, and mu.st be prepared expressly for that delicate and difficult office. The normal t^ohools accordingly provide for communicating this qualification. Each hour in the day, from 6 a. m. to half-past 10 p. m., has its allotted occupation, fixed by rules which are unvarying, and, so far as could be perceived, invariably observed. Half an hour is set apart in the morning for devotional exercises, and half an hour for the same in the evening. On Sabbath one hour and a half is employed, under the rector, in exercises upon Bible history and Christian doctrine : public worship is attended in one or other of the churches of the city ; and in the evening, written abstracts of the discourses heard during the day are prepared and submitted to the rector's inspection. These arrangements mark a due solicitude for the moral well-being of the students, and a sense of its essential connection with the professional qualification of a school-master. At the same time, the general culture of the students at the Normal school almost necessarily receives a bent to their future calling — and this from the proper influences of tlie place, in particular from the fellowship ^of so many engaged in the same studies, brought together after a common trial, looking forward to the same pursuit, and entertaining the same hopes, anxieties, and ambitions. A society so formed begets a bias to the professed object so decided, that there is less hazard than might have been expected of the superior instruction of a normal school tempting to aspire beyond the schoolmaster's calling. The following is the plan on which both schools are now conducted : The Directors have considered, in the first place, that schools for the cliildren of the poor, if they do not need to afford moi-e than a limited elementary education, behove to afford the same by masters as competent within their range as any masters intiusted with a more extended cliarge ; nay, tliat there are difficulties in the management of sucli schools, from the short and broken attendance of the pupils, that require in the teachers somewhat more than the usual ability and devotion to their duty. They have considered, further, that a more advanced educa- tion is sought at many schools, the teacliers of which arc not qualified, and have had no means of being qualified, to supply it. For these reasons they have pro- posed — 1. That two distinct classes of teachers shall be educated at the normal seminaries — one for elementary schools, the oiher for those of a higher or mixed kind, such as the parochial schools. The examinations for admission are now conducted by those who, from their office, may be fairly presumed competent ; and, at the same time, disinterestec^ in the absence of all relation to the candidates. But the case is somewhat altered when the student appears for a final examination ; for tlien, though the compe- tency may be still the same, he has been the pupil of those who are now to judge of his proficiency — in other words, of tlie success witli wliich his studies have been conducted, and, by inference, of the skill with which these studies have been directed. The following rule has, therefore, been laid down : — 2. That the first examination shall be conducted by the General Assembly's Committee and the rectors and masters ; the final examination by the same parties assisted by a professor in thft University and by a master in the High School of Edinburgh or Glasgow. It is further proposed to extend the range of study at the institution for the EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. ^65 teachers of both classes, and, above all, to impart to them a fuller and more exact knowledge of the subject with which, from the beginning, they had been partiiilly acquainted. In this, the Directors liave proceeded upon these views — tliat if a teacher s knowledge should considerably exceed what he is called on to impart, there is no prejudice, but the reverse, to his ability for teaching, — those who have been educated in higher things being commonly found to excel in the lower paths of iu-structiun ; that the estimation and authority of a teacher always rise with his attainments: that a general intelligence beyond tjie limit referred to bears directly upon that part of the work of education wliich is distinguished from mere instruction ; that the more promising youth have the better chance of being brought forward under such a master : and, moreover, that to the master himself the pos- session of a fund of hberal knowledge is hkely to prove a source at once of comfort and of energy. For these reasons, — o. The students, before leaving the institution, are to prove a qualification of defined extent in tiie branches under noted : First Class. — 1, English reading ; 2, loriting ; 3, English graimaar, — elemen- tary manual, and an enlarged course (c. g. Latham's), Vv-ith etymology; 4, English composition — ab=;tracts and original essays ; 5, arithmetic — theory and practice, a full course, with mental arithmetic, book-keeping ; 6, elementary geography, followed by a course of physical geography and use of globes ; 1, general history, with at least one portion of particular history ( e. g. that of Great Britain or the period of the Reformation) : S, natural liistory ; 9, singing; \^, linear drawing ; W, pedagogy ; 12, religious knowledge — (a) Bible doctrine (Confession of Faith and Shorter Catechism) ; (6) Bible analysis (examination of a given portiim of the text ;) (f) history of the Old and New Testaments, followed by {d.) outhnes of ecclesiastical history and the evidences of revealed religion. Second Class. — All tlie branches of the preceding class, with 13, Latin — Livy, Virgil, Terence, themes, English rendered into Latin, Roman aniiquities, syno- nymes, ;,i-ional supervision of the rector, as well as that of the masters. After all, it is not by any organization, however carefully or well contrivedj that the excelUmce of a school is to be secured ; everything still depending on the genius of the master. And if this be true in regard to common schools, it is .still more so in regard to those, which have the exemplification of good methods for their distinguishing obect. The Directors liave therefoi-e signified that tlieir main reliance is upon the devotedness and skill of the rectors and the masters ; whom they have appointed to find for these institutions their jjroper position in the edu- cational system of the country. It is not forgotten that a normal school, though perfect in all respects, would not present a model for exact imitation in all cases, and that the application of its methods to the management of common schools must be left, in great part, to tlie judgment of the masters of the latter. No school, h)deetl, can be the very pattern for others that exist under different circumstances ; alid the normal scliools are, from their very nature, singular in some of their conditions. It is eiiougli that in them, so far as they are normal, the general principles of method are taught, exem- plitied, and practiced. To the masters it may be reserved, in mere deference to their self respect to form the plan of then- own schools, according to their own knowledge of what the locality requires or permits, and according to the gennral notions of method which they have received. In short, it is as little desir- able as it is practicable, that the normal scliools should be altogether such as to afford an absolute rule and exact model for the guidjuice of the pupil, in the con- struction and management of his owa EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. 667 Department for Female Teachers, Female School"; of I nduxt ry .^--T here is a description of schools which is now rapidly increasing in Scotland, and extending to a lower class of the population than had been wont to have or to consider tliein as at all need- ful — the Female Schools of Industry. This is mainly the consequence of elementary education, in general, having taken more of a practical char- acter than formerly; for the male children, somewhat modifying the course of literary instruction^ and occasionally attempting a specific pre- paration for some particular calling or handicraft. The same tendency woulil have led, of it.seU". to an instruction of the other se\ in the usual art.s of domestic industry ; but it was aided by this, that, while tlie period of school attendance was the same for both sexes, it was not requisite for tlie female to proceed so far in the different literary branches as the other, and so the opportunity arose of attemling to those things that form the proper objects of a female .«chool. The promoters of such schools are commonly benevolent ladies, who are no strangers to the cottages of the poor, and who would endeavor by in.struction of this sort to improve their domestic condition. It is not unusual, too, for the proprietors of public works, maiuifacturing or mining, to favor the people in their service with institutions of the kind. The Directors have, in these circumstances, attached to each of their normal seminaries a df'partment for instruction in needlework and knitting, and have opened it freely to female students desirous of undertaking the charge of schools of this description. This division of the seminary is conducted by the matron of the estab- lishment at Edinburgh, and at Glasgow by a mistress engaged for that single purpose. All the female children above seven years of age at the practising schools are, in both cases, permitted to attend in this department, without additional fee; and nearly all avail themselves of the i)rivilege, each class attending for one hour daily. Their attention is wholly con- fined to the different sorts of work mentioned, and from the mistresses they receive neither literary nor religious instruction. The female students attend in this division during the whole time it is assembled — that is, for two hours and a half daily — and they are employed mainly in directing the classes, or attending to the directions of the mistress; and are them- selves instructed, during a portion of the time, by the mistress at the Glasgow school, in the more ditFicult kinds of work. In the general model school for the children of both sexes, they are employed four hours daih — half the time occupied, under the ma,ster's eye, in teaching the female classes; the other half, in observing how the masters teach. Two hours daily, they are themselves under instruction in reading, religious know- ledge, and the elements of grammar and geography. Female students are admitted under the same regulation which has been formed in regard to those of the other sex who have not the benefit of free maintenance, and who do not engage to remain for any certain period. They are examined upon their knowledge of the elementary branches, before entering, only by the rector, and few have been at any time rejected. The admission fee is £1 for the first four months, .5s for each of the next four months, and no further payment is required for the remainder of the term, the duration of which is optional. Admission is allowed at any time of the year. No regular examination is undergone by the female students upon leav- ing the seminary; and far the greater number have left it to enter on the charge of schools to which they had been recommended by the Directors, — not more than four leaving the Edinburgh School, without any certain engagement. It is not proposed, in the mean time, to place this department of the 668 EDINBURGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOLS. institution under any stricter regulations than the follo-w-ing; — 1. To with- hold certificates from those who have attended for a shorter period than three months; and, 2. To grant certificates to those who have proved a certain qualification in the elementary branches, after a formal examination by the superintending Committees, assisted by the rectors and masters. Syllabus of the Rector's Lectures on the Theory and art of Teaching, ad' dressed to the Studeiits of the Normal Institution, Edinburgh. Introductori/. 1. Tlie importance of education — most needful in every view — practicable — hopeful and encouraging. 2. Moral requisites and qualifications of the educator ; (a) A correct view of his office ; (6) Proper motives ; (c) A well regulated temper and disposition ; [d] A well'Stored mind ; (c) Aptitude to teach ; (/) An irreproachable life. I — Man, the subject of Education. Knowledge of this an essential preliminary ; mental philosophy has not afforded the practical aitl tliat might have been expected. The ordi.'r, mode, and extent of the development of the human powers considered, with a practical reference. 1. Physical — histoiically first ; nature requiring the main share of time for sleep and recreation ; mental exertion, short and diversi- fied ; instincts to be regulated. 2. Moral powers awake nearly at the dawn of existence ; should be early addressed and practically exercised ; impressed with the idea of God and account- ability to Him ; charity, purity, and uprightness inculcated. 3. Intellectual — («) Intuitive — developed through the perceptive powers ; truths and f icts impressed by attention, recalled by memory, combined by conception ; importance of educating the senses and training the powers of observation through object-lesson? ; (6) O^evAW'^ii^-imderstartding inve-tigates truth ; jmlgnient traces its relations and tendency ; (c) Cieative—- imagination — 'reason controlling all. XL — The End and Object of Education. The comprehensive and harmonious development of the powers in due place and proportion ; errors arising from the excess, deficiency, or misapplication of any element ; detinitions of different writers. III. — The Means for attaining the End. Pedagogy, education (properly so called) extending to every department througliout--(l) childhiKvl; (2) youth; (3) manhood — from the houseliold to the school, from the school to the world and church. Pedentics, uistruction or schooling ; that department which is jiroper to the in- termediate period, youth, when the faculties are made conversant with facts, occurrences, objects, and otherwise exercised for their due development. A. The parties by whom — the field in which — this should be carried out. Hosijital, public school, or private education considered. B. The subject-matter of instruction: — {a) From the existence of man — speech and song ; {b) From the existence of space and matter — mathematics and form (paiuting, sculpture, (fee.) ; (c) From the relation of man to God — Christianity ; {d) To the world — political economy ; (e) To animals — natural history ; (/) To 'sul> stances — chemistry, &c. The due place and comparative importance of the subjects of elementary and superior instruction. Reading, the key to all — Organs of speech — origin and import of speech — invention of writing — alpha- bet, printing — on teaching the alphabet — Lancaster — Jacotot — Pillans. Elementary reading — 1st. The dogmatic system overburdens the memory ; 2nd. The scientific, difficult to accomplish in English; 3rd. Intellectual, the sense help- ing the sound. Theory of explanation and interrogation, elliptical and suggestive methods con- sidered — treatment of answers received — moral enforcing — application of lesson read. Examination of manuals for reading, and instructions in the proper way of teaching them. EDINBUKGH AND GLASGOW NORMAL SCHOOL. Q{jQ Class method — individual, monitorial, simultaneous ; class conducted by single examination. Method not much apart from the man — consideration of the different subjects of school instruction — method of treating and art of imparting them, viz. spelling, grammar, reUgious instruction, geography, writing, drawing, arithmetic. School organization : Arrangement of classes — tripartie division — school furnishing. Discipline : Theory of rewards and punishments. (N'ote.) — The design of these lectures is to counteract the tendency of the prac- tical engagements of the elementary school to degenerate into mere routine, or a copy of the superintending master. Tlie subject discussed in the connected series is proposed as a theme for a weekly exercise, and is found highly beneficial, not only as regards the proficiency of the students in English composition, but like- wise as it engages their best thoughts in giving their own views of the different topics, and imparts an elevated tone to their professional pursuits. NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL AT EDINBURGH, IN CONNECTION WITH THE CHURCH. The Normal Training School at Edinburgh, in connection with the Free Church of Scotland, was establisiied in 1843, soon after the Reces- sion of that Church from the Established Church, and as a part of its educational scheme. In 1848, the Education Committee, appointed by the General Assembly of the Free Church, purchased the premises known as the •■ Moray House," in the neighborhood of the Holyrood, and erected a new hall, and fitted up the whole at an expense of about £9,000, ($45,000) for the accommodation of the Normal School, and the Practicing Department. Pupils are admitted, on passing in a satisfactory manner an enirance examination, to the privileges of the institution, which embrace not only a thorough course of normal training, but also direct pecuniary aid as bursaries, or exhibitions. Those bursaries are to be competed for from year to year, and to be awarded to those only, who, havmg successfully passed the entrance examination, are willing to devote themselves to teachmg. and to declare, at the same time, that but for this assi.