{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3339", "width": "2241", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "Qass t i~-^ i\\nBook\\n,r-\\n/a f", "height": "3152", "width": "2056", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3148", "width": "1952", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3180", "width": "2056", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0082\u00achxm)ion ^r^ss ^txm\\nTHE PHILOLOGY\\nSiff\\nENGLISH TONGUE\\nJOHN EARLE, M.A.\\nRECTOR OF SWANSWICK\\nFormerly Feliow and Tutor of Oriel College, and sotnetime Professor of\\nAnglo-Saxo7i in the University of Oxford\\nAT THE CLARENDON PRESS\\nM DCCC LXXI\\n\\\\_All rights reserved", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "Hoution\\nMACMILLAN AND CO.\\nPUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF\\nI", "height": "3188", "width": "2016", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "PREFACE.\\nPhilology may be described as a science of language\\nbased upon the comparison of languages. It is the aim of\\nPhilology to order the study of language upon principles\\nindicated by language itself, so that each part and function\\nshall have its true and natural place assigned to it, according\\nto the order, relation, and proportion dictated by the nature\\nof language. What the nature of language is, can be ascer-\\ntained only by a wide comparison of languages taken at\\nvarious stages of development. Such a work is to be per-\\nformed, not by any one man, but by the co-operation of\\nmany and many have now been co-operating this three\\nquarters of a century past, and sending in from every land\\ntheir contributions towards it.\\nIn this newly gotten knowledge of human language there\\nis matter for educational use. The relations of language to\\nculture are so intimate that what betters our knowledge of\\nthe one should improve the process of the other. It is an\\nopen question in what way the lessons of language may best\\nbe converted to the purpose of education, but there is one\\nfault which might at least be somewhat mended: our know-\\nledge of language has been too broken and divided we\\nhave most of us known one language best vernacularly, and\\nanother best grammatically. Something would be gained\\nif our cultivation of language could be rather more centred\\nupon the mother tongue, so that our vernacular and our", "height": "3168", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "IV PREFACE.\\nphilological acquirements might more effectually support one\\nanother. The lessons of philology would be taught more\\nthoroughly, as well as more conveniently, if the materials for\\nthe instruction were supplied by the mother tongue. The\\neffect of philological study is to quicken the perception of\\nanalogy between languages and this advantage would be\\nmore immediate in its returns if our philology were more\\nbased on the mother tongue. Nothing would put the learner\\nso readily or so implicitly in possession of all the essence\\nof philological gains nothing would be of such good prac-\\ntical avail when the knowledge of one language was needed\\nto bear on the acquisition of another. Were the English\\nlanguage studied philologically, the faculty of acquiring other\\nlanguages would soon be more generally an English faculty.\\nThere are two chief ways of entering upon a scientific\\nstudy. One is by the way of Principles, and the other is by\\nthe way of Elements. If the learner approaches Philology\\nby the way of principles, it is necessary that the principles\\nshould be familiarised to him by the aid of examples and\\nillustrations drawn from various languages. Each of the\\nmethods excels in its own peculiar way and the excellence\\nof this method is, that the subject is presented with the\\ngreatest fullness and totality of effect as a mountain is\\nmost imposing to the view on its most precipitous side.\\nBut it has this great drawback, that the learner can ill\\njudge of the examples he must take them on authority\\nand so far forth as the instruction is based on facts which\\nare not within the cognisance of the learner, the teaching\\nis unscientific.\\nThe other method is by the examination of a single lan-\\nguage and here the course of treatment follows the order\\nof natural growth, introducing the principles in an occasional\\nand incidental manner, just as they happen to be called for", "height": "3188", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "PREFACE. y\\nin the course of the investigation. If the object-language be\\nthe learner s own vernacular, this course will be something\\nlike climbing a mountain by the side where the slope is\\neasiest. When this path is chosen, the complete and com-\\npact view of principles as a whole will be deferred until such\\ntime as the learner shall have reached them severally by\\nmeans of facts which He within his own experience. It is\\nupon this, which may be called the Elementary method, that\\nthe present manual has been constructed the aim of which\\nhas been to find a path through most familiar ground up to\\nphilological principles.\\nIt was assumed at starting that the English language would\\nfurnish examples of all that is most typical in human speech,\\nand it has been the reward of the labourer in this instance\\nthat his anticipation of the fecundity of his material has been\\nmost abundantly and even unexpectedly verified.\\nI owe thanks for help to various friends, and to two more\\nespecially, for perusing and annotating my sheets affording\\nme thereby not only useful hints, but also a support and\\nencouragement that they probably had little intention of.\\nThe excellent verbal Index is the work of H. N. Harvey, Esq.,\\nof the Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton and while it\\nis the most valuable addition that this handbook could have\\nreceived, it is by me still more highly esteemed as a new\\ntoken of an old friendship.", "height": "3160", "width": "1960", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3172", "width": "2028", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "CONTENTS.\\nHistoric Sketch of the Rise and Formation of the English\\ni-,AINUUAUJi\\nChapter I.\\nOn the English Alphabet\\n99\\nChapter II.\\nSpelling and Pronunciation\\n121\\nChapter III.\\nOf Interjections\\n158\\nChapter IV.\\nOf the Parts of Speech\\n176\\nChapter V.\\nOf Presentive and Symbolic Words, and oi\\nInflections\\n193\\nChapter VI.\\nThe Verbal Group\\n224\\nI. Strong Verbs\\n228\\n2. Mixed Verbs\\n246\\n3. Weak Verbs\\n253\\n4. Verb Making\\n256\\nChapter VII.\\nThe Noun Group\\n261\\nI. Of the Substantive\\n265\\n2. Of the Adjective\\n321\\n3. Of the Adverb\\n359\\nThe Numerals\\n381\\nChapter VIII.\\nThe Pronoun Group\\n387\\nI. Substantival Pronouns\\n390\\n2. Adjectival Pronouns\\n408\\n3. Adverbial Pronouns\\n417", "height": "3160", "width": "1944", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "VIU\\nCONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nThe Link- Word Group 434\\n1. Of Prepositions 435\\n2. Of Conjunctions 444\\nOf Syntax 460\\n1. Flat or CoUocative Syntax .461\\n2. Syntax of Flexion 474\\n3. Syntax by Symbolic Words -487\\nOf Compounds 501\\n1. Compounds of the First Order 504\\n2. Compounds of the Second Order .510\\n3. Compounds of the Third Order -513\\nChapter XII. Of Prosody, or the Musical Element in Speech 516\\n1. Of Sound as an Illustrative Agency 519\\n2. Of Sound as a Formative Agency 536\\n3. Of Sound as an Instinctive Object of\\nAttraction 542\\nChapter IX.\\nChapter X.\\nChapter XL", "height": "3172", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "HISTORIC SKETCH\\nOF THE RISE AND FORMATION\\nOF THE\\nENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nThe first thing in the description of a language is its\\naffinities with other languages and the consideration of\\nthis belongs to what is called Comparative Philology. The\\nEnglish is one of the languages of the great Indo-European\\nfamily, the members of which have been traced across the\\ndouble continent of Asia and Europe through the Sanscrit,\\nPersian, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Gothic, and Keltic lan-\\nguages. In order to illustrate the right of our English\\nlanguage to a place in this series, it will suffice to exhibit\\na few proofs of definite relationship between our language\\non the one hand, and the classical languages of Greece and\\nItaly on the other. The readiest illustration of this is to be\\nfound in the transition of consonants. When the same words\\nappear under altered forms in different members of the\\nsame family of languages, the diversity of form is found\\nto have a regular method and analogy. Such an analogy\\nhas been established between the varying consonants which\\nB", "height": "3168", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "2, SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nhold analogous positions in cognate languages, and their\\nvariation has been reduced to rule by the German philo-\\nloger Jacob Grimm. He has founded the law of consonantal\\ntransition, or consonantal equivalents. A few easy examples\\nwill put the reader in possession of the nature of the thing.\\nWhen a Welshman speaks Enghsh in Shakspeare he often\\nsubstitutes p for b, as Fluellen in Henry V. act v. sc. i\\npragging knave, Pistoll, which you and your self and all\\nthe world know to be no petter than a fellow, looke you\\nnow, of no merits hee is come to me, and prings me pread\\nand sault yesterday, looke you, and bid me eate my leeke,\\nc. The Welsh parson, Sir Hugh Evans, in Merry Wives,\\nputs T for D it were a goot motion The tevil and his\\ntarn and worts for words, as\\nEvans. Pauca verba; {^\\\\x Johii) good worts.\\nFalstaffe. Good worts good cabidge.\\nLikewise f for v: It is that ferry^person for all the orld\\nand fidelicet for videhcet I most fehemently desire\\nyou, c.\\nBetween closely cognate languages an interchange of this\\nsort often exhibits great system and regularity. Everybody\\nknows that Hebrew and Chaldee are cognate languages.\\nBetween them there is a well-marked interchange of z and\\nD while a third dialect, which we may call Phoenician,\\nwould in the same place put a t. The Hebrew pronoun\\nfor this is zeh; but in Chaldee it becomes daa and\\nDEN and Di the Hebrew word for male is zakae but in\\nChaldee it appears as dekar the Hebrew verb to sacrifice\\nis zavach; but in Chaldee it is devach: the Hebrew\\nverb for being timid is zachal but in Chaldee it is\\nDECHAL. But if we compare Hebrew with the third\\ndialect we get t for z. The Hebrew word for rock is\\nzooR or TsooR, after which a famous Phoenician city seated", "height": "3188", "width": "2056", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3\\non a rock was called Zok, as it is always called in the Old\\nTestament; but this word sounded in Greek ears from\\nPhoenician mouths so as to cause them to write it Tvpos,\\nTyrus, whence we have the name of Tyre. The same word\\n(probably) passing with an early migration westward is\\nfound in the Dartmoor Tors. It is to this sort of play upon\\nthe gamut or scale of consonants, a play which is kept up\\nbetween kindred dialects, that Grimm, when he had reduced\\nit to a sort of law, gave the name of Lautverschiehung\\nsound-shunting of consonantal equivalents reciprocity of\\nconsonants.\\nAs, on the one side, we find this reciprocity where we\\nfind cognate dialects; so on the other hand, if we can\\nestablish the fact that there is or has been such a con-\\nsonantal reciprocity between two languages, we have ob-\\ntained the strongest proof of their relationship. There are\\ntraces of this kind between the English on the one hand\\nand the Classical languages on the other.\\nWe suppose the reader is familiar with the twofold divi-\\nsion of the mute consonants into lip, tooth, and throat\\nconsonants in the one direction and into thin, middle, and\\naspirate consonants in the other direction. If not, he should\\nlearn this little table by heart, before he proceeds a step\\nfurther. Learn it by rote, both ways, both horizontally and\\nvertically.\\nLip.\\nThin p\\nMiddle b\\nAspii ate f\\nTooth.\\nt\\nd\\n]i or or th\\nThroat.\\ncor k\\ng\\nh (Saxon).\\nBy means of these classifications of consonants we are\\nable to shew traces of a law of transition having existed\\nB 2", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "4 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nbetween English and the Classical languages. We find\\ninstances of words, for example, which begin with a thin\\nconsonant in Greek or Latin or both, and the same word\\nis found in English or its cognate dialects beginning with\\nan aspirate. Thus if the Latin or Greek word begins with\\np the English word begins with f. Examples Trvp and\\nfire: npo, irpatTos, primus, compared with the Saxon w^ords\\nfruma,frem; with the modern preposition _/r ?z?z, which is of\\nthe same root and original sense with for^ fore, forth, c.\\nTToikos, pullus d^iidi foal, filly nv^, pugnus 2iidi fist iraTr^p, paier\\n2indi father irevre Siud five, Geimsin fmf: 7rovs,pes 2ind foot\\npecus diXidfeoh pasco 2ind feed piscis and fish,\\nIf the classical word begins with an aspirate, the English\\nword begins with a middle for example, the Greek or\\nLatin f is found responsive to the English b. Thus, (fyvy^s,\\nfagus and beech cf)va ,fm and de ppaTpia,f rater and brother\\ncfiepco,fero and bear. The Greek by the same rule responds\\nto the English d; as in dvyarrjp and daughter. Where the\\nClassical word has a middle, the English should have a thin.\\nThus the Greek B and Latin b should answer to our English\\np. In proof of this we may perhaps cite ^vQo^ 2indpit, pro-\\nperly pyt but here we must pass into another group of\\nconsonants to find suitable illustrations, as our early language\\nwas remarkably poor in words beginning with p. Leav-\\ning then the labials or lip-consonants which have afforded\\nus all the instances so far quoted, let us try the tooth-\\nconsonants or dentals. If the Greek or Latin has the\\nmedial, the English should have the thin that is to say,\\na Classic A or d should correspond to our EngHsh t.\\nAnd so it does in buKpv and tear dvo, duo and tzvo deKu,\\ndecern and ten depo), donius and timbran, the Saxon verb\\nfor building bevdpov, bpvs and tree dingua, archaic Latin\\nfor lingua, and tongue. These, and all such illustrations,", "height": "3168", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5\\nmay be summarised for convenience sake in the following\\nmnemonic formula\\nT A M\\nm\\nwhere the Roman letters of the Latin word tajn placed over\\nthe Gothic letters of the German word -tot are intended to\\nbracket together the initial letters of Thins, Medials, and\\nAspirates, so as to represent the order of transition.\\nThese examples will suffice if they satisfy the reader that\\nhere we have traces of a regular law. We only desire to\\nestablish the fact that our language is of one and the same\\nstrain with the Greek arid Latin, that is to say, it is one of\\nthe Indo-European family.\\nIt will be easy to discover a great number of examples\\nw^hich lie outside the above analogy. But this will not\\ninjure the proof resulting from those examples, unless it\\ncan be supposed that those are mere accidental resem-\\nblances arbitrarily collected. Against such an idea is to be\\nplaced the consideration that they are chiefly taken from\\nM^ords of the first necessity. These have a tendency to\\nbe very permanent in languages, so that the similarities\\nwhich they now bear, they have most probably borne for\\nan extended length of time. And if so, it is reasonable to\\nsuppose that such analogies have once been more numerous\\nthan they now are. Casualties happen to words as to all\\nmortal products and in the course of time their forms get\\ndefaced. The German language offers many examples of\\nthis. If I want to understand the consonantal analogies\\nwhich existed between English and German, I should prefer\\nas a general rule to go to the oldest form of German, because\\na conventional orthography, among other causes, has in\\nGerman led to a disfigurement of many of the forms. The", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "6 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\ntendency of words to get [disguised, is, therefore, one reason\\nwhy these analogies do not hold more completely than they\\ndo. Another reason is, that in progress of time new prin-\\nciples of word-forming are slowly admitted, new words and\\nnew forms overlay and supersede the old and therefore we\\nmust not complain if any one set of rules does not account\\nfor all the phenomena of the comparison.\\nBut if such a relation as that which is condensed in the\\nabove mnemonic is clearly established as existing between\\nthe Classical languages on the one hand, and the Gothic on\\nthe other; much more distinctly and largely may it be\\nshewn that a like relation exists internally between the two\\nmain subdivisions of the Gothic family. These two parts\\nare the High Dutch and the Low Dutch. The Modern or\\nNew High Dutch is what we now call German, the great\\nliterary language of Central Europe, inaugurated by Luther\\nin his translation of the Bible. Behind this great modern\\nspeech M^e have two receding stages of its earlier forms, the\\nMiddle High Dutch or the language of the Epic of the\\nNibelungen, and the Old High Dutch or the language of\\nthe Scripture paraphrasts Otfrid and Notker. The Alt-\\nHoch-Deutsch goes back to the tenth century the Mittel-\\nHoch-Deutsch goes back to the thirteenth; and the Neu-\\nHoch-Deutsch dates from the Reformation of the sixteenth\\ncentury. This is the High Dutch division of the Gothic\\nlanguages.\\nRound about these in a broken curve are found the\\nrepresentatives of the Low Dutch family. Their earliest\\nliterary traces go back to the fourth century and appear\\nin the villages of Dacia, in lands which slope to the Danube\\nwhere the country is now called Wallachia. It is from this\\nregion that we have the Moeso-Gothic Gospels and other\\nrelics of the planting of Christianity.", "height": "3188", "width": "2160", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7\\nBut their greatest body is to the north and west. Along\\nthe German shores of the Baltic, and far inland, where High\\nDutch is established in the educated ranks, the mass of the\\nfolk speak Low Dutch, which locally passes by the name of\\nPlatt-Deutsch. The kingdom of the Netherlands, where it\\nis a truly national speech, the speech of all ranks of the com-\\nmunity\u00e2\u0080\u0094the kingdom of Belgium, where, under the name\\nof Flemish, it is striving for recognition, and has gained a\\nplace in literature through the pen of Hendrik Conscience\\nthe old district of the Hanseatic cities, the Lower Elbe,\\nHamburgh, Liibeck, Bremen, all this is Nieder-Deutsch,\\nLow Dutch.\\nTo this family belongs the English language in respect\\nof that which is the oldest and most material part of it.\\nIt has received so many additions from other sources, and\\nhas worked them up with so much individuality of effect,\\nas to have in fact produced a new language, and a language\\nwhich, from external circumstances, seems likely to become\\nthe parent of a new strain of languages. But all the out-\\ngrowth and exuberance of English clusters round a Low\\nDutch centre.\\nIt would be a departure from the general way of philo-\\nlogers to include under the term of Low Dutch the languages\\nof Scandinavia. The latter have very strong individualising\\nfeatures of their own, such as the post-positive article, and\\na form for the passive verb. The post-positive article is\\nhighly curious. In Modern Danish or Swedish the inde-\\nfinite article a or an is represented by e7z for masculine and\\nfeminine, and e^ for neuter. Thus en skov signifies a wood\\n(shaw) and et trcB signifies a tree. But if you want to say\\nthe ivood, the tree, you suffix the selfsame articles to the nouns,\\nand then they have the effect of the definite article skoven,\\nthe wood trceet, the tree.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "8 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nThe possession of 2^ form for the passive is hardly less\\nremarkable, when we consider that of all the Gothic family\\nof languages it is the Scandinavian group alone that has\\nmade any approach to it. The Gothic languages in general\\nmake the passive, as we do in English, by the aid of the^\\nverb to he. Active to love, passive to he loved, c. But the\\nScandinavian dialects just add an s to the active, and that\\nmakes it passive. This j is a relic of an old reflective pro-\\nnoun, so that it is most like the French habit of getting a sort\\nof a passive by prefixing the reflective pronoun se. Thus\\nin French marier is to marry (active), of parents who marry\\ntheir children but if you have to express to marry in the\\nsense of to get married or to he married, you say se marier\\nExamples of the Danish passive form\\nActive. Passive,\\nAt give, to give At gives, to he given\\nAt elske, to love At elskes, to he loved\\nAt finde, to find At findes, to he found\\nAt faae, to get At faaes, to he gotten\\nAt drive, to drive At drives, to he driven\\nSo Strongly marked a characteristic might seem to forbid\\nthe classifying of these languages with the Low Dutch. But\\non the other hand there are between the two best preserved\\nforms of each group that is, between the Icelandic of the\\nnorth and the Gothic of the south such deep traces of\\naffinity, that they must be embraced, as against the High\\nDutch dialects, in one category. And it is a circumstance\\nworthy of observation, that these languages have no ancient\\nand domestic name by which they are characterized, except\\nthat of the Northern (Norrsena) Speech. This seems like\\nan internal testimony that they are the northern branch of\\nthe Low Dutch family.\\nA large proportion of the consonantal variations between", "height": "3188", "width": "2120", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nS\\nO\\nc^\\nSI\\nJ-H\\n_^^\\na H\\n(D\\n\u00c2\u00ab+H\\nbe\\no\\n.22\\nO\\nj:^\\nd\\nr^\\nH\\n_ o\\n(tJ\\nJ\\n%-t\\nO\\nTo\\na\\no\\nu\\na^\\n.22\\ng\\nbb\\n1\\n2\\no\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a05\\ns\\nfi\\nrt\\ng3\\n^3\\no\\n17:3\\nU\\nCS 1^\\nK\u00c2\u00a3l\\nv\\nc\u00c2\u00ab\\nbe\\nV.\\n^3\\na\\no\\nG\\n1\\nm\\nOS\\n3\\na;\\nrSH\\nt^\\na\\n5\\nbo\\n2\\np.\\n1\\nbo\\n0.\\n.22\\n.g\\na\\nc^\\nc2\\nO\\n0)\\nS\\na\\n13\\nc^\\n,\u00c2\u00a311\\nbo\\ng\\nu\\nC\\no\\nen\\n_g\\na\\nen\\no\\n2\\ns\\no\\nc^\\nm\\nd\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0S\\n-13\\n1\\nbo\\nOJ\\na\\n1\\na\\nO\\na\\nrt\\nOJ\\n3\\na3\\na\\nHi\\n3\\ni\\nS\\n0)\\nS\\nh-1\\no\\na;\\no\\n1\\nCD\\n.0\\n2^\\nX!\\n23\\n2^\\nb\u00e2\u0082\u00ac\\n2\\nof\\nE3\\ng\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25\\nc3\\no\\n1\\n1\\na\\nQQPQQQQQQQQQ\\nIS\\na\\n8\\nQQOQQQQQQQQQ\\nd\\nH H H H H H H H H H H H\\n2_2 5J-5ooqjt;.l2 ucsj3\\nQQQQOPQQGQQQP\\nSfe.S\\nHH.SHHHHE^HHHtHHEH\\n3 rt^^rt Sd-S-i^c^s\\nOS :73 .!3 .5 .2 3 5 t^ rt cs S\\n(U .2: .Si .S (U =f :o3 S D C\\nNNNNNNNNNNNNNN", "height": "3188", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "SKETCH OF THE RISE^\\nCompare also the following German and English words,\\nas an illustration of j r in other parts than the initials of\\nwords weiss, wMe wasser, wa/er heiss, ko^ essen,\\nea^ and as an example of mut, 7?wod.\\nTo the same effect is the following list, in which the Old\\nHigh Dutch is compared with the English and others of the\\nsame division\\nO.H.D.\\nEnglish, c.\\nZuo\\nTo\\nZagal\\nTail\\nZahar\\nTear\\nZala\\nTale\\nZeljan\\nTell\\nZand\\nTooth\\nZehan\\nTen\\nZeichan\\nToken\\nZelt\\nTent\\nZam\\nTame\\nZerjan\\nTear\\nZiagal\\nTile\\nO.H.D.\\nEnglish, c.\\nZies-tag\\nZiht\\nZil\\nTuesday\\nTiht (A.S.)\\nTill\\nZimbar\\nTimber\\nZit\\nTide\\nZiuhan\\nZugil\\nTeon (A.S.)\\nTackle\\nZol\\nToll\\nZomi\\nZorn\\nrTom(Dan. Swed\\nt Tomr (Isl.)\\nTorn (A.S.)\\nToorn (Dutch)\\nIn like manner the Old High Dutch Zofa, tuft, corre-\\nsponds to our Tof in local names, as Tothill, or Tuthill.\\nThe Old High German zouvi is in Dutch tooni in\\nSwedish toem in Danish toemme in Icelandic ^aum in\\nAnglo-Saxon /yme and in English fea??i.\\nThese examples are all drawn from one set of consonants,\\nthe tooth-consonants or dentals, and it is in this class of con-\\nsonants that the most conspicuous examples occur. The\\nthroat-consonants or gutturals would provide but a com-\\nparatively feeble set of examples. And as to the lip-con-\\nsonants or labials, they are for the most part alike in the\\nHigh and Low Dutch divisions. The Old High Dutch\\nwords hachan, had, bach, bald, bancli, hart, bein, bo ran, bar a,", "height": "3188", "width": "2116", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. II\\nbiian, botah, Sec, correspond to the English bake, bath, beck,\\nbold, bench, beard, bone, born, bier, bide, body, c. Yet a\\nmarked tendency in Old High Dutch to spell many words\\nwith p instead of b, goes to sustain our law, which requires\\nthe High Dutch to have a thin consonant where Low Dutch\\nhas a middle. These illustrations of the reciprocity of con-\\nsonants are not co-extensive with the whole scheme as de-\\nvised by Grimm, but they contain the more obvious and con-\\nspicuous parts of it. What has been said will shew the\\nnature of the thing and a little reflection will make it clear\\nhow strong an evidence of primaeval relationship these analo-\\ngies carry with them.\\nThis evidence would be far less perfect than it is, but\\nfor the material which has been supplied by means of\\nChristianity. To this cause we trace the preservation of\\nthe oldest Hterary records of our family of languages. In\\nthe fourth century Scripture was translated into Moeso-\\nGothic, at a stage in the condition of the Moeso-Goths\\nwhen by their own natural literary efforts they could barely\\nhave recorded a name on a tomb-stone. In the seventh\\ncentury Anglo-Saxon was cultivated by means of Chris-\\ntianity, and over five centuries were produced those writings\\nwhich have partly survived. In the eleventh and twelfth\\ncenturies the spread of Christianity northwards had the\\neffect of getting the Norsk Sagas to be committed to\\nwriting. Literary culture has been transplanted from the old\\ninto the midst of the young and rising peoples of the world,\\nand hence it has come to pass that among the nations which\\nhave sprung into existence since Christianity, a better record\\nof their primitive language has been preserved. Hence\\nthe striking fact that we can trace the written history of\\nour English language within this island for the space of\\ntwelve hundred years. Christianity was the cause of its", "height": "3188", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "12 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nearly cultivation; and this has made it possible for us to\\nfollow back the traces of our language into a far higher\\nrelative antiquity than that in which the languages of Greece\\nand Rome first begin to emerge into historic view.\\nThis has been very generally the case with the Christian\\nnations of the world. Their literature begins with their\\nconversion; and but for that event it would have been long\\ndelayed.\\nThus the rude tribes of the distant islands have now, by\\nmeans of the missionaries, the best books of the world\\ntranslated into their own tongues; and this at a stage\\nof existence in which they could not produce a written\\nrecord. Thus it was that in the fourth century the Goths\\non the Danube were converted to Christianity and we have\\nmuch of the New Testament still remaining to us, which\\nwas then rendered into the Gothic dialect. This is the\\noldest book we can go back to, as written in a language\\nlike our own. It has therefore a national interest for us;\\nbut apart from this, it has a nobility and grandeur all its\\nown, as it is one of the finest specimens of ancient lan-\\nguage. It is by this, and this alone, that we are able to\\nrealise to how high a pitch of inflection the speech of our\\nown race was carried. Inflections which in German, or\\neven in Anglo-Saxon, are but fragmentarily preserved, like\\nrehcs of an expiring fashion, are there seen standing forth\\nin all their archaic rigidity and polysyllabicity.\\nMatth. vii. I.\\nMt) Kpivere IVa jxt) KpiOTJTC.\\nNi stojith ei ni stojaindau.", "height": "3188", "width": "2116", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 3\\nMatth. ix. 31.\\nIth. eis us-gaggandans us-meridedun ina in allai\\nBui ihey out-going out-heralded him in all\\nairthai jainai.\\nearth that (yon).\\nMatth. x. 36.\\nJah fijands mans innaktindai is.\\n-\u00c2\u00a3V inimici hominis domestici ejus.\\nThe grammatical system of the Gothic dialect has been\\ncompared for its effect to that of the Sanscrit. But while\\nthese two languages may be mentioned together as the two\\nsignal examples of high inflectional tension, it should not\\nbe forgotten that an immense gulf of circumstance divides\\nthem. The Sanscrit grammar is the product of a long-\\nsustained and cloistered culture the Gothic grammar was\\nthe property of shepherds, who were little in advance of\\nthe life of nomads. Not until the field of language has\\nbeen much more generally cultivated, will it be known and\\nappreciated how great a light of history is preserved to us\\nin the Gothic remains. For these we have to thank the\\nbenign and fertilising effect of Christianity, which sheds\\nhght directly and indirectly, and in whose nature it is to\\npromote all things that enrich the life of man, and to animate\\nwith worthy objects every one of his faculties. Professor\\nMax Miiller has declared how greatly philology is indebted\\nto Christianity; and he has testified that, but for its influence,\\nthis science could hardly, as yet, have come into existence.\\nIn the subjoined Lord s Prayer the EngHsh is a little\\ndistorted in order to act as a guide to the Gothic words:", "height": "3184", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "14 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nTHE LORD S PRAYER.\\nFrom the Gothic Version of Ulphilas made about a.d. 365.\\nAivaggeljo tliairh Matthaiu.\\nFrom Chap. vi. of the Gospel by Matthew.\\nAtta unsar thu in himinam\\nFather our thou in heaven\\nVeilmai namo thein\\nBe-halloived name thine\\nKvimai tliiudmassus theins\\nCome kingdom thine\\nVairtliai vilja theins, sve in himina jali ana airthai\\nBe-done will thine as in heaven yea on earth\\nHlaif unsarana thana sinteinan gif \\\\xns himma daga\\nLoaf our the daily give us this day.\\nlah aflet uns tliatei skxilans sijaima\\nVea off-let us that-which owing we-be\\nSvasve jah veis afletam thaim skulam unsar aim\\nSo-as yea we off-let those debtors of ours\\nlah ni briggais uns in fraistubnjai\\nVea not bring us in temptation\\nAk lausei uns af tliamma ubilin\\nBut loose us of the evil\\nITnte theina ist tliiudangardi\\nFor thine is kingdom\\nlah mahts lah vulthus\\nVea might Yea glory\\nIn aivins. Am fen.\\nIn eternity. Amen.", "height": "3188", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 5\\nThe Low Dutch family of languages falls into two natural\\ndivisions, the Southern or Teutonic Platt-Deutsch, and the\\nNorthern or Scandinavian. It was at the point of junction\\nbetween these halves at the neck of the Danish penin-\\nsula, along the banks of the Elbe, and along the south-west\\ncoasts of the Baltic that our continental progenitors lived\\nand spoke. A question has been raised, whether we are to\\nbe classed with the northern or the southern division of this\\ngreat family.\\nAn incident that occurred at Clair- sur-Epte in the year\\nA.D. 912, tends to shew that Englisc then was very like\\nDanish. Rolf the Northern chief would not kiss the foot of\\nCharles the Simple, unless he lifted it to his mouth. Accord-\\ning to one form of the tale, the famous refusal was made in\\na language which was taken for Englisc. Now the company\\npresent spoke Frankish, that is to say, Old High Dutch and\\nunless we suppose Rolf to have learnt EngHsc, which seems\\na romantic hypothesis, we have the interesting testimony\\nthat the Franks saw little or no distinction between Englisc\\nand Danish\\nA great deal may be said, and in fact has been said and\\nwritten, to prove that we are Scandinavians, and to draw us\\nover the middle border. But it generally resolves itself into\\na number of points of similarity rather than into an essential\\nand ancient similitude. Words and names are compared as\\nif it were forgotten how largely wx have borrowed from the\\nDanes in historic times. It is not to be denied, however,\\nthat we have some peculiarities in common with the Norsk\\ndialects, which argue very close relations with those people.\\nA striking illustration of this may be found in the Anglo-\\nSaxon word for the giant of the legends. The giant is eoten,\\nthe same word as the Old l^orsk Jo^unn a word unknown\\nFreeman s Norman Conquest, vol. i. p. 190.", "height": "3188", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "1 6 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nin the Teutonic branch. Grimm imagined that the word had\\nbeen derived from the verb to eaf (efan), because the giant\\nis a huge eater. But this can hardly be. Aheady in the\\nBeowulf ^Q have the adjective formed from eoten, eotenisc, of\\na sword that had belonged to giants. Professor Nilsson, in\\nhis Stone Age (p. 228, ed. Lubbock), has, with great appear-\\nance of probabihty, traced this word to a Lapland origin, so\\nthat the word would have flowed out along with the Giant-\\nSagas, which he makes the Laps the parents of. That a .word\\nof mark like this should have its barrier between us and\\nGermany\u00e2\u0080\u0094 should be in Norsk and Saxon, but not in any\\nHigh or Low Dutch is an indication that our ancestors\\ncan hardly be classed as pure and unaltered Teutons. The\\nSaxons were a border people, and spoke a Low Dutch\\nstrongly impregnated with Scandinavian associations. But\\nthe more we go back into the elder forms on either side, the\\nmore does it seem to come out clear, that our mother\\ntongue is, in fundamentals, to be identified with the Platt-\\nDeuisch, the dialect of the Hanseatic cities, the dialect which\\nhas been created into a national language in that which we\\ncall the Dutch, as spoken in the kingdom of the Netherlands.\\nThe people of Bremen call their dialect Nieder-Sdchisch, i.e.\\nLowland-Saxon; and the genuine original Saxony of\\nEuropean history was in this part, namely, the middle and\\nlower Met of the Elbe. The name of Saxon has always\\nadhered to our nation, though we have seemed almost as\\nif we had been willing to divest ourselves of it. We have\\ncalled our country England, and our language English yet\\nour neighbours west and north, the Welsh and the Gael, have\\nstill called us Saxons, and our language Saxonish. It has\\nbecome the literary habit of recent times to use the term\\nSaxon as a distinction for the early period of our history\\nand language and hterature, and to reserve the term", "height": "3188", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 7\\nEnglish for the later period. There is some degree of\\nliterary impropriety in this, because the Saxons called their\\nown language Englisc. On this ground some critics insist\\nthat we should let the word English stand for the whole\\nextent of our insular history, which they would divide into\\nOld English, Middle Enghsh, and New English. But on\\nthe whole, the terms already in use seem bolder, and more\\ndistinct. They enable us to distinguish between Saxon and\\nAnglian; and they also comprise the united nation under\\nthe compound term Anglo-Saxon. As expressive of the\\ndominant power, it is not very irregular to call the whole\\nnation briefly Saxon.\\nWe have no contemporary account of the Saxon colonisa-\\ntion. The story which Baeda gives us in the eighth century,\\nis, that there were people from three tribes. Angles, Saxons,\\nand Jutes. The latter were said to be still distinguishable in\\nKent and the Isle of Wight but, except in this statement,\\nwe have lost all trace of the Jutes. The Angles and Saxons\\nlong stood apart and distinct from one another; and they\\nhad each a corner of their own. The Anglians occupied\\nthe north and east of England, and the Saxons the south\\nand west. The line of Watling Street, running from London\\nto Chester, may be taken as the boundary line between these\\nraces, whom we shall sometimes combine, according to\\nprevalent usage, under the joint name of Anglo-Saxons, or\\nunder the dominant name of Saxons.\\nWhen the Anglo-Saxons began to make themselves masters\\nof this island, they found here a population which is known in\\n-history as the British race. This people spoke the language\\nwhich is now represented by the Welsh. It was an ancient\\nKeltic dialect somewhat tinctured with Latin. The Britons\\nhad been in subjection to Roman dominion for a space of\\nbetween three and four centuries. This would naturally have\\nc", "height": "3188", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "15 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nleft a trace upon their language. And hence we find that\\nof the words which the Saxons learnt from the Britons, some\\nare undoubted Latin, others are doubtful whether they should\\nbe called Latin or Keltic. Of the first class are those ele-\\nments of local nomenclature -chestee, from castrum a\\nfortified place Saxon form, c easier street, from strata, \\\\.q.\\nvia strata a causeway Saxon form, street port, a word\\nderived from the Latin porta, a gate, signified in Saxon times\\njust a town, a market-town. And this is the sense of it in\\nsuch a compound as Newport Pagnell. Wall (Saxon weall)\\nis through the same filtered process a descendant of the\\nLatin Valium a rampart mil, from the Latin ?jiilia (pas-\\nsuum), a thousand paces, has lived through all the ages to\\nour day, and we are the only people of Western Europe who\\nstill make use of this Roman measure of distance. The\\nFrench keep to their league {lieue), the measure which they\\nhad in use before the Romans troubled them, the old Keltic\\nleuga. In Saxon poetry we find the old highways called by\\nthe suggestive name of mil-pa^as, the mile-paths. Corvee,\\na troop, is probably the Latin cohors carceen, a prison, is\\nthe Latin career, with the Saxon word em, a building,\\nmingled into the last syllable tigol, a tile, is the Roman\\niegula meowle, a poetic word for woman, is most likely\\nthe Latin mulier and f^mne, a prose word for the same, is\\nfrom the L aXm/cBmina. Orchard, in Saxon ort-geaed, is\\na tautological compound of the Latin hortus or ortus, a\\ngarden, and geard, the Saxon for garden or any yard or\\nenclosure. At this time too, we must have received the\\nnames of many plants and fruits, as pyeige, the pear, Latin\\npyrus.\\nMany of the words which pertain to the personal and\\nsocial comforts of life, were in this manner learnt at second-\\nhand from Roman culture as disc, a dish, from his handing\\nJ", "height": "3180", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 9\\nof which a royal officer all through the Saxon period bore\\nthe title of disc-Jjegn, dish-thane.\\nFrom those which we class as certainly Brito-Roman, we\\nmove on to some other words which hover between the\\ncharacteristics of British and Roman. Such is that famous\\nverb to ear, in the sense of to plough, till, cultivate which\\nin the form ekiajn was the standard word for ploughing all\\nthrough the Saxon period, a word which occurs in Shak-\\nspeare, and which in the opening of the seventeenth century\\nwas still in force sufficient to retain five places in our version\\nof the Old Testament, as may be seen by reference to\\nCruden s Concordance, under the words Ear, Eared, Earing.\\nThis word might be derived from the Latin arare, through\\nthe British form aru; or the British form may be considered\\nas an independent Keltic word, with as good a claim to\\noriginality as the Latin. And to this latter view its wealth\\nof derivatives seems to point. This, however, is a question\\nwhich belongs rather to a history of the British language,\\nthan to English philology. What concerns us here to note,\\nis this that soon after the Saxon settlement, the verb eeian\\nmust have been adopted from the British vernacular.\\nWhen we consider that there was much originally in com-\\nmon between the Latin and the Keltic, and, even again,\\nbetween these two and the Gothic languages, it is no matter\\nof surprise that after so long a period we should find it\\ndifficult to sift out with absolute distinctness the words which\\nwe owe to the British influence. The most certain are\\nthose names of rivers and mountains, and some elements in\\nthe names of ancient towns, which have been handed on\\nfrom Keltic times to ours. Thus the river-name Avon is\\nunquestionably British, for it is the common word for river\\nin Wales to this day. So again with regard to that large\\nclass of river-names which are merely variations of the one\\nc 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "20 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nname Isca Usk, Ux, Wis- in Wisbech, The Wash, Exe, Axe,\\nOuse, by academic corruption Isis, and by municipal cor-\\nruption Ox- in Oxford. All these are but many forms of\\none Keltic word, m sg water which is found in usquehagh,\\nthe Irish for eau-de-vie, and in the word whiskey. There are,\\nhowever, on our map, a great many names of rivers and\\ncities and mountains, of which, though so precise an account\\ncannot be rendered, it is generally concluded that they are\\nBritish\u00e2\u0080\u0094 because they run back historically into the time\\nwhen British was prevalent because they are not Saxon\\nbecause, in short, they cannot otherwise be accounted for.\\nSuch are, Thames, Tamar, Frome, Derwent, Trent, Tweed,\\nSevern, and the bulk of our great river-names. In like\\nmanner of the oldest town-names, and some names of\\ndistricts.\\nThe first syllable in PFz 2chester is known to us, through\\nthe Latin form of Venta, to have been the same as the\\nWelsh Gwent, a plain or open country. The first syllable\\nin Manchtster is probably the old Keltic man, place just\\nas it probably is in the archaic name for Bath, Nke-man-\\nchester. Fo7 k is so called from the Keltic river-name Eure\\nfrom an elder form of which came the old Latin form of the\\ncity-name Ebur-acum. But often where the sense cannot\\nbe so plainly traced, we acquiesce in the opinion that names\\nare British, because their place in history seems to require\\nit. Such are, for instance, Keni, London, Gloucester.\\nWe will add a few words that have a fair Keltic reputation,\\nbasket, bran, breeches, clout, crag, crock, manor, paddock, wicket.\\nIt is very probable that a few Keltic words are still living\\non among us in the popular names of wild plants. The\\ncockle of our corn-fields, which the botanists call Agrostemma\\nGithago, has been with great reason attributed to the Britons.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Dr. Johnston, in The Botany of the Eastern Borders (Van", "height": "3184", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21\\nVoorst, 1853), explains this word by reference to the British\\nword cock red. This etymology is strengthened by the\\nfact that he had heard in the neighbourhood of Gordon the\\nred corn-poppy called cockeno. Not only is this word cockle\\nused in Chaucer, but also in the Saxon Gospels, in Matt. xiii.\\nin those places where our version has tares. The Saxon\\nform is coccel. The word is not found in the kindred\\ndialects. This is the more important to observe, because\\nthe bulk of popular tree and plant names are common to us\\nwith the German, Dutch, Danish, c. The words tree, beam,\\nholt, wood, oak, ash, elm, birch, beech, aspen, li??ie, yew, ah^er,\\nthorn, bramble, reed, wheat, rye, bere, bean, weed, flax, wort,\\ngrass, root, leek, thistle, clover, radish, wormwood, yarrow,\\nwaybread, moss, nightshade, bloom, blossom, corn, apple, are\\nmore or less common to the cognate languages. This is\\nnot the case with the coccel. Other plant-names may be\\nadded which are probably British, as willow. This may\\nwell be traced to the Welsh helig as its nearer relative,\\nwithout interfering with the more distant claims of saugh, sal-\\nlotv, salix. Whin, also, 2.n^ furze have perhaps a right here.