«tance, they could not afford the means requisite to prepare them, fully and satisfactorily, for their important work. Although persons of both sexes, and of all religious denominations, are received to the entrance examination, the subjects of examination, and the course of study afterward entered upon, are determined and regulated mainly with a view to the benefit of those who Intend to devote themselves to teaching in connection with the Free Church. It is conducted by means of printed papers, and generally occupies a week. These examination-papers have always been drawn by distin- guished practical teachers, intimately acquainted with the subjects intrusted to them ; and the written answers of the candidates for admis- sion, after being carefully reviewed by the same gentlemen, are handed for revision to the rector and tutors of the institution, who again make known the results to the education committee, with whom rests the final decision as to those who are qualified to enter, with advantage, upon the prescribed course of study and training. The conditions of the competition for bursaries are stated in the fol- lowing regulations : — I. Candidates must not be less than seventeen years of age, and shall be required to declare, before entering on the competition, that it is their wish and intention to devote themselves to the profession of teaching. II. Each candidate must produce a certificate of his moral and religious character from the minister of the congregation to which he belongs. Such certiticnte shall also set forth his attainments in scholarship, the degree of aptitude for practical teaching which he may seem to possess, and any circumstances in his history with which the committee ought to be acquainted. 672 NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL AT EDINBURGH III. Each candidate must be in attendance at the seminary on the morning of Sat- urday, 26th September, for the purpose of bema, enrolled as a candidate. IV. The competition will be chiefly conducted by written questions, and the exam- inators will be guided in awardmg the bursaries by the comparative results of the examination, the certificates of the ministers, and the report of the rector of the nor- mal school in regard to aptitude for practical leaching. V. The committee will not defray the travelinj: expenses of unsuccessful candi- dates, but they would strongly urge, that when necessary, these expenses should be defrayed by local parties acquainted with and interested in the young men recom- mended. VI. The bursaries shall consist of three classes, for which sums of lOl., 15Z., and 201., shall be set apart respectively. VII. The bursers shall give regular attendance in the normal school from the begin- ling of October until the end of July, and shall during that period be in all respects subject to the discipline and arrangements of that institution. The bursaries shall be payable in monthly installments, and the committee reserve to themselves full power at any time to withhold further payments on considering the periodical reports made to them by the rector and tutors regarding the conduct and progress of the liursers. N. B. There must be throughout the church many under the age of seventeen, whom it is highly desirable to aid and encourage m their preparatory studies. Dea- cons' courts and presbyteries are earnestly recommended to use every exertion in their power for bringing forward such youths, until they have arrived at the stage which will bring them within the scope of the committee's scheme of encouragement by bursaries. The following are the subjects of the entrance examination for the three classes of bursaries : — CLASS I. English literature and grammar. Geography, especially that of Europe and Palestine. History. — British history, with the elements of general history. Arithmetic— PmpciTlion with vulgar and decimal fractions. Latin. — Rudiments; grammatical exercises, large print; and Cornelius Nepos' Life of Miltiades. Scripture Knowledge. — Bible and shorter catechism. N. B. A knowledge of Gaelic will be regarded as equivalent to this amount of attain- ments in Latin. CLASS 11. All the branches of the preceding class, and Latin. Latin. — Caesar, book i. ; eclogues of Virgil ; and grammatical exercises. G^eek. — Greek grammar; Xenophon's Anabasis, chapters, first, second, and third, of book i. Algebra. — The elementary rules, fractions and simple equations. CLASS III. All the branches of the preceding classes, and Latin. — Virgil, vi., Book of iEneid ; Sallust's Catilinarian Conspiracy, and Mair's Introduction. Greek. — Xenophon's Anabasis, books i. and ii. ; gospel of Matthew. Algebra — Involution, evolution, surds, quadratic equation. Geometry. — Euclid's Elements, first six books. Text BooJt.?.— Chamber's History of English Literature ; Reid's English Grammar ; Reid's Geography; Chamber's History of the British Empire; White's Elements of Universal History, or Tyiler's Elements of General History. The following works are recommended for perusal and study : — Chamber's Cyclo- psedia of English Literature; Allan and Cornwall's English Grammar; Malte Biun and Balbi's System of Geography ; Professor Thompson's Arithmetic ; Vincent's Exposition of the Shorter Catechism ; Tract Society's Companion to the Bible; and Abridgment of Horn's Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures. The course of instruction upon which the students enter, after having passed this examination, embraces BibUcal instruction, Engheh litera- ture and grammar, history and geography, arithmetic, algebra and geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, practical mathematics and mechanics, Latin, Greek, and the elements of Hebrew, drawing and music, chemistry, botany, vegetable physiology, and cottage gardening, with the theory and practice of the art of teaching. NORMAL TRAIMNC; Blf.lIOOL AT nDINUIiIlGIl. g'73 A careful examination ol" tlie table, in wliicli are recorded the results of the entrance examination, enables the rector and tutors to determine, with almost perfect precision, the place which each student should occupy, and the studies to which his attention should be chiefly directed. The attainments of the young men in Biblical knowledge, in English literature and grammar, in geography and history, are not so unequal as to render necessary or desirable a separate classification, while prosecuting the study of these branches. Nor has it been found expedient to arrange the students in different sections, when engaged in the study of French, chemistry, drawing, and music ; and both in the practice of leaching, and ig listening to the exposition, by the rec- tor, of the various methods and systems, or to his criticism of the mode in which particular lessons have been communicated by particular stu- dents, no separate classification has been made. By the Time Table, drawn up for the regulation of the students in , 1849, it appears that five hours weekly (one hour a day) are devoted to Biblical instruction ; four hours to English literature and grammar; two hours to history and geography ; two hours to lectures, in con- nection with recitations in a text book, in chemistry ; two hours to drawing ; three to French ; and two hours to instruction in music, with practice at intervals every day. In the higher departments of study, Latin, Greek, geometry, algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry, with their practical applications, the students are arranged into divi- sions, junior and senior. The proficiency in these branches is not very great, although the stimulus of competition for the bursaries is showing itself in drawing to the institution a large number of right-minded, and properly-prepared candidates, and in a more comprehensive and thorough course of instruction during their connection with the institution. A knowledge of the history, principles, and practice of education, is given as follows: First, The rector expounds, conversationally, but with a degree of minuteness and care that shows how fully he appreciates the impor- tance of this department of his labors, the methods that are employed in the model schools of the institution, in teaching the various branches. He himself exemplifies the application of every principle that may seem in the least recondite, gives its philosophy, and shows how it may be applied in conducting the work of the school-room. In this way it may be said, that every method deserving examination, as based upon any philosophical principle, is not only elaborately examined and minutely expounded, but skillfully exemplified in the presence of the students. Second. Essays are prescribed to be written on subjects, embracing the whole theory of teaching, and requiring, for their discussion, a good extent of reading and study. The best of these essays are afterward read in the hearing of the assembled body of students, and their merits and defects carefully pointed out. 48 074 NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL AT EDINBURGH. Third, A systematic analysis and examination of all the leading educational works in onr own language is made during tlie session. A particular work is assigned to each student, in turn, who is charged with the preparation of a careful analysis and examination of its con- tents. This paper is read before the rector in the presence of all the students, who express their opinion generally, and specify what they consider to be most valuable in the views presented in it. The rector sums up by an exposition of what appears to him to be its real char- acter and value. In this way the students have an opportunity, during the session, of acquiring a tolerably satisfactory knowledge of the principles and his- tory of teaching, of the various methods which deserve examination, as well as of all the details of school organization and management. The practical instruction of the normal pupils is obtained through the model schools attached to the institution. These schools contain upward of five hundred children, arranged in six classes, under ten teachers, and nineteen pupil teachers, acting under the personal direc- tion of the rector, who has the immediate charge of the first class. In these model schools the students have an opportunity of seeing all the branches usually pursued in the Elementary school of Scotland, taught by skillful and experienced masters, and, in their observations of the methods practiced, have the advantage of the personal direction and superintendence of the Rector. The means by which they themselves are trained to skill in the communication of knowledge are twofold. First, They are employed two hours weekly in teaching, in the model schools, under the superintendence of the rector, together with the master of the department in which they are practicing. Second, One hour, weekly, is set apart, for the purpose of hearing a certain number of the students give lessons, in the presence of the rector and the other students, on particular and previously prescribed subjects. These subjects are varied m such a manner, that, ere the end of the session, each student has had frequent opportunities, both of himself conducting each educational process, and of seeing it conducted by his fellow students. While these lessons are being given by those appointed to this work, their fellow students are busy observing the manner in which the various processes are conducted, and marking in their note-books any thing that may seem to deserve or call for com- ment. An opportunity is afterward afforded them of expressing their opinions, in regard to the manner in which the various lessons had been given, and of criticising minutely the whole process gone through by the students, who had been engaged in the business of the class-room. An hour is devoted to this work of public criticism. The teachers consisted in 1852 of a rector, who has special charge of Biblical instruction, and the theory and practice of teaching, a mathemat- ical tutor, a classical tutor, a teacher of drawing, a lecturer on chem- istry, and a music master. IRELAND. The checkered experience of Ireland, — its dark and its bright sides, — forms one of the most instructive chapters in rhehistory of popular educa- tion. It commences, according to the testimony of the earliest chroniclers, with institulions of learning, not only of earlier origin, but of higher repu- tation, than any in England or Scotland, — institutions which were resorted to bj' English youth for instruction, who brought back the use of letters to their ignorant countrymen. According to Bede and William ot Malmesbury, this resort commenced even so early as the seventh century, and these youth were not only taught, but maintained without service or reward. The great college of Mayo was called '-the Mayo of the Sax- ons," because it was dedicated to the exclusive use of English students, who at one time amounted to no fewer than 2000. Bayle, on the author- ity of the historian of the time, pronounces Ireland •' the most civilized country in Europe,* the nursery of the sciences" from the eighth to the thirteenth century, and her own writers are proud of pointing to the monastery of Lindisfarne, the college of Lismore, and the forty literary institutions of Borrisdole, as so many illustrative evidences of the early intellectual activity and literary munificence of the nation. But Ire- land not only abounded with higher institutions, but there were connected with monasteries and churches, as early as the thirteenth century, teachers expressly set apart '• for teaching poor scholars gratis." When the coun- try was overrun by foreign armies, and torn by civil discord, and governed by new ecclesiastical authorities, set up by the conquerors, and not in harmony with the religion of the people, a change certainly passed over the face of things, and there follows a period of darkness and educational destitution, for which we find no relief in turning to the history of English legislation in behalf of Ireland. Indeed there is not a darker page in the whole history of religious intolerance than that which records the action and legislation of England for two centuries, toward this ill-fated country, in this one particular. Even the statute of Henry VIII., which seems to be framed to carry out a system of elementary education already existing before the new ecclesiastical authorities were imposed upon the country, was intended mainly to convert Irishmen into Englishmen. By that * These facts are stated on the authority of a speech of Hon. Thomas Wyse, in the House ol Commons, in 1835. 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. statute, every archbishop and bishop was bound to see that every clergy- man took an oath •' to keep, or cause to be kepi, a school to learn English^ if any children of his parish came to him to learn the same, taking for the keeping of the said school such convenient stipend or salary as in the said land is accustomably used to be taken ;" and both higher and lower authorities, archbishops and their beneficed clergymen, are subjected to a fine for neglect of duty. The fatal error in this and in all subsequent legislation and ' associated eifort for education in Ireland, until the last twenty years, was its want of nationality ; the schooJs were English and Protestant, and the people for whom they were established were Irish and Catholics, and every effort, by legislation or education, to convert Irishmen into Englishmen, and Catholics into Protestants, has not only failed, but only helped to sink the poor into ignorance, poverty and barbarism, and bind both rich and poor more closely to their faith and their country. Every system of education, to be successful, must be adapted to the in- stitutions, habits and convictions of the people. If this principle had been regarded in the statute of Henry" VIII., Ireland, which had the same, if not a better foundation in previous habits and existing institutions, than either Scotland or Germany, would have had a system of parochial schools recognized and enforced by the state, but .supervised b^'' the cfergy. This was the secret of the succesa of Luther and Knox. What they did was in harmony with the convictions and habits of the people. So strangely was this truth forgotten in Ireland, that until the beginning of this century, Cath- olics, who coiistilnted four-filths of the population, were not only not permit- ted to endow, conduct, or teach schools, but Catholic parents even were not permitted to educate their own children abroad, and it was made an offense, punished by transportation, (and if the party returned it was made high treason,) in a Catholic, to act as a schoolmaster, or assistant to a schoolmaster, or even as a tutor in a private family. Such a law as that in operation for a century, coupled with legal disabilities in every form, and with a system of legislation framed to benefit England at the expense of Ireland, would sink any people into pauperism and barbarism, especially when much, if not most, of the land itself was held in fee by foreigners, or Protestants, and the products of the soil and labor were expended on swarms of church dignitaries, state officials, and absentee landlords. But even when these restrictions on freedom of education and teaching were removed in 1785, the grants of money by the Irish and Im- perial Parliaments, down to 1825. were expended in supporting schools exclusively Protestant. Upward of $7,000,000 were expended on the Protestant Charter Schools, which were supported by a society which originated in 1733. on the alleged ground --that Protestant English schools, in certain counties inhabited by Papists, were absolutely neces- sary for their conversion." By a bv-law of this society, the advantages of the institutions were limited exclusively to the children of Catholic parents. On the schools of the " Society for Discountenancing Vice." which originated in 1792, and which was soon converted into an agency NATIOXAT. EDTTCATION IN IRELAND. g^Y of proselytism, the government expended, between 1800 and 1827, more than a half million of dollars. In 1814. the schools of the "Kildare Place Society," began to receive grants from the Parliament, which amounted in some years to £50,000, and on an average to $25,000, and in the aggre- gate 10 near $2,000,000; and yet the regulations of the Society, although more liberal than any which preceded it. were so appUed as practically to exclude the children of Catholics, who constituted, in 1S30, 6,423,000, out of a population of 7,932,000. In 1806 commissioners were appointed by Parliament to inquire into the state of all schools, on public or charitable foundations, in Ireland ; who made fourteen reports In their last report, in 1812, they recommend the appointment of a board of commissioners, to receive and dispose of all parliamentary grants, to establish schools, to prepare a sufficient number of well-qualified masters, to prescribe the course and mode of education, to select text-books, and generally to administer a system of national education for Ireland. To obviate the difficulty in the way of religious instruction, the commissioners express a confident conviction that, in the selection of text-books, '• it will be found practicable to introduce not only a number of books in which moral principles should be inculcated in such a manner as is likely to make deep and lasting impressions on the youth- ful mind, but also ample extracts from the Sacred Scriptures themselves, an early acquaintance with which it deems of the utmost importance, and indeed indispensable in forming the mind to just notions of duty and sound principles of conduct ; and that the study of such a volume of extracts from the Sacred Writings would form the best preparation tor that more particular religious instruction which it would be the duty and inclination of their several ministers of religion to give at proper times, and in other jplaces. to the children of their respective congregations." In 1824. another commission was instituted to inquire into the nature and extent of the instruction afforded by different schools in Ireland, sup- ported in whole or in part from the public funds, and to report on the best means of extending to all classes of the people the benefit of education. This commission submitted nine reports, concurring generally in the recommendations of the committee of 1805. In 1828, the reports of the commissioners were referred to a committee of the House of Commons, who made a report in the same year, in which they state their object to be " to discover a mode in which the combined education of Protestant and Catholic might be carried on, resting upon religious instruction, but free from the suspicion of proselytism." The committee therefore recommend the appointment of aboard of education, with powers substantially the same as possessed by the former commis- sioners. The following resolution presents their views on the matter of religious education " That it is the opinion of this Committee, that for the purpose of carrying into effect the combined hterary and the separate religious education of the scholars, the cinrse of study tor four fixed days in the week should be e.v^l'i^ively moral «nd literary; and that, of the two remaining days, the one t;) if, a;); lop.i.jU"'] 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. solely to the separate religious instruction of the Protestant children, the other to the separate religions instruction of the Roman Catholic children. 'In each case no literary instrnciion to be given, or interference allowed on the part of the teachers, but the whole of the separate religious instruction to be given under the superintendence of the clergy of the respective communions. I'hat copies of the New Testament, and of such other religious books as may be printed in the manner hereinafier mentioned, should be provided for the use of the children, to be read in schools, at such times of separate instruction only, and under the direction of the attending clergyman: — the established version for the u.se of the Protestant scholars, and the version published with the approval of the Roman Catholic bishops for the children oftheir communion." In 1830, the subject was again considered by a select committee of the House on the state of the poor in Ireland, and the hope expressed that no further time would be lost in giving to Ireland the benefit of the e.xpen- eive and protracted inquiries of the commissioners of 1805 and 1825, and of the committee of 1828. In September. 1831. Mr. Wyse, author of the able volume entitled '^ Educational Reform," a member of the House from Ireland, brought in a bill to establish a system of national education for Ireland, but it was not acted upon on account of the adjournment. In October, 1831, Mr. Stanley, then Secretary for Ireland, announced, in a letter to the Duke of Leinster, Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the inten- tion of the Government to appoint a Board of Commission of National Education. The Board were soon after appointed, consisting of the Duke of Leinster, the Protestant Archbishop of Dublin, the Catholic Arch- bishop of Dublin, Rev. Dr. Francis Sadleir. Rt. Hon. A. R. Blake, and R. Holmes, Esq., — three Protestants, two Catholics, one Presbyterian, and one Unitarian. The Board of Commissioners have now been in existence about eighteen years. During that time they have encountered bitter opposi- tion from able but ultra zealots in the Protestant and Catholic churches ; ' but. sustained by the Government under the administration of all political parties, they have gone on extending their operations, and accomplishing results which are worthy of the attentive study of every statesman and educator. The fruits of their labors are already visible, but they will be "read of all men" when another generation comes on the stage. The following are among the results oftheir measures : I. The Board have succeeded in establishing a system of National Education, or have made the nearest approach to such a system, which knows no distinction of party or creed in the children to whom it proffers its blessing, and at the same time it guarantees to parents and guardians of all communions, according to the civil rights with which the laws of the land invest them, the power of determining what religious instruction the children over whom they have authority shall receive, and it prohibits all attempts at enforcing any, either on Protestant or Roman Catholic chil- dren, to which their parents or guardians object. " For nearly the whole of the last century, the Government of Ireland labored to promote Protestant education, and tolerated no other. Large grants of fub- lic money were voted for having children educated in the Protestant faith, while it was made a transportable offense in a Roman Catholic (and if the party returned, high treason) to act as a schoolmaster, or a.ssislant to a schoolmaster, NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 679 or even as a tutor in a private family.* The acts passed for this purpose contin- ued in force from 1709 to 1783. The\' were then repealed, but Parliament con- tinued to vole money for the support only of schools conducted on principles which were regarded by the great body of the Roman Catholics as exclusively Protestant, until the present sysiem was established." "The principles on which they were conducted rendered them to a great ex- tent exclusive with respect either to Protesiants or to Roman Catholics ; Rt^man Catholic schools being conducted on Roman Catholic principles, were, of course, objectionable generally to Protestants ; while Protestant schools, being conducted on Protestant principles, were equally objectionable to Roman Cath- olics ; and being regarded by Roman Catholics as adverse establishments, they tended, when under the patronage of Government, and supported by public money, to excite, in the bulk of the population, feelings of discontent toward the state, and of alienation from it." ■' From these defects the National Schools are free. In them the importance of religion is constantly impressed upon the minds of the children, through works calculated to promote good principles, and fill the heart with a love of reHgion, but which are so compiled as not to clash with the doctrines of any particular class of Christians. The children are thus prepared for those more strict reli- gious exercises which it is the peculiar province of the ministers of religion to superintend or direct, and for which stated times are set apart in each school, so that each class of Christians may thus receive, separately, such religious instruction, and from such persons, as their parents or pastorsmay approve or appoint." The following Regulations will show the manner in which the Board have aimed to avoid the difficulty of religious instruction in schools com- posed of different denominations, as well as the prejudices of political parties : As to Government of ScJwols loith respect to Attendance and Religious Instruction. "1. The ordinary school business, during which all children, of whatever denomination they may be, are required to attend, is to embrace a specified number of hours each day. '2. Opportunities are to be afforded to the children of each school for receiving such religious instruction as their parents or guardians approve of 3. The patrons of the several schools have the right of appointing such reli- gious instruction as they may think proper to be given therein, provided that each school be open to children of all communions; that due regard be had to parental right and authority ; that, accordingly, no child be compelled to receive, or be present at, any religious instruction to which his parents or guardians object; and that the time for giving it be so fixed, that no child shall be thereby, in effect, excluded, directly or indirectly, from the other advantages which the school affords. Subject to'this, religious instruction may be given either during the fixed school-hours or otherwise. 4. In schools, toward the building of which the Commissioners have contrib- uted, and which are, therefore, vested in trustees for the purposes of national education, such pastors or other persons as shall be approved of by the parents or guardians of the children respectively, shall have access to them hi thcschool- ro-rin, for the purpose of giving them religious instruction there, at convenient times to be appointed for that purpose, whether those pastors or persons shall have signed the original application or otherwise. 5. In schools NOT vestiod, but which receive aid only b)'' way of salary and books, it is for the patrons to determine whether religious instruction shall be given in tke school-room or not: but if they do not allow it in the school-room, the children whose parents or guardians so desire, must be allowed to absent themselves from the school, at reasonable times, for the purpose of receiving such instruction elsewhere. 6. The reading of the Scriptures, either in the Protestant authorized, or Douay version, as -well as the teaching of cat. chisms, comes within the rule as to reli- gious instruction. * See 8th Anne, c. 3, andOtli Willium III. c. 1. 680 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 7. The rule as to religious instruction applies to public prayer and to all other religious exercises. 8. Tiie Commissioners do not insist on*' the Scripture lessons being read in any oCthe nalional schools, nor do they allow them to be read during ihe time of secular or literary instruction, in an"y school attended by childien whose paients or guardians object to their being so read. In such case, the Commis- sioners prohibit the use of them, except at the times of religious instruction, when the persons giving it may use these lessons or not. as they think pro) er. 9. Whatever arrangement is made in any school lor giving religious instruc- tion, must be public'y notifie I in the school-room, in order that those children, and those only, may be present whose parents or guardians allow them. 10. If any other books than the Holy Scriptures, or the standard books of ihe church to which the children using them bek>ng, are employed in communica- ting religious instruction, the title of each is to be made known to the Commis- sioners. 11. The use of the books published by the Commissioners is not compulsory; but the titles of all other books which the conductors of schools intend for the ordinary school business, are to be reported to the Commissioners ; and none are to be used to which they object ; but they prohibit such only as may appear to them to contain matter objectionable in itself, or objectionable for con -mon instruction, as peculiarly belonging to some particular religious denomination. 