\\nAnd eglantine, which has become the standard poetic name\\nfor the dog-rose, and which has such a French air, due\\nto its having been adopted from the poetry of the Fabliaux,\\nis very probably a British w^ord. With strong probability\\nalso may we add to this botanical list the terms husk, haw;\\nand more particularly cod, a word that merits a special\\nremark. What it came to mean in the Elizabethan dramatists\\nmust here be kept apart. In Anglo-Saxon times it meant\\na bag, a purse or wallet. See a spirited passage in the\\nSaxon Chronicle of Peterborough, a. d. 1131, and my\\nnote there. Thence it was applied to the seed-bags of\\nplants, as pease-cod. This seems to be the Welsh cwd. The\\npuif-ball is in Welsh cwd-y-mwg, a bag of smoke. Owen", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "12, SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nPughe quotes this Welsh adage Egor dy gwd pan gaech\\nborcheir i.e. open thy dag when canst get a pig! an\\nexpression which for picturesqueness must be allowed the\\npalm over our English proverb Never say no to a good\\noffer. What establishes the British origin of this word is\\nthe large connection it has in Welsh, and its appearance\\nalso in Brittany. Thus in Welsh there is the diminutive\\nform cydyn, a little pouch, and the verb cuddw, to hide, with\\nmany allied words in Breton there is kod, pocket.\\nThe compound cock-hoat is probably a tautological com-\\npound, of which the first part is the Welsh cwch, a boat.\\nThe word has several derivatives in Welsh.\\nThe word clock, which signifies bell in German (Glocke)\\nand in French {cloche), is undoubtedly British. A bell in\\nWelsh is clock, in Gaelic clag, and in Manx clag. But then\\nthis word did not come into our language (probably) till the\\ntwelfth century. Yet it may have had an obscure existence\\namong us in Saxon times.\\nBard is unquestionably British, and so is glen. But then\\nthese made their entry later, and we must not dwell on them\\nhere, and wander from our subject, which is the immediate\\ninfluence of the British on the Saxon.\\nThe Saxons called a sorcerer dry, and sorcery or magic\\nthey called dry-cr^ft. These words are not found in any\\nof the dialects cognate to ours, and therefore they must\\nhave learnt the word of the Britons. Here then we seem\\nto have evidence of the influence of the Druids, as still\\nsurviving within the Saxon period. Out of this word dry,\\na verb was made, be-drian, to bewitch or fascinate. Thus\\nwe read in the homily on Swi^un\\nSume swefna syndon soHice of Some dreams are verily of God\\nGode. and sume beoS of deofle and some be of the devil for some\\nto sumum swicdome. J?a swefna delusion. Those dreams be cheerful\\nbeoS v^ynsume ]?e gewur]?a3 of that are of God and those are hor-", "height": "3184", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 23\\nGode. anil J^a beo^ egesfulle e of rible that come from the devil. And\\n)3am deofle cumaS. and God sylf God himself forbade that we should\\nforbead ])set we swefnum ne folgion. follow dreams, lest the devil should\\nJjy laes f)e se deofol us be-drian mage. have power to bewitch us.\\nThe participle of this verb, be-drida, a disordered man,\\nhas, by a false light of cross analogy, generated the modern\\nbed-ridden, a half-sister of hag-j idden.\\nWe can never expect to know with anything like precision\\nwhat were the relations of the British and Saxon languages\\nto each other and to the Latin language, until each has\\nbeen studied comparatively to a degree of exactness beyond\\nanything which has yet been attempted. All the Gothic\\ndialects must be taken into comparison on the one hand,\\nand all the Keltic dialects on the other. But the branch\\nfrom which most light is to be expected is the Breton, as\\nspoken in French Brittany. The great and fundamental\\nquestion is How far the British population at large was\\nRomanised? Some think that habits of speaking Latin\\nwere almost universal, and for this they refer to the rude\\ninscribed stones of the early centuries which are found in\\nWales, and which are in a Latin base enough to be attri-\\nbuted to the most illiterate stonemasons. On this view,\\nwhich receives support also from the number of Latin\\nwords in Welsh, the arrival of the Saxons prevented this\\nisland from being the home of a Romanesque people like\\nthe French or Spanish.\\nThe British language as now spoken in Wales, is called,\\nby those who speak it, Cyinraeg. But the Anglo-Saxons\\ncalled it Wylsc, and the people who spoke it they called\\nWalas which we have modernised into Wales and Welsh.\\nSo the Germans of the continent called the Italians and\\ntheir language Welsch. The word simply Vi\\\\e2in? foreign\\nor strange. At various points on the frontiers of our race,\\nwe find them affixing this name on the conterminous", "height": "3172", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "24 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nRomance -Speaking people. This is the most probable\\naccount of the names of Wallach a, the Walloons in Belgium,\\nand the Canton Walk s in Switzerland, though the latter is\\noften explained by the Latin valh s, a valley. The French,\\nwho were such unwelcome visitors and settlers in this\\ncountry in the reign of Edward the Confessor, are called by\\nthe contemporary annalist a welisce men, by which was meant\\nthe foreigners. And when Edward himself came from the\\nlife of an exile in France, he was said by the chronicler to\\nhave come hider to lande of weallande, to this country\\nfrom foreign land. It is the same word which forms the\\nlast syllable in Cormvall, for the Kelts who dwelt there were\\nby the Saxons named the Walas of Kerny w.\\nThe feminine form of zveal or wealh, a foreigner, was\\nwylen and it is an illustration of the servile condition\\nto which the old inhabitants were reduced, that the words\\nwealh and wylen were used to signify male and -female\\nslaves.\\nAbout the year a.d. 600, Christianity began to be received\\nby the Saxons. The Jutish kingdom of Kent was the first\\nthat received the Gospel, but the Anglian kingdom of\\nNorthumbria exhibited the first mature example of a\\nChristian nation in Saxondom. Intimately connected with\\nthis, if not absolutely rising out of it, is the supremacy of\\nposition and influence which the northern kingdom enjoyed\\nin this island for a hundred and thirty years. It is evident\\nthat there was great and substantial progress in religion,\\ncivilisation, and learning; of which fact the permanent\\nmemorial is the name and works of Bseda, who expired\\nnot long before the greatness of his people. While Can-\\nterbury was the nominal metropolis of Christianity, the\\nkingdom of Northumbria was its powerful seat. It was the\\nsecuring of this national Church in the Roman interest", "height": "3172", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1^\\nthat effectually put a stop to the progress of the Scotian\\ndiscipline in this island. It was (probably) the power which\\nthis nation wielded, and the admiration she excited in her\\nneighbours, that caused them to emulate her example, to\\nread her books, to form their language after hers, and\\nto call it ENGLisc. They first produced a cultivated book-\\nspeech, and they had the natural reward of inventors and\\npioneers, that of setting a name to their product. Of all the\\nlosses which are deplored by the investigator of the English\\nlanguage, perhaps there is none greater than this, that the\\nwhole Anglian vernacular literature should have perished in\\nthe ravages of the Danes upon the Northumbrian mona-\\nsteries. Of the existence of such a native Hterature there is\\nno room for doubt. Baeda tells us of such and he himself\\nwas occupied on a translation when he died. Thus the\\nobscure name of Angle emerged into celebrity, and being\\naccepted first for the generic name of the Saxon language,\\npassed next to the land, and afterwards to the inhabitants of\\nthe land. And now, as in the early time, though it does not\\ndesignate the British Empire, yet it does designate the lan-\\nguage which is the common vehicle of thought throughout\\nthat Empire.\\nThe extant works of Baeda are all in Latin, but\\nthey afford occasional glimpses of information about the\\nspoken Englisc of his day. As for example, in the Epistola\\nad Ecgbei-htum, he advises that prelate to make all his flock\\nlearn by heart the Creed and the Lord s Prayer. In Latin,\\nif they understand it, by all means, says he, but in their\\nown tongue if they do not know Latin. Which, he adds,\\nis not only the case with laity, but with clerks likewise and\\nmonks. And markedly insisting on his theme, as if even\\nthen the battle of the vernacular had to be fought, he goes\\non to give his reasons why he had often given copies of", "height": "3188", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "26 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\ntranslations to folk that were no scholars, and many of them\\npriests too. Propter quod et ipse multis saepe sacerdotibus\\nidiotis haec utraque, et symbolum videlicet et Dominicam\\norationem in linguam Anglorum translatam obtuli. These\\nare the -words of Bseda.\\nOne of his most interesting chapters is that in which he\\ngives the traditional story of the vernacular poet Csedmon,\\nwho by divine inspiration was gifted with the power of song,\\nfor the express purpose of rendering the Scripture narratives\\ninto popular verse. The extant poems of the Creation and\\nFall and Redemption, which are preserved in archaic Saxon\\nverse, are attributed to this Csedmon and it is possible that\\nthey may be his work, having undergone in the process\\nof copying what may be called a partiaL translation. We\\ngather from the account in Bseda, that the practice of\\nmaking ballads was in a high state of activity, and also\\nthat vernacular poetry was used as a vehicle of popular\\ninstruction in the seventh century in Northumbria. And\\nit is interesting to reflect that in all our island there is\\nno district which to this day has an equal reputation for\\nlyric poetry, whether we think of the mediaeval ballads, or\\nof Burns, or of the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.\\nIt was in the monastery of Whitby, under the famous govern-\\nment of the abbess Hilda, that the first sacred poet of our\\nrace devoted his life to the vocation to which he had been\\nmysteriously called. And if something of the legendary\\nhangs over his personal history, this only shows how\\nstrongly his poetry had stirred the imagination of his people.\\nA nation that could believe their poet to be divinely called,\\nwas the nation to produce poets, and to elevate the genius\\nof their language. Such was the Anglian kingdom of\\nNorthumbria, and here it was that our language first received\\nhigh cultivation.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 2 J\\nIt is remarkable that, while the peoples of the southern\\nand western and south-eastern parts of the kingdom con-\\ntinually called themselves Saxons (whence such local names\\nas Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Middlesex), yet they never appear\\nin any of their extant literature to call their language Seaxisc,\\nbut always englisc^. The explanation of this must be sought,\\nas I have already indicated, in that early and prolonged\\nleadership which was enjoyed by the kingdom of North-\\nhumbria in the seventh and eighth centuries. The office of\\nBKETWALDA, a kind of elective chieftainship of all Britain,\\nwas held by several Northumbrian kings in succession. How\\nhigh this title must have sounded in the ears of cotempo-\\nraries may be imagined from the fact that it is after the same\\nmodel as their name for the Almighty. The latter was\\nALWALDA, the All-wielding. So Bretwalda was the wielder\\nof Britain, or the Emperor of all the States in Britain.\\nFor two centuries the northern part of the island had a\\nflourishing Church and a growing civilisation. Scripture\\ntranslations, sacred hymns, and books of devotion were the\\nmost active instruments of this development. Alongside\\nof these were retained the old heroic songs and epics of\\nnational story sometimes in the ancient form, sometimes\\nin revised and modernised versions. We may reasonably\\nsuppose that the Beowulf then received those last touches\\nwhich are still visible to the reader as masking or softening\\nthe latent heathendom of that poem. They also had their\\ndomestic annals, written in the Anglian dialect of Norihum-\\nbria. All this vernacular Hterature perished under the ravages\\nof the Danes in the ninth century but not until the torch\\nof learning had been kindled in some of the southern parts,\\nenough to secure its revival at a favourable opportunity.\\nYet we find the Latin equivalent of Seaxisc, as in Asset s Life of Alfred,\\nwhere the vernacular is called Saxonica lingua.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "28 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nThat opportunity offered itself under the reign of Alfred,\\nwho cleared his part of the country of the Danish scourge,\\nand was the first to renew the arts of peace. With the men-\\ntion of Alfred s name, we seem to enter upon a compara-\\ntively modern era, and to quit the obscurity of the pre-Danish\\nperiod. Wessex, or the country of the West Saxons, be-\\ncomes the arena of our narrative henceforth, and we have\\nno occasion to notice Anglian literature again, until the\\nfifteenth century, when that dialect had shaped itself into\\na new and distinct national language for the kingdom of\\nScotland. The poet in whose works the Scottish language\\nfirst displays its definite form, is Dunbar, a younger contem-\\nporary of Chaucer. From the fifteenth to the eighteenth\\ncenturies there was a thriving national literature in the\\nAnglian dialect, and the best known specimens of it to us\\non the south of the Tweed are the works of Robert Burns,\\nand the dialogues in brad Scots, which so charmingly di-\\nversify the novels of Sir Walter Scott. It is odd that this\\nlanguage, which is in fact the genuine Anglian, should have\\nreceived the Keltic name of Scotch from the Gaelic\\ndynasty which mounted the Anglian throne, and that in\\ntaking its modern name from its northern neighbours it\\nshould have furnished a parallel to the adoption of the name\\nEnglish by the West Saxons.\\nWessex had not been entirely destitute of men of learning\\nduring the period in which the focus of civilisation was in\\nNorthumbria. Aldhelm is the first name of eminence in\\nsouthern literature. He died in a.d. 709. He translated\\nthe Psalms of David into his native tongue, and it has been\\nsupposed that his work may in some measure be represented\\nby an exuberant Saxon version of the Psalter which is pre-\\nserved in the Bibliotheque Nationah at Paris, and which was\\nprinted in the year 1835 at the Clarendon Press, under the", "height": "3180", "width": "2108", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29\\neditorship of Mr. Thorpe. But though we can point to\\nAldhelm, and one or two other names of cultivated men in\\nWessex, they are exceptions to the general rudeness and\\nuncultured state of that kingdom before Alfred s time. It\\nwas distinguished for its military rather than for its literary\\nsuccesses. Learning resided northward. Alfred is reported\\nto have said that there was not to be found a priest south\\nof the Thames who knew his Ofice in Latin. But with\\nhim, that is to say, in the last quarter of the ninth century,\\nSaxon hterature starts up almost full-grown. It seems as\\nif it grew up suddenly, and reached perfection at a bound\\nwithout preparation or antecedents. It has been too much\\nthe habit to suppose that this phenomenon is sufficiently\\naccounted for by the introduction of scholars from other\\ncountries who helped to translate the most esteemed books\\ninto Saxon. So the reign of Alfred is apt to get paralleled\\nwith those rude tribes among whom our missionaries intro-\\nduce a translated literature at the same time with the arts\\nof reading and writing. It has not been sufficiently con-\\nsidered that such translations are dependent on the pre-\\nvious exercise of the native tongue, and that foreign help\\ncan only bring up a wild language to eloquence by very\\nslow degrees. There is a vague idea among us that our\\nlanguage was then in its infancy, and that its compass was\\nas narrow as the few necessary ideas of savage life. A\\nmodern Italian turning over a Latin book might think it\\nlooked very barbarous and perhaps even some moderate\\nscholars have never appreciated to how great a power the\\nLatin tongue had attained long before the Augustan era.\\nGreat languages are not bulk in a day. The fact is that\\nWessex inherited a cultivated language from the north, and\\nthat when they called their translations Englisc and not\\nSeaxisc, they acknowledged that debt. The cultivated", "height": "3188", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "30 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nAnglian dialect became the literary medium of hitherto\\nuncultured Wessex just as the dialect of the Latian cities\\nset the form of the imperial language of Rome, and was\\ncalled Latin and the dialect of Castile was the foundation\\nof the literary Spanish.\\nOf the Saxon language as it was used in Scripture\\nversions and Church services, the Lord s Prayer forms the\\nreadiest illustration.\\nTHE LORD S PRAYER.\\nFrom Alfred s Version of the Gospels.\\nF-sder ure, ])u Jie eart on heofenum\\nFather our, thou thai art in heaven\\nSi ])in nama gehalgod\\nBe thy name hallowed\\nTo becume thin rice\\nCome thy kingdom\\nGeweor}:e m willa on eorjjan, swa-swa on heofenum\\nBe-done thy will on earth, so-as in heaven\\nUrne dseghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg\\nOur daily loaf give us to day\\nAnd forgyf us ure gyltas, swa-swa we forgifap urum gyltendum\\nAnd forgive tis our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors\\nAnd ne gelaede ]?u us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle\\nAnd not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil\\nSoJ)lice.\\nSoothly (or, Amen).\\nThe period of Saxon leadership extends from Alfred to\\nthe Conquest, about a.d. 880 to a.d. 1066. These figures\\nrepresent also the interval at which Saxon Hterature was\\nstrongest but its duration exceeds these limits at either end.", "height": "3184", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 3 1\\nWe have poetry, laws, and annals before 880, and we have\\nlarge and important continuations of Saxon Chronicles\\nafter 1066. Perhaps the most natural date to adopt as\\nthe term of Saxon literature would be a.d. 1154, the year\\nof King Stephen s death, the last year that is chronicled\\nin Saxon.\\nThe Saxon differed from modern English most conspicu-\\nously in being what is called an inflected language. An\\ninflected language is one that joins words together, and\\nmakes them into sentences, not by means of a set of small\\nsecondary and auxiliary words, but by means of changes\\nmade in the main words themselves. If we look at a page\\nof modern English, we see not only nouns, verbs, adjectives,\\nadverbs, conjunctions, these words of primary necessity, but\\na sprinkling of little interpreters among the greater words,\\nand that the relations of the great words to one another are\\nexpressed by the little ones that fill the spaces between them.\\nSuch are mainly articles, prepositions, and pronouns. In\\nmore general terms it may be said that the essence of an\\ninflected language is, to express by composition of words\\nthat which an uninflected language expresses by syntax or\\narrangement of words. So that in the inflected language\\nmore is expressed by single words than in the non-\\ninflected. Take as an example those words of the Preacher,\\nand see how differently they are expressed in English and\\nin Latin\\nEccles. iii.\\nTempus nascendi, et tempus mo- A time to he born, and a time to\\nriendi tempus plantandi, et tempus die a time to plant, and a time to\\nevellendi quod plantatum est. pluck up that which is planted.\\nTempus occidendi, et tempus sa- A time to kill, and a time to heal\\nnandi tempus destmendi, et tempus a time to break down, and a time to\\nsedificandi. build up.", "height": "3188", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "3^ SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nTempus flendi, et tempus ridendi A time to weep, and a time to\\ntempus plangendi, et tempus saltandi. laugh a time to mourn, and a time\\nto dance,\\nTempus spargendi lapides, et tem- A time to cast away stones, and\\npus colligendi. a time to gather stones together.\\nThere are no words in the Latin answering to these Httle\\nwords which are itahcised in the Enghsh version a, the, to,\\nof, he yet the very sense of the passage depends upon them\\nin English, often to such a degree that if one of these were\\nto be changed, the sense would be completely overturned.\\nThe Latin has no w^ords corresponding to these little words,\\nbut it has an equivalent of another kind. The terminations\\nof the Latin words undergo changes which are expressive\\nof all these modifications of sense and these changes of the\\nends of words are called Inflections.\\nLanguages which make use of these inflections, instead\\nof using distinct words for this purpose, are called inflec-\\ntional languages. Such were in a high degree the ancient\\nLatin and Greek and such, in a less degree, was the Anglo-\\nSaxon before the Conquest.\\nThe following piece may serve to illustrate the Saxon\\ninflections\\nUpahafenz/m eagwm on })a heah- With uplifted eyes to the height\\nnysse and a])enedz/OT fi.xm.um ongan and with outstretched arms she be-\\ngebidda/z mid jjaera welera styrung- gan to pray with stirrings of the lips\\num on stilnesse. in stillness.\\nHere we observe in the first place, that terminations in\\nthe elder speech are replaced by prepositions in the younger.\\nUpahafenz//;^ e2igum is with uplifted eyes, and ajjenedz/w\\neziraum is ^with outstretched arms and the infinitive\\ntermination of the verb gobiMan is in English represented\\nby the preposition to.\\nBut then we observe further in the second place, that\\nthere are phrases with prepositions as well as inflections.\\nii", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nThe phrases on J?a heahnysj^/ 7?iid styYmgu?n, o?z stil-\\nnesjf/ are of this kind at once prepositional and inflec-\\ntional. This indicates a transition-state of the language\\na time in which the inflections are no longer what once the}\\nwere, self-sufficient. Prepositions are brought to their aid,\\nand very soon the whole weight of the function falls on the\\npreposition. The inflection then lives on merely as an heir-\\nloom in the language, an ancient fashion, ornamental rather\\nthan necessary. At the first great shake which such a\\nlanguage gets, after it is well furnished with prepositions,\\nthere will most likely be a great shedding of inflections.\\nAnd so it happened to our language after the shock of\\nthe Conquest, as will be told in its place.\\nThis then is the chief gramviatical feature of the Saxon\\nspeech, as seen from our present point of view, and as\\ncontrasted with the present habits of the English language.\\nBut it is not in the scheme of its grammar alone that human\\nspeech is subject to change. Each several part of which\\nlanguage is composed has its own liabilities. There is a\\nconstant movement in human language, though that move-\\nment is neither uniform in all languages, nor is it evenly\\ndistributed in its action within the limits of any one given\\nlanguage. It might almost be imagined as if there were\\na pivot somewhere in the motion, and as if the elemental\\nparts were more or less moveable in proportion as they\\nlay farther from, or nearer to that pole or pivot of revolution.\\nAccordingly, we see words like man, word, thing, can,\\nsmith, heap, on, an, which seem like permanent fixtures\\nthrough the ages, and at first sight we might think that they\\nhad sufl ered no change within the horizon of our observation.\\nThey are found in our oldest extant writings spelt just as\\nwe now spell them.\\nThere are others, on the contrary, which have long been\\nD", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "34\\nSKETCH OF THE RISE\\nobsolete and forgotten, for which new words have been long\\nago substituted. Sometimes a whole series of substitutions\\nsuccessively superseding each other have occupied the place\\nof an old Saxon word. The Saxon iviiodlice was in the\\nmiddle ages represented by verily, and in modern times by\\ncertainly. The verb gehyrsuviian passed away, and instead\\nof it we find the expression to he huxom, and this yielded to\\nthe modern verb to obey. The Saxon lictun was the\\nmediaeval litten, and the modern churchyard. In this class\\nof instances the change is conspicuous, and requires little\\ncomment but in the former set it might more easily escape\\nobservation.\\nEven there, however, alteration has taken place. Man\\nspells in old Saxon as in modern English, but yet it has\\naltered in grammatical habit, in application, and in con-\\nvertible use. In grammatical habit it has altered; for in\\nSaxon it had a genitive mannes, a dative men, an (archaic)\\naccusative mannan, a plural men, a genitive plural manna,\\nand a dative plural mannum. Of these it has lost the whole,\\nexcept the formation of the simple plural. In application it\\nhas altered for in Saxon times man was equally applicable\\nto womankind as to mankind, whereas now it is limited to\\none sex. In convertible use it has suffered greatly for the\\nSaxon speech enjoyed the possession of this word as a pro-\\nnoun, just as the Germans do to this day. In German man\\nsagt man says, which we do not use, and is equivalent to\\nour expression of they say or it is said. In German they\\ndistinguish between the substantive and the pronoun by\\ngiving the former a double n at the close, in addition to the\\ndistinction of the initial capital, which in German belongs\\nto all substantives thus, substantive Mann, pronoun man.\\nIn Saxon (towards the close of the period) the distinction of\\nthe n is sometimes seen, with a preference of the vowel", "height": "3160", "width": "2068", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35\\na for the substantive, and for the pronoun. The follow-\\ning is from a brief summary of Christian duties, written\\nprobably in the second half of the eleventh century\\niErest mon sceal God lufian First, we must love God we\\nNe sceal mon mann slean ac must not slay man but every\\naelcne mann mon sceal weor])ian. man we must ever respect and no\\nand ne sceal nan mann don oSrum man should do to another that he\\n])aet he nelle J)\u00c2\u00a3et him mon do. would not to himself were done.\\nA few more examples of the use of this pronoun are\\nadded from the Gloucester Fragments of Swi^hun:\\nHine man bser ])a sona of J)am He was borne then soon from the\\nbedde to cyrcan binnan Wihtlande. bed to church in the Isle of Wight.\\nSwa jjset man ea Se ne mihte Jjset So that one could not easily visit\\nmynster gesecan. the minster.\\npam adligan Jjuhte swilce man his It seemed to the sick man as if\\naenne sceo of ])am fet atuge. somebody were tugging one of his\\nshoes off the foot.\\nMan sohte })one sceo. They looked for the shoe.\\nOur language is at present singularly embarrassed for\\nwant of this most useful pronoun. At one time we have to\\nput a tve, at another time 2. you, at another time a they, at\\nother times one or somebody and it often happens that none\\nof these three will serve, and we must have recourse to the\\npassive verb. There are probably few English speakers or\\nwriters who have not felt the awkwardness resulting from\\nour loss of this most regrettable old pronoun. There is\\nnot one of the great languages which labours under\\na like inability. So far about the word man, which is an\\nexample of the slowest-moving of words, which has not\\naltered in its spelling, and which is yet seen to have under-\\ngone alterations of another kind. The other instances shall\\nbe more lightly touched on.\\nWord, has altered grammatically for in Saxon it stood\\nunvaried in the plural (wokd), but it has now been long\\nD 2", "height": "3188", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "^6 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nassimilated to other nouns, and forms its plural by the\\naddition of an s (wokds).\\nThing. This word had much the same vague and ab-\\nstract use in Saxon as it has now. *0n mang ]?isum\\n]?ingum among these things. Ic seah sellic jjing singan\\non recede I saw a strange thing singing on the hall. But\\nin Saxon it covered a greater variety of ground than it does\\nnow. Me wear^ Grendles ]?ing undyrne cu^ the ?na/-\\nUr of Grendel was made known to me. Beadohilde ne waes\\nhyre bro^ra dea^ on sefan swa sar, swa hyre sylfre j^ing:\\nher brothers death was not so sore on Beadohild s heart, as\\nwere her own concerns. For his ])ingum on his account.\\nSmith. This word is now applied only to handicraftsmen\\nin metals. But in early literature it had its metaphorical\\napplications. Not only do we read of the armourer by the\\nname of wcBpna smi 6, the weapon-smith; but we have the\\npromoter of laughter called hleahtor-smi^, laughter- smith\\nwe have the teacher called lar-smi^, lore-smith we have\\nthe warrior called war-smith, wig-smi^.\\nHeap is now only applied to inert matter, but in Saxon to\\na crowd of men as, ])egna heap, an assembly of thanes\\nHengestes heap, Hengest s troop. (Beowulf, 1091.)\\nIn these words things smith, and heap, it is therefore seen\\nhow that words which in their visible form have remained\\nunchanged, may yet have become greatly changed in regard\\nto their place and office in the language.\\nCan. We find this verb used in Saxon in a manner\\nvery like its present employment. But when we examine\\ninto it, we find the sense attached to it was not as now, that\\no{ possibility, but oi knowledge and skill. When a boy in his\\nFrench Exercises comes to the sentence Can you swim\\nhe is directed to render it into French by Savez vous\\nnager? that is, Know you to swim? The very same idea", "height": "3180", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ^J\\nis (philologically) at the bottom of Can you swim? for in\\nSaxon cuNNAN is to know Ic can/ I know J u canst/\\nthou knowest, c., c. And it had a use in Saxon which\\nit has now lost, but which it has retained in German,\\nwhere fennen, to know, is the proper word for speaking of\\nacquaintance with persons. So in Saxon Canst ]?u |;one\\npreost ]?e is gehaten Eadsige? Knowest thou the priest\\nthat is called Eadsige?\\nOn, the preposition, exists in Saxon, but its area of in-\\ncidence has shifted. We often find that an Anglo-Saxon\\nON cannot be rendered by the same preposition in modern\\nEnglish, e.g. Jjone \\\\e he geseah on ]?3ere cyrcan, whom he\\nsaw in the church Landfer^ se oferssewisca hit gesette\\non Leden, Landferth from over the sea put it into Latin\\nSwa swa we on bocum reda^, as we read in books Sum\\nmanu on Winceastre, a man at Winchester. So strange to\\nour modern notions is the position in which we sometimes\\nfind on, that editors have hardly been able to admit its exist-\\nence, and have wished to read it as ou, that is, ovovof. A\\nstrong instance of this occurs in the Proclamation of a.d.\\n1258, which will be given below. There are, however, in-\\nstances in which this preposition needs not to be otherwise\\nrendered in modern English, e.g. Eode him a ham hal on\\nhis fotum, se ]?e ser was geboren on bsere to cyrcan he went\\noff then home whole on his feet, he who before was borne\\non bier to church.\\nOne of the least changed is the preposition to. This will\\nmostly stand in an English translation out of Saxon And\\nse halga him cwse]) to, ponne ]?u cymst to Winceastre, c.,\\nand the saint said to him, when thou comest to Winchester,\\nc. Se mann wear^ a gebroht to his bedde, the man was\\nthen brought to his bed.\\nIt is on these little oft-recurring words that the frame of", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "38 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nthe sentence reposes. While they remain the same, many of\\nthe larger words may change, and the alteration be only\\nsuperficial. But when changes take place in them, we feel\\nthat the phase of the language is affected. The change\\nwhich has taken place in the preposition with is more than\\nthe going or coming of many long words. With in Saxon\\nmeant against, and we have still a relic of that sense in our\\ncompound verb withstand, which means to stand against,\\nto oppose. We have all but lost the old preposition which\\nstood where the ordinary with now stands. It was mid,\\nand it still keeps its old place in the German nitt. We have\\nnot utterly lost the last vestiges of it, for it does reappear\\nnow and then in poetry in a sort of disguise, as if it were\\nnot its own old self, but a maimed form of a compound\\nof itself, amid and so it gets printed like this mid.\\nAn is a word in Saxon and also in modern English, and\\nit is the same identical word in the two languages. But in\\nthe former it represents the first numeral which we now call\\nWON and write one; and in the latter it is the indefinite\\narticle.\\nIt is not easy to throw light on an ancient speech by de-\\nscription, unless the writer is aided by the studies of the\\nreader. It would be vain to assume an English public to\\nbe acquainted with the elder form of their mother tongue\\nand therefore we are limited to such illustrations as may be\\nunderstood with only a knowledge of modern English.\\nUnder these circumstances we gladly seize upon the pre-\\npositional prefix BE, as it offers an example of much interest,\\nand no obscurity. The preposition be, at the time when\\nwe first become acquainted with it, means about, around\\nas, Forj)am \\\\t he sylf ^viste gewissost be ))am, forasmuch\\nas himself knew best about that. And when it entered into\\nverbal composition it was with this meaning of about as,", "height": "3188", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39\\nBECUMAN to come about, whence our modern sense of\\nbecome and it was used with peculiarly telling effect in verbs\\nof privation thus niman was to take, but beniman was to\\ntake 2N^2q from as if to take away round about, with all the\\nexpressiveness of the Greek Trepiaipslv. This same sense of\\nBE is in bereave, Saxon bereafian, literally to strip off the\\nclothing {reaf) round about or from about a person. To\\nthis class belong the following beheafdian, to behead be-\\nlandian or belendan, to deprive of land bedician, to surround\\nwith a dyke begangan, to go around, to surround begyrdan,\\nto gird about; behealdan, to hold round about; hehorsian,\\nto deprive of horses behreawsian, to rue about belisnian,\\nto castrate besittan, to sit round about, to besiege bescieran,\\nto deprive, lit. shear away from; besyrewian, to surround\\nany one with snares betynan, to put a barrier {tun) around\\na spot. But in the course of time this original sense of be\\nin verbal composition faded from sight, and it made no new\\ncompounds for a while. At length however, in the tenth and\\neleventh centuries, a vast influx of these compounds rushed\\nsuddenly into the language. In this second class of be-\\ncompounded verbs only a faint sense belongs to the prefix.\\nExamples bequeath, bethink, befall, beget, begin, behove, behide,\\nbelieve, beseech, betell, betrap, bewed, behold, belong, bespeak,\\nbestow. An indefinite number of verbs were afterwards made\\nin the same way, in which be- had no defineable value what-\\never, but was just a conventional sign of transitive verbality\\nas, beguile, betray, bespatter, becalm, behance, bedabble, bedaub,\\nbedeck, bedew, befit, befool, befriend, begrime, begrudge, behave,\\nbelabour, belate, belay, beleaguer, belie, belove, bemoan^ beseem,\\nbeshrew, besot, bestir, and other such in ever increasing\\nnumbers. It was from the earlier, rather than the latter\\nstages, that be took its place in adverbs and prepositions like\\nbefore, beyond, behind, belike, below, beneath, between, betwixt,", "height": "3188", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "4b SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nand in the nouns hehalf, behest, hehoof, in all which the old\\nsense of about is clearly discernible. The same is the bi in\\nthe noun bhvord, a proverb, a good word lost to us, but\\nretained by the Germans, SSeiirort. But we see it figuring\\nas a mere vague prefix in the modern because, besides. The\\nprogress of this word from the early time when it had the\\ndefinite sense of around, down to our own day, when it has\\nbecome a mere formative without an assignable signification,\\ncan thus be traced through its successive stages. But mean-\\nwhile the preposition itself has assumed the form of by, and\\nhas an instrumental sense after the passive verb, which seems\\nentirely foreign to its original use.\\nSuch were some of the features of the Saxon speech, as\\nwell as we can illustrate them by a reference to modern\\nEnglish. Speaking relatively to the times, it was not a rude\\nlanguage, but probably the most disciplined of all the ver-\\nnaculars of western Europe, and certainly the most cultivated\\nof all the dialects of the Gothic barbarians. Its grammar\\nwas regulated, its orthography mature and almost fixed.\\nIt was capable, not of poetry alone, but of eloquent prose\\nalso, and it was equal to the task of translating the Latin\\nauthors, which were the literary models of the day. The\\nextant Anglo-Saxon books are but as a few scattered splinters\\nof the old Anglo-Saxon literature. Even if we had no other\\nproof of the fact, the capability to which the language had\\narrived would alone be sufficient to assure us that it must\\nhave been diligently and largely cultivated. To this pitch\\nof development it had reached, first by inheriting the relics\\nof the Romano-British civilisation, and afterwards by four\\ncenturies and a half of Christian culture under the presiding\\ninfluence of Latin as the language of religion and of\\nhigher education. Latin happily did not then what it has\\nsince done in many Churches it did not operate to exclude", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 4 1\\nthe native tongue and to cast it into the shade, but to the\\nbeneficent end of regulating, fostering, and developing it.\\nSuch was the state of our language when its insular se-\\ncurity was disturbed by the Norman invasion. Great and\\nspeedy must have been the effect of the Conquest in ruining\\nthe ancient grammar, which rested almost entirely on literary\\nculture. The leading men in the state having no interest\\nin the vernacular, its cultivation fell immediately into neglect.\\nThe chief of the Saxon clergy deposed or removed, who\\nshould now keep up that supply of religious Saxon literature,\\nof the copiousness of which we may judge even in our day\\nby the considerable remains that have outlived hostility and\\nneglect Now that the Saxon landowners were dispossessed,\\nwho should patronise the Saxon bard, and welcome the man\\nof song in the halls of mirth\\nThe shock of the Conquest gave a death-blow to Saxon\\nliterature. There is but one of the Chroniclers that goes\\non to any length after the Conquest and one of them stops\\nshort exactly at a.d. 1066, as if that sad year had bereft his\\ntask of all further interest. We have Saxon poetry up to\\nthat date or very near to it, but we have none for some\\ngenerations after it. The Englisc language continued to be\\nspoken by the masses who could speak no other and here\\nand there a secluded student continued to write in it. But\\nits honours and emoluments were gone, and a gloomy period\\nof depression lay before the Saxon language as before the\\nSaxon people. It is not too much to say that the Norman\\nConquest entailed the dissolution of the old cultivated lan-\\nguage of the Saxons, the literary Englisc. The inflection-\\nsystem could not live through this trying period. Just as\\nwe accumulate superfluities about us in prosperity, but in\\nadversity we get rid of them as encumbrances, and we like\\nto travel light when we have only our own legs to carry us\u00e2\u0080\u0094", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "4% SKETCH OF THE RISE\\njust so it happened to the Englisc language. For now all\\nthese sounding terminations that made so handsome a\\nfigure in Saxon courts the -an, the -um, the -eka and the\\n-ANA, the -iGENNE and -igendum, all these, superfluous\\nas bells on idle horses, were laid aside when the nation had\\nlost its old political life and its pride of nationality, and had\\nreceived leaders and teachers who spoke a strange tongue.\\nBut this was not the only effect of the introduction\\nof a new language into the country. The Normans had\\nlearnt by their sojourn in France to speak French, and this\\nforeign language they brought with them to England.\\nSometimes this language is spoken of as the Norman or\\nNorman-French. In a well-known volume of lectures on\\nthe Siudy of Words, published seventeen years ago by the\\npresent Archbishop of Dublin, the relations between this\\nintrusive Norman and the native speech are given with\\nmuch felicity of illustration. I have the pleasure of inserting\\nthe following passage here with the permission of the\\nauthor\\nWe might almost reconstruct our history, so far as it\\nturns upon the Norman Conquest, by an analysis of our\\npresent language, a mustering of its words in groups, and\\na close observation of the nature and character of those\\nwhich the two races have severally contributed to it. Thus\\nwe should confidently conclude that the Norman was the\\nruling race, from the noticeable fact that all the words of\\ndignity, state, honour, and pre-eminence, with one remark-\\nable exception (to be adduced presentl}^), descend to us\\nfrom them sovereign, sceptre, throne, realm, royalty, homage,\\nprince, duke, coujit, {earl indeed is Scandinavian, though he\\nmust borrow his countess from the Norman,) chancellor,\\ntreasurer, palace, castle, hall, dome, and a multitude more.\\nAt the same time the one remarkable exception of king", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,\\n43\\nwould make us, even did we know nothing of the actual\\nfacts, suspect that the chieftain of this ruling race came in\\nnot upon a new title, not as overthrowing a former dynasty,\\nbut claiming to be in the rightful line of its succession that\\nthe true continuity of the nation had not, in fact any more\\nthan in word, been entirely broken, but survived, in due time\\nto assert itself anew.\\nAnd yet, while the statelier superstructure of the language,\\nalmost all articles of luxury, all having to do with the chase,\\nwith chivalry, with personal adornment, is Norman through-\\nout; with the broad basis of the language, and therefore\\nof the life, it is otherwise. The great features of nature,\\nsun, moon, and stars, earth, water, and fire, all the prime\\nsocial relations, father, mother, husband, wife, son, daughter,\\nthese are Saxon. Palace and castle may have reached us\\nfrom the Norman, but to the Saxon we owe far dearer\\nnames, the house, the roof, the home, the hearth. His board\\ntoo, and often probably it was no more, has a more hos-\\npitable sound than the table of his lord. His sturdy arms\\nturn the soil; he is the boor, the hind, the churl or if his\\nNorman master has a name for him, it is one which on his\\nlips becomes more and more a title of opprobrium and con-\\ntempt, the villain. The instruments used in cultivating\\nthe earth, the flail, the plough, the sickle, the spade, are ex-\\npressed in his language; so too the main products of the\\nearth, as wheat, rye, oats, here and no less the names of\\ndomestic animals. Concerning these last it is curious\\nto observe (and it may be remembered that Wamba,\\nthe Saxon jester in Ivanhoe, plays the philologer here^)\\nthat the names of almost all animals, so long as they\\nare alive, are thus Saxon, but when dressed and prepared\\nfor food become Norman a fact indeed which we might\\nWallis, in his Grammar, p. 20, had done so before.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "44 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nhave expected beforehand; for the Saxon hind had the\\ncharge and labour of tending and feeding them, but only\\nthat they might appear on the table of his- Norman lord.\\nThus ox, steer, cow, are Saxon, but heef Norman calf is\\nSaxon, but veal Norman sheep is Saxon, but 7nutton Norman\\nso it is severally with swine and pork deer and venison\\nfowl and pullet. Bacon, the only flesh which perhaps ever\\ncame within his reach, is the single exception.\\nPutting all this together, with much more of the same\\nkind, which has only been indicated here, we should certainly\\ngather, that while there are manifest tokens preserved in our\\nlanguage of the Saxon having been for a season an inferior\\nand even an oppressed race, the stable elements of Anglo-\\nSaxon life, however overlaid for a while, had still made good\\ntheir claim to be the solid groundwork of the after nation\\nas of the after language and to the justice of this conclusion\\nall other historic records, and the present social condition of\\nEngland, consent in bearing witness. Study of Words, 12th\\nedit., 1867, pp. 98-100.\\nThis duplicate system of words in English is the result\\nof a long period during which the country was in a bilingual\\ncondition. The language of the consumer was one, and that\\nof the producer another. In the very market at length, the\\nseller and the buyer must have spoken diiferent languages.