1'2. A registry is to be kept in each school of the daily attendance of the schol- ars, and the average attendance, according to the form furnished by the Coin- missioners." II. The Board have done much to improve the hterary quahfications, and professional knowledge, and skill of teachers, as well as their pecuniary condition, and by a jiKlicious system of classification in salaries, and re- warding cases of extraordinary fidelity and success, to diffuse a spirit of self-education throughout the whole profession. The main defect in the schools of Ireland at the institution of the Board was the incompetency of the teachers. They were in general extremely poor, many of them were very ignorant, and not capable of teaching well even the mere art of reading and writing; and such of them as could do so much, were for the most part utterly incapable of coinbining instruction in it with such a training of tlie mind as could produce general information and im- provement. One of the first and main objects of the Board was, and con- tinues to be, to furnish an opportunity to deserving persons of the right character, to qualify themselves properly for teaching, and then, by a fair prospect of remuneration and advancem.ent, to devote themselves to the business for life, with a holy national and catholic spirit. A brief notice of the successive steps by which the present system of training and aid- ing teachers in Ireland was reached, will be appropriate to the design of this work. The earliest indication of any movement in the educational history of Ireland, for the professional training of teachers, was in 1812. In their thirteenth annual (for 1812) report, the •' Commissioners for in- quiring into the state of all schools on public or charitable foundations in Ireland," recommend the appointment of a Board of Commissioners as the first step in a system of National Education, with power to establish a number of additional or supplementary schools to those already in exist- ence, and that they be ''directed and required to apply themselves imme- diately to the preparing a sufficient number of well-qualified masters to undertake the conduct of such supplementary schools as they should from time to time proceed to endow." NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. gRl "We have already adverted to the deplorable want of such qualification in a great majority of those who now leach in th; common schools, and to the f erni- cioas consequences ari.^ing fiom it; their ignorance, we have reason lo believe, is not seldom their least disqualiticatiiin ; and the want of proper books often combines with their own opinions and propensities in introducing into their schools such as are of ihe worst tendencv. l^.ven for schools of a suj erior de- scription, and underbetter control, there is a general complaint that [ropermas- lers can not lie prjcurei without much dilhculty ; and we are persuaded that a more essential service could not be rendered lo the State than by carrying into etfeci a practicable mode nf supplying a successionofwell-quaiified instructors for the children of the lower classes." The recommendatioii.s of the ^Commission were not acted upon, but annual grants were subsequently made to the Kildare Place School So- ciety, which were applied in estahlishing two Model Schools in Dublin, in which teachers, intended for their employment, were practised in the mechanism and methods of the particular system of teaching encouraged by that society. The period of instruction, or rather of observation and practice, was brief and the instruction itself amounted to but little more than a knowledge of the forms and evolutions of the monitorial system of Dr. Bell. In 1828, R. J. Bryce, Principal of the Belfast Academy, in a pamph^et entitled " Sketch of a Plan for a System of National Education for Ire- land,^'' pp. 58, presents a very elaborate argument in favor of legislative provision for the education of teachers, as the only sound basis on which a system of public instruction for Ireland could be raised. He sums up his discussion of this branch of the subject in the following manner: 1. It is commonly supposed, that a man who understands a subject must be qualified to teach it, and that the only essential attribuie of an instructor is to be himself a good scholar. 2. Even those who are aware that theie often exists a difference between two teachers as to their power of communicating, conceive this diflerence to be of much less importance than it really is; and if ever they take the trouble to think of itscauoe, they ascribe it to some mechanical hueck, or t^ome instinctive piedisposition. 3. On the contrary, we maintain, that when a man has acquired the fullest and most pmfound knowledge of a subjecl, he is not yet half qualifie I to teach it. He has lo learn how to communicate his knowledge, and how to train the young mind to think for itself And, as it usually happens that children ate placed under the ins|cction of their instrur-tors. who become in a great measure responsible for their morals, every teacher ought also to know how to govern his pupils, and how to form virtuous habits in their minds. Am/ this sldli in comvmiiicalins knovde li^e, and in managing the mind, is by far the v tost important gualijica'ion of a teacher. h. Every teacher, before entering on the duties of his profession, ought there- fore to make hirnself acquainted with the Art * of Edv.atioib ; that is. with a system of rules for communicating ideas, and forming habits; and ought to ob- * The nuttior thus refer? to nn article in No. .54 of the North American Review, devoted to Mr. Carter's Essay, whirh will be found in nnnther part of this work. "The necessitv of some re?nlar provision for instructing teachers in the Art of Teachinsr, has be?nn to be felt by nil those who tnlhed an Agricultural Class Book for the u.se of the advanced pupils attending the National Schools, which it is intended shall be read by all the pupils capable of understanding its contents. The otject of this little work is to explain, in as simple language as possible, the best mode of managing a small farm and kitchen garden. Appended to it are introductory exercises, in which the scholars should be examined by the teachers. In order to render the lessons attractive, they have been thrown into the foim of a narrative, calcula- ted to arrest the attention of young readers. This reading book is not. however, designed as an agricultural manual for our teachers. We propose to supply this want by the publication of a series of agiicultural woiks, lising from ihe simplest elementary book, to scientific teaching of a high character, and com- prehending various branches of practical knowledge, tearing u| on the snlject of agricultural instruction. We distributed last year, amongst our teachers, a variety of cheap and useful tracts, relating to the best modes of cultivating the soil, and providing against the dearth of food ; and we are now engaged in cir- culating-, among.>t our masters, several other elemeniarv treatises on husbandr\', recently published under the direction of the Royal Agricultural Society, and containing much valuable information. In a limited number of large National Schools, situated in rural districts, we intend to introduce agricultural instruction, subject to the following conditions : 6&g NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. If the manager of a National School of this description, or any respectable person of whom he approves, shall annex to it a farm of eight or ten acres, and erect the necessary farm buildings thereon, without reqaiiing any grant from us toward building, repairs, the purchase of slock, or the payment of rent, we propose in such cases to pay the Agricultural teacher a salary not exceeding £30 per annum. We shall leave the appointment of the teacher and the superintendence of the farm to the proprietor of the land, or to the manager o( the school, should he also be the owner ol'the land. All we siiall require will be, that the teacher be competent, in the opinion of our Agricultural Inspector, to manage the farm according to the most improved system; and that he shall instruct daily in the theiry and practice of agriculture, a sufficient number of advanced buys, who shall be in attendance at the adjoining National School. Our Agiicullural Inspector will be required tcf report half-yearly whether the farm has been con- ducted to his satisfaction, and whether the regulations which we shall presciibe for ihe agri'jultural instruction o^he pupils have been strictly adhered to. The plan we have now explai^d can not be effectually worked by our ordi- nary inspectors. It will be necessary, therefore that our Agricultuial Schools, inciu ling our Model Farm at Glasnevin, should be under the superintendence of a person, practically conversant with agricultural operations, with phins of farm buildings, and the best method of keeping farming accounts; and who shall be cjmietent to examine and report on the sy.>tem of agricultural in- struction adopted in schools of this description. We have, accordingly, deter- mined upon appointing an officer !o discharge those important duties. With his assistance, we shall in future be able to make full and satisfactory reports to Parliament of the agricultural branch of our system. In order to supply the demand for persons qualified to conduct farms and Agri- cultural Schools, we have resolved upon increasing from twelve to tvveniy-lour, the number of agricultural pupils, who compose the free class, at our Model Farm, Glasnevin ; also, upon increasing to the same extent the number of agri- cultural teachers at our training establishment there. We shall thus have a total of forty -eight pupils and teachers, who will be all under instruction at the same time. Our agricultural pupils are selected from the best qualitied of our pupils attending our several Agricultural Schools throughout Ireland; and our agri- cultural teachers who come up to be trained, are chosen from among the masters of ordinary National Schools. This arrangement is calculated to accelerate the diffusion of agricultural instruction throughout our schools, and, generally, amongst our teachers. ThiuiL'h convinced that, by means of these and other arrangements, we may become instrumental in promoting the cause of Agricultural liducation in lie- land, we teel bound to state that we can accomplish little, unless our effiiits be cordially sustained by the co-operation of the landed propriet(>rs of the country. The Agricultural Schools must, in almost all cases, be created by them, and conducted under their directions. It will be necessary for them to expend much monev, and bestow constant care upon them. The salaries, training, and inspection, furnished by the state, are indispensable; but they wijl be unavail- ing if local expenditure and exertions do not supply the groundwork upon which the assistance of Government is to be brought into operation." 5. School Libraries. From the following extracts, it will be seen thai the Board are about to adopt the educational policy of New York and Massachusetts in extending the means of self-education out of school hours, and beyond the period of school attendance. " The want of School Libraries for the use of the children attending our schools has been long felt. To compile a series of instructive and entertaining works adapted to this purpose, would occupy a verv considerable time, and require the assistance of many individuals well qualified for compiling books suited to the minds of children. Under these circumstances, we have adopted the necessary steps for the selection of a sufficient number from those alreaay published. Care will be taken that they are unobiectionable in all respects, to the meinbers of every religious denomination. We shall buy them from the publishers at the lowest cost, and sell them at reduced prices to such of the NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. ggg managers of our schools as may approve of their being lent to their pupils. We shall also frame regulations for managing the ISchool Libraiies when foimed, which will insure a regular delivery and return of the books." IV. Tlie Board have aided in the erection and fitting up of more than 3000 school-houses in different parts of Ireland, by contributing an amount, not more in any case tlian two-thirds of the sum actually expended. The expenditure in Ireland for school-houses, in connection with the Board, up to 1S50, has been estimated at $2,500,000. The Commissioners must be satisfied as to the site, size, furniture, material, and workmanlike manner of the work done, before the payment of any grant. V. The Board have succeeded in publishing and introducing a valua- ble series of text books, maps and school re«[uisites, prepared with great care, and furnished for a first supply, and at the end of every four years gratuitousltj to each school, and at other times below cost. Great pains have been taken to exclude from all books published or sanctioned by them, every thing of a sectarian or party character, the upper and the nether millstone between which Ireland has been for two centuries crushed. The publication of this "Irish National Series of School Books." has had the effect already to reduce the price of all school books in England and Scotland, and to lead to the revision of most of the stand- ing text books, in order to compete with this new competitor in the market. In their Fourteenth Report (for 1847) the Board remark : "We have the gratification to state that the demand for our school-books, in England and Scotland, is progressively increasing. Many of our colonies, too, have been supplied during the year with large quantities ; and in some of them a system of pabiic instruction for the poor, similar in its general charac- ter to that of the national system in Ireland, as being equally adapted to a pop- ulation of a mixed character as to their relijjioiis persuasions, is likely to be established. We have sent books and requisites to Australia, British Ouiana, Canada, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Gibraltar, and Malta. A complete series of our National school-books was also sent to Loid Seaton,- the Governor of Corfu; and it is not improbable that they will be translated, at no distant period, into the Greek language, for the use of children attending schools in the Ionian Islands." VI. The Board have subjected their schools to a system of thorough, periodical and intelligent inspection, by which all abuses and deficiencies are detected, and at once corrected or supplied, and a stimulus of the most powerful character is brought to bear on all of the teachers in any way aided by the Commissioners. Besides three head inspectors residing at Dublin, for local duties and special business abroad, there are thirty-four district inspectors, who de- vote their whole time to the services of the Board, under the following regulations : "1. The commissioners do not take the control or regulation of any school, except their own model schools, directly into their own hands, but leave all schools aided by them under the authority of the local conductors. The in- spectors, therefore, are not to give direct orders, as on the part of the Board, re- specting any necessary regulations, but to point out such regulations to the conductors of the school, that they may give the requisite orders. 2. The commissioners require that every National School be inspected by the inspector of the district, at least three times in each year. 44 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 3. The district inspector, on each inspection, is to communicate with the patron or correspondent, for the purpose of affording information concerning the general state of the school, and pointing out such violations of rule, or de- fects, if any, as he may have observed; and he is to make such suggestions as he may deem necessary. 4. He is to examine tlie visitors' book, or daily report book, and to transmit to the commissioners copies of any observations made therein which he may consider to be of importance. 5. He is not to make any observation in the book except the date of his visit, the time occupied in the inspection of the school, showing the precise time at which it commenced and the precise time at which it terminated ; and also the number of scholars present. 6. Upon ordinary occasions, he is not to give any intimation of his intended visit; but during the middle term of the year, fiom the 1st of May to theSlstof August, when the inspection is to be public, he is to make such previous arrangements with the local managers, as will facilitate the attendance of the parents of the children, and other persons interested in the welfare of the schools. 7. He is to report to the commissioners the result of each visit, and to use every means to obtain accurate information as to the discipline, management^ and methods of instruction pursued in the school. 8. He is to examine all the classes in succession, in their different branches of study, so as to enable him to ascertain the degree and efficiency of the in- struction imparted. 9. He is to examine the class roils, register, and daily report book ; and to report with accuracy what is the actual number of children receiving instruc- tion at the school, and what is the daily average attendance. 10. He is to receive a monthly report from the teacher of each school, and also to make one quarterly himself to the commissioners, in addition to his or- dinary report upon the school after each visit. 11. He is also to supply the commissioners with such local information as they may from time to time require from him. and to act as their agent in all matters in which they may employ him ; but he is not invested v/ith authority to decide up AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 701 emplifying the agricultural principles to be inculcated, can not be any longer ques- tioned. From all tlie inl'urmation I could acquire on this subject in the couise of my personal inspection, and tVom the statements of the local parties connected with the d fferent Agricultural Schools, 1 find that in almost eveiy instance the agricul- tural instruction does not in any way retard the progress of the pupils in literary studies. I have heretofore had occasion to refer to the case of the Larne School, as aflbrd'ng a gratifying instance of the truth of this statement ; and I have again the satisfaction of stating that its pupils have a second time given public, and I trust satisfactory proof that at the same time they have acquired a thorough and useful knowledge of agricultural principles, they have made as much proficiency in lite- rary instruction as if it formed the sole subject of their studies. Three of them were examined at Edinburgh, in September last, before the education committee of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and several noblemen and gentlemen interested in the agricultural education of the youth of that country, on a similar plan to that carried out in connection with the National Schools here; and from the public and private accounts I have received of their answering, I think they amply fulfilled the object of their mission by affiording a convincing proof of the practicability of combining agricultural and literary education in com- mon schools, where the Teachers are properly (jualified to communicate such, and to superintend the practical operations of a small farm. I beg to direct attention to a portion of the speech delivered by Sir John iM'Neill, G.C.B., who presided as chairman at a public breakfast given to Mr. Donaghy by the friends of agricultural education, at the conclusion of his lectures on that subject. After referring to the necessity for and advantages of agricultu- ral education, and the most suitable means of having it generally carried out, he thus proceeds : — " I have had occasion to visit the school conducted by your guest, Mr. Donaghy, at Glasnevin, in the vicinity of Dublin, and from the results of the e.Kperiments made in that institution, I should look vvith the greatest hope and con- fidence to the success of any scheme that might conciliate public support to enable it to be permanent. On looking to the schemes of improvement which are started every day, I think I see a disposition on the part of those who move them to look for too speedy results of their own labor. iNow 1 am perfectly satisfied that if we are to move in this matter with the prospect of conferring benefit on the country, we must be contented to sow that othei's may reap. All education, mind you, is founded on that principle. He who establishes a school for the education of youth does not expect to see all those ch'ldren, men, and women grown up. iHe does not expect to live to see the fruits of the labor that he has bestowed on them — or in many cases at least he can not expect it. He is satisfied to instill into the minds of youth those principles wlich are to guide their conduct in the manhood he will never see. If, therefore, we are to move in this matter let us not deceive ourselves. We, at least such of us as have the snows of many winters on our heads, are not to suppose that we are to see the result of our labors. We must be contented, if we are to do good, to drop into the ground an acorn, which may, at a distant period, produce a tree, under whose boughs many may hereafter find shelter and shade. If in this spirit you are prepared to move in this matter — if, without at- tempting to hold out the prospects of inmiediate results, you are prepared to es- tablish a national institution, which shall grow with the growth, and strengthen v^ith the strength, of the nation, I am prepared to go along with you in the amount of any influence or means which I possess. But if you are merely going to move for the sake of producing immediate effects — if you expect to seethe result of your own labors — if you are not prepared to take any measures of v^'hich you may not see the result, I look for no advantage from your labors." Dr. Anderson, the dis- tinguished chemist to the highland and agricultural society of Scotland, being called upon to express his views on the matter, said — " He had felt, ever since be had come into connection with the agriculturists of Scotland, that it was essential they should have some means of establishing a thorough and effectual agricultural education. He had thought of various plans, and had seen the great dithculty of making a commencement ; but the plan they were now met to-day to discuss was a most important and practical one ; as he believed the parish schools did afford them the means of carrying on this branch of education to a considerable extent. He confessed that, for his own part, he would like to see the system carried out 702 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. even more extensively than had been suggested at this meeting ; and that a thorough system should be introduced over the whole of Scotland. They could not have a better educated class, as regarded general knowledge, than the agrieul- tift'al classes of Scotland : but, as yet, they had no means of supplying them with that professional education which the present state of agriculture, and the rapid advances now making in it, rendered it necessary to possess." These remarks clearly and happily express the views that must be entertained by intelligent prac- tical minds as to the beneficial results of a system of education such as that admin- istered by the agricultural schools, and are admirably calculated to meet the ob' jectioris of those, who, because they can not see immediate and general improve- ment resulting from the operations of the agricultural schools, pronounce the sys- tem a failure. Improvement can not in this instance tread on the heels of educa- tion — the latter sows the seed of which the former will in due time be the fruit ; and as in ordinary cultivation some crops take only a short time to arrive at matu- rity, while others require a long period to attain perfection, so from the cultivation of the minds of our young farmers and laborers many beneficial results are already observable, but the general harvest of improvement will be slow in coming round. The conduct and efficiency of the agricultural teachers during the past year have been in general most exemplary and satisfactory. I am enabled to speak thus favorably, not only from my own experience acquired at my different visits, but from the accounts I have received from proprietors and others who feel an interest in, and have closely watched their proceedings. They do not confine their labors to the superintendence of their schools and farms, but not unfrequently dis- charge the duties of " Practical Instructors" in their respective localities. The results, in the shape of pecuniary profit, realized at the different school farms, as shown in the Appendix to this Report, differ materially ; but it must not be supposed that such results are an index to the efficiency or non-efficiency of the teachers. Various circumstances besides the industry and ability of the agricultu- rist, will combine to affect the result of his labors, and unless where the cases are equal iu respect to advantages and disadvantages, the pecuniary result of the year's operations does not afford a sure criterion whereby to judge of the merits or demerits of the system by which they were produced, although they can be useful in many other ways, such as showing the results obtained in differ- ent localities, and under different systems of management, and by comparing the results of any year with those of the preceding, the progress or retrogression in in- dividual cases may be ascertained. It may be observed, and perhaps unfavorably commented on by those unacquainted with all the circumstances, that in some of the schools, especially those under the immediate management of the Commission- ers, there has been a loss in the agricultural department ; but it must be borne in mind that most of these schools are but very recently established — that in almost every case the farms connected with them were in a most wretchedly exhausted condition — that most of the energies of the agriculturists are directed to the effect- ing of the preliminary and indispensable improvements, and to bringing them under suitable and i-egular rotations of cropping ; and until these preliminary measures are completed, and the farms in working order, it would be unreasonable to expect profitable pecuniary results. The following extract, taken from a recently published and highly interesting pamphlet, bears so strikingly and prominently on this peculiar point, that I can not refrain from giving it insertion here : — " When any one acquainted with the mul- tifarious risks which surround the farming business, takes a lease of land, he does not look for profit for several years, unless it happens to have been previously put in good condition ; on the contrary, he calculates on having a heavy expenditure and little income for a considerable time. When a farm has for a number of years been starved and badly managed, to look at it, the theorist might conclude that it would not take much to put it in the same state as those richly cultivated fields ad- joining. But than this there is not a more common mistake ; and when landlords are of opinion that farmers can give as much rent for a wasted farm, as they may seem inclined to offer for another, which perchance is in better condition, they are not looking at the matter in a proper light. In many cases, to put the individual who has become tenant of a ' run-out' farm in an equal position with his more for- tunate neighbor, who has got land exactly of a similar natui'e, at a rent nothing AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 703 higher, but which happens to be less severely scourged, several hundred pounds would be required ; for, in improving an impoverished farm, large sums of money will be expended without malting any striking cliange in its appearance, or without immediately yielding a profit to the improver. — Morton^s Rich Farming. Model Farm and Agricultural School at Glasnevin. The Agricultural Department of the Commissioners of National Edu- cation at Glasnevin, consists of a Model Farm of 128 acres, with appro- priate buildings, a Model Kitchen Garden, and Nursery of fruit and for- est trees, shrubs, &c., and an Industrial School. The pupils are selected by the Commissioners from the most talented and deserving young men in the various agricultural schools in different parts of Ire- land ; and the number for the present is limited to fifty. The success of this great establishment in gradually diffusing over Ireland a knowledge of better methods of farming and gardening, is fully attested in the extracts which follow. President Hitchcock in a " Report concerning an Agricultural School" to the Legislature of Massachusetts, remarks: " This institution vt'as established in 1838, and its grand object is to train up teachers for other schools, several hundreds of whom have already been sent out, and are spreading the knowledge here gained in other parts of Ireland. The pres- ent number of pupils is about fifty ; but buildings are now in course of erection for one hundred. The pupils receive literary as well as agricultural instruction. The principal lectures are on practical as well as theoretic agriculture. The mornings as well as the evenings are devoted to study, but a large part of the day to labor. Most of the pupils, I should think, are above twenty years of age. It was vacation when I visited, yet some thirty or forty had remained to work on the farm, and I very thankfully accepted an invitation to listen to an examination of the young men in the studies they had been taught. More than twenty cheerfully came in from the field, and without changing their dress, passed a very creditable examination upon the various principles of practical and theoretical agriculture, in connection with its associated sciences. I am sure that they can not carry abroad such prin- ciples as they here presented without doing immense benefit to impoverished Ireland. On the farm the principles taught in the school are practically illustrated. I walked over the fields, and have never, in any country, seen crops as fine, taken as a whole, of wheat, oats, beans, flax, and potatoes. The oats would probably yield eighty bushels to the acre, and the potatoes bid fair to produce seven hun- dred bushels, the disease having not then shown itself The pupils have access to a good agricultural library, but I saw no collections in Natural History, nor in any other department, indeed. The place, however, being only three miles from Dublin, the pupils can resort thither for instruction in Natural History, and the inspection of specimens. There is a museum of economic geology there, which will, ere long, afford great facilities to puf)ils. If they can succeed in extending the skill and productiveness exhibited in this Model Farm, throughout Ireland, I am confident we should hear no more of her population as starving." Mr. Donaghy, in his Report on the Glasnevin Farm in 1852. makes the following judicious remarks on the educational workings of this establishment. So far as the numbers in attendance at the establishment may be considered as indicative of its continued prosperity, nothing, under the circumstances, can be more satisfactory ; and coupling with this the very favorable testimony left on record regarding it by the numerous visitors who have inspected its operations throughout the year, we have every reason to be satisfied that its usefulness is becoming gradually more developed, and its agency, in effecting an improvement 704 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. in our present agricultural management, better appreciated by all who take an in- terest in the real welfare of the country. Viewing the establishment, then, as an engine whereby extensive knowledge on improved agricultural practice is organized and disseminated ihroughout the differ- ent parts of the country — more particularly amongst those classes of the commu- nity whose circumstances debar them from acquiring such information otherwise — it recommends itself to the countenance and support of every true friend of Ireland, as an institution by means of which the amelioration of the different classes of the people, who come within the sphere of its influence, can be, so far as other exter- nal circumstances permit, ultimately effected. This it is capable of accomplishing, and that, too, " without money and without price," on the part, at least, of the re- cipients of its benefits. I need scarcely say that it would afford me, as I doubt not it would you, much gratification vsere I able to state that the Gla.snevin Model P'arm establishment is a self-supporting institution. But this it neither is, nor can be, under existing cir- cumstances. And it is very