\\nBut before it came to this, both languages must have been\\nfamiliar to either party. Just as on the frontier of the\\nEnglish and Welsh now, there is a large number of people\\nwho have a practical acquaintance with both languages, while\\nthey can talk in one only. This it is which has brought\\ndown upon the Welsh the unjust imputation of saying Dim\\nSaesoneg out of churlishness. They may understand the\\nenquiry, and yet they may not possess English enough to\\nmake an answer with. A similar frontier between English", "height": "3184", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45\\nand French must have existed in the Norman period in\\nevery town and almost in every village of England. This\\nlasted down to the middle of the fourteenth century, when the\\nnew mixed language broke forth and took the lead. During\\nthree centuries, the native language was cast into the shade by\\nthe foreign speech of the conquerors. All that time French\\nwas getting more and more widely known and spoken and\\nit never covered so wide an area in this island as it did at the\\nmoment when the native speech ilpreared her head again\\nto assert a permanent supremacy. As the waters of a river\\nare often shallowest there where they cover the widest area,\\nso the French language had then the feeblest hold in this\\ncountry, when it was most widely cultivated and most\\ngenerally affected.\\nThe Saxon had never ceased to be the speech of the body\\nof the people. The Conquest could not alter this fact.\\nWhat the Conquest did was to destroy the cultivated Englisc,\\nwhich depended for its propagation upon literature and\\nliterary men. This once extinct, there was no central or\\nstandard language. The French language in some respects\\nsupplied the place of a standard language, as the medium of\\nintercourse between persons in the best ranks of society.\\nThe native speech, bereft of its central standard, fell abroad\\nagain. It fell back into that divided condition, in which\\neach speaker and each writer is guided by the dialect of\\nhis own locality, undisciplined by any central standard of\\npropriety. Our language became dialectic. And hence it\\ncomes to pass that of the authors whose books are preserved\\nfrom the year a.d. iioo to 1350, no two of them are uniform\\nin dialect each speaks a tongue of its own. It must be\\nunderstood here, and wherever figures are given to dis-\\ntinguish periods in the history of language, that it is intended\\nfor the convenience of writer and reader, for distinctness of", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "46 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\narrangement and as an aid to the memory, rather thaii as\\na rigid Umit. For in such things the two bordering forms\\nso shade off and blend into one another, that they are not\\nto be rigidly outlined any more than the primary colours in\\nthe rainbow.\\nFor convenience sake, we may divide the transition into\\ntwo parts, and add a third era for the infancy of the national\\nlanguage\\nTeansition.\\nBr ?ken Saxon (Latin documentary period) from i ico to 1215\\nEarly English (the French documentary period) i2i5to 1350\\nFirst national English 1350 to 1550\\nOf the first division of this period, the grand landmarks\\nare the two poems of Layamon s Bruf, and the Ormulum\\nthe Brut representing the dialect of the Upper Severn and\\nthe Ormulum having been written (we will say by way of\\na definition) somewhere between London and Peterborough.\\nThe Brut of Layamon, a work which embodies in a poetic\\nform the legends of British history, and which exceeds 30,000\\nlines, has been splendidly edited, with an English translation,\\nby Sir Frederic Madden, 1847. One of the great excellences\\nof this edition is the helpful nature of the Preface. Besides\\nthe necessary discussions on the language and the date, the\\nleading passages for beauty or importance are indicated\\nin an easy way, which gives the reader an immediate com-\\nmand of the contents of this voluminous work. There is no\\ndirect intimation of the date at which it was written, but the\\neditor has fixed on 1205, for reasons which appear con-\\nclusive. But we have only to look at such a poem as this to\\nperceive at once that it was not the work of any one year\\nor even of a few years. It must be regarded as the literary\\nhobby of the whole life of Layamon the priest, who lived at", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 47\\nAreley Kings, on the west bank of the Severn, opposite\\nStourport, and who there served the church, being the\\nchaplain and inmate of the good knight of the parish.\\nAnd hence it is that the language runs back and claims\\na near relationship to that of the close of the latest Saxon\\nChronicle nearer than we might have expected from the\\nspace which separates them in geography. But we must\\nremember that we know nothing of Layamon s birthplace\\nand the scene of his education. We are only informed as to\\nthe scene of his life-long service. And though his diction\\nbears marks of the western dialect, yet this cannot be af-\\nfirmed exclusively. It would be tolerably safe to say that\\nhe wrote in Southern English, inclining to the western\\ndialect. In other words, Layamon represents the old dialect\\nof Wessex in the twelfth century. But it is easier to\\ndescribe Layamon by his literary than by his local affinities.\\nHe is the last writer who retains an echo of the literary\\nEnglisc. Though he wrote for popular use, yet the scholar\\nis apparent, and he had conned the old native literature\\nenough to give a tinge to his diction, and to preserve a little\\nof the ancient grammar. Among the more observable fea-\\ntures of his language are the following Infinitives in i, le,\\nor y the use of v for/ the use of u for i or jy in such\\nwords as dude (did), kudde (hid), hulk (hill), puf^e (pit), c.\\nWhat adds greatly to the philological interest of the \u00c2\u00a3ruf is\\nthis, that a later text is extant, a text which was plainly\\nwritten in Northumbria, and which bears some distinct\\nfeatures of Northern English. This second text has been\\nprinted by Sir F. Madden parallel with the elder text of\\nA.D. 120-5. One of the most salient characters of the\\nnorthern dialect was its avoidance of the old sc initial,\\nwhich developed into the modern s/i. The northern dialect\\nin such cases wrote simply s. The northern form for s/ia/l", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "48\\nSKETCH OF THE RISE\\nwas sail. So among the tribes of Israel at the time\\nof the Judges, it was a peculiarity of the tongue of the\\nEphraimites that they could not frame to pronounce sh, but\\nsaid Sibholeth instead of Shibboleth. This is so definite\\na feature of the northern dialect that it is worth while to\\ncollect some of the examples in which it makes the contrast\\nof the two texts\\nFirst Text.\\nSecond Text.\\nScaft, shaft\\nSaft\\nScarpe, sharp\\nSarpe\\nScaeSe. ^.heath\\nSeajie\\nSeal, scalt, scullen, sculled, shall\\nSai, salt, sollen, soUej)\\nSceldes, shields\\nSeldes\\nSceort, short\\nSort\\nScuten, they shot\\nSoten\\nSceren, scar shear.\\nshore\\nSeren, sar\\nScean, shone\\nSon\\nScip, ship\\nSip\\nScame, shame\\nSame\\nSculderen, shoulders\\nSoldre\\nScunede, shunned\\nSonede.\\nThe wall of Severus, which was made against the Picts, is\\ncalled in the elder text scid-wall, that is, wall of separation,\\nquasi \u00c2\u00a9cl)eibe=5Baft and in the later or northern text it is\\nsid-wal. (Vol. ii. p. 6, ed. Madden.)\\nThe following specimen is from the elder text of Laya-\\nmon s Br tit\\nTHE ORIGIN OF THE NAME OF GLOUCESTER.\\nLine 9616.\\nfa e time wes ifulled,\\npat hit fulleht sculde habben,\\naefter ])an apelene la3en,\\n))at stoden open ilke d2e3en,\\nnoma heo him arahten,\\nand Gloi pat child hahten.\\npis child weex and wel ij)seh\\nand muchel folc him to bah.\\nand Claudien him bitaehte,\\nWhen the time was fidly come\\nthat it baptism should have\\naccording to the national laws\\nthat stood in those same days\\na najne they bestowed on him\\nand named the child Gloi.\\nThis child grew and throve well\\nand much peop e bowed to hit7i,\\nand Claudien committed to him", "height": "3188", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\n49\\na burh J e he ahte\\nand sette heo mid cnihten,\\n])e gode weoren to fehten.\\nand hsehte heo wite wel faste\\nand heoten heo Gloichestre\\nal for his sune luuen,\\n])e leof him wes an heorten\\nj)e seoSSe bi5set al Walisc lond,\\nto his a3ere hond.\\nand J)erof he was deme\\nand due feole 5ere.\\nthe borough that he owned,\\nand manned it with knights\\nwhich good were to fight, [securely\\nAnd he ordered them to guard it\\nand he called it Gloucester;\\nall for love of his son\\nwho was dear to his heart;\\nwho afterwards conquered all Welsh-\\nto his own hand. [lafid\\nAnd thereof he was demster\\nand duke many years.\\nThe next specimen is from the younger or northern\\ntext\\nORIGIN OF BILLINGSGATE.\\nLine 6046.\\nNou ich ])e habbe i-sed hou hit his\\nagon,\\nof KairHun in Glommorgan.\\nGo we 5et to Belyn,\\nto ])an blisfolle kyinge.\\nf o he hadde imaked J)es borh,\\nand hit cleopede Kair-Uske\\npo J)e borh was strong and hende;\\npo gan he Jeanne wende,\\nriht to Londene,\\njjo borh he swij)e louede.\\nHe bi-gan ])er ana tur\\nJ)e strengeste of alle J)an tune\\nand mid mochele ginne,\\na 3et ])ar hunder makede,\\npo me hit cleopede\\nBelynes^at.\\nNou and euere more,\\nJje name stondi]) ])are,\\nLeuede Belyn Jje king,\\nin allere blisse\\nand alle his leode\\n:lofde hine swij^e.\\nIn his dajes was so mochel mete,\\n]jat hit was onimete.\\nNow I have said to thee how it\\nhappened,\\ntouchifig Caerleon in Glamorgan.\\nGo we back agaifi to Belyn,\\nto that blissful king.\\nWhen he had made the burgh\\nand called it Caer-Usk\\nWhen the burgh was strong and trim,\\nthe7t gan he wend thence\\nright to Lo7idon,\\nthe burgh he greatly loved.\\nHe began there a tower\\nthe strongest of all the town;\\nand with much art\\na gate there-under made.\\nThen men called it\\nBillingsgate!\\nNow and ever-more,\\nthe name standeth there.\\nLived Belyn the king\\nin all bliss\\nand all his people\\nloved him greatly.\\nIn his days was there so much meat,\\nthat it was without measure.\\nThe Ormulum may be proximately dated at a.d. 12 15. A\\nthe date cannot be given with precision, the date ql Magna\\nE", "height": "3184", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "50 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nCarta is here selected, for the sake of its bearing on thei\\nsubject, as will be seen presently. The Ormulum is a\\nversified narrative of the Gospels, addressed by Ormin or\\n(curtly) Orm to his brother Walter, and after his own name\\ncalled by the author Ormulum by which designation it is\\ncommonly known.\\nIce J)att tiss Eniiglish hafe sett I that this English have set\\nEnngli\u00c2\u00a3she men to lare, English men to lore.\\nIce wass ])ser-])aer I cristnedd wass I was there-where I christened was\\nOrrmin bi name nemmedd. Ormin by na7ne na?ned.\\npiss boc iss nemmnedd Orrmulum 7*^/5 book is named Ortmdum\\nForr|)i J att Orrm itt wrohhte. For-this that Orm it wrought.\\nThis book has been admirably edited, and with the most\\nperfect fidelity to the one extant manuscript, by Dr. White,\\nformerly Professor of Anglo-Saxon. It was printed at the\\nClarendon Press, 1852. As the -Srw/ represents the western\\ntype of Enghsh, so this does the eastern. In this poem we\\nfind for the first time the term English in the mature form.\\nLayamon has the forms ejtglisc, englis, cenglis, anglisce, Sec.\\nbut Orm has enngliss^ and still more frequently the fully\\ndeveloped form ennglissh.\\nThe excess of consonants with which this word is written\\nis a constant feature of the Oj-mulum. The author was\\none of Nature s philologists, and he displayed his talent by\\nattempting a phonetic system of spelling. Had his ortho-\\ngraphy been generally adopted, we should have had in\\nEnglish not only the mm and nn with which German\\nabounds, but many other double consonants which we\\ndo not now possess. How great a study Orm had made\\nof this subject, we are not left to gather from observation\\nof his spelling, for he has emphatically pointed out the\\nimportance of it in the opening of his work.", "height": "3180", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 5 1\\nHOW TO SPELL.\\nAnd whase wilenn shall ])iss boc And whoso shall determine to copy\\nefft operr sijje writenn this hook, I beg him to write it\\nhimm bidde ice })att he t write accurately as the book directeth and\\nrihht that he write a letter twice wherever\\nswa summ iss boc himm taeche];]) in this book it is so written. Let him\\nand tatt he loke wel J)att he look carefully that he write it so,\\nan bocstaff write twiggess for else he cannot write it correctly\\neggwhser pser itt uppo J)iss boc in English of that he may be as-\\niss writen o Jjatt wise suredl\\nloke well ])att he t write swa,\\nforr he ne magg nohht elless\\non Ennglissh writenn rihht te word,\\nt)att wite he well to so])e.\\nThere is another matter of orthography which is a philo-\\nlogical peculiarity with this author. When words that begin\\nwith follow words ending in d or he generally (and\\nwith a few definite exceptions) alters the initial J to\\nWhere (for example) he has the three words aU and aU\\nand ^e succeeding one another continuously, he writes, not\\nJ) 2// a/f \\\\e, but ^att tatt te. One important exception to this\\nrule is where the word ending with the or is severed from\\nthe word beginning with by a metrical pause in that case\\nthe change does not take place, as\\nagg afFterr ])e Goddspell stannt a7id aye after the Gospel standeth\\nJjatt tatt te Goddspell mene])]?. that which the Gospel meaneth.\\nHere the sta7t7it does not change the initial of the next word,\\nbecause of the metrical division that separates them. Other\\nexamples of these peculiarities may be seen in the follov/ing\\nextract.\\nCHARACTER OE A GOOD MONK.\\nForr himm birrj) been full clene mann,\\nand all wi^futenn ahhte,\\nButtan J)att mann himm findenn shall\\nunnome mete and waede.", "height": "3180", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "^2 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nAnd tser iss all ))att eor])lig ])ing\\n])att minnstremann birr}) aghenn,\\nWi))J}utenn cnif and shaej)e and camb\\nand nedle, giff he t georne]?]?.\\nAnd all J^iss shall mann findenn himm\\nand wel himm birrj) itt gemenn\\nFor birrj) himm noww])err don Jfseroflf,\\nne gifenn itt ne sellenn.\\nAnd himm birr]) tefre standenn inn\\nto lofenn Godd and wurrj)ennj\\nAnd agg himm birr]) beon fressh fasrto\\nbi daggess and bi nihhtess\\nAnd tat iss hand and Strang and tor\\nand hefig lif to ledenn,\\nAnd for])i birr]? wel clawwstremann\\nonnfangenn mikell mede,\\nAtt hiss Drihhtin AUwaeldennd Godd,\\nforr whamm he mikell swinnke])]).\\nAnd all hiss herrte and all hiss lusst\\nbirr]) agg beon towarrd heoffne,\\nAnd himm birr} geornenn agg ])att an\\nhiss Drihhtin wel to cwemenn,\\nWi])]) daggsang and wi])lp uhhtennsang\\nwi] messess and wi])}) beness, c.\\nTranslation.\\nFor he ought to he a very pure vtan\\nand altogether without property.\\nExcept that he shall be found in\\nsimple meat and clothes.\\nAnd that is all the earthly thing\\nthat minster-man shoidd own.\\nExcept a knife and sheath and comb\\nand needle, if he want it.\\nAnd all this shall they find for him\\nand his duty is to take care of it.\\nFor he may neither do with it,\\nneither give it nor sell.\\nAnd he must ever stand in (vigorously)\\nto praise and worship God,\\nAnd aye must he be fresh thereto\\nby daytime and by nights;\\nAnd that s a hard and stiff and rough\\nand heavy life to lead,\\nAnd therefore well may cloister d man\\nreceive a mickle meed\\nAt the hand of his Lord Allivielding God,\\nfor zvhom he mickle slaveth.\\ni", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nAnd all his heart and his desire\\nought aye be toward heaven.\\nAnd he should yearn for that alone,\\nhis Master well to sei ve.\\nWith daytime-chant and chatit at prime,\\nwith masses and with prayers, c.\\nOrmin has not, like Layamon, told us where he lived.\\nMany opinions have been hazarded on his dialect, but I have\\nfound the observations of Dr. Guest (^History of English\\nRhythtiis, vol. ii. pp. 209, 409) most appropriate. There is\\nthis guiding fact, that the initial change of to is found in\\nthe last section of the Saxon Chronicle E, which we know\\nwas written at Peterborough. On the other hand, we cannot\\nplace Ormin in Norfolk or Lincolnshire, as some critics\\nwould do, because he has not the Anglian mark of s for sh.\\nHe writes shall and not sail or sal. Though near the\\nAnglian border we must class this writer as Saxon and not\\nAnglian.\\nBefore we pass on to the next group, to those which are\\nmore particularly known as Early English, a remark should\\nbe made on the significance of the date 12 15, to which we\\nare now arrived. It is a marked date as being that of Magna\\nCarta; and it is the year in which French first appears in\\nour public instruments. After the Conquest Latin was the\\ndocumentary language up to this date, when French began\\nand soon became general. It has even been maintained\\nthat the original language of Magna Carta was French and\\nnot Latin. But though a critical examination may lead to\\nthis conclusion, it would be of no value for our present\\npurpose, unless it could be shewn that in this kingdom it was\\npromulgated in French. And this is very doubtful. The\\nfirst certain example of French in our public muniments is\\nthat by Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, which\\nhad been facsimiled in the National Manuscripts. If we ask", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "54 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nwhat manner of French it was, we must point to that now\\nspoken by the peasants of Normandy, and perhaps still more\\nto the French dialect which has been preserved in the\\nChannel Islands. A strong trace of this use of French as\\nthe language of public business in this country still survives\\nin the formula LE ROI LE VEUT or LA REINE LE\\nVEUT, by which the royal assent to bills is announced in\\nParliament. And in the utterance of this puissant sen-\\ntence it is considered correct to groll the r after the m.anner\\nof the peasants of Normandy.\\nThe darkest time of depression for our language has now\\npassed. We approach a kind of dawn. A new literature\\nbegins to rise, first in dissonant dialects, and then in a\\ncentral and standard form. The language had admitted\\na variety of new material which had distinctly affected its\\ncomplexion. One particular class of words shall be noticed\\nin this place as the result of the French rule in England.\\nThis is a group of words which will serve to depict the\\ntimes in which they were stamped on our speech. They\\nare the utterance of the violent and selfish passions.\\nAlmost all the sinister and ill-favoured words which were\\nin the English language at the time of Shakspeare, owed\\ntheir origin to this unhappy era. The malignant passions\\nwere let loose, as if without control of reason or of religion\\nmen hotly pursued after the objects of their ambition, covet-\\nousness, or other passions, till they grew insensible to every\\nfeeling of tenderness and humanity; they regarded one\\nanother in no other light but as obstructives or auxiliaries\\nin their own path. What wonder that such a state of society\\nfurnished little or nothing for expressing the delicate\\nemotions, while it supplied the nascent English with such\\na mass of opprobious epithets as to have lasted, with few\\noccasional additions, till the present day. Of these words", "height": "3184", "width": "2068", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\na few may be cited by way of example. And first I will\\ninstance the \\\\YOTdjuggkr. This word has two senses. It is\\nfirst a person who makes a Kvelihood by amusing tricks.\\nSecondly, it has the moral sense of an impostor or deceiver.\\nThe latter is the prevalent modern use. Both these senses\\noriginated in the French period of our history.\\nTo Jape is to jest coarsely; 2.Japer is a low buffoon; japery\\nia buffoonery 2,xvd jape-worthy is ignominiously ridiculous.\\nTo jangle is to prate or babble; 2ij angler is a man-prater,\\nand 2, j angler ess is a woman-prater.\\nBote lapers and langlers. ludasses children.\\nPiers Plowman s Vision, 35.\\nRaven is plunder raveners are plunderers and although\\nthis family of words is extinct, with the single exception of\\nravenous as applied to a beast of prey, yet they are still\\ngenerally known from the Authorised Version, and they must\\nhave been current English in 161 1.\\nRibald and ribaldry are of the progeny of this prolific\\nperiod. Ribald was almost a class-name in the feudal\\nsystem. One of the ways, and almost the only way, in which\\na man of low birth who had no inclination to the religious\\nlife of the monastery could rise into some sort of importance\\nand consideration, was by entering the service of a powerful\\nbaron. He lived in coarse abundance at the castle of his\\npatron, and was ready to perform any service of w^hatever\\nnature. He was a rollicking sort of a bravo or swash-\\nbuckler. He was his patron s parasite, bull-dog, and tool.\\nSuch was the Ribald, and it is not to be wondered at that\\nthe word rapidly became a synonym for everything rufidanly\\nand brutal and having passed into an epithet, went to swell\\nthe already overgrown list of vituperations.\\nRascal, villain, are of the same temper and the same date.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "5^ SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nSuch are a few of the words with which our language was\\nendowed, in its first rude contact with the French lan-\\nguage. Though we find nearer our own times, namely^\\nin the reign of Charles the Second, some accordance\\nof tone with the early feudal period, yet neither in that\\nnor in any other age was there produced such a strain\\nof injurious words, calculated for nothing else but to enable\\na man to fling indignities at his fellow.\\nThe same period is stigmatised by another bad character-\\nistic, and that is, the facility with which it disparaged good\\nand respectable words.\\nVillain, which has been quoted, was simply a class-name,\\nby which a humble order of men was designated ceorl was\\na Saxon name of like import: both of these became dis-\\nparaged at the time we speak of into the injurious sense of\\nvillain and churl.\\nThe adjective iniaginatif ^?j then in use, but it had not\\nthe worthy sense of imaginative, richly endowed with ideas\\nbut simply suspicious.\\nThe furious and violent life of that period had eveiy need\\nof relief and relaxation. This was found in the abandon-\\nment of revelry and in the counteir-stimulant of the gaming-\\ntable. The very word revelry with its cognates, to revel,\\nrevelling, revellers, are p^roductions of this period. The rage\\nfor gambling which distinguished the habits of our Norman-\\nFrench rulers, is aptly commemorated in the fact that up to\\nthe present day the English terms for games of chance are\\nof French extraction. Dice were seen in every hall, and\\nv/ere then called by nearly the same name as now. Cards,\\nthough a later invention, namely, of the thirteenth or begin-\\nning of the fourteenth century, are still appropriately desig-\\nnated by a French name.\\nThe fashion of counting by ace, deuce, trey, quart, cink.", "height": "3180", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 57\\nsiz, c., is French, not modern French, but of the feudal\\nage. We find it in Chaucer, precisely as at present\\nSeven is my chance, and thin is cink and treye.\\nCanterbury Tales, 12,587.\\nChance itself is one of those gaming terms, and so is\\nhazard, which was the prominent word in the phraseology of\\ngambling, and accordingly very odious to the moralist of\\nthat day. In the list of vices hasardery comes in next to\\ngluttony, as being that which beset men next after the temp-\\ntations of the table.\\nAnd now that I have spoken of glotonie,\\nNow wol I you defenden hasardrie.\\nHasard is veray moder of lesinges,\\nAnd of deceite, and cursed forsweringes.\\nIt is repreve, and contrary of honour\\nFor to ben hold a common hasardour.\\nCanterbury Tales, 12,522.\\nIt is a comfort to observe that even a word may .outlive\\na bad reputation. The word hazard has now little associa-\\ntion with disorderly excitement and the thirst for sudden\\nwealth it suggests to our minds some laudable adventure,\\nor elevates the thought to some of those exalted aims\\nfor which men have hazarded their lives. Another word\\nmay be cited, which belonged originally to the same ill-\\nconditioned strain, but which time has purified and con-\\nverted into a picturesque word, no longer a disgrace but\\nan ornament to the language. This is jeopardy, at first a\\nmere excited and interjectional cry, Jeu perdu game lost\\nor t\\\\iQ, jeu parti! drawn game! but now a wholesome\\nrhetorical word.\\nI will close the list of Norman illustrations with one\\nexample, by simply observing that this was the age which\\ngave us the word Fitz as a prefix to family names. This", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "58 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nword, the most innocent in the world (being merely the\\nRomanesque form of the I^2i\\\\.m films, a son), obtained at this\\nperiod a well-known heraldic import, which it has ever since\\nretained.\\nThe Norman poetic literature of this early period has\\nleft few traces on our language. We have an intervening\\nperiod to survey before we come to any literary blending\\nbetween the two languages. In this interval, which may be\\nrudely defined by the dates 12 15-1350, we see strong efforts\\nafter a native literature. But as yet these have no centre of\\ntheir own they hang aloof as it were, and hover provincially\\naround the privileged and authoritative languages of French\\nand Latin. They have not among themselves a common or\\neven a leading form of speech. This is the period that has\\nbesn so excellently illustrated by the labours of the Early\\nEnglish Text Society.\\nThe first example of the new group is the beautiful\\npoem of Genesis and Exodus. Here the word shall is\\nthus declined: sing, sal, salt pi. sulen. Also srud for\\nthe Saxon scrud, modern shroud and suuen as a par-\\nticiple of the verb which we now write shove. This\\nspeaks for its Anglian character. This poem exhibits also\\nthe remarkable feature of he for the Anglo-Saxon hi, equiva-\\nlent to the modern they. The date of it is about a.d. 1250,\\nand Mr. Morris is probably right in assigning Suffolk as its\\nlocality. It has that apparent confusion between and d\\nfor which the last continuation of the Saxon Chronicle (E)\\nis remarkable. As a specimen of the language, we may\\nquote the butler s narrative of his dream to Joseph in the\\nprison\\nMe drempte ic stod at a win-tre, 7 dreamt I stood at a vine-tree\\nSat adde waxen buges 5re, that bad waxen houghs three.\\nOrest it blomede and siSen bar Erst it bloomed arid then it bare\\nfSe beries ripe, wurS ic war: the berries ripe, as I was ware", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0^e kinges kuppe ic hadde on bond, the king s cup I had in hand,\\nSe beries 5or-inne me Shugte ic the berries therein me-thought I\\nwrong,\\nwrung\\nand bar it drinken to Pharaon, and hare it to drink to Pharoah\\nme drempte, als ic was wune to don. dreamed) as I was wont to do.\\nAt the end of his version of Genesis he alludes to himself\\nand his work\\nGod schilde hise sowle fro helle bale God shield his soid from hell-bale\\nSe made it Sus on Engel tale that made it thus in English tale\\nWith the Genesis and Exodus may be roughly classed\\nas to locality Havlok the Dane, though that poem uses\\nthe sh.\\nBut the most remarkable of all the productions of the\\ntransition period is the poem entitled The Owl and the\\nNightingale. Its locality is established by internal evidence,\\nas having been written at or near Portesham in Dorsetshire.\\nIt is a singular combination of archaic English with ripe and\\nmature versification. The forms of words and even the\\nterms of expression frequently recall Mr. Barnes s Poems in\\nthe Dorset Dialect. A prominent feature is the frequent use\\nof V where we write as vo for foe vlize flies vairer\\nfairer; v ra7n= from vor^ for; but so for-vorp for so far\\nforth ze;^r^-z 6 r^ wherefore c. In connection with which\\nit ought to be remembered that we in modern English use\\nthe V in many places where the Saxon orthography had f.\\nInstances heaven, Saxon heofon love, Saxon lufu but\\nthis alteration avoids initial _/ s which remain with us as in\\nSaxon times. The change may be well illustrated by the\\nnumeral five, Saxon fi/e where the first stands unaltered,\\nbut the second has been transformed to v. The fact is that\\nthe break in the continuity of our literary language opened\\nthe way for much of west-country style that never could have\\nbeen admitted unless such an interruption had taken place*", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "6o SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nIt has already been shewn above that the Saxon literary lan-\\nguage was not really native to Wessex, that it was not\\noriginally Saxon at all, but Anglian. This poem may safely\\nbe pronounced the oldest extant specimen of the pure\\nWessex dialect. And when we add that it is one of the\\nmost lovely idylls of any age or of any language, we hope\\nthat some Englishmen will be induced to master the dialects\\nof the thirteenth century, in order to be able to appreciate\\nthis exquisite pastoral. Its date may be somewhere about\\nA.D. 1 280. So far from substituting j for sc sh) this poem\\nspells schaliu, schule, sckolde, schonde, schame, schake^, schende,\\nschuniet, scharp, Sec. On the other hand it tends to soften\\nthe ch guttural.\\nIn the Romance 0/ King Alexander we first begin to hear\\na sound as of the coming English language. Most of the\\ntransition pieces are widely distinct from the diction of\\nGower and Chaucer, but this has the air of a preparation\\nfor those writers. This romance sometimes resembles not\\ndistantly the Romaunt of the Rose. The feature which most\\nclaims attention is the working in of French words with the\\nEnglish. This is a translation of the poem which was the\\ngrand and general favorite before the Romance of the Rose\\nsuperseded it. It was a French work of the year a.d. 1200,\\nconsisting of 20,000 long twelve-syllable lines, a measure\\nwhich thenceforward became famous in literature, and took\\nthe name of Alexandrine, after this romance. The EngHsh\\nversion was made some time in the thirteenth century, in a\\nlax tetrameter. It was not till Spenser that the Alexandrine\\nmetre was systematically employed in our national poetry.\\nAs the poem was originally French, this may partly ac-\\ncount for the number of French words and phrases in the\\ntranslation. Partly, but not altogether: Havelok is from a\\nFrench original, but it is very free from French words.", "height": "3184", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 6 1\\nThe fact seems to be that this translation carries us into the\\natmosphere of the court not only by the variety and pure-\\nness of the French words in it, but also by its metrical resem-\\nblance to that eminently courtly work, Chaucer s Romaunt of\\nthe Rose. Moreover, the language is in other respects so like\\nthe court-English of the fourteenth century, that we cannot\\nbut regard it as in a special manner one of the dawning\\nlights of the standard language. In Chaucer and Gower\\nthe French words are often so Anglicised, that a reader\\nmight pass them for pure Saxon. Not so in the Romance\\nof King Alexander. The two languages do not yet appear\\nblended together, but only mixed biUngually. The following\\nlines will illustrate this crude mixture of French with\\nEnglish\\n1. That us telleth the maistres saunz faile.\\n2. Hy ne ben no more verreyvient.\\n3. And to have horses auenaunt,\\nTo hem stalworth and asperaunt.\\n4. Of alle men hy ben queintest.\\n5. Toppe and rugge, and croupe and cors\\nIs semblabel to an hors.\\nIn the rhyming Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester we have\\na fine specimen of west-country English, which touches the\\ndialect of The Owl and Nightingale at many points; the\\ninfinitives ending in -i or -y, or -ie, as to conseili to counsel\\nhe wolde sustemi he would sustain he ne let no5t clupie\\nal is folc he let not call all his folk due William uorbed\\nalle his to rohhy duke William forbad all his men to rob\\nhoseli to housel ])is noble due Willam him let crouny king\\nthis noble duke William made them croivn him king.\\nBut near relationship is not more indicated by similarity\\nof grammatical forms than by peculiar applications of pre-\\npositions and cunjunctions. The Owl and Nightingale has\\nthe adverb fort (which is in fact our modern forth) in the", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "6% SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nprepositional sense of unh I as, J)U singest from eve /brf\\namor5e thou singest from evening un/i l morning. And\\nalso conjunctionally, as, jjos hule abod /or/ hit was eve\\nthis owl abode un/i l it was evening. In Robert of Gloucester\\nwe find the same word in the conjunctional sense of unWl,\\nas in the address of William to his soldiers after their\\nlanding\\nUnderstondaJ) hou ^oure eldeme ])e king nome also,\\nAnd helde him vorie he adde amended ])at he adde misdo.*\\nYe understand how your elders seized the king also,\\nAnd held him until he had amended that he liad ill done.\\nBut in many cases this dialect differs strongly from\\nthe Dorset, as exhibited in the Owl and Nightingale. The\\nlatter has the initial h very constant in such words as\\nIch habhe I have J u havest thou hast ho hadde\\nshe had, c. whereas in Robert of Gloucester it is adde,\\nas may be seen in the last quotation. Also he writes is for\\nhis very frequently, though not constantly. It seems as if\\nhe put the h to this word when it was emphatic. The\\nDorset, on the other hand, retains the h in hit for it writes\\nthe owl down as a hule, and a houle never fails in sh,\\nbut rather strengthens it by the spelling sch, as scharpe,\\nschild, schal, schaj?ie, Sec. whereas the Gloucester dialect\\neludes the h in such instances, and writes ss, as ssolde\\nshould ssipes ships ssriue shrive ssire shire bissopes\\nbishops and even Engliss for English, Frenss for French.\\nThe following line offers a good illustration both of this\\nfeature, and also of the metre of this Chronicle, which is not\\nvery equable or regular, but of which the ideal seems to be\\nthe fourteen-syllable ballad-metre\\nHou longe ssoUe hor luj^er heued above hor ssoldren be\\nMorris, Specimens, p. 66.\\nHow long-a shall their hated heads\\nAbove their shoulders be", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 6^\\nPerhaps this may have been a difference in the ortho-\\ngraphy rather than in the pronunciation. Which is made\\nprobable by the substitution of the ss for ck where we must\\nsuppose a French pronunciation of the c/i, which is about\\nthe same as our s/i sound. Thus, in the long piece presently\\nto be quoted, we have Michaelmas written Missehnassc.\\nThe Commencement of Robert of Gloucester s Chronicle,\\nas printed by Hearne. Date about 1300.\\nEngelond ys a wel god lond, ich wene of eche lond best,\\nYset in the ende of the world, as al in the West.\\nThe see goth hym al a boute, he stont as an yle.\\ntiere fon heo durre the lasse doute, but hit be ihorw gyle\\nOf folc of the selue lond, as me hath yseye wyle.\\nFrom South to North he is long eighte hondred myle\\nAnd foure hondred myle brod from Est to West to wende,\\n_ Amydde tho lond as yt be, and noght as by the on ende.\\nPlente me may in Engelond of all gods yse,\\nBute folc yt forgulte other yeres the worse be.\\nFor Engelond ys ful ynow of fruyt and of tren,\\nOf wodes and of parkes, thar joye yt ys to sen\\nOf foules and of bestes, of wylde and tame al so\\nOf salt fysch and eche fresch, and fayre ryueres ther to;\\nOf welles swete and colde ynow, of lesen and of mede\\nOf seluer or and of gold, of tyn and of lede\\nOf stel, of yrn, and of bras of god com gret won\\nOf whyte and of woUe god, betere ne may be non.\\nEngland is a very good land, I ween of every land {the) best iet in the\\nend of the world, as in the utter west. The sea goeth it all about it\\nsta?ideth as an isle. Their foes they need the less fear, except it be through\\nguile of folk of the same land, as men have seen sometimes. From south\\nto north it is eight hundred mile long; and four hundred mile broad to wend\\nfrom east to west, that is, amid the land, and not as by the one end.\\nPlenty of all goods men may in England see, unless the people are in faidt\\nor the years are bad. For England is full enough of fruit and of trees\\nof woods and of parks, that joy it is to see of fowls and of beasts, of wild\\nand tame also; of salt fiih a?id eke fre^h, and fair rivers thereto; of wells\\nsweet and cold enow, of pastures and of meads of silver ore and of gold,\\nof tin and of lead of steel, of iron, and of brass of good corn great store\\nof wheat and of good wool, better may be none.\\nBut the most famous and oftest quoted piece of Robert\\nof Gloucester is that wherein he sums up the consequences", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "64\\nSKETCH OF THE RISE\\nof the Battle of Hastings. It contains the clearest and best\\nstatement of the bilingual state of the population in his own\\ntime, that is, about a.d. 1300.\\npus lo Jie Englisse folc vor no3t to grounde com\\nVor a fals king, J at nadde no ri3t to e kinedom,\\ncome to a nywe louerd, ])at more in riste was.\\nAc hor noJ)er, as me may ise, in pur ri3te nas.\\nT J)us was in Normannes hond J^at lond ibro3t iwis,\\npat an-aunter 3if euermo keueringe J)er-of is.\\nOf pe Normans bej) heye men, ])at bej) of Engelonde\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a23 Jie lowe men of Saxons, as ich understonde,\\nSo J)at 56 se]) in eij)er side wat ri3te 3e abbe]) Jjerto\\nAc ich understonde, ])at it was ])oru Godes wille ydo.\\nVor J e wule ])e men of ]jis lond pur hejiene were,\\nNo lond, ne no folc a3en hom in armes nere\\nAc nou su]?])e ])at ];et folc auenge cristendom,\\nwel lute wule hulde J)e biheste Jjat he nom,\\nT turnde to sleupe, 3 to prute, to lecherie,\\nTo glotonie, heye men muche to robberie,\\nAs ])e gostes in a uision to Seint Edward sede,\\nWu ]/er ssolde in Engelond come such wrecchede\\nVor robberie of heie men, vor clerken hordom,\\nHou God wolde sorwe sende in |)is kinedom.\\nBituene Misselmasse and Sein Luc, a Sein Calixtes day,\\nAs vel in Jjulke 3ere in a Saterday.\\nIn ])e 5er of grace, as it vel also,\\nA jjousend and sixe sixti, J)is bataile was ido.\\nDue Willam was })o old nyne j J)ritti 3er,\\non T ])ritti 5er he was of Normandie due er.\\npo J)is bataile was ydo, due Willam let bringe\\nVaire is folc, |)at was aslawe, an er];e J)oru alle ])inge.\\nAlle ])at wolde leue he 3ef, J^at is fon anerjie bro3te.\\nHaraides moder uor hire sone wel 3erne him biso3te\\nBi messagers, largeliche him bed of ire J\u00c2\u00bbinge,\\nTo granti hire hire sones bodi aner] e vor to bringe.\\nWillam hit sende hire vaire inou, wif/oute eny J)ing ware uore\\nSo ]3at it was J)oru hire wij) gret honour ybore\\nTo hous of Waltham, ibro3t aner])e Jiere,\\nIn holi rode chirche, ])at he let him-sulf rere.\\nAn hous of religion, of canons ywis.\\nHit was ])er vaire an erjie ibro3t, as it 5ut is.\\nWillam ])\\\\s noble due, })o he adde ido al ])is.\\npen wey he nom to Londone he T alle his.\\nAs king and prince of londe, wij:) nobleye ynou.\\nA5en him wi]) uair procession ];at folc of toune drou,\\nvnderueng him vaire inou, as king of ])is lond.\\npus com lo Engelond, in. to Normandies hond.", "height": "3188", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6^\\nT ])e Normans ne cou])e speke ])o, bote hor owe speche.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2;j speke French as hii dude at om J hor children dude also teche.\\nSo ])at heiemen of pis lond, ])at of hor blod come,\\nHolde]) alle ])ulke speche Jiat hii of horn nome,\\nVor bote a man conne Frenss, me telj of him lute.\\nAc lowe men holde]) to Engliss to hor owe speche jute.\\nIch wene Ipev ne hep in al Jie world contreyes none,\\nJ^at ne holdej; to hor owe speche bote Engelond one.\\nAc wel me wot uor to conne bojje wel it is,\\nVor J)e more J)at a mon can, the more wurjje he is.\\nIt will hardly be necessary to translate the whole of this\\npassage for the reader. We will modernise a specimen to\\nserve as a guide to the rest. The last ten lines shall be\\nselected as recording the linguistic condition of the country.\\nAnd the Normans could not then speak any speech hut their own. And\\nthey spoke French as they did at home, and had their children taught the\\nsame. So that the high men of this land, that came of their blood, all retain\\nthe same speech which they brought from their home. For unless a man know\\nFrench, people regard him little. But the low men hold to English, and to\\ntheir own speech notwithstanding. I ween there be no countries in all the\\nworld that do not hold to their own speech, except England only. But\\nundoubtedly it is well to know both for the more a man hiows, the more\\nworth he is.\\nThese examples will perhaps suffice to give an idea of the\\ndissevered and dialectic condition of the native language\\nfrom the twelfth to the fourteenth century. During this\\nlong interval the reigning language was French, and this\\nfashion, like all fashions, went on spreading and embracing\\na wider area, and ever growing thinner as it spread, till in\\nthe thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it was become an\\nacknowledged subject of derision. Already, before 1200,\\nthe famous Abbot Sampson, of Bury St. Edmunds, was\\nthought to have said a good and memorable thing when\\nhe gave as his reason for preferring one man to a farm rather\\nthan another, that his man could not speak ^French. The\\nFrench which was spoken in this country had acquired an\\ninsular character; it was full of Anglicisms and English\\nwords, and in fact must often have been little more than\\nF", "height": "3188", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "66 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\ndeformed English. Even well-educated persons, such as\\nChaucer s gende and lady-like Prioress, spoke a French\\nwhich, as the poet informs us, was utterly unlike French\\nof Paris/ What then must have been the French of the\\nhomely upland fellows Trevisa tells of: Jack wold be a\\ngentleman yf he coude speke Frensche/\\nIn Piers Plowman we have the dykers and delvers with\\ntheir bits of French, doing a very bad day s work, but\\neminently polite to the ladies of the family\\nDykers and Delvers that don here werk ille,\\nAnd driveth forth the longe day, with Deu vous saue, dam Emme.\\nPiers Plowman s Prologue, 103.\\nPerhaps it is a song they sing, as the latest editor, Mr.\\nSkeat, takes it. This will serve equally well or even better\\nto illustrate the complete diffusion of the French language\\namong all ranks; and we might imagine, that now foe the\\nsecond time in history it was on a turn of the balance\\nwhether Britain should produce nationality of the Roman-\\nesque or of the Gothic type. But in the meantime the native\\ntongue was growing more and more in use and respect,\\nand at length, in the middle of the fourteenth century,\\nwe reach the end of its suppression and obscurity.\\nTrevisa fixes on the great plague of 1349 as an epoch after\\nwhich a change was observable in regard to the popular\\nrage for speaking French. He says This was moche used\\ntofore the grete deth, but sith it is somdele chaunged. But\\nthe most important date is 1362, when the English language\\nwas re-installed in its natural rights, and was established as\\nthe language of the Courts of Law.\\nIn the review of specimens of English which have passed\\nbefore us, we are struck with their diversity and the absence\\nof any signs of convergency to a common type. The only\\nfeature which they agree in with a sort of growing consent,", "height": "3180", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6\\nis in the dropping of the old inflections and the severance\\nof connection with the old Anglo-Saxon accidence. Among\\nthe most tenacious of these inflections was the genitive plural\\nof substantives in -ena (Anglo-Saxon), and of adjectives in\\n-ra. This -eria drooped into the more languid -ene; and\\nthe -ra appeared as -er or -r. Of the latter we shall have\\noccasion to speak when we come to Chaucer.