problematical, indeed, « hether or not, if it were such, it would be capable of accomplishing even a tithe of the good which it is at present effecting. Conmion sense will point out to any man fit to exercise a sound judg- ment, that no agricultural educational establishment in the world, having a limited quantity of land attached to it, would be able, from the sale of its produce, to board, lodge, educate, wash for, pay the traveli g expenses of, afford Is. &d. per week, to an indefiidU number o^ free pupils, and, at the same time, return a profit to the manager. In any self-supporting institution, a CL'rtain ratio must exist between the number of pupils boarded free of expense, and the extent and quality of the land cult vatcd ; else no result in the shape of a money profit can be realized, as may easily be perceived by conceiving that there may be a larger number of pupils in attendance — as in our own case — than the entire produce of the farm would be capable of maintaining. But though a money profit is desirable, if it can at all be produced, I v\ould ask, is a money profit, in reference to the affairs of an institu- tion such as this, the proper test wht-reby to judge of its utility and efficiency? Most decidedly it is not. The amount of good effected by the operations of a public institution, constitutes, for the most part, the sole and only element of jirofit derivable from the expenditure attendant upon its management. Does the state expect a direct money profit from the expenditure of the funds set apart for the support of the Queen's Colleges ? No ; but from the application of those funds a more important result is expected — the education of all who can conscientiously avail themselves of the privileges thus aflf()rded to them. Further, do the Com- missioners of education contemplate that a wonsy profit should emanate from the outlay consequent upon the efficient workii.'g of the Marlborough street schools ? No ; the object in view in this, as in the other case, is identically the same — the conferring of a great boon upon the lower ranks of the people, in the form of a good, useful, and liberal education. Well, in what does the Glasnevin Model Farm establishment differ from the cases just adduced ? Is it not also an educa- tional establishment, giving valuable gratuitous instruction to the sons of the small farmers, not only in the science and practice of husbandry, but also in general literary knowledge — matters of vital importance to the counti-y, and of course at- tended with extra expense as compared with an ordinary agricultural establish- ment ? The objects in view in each case, therefore are precisely similar^ — the aff()rding of extensive gratuitous advantages to promote the educational and social interests of Ireland out of the funds of the State — objects vvliich the Glasnevin Model Farm establishment have promoted, is promoting, and, I should hope, will promote. A money profit therefore, is not the proper criterion whereby to judge of its usefulness. If so, such should also be the case in refei'ence to the others. But whilst the Glasnevin Model Farm establishment, with its 128 acres attached, is admirably calculated, from its proximity to the city of Dublin, for affording to the Commissioners of education the greatest possible facility for carrying out their views extensively, as regards the dissemination of agricultural knowledge, the high rent which they have been obliged to pay for the land (£.5 per statute acre for one part of it, and 4 guineas per acre for the other,) in consequence, amongst other matters, of the enjoyment of this advantage ; the outlay for permanent improve- ments required to be effected ; the high charge for implements and repairs in the AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 705 locality ; tlie amount of outlay for toll, cess, and other taxes ; and the cost attend- ant upon the purchase and keeping in proper repair the different sets of imple- ments for so many pupils, place it almost beyond the power of human exertion, under existing prices, to show a favorable balance sheet. But is the fact to be altogether overlooked in forming an estimate of the results of the working of this establishment, that the Commissioners of education are able from their arrangements, as regards the locality of the farm, not only to train a class of agricultural pupils — at present 50 —immediately upon it, but also to take advantage of the services of their agriculturist in delivering two courses of agricul- tural lectures in the year to about 200 of their schoolmasters when they are in training at their Model Schools in Dublin ? And still further to enhance the value of the information which these men thus receive in the lecture-room, they are called upon by the board to visit the Model Farm once in the week, where an ex- planation is given to them of the courses of cropping followed, the mode of per- forming the different farming operations, and, in short, of the entire management pursued. Could these advantages be obtained if their principal agricultural de- partment was situated at a considerable distance from their literary training depart- ment, without incurring much more trouble and expenditure than at present? The truth is, by this very arrangement — the proximity of the agricultural establish- ment to the literary training department — the Commissioners of education have been able to take the lead of all the educational institutions in Great Britain as regards the dissemination of agricultural information. Why has Scotland been heretofore unable to carry out agricultural education in connection with her pres- ent existing school system, notwithstanding an expressed desire on the part of some of her most enlightened men to effect this object? Simply, because she has no central agricultural training department in connection with one or other of her normal seminaries, at which her teachers could acquire, in addition to their other branches of education, a knowledge of agricultural science and practice. I would respectfully submit, therefore, that in forming an estimate of our transactions, throughout the year, the real and substantial advantages derived by the country from the working of the establishment should receive due consideration. The following notice of the Model Farm at Glasnevin, where the Normal pupils are required to take practical lessons in agriculture, is taken from Colman's " European Agriculture and Rural Economy.''^ "It is considered (by the Commissioners of National Education) and with good reason, that the great want, among the people, is a want of knowledge in applying and using the means of subsistence within their reach ; that there is no indisposition on their part to labor; that there is as yet an ample extent of un- cultivated land capable of being redeemed and rendered productive ; and that a principal source of the wretchedness, and want, and starvation, which prevail in some parts of this country, often to a fearful extent, is attributable to the gross ignorance of the laboring classes of the best modes of agriculture and of rural economy. With this conviction upon their minds, the commissioners have determined to connect with all their rural schools a course of teaching in scientific and practical agriculture, communicating a knowledge of the simple elements of agricultural chemistry; of the best modes and operations of hus- bandry which have been adopted in any country ; of the nature, and character, and uses, of the vegetables and plants necessary or useful to man or beast; of the improved kinds of live stock, and of the construction and use of the most improved and most approved farming implements and machinery. With these views, it is their intention to train their schoolmasters, and to send out such men as are apt and qualified to teach these most useful branches. For this purpose the government have established this model farm, which was begun in 1838, and which has already, in a greater or less measure, qualified and sent out seven hundred teachers. To my mind it seems destined to confer the most important benefits upon Ireland, and I may add upon the world ; for so it hap- 45 706 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND. pens under the benignant arrangemen*s of the Divine Providence, the benefits of every good measure or effort for the improvement of mankind proceed, by a sort of reduplication, to an unlimi;ed extent ; these teachers shall instruct iheir pupils, and these pupils become in their turn the teachers of others; and the good seed, thus sown and widely scattered, go on yielding its constantly-increas- ing products, to an extent which no human imagination can measure. Three thousand schoolmasters are at this moment demandedfor Ireland, and the gov- ernment are determined to supply them. Happy is it for a country, and honor- able to human nature, when, instead of schemes of avarice, and dreams ot ambition, and visions of conquest, at the dreadful expense of the comlbrt, and liberty, and lives, of the powerle.ss and unprotected, the attention of those who hold the destinies of their fellow-beings in their hands is luri;ed to their im- provement, their elevation, their comfort, and their substantial welfaie. The Model Farm and Agricultural School is at a place called Glasnevin, about three miles from Dublin, on a good soil. The situation is elevated and salubrious, embracing a wide extent of prospect of sea and land, of plain and mountain, of city and country, combining the busy haunts of men, and the highest improvements of art and science, with what is most picturesque and charming in rural scenery, presenting itself in its bold mountains and deep glens, in its beautiful plantations, its cultivated fields, and its wide and glitter- ing expanse of ocean. The scenery in the neighboihood of Dtiblin, wiih its fertile valleys, and the mountains of Wicklow, of singularly grand and beau;iful formation, hounding the prospect for a considerable extent, is among the richest which the eye can take in ; and at the going down of the sun in a fine summer evening, when the long ridge of the mountains seemed bordered with a fringe of golden fire, it carried my imagination back, with an emotion which those only who feel it can understand, to the most beautiful and picturesque parts of Vermont, in the neighborhood of Lake Chaniplain. I have a strong conviction of the powerful and beneficial influence of fine natural scenery, where theie is a due measure of the endowment of ideality, upon the intellectual and iT)oral character; and I would, if possible, surround a place of education with those object-; in nature best suited to elevate and enlarge the mind, and stir the soul of man from its lowest depths. It is at the shrine of nature, in the temple pil- lared by the loftv mountains, and whose glowing arches are resplendent with inextinguishable fires, that the human heart is most profoundly impressed with the unutterable grandeur of the great object of worship. It is in fields radiant with their golden harvests, and every where offering, in their rich fruits and products, an unstinted compensation to human toil, and the most liberal provi- sions for human subsistence and comfort, and in pastures and groves animated with the expressive tokens of enjoyment, and vocal with the grateful hymns of ecstacy, among the animal creation, that man gathers up those evidences of the faithful, unceasing, and imbounded goodness of the Divine Providence, which most deeply touch, and often overwhelm the heart. The Model Farm and School, at Glasnevin, has connected with it fifty-two English acres of land, the whole of which, with the exception of an acre occupied by the farm build- ings, is under cultivation, and a perfect- system of rotation of crops. The mas- ter of the school pays for this land a rent of five pounds per acre, and taxes and expenses carry the rent to eight pounds per acre. Twelve poor boys, or lads, live constantlv with him, for whose education and board, besides their labor, he receives eight shillings sterling per week. They work, as well as I could • understand, about six hours a day, and devote the rest of the time to study, or learning. The course of studies is not extensive, but embraces the most com- mon and useful branches of education, such as arithmetic, geography, natural philosophy, and agriculture, in all its scientific and practical details. They have an agricultural examination, or lecture, every day. I had the gratifica- tion of listening to an examination of Iburteen of these young men, brought out of the field from their labor; and cheerfully admit that it was eminently suc- cessful, and in the highest degree creditable both to master and pupil. Besides these young men, who live on the farm, the young men in Dublin, at the TNor- mal School, who are preparing themselves for teachers of the national schools, are required to attend at the farm and assist in its labors a portion of the time, that they may become thoroughly acquainted with scientific and practical agri- culture in all its branches, and be able to teach it; the government being deter- mined that it shall form an indispensable part of the school instruction through- NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND. ^qV ont the island. The great objects, then, of the establishment, are to qnaliiV these 3'oung men for teachers by a thorough ;md prficlical education in the science, so far as it has reached that character, and in the most itnproved methods and operations of agriculture. Besides this, it is intended to furnish an opporuinity to the sons of men of wealth, who may be placed here as pupils, to acquiie a practical knowledge of and a familiar insight into, all the details of farming. This must prove of the highest importance to them in the manage- ment of their own estates." LIST OF LECTURES AT GLASNEVIN. 1. The rudiments of agricultural chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, and vegetable physiology, so far as they have a practical application to agriculture. 2. The nature and improvement of soils. 3. The nature, properties, and application of the several manures. 4. The effects of heat, light, and water on soils, manures, animal and veget- able life. 5. The nature, situation, and properties of farms in general. 6. The proper divisioii of farms, with the crops suitable, according to soil and situation. 7. The situation and construction of farm buildings. 8. Rotations of crops, fencing and draining, according to the most approved principles. 9. The scientific principles of ploughing, and the general construction and use of farm implements. 10. The cultivation of green and grain crops, proper quantity of seeds, and best mode of culture. 11. Haymaking and harvesting. 12. Animal physiology and veterinary practice, and general management of horses. 13. Cattle, their several breeds, management, diseases, and modes of cure; also of sheep and swine. 14. Horse-feeding and fattening of cattle, with the improved modes of dairy management. 