\\nMr. Morris has produced from this period the plural\\ngenitives apostlene veet^^eet of the apostles; deovlene fere\\ncompanion of devils englene songs songs of angels e ^ene\\nivepynge weeping of the eyes Jewene lawe law of the\\nJews prophetene gestes records of the prophets and many\\nothers. According to him it lived on in the south till near\\nthe close of the fourteenth century, after it had long been\\ndiscontinued in the north. But whatever traces may be\\nfound of local tenacity, the general movement was one and\\nidentical, namely, to divest the language of the old inflections.\\nAny other tangible evidence Of drawing towards a standard\\nconformity it is difficult to find. If inter-communication at\\ncertain points tended towards the smoothing out and gene-\\nralising of local peculiarities, this was more than com-\\npensated for by isolation at other parts, and the continued\\nproduction of new idioms.\\n-:In fact we have a phenomenon to account for. In\\nthe.: fourteenth century there suddenly appeared a standard\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2English language. It appeared at once in full vigour, and was\\nacknowledged on all hands without dispute. The study of\\nthe previous age does not make us acquainted with a general\\nprocess of convergency towards this result, but rather in-\\ndicates that each locality was getting confirmed in its own\\npeculiar habits of speech, and that the divergence was\\ngrowing wider. Now there appeared a mature form of\\nEnglish which was generally received.\\nF 2", "height": "3168", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "68 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nThe two writers of the fourteenth century who most\\npowerfully display this language are Chaucer and Gower.\\nPiers Plowman is in a dialect; Wiclif s Bible Version is in\\na dialect but Chaucer and Gower write in a speech which\\nis thenceforward recognised as The English Language,\\nand which before their time is hardly found. This seems to\\nadmit of but one explanation. It must have been simply the\\nlanguage that had formed itself in the court about the per-\\nson of the monarch. Chaucer and Gower differ from the\\nother chief writers of their time in this particular, which they\\nhave in common between themselves, that they were both\\nconversant with court Hfe, and moved in the highest regions\\nof English society. They wrote in fact King s English.\\nThis advantage, joined to the excellence of the works them-\\nselves, procured for these two writers, but more especially for\\nChaucer, the preference over all that had written in English.\\nWe have not yet done indeed with provincial specimens,\\neven among our most important examples of English but\\nwe are from this date in possession of a standard, relatively\\nto which all diverging forms of English are local and\\nsecondary. Having a standard, we are now in a position\\nfor the first time to designate all other Enghsh as pro-\\nvincial.\\nAn admiring foreigner (I think it was M. Montalembert),\\namong other compliments to the virtues of this nation,\\nobserved, as a proof of our loyalty and our attachment to\\nthe monarchy, that we even call our roads the Queen s\\nHighways, and our language the Queen s English No\\nEnglishman would wish to dim the beauty of the sentiment\\nhere attributed to us, nor need we think it is disparaged\\nthough a matter-of-fact origin can be assigned to each of\\nthese expressions. Of the term King s Highway the\\norigin is historically known. When there were many juris-", "height": "3180", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6g\\ndictions in this country, which were practically independent\\nof the crown, the border-lands of the shires where jurisdic-\\ntion might be uncertain, and likewise the highways, ap-\\npertained to the royal jurisdiction. That is to say, a crime\\ncommitted on the highway was as if committed in the King s\\nown personal domain, and fell to his courts to judge. The\\nhighways were emphatically under the King s Peace, and\\nhence they came to be (for a very solid and substantial\\nreason, at a time when travellers sorely needed to have their\\nsecurity guaranteed) spoken of as the King s Highways.\\nThis is known from the best of records; namely, the old\\nlaws concerning jurisdictions. Of the origin of the term\\nKing s English we have not any direct testimony of this\\nkind but it seems that it may be constructively shewn, at\\nleast as a probability, that it was originally the term to\\ndesignate the style of the royal proclamations, charters,\\nand other legal writings, by contrast with the various dialects\\nof the provinces.\\nAs a little collateral illustration and confirmation of\\nthis view, it may be not amiss to observe that the style\\nof penmanship in^ which such documents were then written\\nhas always been known as Court Hand.\\nEver since the time of the Archbishop Stephen Langton,\\nin the reign of King John, it had been usual to employ\\nFrench in the most select documents, instead of Latin, which\\nhad been in general use from the time of the Conquest.\\nHallam tells us, on the authority of Mr. Stevenson, that all\\nletters, even of a private nature, were written in Latin till the\\nbeginning of the reign of Edward I (soon after 1270), when\\na sudden change brought in the use of French. But neither\\nof these strange languages were suitable for edicts and\\nproclamations addressed to the body of the people, and we\\nmay suppose that the vernacular was generally employed for", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "70 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nthis purpose, although few examples have survived. The\\nearliest extant piece of this class is in the reign of Henry III,\\nin the year 1258, and it is one of those which have been\\nphotozincographed by Colonel Sir Henry James in the\\nFacsimiles of National Manuscripts.\\nProclamation of Henry III, sent to the several Counties\\nof England, a.d. 1258.\\n[This copy is addressed to the inhabitants of Huntingdonshire.]\\nHenr ])ur3 Godes fultume, King on Engleneloande, Lhoauerd on Yrloand,\\nDuk on Norm on Aquitain and eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise\\nholde, ilaerde and ilaewede on Huntendon schir\\npset witen je wel alle xX we willea and unnen jjaet. Jiset vre rsedesmen\\nalle o];er })e moare d^l of heom, ]jaet beo]) ichosen ur3 us and ur3 Jjset\\nloandes folk on vre kuneriche, habbej) idon and schuUe don. in J)e worj^nesse\\nof Gode and on vre treowj^e, for ];e freme of ])e loande. ];ur3 ]je besi^te of\\nan toforen iseide redesmen. beo stedefiESt and ilestinde in alle finge abuten\\naende.\\nAnd we hoaten alle vre treowe, in ])e treowjje jjset heo vs 03en. ))aet heo\\nstedefaestliche healden and swerien to healden and to werien J)e isetnesses ])aet\\nbeon imakede and beon to makien, })iir3 J)an to foren iseide raedesmen ojjcr\\n])ur3 J)e moare dsel of heom, alswo alse hit is biforen iseid.\\nAnd Jjaet sehc o|ier helpe jjset for to done, bi J)an ilche o|)e a3enes alle men.\\nRi3t for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of e3te.\\nwherj)ur3 J)is besigte mu3e beon ilet o])er iwersed on onie wise. And 3if oni\\no])er onie cumen her on3enes, we willen and hoaten jjaet alle vre treowe heom\\nhealden deadliche ifoan.\\nAnd for \\\\xX we willen Jjsset J\u00c2\u00bbis beo stedefaest and lestinde. we senden 3ew\\nJ)is writ open, iseined wij) vre seel, to halden a manges 3ew ine hord. Wit-\\nnesse vs seluen set Lunden ])ane e3tetenj)e day. on ])e monjje of Octobr in\\n\\\\t two and fowerti3])e 3eare of vre cruninge.\\nAnd ]?is wes idon tetforen vre isworene redesmen. Bonefac Archebischop\\non Kant bur Walt of Cantelow. Bischop on Wirechestr Sim of Miintfort.\\nEorl on Leirchestr Ric of Clar eorl on Glowchestr and on Hurtford.\\nRog Bigod. eorl on Northfolk and marescal on Engleneloand Perres of\\nSauveye, Will of fFort, eorl on Aubem Joh of Plesseiz eorl on Ware-\\nwik. Joh Geffrees sune. Perres of Muntefort. Ric of Grey. Rog of\\nMortemer. James of Aldithel and aetforen oJ;re mo5e,\\nAnd al on \\\\o ilche worden is isend in to seurihce o|)re shcire ouer al\\n])aere kuneriche on Engleneloande. And ek in tel Irelonde.", "height": "3188", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7 1\\nHere we remark that in 1258 the letter (called Thorn\\nwas still in common use. There is one solitary instance of\\nthe Roman th in the above document, and that is in a family\\nname by which we may suppose that the th was already\\nrecognised as more fashionable. The following is the modern\\nEnglish of this unique proclamation.\\nH Henry, through Gods help, King in England, Lord in Ireland, Duke in\\nNormandy, in Aquitain, and Ear l in Anjou, sends greeting to all his subjects,\\nlearned and lay, in Huntingdonshire.\\nThis know ye ivell all that we will and grant that that which our counsel-\\nlors all or the more part of them, that be cho^ren through us and throtigh the\\nland s folk f;z our kingdom, have done and shall do, in the reverence of God\\nand in loyalty to us, for the good of the land, through the care of these\\naforesaid counsellors, be stedfast and lasting in all things without end.\\nA nd we enjoin all our lieges, in the allegiance that they us owe, that they\\nstedfastly hold, and swear to hold and to maintai7i the ordinances that be\\nmade and shall be made through the aforesaid counsellors, or through the\\nmore part of them, in manner as it is before said.\\nAnd that each help the other so to do, by the same oath, against all men\\nRight for to do and to accept. And none is to take land or money, where-\\nthrough this provisioji may be let or damaged in any wise. And if any\\nperson or persons come tbere-against, we will and enjoin that all our lieges\\nthem hold deadly foes.\\nAnd, for that lue will that this be stedfa it and lasting, we send you this\\nwrit open, signed wi h our seal, to hold amongst you in hoard (store). Wit-\\nness ourselves at London, the eighteenth day in the mo7ith of October, in the\\ntwo and fortieth year of our crowning.\\nAnd this was do?ie in the presettce of our sworn coumeUors, Boniface, Arch-\\nbishop of Canterbury Walter of Cantelow, Bishop of Worcester Simofi of\\nMonifort, earl of Leices er Richard of Clare, earl of Gloiicester and Hert-\\nford; Roger Bigod, earl of Norfolk and Marshal of England Piers of\\nSavoy; Williani of Fort, earl of Albernarle John of Plesseiz, earl of\\nWarwick; John Gefferson Piers of Montfort Richard of Grey; Roger\\nof Mortimer James of Aldithel, and in the presence of many others.\\nAnd all in the like words is sent in to every other shire over all the king-\\ndom of England and also i?i to Ireland.\\nThis is not a specimen of King s English/ nor of any\\ntype of English that ever had a living existence. It is to\\nEnglish something Hke what the Hindustani of one of our\\nIndian interpreters might be to the spoken language of the", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "72 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nnatives good enough to be understood of the people, and\\nclumsy enough to betray the hand of the stranger. It is a\\npiece of official English of the day, composed by the clerk to\\nwhom it appertained, off notes or an original draft, which (in\\neither case) were couched in French. The strength of the\\ncomposition consists in set and estabhshed phrases, which\\nhad long been in use for like purposes, and which betray\\nthemselves by their flavour of anachronism here. Such\\n2iTe, /uUiime, willen and unnen, isetnesses, on in places where\\nit was no longer usual, and other less palpable anachronisms,\\namong which we should probably reckon the use of the word\\nhord.\\nThat this proceeds from the pen of one whose sphere was\\nmore or less outside the people, appears from the over-\\ncharged rudeness and broadness of many of the forms,\\nrunning on the verge of caricature. Such are, loande, Lhoa-\\nuerd, moare, hoaten,/oangen, CBurihce, shcire, tel.\\nThe proportion of French words is so small, compared to\\nthe literary habits of the date, that it is plain they have been\\nstudiously excluded, and that with a needless excess of\\nscruple; for a vast number of French words must before\\nnow have become quite popular. Besides iseined and\\ncrujimge the translator might perhaps have safely ventured\\non the word purveance providence, provision, care), which\\nis what he had under his eye or in his mind when he in two\\nplaces employed the uncouth native word hesigie a word\\nwhich probably is nowhere else found.\\nThis specimen has been brought forward here in order\\nby this example to make it plain what King s English\\nwas not. To exhibit, on the other hand, what it was, I am\\nobliged to step forward over a century, and take a piece of\\nroyal correspondence, in order that we may make sure what\\nmanner of English was in use in the royal family at that", "height": "3184", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. J-^\\ntime. The following letter from Henry Prince of Wales\\n(afterwards Henry V) to his father, is one of those pieces\\nwhich enable us to trace the progress of the English lan-\\nguage at its centre, and the exactness of the copy may be\\nrelied on as it is one of the pieces given in the photozinco-\\ngraphed National Manuscripts of the Ordnance Survey.\\nHenry Prince of Wales to his father Henry IV,\\nA.D. 1402.\\nMy soverain lord and fader, I Recomande me to yowr good and gracieux\\nlordship, as humbly as I can, desiring to heere as good tydingges of yow and\\nyowr hye estat, as ever did liege man of his soverain lord. And, Sir, I trust\\nto God that ye shal have now a companie comyng with my brother of\\nBedford that ye shal like wel, in good feith, as hit is do me wite, Never-\\nthelatter my brothers mainy [companyl have I seyn, which is right a tal\\nmeyny. And so schal ye se of thaym that be of yowr other Captaines\\nleding, of which I sende yow al the names in a rolle, be \\\\by] the berer of this.\\nAlso so. Sir, blessid be God of the good and gracieux tydingges that ye have\\nliked to send me word of be [by] Herford your messager, which were the\\ngladdist that ever I my3t here, next yowr wel fare, be my trouth and Sir\\nwith Goddes grace I shal sende al thise ladies as ye have comandid me, in al\\nhast beseching yow of yowr lordship that I myjt wite how that ye wolde\\nthat my cosine of York shuld reule her, whether she shuld be barbid\\nor not, as I have wreten to yow my soverain lord afore this tyme. And,\\nSir, as touching Tiptot, he shal be delivered in al hast, for ther lakkith\\nno thing but shipping which with Goddes grace shal be so ordeined for that\\nhe shal not tary. Also Sir, blessid be God, yowr gret ship the Grace Dieu\\nis even as redy, and is the fairest that ever man saugh, I trowe in good\\nfeith and this same day th Erie of Devenshir my cosin maad his moustre\\n[muster] in her, and al others have her [their] moustre the same tyme that\\nshal go to ]pe see. And Sir I trowe ye have on [one] comyng toward yow\\nas glad as any man can be, as far as he shewith, that is the King of Scotts\\nfor he thanketh God that he shal mowe shewe be experience th entente of\\nhis goodwill be the suffrance of your good lordship. My soverain lord more\\ncan I not write to yowr hynesse at this time but y ever I beseche yow of\\nyour good and gracieux lordship as, be my trouth, my witting willingly I shal\\nnever deserve the contrary, that woot God, to whom I pray to send yow al\\nJ) yowr hert desireth to his plaisance. Writen in yowr tovn of Hampton,\\nthe xiiij* day of May. ^Yowr trewe and humble liege man and sone, H. G.\\nBetween these two pieces, namely, that of a.d. 1258 and\\nthat of A.D. 1402, a period of 140 years had elapsed; but\\neven this period, which represents four generations of men,", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "74 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nwould not suffice to allow for the transition of the one into\\nthe other in the way of lineal descent. In fact they are not\\non the same track. The one is a fossihsed sample of con-\\nfused provincialisms, the other a living and breathing utter-\\nance of King s English/ And this King s English must\\nhave been long in preparation before it made its public\\nappearance, and still longer before the date of any extant\\nrecord of such appearance. The Romance of King Alex-\\nander, which appeared in the latter part of the thirteenth\\ncentury, has already been noticed as perhaps the earliest\\nliterary indication. The following piece has something of\\nthe Court English about it, but perhaps it is not in a very\\ngood state of preservation. It is taken from Warton s\\nHistory of English Poetry (ed. Price).\\nSelections from an Elegy on the Death of King Edward\\nwho died A.J). 1307.\\nA lie that beo]) of huerte trewe\\nA stounde herkne]) to my song,\\nOf Duel that De]; ha] diht vs newe,\\nThat make]) me S3 ke ant sorewe among:\\nOf a knyht that wes so strong\\nOf wham God haj) done ys wlUe;\\nMe ])uncke]) that De)i haJ) don vs wrong,\\nThat he so sone shal ligge stille.\\nAl Englond ahte forte knowe\\nOf wham that song is that y synge,\\nOf Edward kyng that lij) so lowe,\\nYent al this world is nome con springe\\nTrewest mon of alle J inge,\\nAnt in wcrre war ant wys\\nFor him we ahte oure honden wrynge,\\nOf Christendome he ber the pris.", "height": "3188", "width": "2024", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.\\nNou is Edward of Carnaruan\\nKing of Eiiglelond al aplyht\\nGod Itte him ner be worse man\\nThen is fader, ne lasse of myht,\\nTo holdcn is pore men to ryht,\\nAnt vndtrsLOude good consail\\nAl Engel ind forte wisse ant diht\\nOf gode knyhtes darh him nout fail.\\nXI.\\nThah mi tonge were mad of stel\\nAnt min herte ygote of bras\\nThe godnesse myht y neuer telle\\nThat with kyng Edward was.\\nTeanslation.\\nAll ye that be true of heart, hearken ye a while to my song, of grief that\\ndeath hath la ely done us, which maketh me sigh and sorrow as I sing:\\nof a hiight who was so strofig, that God hath accomplished His ptirpose\\nby his hands methinhs that Death has done us wrong, that he so soon must\\nlie still.\\nAll England ought for to knew of whom the song is that I sing of\\nEdward the king that lieth so low, over all this world his name did spring\\ntruest mail ifi all hisiness, and in war cautious and wise for him we ought\\nto vjring our hands he boi e the palm of Christendom.\\nNow is Edward of Caernarvon king of Englofid assi-iredly. God grant\\nhe be never a worse man than his father, nor less in might, to support his\\npoor men to (obtain their) rights, and to understand good counsel for to\\ngtdde and direct all England of good knights shall not him fail.\\nThough my tongue were made of steel, and my heart cast in brass, I should\\nnever be able to tell the goodness that was about king Edward.\\nBut it is in the writings of Chaucer and Gower that we\\nhave for the first time the full display of King s EngHsh,\\nThese two names have been coupled together all through\\nthe whole course of English literature. Skelton, the poet\\nlaureate of Henry VII, joins the. two names together. So\\ndoes our literary king, James I. So have all writers who\\nhave had occasion to speak of the fourteenth century, down\\nto the present day. Indeed, Chaucer himself may be almost\\nsaid to have associated Gower s name permanently with his", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "76 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nown literary and poetical fame, in the terms with which he\\naddressed his Troylus and Creseide to Gower and Strode,\\nand asked their revision of his book\\nO moral Gower, this boke I directe\\nTo the, and to the philosophical Strode,\\nTo vouchen sauf, ther nede is, to correcte,\\nOf youre benignites and zeles good.\\nThus these two names have grown together, and their con-\\nnection is soldered by habit and tradition. One is apt to\\nimagine, previous to a study of their works, that they were\\na par nohile fratrum, brothers and equals in poetry and\\ngenius, and that they had contributed equally, or nearly\\nso, towards the making of English literature. But this\\nis very far from being the case. That which united them\\nat first, and which continues to be the sole ground of\\ncoupling their names together, is just this, that they wrote\\nin the same general strain and in the same language. By\\nthis is meant, first, that they were both versed in the\\nlearning then most prized, and both delivered what they\\nhad to say in the terms then most admired and secondly,\\nthat both wrote the English of the court. If affinity of\\ngenius had been the basis of classification, the author of\\nPiers Plowman had more right to rank with Chaucer than\\nthe prosaic Gower. But in this Chaucer and Gower are\\nunited in that they both wrote the particular form of English\\nwhich was henceforward to be estabHshed as the standard\\nform of the national language, and their books were the\\nleading EngUsh classics of the best society down to the\\nopening of a new era under Elizabeth.\\nAnd now the question naturally rises. What was this new\\nlanguage what was it that distinguished the King s English\\nfrom the various forms of provincial English of which\\nexamples have been given in the group of writers noticed", "height": "3188", "width": "2032", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 77\\nabove, or from Piers Plowman and other provincial con-\\ntemporaries of Chaucer In answer to this it may be said,\\nthat it is no more possible to convey the idea of a language\\nby description than of a piece of music. The writings must\\nbe looked into by all who desire to realise the distinctions\\nhere to be pointed out. A moderate course of reading, such\\nas that laid out in Mr. Morris s Specimens of Eai ly English\\nwould enable a student to follow our description.\\nThe leading characteristics of the King s English the\\ncharacteristics by which it is distinguished from the pro-\\nvincial dialects are only to be understood by a considera-\\ntion of the vast amount of French which it had absorbed.\\nIt is a familiar sound to hear Chaucer called the ivell of\\nEnglish undefiled. But this expression never had any other\\nmeaning than that Chaucer s language was free from those\\nforeign materials which got into the English of some cen-\\nturies later. Compare Chaucer with the provincial English\\nwriters of his own day, and he will be found highly Frenchified\\nin comparison with them. Words which are so thoroughly\\nnaturalised that they now pass muster as English undefiled/\\nwill often turn out to be French of the twelfth and thirteenth\\ncenturies. Who would suspect such a word as blemish of\\nbeing French and yet it is so. It is from the old French\\nadjective blesme, which meant sallow, wan, discoloured and\\nits old verb blesmir, which meant as much as the modern\\nFrench verbs tacher and salir, to spot and to soil. Then there\\nis the very Saxon-looking word with its w initial, to warish,\\nmeaning to recover from sickness. Richardson, in his Dic-\\ntionary, has provided this word with a Saxon derivation,\\nby connecting it with being ware or wary, and so taking\\ncare of oneself. But it is simply the French verb guesir.\\nThese are only two of a whole class of French verbs which\\nhave put on the English termination -ish such as to banish,", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "78 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nemhellish, flourish, nourish, punish, burnish, furnish, perish,\\nfinish, from the French verbs nourrir, fleurir, emhellir, bannir,\\npunir finir perir fournir burnir (now brunir). They were\\nmade subject to the usages of English grammar, as if they\\nhad been true natives. Thus we find in Chaucer s Legende\\nof Goode Women, the verb banish with the Saxon verbal\\nprefix y-, as\\nAnd Brutus hath by hire chaste bloode yswore,\\nThat Tarquyn shuld ybanysshed be therfore.\\nFrench words in Chaucer and Gower will sometimes\\nassume a form which is literatim identical with some common\\nEnglish word. For instance, the French verb burnir just\\ncited appears in both these poets in the strangely English\\nand absolutely misleading form oi burned:\\nwrought al of bt/rned Steele.\\nKnight s Tale, 2185; ed. Tyrw.\\nAn harnois as for a lustie knight\\nWhich burned was as silver bright.\\nGower, Confessio Atnantts.\\nAnd the French poulet, which then meant a young child,\\nis Anglicised into something which looks like the participle\\nof the verb to pull, in the Prologue 177:\\nHe yaf not of the text a pulled hen,\\nWhich saith that hunters ben not holy men.\\nThe difference of look between the French initial gu and\\nthe English initial w often masks a French word. Thus,\\nward and warden are from the French verb guarder and the\\nFrench noun guardien. In Chaucer the French word gateau\\n(a cake), anciently ^(2j/ takes the form oi ivastel. A large\\nnumber of words which are thoroughly imbedded into our\\nspeech, and of which the foreign origin would not be readily\\nsuspected, might here be enumerated. In the following list", "height": "3188", "width": "2024", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 79\\nof French words out of Chaucer some such may be\\nfound\\naccept\\nconclude\\neffect\\naccord\\nconclusion\\nenchantment\\nacquaint\\nconquest\\nendite\\nadd\\nconscience\\nenrlure\\nadvance\\nconsider\\nengender\\nadventure (aventure)\\ncontent\\nensample\\nadverre\\ncook\\nenvy\\namiable\\ncope\\nestate\\narray\\ncordial\\nexcellence\\nascendant\\ncoronation\\nexchange\\nassay\\ncountenance\\nface\\nassent\\ncountry\\nfaculty\\nassize\\ncourteous (curteys)\\nfelicity\\nauditor\\ncovenant\\nfelony\\navaunt\\ncover\\nfigure\\nazure\\ncoverchief\\nflower\\nbanish\\ncruel\\nfolly\\nbeast\\ncure\\nforest\\nbeauty\\ncustom\\nform\\nbenign\\ndainties\\nfortune\\nbesiege\\ndamn\\nfraternity\\nblame\\ndance\\ngay\\nblanc-mange\\ndanger\\ngentle\\nboil\\ndebate\\ngeometry\\ncaitiff\\ndefence\\ngovernance\\ncape\\ndegree\\ngrant\\ncarpenter\\ndelight\\nharbour\\ncarry\\ndepart\\nhaste\\ncattle\\ndescription\\nhaunt\\ncause\\ndesire\\nhonest\\ncelestial\\ndestiny\\nhonour\\ncertain\\ndevour\\nhorrible\\nchampion\\ndiet\\nhost\\nchance\\ndigestible\\nhour\\ncharm\\ndiligent\\nhumble\\ncheer\\ndiscreet\\nhumour\\nchivalry\\ndiscretion\\nimage\\nchivalrous\\ndisdain\\nincrease\\ncircuit\\ndislodge\\ninfernal\\ncity\\ndispite\\ninstrument\\ncommission\\ndistress\\nintent\\ncompany\\ndivision\\njailor\\ncompass\\ndoctor\\njangle\\ncompassion\\ndouble\\njeopardy\\ncomplain\\ndoubt\\njewel\\ncomplexion\\ndress\\njocund", "height": "3152", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "8o\\nSKETCH OF THE RISE\\njoin\\nparty\\nsauce\\njolly CjoHf)\\npass\\nsave\\njourney\\npatent\\nschool (scole)\\njoy\\npatient\\nscholar (scoler)\\njudge\\nperfect (parfite)\\nscience\\njustice\\nperson\\nseason\\nlanguage\\npestilence\\nsentence\\nlarge\\nphilosophy\\nservant\\nlargess\\nphilosopher\\nservice\\nlineage\\npity\\nsession\\nmadam\\nplace\\nsiege\\nmagic\\nplain\\nsign\\nmalady\\nplease\\nsimple\\nmanner\\npleasant\\nsire\\nmansion\\nplenteous\\nskirmish\\nmantle\\npoignant\\nsober\\nmarriage\\npomp\\nsolace\\nmaster\\npoor\\nsolemn\\nmatter\\nport\\nsounding\\nmeasureable\\npouch\\nspace\\nmeat\\npound\\nspecial\\nmemory\\npourtray\\nspend\\nmercenary\\npowder\\nsquire\\nmerchant\\npractiser\\nstable, adj.\\nminister\\nprince\\nstatute\\nmiracle\\nprincess\\nstory\\nmischief\\nprison\\nstrait\\nmoist\\nprivily\\nstudy\\nmonster\\nprize\\nsubstance\\nmoral\\nprocess\\nsuperfluity\\nmortal\\npromise\\nsupper\\nnatural\\nprove\\ntable\\nnote\\npurchase\\ntavern\\nnourishing\\nquit\\ntempest\\nobstacle\\nransom\\ntent\\nobstinate\\nregion\\nterm\\noffice\\nrehearse\\ntheatre\\nofficer\\nremedy\\ntower\\nopinion\\nrenown\\ntreason\\noppression\\nrent\\ntyranny\\nordain\\nrequest\\ntyrant\\nordinance\\nrestore\\nusage\\nostler (hostiler)\\nreverence\\nvery\\npace\\nrobe\\nvictual (vitaille)\\npaint\\nrote\\nvirtue (vertu)\\npair\\nroyally (realliche\\nvirtuous\\nparliament (par-\\nand roially)\\nvisit\\nlement\\nrude\\nparochial\\nsanguine", "height": "3188", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 8 1\\nThese words are still in our language, and beyond these\\nthere are large numbers of French words in Chaucer which\\nhave since been disused, or so much altered as to be of\\nquestionable identification. All such have been omitted\\nfrom this Hst.\\nSometimes we meet with lines which are almost wholly\\nFrench\\nWas verray felicitee parfite Prol. 340\\nHe was a verray perjit practisour. Prol. 424.\\nHe was a verray par jit gentil knight. Prol. 72.\\nAnd sikerly she was of greet desport.\\nAnd ful plesaunt and amyable of port\\nAnd peyned hire to countrefete chiere\\nOf Court, and been estatlich of manere\\nAnd to been holden digne of reuerence. Prol. 137.\\nBut we have proofs of more intimate association with the\\nFrench language than this amounts to. The dualism of\\nour elder phraseology has already been mentioned. It is\\na very expressive feature in regard to the early relations of\\nEnglish with French. Words run much in couples, the one\\nbeing Enghsh and the other French and it is plain that\\nthe habit was caused by the bilingual state of the popula-\\ntion. It is a very curious object of contemplation, and we\\nwill collect a few of them here\\naid and abet.\\nbaile and borowe.\\na wel good wriht a carpentere. Prol. 614.\\nuncouthe and strange. Chaucer s Dreme, vol. vi. p. 57; ed. BelL\\nnature and kind. Ibid. p. 55.\\ndisese and wo. Ibid. p. 102.\\nmirth and jolHty.\\nhuntynge and venerye. Canterbury Tales, 2308.\\nsteedes and palfreys. Ibid. 2495.\\nchiere and face. Ibid. 2586.\\nSometimes this feature might escape notice from the\\nalteration that has taken place in the meaning of words.\\nG", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "8^ SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nIn the following quotation from the Prologue, there are two\\nof these diglottisms in a single line\\nA knyght ther was and that a worthy man,\\nThat Iro the tyme ]jat he first bigan\\nTo ryden out, he loued chiualrye,\\nTrouthe and honour, fredom and curteisye.\\nThe last line contains four nouns to express two ideas.\\nTrouthe u honour/ and fredom is curteisye. The\\nformula, I plight thee my troth, is equal to saying, I pledge\\nthee my honour, only the former is a more solemn way of\\nsaying it the word /ro/k having been reserved for more\\nimpressive use. The ^ox^ freedom employed in the sense\\nof gentlemanhke manners, politeness, as the equivalent of\\ncourtesy, is to be found by a study of our early poetry.\\nThese examples may suffice to shew that this prevalent\\ncoupling of words, one English with one French, is not to\\nbe explained as a rhetorical exuberance. It sprung first out\\nof the mutual necessity felt by two races of people and two\\nclasses of society to make themselves intelligible the one\\nto the other. And it is, in fact, a putting of colloquial\\nformulae to do the duty of a French-English and an English-\\nFrench vocabulary.\\nBut the two languages became yokefellows in a still more\\nintimate manner. Compounds of the most close and per-\\nmanent kind were formed bilingually. Some of them exist\\nin the present English. In besiege we have a Saxon pre-\\nposition, of which much has been said above, linked to\\na French verb sieger, to sit and the compound means to sit\\naround a place. The old word which this hybrid sup-\\nplanted was besittan, from which we still retain the verb\\nto beset. So in like manner the genuine Saxon bewray was\\nsuperseded by the hybrid betray.\\nBut there is a combination of a yet more intimate kind\\nbetween the two languages. Old English words which were", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 83\\nretained in the language were retained as mere representatives\\nof some French word. They were divorced from their old\\nsense, and made to take a sense from some French word of\\ncontiguous idea. A good example offers in the Prologue\\nAnd thogh ]?at he weere worthy he was wys,\\nAnd of his poort as meke as is a mayde\\nNe neuere yet no viieynye ne sayde\\nIn al his lyf vnto no manere wight\\nHe was a verray periit gentil knyght.\\nThe first line means that although the knight was valiant,\\nyet was he modest, gentle, well-disciplined, sober-minded,\\nas the lines following explain. The word wys or ivise here\\ndoes duty for the French sage, of which it is enough to say\\nthat French mothers at the present day, when they tell a\\nchild to be good, they say Sots sage. It would be a bald\\nrendering of this maternal admonition if it were verbally\\nEnglished Be wise. Equally far is the use of the word wise\\nin that passage of Chaucer, both from the old Saxon sense\\nand our modern use. We now use the word just as our early\\nancestors did, having dropped the French colouring which it\\nhad received. But though that colouring has faded out, yet\\nit is not on that account the less available as evidence of the\\nintimacy that once existed between the two languages.\\nAs a result of this redistribution of form and sense, it\\nhappened that words and phrases were produced of which\\nit is impossible to say definitely that they are either French\\nor English. No ingenuity has as yet been able to uncoil\\nthe fabric of certain expressions which at this epoch make\\ntheir appearance. For example He gave five shillings\\nto boot what is the origin of this familiar and thoroughly\\nEnglish expression to boot We know of a boot or bote\\nwhich is thoroughly English from the Saxon verb hetan, to\\nmend or better a thing. The fishermen of Yarmouth have\\nsometimes astonished the learned and curious who have", "height": "3172", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "84 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nconversed with them, by talking of heati7ig their nets (so it\\nsounds) when they mean mending them. In Saxon times\\nEOT was the legal and most current word for amends of any\\nkind. It passed into ecclesiastical diction in the term d^d-\\nBOT, deed-bettering, a word that was replaced in the four-\\nteenth century by the term penance. Then bote was *used\\nlater for material to mend with. It was for centuries, and\\nperhaps still is in some parts, a set phrase in leases of land,\\nthat though the tenant might not fell timber, yet he might\\nhave wood to mend his plough and make his fire, plow-bote\\nand fire-bote. It might appear as if little more need be urged\\nfor the purpose of shewing that this is also the word in the\\nexpression to boot. And yet, when we come to examine\\nauthorities, there is great reason to hesitate before ex-\\ncluding the French language from a share in the production\\nof this expression. There are two contemporary verbs,\\nbouter and boutre, with meanings not widely diverse from\\neach other, in the sense of putting to, push, support, prop.\\nHence we have abut, and buttress. And the old gram-\\nmarian Palsgrave seems to imply this French derivation when\\nhe says To boote in corsyng [horse-dealing], or chaunging\\none thyng for another, gyue money or some other thynge\\nabove the thyng. What wyll you boote bytwene my horse\\nand yours Mettre ou bouter davantaige\\nThe same kind of uncertainty is continually found to\\nhaunt words which made their appearance at this epoch.\\nA philological writer in the Edinburgh Revieiv has lately\\ndeveloped some interesting and rather surprising informa-\\ntion concerning the word bottle in Shakspeare and other\\ncontexts. Among the rest, he has noted the familiar local\\nexpression a bottle of hay. This he derives without hesita-\\nQuoted after Mr. Albert Way in Promptorium Parvidorum, p. 45.", "height": "3188", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 85\\ntion from the French, botte de foin/ where hotte means a\\nlump or mass. But when we consider that in Norfolk\\na bottle of hay is understood to mean the quantity for a\\nsingle feed, it may be doubted whether the derivation from\\nbifan, bite, bit, bait, is not at least as probable. The old\\ncollege term battels for the common portions of food goes\\nto strengthen this view of the case.\\nSome words, whose form is perfectly English to look at,\\nare nothing but French v/ords in a Saxon mask. The word\\nbusiness has not, as far as I know, been suspected, yet I offer\\nit without hesitation as an example. The adjective busy\\nexisted in Saxon, and although the -ness derivative from it\\nis not found, yet it would seem so agreeable to rule and\\nanalogy as to pass without challenge. We say good-ness,\\nwicked-ness, wily-jtess, worthy-ness, Sec. why not busy-ness\\nAnd yet the word appears to be nothing but the French\\nbesogne or, as it was in early times written in the plural, be-\\nsoingnes. Compare the modern French, Faites voire besogne,\\nDo your duty. It is possible that the word busy may have\\nhad that sort of share in the production of the great English\\nword business which may be called the ushering of the word.\\nWhen natives seize upon the words of strangers and adopt\\nthem, their selection is decided in most cases by some\\naffinity of sense and sound with a word of their own. A\\nvery superficial connection will suffice for this, or else we\\ncould not admit busy even to this inferior share in the pro-\\nduction of the word business. For a man of business means,\\nand has always meant, something very different from a man\\nwho is busy. Let us hear an independent and competent\\nwitness on the signification of this, which is now one of the\\nmost characteristic words of our nation\\nThe dictionary definition of Business shows how large\\na part of practical life arranges itself under this head. It is", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "^85 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nEmployment an affair serious engagement something\\nto be transacted something required to be done. Every\\nhuman being has duties to be performed, and therefore has\\nneed of cultivating the capacity of doing them whether the\\nsphere is the management of a household, the conduct of a\\ntrade or profession, or the government of a nation. Attention,\\napplication, accuracy, method, punctuality, and dispatch, are\\nthe principal qualities required for the efficient conduct of\\nbusiness of any sort/ Samuel Smiles, Self-Help, chap. viii.\\nSo that the use of this word to the present day corre-\\nsponds truly to that of the French word besogne, in which\\nit originated.\\nBourne, a stream, has been commingled with the French\\nborne, a boundary, though it is possible that in this case the\\nline of severance has not been obliterated. These are\\ngenerally regarded as one word, in proof of which may be\\ncited the words of Mr. Barnes in a recent lecture Bourne,\\nwhence Bournemouth takes its name, signified a spring of\\nwater, or running stream and, as such streams were often\\ntaken as the divisions between adjoining properties, bourne\\nhence came to mean a boundary or limit. The two words\\nof which we have here at least an apparent if not a real\\nconfluence, are, on the one hand, Gothic brunna, German\\nbrunnen, Dutch b? oit, Scottish bur?i. On the other hand,\\nthe old French bonne, bonnier, bonage (in mediaeval Latin\\nbonna, bonarium, bonagiuni), is represented in modern French\\nby borne, a limit, boundary. In the English word bourne\\nthe French sense of limit seems to dominate over the native\\nword, meaning stream, so much as to render it doubtful\\nwhether the latter has any share in the making of the word.\\nWe have bourne, a stream, in provincial use in Wiltshire,\\nand it enters into local names, as Bournemouth or rather,\\nif we speak strictly, it constitutes the local name of Bourne", "height": "3188", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 87\\nfor ^Bournemouth is not the local name, but an invention of\\nvisitors. But whether we have in literature bourne, a stream,\\nat all, is open to doubt a doubt which affects the value\\nof the conjectural reading in King Lear, act iii. sc. 6\\nCome o er the bourn, Bessy, to me,\\nIn our elder Psalter, the sweetest monument of lyrical\\nEnglish prose, we have the rather uncouth expression,\\nmaking mouths at me. Who would doubt that this is a piece\\nof that rustic homespun EngHsh to which this Psalter is so\\nlargely indebted for its peculiar grace and beauty. And yet\\nwhen we come to look into it, we cannot trace a pure Saxon\\npedigree for the expression. It is the French expression,\\nfaire la moue, to make a wry face; still good French, as\\nrecognised by the Academy. Cotgrave (161 1) gives the word\\nthus MouE f. A moe, or 7nouth an ill-favoured extension\\nor thrusting out of the lips, Oncques vieil Singe ne fit belle\\nmoue Prov. An old-hred clowne ivas neuer manner lie J\\nOur version of the New Testament offers a familiar\\nexample of the process of blending the two languages.\\nThe well-known author of English Past and Present has\\npointed out (p. 198) that in i Tim. ii. 9 it ought to be,\\nnot broidered hair, but as the Bible of 1611 has it, hroided.\\nIt means plaited, as the margin signifies In fact the words\\nto braid or plait, and to broider with decorative needlework,\\nwould seem to have been clear enough of each other, to run\\nno risk of confusion. Yet they have been confused from\\nthe inveterate habit of blending Saxon and French roots in\\nmodern English. The very form broid is an infected form.\\nThe Saxon for to plait is bredan, and the French for to\\nembroider is broder. The commingling of these has pro-\\nWiclif (1380) has it, not in writhun heeris Tyndale (1534) and his\\nfollowers, not with broyded heare the Rheims version (1582) not in plaited\\nheare and the authorized version of 161 1 not with braided haire.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "88 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nduced broidered hair. In other parts of our version\\nhroidered appears in due place, as may be seen by reference\\nto that admirable little work, The Bible Word-Book, by\\nJ. Eastwood and W. Aldis Wright.\\nThe example of broided from bredan reminds us that the\\nmodern diphthongs are largely the result of the French in-\\nfluence. They are totally different (except perhaps in the\\ncase of ed) from the Saxon diphthongs. The Saxon sol\\nborrows from the French noun souil and verb souiller a new\\nvocalisation, and hence the English soil. Reprisals are\\nmade by the attraction of the Saxon vowels, and we see the\\nFrench deuil producing such an English form as dole, dole/ul.\\nThe Saxon u is transformed into the French ou as in\\niung, young pruh, trough or the o and u stand apart in\\nthe modern word, as when tunge becomes tongue.\\nOne of the most remarkable changes which took place in\\nthe transition from Saxon to English was the extinction of\\nthe guttural sound of the Saxon h, which still survives in\\nthe North of England. This can hardly be accounted for\\nin any other way than by the French influence.\\nA change of inferior philological significance, but more\\nstriking to the eye of the modern observer, was that change\\nwhich made English a sibilant language. At present the\\nsibilancy of English is a European proverb. The Saxon\\nspeech had not this mark.\\nOf the two main divisions of the Gothic tongue, the Saxon\\nbelonged to the less sibilant side. This may be seen by\\nreference to the tables above, pp. 9, 10. It was entirely\\nowing to the French contact, that our language became\\nmarkedly sibilant. Besides our old sibilations, which were\\nwithin average proportions, we accepted all those of the\\nFrench, which were many. And the French language is an\\neminently sibilant language now, to the eye, though not to", "height": "3176", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 89\\nthe ear. It is by the silence of the final s that our old neigh-\\nbour is in a position to smile at the susurration of the English\\nlanguage. Apart from the French influence, we were less\\nsibilant than either French or German.\\nIt would carry us further than space permits if we at-\\ntempted to develop the evidence of the fact that the French\\nlanguage has not only left indelible traces on the English,\\nbut has imparted to it some of its leading characteristics.\\nAlmost every chapter of the present work will contribute its\\npart towards this evidence and the few observations which\\nare collected in this place are mostly of such matters as do\\nnot appear to claim notice elsewhere.\\nIt must be admitted, that there are many English words\\nof which the derivation cannot be clearly specified, owing\\nto the intimate blending of the French and English lan-\\nguages at the time when such words were stamped with\\ntheir present form and signification. This blending has,\\nmoreover, penetrated deeper than to the causing of a little\\netymological perplexity. It has modified the vocalisation\\nand even softened the obstinacy of the consonants.\\nAnd the focus of this blending was the court. The\\ncourt was the centre which was the point of meeting for\\nthe two nationalities, though it hardly knew of any literature\\nbut the French. The court also was the seminary that\\nproduced our first national poet. This added greatly to\\nthe natural advantages which a court possesses for making\\nits fashion of speech pass current through the nation. Sup-\\nposing and the supposition is not an unreasonable one\\nthat in the struggles of the thirteenth century a great poet\\nhad risen among the popular and country party, the com-\\nplexion of the English language would in all likelihood have\\nbeen far different from what it now is. Such a poet, whether\\nhe were or were not of courtly breeding, would naturally", "height": "3168", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "90 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nhave selected the phraseology of the country and have\\navoided that of the court. And be it remembered, the\\nlanguage of the country was at that time quite as fit for\\na poet s use, as was that of the court. It is not at all a\\nnecessary thing that the form of a nation s language should\\nbe dictated from the highest places of the land. The\\nTuscan form of modern Italian was decided by the poetry\\nof Dante, at a time when Florence and Tuscany lay in\\ncomparative obscurity; and when more apparent influence\\nwas exercised by Venice, or Naples, or Sicily. But in our\\ncountry it did so happen that the first author whose works\\ngained universal and national acceptance was a courtier.\\nAnd this is the great thing to be attended to in the history\\nof the English language. For its whole nature is a monu-\\nment of the great historical fact that a French court had\\nbeen planted in an English land. The landsfolk tried to\\nlearn some French, and the court had need to know some\\nEnglish and the language that was at length developed\\nexpresses the tenacity of either side and the compromise\\nof the two. This unconscious unstudied compromise\\ngradually worked itself out at the royal court and the result\\nwas that form of speech which became generally recognised\\nand respected as the King s EngUsh.\\nIn the northern part of the island another centre was\\nestablished at the royal court of Scotland. Here we may\\nmark the centralising effect of a seat of government upon\\na national language. The original dialect of the south of\\nScotland was the same with that of the northern counties\\nof England, at least as far south as the Trent. This was\\nthe great Anglian region. The student of language may\\nstill observe great traces of affinity between the idioms to\\nthe north and those on the south of the Scottish border.\\nPeculiar words, such as dai rn, domty, are among the more\\nI", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 9 1\\nsuperficial points of similarity. But we will select one that\\nis more deeply bedded in the thought of the language.\\nThere is in Yorkshire, and perhaps over the north of\\nEngland generally, a use of the conjunction while which\\nis very different from that of Queen s English. In the\\nlatter speech while is equivalent to during, but in the\\nnorthern dialects it means until. A Yorkshireman will tell\\nhis boy You stay here while I return.\\nIf we look into the early Scottish Hterature we find that\\nthis use of while is the established one. Thus Dunbar\\nBe divers wayis and operatiouns\\nMen maks in court their solistatiouns.\\nSum be service and diligence\\nSum be continual residence\\nOn substance sum men dois abyde,\\nQuhill fortoun do for them provide,\\nThat is, Some men live on their own means while until)\\nfortune provides for them. The same poet has quhill\\ndomisday for until doomsday. Through the influence\\nof the southern literature, even so early as Dunbar, who was\\na great admirer of Chaucer, we find the word also used in\\nthe Enghsh manner. But the other usage continued for\\na long time to make a feature in Scottish literature\\nIn Gawin Douglas s Translation of the Aeneid we have quhil as the\\nrepresentative o[ prius qiiam, vi. 327\\nNee ripas datur horrendas et rauca fluenta\\nTransportare prius, quam sedibus ossa quierunt.\\nCentum errant annos, volitantque haec litora circum\\nTurn demum admissi stagna exoptata revisunt.\\nIt is not til him leful, he ne may\\nThame ferry ouer thir rowtand fiudis gray.\\nNor to the hidduous yonder coistis have,\\nQubil thare banis be laid to rest in grave.\\nQuha ar unberyit ane hundreth yere mon bide\\nWaverand and wandrand by this bankis syde.\\nThan at the last to pas ouer in this bote\\nThay bene admittit, and coistis thaym not ane grote.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "92 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nThe following examples are from Buchanan s version of\\nthe famous letters of Queen Mary, reprinted by Hugh\\nCampbell, 1824\\nYou left somebody this day in sadness, that will never be merry while\\nhe see you again.\\nI wrought this day while it was two hours upon this bracelet* (i.e. till\\nit was two o clock).\\nHe prayed me to remain with him while another morning.\\nWhich was the occasion that while dinner time I held purpose to nobody\\n(i.e. that until dinner time I conversed with nobody).\\nIn Shakspeare, where we find almost everything, we also\\ndiscover this usage. But it is (whether purposely or not)\\nin the mouth of a Scotchman\\nWhile then, God be with you. Macbeth, iii. I. 43.\\nPope corrected this reading, and changed the while to\\nThis use of the conjunction while in the sense of until\\nwas attended with one advantage which the Queen s English\\nhas never shared. The genitival form whilst has never been\\nwith us anything more than a fanciful variety of expression\\nit has not enjoyed a distinct signification from while. But\\nin the northern literature this genitival form came in to fill\\nup the void that was left by while meaning until, and we\\nfind whilst standing for during. Thus in the Cursor Mundi\\n(about 1320) we read: Bot quils ])ai slepand lai in bedd/\\nThat is, But whilst they sleeping lay in bed.\\nThis peculiarity of the conjunction while may serve as an\\nindication that the dialects of our northern counties were\\nanciently united in one and the same state-language with\\nthat which we now call Scottish. The partial alienation\\nwhich has since taken place, has been due to the division\\nof that which was once an integral territory, consequent\\nupon the establishment of a northern and a southern court\\nin this island. The old uniformity and identity has been\\ngreatly impaired, and the political border has long since\\nI", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 93\\nbecome, in great measure, a linguistic border also. On the\\nother side of that border is a rustic dialect and a national\\nliterature which may picture to our eyes and ears, with some\\napproach to probability, what our English language might\\nby this time have been, if it had been preserved equally free\\nfrom Romanesque influence. In our own southern land, the\\ngrowth and expansion of the King s English has so preyed\\nupon the vitals of the Saxon dialects which constitute in fact\\nthe mould and the soil out of which the King s English has\\ngrown robust, that nothing but a few poor relics are left to\\nthem of their own, and it is no longer possible to institute\\na comparison between them and the national speech. When,\\nin a season of unusual heat, the potato crop has ripened in\\nthe middle of the summer, and produced a second generation\\nof tubers, the new potatoes and the old cling to the same\\nhaulm, but those of later growth have left the earlier crop\\neffete and worthless. Even so it is with the dialects all\\ntheir goodness is gone into the King s English, but still their\\nold forms are venerable and interesting. Such power and\\nbeauty as they still possess they cannot get credit for carent\\nquia vate sacro, because they want a poet to present them\\nat their full advantage. Where, in some remoter county\\na poet has appeared to adorn his local dialect, we find our-\\nselves surprised at the effect produced out of materials that\\nwe might else have deemed contemptible. A splendid\\nexample of this is furnished by the poems of Mr. Barnes\\nin the Dorset dialect. Unless a southern fondness misleads\\nus, he has affiliated to our language a second Doric, and\\nwon a more than alliterative right to be quoted along with\\nBurns.\\nThe great characteristic which distinguishes all the dialects\\nfrom King s English is this That they are comparatively\\nunaltered by French influence. And though the Scottish", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "94 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\nAnglian has accepted a vast quantity of French words, this\\nis but a superficial matter. The language has not shared\\nin those deeper French influences which have so coloured\\nour English. While the national and standard English is\\nmore steeped and dyed in French than is generally allowed,\\nthe Scottish and the provincial English have had a different\\nhistory, and they owe less to French than is often sup-\\nposed. In Scottish and provincial glossaries there is too\\ngreat a readiness to trace words back to French sources.\\nThe French origin of a certain number of words which all\\nclasses of either nation use in common, is as certain as\\nthat veal, mutton, beef, pork, and butcher are French words.\\nBut when a great provincial word like the adjective bonny or\\nhonnie is referred to the French adjective for good, masculine\\nbon, feminine bonne, an example is seen of over-proneness\\nto French derivations. This word is in popular use from\\nthe Fens to the Highlands, and widely spread over the cen-\\ntral parts of the island. It occurs in Shakspeare, and is\\nfamiliarly known in the old ballads and romances Yet it\\nis not strictly of our national English at the present time,\\nif indeed it was at any time. It has never been thoroughly\\naccepted in literature and in polite intercourse in this\\ncountry in the same way in which it has been accepted .in\\nScotland. In many counties it is a very familiar sound,\\nespecially in Yorkshire. But it is a provincialism every-\\nwhere south of the Tweed. It is in all our dictionaries\\nderived from the French. Richardson, Webster, and the\\nlast improvement in etymological dictionaries, namely,\\nDr. Latham s edition of Johnson, agree in referring it to\\nIon, bonne. This being the case, I will expand the reasons\\nFor an excellent list of illustratii^ns of the use of this word, see Mr.\\nAtkinson s Glossary of the Cleveland Dialed, v. Bonny.", "height": "3172", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 95\\nwhich to me seem conclusive against this derivation. The\\nword seems never to have borne the sense of good. If it\\nhad, that sense or something like it would have lingered\\nsomewhere. But its sense is one and the same everywhere,\\nnorth and south. It is that of being joyous, smart, gay,\\nfair to look upon, equally in the person and in the attire.\\nThis uniformity of sense over a wide area is evidence that\\nthe word has not altered much in sense since its distribution\\nover that area. This sort of argument is not applicable\\nto a national expression but to a provincial one it is. The\\nreason of this difference is obvious. Where there is a\\ncentral literature, there is a constant provision for the main-\\ntenance of uniformity, even though words are changing their\\nsense. But if a word is used by dispersed groups of people,\\nand that word undergoes change of sense, such change will\\nnot be uniform for there is no common standard of\\nuniformity. The uniformity then which holds in the use\\nof honnie is, to say the least, a strong ground of presump-\\ntion that the sense is a well-preserved sense and, so to\\nsay, the original sense of that word. It is true we have no\\nsurviving instance of the Saxon honig, but it may be reason-\\nably surmised that the word was already in Saxon times\\nspread just as it is now, only in the form of honig. We have\\nthe substantive which would naturally form such an adjective.\\nNot the gay attire of a damsel of romance, but something\\nwhich by analogy may be compared, is called in Saxon\\nhone to be pronounced as two syllables. The rings and\\nchains and barbaric trappings which adorned the figure-\\nheads of the ships of the eleventh century are called in one\\nof the Saxon chronicles hone and this is translated by\\nFlorence of Worcester with the Latin ornatura, ornament,\\ndecoration. Leofric, the first Bishop of Exeter, gave to\\nhis cathedral many ornamented objects, and they are all", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "96 SKETCH OF THE RISE\\ndescribed in his memorandum, which is extant, as gehonede\\nox y-bonm e-d. Roods, books, shrines, candlesticks, and other\\nobjects, are described as geboned, which seems here to imply\\nfine ornamented decoration, probably goldsmith s and silver-\\nsmith s work. Here, then, is a sufficient root for the deriva-\\ntion of our honnie, and one which will far better satisfy the\\nrequirements of the case. If we look into the cognate lan-\\nguages out of England, we find in Platt-Deutsch the verb\\nbonen for the rubbing and polishing up of cabinet furniture.\\nThe Danish verb bone means the same thing. So does the\\nSwedish verb bona.\\nBut it is not by wresting a few native words from the\\nFrench category that we are to succeed in establishing the\\ncomparative purity of the Scottish- Anglian and of our\\nprovincial dialects, as compared with the Queen s English.\\nThe real characterising distinction of the latter is not that\\nit took in more French words, or even that it blended French\\nand English features together till they were undistinguish-\\nable in many words but, that the sound, the rhythm, the\\nmodulation, the music of the language was one entirely new.\\nEvery Englishman knows that it is comparatively easy to\\nunderstand the dialects in print, but often quite impossible\\nin conversation. The main cause of this is the unfamiliar\\nrhythm. The English language is one which has from long\\nmixture with the French obtained not indeed the French\\nintonation, but a new one of its own and herein will pro-\\nbably be found to lie the essential characteristic which sets\\nour English apart from its old relatives as a new and distinct\\nvariety of the old Gothic stock, and one from which the\\nworld may see a new strain and family of languages ulti-\\nmately engendered. To this result a long train of conditions\\ncontributed and we are able in some measure to trace the\\ncauses from the time when the Roman colonisation infected", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 97\\nthe Keltic speech of the island, and prepared the mould into\\nwhich the Saxon immigration was to be received. But all j\\nother causes recede, into insignificance, compared with the\\nlong rule of French-speaking masters in this island. If we i\\nwant to describe the transition from the Saxon state-language 1\\nof the eleventh century to the Court-English of the four-\\nteenth, and to reduce the description to its simplest terms,\\nit comes in fact just to this That a French family settled\\nin England, and edited the English language.", "height": "3152", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER I.\\nON THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nAlphabetic writing appears to have been an outgrowth\\nof that picture-writing which is still in use among savages.\\nAt first the writing was altogether pictorial that is to say,\\nthe thing pictured was the thing meant.\\nNext, the thing pictured stood for the sound of its name,\\nwherever that sound was required, whether to speak of that\\nvery thing or of some other thing with like-sounding name.\\nThis is the state of Chinese writing. It is as if (to adopt\\nMr. Tylor s illustration) a drawing of a pear were made\\nto do duty for the words pare^ pear, and pair, with signs to\\nguide the reader which sense he was to attach to the sound.\\nThis may be called the syllabic stage.\\nThe third stage is where each figure represents only\\na consonant or a vowel, which we call the alphabetic system.\\nSome national systems of writing have failed to arrive\\nat this, and have remained stationary midway. Others,\\nas the hieroglyphic, having gone through all the stages,\\nseem to continue to be a mixture of all, not having become\\npurely alphabetic.\\nH 2", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "100 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nPurely alphabetic as modern European writing is, there\\nare still some slight traces of the pictorial origin of writing\\nwhich remain in use among us. The first four Roman\\nnumerals, I, II, III, IIII, for instance, are pictorial of that\\nwhich is alphabetically expressed by the words one, two,\\nthree, 2iXid four. We may imagine that they represent so\\nmany fingers, or sticks, or notches, or strokes. It has been\\nalso supposed that the numeral V may have originated in\\na rude drawing of the open hand with the thumb stretched\\nout and the fingers close together. Again, when we read\\nin our almanacs before clock 4 min. and rises at\\n8h. 35min. we have before us a mixture of the pictorial\\nand the alphabetical, the most elementary and the most\\nconsummate methods of writing.\\nOur nation, in common with the other nations of western\\nEurope, has adopted the Roman alphabet. This change\\nbegan in the latter end of the sixth century, but it was not\\ncompleted at a single step.\\nThis alphabet was introduced into our island from two\\nopposite quarters, from the north-west by the Irish mis-\\nsionaries, and from the south-east by the Roman missionaries.\\nIt is to be remembered that when our Saxon ancestors were\\npagans and barbarians. Christian life and culture had already\\ntaken so deep a hold of Ireland that she sent forth mis-\\nsions to instruct and convert her neighbours. Their books\\nwere written with the Roman alphabet, which they must\\nhave possessed from an early date, and to which they had\\nalready imparted a distinct Hibernian physiognomy. Of the\\ntwo denominations of missionaries which thus from opposite\\nquarters entered our island, one gained the ecclesiastical\\npre-eminence but the other for a long time furnished the\\nschoolmasters.\\nHence it was that certain insular characteristics were", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. lOI\\nretained for centuries, and the Anglo-Saxon writing was\\nafter the Irish and not after the Roman model.\\nBut another style of alphabetic writing had been in use\\namong our Saxon ancestors from time immemorial one\\nthat was not quickly to be superseded by clerkly penman-\\nship, whether Irish or Roman. This was the Runic,\\na system of writing which had existed among the Gothic\\nnations from an unknown antiquity.\\nThe name Runic was so called from the term which was\\nused by our barbarian ancestors to designate the mysterious\\nletters of the alphabet. This was Run (singular), Rune\\n(plural), and also Run-stafas, Rime-staves, or, as we should\\nnow speak, Runic characters. This word Run signified\\nmystery or secret and a verb of this root was in use down\\nto a comparatively recent date in English literature, as an\\nequivalent for the verb to whisper. In a Moral Ode of\\nthe thirteenth century it is said of the Omniscient,\\nElche rune he ihurS he wot alle dede\\nHe J)ur-sihS elches mannes ])anc, ])at seal us to rede.\\nEach whisper he hears, and he knows all deeds.\\nHe sees through each man s thought, that shall us judge.\\nIn Chaucer s Friars Tale (7132) the Sompnour is described\\nas drawing near to his travelling companion,\\nFul prively, and rouned in his ere\\ni.e. quite confidentially, and whispered in his ear. It was\\nalso much used in the mediaeval ballads for the chattering\\nand chirping of birds, as being unintelligible and mysterious\\n(except to a few who were wiser than their neighbours),\\nas\\nLenten ys come with love to toune.\\nWith blosmen and with briddes rouned\\nIt was used also of any kind of discourse; but mostly", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "lOa THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nof private or privileged communication in council or in\\nconference\\nThe steward on knees him set adown,\\nWith the emperor for to rown.\\nRichard Coer de Lion, 2142 (in Weber s Metrical Romances).\\nThis rown became rownd and round, on the principle of\\nN attracting a d to follow it; see below, p. in. As in The\\nFaery Queene, iii. 10. 30:\\nBut Trompart, that his Maistres humor knew\\nIn lofty looks to hide an humble minde,\\nWas inly tickled with that golden vew,\\nAnd in his eare him rownded close behinde.\\nIn the following passage from Shakspeare, The WtJiiers\\nTale, i. 2. 217, the editor Hanmer proposed as a correc-\\ntion, whisp ring round\\nThey re here with me already; whisp ring, rounding.\\nThus the word Run had a progeny something like that of\\nthe Latin word litter ce; whence letter, letters learning),\\nliterature, literary.\\nThe Runes were in fact a short alphabet of sixteen letters\\nonly. They were shapen differently from the Roman cha-\\nracters, being almost free from curved or wavy Hnes, and\\na mere composition of right lines at various inclinations and\\nelevations relatively to each other. It is not easy to present\\na pure and original Runic alphabet because of the early\\ninfluence of the Roman alphabet upon it. There was also\\na certain tendency to mix up signs for whole words with\\nsigns for letter-sounds, so that a doubt is thrown over the\\nnature of some of the characters.\\nThe Runic literature is mostly carved on stones, arrows,\\naxes, knife-handles, swords and sword-hilts, clasps, spear-\\nheads, pigs of metal, amulets, rings, bracelets, brooches,", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. I03\\ncombs, horns, bracteates, coffins, bells, fonts, clog-almanacks\\nand very little in books. The elder specimens have\\nbeen collected and illustrated by Professor George Ste-\\nphens, of Copenhagen. Runic inscriptions are chiefly\\nfound in the northern and western extremes of Europe,\\nthe parts which were never visited by Roman armies,\\nor where (as in this country) great immigrations took\\nplace after the Romans had retired. There are Scan-\\ndinavian Runes, and English Runes, and German Runes.\\nThese have some differences between them, but they agree\\nin the main features. It is by comparing these together,\\nand eliminating their differences, that we determine which\\nwere the original sixteen characters\\nThey appear to have been the following\\nh R\\nF U TH O R K\\nH 1^ I H\\nH N I korM S\\nT B L M Y\\nOthers were perhaps added later, as\\nh M r( i Y\\nC E G P Q W A\\nYet this distinction of the Runes into elder and younger\\nhas been called into question. Professor Stephens with\\nIn the history of the Runic alphabet I have chiefly followed Wilhelm\\nGrimm s Ueber Deutsche Riinen, 182 1. Since the text was in the printer s\\nhands 1 have learnt from the second volume of Professor Stephens s Rufiic\\nMonuments, 1 868, that these views are open to question in many respects.\\nIn deference to the latter authority I have altered the value of and of", "height": "3152", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "I04 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\ngreat force maintains that the oldest Runic alphabet was\\nthe most various and multiplex.\\nWhen our Saxon ancestors adopted the use of the Latin\\nalphabet, they still retained even in book literature two of\\nthe Runes, because there were no Roman characters corres-\\nponding to them. One was the old Thorn, p, for which the\\nLatin mode of expression was by the use of two letters TH,\\nand the other was the more local p which was after the\\nconquest superseded by a double U or double V.\\nThe p (TH) had a more prolonged career. A modified\\nRoman letter was put forward as a substitute for it, namely\\na crossed D, but the character thus excogitated (D did\\nnot supersede the Rune p, which continued to be used along\\nwith it in a confused and arbitrary manner, until they were\\nboth ultimately banished by the general adoption of the TH.\\nThis change was not completely established until the very\\nclose of the fifteenth century. And even then there was\\none case of the use of the Rune p which was not abolished.\\nThe words the and that continued to be written J e and J?at\\nor J?\\\\ This habit lasted on long after its original meaning\\nwas forgotten. The p got confused with the character y\\nat a time when the y was closed a-top, and then people\\nwrote ye for the and y* for that. This has lasted down\\nclose to our own times and it may be doubted whether the\\npractice has entirely ceased even now.\\nBen Jonson, in The English Gramjnar, considered that by\\nthe loss of the Saxon letters and we had fallen into what\\nhe called the greatest difficulty of our alphabet and true\\nwriting, inasmuch as we had lost the means of distin-\\nguishing the two sounds of th, as in this, that, them, thine,\\nfrom the sound of the same character in thi7ig, thick, thread,\\nthrive.\\nAs a means of distinguishing these two sounds the letters", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. I05\\nand might have been highly serviceable. But there is\\nno evidence that they were ever used with this discrimination\\nin Saxon literature, or at any later period.\\nWhen, in the sixth century, the Latin alphabet began to\\nobtain the ascendancy over the native Runes, the Runes did\\nnot at once fall into disuse. Runes are found on grave-\\nstones, church crosses, fibulae, c, down at least to the\\neleventh century. The Isle of Man is famous for its Runic\\nstones, especially the church of Kirk Braddan. These are\\nScandinavian, and are due to the Norwegian settlements of\\nthe tenth century. For lapidary inscriptions, clog almanacs^\\nand other familiar uses, it is difficult to say how long they\\nmay have lingered in remote localities. In such lurking-\\nplaces a new kind of importance and of mystery came to be\\nattached to them. They were held in a sort of traditional\\nrespect which at length grew into a superstition. They\\nwere the heathen way of writing, while the Latin alphabet\\nwas a symbol of Christianity. The Danish pirates used Runes\\nat the time when they harried the Christian nations. There\\nis a marble lion in Venice, on which is a Runic inscription,\\nwhich commemorates a visit of one of the northern sea-\\nrovers at Athens (where the lion then was) in the tenth\\ncentury. After a time, they came to be regarded as positive\\ntokens of heathendom, and to belong only to sorcery and\\nmagic.\\nWe now pass to consider the Roman alphabet, and to\\nnote some of the peculiarities of its use among ourselves.\\nAnd first, of our vowels, and the remarkable names by\\nwhich we are wont to designate them. Our names of\\nthe vowels are singularly at variance with the continental\\nnames for the same characters. Of the five vowels a e i u,\\nthere is but one, viz. 0, of which the name is at all like that\\ngiven it in France or Germany. But it is in the names of", "height": "3160", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "I05 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nA and and U that our insular tendencies have wrought\\ntheir most pronounced effects. The first we call by an\\nunwriteable name, and which we cannot more nearly describe\\nthan by saying, that it is the sound which drops out of the\\nhalf-open mouth, with the lowest degree of effort at utter-\\nance. It is a diphthongal sound, and if we must spell it, it is\\nthis Ae. This is a curiosity of the English language,\\nand will call for further notice by-and-bye. The character\\n/we C2\\\\\\\\ eye or igh the ^we calljyezv.\\nThat was called eye in Shakspeare s time, seems\\nindicated by that line in Midsummer Nighfs Dream, iii. 2.\\n188:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nFair Helena who more engilds the night.\\nThen all yon fierie oes and eies of light.\\nWhere it seems plain that the stars are called O s and I s.\\nIf this passage left it doubtful whether the letter were\\nsounded in Shakspeare s time as it is now, there is a passage\\nin Romeo and Juliet, iii. 2 which removes the doubt\\nHath Romeo slaine himselfe? say thou but I,\\nAnd that bare vowele I shall poyson more\\nThan the death-darting eye of Cockatrice\\nI am not I, if there be such an I\\nOr those eyes shot, that makes thee answere 7.\\nIf he be slaine say I; or if not, no:\\nBriefe sounds determine of my weale or wo.\\nHere it is plain that the affirmative which we now write ay,\\nand the noun eye, and the vowel are regarded as having\\nthe selfsame sound.\\nThe extreme oddity of our sound of U comes out under\\na used-up or languid utterance, as when a dilettante is\\nheard to excuse himself from purchasing pictures which are\\noffered to him at a great bargain, on the plea that they do\\nac-cyew-myew-layte [accumulate] so In France this letter\\nhas the narrow sound which is unknown in English, but\\nI", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. lOj\\nwhich it has in Welsh, and which seems ever ready to\\ndegenerate into Y: in Germany it has the broad sound\\noi 00.\\nAs the sound of u has developed into the yew sound, so\\nit is quite as much in the nature of i to grow into a kind\\nof yigh sound, as may sometimes be heard in affected or\\nexaggerated pronunciation. The following extract from\\na Prologue by the American humourist Oliver Wendell\\nHolmes will shew what is meant\\nThe world s a stage, as Shakspeare said, one day\\nThe stage a world was what he meant to say.\\nThe outside world s a blunder, that is clear\\nThe real world that Nature meant is here.\\nHere every foundling finds its lost mamma\\nEach rogue, repentant, melts his stern papa\\nMisers relent, the spendthrift s debts are paid.\\nThe cheats are taken in the traps they laid\\nOne after one the troubles all are past\\nTill the fifth act comes right side up at last.\\nWhen the young couple, old folks, rogues and all.\\nJoin hands, so happy at the curtain s fall.\\nHere suffering virtue ever finds relief,\\nAnd black-brow d ruffians always come to grief.\\nWhen the lorn damsel, with a frantic screech,\\nAnd cheeks as hueless as a brandy-peach,\\nCries, Help, hyind Heaven and drops upon her knees\\nOn the green baize, beneath the (canvas) trees,\\nSee to her side avenging Valour fly\\nHa Villain Draw Now, Terraitorr, yield or die\\nBut with reference to these strange insular names of our\\nvowels, there is an observation to be made, which has,\\nI think, been overlooked. The names of the five vowels\\nare, Ae, Ee, Igh, Oe, Yeiv but these names, which are\\ndistinctly our own, and among the peculiarities of our\\nlanguage, do not in the case of any single vowel express\\nthe prevalent sound of that vowel in practical use. The\\nchief sound of our A is that which it has in at, bat, cat,\\ndagger, fat, gander, hat, land, man, nap, pan, rat, sat, vat,\\nwant. It has another very distinct sound, especially before", "height": "3176", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "I08 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nthe letter L, namely the sound of aw as, all, ball, call, fall,\\ngall, hall, malt, pall, tall, talk, wall, walk, water. But the\\nsound which is expressed in the name Ae is a diphthongal\\nsound, which A never bears in any word except when to\\nthe an is appended, not immediately indeed, but after\\nan intervening consonant: as, ate, bate, cate, date, fate, gape,\\nhate, jape, late, make, nape, pane, rate, state, tale, vale, wane.\\nThis final e must be considered as much embodied with\\nits a, as in the corresponding German sound d which is\\nin fact only a brief way of writing ae. It is difficult to\\nsuppose that the name of our first vowel has been dictated\\nby the sound which it bears in the last-mentioned list of\\ninstances. There is no apparent reason why that class of\\ninstances should have drawn to itself any such special\\nattention, to the neglect of the instances which more truly\\nexemplify the power of the vowel. But there is one par-\\nticular instance of the use of A which is sufficiently frequent\\nand conspicuous to have determined the naming of the\\nletter. I can only suppose that the name which the letter\\nbears has been adopted from the ordinary way in which the\\nindefinite article A is pronounced.\\nThe vowel E in like manner does not generally represent\\nthe sound Ee which its name indicates. It only does so, as\\na rule, when supported by another e after an intervening\\nconsonant. Examples bere, cere, intercede, intervene.\\nWe are therefore driven to look for some familiar and\\noft-recurring words, which have the e exceptionally pro-\\nnounced as Ee. And such we find in the personal pro-\\nnouns. The words he, she, me, we, have all the e long, and\\nif they were spelt according to their sound, they would\\nappear as hee, shee, mee, wee. In proof of this may be cited\\nthe case of the pronoun thee, which is written with its vowel\\ndouble, though it has no innate right in this respect over the", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. IC9\\npronoun me. The double vowel is expressed in the solitary\\ninstance of thee, as a matter of convenience, and to dis-\\ntinguish it readily from the definite article the. It is by\\nreference then to the function of the letter e in the personal\\npronouns, that we explain the name of Ee by which that\\nvowel is incorrectly designated.\\nIt may be left to the reader to observe by a collection of\\ninstances, like hit, bit, nip, wit, dip, fit, sit, c., c., that\\nthe name which we have given to the vowel does by\\nno means give a just report of the general sound of that\\nletter in our orthography. In what syllables is that eye\\nsound represented by i1 Only in two kinds. The first\\nis where it is supported by an e subscript as, mi7te, wine,\\npipe, bite, kite, c. The other case is where it has an\\nold guttural after it; as, high, night, might, light. Sec. In\\nshort, the name of Igh does not represent truly the general\\nuse of this vowel. To account for its having acquired so\\ninappropriate a name, we must again seek for a familiar\\nand frequent word in which the vowel does bear this sound.\\nAnd we find it in the personal pronoun which we might\\nhave written as Igh with equal propriety, and on the same\\nprinciples as have determined the orthography of right,\\nmight, c. The Saxon form was Ic the German form\\nis 3c^, the Dutch Ik, the Danish y^^, and the Swedish yia;^.\\nSo that in fact the name we have bestowed on is not\\nthe due of that vowel in its simplicity, but only of that\\nvowel after it has absorbed and assimilated an ancient\\nguttural.\\nThe offers less to remark on than the other vowels.\\nYet even here the name Oe does not represent the sound it\\nbears in the simplest instances of its use. It is quite dif-\\nferent from the sound of in do, go, to, dot, top, mop, dog,\\nhop, lop, bog, tor.", "height": "3168", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "no THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nBut it is the sound which it has when written diph-\\nthongally with e, or with e subscript, as toe, foe, roe, hoe, sloe\\n(except shoe) or, tone, doge, fore, rope, hope, slope.\\nOf the U, it is very obscure what has led to its name.\\nThe instances where it represents that sound by which we\\nhave chosen to call it, are comparatively few. The pro-\\nnunciation of the u as yew is probably East- Anglian in\\nits origin. Natives of that province sometimes bring in\\nthat sound unexpectedly. When they utter the words rule,\\ntruth, ferusalem, with energy, they have been observed to\\nconvert them into ryule, tr-yewih, feryewsalem. This ten-\\ndency, whereby the straining of a u generates a y, may be\\ncompared to the instance at p. 107, where i becomes _ ^z*,\\nkyind.\\nNot Avithout an apparent parallelism is our pronunciation\\nof the noun ewe, to which in sound we prefix ajF.\\nAccount for it how we may, the fact is plain (and this is\\nwhat we are now upon) that the vowel has caught its nam-\\ning from certain strained and exceptional uses of it.\\nTo so great a length have I pursued this subject of\\nthe naming of our vowels, because it is in fact a most\\nexceptional and insular phenomenon. As a criterion of the\\nwhole case we might refer to the designations of the five\\nvowels in French or German, and the reasonableness of\\nthose designations. If this were done, the result would be\\nsomething as follows. The French and Germans have\\nnamed the vowels, but the English have nick-named them.\\nWhen a man is called a king or a servant, he is character-\\nised by what may properly be called a name. But if we\\ncall him Longshanks or Peach-hlossom, we nick-name him.\\nAnd this is analogous to what we have done with the vowels.\\nWe have given them names which are expressive, not of\\ntheir general functions, but of the impression made by", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. I] I\\nsome prominent anomaly or adventitious oddity in their\\nappearance.\\nOne or two of the consonants require some special\\nremarks.\\nC was invested with its present s-like sound by the\\nFrench influence which accompanied the Norman Con-\\nquest. Before that time it was never used but with the\\nK-sound, which it still has before a, o, and u, as in call,\\ncod, cut.\\nG in Anglo-Saxon very generally became y in English\\ndaeg, day ge2ir, year ge,ye: gityjyel: gv2eg,gray: gQ2io,yare.\\nIn some cases a reaction ensued. The Anglo-Saxon\\ngi/an is in Chaucer toyeve but it has had the g restored\\nlong ago, and we say give.\\nSuch changes were a source of copiousness to the lan-\\nguage, which often retained the old form in some special\\nuse while adopting the new as a general rule. Thus grcBg\\nbecame gray for general purposes, but as designating a\\ngrasshopper it became grig.\\nD has a great affinity for n, and often is brought into\\na word by the n as a sort of shadow. In the words im-\\npound, expound, from the Latin impono and expono, the\\nD is a pure English addition: so likewise in sound from\\nFrench son, Latin sonus. Provincial phonetics go still\\nfurther, and call a gown gownd. See above, p. 102.\\nT in like manner is sometimes drawn in by s. In\\nActs xxvii. 40, we read hoised up the main-sail, where we\\nshould now say and write hoisted, not for any etymological\\nreason, but from a purely phonetic cause.\\nD has also a disposition to slip in between L and R.\\nThus the Saxon ealra, gen. pi. of eal all, became first aller\\nand then alder, as in Mine alder liefest Sovereign/ 2 King\\nHenry VI, i. i.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "112 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nH in the ancient language was a guttural This letter\\nhas undergone more change of value since its introduction\\ninto our language, than any other letter. It is now a mere\\ndumb historical object in many cases, and where it has any\\nsound it is merely the sign of aspiration. It is almost classed\\nwith the vowels, as in the familiar rule which tells us to say\\nan before a word beginning with a vowel or a silent h. It\\nseems almost incredible that it ever had in English the force\\nof the German ch, or rather of the Welsh ch. Yet such was\\nthe case.\\nThis ancient guttural is heard now only in those portions\\nof the Anglian provinces which are in the southern counties\\nof Scotland, and the northern counties of England. There\\nyou may still hear licht and necht light and night) pro-\\nnounced in- audible gutturals. In the old English (or\\nAnglo-Saxon) these were written with the simple h thus, liht\\nand niht, but pronounced gutturally. As we now regard\\nc and K as interchangeable in certain cases, e. g. Calendar or\\nKalendar, so in the early time stood c and h to each other.\\nThere were a certain number of words in which the Anglian\\nc (of the time of Baeda) was represented by a Saxon h. The\\nword beret, bright, is of frequent occurrence in the Eccle-\\nsiastical History of the Angles, It occurs in proper names, as\\nBercta, Berctfrid, Berctgils, Bercthun, Berctred, Berctuald,\\nCudberct, Hereberct, Huaetberct. This word was also freely\\nused in Saxon names, but in them the Anglian c became h,\\nbeorhtoY briht: Brihtheim, Brihtno]?, Brihtric, Brihtwold, Briht-\\nwulf, Ecgbriht, Cu^briht. This h retained its guttural force\\ndown to the middle of the fourteenth century, as may be\\nshewn from the orthography of that period. For example,\\nsixt thou for seest thou, or rather sehest thou, in Piers Plow-\\nman i. 5, is evidence that his siht sight, was gutturally\\npronounced.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. II3\\nAs the H began to be more feebly uttered, and it was no\\nlonger regarded as a sure guttural sign, it had to be rein-\\nforced by putting a c before it, as in the above licht and\\nnecht or by a g, as in though (Saxon \\\\eah), daughter\\n(Saxon dohter), c. But the gh had little power to arrest\\nthe tendency of the language to divest itself of its gut-\\nturals, and GH in its turn has grown to be a dumb monu-\\nment of bygone pronunciation.\\nJ is a character which entered our alphabet in the seven-\\nteenth century. The sound of it came into English far\\nearlier, by our adoption of French words that had it. Such\\nwere, j angler, jealous, jest, jewel, join, jolly, journey, joust, joy,\\njudge, July, justice. A reflex effect of this our consonantal J\\nhas been that we have lent it to the Latin language in our\\nprinted books, and in our pronunciation. Such words as\\nmaior, peior, iuvare, iam, iuncus, huius, eius. Sec, we have\\nprinted and pronounced major, pejor, juvare, jam, juncus,\\nhujus, ejus, c. It appears that the Latin never had the J-\\nsound for how could Italian have escaped without it The\\nLatin Ego makes in Italian lo, but in French Je, with a con-\\nsonantal initial. And this is as much a pure French out-\\ngrowth, as certain cases of initial w and y in English are\\noriginal products of our own. On these grounds it seems\\nthat we have been wrong in attributing a consonant J to the\\nLatin language. The best Latin scholars are now correcting\\nthis. In Professor Conington s Vergil I do not see a J. As\\na sample of his text I quote the two opening lines of the\\nmost famous of Eclogues\\nSicelides Musae, paulo maiora canamus\\nNon omnes arbusta iuvant, humilesque myricae.\\nK is not properly a Latin, but a Greek letter. In Roman\\nwriting it had a very undefined position as a superfluous\\ncharacter, a mere duplicate-variety of c. This was also its\\nI", "height": "3160", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "114 ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nposition through the whole period of Anglo-Saxon literature;\\nit was a mere fancy to write k, and it meant nothing dif-\\nferent from the thin c. But very soon after the Conquest,\\nthe greater frequency of k is observable; and it went on\\nincreasing just in proportion as the value of c became\\nequivocal through its Frenchified employment with the sound\\nof s. Already in the twelfth century, k is found to have\\na place and function of its own to the entire exclusion of c,\\nnamely, before the vowels e and i, the cases in which c had\\ngone off into the s-sound. Thus the old words cene, cempa\\nwarrior), Cent, cepan, cyn, cyng, c., were in the twelfth\\ncentury written constantly as kene keen), kempa cham-\\npion), Kent, keep, kin, king, c. But when it had to be\\ndoubled, it was by prefixing c, and not by a repetition\\nof K, that the doubhng was effected. Thus, a :/^nowledge,\\nwhich is only a compound of the particle a with knowledge,\\nthe c expressing the reverberation of the K-sound. So also\\nin lack, crack, Jack, c., and the old-fashioned spellings of\\npolitick, cBsthetick, c., ck may be taken as equivalent to kk.\\nP is a letter that was not so much used in Old English\\nas in some kindred dialects. Our Saxon ancestors seem to\\nhave had a repugnance to it as an initial letter of words. In\\nKemble s Glossary to the Saxon epic poem called Beowulf,\\nhe has given only three words under the letter p and in\\nBouterwek s Glossary to Ccsdmon there are only two, both\\nof which are comprised in the former three. Thus, two\\nGlossaries of our two oldest national poems exhibit only\\nthree words beginning with p. One of the three is now\\nextinct but the other two are quite familiar to us they are\\nJ)ath and play. These were, in the eighth century, ex-\\nceptional words in English, from the fact that they began\\nwith p. And to this day it may still be asserted that almost all\\nthe English words beginning with p are of foreign extraction.", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. 1]5\\nQ is a Latin letter, which was not recognised in English\\ntill the close of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth\\ncentury. Previous to this the Anglo-Saxon writers had\\ndone very well without it having expressed the sound of\\nqu by the letters cw examples cwahn (qualm, pestilence,\\ndeath), cwce^ (quoth), cwen (queen), cwic (quick), c. At\\nfirst the qu was only admitted in writing Latin or French\\nwords, while cw kept its place in native words. Among the\\nearliest Latin or French words beginning with qu which\\nwere adopted in English are quart, quarter, quarterne a\\nprison), quarrel, quarry, quire, quit (from quietus, quiet).