15. Practical gardening, under the direction of Mr. Campbell. The results of this course of training with the teachers, are best seen in the following notice of the National School, at Larne, — an ordinary school in which agricultural chemistry and practical agriculture are pro- vided for in the course of'siudy. " This is not, properly speaking, an agricultural school, but a national school, where the common branches of education are taught; and there is connected with it a department or class of agricultural study, and a small piece of land, which the boys cultivate, and on which, in the way of experiment, the principles of agriculture, and its general practice, are, within a very limited ex- tent, ilhistra'ed and tested. The examination was eminently successful, and creditalile alike to the teacher and the pupils. It was from this establishment that a detachment of five pupils was sent for examination to the great meeting of the Agricultural Society of Scotland the last autumn, where their attainments created a great sensation, and produced an impression, on the subject of the im- portance of agricultural education, which is likely to lead to the adoption of some universal system on the subject. I shall transcribe the account given of the occasion : ' Five boys from the school at Lame were introduced to the meeting, headed by their teacher. They seemed to belong to the better class of peasantry, being clad in homely garbs; and they appeared to be from twelve to fifteen years of age. They were exam- ined, in the first instance, by the inspector of schools, in grammar, geography, and arithmetic; and scarcely a single question did they fail to answer correctly. They were then examined, by an agricultural professor, in the scientific branches, and tiv two practical farmers in the practical departments of asrricul- ture. Their acquaintance with these was alike delightful and astonishing. They detailed the chemical constitution of the soil and the effect of manures, 708 NORMAL AND MODEL SCHOOLS OF IRELAND. the land best fitted for green crops, the different kinds of grain, the dairy, and the system of rotation of crops. Many of these answers required considerable exercise of reflection ; and as previous concert between themselves and the gentlemen who examined them was out of the question, their acquirements seemed to take the meeting by surprise ; at the same time they atlbrded it the utmost satisfaction, as evincing how much could be done by a proper system ot training.' I confess the establishment at Lame afforded me, in this respect, very high gratification. The agricultural studies are not made compulsory, but voluntary; and one hour per day is devoted to agricultural labcn'. The Board of Education in Ireland have now under their control three thousand teachers; and it is pro- posed, wherever it may be deemed useful, to make agriculture a standard branch of common school education. They already have seven agricultural training establishments; and it is in contemplation to have iwenty-hve, Avith which it is proposed shall be connected small inodel farms, so that every where, besides furnishing this most valuable instruction to the pupils of the schools, the farm- ers in the vicinity may be excited and instructed to improve their cultivation. Thus diffusive is the nature of all beneficence. A good deed, like a stone throAvn into the water, is sure to agitate the whole mass. Its strongest effects will be felt where the blow is given ; but the concentric circles are seen extend- ing themselves on every side, and reach much farther than the eye can follow them. In the moral as well as physical world, the condition of mutual attrac- tion and dependence is universal and indissoluble. We have reason to hope that no good seed is ever sown in vain, but will sooner or later germinate and yield its proper fruits. The.se establishments do certainly the highest honor and credit to the intelli- gence and philanthropy of Ireland, and their beneficent effects must presently be seen in alleviating the indescribable amount of wretchedness under which this beautiful country and fine-spirited people have been so long crushed to the earth — a wretchedness which, to be understood, must be seen." President Hitchcock, of Amherst in his Report to the Legislature of Massachusetts, in 1851, on Agricultural Schools, thus notices his visit to the National Agricultural School at Lame. The farm consists of only seven aores. Yet in 1848, the head master, Mr. M'Donnell, maintained on this small plot of ground, in the very best condition, three milch cows, two calves, four pigs, and one donkey, and raised besides 32^^ cwt. of wheat, 28 cwt. of oats, and 24 cwt. of potatoes. The crops growing this year, appeared unusually fine. The in-door pupils pay $54 a year, including instruction and board, or if upon scholarships, only $22. The out-door pupils pay for instruction, $17 annually. The boarders work on the farm from 6 to 8, and from 10 to 12 A. M., and from 4 to 6 P. M. From 12 to 3 o'clock daily they study in the school-room, in agri- culture as a science as well as in literature ; also, from 6 to 8 P. M., in an even- ing class under the superintendence of a teacher. Tliey are not admitted under fifteen years of age, nor without a certificate of moral character. The course is of two or three years' duration, according to the age and aequirements of the pupils. The agricultural instruction "embraces the principles of chemistry; the forma- tion, nature, and difference of soils ; the rotations of cropping best suited to such varieties ; draining, trenching, and subsoiling, and the principles upon which their efficacy depends ; house feeding of cattle, and its advantages ; the constitution and properties of the different'manures ; the proper divisions of farms, &c., &c." To this is added a well grounded course of English education in reading, writing, arithmetic, Enghsh grammar, geography, book-keeping, mensuration, land sur- veying, gauging, geometry, trigonometry, algebra, and navigation. Such arrangements are made, that each class receives religious instruction from clergymen selected by the parents or guardians. If the teacher of the school wishes to communicate religious instruction, he gives public notice of the time and place, and the pupils can attend or not, according to the wishes of their parents, or their own. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 709 DuNMANWAY Model Agricultural School. The Dunmanway Model Farm is situated in the county of Cork, and consists of twelve acres. The following extracts, taken from the Third Annual Report of Frederic W. Connor, head master of the school, shows its condition in 1852. The confidence placed b)' the public in the institution has not diminished. It has had a great increase of visitors. In the attendance of the pupils, an increase of 70 per cent, has taken place from among the various classes of society ; a greater number are still anxious to be admitted, but accommodation can not be found for their instruction. Agricultural Instruction, both of a scientific and practical nature, has been imparted regularly to the pupils during the past year, on the days a{)pointed for giving such. There are very few subjects bearing upon agricultural economy, that have not been brought before their notice. Agricultural instruction is given in the morning, from a quarter past six to half-past eight o'clock ; in the evening from nine to half-past nine ; and every second week-day from half-past two till a quarter past tliree, P. M., or an average three hours daily. Information is com- municated by lectures, and the study of approved works on agriculture and manu- scripts prepared by myself accompanied in every case by searching examinations. The mode of instruction adopted has proved most satisfactor^y. The pupils take notes during the reading of the lecture ; these they immediately transcribe while the subject is yet fresh in the memory. Then subsequently exchange their man- uscripts, mutually correcting each other's errors, (including those in spelling and composition,) after which I examine and classify their papers. Thus literary and agricultural instruction go hand in hand, and the agreeableness of the method forms no ordinarj' incentive to improvement. After my own examination of the class, which alternates with every lecture, I permit each pupil in his turn to ex- amine the class also ; at other times to read a lecture of his own composition. Again, I submit to the pupils a series of questions to be answered by them on paper — cause them monthly to write out essays on a given subject^ — and weekly discuss agricultural questions. As a proof of the interest evinced by them in the prosecution of their studies, I may be permitted to state, that many of them rose at three o'clock in the morning, during the summer, for the purpose of studying the subject of their lesson for that day. The Agricultural Boarders^ Class consists of four pupils, one of whom, being a free pupil, is supported gratuitously by the board. The want of accommodation prevents a greater number being admitted. The class continues to give every satisfaction. Since it was established five J'oung men have been advanced from it to the Glasnevin Model Farm. The selection of members for this class is gen- erally confined to the neighboring farmers' sons — the preference being given to those pi-eviously educated at a normal school. The Pupil- Teachers' Class continues to work well. The Industrial Class, the members of which are selected from the agricultu- ral class, aflx)rds great satisfoction by the order and good conduct of its members, and the efheient manner in which they perform their duties. The Agricultural Class consists on an average of 37 pupils, the highest num- ber we can conveniently find room for. The pupils composing this class are se- lected from the advanced classes of the school, who in conjunction with the agri- cultural boarders and pupil-teachers, receive agricultural instruction for the space of three-quarters of an hour every second week-day, and have also the privilege of attending the morning classes, where extra instruction is afforded. They are instructed in the leading principles of agi'icultural chemistry, geology, vegetable physiology, &c., and especially in those practical subjects bearing more directly upon their future employment. Of the 37 pupils composing the agricultural class, 30 are the sons of farmers, holding from 20 to 200 acres of land respectively. The working pupils are required each to keep a journal of the various opera- tions going on on the farm, — the different periods at which crops are sown and harvested, — how managed, &c, — and many other remarks that will form a source of reUable information in after-life. Meteorological observations are also noted 710 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. down. They also take part in the preparation of the ground for the crops ; assist in the sowing, reaping, &c., of all crops ; in short, no operation is performed in which their assistance and attention is not so employed as to initiate them into a knowledge of those business habits required to fit them for the duties of afterlife. Permission is granted the pupils to assist their parents in sowing and managing their green crops ; and, in inquiring of their parents as to the assistance they re- ceive from the instruction of their children educated at this school, I was happy to find they are in the constant habit of exposing the errors of their fathers' and neighbors' husbandry, and contrateting the system pursued by them with that car- ried out on the Model Farm. Since the institution of the agricultural class, 12 young men have been ap- pointed out of it as Teachers of National Schools, and eight are giving assistance on their fathers' farms. These young men may be looked upon as so many practical instructors, who, feeling a zealous interest in the objects of their professions, will, in their inter- course with the neighboring farmers, be the means of materially improving the intelligence and industry of the district. Workhouse Agricultural Schools. One of the most interesting features of the present educational move- ment, both in England and Ireland, is the successful introduction of in- dustrial training for pauper children into workhouses. Tliere were seventeen workhouse schools in Ireland to which agricultural depart- ments were annexed in 1852. Respecting the operation of these depart- ments in the county of Antrim, Mr. Senior, one of the poor law com- missioners, says : " Each year shows an increased demand for the workhouse boys by the far- mers ; the age, therefore, at which the boy leaves the workhouse becomes a very early one ; it probably now averages ten years. Each year also shows increased good behavior on the part of the boys, who may, perhaps, be termed apprentices." Dr. Kirkpatrick in view of another year's experience adds : " Every year's experience convinces me more forcibly of the neces.«ity of a gen- eral and efficient system of industrial training for pauper children, and I am happy to find that this opinion is steadily gaining ground bbth here and in the sister country. The facts previously stated bear me out in this assertion with respect to this country, and the following extracts, which I take leave to quote from a Parlimentary docviment, will show its progress in England, and may be useful in other respects." Mr. Doyle, one of the poor law inspectors, m his Report, thus speaks of the pro- gress of industrial e;lucation for pauper boys, and of the success which has attended it wherever introduced : " The guardians of almost every union in this district in which there are upon an average a sufficient number of boys of an age capable of industrial occupation, either have already provided, or have determined to provide the means for their imlustrial training. The unions of this district being almost exclusively agricul- tural, the means of industrial training for boys consist chiefly in the cultivation of a few acres of land by spade husbandry. In those unions in vihich this system can be said to be fairly in operation, it has already been productive of much benefit, and it will be seen by the detailed accounts furnished from some of them that this mode of educating the children in habits of industry is attended with considerable profit to the guardians." The master of the Wrexham union workhouse, in a communication addressed by him to Mr. Doyle, after describing the lamentable state of things that existed among the youthful inmates previous to the adoption of a system of industrial training, thus proceeds : " It is these, and such like facts, which have impelled this board of guardians AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. ^U to adopt some plan, if possible, to put a stop to these evils ; and hence, in 1848 an acre of potato land was taken as a trial, to be cultivated chiefly by the boys. The success of the experiment was so sat.sfactor\' that the board was induced to rent, as a permanent appendage to the workhouse, a field of four acres, in which the schoolmaster in the afternoon of each working day trains the boys in spade hus- bandry. The profits of the first two years were comparatively small, still they have enabled us to lay in a good stock of tools ; and besides, when taken together with the present year's profits, have realized in whole, in form of pauper labor, nearly £90. The statement now sent shows the result of our second year's ope- rations in our own field, and as the general intelligence as well as the muscular capacity of the children is becoming equal to their work, we may expect greater pecuniary results ; but at last the moral results likely to flow from our endeavors are the most pleasing ; the children are more easily managed than formerly, are more contented and generally happier, and perform their work in a pleasing and cheerful manner. They are, 1 trust, in connection with the inculcation of sound principles, having those principles trained into habits, which, while they will for- tify against temptation, give promise of enabling the children readily to adapt themselves to the sphere in life in which their lot is likely to be cast, and of ulti- mately becoming wholly independent of parochial relief. I have great pleasure in being able to add, that not one boy who has gone out to service since we began these operations has been returned on our hands, or is likely to be so.'' Mr. Everest, clerk of the Atcham Union, writes' to Mr. Doyle as follows : " That the children of the poor may be efficiently taught, and so far as human means may produce the object, made useful and honorable members of society in a union workhouse, is a fact that I have long had the pleasure of witnessing in the union in which I have served from its commencement, as well as in one in which I previously served in the south of England. To illustrate the subject, I will now set forth, in as condensed a form as I can, the principles and practice maintained in the union school during the fourteen years of its operation. At first the num- ber of children was small, the guardians feeling it desirable not to crowd their workhouse until time had afforded all parties concerned in its government a little practical experience therein. A school was at once established ; but as no quali- fied schoolmaster applied in answer to an advertisement for such an officer, the situation was taken by a person who, though deficient in mental acquirements