\\nThis is the position which Q holds at this day in the Dutch\\nlanguage it is used for spelling certain Latin words, while\\nkw is used for the same sound in the words of native origin.\\nIn English, on the contrary, the qu very soon prevailed even\\nin the home-born words and before the close of the thir-\\nteenth century we find quake, qualm, quash, queen, quell, quick,\\nbesides some other less common words. The name which\\nwe give the letter is said to be the French queue, a tail (Q).\\nV. A Latin letter that came in soon after the Conquest,\\nwith the French words virtue, visage, vaine, veray, venerie.\\nW. It has already been said that before the Conquest the\\ncharacter w was little used. Where the Anglo-Saxon printed\\nbooks have it, the manuscripts have the old Rune p. But after\\nthe Conquest, when a great many Romance words beginning\\nwith V were coming into the English, and a distinction had\\nto be made between this sound and that of the old p, it was\\neffected by a double v. But it must carefully be observed\\nthat the novelty as regards the w was only in the character\\nand not in the sound. The sound of w has long been in the\\nlanguage, having been embodied with it when the Wessex\\nspeech first assumed shape as a distinct Saxon dialect. It\\nis now one of the chief characteristics of our language\\nI 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "Ij6 the ENGLISH ALPHABET,\\namong the other members of its family; and it must be\\nattributed to that intimate mingling with the British Kelts in\\nthe fifth and sixth centuries of which history has left us such\\nunmistakeable traces. As an initial, it is emphatically a pro-\\nduct of the West, and would hardly have existed, had our\\nlanguage been educated in the Eastern Counties. The sound\\nof the w may be described as a consonantism resulting from\\nthe collision of two vocalic sounds, viz. oo and ee. Say oo\\nfirst, and then say ee if you keep an interval between, the\\nvocalic nature of each is preserved, but if you pass quickly\\nfrom the utterance of oo to that of ee, you engender the con-\\nsonantal sound w, and produce the word we. And in fact,\\nalmost any two vowels coming into such collision will en-\\ngender the w. This seems to be the cause of the w in\\noferscBWisca, the Saxon translation oi transmarinus, one from\\nbeyond sea. The parts are ofer (beyond), scb (sea), and\\nthe adjectival termination -isc, from which our modern -ish.\\nThe w is the consonantal partition between scb and isc, and\\nit seems to spring out of the vocalic collision itself It is\\nsaid in Grammars that w (like v) is a consonant when it\\nis initial, either of a v/ord or syllable and a vowel elsewhere.\\nAccording to this rule (which fairly states the case) we find\\nthat w is a vowel now, where once it was a consonant.\\nTake the wordy^w, in which w has now only a vocalic\\nsound this word was once a disyllabic y^(22x;^, and then the\\nsecond syllable wa gave the w a consonantal value.\\nX has two powers, one its original value, ks and the other\\ngs, a development common to English and French. It sounds\\nas gs when the syllable following the x is accented, as ex-\\nhaust, exalt, exotic^ extend but in other cases with its simple\\nand original value of ks. A crucial example is the word export,\\nwhich has the accent on the first as a noun, and on the last\\nas a verb. We say to expdrt with the pronunciation egsport", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "THE ENGLISH ALPHABET. II7\\nbut we speak of exports or export-duties with the pro-\\nnunciation ^ksport. This distinction is, however, open to\\nquestion and the decision of it is all the more difficult, as\\nwe may not trust the report of our own organs in delicate\\npoints of pronunciation. Our utterance is warped the mo-\\nment we set ourselves to observe and examine it. It is\\nsufficient for this place to have indicated the existence of\\ntwo sounds of the X.\\nY is an ancient Greek letter adopted by the Romans, and\\nused in Saxon writing as a fine thin vowel (like French\\nu or German it) apt to be confused with i. The French\\ncall it the Greek I, I grec\\nAfter the Conquest it strangely got a consonantal function\\nadded to the former. It succeeded to the place of an\\nancient G-initial, which was in a state of decay. This is\\nthe history of y in such wcwds z.s ye, yes, yet, year, yard, yare,\\nyearn, yelp, yield, Sec, from the older forms ge, gese, git, gear,\\ngeard, gearo, georn, gilpan, gield. In the intervening period,\\nwhile this transition was adoing, there appeared for two\\ncenturies or more (the twelfth to the fourteenth) a separate\\nform of letter, neither g nor_y, which was written thus 5, and\\nwas ultimately dropped. It was a pity we lost this letter,\\nas the result has been a heterogeneous combination of func-\\ntions under the letter Y which it is difficult for a learner\\nto disentangle. It is true as Lindley Murray said, that y\\nis a consonant when it begins a syllable, and in every other\\nsituation it is a vowel. Had we retained the consonant 5\\nwe might have avoided this unnatural combination of vowel\\nand consonant functions in a single letter. In old Scots\\nit was retained in the form of z, as in the following, where\\nyear is written zeir\\nIn witness quhairof we half subscrivit thise presents with our hands at\\nWestminster the loth day of December, the zeir of God 1568 Zeirs.\\nJames, Regent, c., c.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "Il8 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nS)Oyet was written zi t, as in Buchanan s Detection\\nQuhilk wryting being without dait, and thocht sum wordis thairin seme\\nto the contrarie, zii is upon credibill ground! s supposit to have bene maid\\nand written be hir befoir the deith of hir husband.\\nBut SO uncertain is the fortune of language, that one mis-\\nchance is avoided only to fall into another. This Scotch z,\\nwhich had a justification in the cases quoted, was extended\\nto supplant the English consonant y in other cases, as in\\nyork, which was written Zork. (Queen Mary s Letters,\\nJanuary, 1568.)\\nIn the word Vork the V had no consonantal antecedent\\nthe old form was Eoforwic. The consonantal sound has\\ngrown out of vocalic crowding, just as the Saxon iw has\\nproduced the English j^fw. This y represents the German,\\nDanish, and Swedish j, both in sound and in historical\\nextraction. The Saxon iimg is in modern English young,\\nand the y here sounds exactly as J sounds in the German\\njung, or in the Danish Jeg, or the Swedish Jag. The bringing\\nout of this consonantal y is a feature of the modern lan-\\nguage. It probably existed in Saxon times, but it was not\\nexpressed in writing. It is in the West that this y displays\\nitself most conspicuously. In Barnes s poems we meet with\\nyable, able yachen, aching yacre, acre yakker, acorn\\nyale, ale yarbs, herbs yarm, arm yarn, earn yarnesi,\\nearnest yean (Saxon eacnian) yeaze, ease.\\nOn Sunday evenings, arm in arm;\\nO Zunday evemens, yarm in yarm\\nand first they d go to see their lots of pot-herbs in the\\ngarden plots\\nAn vust tha d goo to zee ther lots\\nO pot-yarbs in the ghiarden plots.\\nTraces of the same thing, but more slight, are noted in\\nthe opposite quarter, as in Miss Baker s Northants Glossary.\\nI", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "I\\nTHE ENGLISH ALPHABET. II9\\nOur national proclivities in utterance are best discerned\\nby the examination of instances where the pronunciation is\\nleast under observation, least exposed to modifying influ-\\nences, least self-conscious. This makes the evidence from\\nthe dialects so valuable. Next to this we may class those\\nsounds which we utter but do not write, as the Y-sound at\\nthe beginning of the word ewe. It is unthought of because\\nit never meets the eye. To the same category belongs the\\ninitial y in the unwritten name of the vowel u. Add to this\\nthe case above at p. 107, where kind is pronounced as kyi nd,\\nand we see how decided a proneness there is in us towards\\nthis consonant. Indeed, we must consider this y consonant\\nas being in some special sense the property of the English\\nlanguage, in the same way as we consider our consonant\\nJ to be peculiarly a French product.\\nThe value of y has been further complicated by means\\nof the fashion which prevailed in the fifteenth century of\\nsubstituting it often for Already in the fourteenth cen-\\ntury, in an ABC Poem, we find the letter y thus introduced\\nY for I in wryt is set.\\nA reaction followed and corrected this in some measure\\nbut still too many cases remained in which the y had got\\nfixed in places where an i should have been. A conspicuous\\nexample is the word rhyme, which is from the Saxon rim\\nnumber, and which Dr. Guest always spells r/ii me in his\\nHistory of English Rhythms.\\nPossibly the J/ was put for i in rhyme from confusion with\\nthe Greek pvdixos at any rate we do owe many of our jf s\\nto the Greek v, such as tyrant, zephyr, hydraulic, hyssop,\\nhypocrisy, hypothesis. In fact, so commonly does the English\\nY represent the Greek v, that Dr. Latham would limit the\\nuse of the letter y, when not final, as much as possible to", "height": "3172", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "1 2,0 THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.\\nwords of Greek origin/ Hyson and Hythe are the only two\\nwords in his Dictionary that begin with hy-, and are not\\nGreek. Even the Saxon Hythe he would like to write Hithe,-\\nand for Hyrst he prefers the form Hurst.\\nZ is a letter of late introduction. During the Saxon time\\nit appears in Bible translations in names like Zacheus,\\nZacharias; and otherwise only in one or two stray instances,\\ne. g. Caziei, the Saxon form of the French town-name Chezy,\\nas in the following description of the path of the Northmen\\nin France\\n887. Her for se here up ])urh ?5a brycge set Paris, and })a up andlang\\nSigene oS Maeterne. and ])a up on Mseterne oS Caziei.\\n887. This year went the foe up through the bridge at Paris, and then\\nup along the Seine to the Marne, and then up the Marne to Chezy.\\nWe find s put for z as late as the fifteenth century:\\ne. g. Sepherus for Zephyrus.\\nNor is this letter anything more than a foreigner among\\nus now. There will be found very few genuine English\\nwords with a z in them. The only one I observe in the\\nDictionary under Z is zinc, which most likely represents the\\nSaxon si72c treasure.\\nC", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER II.\\nSPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nThe spelling of our language has admitted a succession\\nof changes from the earliest times to the present day. We\\nnow call our orthography fixed but perhaps the next gene-\\nration will detect some changes that have taken place in our\\ntime. Orthography is in fact always in the rear of pro-\\nnunciation, and therefore there is always room for improve-\\nment. But as a language grows old, it naturally tends\\ntowards being governed by precedent. We spell words as\\nwe have been taught to spell them. The more literature is\\naddressed to the eye, the more that organ is humoured, and\\nthe ear is less and less considered.\\nThat which we call a settled orthography is a habit of\\nspelling which admits only of rare modification, and tends\\ntowards a state of absolute immutability.\\nWhen a language has become literary, its orthography\\nhas already begun to be fixed. The varieties of spelling\\nwhich have taken place from the fourteenth century until\\nnow, may appear considerable to those who have only\\nglanced at old books; but in reality they are very limited.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "122 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nA small variation will make a great difference in the legi-\\nbility of a page, to the eye that is unaccustomed to such\\nvariation. It might be thought that the idea of orthography\\nwas a modern affair, and that the spelling of our early writers\\nwas chaotic and unstudied. But this would be a great\\nmistake.\\nThe poet of the Ormulum (12 15) earnestly begs that in\\nfuture copies of his work, respect may be had to his ortho-\\ngraphy. The passage has been quoted and translated\\nabove, on p. 51.\\nChaucer also, in the closing stanzas of his Troilus and\\nCreseide, begs that no one will miswrite his little book, by\\nwhich he means that no one should deviate from his ortho-\\ngraphy.\\nGo, little booke, go my little tragedie\\nAnd kisse the steps whereas thou seest pace\\nOf Vergil, Ovid, Homer, Lucan, Stace.\\nAnd for there is so great diversite\\nIn English, and in writing of our tong,\\nSo pray I to God, that none miswrite thee,\\nNe the mis-metre, for defaut of tong:\\nAnd redd wherso thou be or eles song,\\nThat thou be understond, c.\\nIt was not for want of interest in orthography that so\\ngreat diversity continued to exist, but it was from the\\nobstacles which naturally delayed a common understanding\\non such a point. A standard was, however, set up in the\\nfifteenth century, or at furthest in the sixteenth, by the\\nmasters of the Printing-press. It was the Press that de-\\ntermined our orthography. This may easily be discerned\\nby the fact that whereas private letters continue for a long\\ntime to exhibit all the old diversity of spelling, the Bible of\\ni6ii, and the First Folio of Shakspeare (1623) are sub-\\nstantially in the orthography which is now prevalent and\\nestablished.", "height": "3184", "width": "2104", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 23\\nIf any one will be at the trouble to compare the follow-\\ning verses from the Bible of 161 1 with our present Bible,\\nhe will see that the variation is not so great as at first sight\\nappears.\\nDiuers opinions of him among the people. The Pharisees are angry that\\ntheir officers tooke him not, tf chide with Nicodemus for taking his part.\\n37 In the last day, that great day of the feast, lesus stood, and cried, say-\\ning, If any man thirst, let him come vnto me, and drinke,\\n38 He that beleeueth on me, as the Scripture hath saide, out of his belly\\nshall flow riuers of liuing water.\\n39 (But this spake he of the Spirit, which they that beleeue on him should\\nreceiue. For the holy Ghost was not yet giuen, because that lesus was not\\nyet glorified.)\\n40 H Many of the people therefore, when they heard this saying, saide,\\nOf a trueth this is the Prophet.\\n41 Others said, This is the Christ. But some said. Shall Christ come out\\nof Galilee\\n42 Hath not the Scripture saide, that Christ commeth of the seede of\\nDauid, and out of the towne of Bethlehem, where Dauid was\\n43 So there was a diuision among the people because of him.\\n44 And some of them would haue taken him, but no man layed hands\\non him,\\n45 H Then came the officers to the chiefe Priests and Pharises, and they\\nsaid vnto them. Why haue ye not brought him\\n46 The officers answered, Neuer man spake like this man.\\n47 Then answered them the Pharisees, Are ye also deceiued\\n48 Haue any of the rulers, or of the Pharises beleeued on him\\n49 But this people who knoweth not the Law, are cursed.\\n50 Nicodemus saith vnto them, (He that came to lesus by night, being\\none of them,)\\n51 Doth our Law iudge any man before it heare him, know what he\\ndoth?\\n52 They answered, and said vnto him. Art thou also of Galilee Search,\\nand looke for out of Galilee ariseth no Prophet.\\n53 And euery man went vnto his owne house.\\nA large part of the strange eflfect which this specimen has\\nto the modern eye is due to something which is distinct from\\nspelling namely, to a change in the use of certain characters.\\nThe modern distinction of J the consonant from i the vowel\\nwas not yet known. The v was not practically distinguished\\nfrom the u. Instead o^ judge we see iudge and instead of", "height": "3184", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "124 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\ndeceived it is decerned. These may come under the notion of\\northography, but they cannot be called diversities of speUing.\\nTo these have to be added a few instances of e final, which\\nhave since been disused. Also a few more capital letters.\\nSuch are the chief elements to which the strange aspect is\\ndue. The only real differences in this piece from our pre-\\nsent use, are beleeue, layed (for laid), commeth, trueth.\\nLet us glance at a few of the changes which have pro-\\nduced the present settlement. For this purpose we must\\nlook back to the last great disturbance, that is to say, to the\\nConquest and its sequel. At that time there had been a\\nfixed orthography for a hundred years hardly less fixed\\nthan ours now is, after four centuries of printing. We\\nmust remember that the Press is a sort of dictator in ortho-\\ngraphy. If we were to judge of present English orthography\\nby a collection of manuscripts of the day, it would be a\\ndifferent thing from judging of it by printed books. For\\na manuscript literature, that of the last hundred years of the\\nSaxon period is singularly orthographical.\\nThe clashing of dialects in the transition period, and\\nthe French influence, combined to raise up a new sort of\\nspelling in the place of the old. The tributary effects of the\\ndialects are mostly obscure and hard to disentangle. The\\nFrench influence being a strange element is much easier to\\nfollow. One of its earliest and most conspicuous results was\\nthe quiescence of the old guttural-aspirate h. This pro-\\nduced more than one set of modifications in spelling.\\nThe habit of writing wh instead of the old hw was one\\nof these. It seems that the decaying sound of the guttural\\ngave the w-sound more prominence to the ear, and that\\naccordingly the w was put before the h in writing. This\\nalteration had the more effect on the appearance of the\\nlanguage, because many of the words so spelt are among", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 125\\nthe commonest and most frequently recurring. The follow-\\ning are some of the more conspicuous examples\\nHwa, who Hwylc, which\\nHwses, whose Hweol, wheel\\nHwEel, whale Hwi, why\\nHwaer, where Hwil, while\\nHwset, what Hwisperung, whispering\\nHwaet-stan, whetstone Hwistlere, whistler\\nHwsete, wheat Hwit, white.\\nThe modern result is this, that the syllable which was\\npronounced from the throat (guttural), is now pronounced\\nmainly on the lips (aspirate-labial). The Scotch retained the\\nguttural much longer and the traces of it are still audible in\\nScotland. And they wrote as well as pronounced gutturally\\nthus, quha, quhilk, quhat, c. Alexander Hume, a learned\\nScotchman, who was Scholemaester of Bath in 1592, thus\\nrecounts a dispute he had with some Southrons on the point:\\nTo clere this point, and alsoe to reform an errour bred in the south, and\\nnow usurped be our ignorant printeres, I wil tel quhat befel my self quhen\\nI was in the south with a special gud frende of myne. Ther rease, upon sum\\naccident, quhither quho, qvhen, quhat, etc., sould be symboHsed with q or w,\\na boat disputation betuene him and me. After manie conflictes (for we ofte\\nencountered), we met be chance, in the citie of Baeth, with a Doctour of\\ndivinitie of both our acquentance. He invited us to denner. At table my\\nantagonist, to bring the question on foot am.angs his awn condisciples, began\\nthat I was becum an heretik, and the doctour spering how, ansuered that\\nI denyed quho to be spelled with a lu, but with qu.\\nBe quhat reason? quod the doctour. Here, I beginning to lay my\\ngrundes of labial, dental, and guttural soundes and symboles, he snapped\\nme on this hand and he on that, that the doctour had mikle a doe to win\\nme roome for a syllogisme. Then (said I) a labial letter can not symboliz\\na guttural syllab. But w is a labial letter, quho a guttural sound. And\\ntherfoer w can not symboliz quho, nor noe syllab of that nature. Here the\\ndoctour staying them again (for al barked at ones), the proposition, said he,\\nI understand the assumption is Scottish, and the conclusion false. Quherat\\nal laughed, as if I had bene dryven from al replye, and I fretted to see\\na frivolouse jest goe for a solid ansuer. Of the Orthographie of the Britan\\nTongue, by Alexander Hume (Early English Text Society, 1865), p. 18.\\nTo the same cause must be attributed the motive for\\nchanging the spelling of liht, niht, mihf, c., to light, night,\\n7night.", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "125 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nProbably the g was prefixed to the h in order to insist on\\nthe h being uttered as a guttural. If so, it has failed. The\\nguttural writing remains as a historical monument, but the\\nsound is no longer heard except in Scotland and the conter-\\nminous parts of England.\\nAfter it became quiescent, it was apt to be employed care-\\nlessly or arbitrarily. For example, Spenser wrote the adjec-\\ntive white in the following unrecognisable manner, whight.\\nHis Belphoebe was clad\\nAll in a silken camus lilly whight.\\nFaery Queene, ii. 3, 26.\\nSo also spright was written instead of sprite and although\\nit is now obsolete, yet its derivative sprightly is still retained\\nin use.\\nThis gh has now two treatments. In the one case it\\nis quiescent; as in plough, though, through, daughter,\\nslaughter. In the other it sounds likely as, enough, rough,\\nlaughter, c. Probably this arose from the confluence of\\nnorthern and southern pronunciations. On such a point\\nas this some light might be gained by observations upon\\nlocal and family names. In some parts of England the\\nname Waugh is pronounced as Waw, and in others as Waff.\\nCan it be shewn that the latter is Anglian and the former\\nSaxon\\nIt would appear that gh has been formerly sounded like\\nf in words wherein it is nov\\\\^ quiescent. The following\\nquotation from Surrey seems to indicate that taught in his\\ntime might be pronounced as toft\\\\\\n\u00e2\u0099\u00a6Farewell! thou hast me taught.\\nTo think me not the first\\nThat love hath set aloft,\\nAnd casten in the dust.\\nAnd Bunyan, who as a Bedfordshire man would belong to\\n1", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 27\\nthe northern or Anghan dialect, pronounced daughter as\\ndafter\\nDespondency, good man, is coming after.\\nAn so is also Much-afraid, his daughter.\\nThere is one word of this orthography whose pronunci-\\nation is not yet uniformly established (in the public reading\\nof Scripture), and that is the word draught. The colloquial\\npronunciation is now draf/, but in Dryden we find the other\\nsound\\nBetter to hunt the fields for health unbought,\\nThan fee the doctor for a nauseous draught.\\nA very large proportion of the words beginning with c\\nwere now (i.e. after the transition period) spelt either with\\nK or with CH.\\nExamples of a Saxon c turned into k\\nCseg, key Cnawan, know\\nCene, keen Cnedan, knead\\nCeol, keel Cneow, knee\\nCent, Keni Cniht, knight\\nCepan, keep Cy^, kyth\\nCnapa, knave Cyn, kin.\\nExamples of Saxon words beginning with c, which in\\nmodern English have taken ch instead of c\\nCeafu, chaff Cidan, chide\\nCeaster, Chester Cinne, chin\\nCeorl, churl Circe, church\\nCeosan, choose Cyle, chill\\nCild, child Cypman, chapman.\\nIt is a point of much interest and of some uncertainty,\\nhow the ck is to be accounted for in this class of examples.\\nWas the change only in the spelhng, and had these words\\nbeen pronounced with the ch sound even while they were\\nwritten with the c That this was not the case universally\\nthe Scotch form J^i rk is a sufficient evidence. But may it\\nhave been so partially may the chi r/ have been in the", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "128 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nsouthern and western pronunciation Something of this\\nsort may be seen at present in Scandinavia. The Swedish\\nand Danish languages have initial k in common in a\\nlarge number of words. The Danish k has no chirt any-\\nwhere but the Swedish k is pronounced as ch when it is\\nfollowed by certain vowels. The Danish word for church\\nis kirke the Swedish word is kyrka. In the former case\\nthe K is pronounced as in Scotland in the latter it sounds\\nlike the first consonant in the English church. A like divi-\\nsion of pronunciation may possibly have existed in this\\nisland before the Conquest. Or the chirt may have been\\nstill more partial than this it may have had but an obscure\\nand disowned existence (like the sh sound as a substitute\\nfor the ch in Germany) and the French influence may have\\nfostered it by a natural affinity, and given it a permanent\\nplace in the English language.\\nThose words which in Saxon began with cw adopted the\\nLatin q initial, as described in the last chapter.\\nIn the close of words also ch has taken the place of the\\nSaxon c (or sometimes cc) as in church (cyrice), speech\\n(spaec), reach (raecan), teach (t^can), and sometimes it has\\ntaken the form tch as in latch (Iseccan), thatch (]j3ec), match\\n(^^maecca), wretch (wreccea). This -tch extended at one\\ntime to words in which we are not familiar with it;- thus in\\nSpenser s Faery Queene, i. 2. 21, we read ritch for rich. The\\nquaint old Scottish grammarian before quoted, speaks con-\\ntemptuously of this tch development of our pronunciation,\\ncalling it an Italian chtrt.^\\nWith c we spil the aspiration, turning it into an Italian chirt as,\\nchar;te, cherrie, of quhilk hereafter This consonant, evin quher in\\nthe original it hes the awne sound, we turn it into the chirt we spak of,\\nquhilk indeed can be symbolized with none, neither greek nor latin letteres\\nas, from cano, chant from canon, chanon from castus, chast c.\\nOf the Orthographie, c,, pp. 13, 14.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 29\\nAnalogous to the use of before the ch (anciently c) is the\\nputting a d before an ancient g. Thus we have the form\\nhedge (A. S. hege), wedge (A. S. wecg), ridge (A.S. rig), c.\\nThe more classical Anglo-Saxon form is hrycg, but this is\\nnot the form which would tend to produce ridge. On the\\ncontrary, it has produced the modern form rick, a synonym\\nfor a stack of corn or hay.\\nIn the word knowledge the same mode of orthography is\\napphed by a false analogy and ohlidge has been recalled to\\nsimplicity by reference to its original, the French obliger.\\nThe c before the g has just the contrary effect to that of\\nthe d. While dg indicates the soft dental or palatal sound of\\ng, eg indicates the dry and guttural sound, either like our\\nmodern gg or Hke ck.\\nSaxon words beginning in sc- are in modern English\\nspelt sh- e. g.\\nSceaf, sheaf\\nSceap, sheep\\nSceaft, shaft\\nScearp, sharp\\nSceal, shall\\nSceort, short\\nSceamu, shame\\nSceo, shoe\\nSceanca, shank\\nScild, shield.\\nThe vowels will afford further examples of the great\\nrevolution in orthography which has taken place since Saxon\\ntimes. The most constant of the vowels has been the first, A.\\nMany words can be quoted in which it has remained un-\\naltered from Saxon times: e.g. and, hake, can, fare, hare,\\nhale, hawk, lade, lake, land, make, man, name, sake, shake,\\nsallow, stand, staple, saddle, stare, tame, wan, wake.\\nWhen changed, it has oftenest become o, as bone (ban),\\nhoth (batwa), hot (hat), mon (Scottish for man).\\nSometimes we see a compromise, the old a being\\nretained by the side of the new o, as road (A.S. rad), load\\n(A.S. lad).", "height": "3168", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "130 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nSometimes e has taken the place of a, as s/ep (stapan).\\nWhere the Saxon a final has become 0, as it generally\\nhas, the addition of the e final of the fifteenth century has\\ncome in to produce an effect which is never seen on a Saxon\\npage. The combination oe is absolutely unknown in Saxon\\northography, but is quite familiar to our eyes in such words\\nSis/be, hoe, roe, woe, toe, from the Saxon forms_/^, rd, wd, td.\\nIn many words we have disused this ending where it was in\\nvogue, as agoe, alsoe, c. In all of these cases, however,\\ne has no sound, nor ever had. It is, in fact, the ^-subscript,\\nof which hereafter.\\nOn the other hand, the vowel-combination eo was very\\ncommon in Saxon, but in English it has been always very\\nrare. Ben Jonson said it is found but in three words in\\nour tongue, yeoman, people, jeopardy. Which were truer\\nwritten ye man, pe ple, jepardy! To these of Ben Jonson s\\nmay now fairly be added the word leopard for though the\\neo in this word has a Latin origin, yet its acquired pronun-\\nciation stamps it with an English character.\\nThe diphthongs 01, as in /oil, soil, and ou, as m young,\\nabout, are now common in Saxon words, but there were no\\nsuch in Saxon. They are among the French transformations.\\nSome of them we have already dropped thus we no longer\\nuse horrour, terrour. There is a disposition in some quarters\\nto do the same with honour, and also to vindicate the pure\\nSaxon word so unjustly Frenchified into neighbour. This ou\\nis sometimes present in sound when absent from the spelling.\\nIf we compare the words move, prove, with such words as\\nlove, dove, shove, c., we become aware that the former, though\\nthey have laid aside their French spelling from mouvoir,\\nprouver, yet have retained their French sound notwith-\\nstanding.\\nI", "height": "3176", "width": "2120", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 131\\nBut the vowel which makes the greatest figure on the\\nSaxon page is m and this is altogether absent in English.\\nThese are some of the more conspicuous instances of\\nthat revolution in orthography which has caused Saxon\\nliterature to look so uncouth and strange in its own native\\ncountry.\\nEnglish spelling has been produced by such a variety of\\nheterogeneous causes, that its inconsistencies are not to be\\nwondered at. Grimm has remarked on the want of regu-\\nlarity in our vowel usage for we use a double e in //lee, and\\na single one in ??te, whereas the vowel-sound is alike in the\\npronunciation. The probable cause was the aim at dis-\\ntinction between the pronoun f/iee and the definite article\\nf/ie words which down to the end of the fifteenth century\\nwere written alike, and often check the reader. The eye has\\nits claims as well as the ear, when so much is written and\\nread; and this accounts for many cases of dissimilar spelling\\nof similar sounds, as 5e the verb and dee the insect.\\nIf we now leave the Saxon and notice the French words\\nthat entered largely into our language in the twelfth and\\nthirteenth centuries, there is this general observation to be\\nmade concerning them They were at first pronounced as\\nFrench words and although the original pronunciation was\\nsoon impaired, yet a trace of their native sound followed\\nthem for a long time, just as happens in like cases in our\\nown day. The French accentuation would remain after\\nevery other tinge of their origin had faded out. But in\\ncourse of time they were so completely familiarised that their\\norigin was lost sight of, and then they insensibly slid into\\nour English pronunciation. The spelling would sometimes\\nfollow all these changes, but in other cases the habit of\\nwriting was too strongly fixed.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "132 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION:\\nOf this we have not merely the argument from general\\nanalogy, which tells us that in like cases it is always so, but\\nwe have also two kinds of direct proof. One is from the\\nspelling. The word honour is spelt in a manner for which\\nits present pronunciation does not account. In pronun-\\nciation the weighty syllable is the first, yet in the spelling we\\nthrow the preponderance into the last syllable. Our spelling\\nis traditional, and represents, not a present, but a past pro-\\nnunciation. When this word honour was first introduced\\ninto English, it was actually pronounced, for a long time,\\nwith the accent and vocalic fullness on the last syllable, just\\nas the French honneur h to this day. Our orthography of\\nhonour, so contradictory to our pronunciation, would be sufr\\nficient, with the example of honneur before us, to satisfy us\\nthat this word must have retained its French pronunciation\\nfor a long time after its use was estabhshed among us.\\nBut the fact may also be established by direct proof. The\\nuse of this and analogous words in poetry enables us by the\\nrhythm to decide absolutely on so much of their pronun-\\nciation as is involved in their accentuation, and that, in the\\ncase before us, is the chief thing. We find the word as early\\nas the second text of Layamon, which we may fix at soon\\nafter a.d. 1200. Thus we read in vol. i. p. 259 (ed.\\nMadden)\\nand leide hine mid honure\\nand laid him with honour\\nheje in )5an toure\\nhigh in *the tower.\\nHere it is plain to the experienced reader, notwithstanding\\nthe inexactness of the metre, that the word honure is ac-\\ncented on the second syllable. But to the general reader\\nthis quotation would not be convincing. If, therefore, we\\npass from the opening of the thirteenth to the close of the", "height": "3188", "width": "2120", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 133\\nfourteenth century, and after a lapse of almost two hundred\\nyears observe the placing of the word in the rhythm of\\nChaucer, every one who has an ear will be satisfied. In\\nthe line (Prologue to Canterbury Tales, 1. 46)\\nTrouthe and honour, fredom and cur tesie,\\nthe second syllable of honour is in the stroke or stress of the\\niambus. Although honour is quite emancipa ted from its\\nhereditary traces of foreign origin, as far as pronunciation\\ngoes, it is still written with a half-French spelling. The\\nadjective honourable is anglicised in the titular use of the\\nword, when it is written Honorable and there are some\\nauthors who now omit the u in the substantive and adjective\\nalike, and upon all occasions. The American writers are\\nconspicuous for their disposition to reject these traces of\\nearly French influence.\\nThus much has been said about this one word, because it\\nis the type of a large class to which the same remarks apply.\\nAnd in reading early English poets, if we care to catch the\\nmusic as well as the sense, we must bear in mind the differ-\\nence of pronunciation. That difference is not in all cases\\neasy to seize and define, but the case of words from the\\nFrench is exceedingly clear.\\nThe tendency of that nation is the reverse of ours in the\\nmatter of accentuation. They throw the accent often on\\nthe close of a word, we always try to get it as near the be-\\nginning as possible. There is a large body of French\\nwords in our language which have at length yielded to the\\ninfluences by which they are surrounded, and have come to\\nbe pronounced as English-born words. The same words\\nwere for centuries accented in the French manner, and\\nthese are especially the ones we ought to be familiar with,\\nif we would wish not to stumble at the rhythm of our early\\npoets.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "734 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nChaucer has\\naventure for\\nour adventure\\ncontree\\ncountry\\ncorage\\nfortune\\ncourage\\nfortune\\nlaboiire\\nlabour\\nlangage\\nlanguage\\nmariage\\nmarriage\\nnature\\nnature\\nreson\\nreason\\nvertiie\\nvirtue\\nviage\\nvoyage\\nvisage\\nvisage\\nLong after Chaucer did this French influence continue\\nto be felt in our language. Even so late as Milton consider-\\nable traces of it are found in his rhythms. For example,\\nhe accents asped on the last syllable, as in Paradise Los/,\\nyi. 450:\\nHis words here ended, but his meek aspect\\nSilent yet spake, and breath d immortal love.\\nAnd in vi. 81\\nIn battailous aspect, and nearer view.\\nThe word contest is accentuated by Milton as cotttest.\\nParadise Lost, iv. 872\\nNot likely to part hence without contest.\\nAgain, in the last line of the Ninth Book\\nAnd of their vain contest appeared no end.*\\nThis subject is ably treated by Mr. Hiram Corson, an\\nAmerican scholar, in his Introduction to a Student s Edition\\nof Chaucer s Legende of Goode Women.\\nThe case of the word contrary (cited by that writer) is\\ninteresting, especially as we are told in Walker s Pronouncing\\nDictionary, that the accent of this word is invariably placed\\non the first syllable by all correct speakers, and as con-\\nstantly removed to the second by the illiterate and vulgar/\\nThese seem rather hard terms to apply to the really\\ntime-honoured and classical pronunciation of contrary.\\nI", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION, 135\\nbut yet Walker doubtless expressed the current judgment\\nof the polite society of his and of our day.\\nWe find it in Shakspeare, Romeo and Juliet, i. 5\\nYou must contrary me, marry tis time.\\nAnd Spenser, Faery Queene, ii. 2. 24, where I will quote the\\nwhole stave for the sake of its beauty\\nAs a tall ship tossed in troublous seas\\n(Whom raging windes, threatning to make the pray\\nOf the rough rockes, doe diversly di^ase)\\nMeetes two contrarie billowes by the way,\\nThat her on either side doe sore assay,\\nAnd boast to swallow her in greedy grave\\nShee, scorning both their spights, does make wide way,\\nAnd, with her brest breaking the fomy wave.\\nDoes ride on both their backs, and faire herself doth save.*\\nAnd Milton in Samson Agonistes, 972\\nFame, if not double-fac d, is double-mouth d,\\nAnd with contrary blast proclaims most deeds.\\nIt was not only in our French borrowings that the accent\\nhad a place which now appears strange. There are words\\nof home growth which are found accented on the last, where\\nwe now accent them on the first. Example alsoe, in the\\nFaery Queene, ii. 5. 15:\\nLosse is no shame, nor to bee less then foe\\nBut to be lesser then himselfe doth marre\\nBoth loosers lott and victours prayse alsoe\\nVaine others overthrowes who selfe doth overthrow.\\nWe now say also and not also and the principle of the\\ntransfer is here exactly the same as in the French instances\\nabove viz. the prevailing tendency to throw the accent back\\non the beginning of words.\\nThat which originally gave also the disposition to be ac-\\ncented on the last, was this It consisted of two words eal\\n(all) and swa (so), of which swa was the leading word, and\\neal was a subordinate and modifying prefix and so long as", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "136 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nthis continued to be remembered, the stress was naturally\\non swa or so, even after they ceased to be separate words,\\nand had passed into the compound state. It is the same\\nprinciple that causes us, when we say, very much or quite\\nwell to lay the stress on much and well, because these are\\nthe leading words, to which very and quite are subordinate\\nas qualifying adverbs.\\nThe same reasoning applies to other home-bred com-\\npounds, which were once accented on their last syllable, but\\nare now altered. It will be found that when they existed as\\nseparate words and were in grammatical relations to each\\nother, the latter word was the more substantial, and the prior\\nword was the satellite, whether as adverb or adjective. Such\\nis the case of the word cilway or dhvays, which figures as\\nalwdy in the close of the following beautiful stave from\\nthe Faery Queene, i. i. 34\\nA litle lowly hermitage it was,\\nDowne in a dale, hard by a forest side.\\nFar from resort of people that did pas\\nIn traveill to and froe a litle wyde\\nThere was an holy chappell edifyde,\\nWherein the Hermite dewly wont to say\\nHis holy things each morne and eventyde\\nThereby a cristall streanie did gently play,\\nWhich from a sacred fountain welled forth alwiiy.\\nIn like manner Spenser has the accentuations black-\\nsmith, Faery Queene, iv. 5. 33; bloods he d, ii. 6. 34; brimstone,\\nii. 10. 26; earthquake, iii. 12. 2; offspring, iii. 9. 44 (also\\nMilton in Paradise Lost, ii. 310; iii. i); upright, in Mother\\nHubberd 728; all which cases might be grammatically\\njustified. But the grammatical relations are only part cause\\nto them has to be added the consideration that final accents\\nwere then more familiar than now, and moreover, that the\\nlanguage was in that fluid transitional state in which the poet\\nhas a much larger field of discretion than in later times.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 J\\nAccordingly we find many words diversely accented by the\\nsame poet. Hence there is need of caution in using a\\npoetical accentuation as an absolute criterion of the old\\npronunciation. Some examples are purely arbitrary for the\\nimmediate needs of the rhythm. Such are endless^ Faery\\nQueene, iii. 5. 42 further, vi. 10. 37 but many might\\nappear arbitrary which can be accounted for on in-\\ndependent grounds: as lightning, Faery Queene, iii. 12. 2;\\nnightly, vi. 12. 14 therefore, iii. 5. 46.\\nWe must not proceed further with the poetical illustrations\\nin this place, lest we should seem to trend on the subject of\\naccent in its modulatory relations, which will have to be\\ntreated separately.\\nAlthough the disposition of our language is to throw the\\naccent back, yet we are far from having divested ourselves of\\nwords accented on the last syllable. There are a certain num-\\nber of cases in which this constitutes a useful distinction, when\\nthe same word acts two parts. Such is the case of humane\\nand human of august and the month of August, which is\\nin fact the selfsame word. Sometimes the accent marks the\\ndistinction between the verb and the noun thus we say\\nto rehe l, to record but a re bel, a record. When the lawyers\\nspeak of a record (substantively), they merely preserve the\\noriginal French pronunciation, and thereby remind us that\\nthe distincdon last indicated is a pure English invention.\\nWe have many borrowed words to which we have given\\na domestic character by setting them to our own music.\\nBut independently of this set of words in which the accent\\non the last syllable is of manifest utility, there are others\\nnaturally accented in the same manner in which there seems\\nto be no disposition to introduce a change. Examples\\npolite, urbane, jocose, divine, complete.\\nTo these Romance examples may be added some of pure", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "1 38 SPELLING AND PJRONUNCIATION.\\nSaxon, e.g. all the disyllabic compounds beginning with\\n5e- become, he/ore, beware, beyond, behead, bethink, beget, be-\\nqueathe, bequest, below the emphasis, which naturally rests\\non the last, has never been transferred by fashion to the\\nfirst. And that is because the subsidiariness of the be- has\\nnever been lost sight of. The English disyllables which\\nare now accented on the last syllable amount to the number\\nof 1635, as I know from a manuscript Hst of them which\\nI have, in the handwriting of a friend.\\nIn the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, it was\\na trick and fashion of the times to lengthen words by the\\naddition of an e, and also to double the consonants. These\\nare the characteristic features of the spelling with which\\nwe are familiar in Spenser, who is edited in the ortho-\\ngraphy of his time. In the following passage ^the word\\nwones dwells) is written wonnes\\nFor now the best and noblest Knight aUve\\nPrince Arthur is, that wonnes in Faerie lond.\\nFaery Queene, ii. 3. 18.\\nIn the same way he writes bespi inckled, himselfe, thanklesse,\\nblincked, dogge, lincked, home, cleare, ecchoed, agame\\nAt last they heard a home that shrilled cleare\\nThroughout the wood that ecchoed againe. lb. 20.\\nA great number of these final s have been abolished,\\nothers have been utilised, as observed on p. 140; but these\\nfashions mostly leave their traces in hereditary relics.\\nSuch is the e at the end of therefore, which has no use as\\nexpressive of sound, and which exerts a delusive effect on\\nthe sense, making the word look as if it were a compound\\noifore like before, instead of withy^r, which is the fact and\\nfor this reason some American books now print therefor.\\nSo with reference to the doubling of the k by ck. Many\\nof these remained to a late date and there are some few", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "SRELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 39\\narchaisms of this sort which have only just been disused.\\nSuch are poetick, ascetick, politick, catholick, instead of poetic,\\nascetic, politic, catholic. This was the constant orthography\\nof Dr. Johnson. The next year (17 13), in which Cato\\ncame upon the stage, was the grand climacterick of Addison s\\nreputation. Johnson s Lives of the English Poets. When\\nsuch excrescences are dismissed, it is quite usual to make\\nan exception in favour of proper names. There are very\\ngood and practical reasons why these should affect a spell-\\ning somewhat removed from the common habits of the lan-\\nguage, and accordingly we find that almost every discarded\\nfashion of spelling lives on somewhere in proper names.\\nThe orthography of Frederick has not been reformed, and\\nthe ck holds its ground advantageously against the timidly\\nadvancing fashion of writing Frederic.\\nTo the same period belongs the practice of writing\\ndouble at the end of such words as celestiall, mortall,\\nfaithfull, eternall, counsell, naturall, unequall, wakefull, cruell\\nalso in such words as lilly {Faery Queene, ii. 3. 26).\\nIt is a relic of this fashion that we still continue to write\\ntill, all, full, instead of til, al,ful.\\nIf we add a still lingering inclination to c for s, and_y for\\ni, we have the main features of that orthography, which may\\nroughly be dated as lying between the reigns of Henry VI\\nand George III.\\nSpenser has bace desyre, Faery Queene, ii. 3. 23, for base\\ndesire.\\nThe vacillation between c and s terminated discriminatively\\nin a few instances. Thus we have prophesy the verb, and\\nprophecy the noun to practise and a practice license and\\nlicefice; the former for a legal permission or, as the French\\nsay, concession the latter for an abuse of liberty.\\nLicence they mean when they cry liberty. Mihon.", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "140 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nIn the case of the e-suhscripi, that which had originally\\nbeen nothing more than a trick or fashion of the times,\\ncame to have a definite signification assigned to it. In the\\nfifteenth century it was a mere Frenchism, a fashion and\\nnothing more. But in the sixteenth century it came to be\\nregarded as a grammatical sign that the proper vowel of the\\nsyllable was long^. Against this orthographical idiom the\\nScotch grammarian, Alexander Hume, who dedicated his\\nbook to King James I, stoutly protested\\nWe use alsoe, almost at the end of everie word, to wn te an idle e. This\\nsum defend not to be idle, because it aifectes the voual before the consonant,\\nthe sound quherof many tymes alteres the signification as, hop is altera\\ntaiitum pede saltare; hope is sperare: fir, abies; fyre, ignis: ?ifin, pinna; fine,\\nprobatus bid, jubere bide, manere with many moe. It is true that the\\nsound of the voual befoer the consonant many tymes doth change the sig-\\nnification but it is as untrue that the voual e behind the consonant doth\\nchange the sound of the voual before it. A voual devyded from a voual\\nbe a consonant can be noe possible means return thorough the consonant\\ninto the former voual. Consonanles betuene vouales are lyke partition walles\\nbetuen roomes. Nothing can change the sound of a voual but an other\\nvoual coalescing with it into one sound, of quhilk we have spoaken suf-\\nficientlie, cap. 3.\\nTo illustrat this be the same exemples, saltare is to hop; sperare is\\nto hoep ahies is fir; ignis _;3 or, if you wil,^er jubere is 6iof; manere\\nbyd or hied.\\nYet in sum case we are forced to tolerat this idle e i in wordes ending\\nin c, to break the sound of it as peace, face, lace, justice, etc. 2. behind s,\\nin wordes wryten with this s; as, false, ise, case, muse, use, etc.: 3, behind\\na broaken g as, hiawlege, savage, suage, aid age. Ther may be moe, and\\nthese I yeld because I ken noe other waye to help this necessitie, rather then\\nthat I can think anye idle symbol tolerable in just orthographic. Of the Or-\\nthographie, c., p. 21.\\nThe fifteenth century is the earliest period to which we\\ncan refer the French fashion of combining gu in the be-\\nginning of a word to express nothing more than the G-sound.\\nChaucer has guerdon, which is a French word but he did\\nnot apply this spelling to words of English origin, such\\nTo indicate the subservient use of this letter, I have (for want of a\\nbetter expression) borrowed from a somewhat analogous thing in Greek\\ngrammar the term e-sxibscript.", "height": "3184", "width": "2024", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 141\\nas, guess, guest, guild, guile, guilt. These in Chaucer are\\nwritten without the u.\\nIn the sixteenth century there appeared a fashion of\\nwriting certain words with initial sc- which before had simple\\nS-. It was merely a way of writing the words, and was\\nwithout any significance as to the sound. Hence the forms\\nscion, scent, scite, scituation, and scymitar. It probably sprung\\nfrom the analogy of such Latin forms as scene, science,\\nsceptre, c. The case of scymitar may be justified by\\nreference to the Italian form scimitarra, though the First\\nFolio of Shakspeare had semitar and symitare, as\\nBy this Symitare\\nThat slew the Sophy and a Persian Prince.\\nMercbatit of Venice, ii. I.\\nBut scion, scent, and scite have nothing for them but fancy.\\nScion is an obscure word, probably an old gardening term,\\nas that passage of Othello i. 3 seems to indicate whereof\\nI take this that you call Loue, to be a Sect, or Seyen. (First\\nFolio) As sect means a cutting, so seyen or scion,\\nseems to be a slip or sucker. Or rather perhaps a graft, as\\nit clearly is in Henry V, iii. 5\\nOur Syons, put in wilde and sauage Stock,\\nSpirt up so suddenly into the Clouds,\\nAnd ouer-looke their grafters? First Folio. 1 623.\\nScent is from the Latin seniire, French sentir, and is\\nwritten sent in Spenser, Faery Queene, i. i. 53.\\nScite seems to be returning to its natural orthography of\\nsite, as being derived from the Latin situs: and we once\\nmore write it as did Spenser and Ben Jonson. But there\\nare still persons of authority who adhere to the seventeenth-\\ncentury practice the practice of Fuller, Burnet, and Drayton.\\nIn the sixteenth century there was a great disposition to\\nprefix a w before certain words beginning with an h or with", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "142 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nan B. This seems to have been due to assimilation. There\\nexisted of old in the language a group of words beginning\\nwith wh and wr such as, whale, wharf, what, which, who,\\nwheat, wheel, when, where, whither, c.y wreak, wreath,\\nwrestle, wrath, wrist, write, wright, c. all familiar words,\\nand some of them words of the first necessity. The con-\\ntagion of these examples spread to words beginning with\\nH or R simple, and the movement was perhaps aided in\\nsome measure by the desire to reassert the languishing\\ngutturalism of h and (we may add) of e.\\nThis was the means of engendering some strange forms\\nof orthography, which either became speedily extinct or\\nmaintained an obscure existence. For example; whote is\\nfound instead of i^^/y whome instead oi home wrote instead\\nof root. But besides these obscure forms, others sprang up\\nunder the same influence, which have retained a place in\\nstandard English. Among such may be quoted whole instead\\nof hole or hale, which sense it bears in the English New\\nTestament, though it has since run off from the sense of\\nhale, sound (integer), into that of complete (totus). But,\\nfamous as this word has become from its frequent presence\\nin our New Testament And he was made whole from that\\nvery hour yet there is another word of this class which\\nhas a still greater celebrity. It is that ill-appreciated word\\nwretchlessness, in our XVIIth Article. To understand this\\nword, we have only to look at it when divested of its initial\\nw, as retchlessness and then, according to principles already\\ndefined, to remember that an ancient Saxon c at the end of\\na syllable commonly developed into tch; and in this way we\\nget back to the verb to reck, Anglo-Saxon recan, to care for.\\nSo that retch-less-7iess is equivalent to care-nought-state of\\nmind, that is to say, it is much the same thing as despera-\\ntion. The prefixed iv has in this instance proved fatal to", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. J 43\\nthe word. The /ck form^ of this root has fallen out of use.\\nMost probably the prefixing of this w has extinguished it.\\nFor it had the eifect of creating a confusion between this\\nword and wretch, a word totally distinct, and this is one of\\nthe greatest causes of words dying out, when they clash\\nwith others and promote confusion. We still retain, how-\\never, the verb to 7 eck, and also reckless and recklessness,\\nwhich means the same as wretchlessness.\\nExamples of whole for hot are found in the writings of the\\nReformers. An instance may be readily quoted from one\\nof the Martyrs of the Reformation Them which went\\nabout to make whole and to furnish their cold and empty\\nkitchens. (John Philpot, in Parker Society, p. 414).\\nThe Bible-translator, Myles Coverdale [Parker Society, i.\\n17), spelt r aught (the preterite of reach, and equivalent of\\nour reached) with a w. Speaking of Adam stretching forth\\nhis hand to pick the forbidden fruit, he says, he wrought\\nlife and died the death. That is to say, he (raught)\\nsnatched at life, and, c.\\nIn the case of zvhole for hole, the language has been\\naccidentally enriched. A new word has been introduced, and\\none which has made for itself a place of the first importance\\nin the language. For the expression the whole has obtained\\npronominal value in English.\\nThis prevalence of the initial w is perhaps in some measure\\nto be traced to an influence from the western counties. At\\nany rate, it is there that we still observe an excess of the\\nsame tendency. One of the most remarkable instances of\\nthis change (remarkable because it was made in the pronun-\\nciation only and not in the writing of the word) is that of\\nthe numeral one. It used to be pronounced as written, very\\nlike the preposition oft, a sound naturally derived from its\\noriginal form in the Saxon numeral an. But it has now long", "height": "3176", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "144 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nbeen pronounced as wujsr or won (in Devonshire wonn), and\\nthis change may with probability be placed at the close of\\nthe sixteenth century. It was apparently a western habit\\nwhich got into standard English. In the eastern parts of.\\nEngland, and especially in London, it is well-known ver-\\nnacular to say UN, commonly written un, as if a Z\u00c2\u00a3^ had\\nbeen elided e.g. a good un. In the West may be heard\\nthe wonn en the wother for the one and the other.\\nOne of the features of the Dorset dialect, as exhibited in\\nthe poems of the Rev. William Barnes, is the broad use of\\nthis initial w, both in the first numeral and in other words\\nsuch as woak for oak, woM for old, zvoa^s for oats, in which\\nthe practice has not been generally adopted.\\nJohn Bloom he wer a jolly soul,\\nA grinder o the best o meal,\\nBezide a river that did roll,\\nVrom week to week, to push his wheel.\\nHis flour were all a-meade o wheat\\nAn fit vor bread that vo k mid eat\\nVor he would starve avore he d cheat.\\nTis pure, woone woman cried\\nAy, sure, woone mwore replied\\nYou ll vind it nice. Buy ivoonce, buy twice,\\nCried worthy Bloom the miller,\\nThe same worthy miller sitting in his oaken chair is\\ndescribed as\\nA-zitten in his cheair o woak.\\nTo the same tendency belongs such spellings as Iwoad,\\nmwore, for load, more, c., which occur in the same\\nauthor.\\nBut while we point to the western counties as the pos-\\nsible source of this feature, we must not overlook the fact that\\nin Yorkshire, and generally throughout the North, one is pro-\\nnounced wonn, and oats are called wufs, as distinctly as in\\nGloucestershire and the West of England. Whatever regions\\nwe may trace it to, we must regard this w with particular", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. [45\\ninterest as being a creation of the English speech-genius.\\nTo the Danish it is ungenial they have dropped it in words\\nwhere it is of ancient standing, and where we have it in\\ncommon with the Germans, as in week, wool, wolf, c.,\\nwhich the Danes call uge, uld, ulf, c.\\nThe Germans do in fact write the w in these words,\\nSBoc^e, $5oUe, 3Sulf. But they do not properly share with\\nus our w for they pronounce it as our v, and in this\\nrespect they leave us in the sole possession of our w, which\\nis accordingly a distinct feature and special birthright of\\nEnglish, as much so as the G-like J is of the French lan-\\nguage. It is plain that in some words this consonant w\\nhas grown up out of nothing in many more (as we began\\nby saying) it has been prefixed assimilatively.\\nThis principle of assimilation displays itself in many little\\npeculiarities of our spelling. It was on this principle that\\nthe word kiln came to be spelt after miln. This antique\\nform of 7nill has left its trace in the family name of Milner.\\nThis word had inherited the n, Latin molendinum, Saxon\\nmyln. But the other is a native word cyL Of the three\\ntimes that it occurs in the Authorised Version of 161 1, it is\\nonce written kilne, 2 Sam. xii. 31, and twice it is kill^ Jer.\\nxliii. 9, Neh. iii. 14.\\nIt was on the same principle that the word could acquired\\nits L. This word has no natural right to the l at all, being\\nof the same root as can, and the second syllable in uncouth,\\nviz. from the verb which in Saxon was written cunnan. In\\nwould and should the l is hereditary; but could acquired the\\nL by mere force of association with them. And it seems\\nprobable that the silence of the l in all three of these words\\nmay be due to the example of could. The coud sound\\nkept its place alongside of the written could^ and at length\\ndrew would and should over to the like pronunciation. In\\nL", "height": "3184", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "146 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nthe poet Surrey and his contemporaries we find would and\\neven could rhymed to mould and it is quite likely that\\npedantry forced could for a time into a pronunciation an-\\nswering to its new spelling. It seems that l drops its sound\\neasily before the dentals for though we now pronounce\\nall the letters in the word fault, yet our fathers ignored\\nthe L in this word also. In the Deserted Village it rhymes\\nto aught\\nYet he was kind, or if severe in aught,\\nThe love he bore to learning was in fault.\\nBut this is, in fact, only one of the many instances in\\nwhich we have dropped a French pronunciation for one of\\nour own making, and in the making of which we have been\\nled by the spelling.\\nBetween spelling and pronunciation there is a mutual\\nattraction, insomuch that when spelling no longer follows\\nthe pronunciation, but is hardened into orthography, the pro-\\nnunciation begins to move towards the spelling. A familiar\\nillustration of this may be found in the words Derby, clerk,\\nin which the er sounds as ar, but which many persons,\\nespecially of that class which is beginning to claim educated\\nrank, now pronounce literally. The pronunciation itself was\\na good Parisian fashion in the fifteenth century. Villon,\\nthe French poet of that period, aff ords in his rhymes some\\ngood illustrations of this. He rhymes Robert, haubert, with\\npluspart, poupart barre with terre appert with part,\\ndespart, c\\nBut it must have been much older than the time of Villon.\\nIn Chaucer, Prologue 391, we are not to suppose that\\nDertemouthe is to be pronounced as it was by the boy who\\nin one of our great schools was the cause of hilarity to his\\nCEuvrei. Completes de Francois Villon, ed. Jannet, p. xxiii.", "height": "3188", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION, I47\\nclass-fellows by calling that seaport Dirty-mouth. The whole\\nword is a trisyllable in Chaucer but the first syllable repre-\\nsents the same sound as Dart now does. Another illustra-\\ntion of er representing the sound of ar is in our word\\nmerchant, which at first would have been a mere variety of\\nspelling for marchant, as it is spelt in Chaucer, according\\nto its French extraction. Both forms are preserved in the\\ncase o^ person 2,n^ parson.\\nThere are other familiar instances in which we may trace\\nthe influence of orthography upon pronunciation. The\\ngeneration which is now in the stage beyond middle life,\\nare some of them able to remember when it was the correct\\nthing to say Lunnon. At that time young people practised\\nto say it, and studied to fortify themselves against the vul-\\ngarism of saying London, according to the literal pronun-\\nciation. At the same time Sir John was pronounced with\\nthe accent on Sir, in such a manner that it was liable to be\\nmistaken for surgeon. This accentuation of Sir John may\\nbe traced further back, however, even to Shakspeare, unless\\nour ears deceive us. 2 Henry VI, ii. 3. 13\\nLive in your country here in banishment,\\nWith Sir John Stanley in the Isle of Man.\\nAlso, 4. 77,\\nAnd Sir John Stanley is appointed now\\nTo take her with him to the Isle of Man.\\nCompare Milton, Sonnet xi.\\nThy age, like ours, O soul of Sir John Cheek,\\nHated not learning worse than toad or asp,\\nWhen thou taught st Cambridge and King Edward Greek.\\nThe same generation said poo-nish for punish (a relic of the\\nFrench u in punir) and when they spoke of 2^ joint of mutton\\nthey called it jinte ox jeynt. In some cases it approximated\\nto the aOMTid.jiveynte, and this was heard in the more retired;\\nL 2", "height": "3184", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "148 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nparts among country gentlemen. This is in fact the missing\\nlink between the ez or eye sound and the French diphthong\\noz or oi e in imitation of which the peculiarity originated.\\nThe French words /oz 2ind Joz e are sounded as I wa and J wa,\\nWhen the French pronunciation had degenerated so far in\\nsuch words 2js join, joint, that the was taken no account of,\\nand they were uttered as jine, jink, a reaction set in, and\\nrecourse was had to the native English fashion of pro-\\nnouncing the diphthong oi. Hence our present join, joint,\\nc., do not always rhyme where they ought to rhyme, and\\nonce did rhyme.\\nThat beautiful verse in the ic6th Psalm (New Version)\\nis hardly producible in refined congregations, by reason of\\nthis change in its closing rhyme\\nO may I worthy prove to see\\nThy saints in full prosperity\\nThat I the joyful choir may join,\\nAnd count thy people s triumph mine\\nThe fashion has not yet quite passed away of pronouncing\\nRome as the word 7 oo?n is pronounced. This is an ancient\\npronunciation, as is well known from puns in Shakspeare.\\nNo doubt it is the phantom of an old French pronunciation\\nof the name, bearing the same relation to the French Rome\\n(pron. JRom) that boon does to the French bon. But what is\\nodd about it, is, that in Shakspeare s day the modern pro-\\nnunciation (like roam) was already heard and recognised,\\nand that the double pronunciation should have gone on till\\nnow, and it should have taken such a time to establish the\\nmastery of the latter. The fact probably is, that the room\\npronunciation has been kept alive in the aristocratic region,\\nwhile the rest of the world has been saying the name as\\nit is generally said now. Room is said to have been the\\nhabitual pronunciation of the late Lord Lansdowne; not", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 49\\nto instance living persons. The Shakspearean evidence\\nis from the following passages. King John, iii. i\\nCon. O lawfull let it be\\nThat I have roome with Rome to curse a while,\\nSo also m Julius CcBsar, i. 2. But in i Henry VI, iii. i\\nWinch. Rome shall remedie this.\\nWarw. Roame thither then.\\nThere still exist among us a few personages who cul-\\nminated under George IV, and who adhere to the now anti-\\nquated fashion of their palmy days. With them it used to\\nbe, and indeed still is, a point of distinction to pronounce\\ngold as g07dd or gu-uld yellow as y allow lilac as leyloc\\nchina as cheyney oblige as ohleege, after the Frehch obliger.\\nTo this group of waning and venerable sounds, which\\nwere talismans of good breeding in their day, may be added\\nthe pronunciation of the plural verb are like the word air.\\nThe following quotation from Wordsworth, Thoughts near\\nthe Residence of Burns, exhibits it in rhyme with prayer\\nhear share\\nBut why to him confine the prayer,\\nWhen kindred thoughts and j^earnings bear\\nOn the frail heart the purest share\\nWith all that live?\\nThe best of what we do and are.\\nJust God, forgive\\nRarer are the instances in which the number of syllables\\nhas been affected by change of pronunciation. A celebrated\\nexample is the plural aches/ which is thus commented\\nupon in Curiosities of Literature, by Isaac Disraeli\\nAches. Swift s own edition of The City Shower has old a-ches\\nthrob. Aches is two syllables, but modern printers, who had lost the right\\npronunciation, have aches as one syllable, and then, to complete the metre,\\nhave foisted in aches will throb. Thus what the poet and the linguist\\nwish to preserve is altered, and finally lost.", "height": "3176", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "150 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nA good example occurs in Hiidihras, iii. 1, 407, where persons are\\nmentioned who\\nCan by their pangs and aches find\\nAll turns and changes of the wind.\\nThe rhythm here demands the dissyllable a-ches. as used by the older\\nwriters, Shakespeare particularly, who, in his Tempest, makes Prospero\\nthreaten Caliban\\nIf thou neglect st, or dost unwillingly\\nWhat I command, I ll rack thee with old cramps\\nFill all thy bones with aches make thee roar\\nThat beasts shall tremble at the din.\\nJohn Kemble was aware of the necessity of using this word in this\\ninstance as a dissyllable, but it Was so unusual to his audiences that it\\nexcited ridicule; and during the O.P. row, a medal was struck, representing\\nhim as manager, enduring the din of cat-calls, trumpets, and rattles, and\\nexclaiming Oh my head aitches\\nBut for such examples we might be apt to imagine that\\nour pronunciation was as fixed as our orthography. These\\nand a few more may lead us to observe that when spelling\\nceases to wait on pronunciation it begins to take a sort\\nof lead and to draw pronunciation after it. An interesting\\nillustration of this may be gathered from the history of\\nthe word tea.\\nWe have all heard some village dame talk of her dish\\no tay but the men of our generation are surprised when\\nthey first learn that this pronunciation of lea is classical\\nEnglish, and is enshrined in the verses of Alexander Pope.\\nThe following rhymes are from the Rape 0/ the Lock.\\nSoft yielding minds to Water gHde away,\\nAnd sip, with Nymphs, their elemental Tea. (Canto i.)\\nHere thou, great Anna whom three realms obey.\\nDost sometimes counsel take and sometimes Tea. (Canto iii.)\\nThat this was the general pronunciation of good com-\\npany down to the close of the last century there is no\\ndoubt. The following quotation will carry us to 1775, the", "height": "3188", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 151\\ndate of a poem entitled Bath and Ifs Environs, in three\\ncantos, p. 25.\\nMuse o er some book, or trifle o er the tea,\\nOr with soft musick charm dull care away.\\nThis old pronunciation was borrowed with the word from\\nthe French, who still call the Chinese beverage tay, and\\nwrite it the. Our present pronunciation has resulted from\\nan important movement in the phonetic signification of\\nEA. There is now only one acknowledged value of ea;\\nbut formerly there were two. A change has gradually crept\\nover certain words that had ea, sounding like ay. These\\nhave mostly (but not entirely) been assimilated to the more\\nnumerous instances in which ea sounds like ee or e. It\\nis certain that when tea was introduced into England by\\nthe name of tay, it seemed natural to represent that sound\\nby the letters t, e, a.\\nAlthough there are a great many words in English which\\nhold the diphthong ea, as beat, dear, death, eat, fear, gear,\\nhead, learn, mean, neat, pear, read, seat, teat, wean, yet the\\ncases of ea ending an English word are very few. Ben\\nJonson, in his day, having produced four of them, viz. flea,\\nplea, sea, yea, added, and you have at one view all our words\\nof this termination. He forgot the word lea, or perhaps\\nregarded it as a bad spelling for ley or lay. This makes five.\\nA sixth, pea, has come into existence since. It is a mere\\ncreature of grammar, a singular begotten of the young\\nplural pease. In the sixteenth century pease was singular, and\\npeason or peasen was plural, as we see in the following\\npassages from Surrey\\nAll men might well dispraise\\nMy wit and enterprise.\\nIf I esteemed a pease\\nAbove a pearl in price.\\nI", "height": "3184", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "152 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION,\\nTickle treasure, abhorred of reason,\\nDangerous to deal with, vain, of none avail\\nCostly in keeping, past not worth two peason\\nSlipper in sliding, as is an eeles tail.\\nTo these there has been added a sixth, viz. Tea.\\nAt the time when this orthography of tea was determined,\\nit is certain that most instances of ea final sounded as ay,\\nand probable that all did. In a large number of words with\\nEA internal, the pronunciation had long been different. But\\neven in these cases there is room to suspect that the ay\\nsound was once general, if not universal. We still give it the\\nAY sound in measure, pleasure^ treasure where ea, though\\nin the midst of a word, is at the close of a syllable. But\\nthere are cases in which it is still so sounded in the middle\\nof a syllable, as it is in great and break.\\nIn Surrey we find heat rhyme to great, and no doubt it\\nwas a true rhyme. Surrey pronounced heat as the majority\\nof our countrymen, at least in the west country, still do, viz.\\nas hayt. The same poet rhymes ease to assays\\nThe peasant, and the post, that serves at all assays\\nThe ship-boy, and the galley-slave, have time to take their ease\\nwhere it is plain that ease still kept to the French sound of\\naise. Then, further, the same poet has in a sonnet, the\\nfollowing run of rhyming words\\nease j\\nmisease\\nplease\\ndays J\\nwhich renders it tolerably plain, that please was pronounced\\nas the French plaise, as it still is pronounced by the majority\\nof EngUsh people.\\nThese investigations suggest many questions as to the\\nalterations that our pronunciation may have undergone.\\nFor instance, did Abraham Cowley pronounce cheat as we", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 153\\noften hear it in our own day, viz. as chayt He has the\\nfollowing rhyme\\nIf e er ambition did my fancy cheat\\nWith any wish so mean as to be great.\\nAnd how did Milton sound the rhymes of this couplet in the\\nL Allegro\\nWith stories told of many a feat,\\nHow fairy Mab the junkets eat.\\nMust we not suppose that eat being in the preterite, and\\nequivalent to ate, had a sound unlike our present pronuncia-\\ntion oi/eat. And if so, the derivation of the word from the\\nFrench/ suggests the soundsy^v and ayt.\\nDr. Watts (1709) rhymes sea to away. Sir Roundell\\nPalmer s Book 0/ Praise, clxi:\\nBut timorous mortals start and shrink\\nTo cross this narrow sea.\\nAnd linger shivering on the brink,\\nAnd fear to launch away.\\nGoldsmith, in The Haunch of Venison, puts this pronuncia-\\ntion into the mouth of an under-bred fine-spoken fellow\\nAn under- bred fine-spoken fellow was he,\\nAnd he smil d as he look d on the venison and me.\\nWhat have we got here? Why this is good eating I\\nYour own, I suppose or is it in wailing\\nHowever we may be puzzled to account for the letters ea\\nbeing used to represent the sound of ay, there can be no\\ndispute about the fact; and it removes the wonder of the\\northography of the word tea pronounced lay. It also throws\\nlight upon a passage in Shakspeare, i Henry IV, ii. 3, where\\nFalstaif says if Reasons were as plentie as Black-berries,\\nI would giue no man a Reason vpon compulsion, I. It\\nseems that half a pun underlies this; the association of\\nreasons with blackberries springing out of the fact that", "height": "3176", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "154 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nreasojts sounded like raisi7ts. In the analogous word season,\\nwe have ea substituted for the older ay for, in the fifteenth\\ncentury, Lydgate wrote this word saysoun and saysonne.\\nWhen we look at the word treason, and consider its relation\\nto the French trahison, who can suppose that the pronun-\\nciation treeson is anything but a modernism\\nIn The Stage-Players Complaint (1641), we find nay spelt\\nnea Nea you know this well enough, but onely you love\\nto be inquisitive.\\nWhen, in 1765, Josiah Wedgwood, having received his\\nfirst order from Queen Charlotte, wrote to get some help\\nfrom a relative in London, he described the Hst of tea things\\nwhich were ordered, and he spelt the word tray thus, trea\\nfor so only can we understand it Teapot stand,\\nspoon-trea. The orthography may be either his own or\\nthat of Miss Chetwynd, from whom the instructions came\\nIt is not unlikely that this use of ea runs back into Saxon\\ntimes. It was one of the most frequent and characteristic\\nof Saxon diphthongs. But when we come to Chaucer we\\nhardly find it at all. There may be a doubtful reading of\\ndeath for deth in the Knight s Tale and there are the cases\\nin which the e and a stand contiguous, but in different syl-\\nlables, as in creature, piirveaunce, Scythea. But speaking\\nbroadly, ea has disappeared in Chaucer s English. This\\nis more forcible than fists of words to indicate the deep\\neffect which the French language had taken on ours. The\\nSaxon tear is in Chaucer teer or tere yar is yeer or\\nyere, and so on. It matters not that later there was\\na return to the spelling tear 2ind year, when we had for ever\\nlost what that spelling represented for though we now\\nwrite tear, year, we sa} teer, yeer.\\nLife of Josiah Wedgwood by E ,i/.a Meteyard (1865 vol. i. p. 371.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. J 55\\nBut while commixture with French had aboHshed this old\\ndiphthongal sound in the centre of English society, we may\\nbe sure it lived on provincially. And a few traces may be\\ncollected which seem to indicate that it grew towards the\\nsound Ai or ay. Thus the Saxon ceaster has produced\\nCaistor and Caystor, The Saxon word ea water, has pro-\\nduced Eaton, it must be admitted, and Eton in the more\\ncentral neighbourhoods, but in remoter regions also Aytoun\\nand the Saxon numeral eahta is pronounced ayt and written\\neight.\\nFrom Elizabeth s time onward there was a gradual re-\\nadmission of this diphthong in a few words with the sound\\nof AY, as the above examples shew.\\nIn further illustration we may quote from Michael Dray-\\nton s Polyolbion, xixth song (1662)\\nFoure such Immeasur d Pooles, Phylosophers agree,\\nIth foure parts of the world undoubtedly to bee\\nFrom which they haue supposd, Nature the winds doth raise.\\nAnd from them to proceed the flowing of the Seas.\\nFamily names offer some examples to the same effect.\\nA friend informs me that he had once a relative, who in\\nwriting was Mr. Lea, but he pronounced his name Lay\\nand I am courteously permitted to use for illustration the\\nname of Mr. Rea, of Newcastle, the well-known organist,\\nwhose family tradition renders the name as Ray/\\nIf it has been made plain that ea sounded ay in many\\ncases, it will be a step to the clearing of another anomaly.\\nIt has been asked why we spell conceive with ei, and yet spell\\nbelieve, reprieve., c., v/ith ie The difficulty lies in this fact\\nthat the pronunciation of these dissimilar diphthongs is the\\nsame. And the answer lies in this that the pronunciation\\nwas different. Those words which we now write with ei,\\nto wit, deceive., perceiv^e, co?iceive, receive were all pronounced", "height": "3176", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "156 SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION.\\nwith a -caj ve sound, as they still are in many localities. The\\nreadiest proof of this is in the facts, (i) that you will not\\nfind them rhymed with words of the z e type, and (2) that\\nyou will continually find them spelt with ea, as deceave, per-\\nceave, conceave, receave.\\nIn a fac-simile letter of Edward Hyde, the first Earl of\\nClarendon (b. 16 18, d. 1674), he writes receaued and per-\\nceaue, where we should spell received and perceive. Fac-\\nsimiles of private letters are of excellent use ki these\\ninvestigations, because they supply us with the evidence\\nof independent ears. At an early date, certainly as. early\\nas 161 1, the printers had taken spelling into their hands,\\nand a professional orthography was forming. This weakens\\nthe evidence of printed books and enhances the value of\\nprivate letters. In the Bible of 1611 these verbs are\\nall spelt -ceive. So in the First Folio of Shakspeare, 1623.\\nBut we find abundant proof, both before and after these\\ndates, that -ceave seemed the most natural way to represent\\nthe sound. But in fact the two spellings confirm each\\nother as evidence to this, that the sound was -cayve. For\\nwhat the printers meant by their ei was doubtless the sound\\nay. On the other hand when ie was introduced, as in the\\nspelling of believe, it meant the sound now understood.\\nThis may be gathered from the quotation of the Bible of\\n1 6 1 1 in the early part of this chapt er.\\nThere is at least one word which still vacillates between\\nthe two sounds of ea, and that is the word break\\nStill feel the breeze down Ettrick break\\nAlthough it chill my withered cheek Scott.\\nAh, his eyelids slowly break\\nTheir hot seals, and let him wake Matthew Arnold.\\nThat the latter is /he pronunciation at the present time, I\\nthere can be no doubt and yet the former is heard from j", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 1 57\\nSO many persons who are able to read and write, that it may\\nperhaps establish itself in the end.\\nIn summing up the case of Spelling and Pronunciation,\\nwe may again make use of the famous example of tea.\\nWhen this word was first spelt, the letters came at the call\\nof the sound the spelling followed the pronunciation.\\nBut since that time, the letters having changed their value,\\nthe sound of the word has shared the vicissitude of its\\nletters the pronunciation has followed the spelling. It is\\nmanifest that these movements have one and the same aim,\\nnamely, to make the spelling phonetically symbolise the\\npronunciation. But there are two great obstacles to such\\na consummation: (i) The letters of the alphabet are too\\nfew to represent all the variety of simple sounds in the\\nEnglish language (2) But even what they might do is not\\ndone, because of the restraining hand of traditional asso-\\nciation. The consequence is, that when we use the word\\northography, we do not mean a mode of spelling which\\nis true to the pronunciation, but one which is conventionally\\ncorrect.", "height": "3176", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER III.\\nOF INTERJECTIONS.\\nThe term interjection signifies something that is pitched in\\namong things of which it does not naturally form a con-\\nstituent part. The name has been given it by grammarians,\\nin order to express its relation to grammatical structures.\\nIt is found in them, but it forms no part of them.\\nThe interjection may be defined as a form of speech\\nwhich is articulate but not grammatical.\\nAn interjection implies a meaning which it would require\\na whole grammatical sentence to expound, and it may be\\nregarded as the rudiment of such a sentence. But it is\\na confusion of thought to rank it among the parts of speech.\\nIt is not in any sense a part; it is a whole (though an\\nindistinct) expression of feeling or of thought. An inter-\\njection bears to its context the same sort of relation as\\na pictorial illustration does.\\nIt may stand either insulated in the sentence, or con-\\nnected with it by a preposition, as\\nOh for a humbler heart and prouder song\\nWe rightly call an adjective or an adverb a part of speech,\\nbecause these have no meaning by themselves without the\\naid of nouns and verbs, and because their very designation\\n1", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "CF INTERJECTIONS. I59\\nimplies the existence of nouns and verbs. But an interjec-\\ntion is intelligible without any grarnmatical adjunct; and\\nsuch completeness as it is capable of is obtained without\\nany external assistance.\\nAncient grammarians ranked the interjections as adverbs,\\nbut the moderns have made them a separate class. If\\nit were a question to which of the parts of speech the\\ninterjection is most cognate, it must be answered to the\\nverb. For if we take any simple interjection, such as, for\\nexample, the cry Oh, Oh in the House of Commons,\\nand translate it into plain English, it can only be done by\\na verb, either in the imperative or in the indicative first per-\\nson. Either you must say it is equivalent to Don t say\\nsuch things, or else to I doubt, I wonder, I demur,\\nI dispute, I deny, I protest, c. by one or more of\\nthese or such verbs must Oh, Oh be explained and if it\\nmust be classed among parts of speech at all, it should count\\nas a rudimentary verb.\\nIt is from that germ of verbal activity which is innate in\\nthe interjection, that it adapts itself readily to perform the\\noffice of a conjunction. It has this peculiar faculty as a\\nconjunction, that it rounds off and renders natural an abrupt\\nbeginning, and forms as it were the bridge between the\\nspoken and the unspoken\\nOh if in aft^ life we could but gather\\nThe very refuse of our youthful hours Charles Lloyd.\\nIt is because of this variety of possible meanings in the\\ninterjection that writing is less able to represent interjections\\nthan to express grammatical language. Even in the latter,\\nwriting is but an imperfect medium, because it fails to con-\\nvey the accompaniments, such as the look, the tone, the\\nemphasis, the gesture. This defect is more evident in the\\ncase of interjections, where the written word is but a very", "height": "3180", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "l6o OF INTERJECTIONS.\\nsmall part of the expression and the manner, tone,\\ngesture, c., is nearly everything.\\nHence also it comes to pass that the interjection is of all\\nthat is printed the most difficult thing to read well aloud.\\nFor not only does it require a rare command of modulation\\nbut the reader has moreover to be perfectly acquainted\\nwith the situation and temperament of the person using\\nthe interjection. Shakspeare s interjections cannot be ren-\\ndered with any truth, except by one who has mastered the\\nwhole play.\\nIn the accompaniments lies the rhetoric of the interjec-\\ntion, which is used with astonishing effect by children and\\nsavages. For it is to these that the interjection more es-\\npecially belongs, and in proportion to the march of culture\\nis the decline of interjectional speech.\\nBut though the use of interjections is very much reduced\\nby civilisation, and though there are whole fields of litera-\\nture from which they are utterly banished, as History,\\nMathematics, Physical Science, yet they have a sphere in\\nwhich they are retained, and in this, the literature of the\\nemotions, their importance will always be considerable. It\\nshould moreover be added, that while most of the natural\\naccompaniments of interjectional speech, such as gestures,\\ngrimaces, and gesticulations, are restrained by civilisation,\\nthere yet remains one, which alone is. able to render justice\\nto the interjection, and which culture tends to improve and\\ndevelope, and that is, modulation. It is this which makes\\nit well worth a poet s while to throw meaning into his\\ninterjections.\\nMoreover, though it is true on the whole that interjectional\\ncommunications are restrained by civilisation yet it is also\\nto be noted on the other hand, that there are certain inter-\\njections which are the fruits of, and only fit to find a place", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. l6l\\nin, the highest and most mature forms of human culture.\\nAnd this chapter will naturally follow this important division,\\nand fall into the two heads, of (i) interjections of nature, or\\nprimitive interjections and (2) artificial or historical interjec-\\ntions. The distinction between these sorts will be generally\\nthis, that the latter have a philological derivation^ and the\\nformer have not.\\nOf the natural interjections, that which challenges the first\\nmention is\\nO oh This is well known as one of the earliest articu-\\nlations of infants, to express surprise or delight. Later in\\nlife it comes to indicate also fear, aspiration, appeal, and an\\nindefinite variety of emotions. It would almost seem that\\nin proportion as the spontaneous modulation of the voice\\ncomes to perfection, in the same degree the range of this\\nmost generic of all interjections becomes enlarged, and that\\naccording to the tone in which oh is uttered, it may be\\nunderstood to mean almost any one of the emotions of\\nwhich humanity is capable.\\nThis interjection owes its great predominance to the\\ninfluence of the Latin language, in which it was very fre-\\nquently used. And there is one particular use of it, which\\nmore especially bears a Latin stamp. That is the of the\\nvocative case, as when in prayers, for instance, we say\\nLoi d, c. O Thou to whom all creatures bow, c.\\nA distinction should be made in orthography between the\\nsign of the vocative, and the emotional interjection, writing\\nfor the former, and oh for the latter, as\\nO Nature, how in every charm supreme\\nBeattie, Minstrel, Bk. i.\\nBut she is in her grave, and ob\\nThe difference to me! Wordsworth.\\nLike but oh, how different Id,\\nM", "height": "3168", "width": "1956", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "l62 OF INTERJECTIONS,\\nThis distinction of spelling should by all means be kept\\nup, as it is based upon good ground. There is a difference\\nbetween O sir! O king! and *0h! sir/ Oh! Lord/\\nboth in sense and pronunciation.\\nAs to the sense the prefixed merely imparts to the\\ntitle a vocative effect; while the Ok conveys some parti-\\ncular sentiment, as of appeal, entreaty, expostulation, or\\nsome other.\\nAnd as to sound: the is an enclitic; that is to say, it\\nhas no accent of its own, but is pronounced with the word\\nto which it is attached, as if it were its unaccented first\\nsyllable. The term enclitic signifies reclining on, and so\\nthe interjection in O Lord reclines on the support\\nafforded to it by the accentual elevation of the word Lord.\\nSo that O Lord is pronounced like such a disyllable a\\nalight, alike, away, c., in which words the metrical stress\\ncould never be borne by the first syllable. Oh on the con-\\ntrary, is one of the fullest of monosyllables, and it would be\\nhard to place it in a verse except with the stress upon it.\\nThe above examples from Beattie and Wordsworth illustrate\\nthis.\\nPrecedence has been given to the interjection oh, because\\nit is the commonest of the simple or natural interjections,\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nnot that it is one of the longest standing in the language.\\nThe oldest interjections in our language are la and wa,\\nand each of these merits a separate notice.\\nLa is that interjection which in modern English is spelt\\nlo. It was used in Saxon times, both as an emotional cry,\\nand also as a sign of the respectful vocative. The most\\nreverential style in addressing a superior was La leof, an\\nexpression not easy to render in modern English, but which\\nis something like my liege, or my lord, or sir.\\nIn modern times it has taken the form of lo in literature,", "height": "3180", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "OF INTERSECTIONS, 1 63\\nand it has been supposed to have something to do with the\\nverb fo look. In this sense it has been used in the New\\nTestament to render the Greek l8ov that is, hehold But the\\ninterjection la was quite independent of another Saxon\\nexclamation, viz. loc, which may with more probability be\\nassociated with locian to look.\\nThe fact seems to be that the modern lo represents both\\nthe Saxon interjections la and /oc, and that this is one among\\nmany instances where two Saxon words have been merged\\ninto a single English one.\\nLo, how they feignen chalk for chese.\\nGower, Confessio Amantis, vol. i. p. 17, ed. Pauli.\\nThe la of Saxon times has none of the indicatory or\\npointing force which lo now has, and which fits it to go so\\nnaturally with an adverb of locality, as Lo here, or Lo\\nthere or\\nLo where the stripling, wrapt in wonder, roves.\\nBeattie, Minstrel, Bk. i.\\nBut while lo became the literary form of the word, la has\\nstill continued to exist more obscurely, at least down to a\\nrecent date, even if it be not still in use. La may be called\\nthe feminine form of lo. In novels of the close of last\\ncentury and the beginning of this, we see la occurring for\\nthe most part as a trivial exclamation by the female\\ncharacters.\\nIn Miss Edgeworth s tale of The Good French Governess,\\na silly affected boarding-school miss says la repeatedly\\nLa said Miss Fanshaw, we had no such book as this at Suxberry\\nHouse.