for such an office, was a practical agriculturist, of good moral character, and entered on his duties with a determination to do all he could for the welfare of the chil- dren put under his care. The first step was that of making the school a place of moral as well as physical training, to which I attribute its great success. For this purpose every thing that transpired was, to the extent of his ability, made the sub- ject of some practical and familiar observations, enforced by such illustrations as^ became weighty by example. Industry was fi-oni the first a marked characteris- tic of the school, to inculcate which various indoor occupations were and still are practiced, such as knitting, netting, plaiting straw, &c., by which means it became a natural habit in the claildren to be doing something that was useful, so that when fatigued with heavier toils the child sat down to rest, it was, I had almost said, an instinctive feeling that led him to take his straws or needles in hand, and yet the gratification afforded when he found he had enough plait for a hat, and the ])leasure evinced when by himself or his companions it was so formed, proved that his mind had received a correct bias as to production by his own application, nor was there ever occasion to enforce this practice when once begun, as it became a source of pleasure to be so engaged ; but whenever we found a lazy boy it became the subject of a moral lecture, and as work was and still is held to be its own reward in our school, if a boy is found idle the punishment is simple, take him away from his work to look at the others busily employed, and so severe is this in almost every case, that I have scarcely ever known a boy remain half an hour without petitioning for liberty to go to work, and I have been equally pleased to see that others, instead of making any taunting remarks, have become petition- ers in behalf of their schoolfellow. " These may appear trifling incidents, but let guardians and officers try the plan, 712 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN IRELAND. and watch the issue in future service, and they will find, as I have done, that they are important facts ; and I notice them because for the want of seeing this import- ant fact at the outset, that the child is to be trained to the principle of being useful, so much of the other eiforts are vain. Another important point we have always aimed at has been to teach the child to do his work well, to do that work in the right way, and then to make him understand why that particular way is best, and this gives them additional interest in their work, while it tends to make them good workmen in after-life. Our chief mode of employment is on the land we cultivate by spade husbandry, a portion of which has, from the opening of the school, been cultivated exclusively by the boys." " Having stated the nature and practice of our school for fourteen years, it only remains to speak of its success. It has been said that the tendency of workhouse schools is to make perpetual paupers, and such statements are made, no doubt, in the full belief of their truth ; but I am happy to say that, so far as fourteen years may serve for the data of calculation, it is without a shadow of foundation here. Our children go to service, and I would rather refer inquiriers to their employers for their characters as servants, than speak of it myself. Suffice it to say that, with a very few exceptions, (and those of characters the most vicious and thor- oughly formed before they came to us,) and one or two cases of serious illness, they have not returned, except, as is frequently the case, to visit the school where they were trained in the habits of virtue and industry, and leave behind them some trifle, either in money or otherwise, to the school fund. If we trained them up as paupers, I think many of them bid fair to forget the place of their training before they return. Scarcely a child who has been taught in our school leaves it without those feelings of affection for their associates which indicate most clearly that the mind lias been cultivated, and the assistance they affiird in procuring situations for those they left behind proves the genuine character of their attachments ; but to return to the workhouse after going to service is felt to be a disgrace, and will, I hope, as it has hitherto done, prevent such a circumstance ever occurring except in cases that are unavoidable ; and in such cases I hope that a sense of rectitude and the love of virtue will seek such an asylum in preference to crime." Mr. Farnall, another of the poor law inspectors, states: " On reference to the tables, it will be seen that fifty acres of land, cultivated by 514 boys, have yielded in a year a net profit of £335 7s. Id. ; there is, however, a far more valuable benefit acquired than that sum of money represents, for these boys have, in the acquirement of this pecuniary profit, been under training for manual labor ; have been instructed in the value of labor, and in the con- nection which must be maintained between labor and property ; have been made acquainted, to some extent at least, with the natural world ; have felt pleasure in the contemplation of their own work ; and have been trained, as far as practi- cable, to meet the difficulties and distresses which may beset them in their way through life." THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IRELAND. The national school system in which secular instruction is kept free from whatever could offend the most susceptible sectarianism, had proved so successful in diffusing a sound elementary education among the children of the peasantry and the working classes of Ireland, that in 1845 the plan was extended so as to provide, under government endow- ment, the means of obtaining a liberal and professional education for the sons of the middle and upper classes — available to persons of every de- nomination. This was done by the establishment of the Queen's Col- leges at Belfast, Cork, and Galway — now combined and incorporated into the dueen's University, the Senate or governing body of which is seated or holds its meetings at Dublin. The entire system of United Education has been built up by the co- operation of the two great parties in the State ; upon this high ground their only rivalry has been which should contribute most to the common work, and carry out most efficiently its great principle. To the Whig government of Lord Grey, belongs the honor of having first had the courage to proclaim and put in action that principle by the appointment of the first board of commissioners in 1831 ; the charter which estab- lished the schools upon a permanent basis, by constituting the commis- sioners a body corporate, was a measure of the Tory government of Sir Robert Peel, in 1844 ; on the other hand, the completion and crowning of the edifice by the addition of the colleges was the idea and enact- ment of Sir Robert Peel, and has been the achievement, for the greater part, of Lord John Russell. At the opening of the session of parlia- ment on the 4th of February, 1845, her Majesty, in the speech from the throne, recommended to the consideration of the legislature " the policy of improving and extending the opportunities for academical education in Ireland ;" and on the 19th of March thereafter, Sir Robert Peel, in reply to a question by Sir Robert Inglis, took an opportunity of laying before the House of Commons an outline of the ministerial plan, both for the establishment of the three new colleges of secular learning and general instruction, and for the endowment of the Roman Catholic The- ological College of Maynooth, which had been established by an act of the Irish Parliament in 1795, and had been hitherto dependent for its support only upon an annual grant of very inadequate amount. The two measures thus simultaneously announced and proposed, as in some degree connected with and dependent upon one another, were both car- ried through parliament in that same session. The Maynooth endow- ment, however, was made to take the lead, as if to intimate to the |;en- 714 THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IHii >. M». eral population of Ireland — to what may be more peculiarly called the nationality of the country — that its interests and feelings were what the whole scheme primarily had regard to. If the portion of it relating to the Roman Catholic theological seminary had been defeated, the other portion of it also would probably have been withdrawn. The May- nooth bill encountered a vehement opposition, but it was ultimately passed in both Houses by great majorities. Tiie measure for establish- ing three secular colleges in Ireland, wholly independent of religious tests or creeds, for the education of the middle classes, was brought for- ward in the commons by Sir James Graham on the 9th of May. In proposing the second reading of the bill on the 30th, Sir James an- nounced certain alterations which ministers were disposed to make in it. with the view of affording facililies for the theological instruction of the students by clergymen, or lecturers, appointed lor that purpose by the several denominations to which they might belong. On the 2d of June, an amendment moved by Lord John Manners for the postpone- ment of the second reading of the bill was negatived, by a majority of 311 to 46. On the 30th, when it was in commitiee, a proposition from Lord John Russell for making the apparatus of theological instruction in the colleges a part of the establishment to be founded and upheld by the Slate, was rejected by a majority of 117 to 42. Finally, on the 10th of July the third reading of the bill was carried, against an amendment of Sir Robert Inglis. by a majority of 177 to 126. In the Lords it passed through all its stages without a division. By this act. entitled "An Act to enable her Majesty to endow new colleges, for the advancement of learning in Ireland," the sum of 100000/. was assigned out of the consolidated fund for purchasing the sites, and erecting and furnishing the buildings, of the three colleges. Her Majesty and her successors were made visitors, with power to appoint, by sign manual, pensons to execute the office. The appoint- ment of the presidents, vice-presidents, and professors, was intrusted to the Crown, until parliament should otherwise determine. The commis- sioners of the treasury were empowered to issue annually a sum not exceeding 7.000/., for the payment of salaries, and other expenses in each college; it being moreover provided that reasonable fees might be exacted li"om the students. Lecture rooms were directed to be assigned for religious instruction; and it was enacted that no student should be allowed to attend any of the colleges unless he should reside with his parent or guardian, or some near relation, or with a tutor or master of a boarding-house licensed by the president, or in a hall founded and endowed for the reception of students. A president and vice-president for each college were soon after nomi- nated, and the erection of the buildings was begun. The other appoint- ments were made in August 1849. and the three colleges were opened in the end of October following. An additional sum of 12.000/. had shortly before been granted by parliament for providing them with libraries, philosophical instruments and some other requisites. THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND. 715 Originally, it was intended that the number of professors in each col- lege, exclusive of the president and vice-president, should not exceed twelve, and letters patent constituting them upon that basis were passed for each under the great seal of Ireland in December, 1845. Afterwards it was determined that the number should be augmented for the present to nineteen, but that it should not at any time exceed tJiirty. The vice- president, however, is also a professor. New letters patent embodying that extended scheme were granted in favor of each of the three col- leges in November, 1850. Under the existing constitution, then, the body politic and corporate of each college consists of a president, with a salary of 800/. and a house ; a vice-president, with a salary of 500/. and a house ; and pro- fessors of Greek. Latin, mathematics, history and English literature, logic and metaphysics, chemistry, natural philosophy, (each with a salary of 250/. ;) modern languages, natural history, mineralogy and geology, (each with a salary of200/. ;) English law, jurisprudence and political economy, civil engineering, and agriculture, (each with a salary of 150/. ;) the Celtic languages, the practice of surgery, the practice of medicine, materia medica, and midwifery, (each with a salary of 100/.) There are also attached to each college a registrar, (with a salary of 200/.;) and a bursar and librarian, (each with a salary of 150/.) A sum of 300/. annually is allowed for the payment of porters and servants. The total annual expenditure lor salaries is, thus, (deducting 250/. for the professorship held by the vice-president,) 5,500/. The remaining 1 500/. of the annual charge on the consolidated fund is allocated ro the payment of sciiolarships and prizes. The scholarships to be awarded at the commencement of the session of 1850-51 at Bel- fast, are 48 of 24/. each to students of the faculty of arts; 4 of 20/. each to students of the faculty of medicine; 2 of 20/. each to students of the faculty of law; 2 of 20/. each to students of civil engineering; and 4 of 15/. each to students of agriculture; the number being equally divided in all cases between students of the first and students of the second year. The scholarships are all held for one year only. The session in all colleges extends from the third Tuesday in October to the second Saturday in June, and is divided into three terms by re- cesses of a fortnight at Christmas and at Easter. The fees for each class vary from 1/. to 21, 10s. ; and there is besides a payment from each matriculated student to the bursar on behalf of the college of 3/. at the commencement of the first year, and 21. at the commencement of every subsequent year. It had been all along contemplated that matriculation and attendance at these colleges, as at similar institutions established by public author- ity in our own and other countries, should conduct to graduation both in arts and in every other faculty, except only that of divinity; and all the regulations and arrangements of the academic curiculum in each have been moulded upon that understanding. It was a question for a considerable time whether, with a view to the conferring of degrees and 716 THE QUEEN'S COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITY IN IRELAND. other purposes, each college should be erected into a distinct university, or the three constituted into one university. The latter plan has been adopted, undoubtedly to the placing of the new establishments in a greatly superior position to what they would have held if they had been left each to its provincial insulation; for it could never have happened that a mere Belfast, Cork, or Galway Degree would have carried the same weight with one from the Queen's University in Ireland. The letters patent creating such an university have now received the royal signature. Her Majesty has therein been pleased to declare that ''gra- duates of our said university shall be fully possessed of all such rights, . priviliges, and immunities as belong to persons holding similar degrees granted them by other universities, and shall be entitled to whatever rank and precedent is derived from similar degrees granted by other universities." The following individuals constituted the government in 1851: Chancellor — His Excellency George William Frederick, Earl op Clarendon, K.G. K.C B. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. Vice- Chancellor — The Rt. Hon. Maziere Brady, Lord High Chancellor of Ireland. The Senate. His Grace Richard. Archbishop of Dublin. The Most Reverend Archbishop Daniel Mur- ray. DD. The Right Honorable William, Earl of Rosse. K.P. The Right Honorable Thomas Baron Mont- eagle, of Brandon. The Riglit Honorable Francis Blackburne, Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench. The Right Honorable Thomas Berry Cusack Smith, Ma.