\\nMiss Fanshaw, to shew how well she could walk, crossed the room, and\\ntook up one of the books.\\nAlison upon Taste that s a pretty book, I daresay hut la I what s\\nthis. Miss Isabella A Smith s Theory of Moral Sentiments dear me\\nthat must be a curious performance by a smith a common smith", "height": "3168", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "164 OF INTERJECTIONS.\\nAnd in The Election a Comedy, by Joanna Baillie (1798),\\nAct ii. Sc. I, Charlotte thus soliloquises\\nCharlotte. La, how I should like to be a queen, and stand in my robes,\\nand have all the people introduced to me\\nAnd when Charles compares her cheeks to the pretty-\\ndelicate damask rose/ she exclaims La, now you are\\nflattering me.\\nAnd to shew that this trivial little interjection is traceable\\nback to early times, and that it is one with the old Saxon la,\\nwe may cite the authority of Shakspeare in the mid interval,\\nwho, in The Merry Wives of Windsor, puts this exclamation\\ninto the mouths of Master Slender first, and of Mistress\\nQuickly afterwards.\\nSlen. Mistris Anne your selfe shall goe first.\\nAtine. Not I sir, pray you keepe on.\\nSlen. Truely, I will not goe first truely la I will not doe you that\\nwrong.\\nAnne. I pray you Sir,\\nSleit. He rather be vnmannerly, then troublesome you doe your selfe\\nwrong indeede-la. (Act i. Sc. i.)\\nHere the interjection seems to retain somewhat of its old\\nceremonial significance but when, in the ensuing scene,\\nMistress Quickly says, This is all indeede\u00e2\u0080\u0094 la but ile nere\\nput my finger in the fire, and neede not, there is nothing in\\nit but the merest expletive.\\nWa has a history much like that of la. It has changed\\nits form in modern Enghsh to wo. Wo, in the New Tes-\\ntament, as Rev. viii. 13, stands for the Greek interjection\\noval and the Latin vce. In the same way it is used in many\\npassages in which the interjectional character is distinct.\\nThis word must be distinguished from woe, which is a sub-\\nstantive. For instance, in the phrase weal and woe. And\\nin such scriptures as Prov. xxiii. 29 Who hath woe\\nwho hath sorrow", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. 1 65\\nThe fact is, that there were here absorbed two distinct\\nold words, namely, the interjection wa and the substantive\\nwok (genitive wages), which means depravity, wickedness,\\nmisery. And it would be convenient to observe the dis-\\ntinction, which still is practically valid, by a distinct ortho-\\ngraphy, writing the interjection wo, and the substantive woe.\\nThis interjection was compounded with the previous one\\ninto the form wala or walawa an exclamation which is\\nseveral times found in Chaucer, and which, before it dis-\\nappeared, was modified into the feebler form of wellaway.\\nA degenerate variety of this form was well~a-day. Woeful\\ncries have a certain disposition to implicate the present\\ntime, as in woe worth the day\\nThere was yet another compound interjection made with\\nla by prefixing the interjection ea. Hence the Saxon com-\\npound eala. This occurs often in the Saxon Gospels as\\na mere sign of the vocative for example, Eala ]?u wif,\\nmycel ys ])in geleafa (O woman, great is thy faith).\\nMatt. XV. 28. Eala faeder Abraham, gemiltsa me (Father\\nAbraham, pity me), Luke xvi. 24.\\nThis eala may be regarded as the stock on which the\\nFrench he las was grafted, and from the conjunction with\\nwhich sprung the modern alas, which appears in English\\nof the thirteenth century, as in Robert of Gloucester, 4198\\nAlas alas ]jou wrecche mon, wuch mysaventure ha] J e\\nybrogt in to ]?ys stede. (Alas alas thou wretched man,\\nwhat misadventure hath brought thee into this place And\\nin Chaucer it is a frequent interjection. In a pathetic\\npassage of the Knighfs Tale it is used repeatedly.\\nAlias the wo, alias the peynes stronge,\\nThat I for yow haue sufFred, and so longe\\nAlias the deeth, alias myn Emelye,\\nAlias departynge of our compaignye.\\nAlias myn hertes queene, alias ray wyf,\\nMyn hertes lady, endere of my lyf.", "height": "3176", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "1 66 OF INTERJECTIONS.\\nAlack seems to be the more genuine representation of\\neala, which, escaping the influence of /lehs, drew after it\\n(or preserved rather the final guttural so congenial to the\\ninterjection. Thus the modern alack suggests a Saxon or\\nAnglian form eahh. This interjection has rather a trivial\\nuse in the south of England, and we do not find it used\\nwith a dignity equal to that of alas, until by Sir Walter Scott\\nthe language of Scotland was brought into one literature\\nwith our own. Jeanie Deans cries out before the tribunal\\nat the most painful crisis of the trial Alack a-day she\\nnever told me. Still, the word is on the whole associated\\nmainly with trivial occasions, and in this connection of ideas\\nit has engendered the adjective lackadaysical, to characterise\\na person who flies into ecstasies too readily.\\nPooh seems connected with the French exclamation of\\nphysical disgust Pouah, quelle infection I But our pooh\\nexpresses an analogous moral sentiment Pooh pooh\\nit s all stuff and nonsense.\\nPsha expresses contempt. Doubt is always crying psha\\nand sneering. Thackeray, Humourists, p. 69.\\nHeigh ho. Some interjections have so vague, so filmy\\na meaning, that it would take a great many words to inter-\\npret what their meaning is. They seem as fitted to be the\\necho of one thought or feeling as another or even to be no\\nmore than a mere melodious continuation of the rhythm\\nHow pleasant it is to have money, heigh ho\\nHow pleasant it is to have money.\\nArthur H. Clough.\\nThis will suffice to exhibit the nature of the first class of\\ninterjections; those which stand nearest to nature and\\nfarthest from art those which owe least to conventionality\\nand most to genuine emotion those which are least capable\\nof orthographic expression and most dependent upon oral", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. l6j\\nmodulation. It is to this class of interjections especially\\nthat the following quotation is applicable.\\nThe dominion of speech is erected upon the downfall of interjections\\nwithout the artful contrivances of language, mankind would have had\\nnothing but interjections with which to communicate orally any of their\\nfeelings. The neighing of a horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of\\na dog, the purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning, shrieking, and\\nevery other involuntary convulsion with oral sound, have almost as good\\na title to be called parts of speech, as interjections have. Voluntary inter-\\njections are only employed when the suddenness and vehemence of some\\naffection or passion returns men to their natural state, and makes them for\\na moment forget the use of speech or when from some circumstance the\\nshortness of time will not permit them to exercise it. Home Tooke,\\nDiversions of Parley, p. 32.\\nThe interjections which we have been considering so far,\\nmay be called the spontaneous or primitive interjections, and\\nthey are such as have no basis in grammatical forms.\\nBut we now pass on to the other group, which may be\\ncalled the artificial or secondary interjections; a group\\nwhich, though extra-grammatical no less than the former,\\nin the sense that they do not enter into any grammatical\\nconstruction, are yet founded upon grammatical words.\\nVerbs, nouns, participles, adjectives, have by use lost their\\ngrammatical character, and have lapsed into the state of\\ninterjections.\\nIn the nascency of geological ideas, a controversy flourished\\nupon this question: Whether fossils in the semblance of\\nanimal organisms were things that once had lived, or\\nwhether they were only lapides sui generis, a strange sort of\\nstones? Not very unlike is the question that might be\\nraised concerning the interjections we are now to consider.\\nAre they parts of organised speech, or are they interjections\\nthat form a class by themselves They bear internal marks\\nof organism, but their organs have ceased to be functional.\\nWe must be content to play the part of those wise men who\\npronounced the fossils to be but stones, and we must treat\\nthese words as mere interjectional missiles.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "1 68 OF INTERJECTIONS,\\nOur first example shall be borrowed from the manners and\\ncustoms of the British parliament. That scene may fairly\\nbe regarded as the most mature and full-grown exhibition\\nof the powers of human speech, and yet it is there also\\nthat one of the most famous of interjections first originated,\\nand is in constant employment. The cry of Hear, hear,\\noriginally an imperative verb, is now nothing more nor less\\nthan a great historical interjection. The following is the\\nhistory of the exclamation, as described by Lord Macaulay,\\nHistory of England, ch. xi. (1689).\\nThe King therefore, on the fifth day after he had been proclaimed, went\\nwith royal state to the House of Lords, and took his seat on the throne.\\nThe Commons were called in and he, with many gracious expressions,\\nreminded his hearers of the perilous situation of the country, and exhorted\\nthem to take such steps as might prevent unnecessary delay in the trans-\\naction of public business. His speech was received by the gentlemen who\\ncrowded the bar with the deep hum by which our ancestors were wont to\\nindicate approbation, and which was often heard in places more sacred than\\nthe Chamber of the Peers. As soon as he had retired, a Bill, declaring the\\nConvention a Parliament, was laid on the table of the Lords, and rapidly\\npassed by them. In the Commons the debates were warm. The House\\nresolved itself into a Committee; and so great was the excitement, that, when\\nthe authority of the Speaker was withdrawn, it was hardly possible to pre-\\nserve order. Sharp personalities were exchanged. The phrase hear him,\\na phrase which had originally been used only to silence irregular noises, and\\nto remind members of the duty of attending to the discussion, had, during\\nsome years, been gradually becoming what it now is that is to say, a cry\\nindicative, according to the tone, of admiration, acquiescence, indignation, or\\nderision.\\nThe historian could not have chosen more suitable words\\nhad it been his intention to describe the transition of a\\ngrammatical part of speech into the condition of an inter-\\njectional symbol, whose signification depends on the tone in\\nwhich it is uttered. The fact is, that when a large assembly\\nis animated with a common sentiment which demands in-\\nstantaneous utterance, it can find that utterance only through\\ninterjections. A crowd of grown men is here in the same\\ncondition as the infant, and must speak in those forms to\\nwhich expression is imparted only by variety of tone.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. 1 69\\nThe Liturgy, when it was in Latin, was a prolific source\\nfor the minting of popular interjections. Where vernacular\\nwords are changed into interjections, some plain reason\\nfor their selection may generally be found in the gram-\\nmatical sense of such words. But where a Latin word\\nof religion came to be popular as an exclamation, it\\nwas as likely to be the sound as the sense that gave it\\ncurrency. In the fourteenth century, BEisrEDiciTE had this\\nsort of career; and it does not appear how it could have\\nbeen other than a senseless exclamation from the first. It\\noften occurs in Chaucer, as in the following from the\\nKnighfs Tale, 2 no:\\nFor if ther fille tomorwe swich a caas\\nYe knowen wel J)at euery lusty knyght,\\nThat loueth paramours and hath his myght\\nWere it in Engelond or elles where,\\nThey wolde hir thankes wilnen to be there\\nTo fighte for a lady, benedicitee 1\\nIt were a lusty sighte for to see.\\nAnd not only is it true that interjections are formed out\\nof grammatical words, but also it is further true, that certain\\ngrammatical words may stand as interjections in an\\noccasional way, without permanently changing their nature.\\nThis chiefly appHes to some of the more conventional col-\\nloquialisms. Perhaps there is not a purer or a more con-\\ndensed interjection in English literature, than that indeed\\nin Othello, Act iii. Sc. 3. It contains in it the gist of the\\nchief action of the play, and it implies all that the plot\\ndevelopes. It ought to be spoken with such an intonation\\nas to suggest the diabolic scheme of lago s conduct. There\\nis no thought of the grammatical structure of the compound,\\nconsisting of the preposition in and the substantive deed,\\nwhich is equivalent to act, fact, or reality. All this vanishes\\nand is lost in the mere iambic dissyllable which is employed\\nas a vehicle for the feigned tones of surprise.", "height": "3168", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "170 OF INTERJECTIONS.\\nlago. I did not thinke he had bin acquainted with hir.\\n0th. O yes, and went betweene vs very oft.\\nlago. Indeed\\n0th. Indeed? I indeed. Discern st thou ought in that? Is he\\nnot honest\\nlago. Honest, my lord?\\n0th. Honest? I, honest!\\nThus Strong passion may so scorch up, as it were, the\\norganism of a word, that it ceases to have any of that\\ngrammatical quality which the calm light of the mind ap-\\npreciates and it becomes, for the nonce, an interjection.\\nAnd not only passion, but ignorance may do the like.\\nWith uneducated persons, their customary words and\\nphrases grow to be very like interjections, especially those\\nphrases which are peculiar to and traditional in the\\nvocation they follow. When a porter at a railway-station\\ncries by b leave, he may understand the analysis of the\\nwords he uses; and then he is speaking logically and\\ngrammatically, though elliptically. If he does not under-\\nstand the construction of the phrase he uses, and if\\nhe is quite ignorant how much is implied and left un-\\nsaid, he merely uses a conventional cry as an interjec-\\ntion. And we need not doubt that this is the case in\\nthose instances where we hear it uttered as follows: By r\\nleave, if you please It is plain in this instance that the\\nspeaker understands the latter clause, but does not under-\\nstand the former for, if he did, he would feel the latter to\\nbe superfluous. A cry of this sort, uttered as a conglomerate\\nwhole, where the mind makes no analysis, is, as far as the\\nspeaker is concerned, an interjection.\\nBut when we speak of ignorance, we use, of course,\\na relative term. Some few know a little more than the\\naverage but even with the best informed the limit of\\nknowledge is never far distant. A gentleman who has\\nenjoyed the benefits of a grammatical education, may", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. 171\\npossibly find himself in a like case with the railway porter.\\nFor, as soon as a man travels beyond the limits of his own\\nlinguistic acquirements, he will find himself driven to use the\\nstrange words of the strange tongue in an interjectional\\nmanner. In the following quotation we have an instance\\nof a gentleman using two well-known French words in an\\ninterjectional manner, because he had not the learning which\\nwould have enabled him to use them more intelligently.\\nDo you speak the language said one of the young listeners, with\\na smile which was very awkwardly repressed. Oh, no replied the well-\\nfed gentleman, laughing good naturedly I know nothing of their lan-\\nguage. I pay for all I eat, and I find, by paying, I can get anything I want.\\nMangez CHANGEZ is quite foreign language enough, sir, for me; and\\nhaving to the first word suited his action, by pointing with his forefinger to\\nhis mouth and to explain the second, having rubbed his thumb against the\\nselfsame finger, as if it were counting out money, he joined the roar of\\nlaughter which his two French words had caused, and then very good-\\nnaturedly paced the deck by himself. Bubbles from the Brunnens of\\nNassau, by An Old Man, 2nd edit., Murray, 1 834, p. 17.\\nIn this instance, mangez and changez are essentially inter-\\njections.\\nFudge. Isaac Disraeli, in his Curiosities of Literature^\\nvol. iii., quotes a pamphlet entitled Remarks upon the Navy,\\nof the date 1700, to shew that this interjection has sprung\\nfrom a man s name.\\nThere was, sir, in our time, one Captain Fudge, commander of a mer-\\nchantman, who, upon his return from a voyage, how ill-fraught soever his\\nship was, always brought home his owners a good cargo of lies so much\\nthat now aboard ship, the sailors, when they hear a great lie told, cry out,\\nYou fudge it.\\nMr. DisraeH adds, but without references, what is of great\\nuse for the illustration of this section. He says that recently\\nat the bar, in a court of law, its precise meaning perplexed\\nplaintiff and defendant, and their counsel. It is of the very\\nnature of an interjection, that it eludes the meshes of a\\ndefinition.\\nIt was Goldsmith who first gave this interjection a literary", "height": "3176", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "172 OF INTERJECTIONS.\\ncurrency. Mr. Forster, in Oliver Goldsmith s Life and Times,\\nspeaking of The Vicar of Wakefield, has the following\\nThere never was a book in which indulgence and charity made virtue\\nlook so lustrous. Nobody is strait-laced if we except Miss Carolina Wil-\\nhelmina Amelia Skeggs, whose pretensions are summed up in Burchell s\\nnoble monosyllable.\\nVirtue, my dear Lady Blarney, virtue is worth any price but where\\nis that to be found\\nFudge.\\nHail. Here we have the case of an adjective which\\nhas become an interjection. It is a very old salutation,\\nbeing found not only in Anglo-Saxon, but also in Old\\nHigh Dutch. In the early examples it always appears gram-\\nmatically as an adjective of health joined with the verb to\\nhe in the imperative. In the Saxon Version of the Gospels,\\nLuke i. 28, Hal W3es ^u Hale be thou!* and in the\\nplural, Matt, xxviii. 9, Hale wese ge Hale be ye\\nAnd so still in Layamon s Brut (vol. iii. p. 162) where\\nthe variety of spelling is observable\\nHail seo J)u Gurgmund\\nhal seo ]yu haSene king,\\nheil seo J)in du3e 5e\\nhail ];ine drihtliche men.\\nWhich Sir Frederic Madden thus renders\\nHail be thou, Gurmund hail be thou, heathen king. Hail be thy folk,\\nhail thy noble men\\nIn the same poem (vol. iii. p. 144) we meet all hail in\\na purely adjectival signification\\nhev seal mine wunden\\nmakien alle isunde\\nal hal me makien\\nmid halewei5e drenchen.\\nAnd she shall make my wounds all sound make me all whole with\\nhealing draughts.\\nBy the sixteenth century this all hail had become a\\nI", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. 1 73\\nworshipful salutation, and having lost all construction, was\\ncompletely interjectionalised.\\nDid they not sometime cry All hayle to me\\nShakspeare, Richard II. iv. I\\nThe pronunciation is iambic; the All being enclitic, and\\nthe stress on hayle^ as if the whole were a disyllabic. We\\nsometimes hear it otherwise rendered in Matthew xxviii. 9,\\nas if All meant omnes, Travres instead of being merely ad-\\nverbial, omm no, irdpTios. It does not indeed represent any\\nseparate word at all, the original being simply Xaipere. In\\nthe Vulgate it is Avele and this is rendered by WicM Hez l\\ny. Tyndal was the first who introduced this All hayle into\\nthe English version. The Geneva translators substituted for\\nit God saue you.\\nOther instances of the use of this form of greeting in our\\nNew Testament are too well known to need quotation.\\nThis section shall close with the following example from\\na dialogue poem of Cowper, good also for its illustration of\\nanother interjection\\nDistorted from its use and just design,\\nTo make the pitiful possessor shine,\\nTo purchase, at the fool-frequented fair\\nOf vanity, a wreath for self to wear,\\nIs profanation of the basest kind\\nProof of a trifling and a worthless mind.\\nA. Hail Sternhold, then; and Hopkins, hail. B. Amen.\\nIf flattery, folly, lust, employ the pen;\\nIf acrimony, slander, and abuse,\\nGive it a charge to blacken and traduce\\nThough Butler s wit, Pope s numbers, Prior s ease,\\nWith all that fancy can invent to please,\\nAdorn the polish d periods as they fall\\nOne madrigal of theirs is worth them all Table Talk.\\nThis brings us to the example which holds the most con-\\nspicuous historical position, the great congregational inter-\\njection of faith, the universal response of the Christian", "height": "3168", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "174 0^ INTERJECTIONS.\\nChurch as well as of the Hebrew Synagogue, AMEN.\\nThis word, at first in Hebrew a verbal adjective, and thence\\nan affirmative adverb, signifying verily, truly, yea, was used\\nin the earfiest times of the Jewish Church (Deut. xxvii. 15;\\nPs. xH. 14, Ixxii. 19, Ixxxix: 53) for the people s response:\\nand let all the people say Amen/ It was continued from\\nthe first in the Christian community, as we know from\\nI Cor. xiv. 16, and is still in use in every body of Christians.\\nFor the most part it has been preserved in its original\\nHebrew form of Amen; but the French Protestants have\\nsubstituted for it a translation in the vulgar tongue, and they\\ndo not respond with Amen but with Ainsi-soif-il So be it^.\\nThey have by this change limited this ancient interjection\\nto one of its several functions. For in this modern form it\\nis only adapted to be a response to prayer, or the expression\\nof some desire.\\nThere are other sorts of assent and affirmation for which\\nAmen is serviceable, besides that single one of desire or as-\\npiration. In mediaeval wills it was put at the head of the\\ndocument In the name of God AMEN. This was a pro-\\ntestation of earnestness on the part of the testator, and\\na claim on all whom it might concern to respect his dis-\\npositions.\\nIn Jeremiah xxviii. 6 we find one AMEN delivered by the\\nprophet with the wishful meaning only, while there is an\\nominous reserve of assent.\\nIn the Commination Service, the Amiens to the denuncia-\\ntions are not expressions of desire that evil may overtake the\\nwicked, but the solemn acknowledgment of a liability to\\nwhich they are subject. As the preliminary instruction sets\\n1 am informed that the Freemasons have a time-honoured rendering of\\ntheir own So mote it he I", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "OF INTERJECTIONS. 1 75\\nforth the intent wherefore ye should answer to every sen-\\ntence, Amen! In this place Amen cannot be rendered by So\\nbe it; and the attempt to substitute any grammatical phrase\\nin place of it must rob it of some of its symbolic power.\\nThis is the case with all interjections, and it is of the\\nessence of an interjection that it should be so.", "height": "3152", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IV.\\nOF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nPhilology seeks to penetrate into the Nature of\\nlanguage Grammar is concerned only with its literary-\\nHabits.\\nGrammatical analysis is the dissection of speech as the\\ninstruvient of literature. The student may help himself to\\nremember this by observing that grammatice (ypafxixaTKrj) is\\nderived from the Greek word for literature, ypafifiara.\\nThe chief result of grammar, the exponent of grammatical\\nanalysis, is the doctrine of the Parts of Speech. All the\\nwords which combine to make up structural language are\\nclassified in this systematic division. But it is important for\\nthe philologer to understand that the quality of words,\\nwhereby they are so distinguished and divided, is a habit,\\nand not anything innate or grounded in the nature of the\\nwords. We shall endeavour to make this plain.\\nGrammar analyses language in order to ascertain the\\nconditions on which the faculty of expression is dependent,\\nand also to gain more control over that faculty. This\\nobject limits the range of grammatical enquiry. The", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. IJJ\\ngrammarian makes a certain number of groups to which he\\ncan refer any word, and then he forms rules in which he\\nlegislates class-wise for the words so grouped. We must here\\nassume that the ordinary grammatical knowledge is already\\nin the possession of the reader.\\nTo be able to designate each word as such or such a\\npart of speech, and to practise the rules for combining parts\\nof speech together, is the ordinary task of grammar. The\\ndetermination of the part of speech is therefore the barrier\\nbeyond which grammar does not (generally speaking) pur-\\nsue the analysis. And although what is called parsing, or\\nassigning words to their parts, is a juvenile exercise, yet\\nit is nevertheless the surest test of a person s having learnt\\nthat which grammar has to teach; especially if he can\\ndo it in the English sentence. For it is easier to do in\\nLatin. A boy may be quite ignorant of the meaning of\\na Latin sentence, and of each word in ^it and yet he may\\nbe able to answer that navahat, for example, is a verb in the\\nactive voice, imperfect tense, indicative mood. He knows\\nthis from having learnt the forms of the Latin verb, and he\\nknows the ending -ahat for the verbal form of that voice,\\ntense, and mood. Such knowledge is but formal and me-\\nchanical. If however, in parsing English, he meets the verb\\nloved, he cannot venture to pronounce what part of the verb\\nit is by a mere look at the form. It may be the indicative,\\nor the subjunctive, or it may be the participle. Which it\\nis he can only tell by understanding the phrase in which it\\nstands.\\nThroughout the Latin language the words are to a very\\ngreat extent grammatically ticketed. In the English lan-\\nguage the same thing exists, but in a very slight degree.\\nIn Latin, the part of speech is most readily determined by\\nregard to the form, and it is only occasionally that attention\\nN", "height": "3176", "width": "1980", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "1 78 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH,\\nto the Structure becomes necessary. Parsing in Latin is\\ntherefore mainly an exercise in what is called the Acci-\\ndence, that is the grammatical inflections of words. In\\nEnglish, on the contrary, there is so Httle to be gathered\\nby looking at the mere form, that the exercise of parsing\\ntrains the mind to a habit of judging each word s value\\nby reference to its yoke-fellows in the sentence. A single\\nexample will make this plain. It would be a foolish\\nquestion to ask, without reference to a context. What\\npart of speech is /ove because it may stand either for\\na verb or for a noun. But if you ask in Latin, What\\npart of speech is amare or caritas the question can be\\nanswered as well without a context as with. Each word\\nhas in fact a bit of context attached to it, for an inflection s\\nsimply a fragment of context, and a nominative is as much\\nan inflection as a genitive. And this is the cause why it is\\neasier to catch the elements of grammatical ideas through\\nthe medium of a highly inflected language like Latin. On\\nthe other hand, those ideas can best be perfected through\\nthe medium of a language with few inflections, like English.\\nFor in studying grammar through the English language, we\\npurge our minds of the wooden notion that it is an inherent\\nquality in a word to be of this or that part of speech.\\nTo be a noun, or a verb, or an adjective, is a function\\nwhich the word discharges in such and such a context, and\\nnot a character innate in the word or inseparable from it.\\nThus the word save is a verb, whether infinitive to save, or\\nindicative save, or imperative save me but it is the self-\\nsame word when it stands as a preposition, forty stripes\\nsave one.\\nThe force of these observations is not lessened by the\\nfact that there are many words in English that discharge but\\none function, and are of one part of speech only. In such", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 79\\ncases the habit of the word has become fixed, it has lost the\\nplastic state which is the original and natural condition of\\nevery word, and it has contracted a rigid and invariable\\ncharacter. The bulk of Latin words are in this state, simply\\nbecause they are not pure words at all, but fragments of\\na phrase. Each Latin word has its function as noun or\\nverb or adverb ticketed upon it. But in English the words\\nof fixed habit are comparatively few. In a general way it\\nmay be said that the pronouns are so in all languages. Yet\\neven this group, of all groups the most habit-bound, is net\\nwithout its occasional assertions of natural freedom. The\\nprepositions are many of them in the fixed state, but the\\nresearches of the philologer tend to set many of them in\\na freer light. We must not therefore regard the parts of\\nspeech as if they were like the parts of a dissected map, where\\neach piece is unfit to stand in any place but one. Each\\npart of speech is what it is, either by virtue of the place\\nit now occupies in the present sentence or else, by virtue of\\nan old habit which contracted its use to certain special\\npositions or thirdly, by reason of its carrying about with it\\na fragment of another word under the form of an inflection,\\nby which its grammatical relations are limited and deter-\\nmined. And as the second and third of these cases will be\\nfound to melt into one, the result is that all words are\\ninduced to be of such and such a part of speech, either\\nby the manner of their present employment, or else by\\ninveterate habit.\\nBefore we proceed to the examples which w^ill illustrate\\nthe above remarks, we must make a clearance of one thing\\nwhich else might cause confusion. There is a sense in\\nwhich every word in the world is a noun. When we speak\\nof the word have, or the word marry, these words are re-\\ngarded as objects of sense, and are mere nouns. Just in", "height": "3168", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "l8o OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nthe same way in the expression the letter A/ this alpha-\\nbetic symbol becomes a noun. In this aspect each item in\\nthe whole catalogue of letters and words in a dictionary is\\npresented to our minds as a noun. And beyond the pages\\nof the dictionary, there are situations in the course of con-\\nversation and of literature in which this is the case. Thus,\\nin Shakspeare, King John, i. i, Have is have; and in\\nLongfellow s\\nMother, what does marry mean?\\nIn these cases the word is (as one may say) taken up\\nbetween the finger and thumb, and looked at, and made\\nan object of. It is no longer, as words commonly are,\\na mere presentive of some object or a mere symbol of some\\nrelation between objects, but it enters for the moment into\\nan objective position of its own. And there are many\\ninstances of this.\\nMust is a verb. But when we hear the popular saying,\\nOh you must, must you Must is made for the Queen\\nhere must is a noun.\\nTo the same category may be most suitably referred those\\ninstances in which interjections make their appearance as\\nnouns. Thus, in Sir Charles Grandison, Letter xvi.,\\nMany hems passed between them, now the uncle looking on the nephew,\\nnow the nephew on the uncle.\\nOr, as in the following from Cowper,\\nWhere thou art gone,\\nAdieus and farewells are a sound unknown.\\nOr, in more familiar style,\\nI took it in without another hum and haJ Mrs. Prosser, Quality Fogg s\\nOld Ledger, ch. v.\\nThis objective citation of words being cleared away,\\nit remains now to consider how words may change their", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 151\\nsubjective condition, that is to say, their relation to the\\nthinking mind, and vary their characters as parts of speech\\naccordingly.\\n1. And first, the verb may become a noun, as\\nTo err is human, to forgive divine.\\nTo live in hearts we leave behind,\\nIs not to die.\\nThomas Campbell, Hallowed Ground.\\nBut the true substantival form of the verb is that in ~ing,\\nas the following passages will exemplify\\nIt was not the not knowing, but the not approving, which was the\\ncause of their not tisifig it. John Milton, Areopagitica.\\nBut if the purchase costs so dear a price\\nAs soothing Folly or exalting Vice,\\nAlexander Pope, Temple of Fame, 515.\\nDisbanded legions freely might depart,\\nAnd slaying men would cease to be an art,\\nWilliam Cowper.\\nIn all these instances the -I ng form represents the ancient\\ninfinitive in -an, and is in fact the verb turned through its\\ninfinitive form into the grammatical noun. A more com-\\nplete explanation of this frequent stumblingblock will be\\nfound in its right place in the Syntax.\\n2. Next, the noun may become a verb. The interjection\\npooh-pooh becomes a noun when we say, He cried pooh-\\npooh;* and this noun becomes a verb when we use the\\nexpression to pooh-pooh a question.\\nThe word handicap is an old Saxon noun meaning a com-\\npromise or bargain, and in this character, I suppose, it\\nfigures in the technical language of horse-racing. It is odd\\nthat this notorious expression has never been included in\\nour dictionaries. I have searched Richardson, Webster, and", "height": "3176", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "1 82 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nLatham, in vain. My notion is that the racing term refers\\nto the practice of making horses carry weight as a com-\\npensation for any advantage they might have in respect of\\nage. If I am wrong, my ignorance would only be a natural\\nconsequence of my aversion to the turf as a national evil.\\nAll I am here concerned with is the fact that the sporting\\nworld employs the word nounally. But it frequently stands\\nfor a verb, as in the following from a contemporary journal.\\nThe legitimate objects of the Trades Unions are overlaid by elaborate\\nattempts to handicap ability and industry, and to exclude competition.\\nFurther examples in which a word usually regarded as a\\nnoun makes its appearance as a verb\\nWith all good grace to grace a gentleman.\\nTwo Gentlemen of Verona, ii. 4.\\nPsalm us no psalms.\\nCharles Kingsley, The Saint s Tragedy, v. 3.\\nIn 181 1 the Swedes, though not yet actually at war with England, were\\nmaking active preparations for defence by sea and land, in case, says\\nParry, we should be inclined to Copefihagen them. Memoirs of Sir W.\\nE. Parry, by his son, ch. ii.\\nI ll prose it here, I ll verse it there.\\nAnd picturesque it everywhere.\\nWilliam Combe, Doctor Syntax in search of the Picttiresgue, Canto i.\\nThem as goes away to better themselves, often worses themselves, as I\\ncall it. Anthony TroUope, The Last Chronicle of Barset, ch. xlii.\\nPassing to more familiar and trivial instances, such as are\\n(be it remembered) the best examples of the unfettered and\\nnatural action of a language, we hear such expressions as\\nto cadle a message and again, If such a thing happens,\\nwire me.\\nI do not say that these expressions have become an ac-\\nknowledged part of the language. If we confined our atten-\\ntion solely to that which is mature and established, we should", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. \u00c2\u00a383\\nact like a botanist who never studied buds, or a physiologist\\nwho neglected those phenomena which are pecuHar to young\\nthings. Young sprigs of language have a levity and skittish-\\nness which render them unworthy of literature and grammar,\\nbut which make an exhibition of the highest value for the\\npurposes of philology. There are many movements which\\nare natural and which are among the best guides to the stu-\\ndent of nature, which are discontinued with staid age. There\\nis much in Shakspeare which the ripe age of modern litera-\\nture would not admit. It is a main character of philology\\nas contrasted with grammar that it is unconfined by such\\ncanons, and that the whole realm of speech is within its\\nprovince.\\nNot only does the language avail itself of this facility of\\nverbifying a noun, but even where there is already by the\\nancient development of the language a verb and a noun of\\nthe same subject, the verb will sometimes drop into disuse\\nand a new verb will be made by preference out of the noun.\\nFor example, we had the verb /o graff, as in our version,\\nRom. xi. 17, 19, and the noun gra/ But we have long\\nsince dropped the proper verb graff and have made a new\\nverb out of the substantive. Everybody now talks oi grafting,\\nand says to graft, and we never hear of to graff except in\\nchurch.\\nNow, as it had already been observed as far back as\\nHome Tooke s time, that the minor parts of speech are\\nderived from the verbs and nouns, it might almost seem to\\nresult from this interchange of verb and noun that a similar\\nplasticity would be found running through all the gram-\\nmatical divisions of the language. But it will be more satis-\\nfactory to proceed by examples, than to trust to conclusions.\\n3. The noun becomes an adjective. This is so very fre-\\nquent in our language that examples are offered not so much", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "I\u00c2\u00ab4 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nto establish the fact as to identify it. Main is a well-known\\nold Saxon substantive, which appears in its original cha-\\nracter in such an expression as might and main; but it\\nbecomes an adjective in main force/ or in that of Milton,\\nParadise Lost, vi. 654,\\nAnd on their heads\\nMain promontories flung.\\nWe have an example of a different kind in the word cheap.\\nThis originally was a substantive, meaning market, and the\\nexpression good cheap meant to say that a person had\\nmade a good marketing, just as the French bon marcM (from\\nwhich it was in fact derived) still does. While it went with\\nan adjective harnessed to it, it was manifestly regarded as\\na noun. But since we no more speak of good cheap\\nsince we have changed it to very cheap and since the\\nword has taken the degrees of cheaper and cheapest, its.\\nadjectival character is established beyond question.\\n4. The adjective becomes a noun. In such expressions\\nas the young and the old, the good and the bad, the\\nrich and the poor, the high and the low, the strong\\nand the weak, we have adjectives used substantively.\\nSuch is the usual way of describing these expressions\\ngrammatically. It might, however, be asked, Are they\\nnot really substantives.? For what other rule is there to\\nknow a substantive by, except this, that it is a word used\\nsubstantively But, though there is no other principle\\nfor deciding safely what is a noun, yet there are tokens\\nwhich may often be appealed to with the chance of a better\\nreception. When an adjective employed substantively takes\\nthe plural form of substantives, it is impossible, according to\\ngrammatical rules, to deny it the quality of substantives for\\nthe adjective has no plural form in English grammar. There-\\nfore the words irrationals and comestibles in the followins:", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 85\\nquotations, though adjectives by form and extraction, must\\nbe called grammatical substantives, not only on account of\\ntheir substantival use, but also by reason of their gram-\\nmatical form.\\nIrrationals all sorrow are beneath.\\nEdward Young, Night Thoughts, v. 538.\\nWhat thousands of homes there are in which the upholstery is excellent,\\nthe comestibles costly, and the grand piano unexceptionable, both for cabinet\\nwork and tone, in which not a readable book is to be found in secular\\nliterature, Intellectual Observer, October, 1866.\\nSo the adjective ivorthy has become a noun when we\\nspeak of a worthy and the worthies. Other grammatical\\nstructures, besides plurality, may demonstrate that an adjec-\\ntive must be acknowledged for a noun. We call contemporary\\nan adjective in the connection contempary with but it is\\na noun when we say a contemporary of. The word good\\nconsidered by itself would be called an adjective, but it is\\nan acknowledged substantive, not only in the plural form\\ngoods, but also in such a construction as the good of the\\nland of Egypt, Genesis xlv. 18.\\nAnd specially must the whilom adjective be called a\\nsubstantive when it is suited with an adjective of its own.\\nThe adjectives ancient, preventive, must be parsed as sub-\\nstantives in the following quotations\\nStill, however, I must remain a professed ancieut on that head. Gold-\\nsmith, Dedication of The Deserted Village.\\nThose sanitary measures which experience has shown to be the best\\npreventive Queen s Speech, 1867.\\nThe word /rolic, originally an adjective, has passed into\\nthe substantival condition, and on this latter basis has ap-\\npeared as a verb. As an adjective it appears in\\nThe frolic wind. John Milton.\\nThe gay, the frolic, and the loud. Edmund Waller.", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "1 86 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH,\\nAs a substantive it appears not only in a quotation given\\nby Webster from Roscommon,\\nHe would be at his frolic once again,\\nbut we learn from the same lexicographer that the word has\\nin America a popular substantival use in the sense of, A\\nscene of gayety and mirth, as in dancing or play.\\nAs a verb it appears in the Christian Year, Second\\nSunday after Epiphany\\nWe frolic to and fro.\\n5. This changeableness of grammatical character may\\nalso be seen in the adverb. The commonest form of the\\nadverb, namely that in -ly, is one that was made out of an\\nadjective, which was made out of a noun; as will be fully\\nexplained below in the section on the adverb. A noun may\\nsuddenly by a vigorous stroke of art be transformed into\\nan adverb, as the noxm/orest in the following passage\\nTwas a lay\\nMore subtle-cadenced, more forest wild\\nThan Dryope s lone lulling of her child.\\nJohn Keats, Endymion.\\nThe same word may be an adverb or a conjunction. The\\nword but appears in these two characters in this line,\\nHis yeares hut young, hut his experience old.\\nTiuo Gentlemen of Verona, ii. 4.\\nIf you are asked what part of speech is out, you might\\nthink of the phrase out of doors, and say a preposition or\\nyou might think of he is gone out, and say an adverb but\\nwhen we read in Bleak House, ch. xxix., while on a short\\nout in the county of Lincolnshire with a friend, we must\\nunhesitatingly pronounce it a noun.\\nSometimes the employment of one and the same word in\\na diversity of grammatical powers leads to a modification of", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 87\\nthe form of the word. The old preposition ^ueh has come\\nto be employed as an adjective, as, a thorough draught/\\nor, as in the following quotation,\\nThese two critics, Bentley and Lachmann, were thorough masters of\\ntheir craft. Dr. Lightfoot, Galatians, Pref\\nIt has been a modern consequence of this adjectival use\\nof thorough, that a different form has been established for the\\npreposition, viz. through. But this variety of form does not\\ninterfere with the justice of the statement that here we have\\nhad the same word in two grammatical characters.\\n6. How nearly the offices of preposition and conjunction\\nborder upon each other may be seen from one or two\\nexamples. In the Scotch motto, Touch not the cat but the\\nglove, but is the old preposition, signifying without. This is\\nthe character and signification which it had in early times,\\nand from which the better known uses of but are derivative.\\nIf, however, we expanded this sentence a little without\\nalteration to its sense, and write it thus Touch not the\\ncat but first put on the glove, we perceive that but is no\\nlonger a preposition it has become a conjunction.\\nIn the sentence, I sav/ nobody else but him, but is a pre-\\nposition if, however, it be expressed thus, I saw nobody\\nelse, but I saw him, but is a conjunction.\\nIn like manner the word /or may easily pass from the\\nstate of a preposition to that of a conjunction. If I say\\nI am QomQ/or you, the for is a preposition but if I say,\\nI am come for to fetch you, for would be called a con-\\njunction.\\nIn the sentence, I will attend to no one before you,\\nbefoj-e is a preposition. But if the same thing be thus\\nworded, I will attend to no one before I have attended\\nto you, before is a conjunction.\\nIn the sentence, he behaved like a scoundrel, like is a", "height": "3168", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "1 88 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\npreposition. But if we say it in provincial English, thus,\\nhe behaved like a scoundrel would, like is a con-\\njunction.\\nThe word 7nuch starts as an adjective, that is to say, the\\nearhest grammatical character it bears within the limits of our\\nobservation is adjectival. Thus we say much seed, much\\nwealth, much time, much people. Thence it easily becomes\\nan adverb, as much less, much mightier, much discouraged,\\nmuch afflicted, much regretted.\\nSo far I have the authority of Webster. When he goes\\non to give much as a noun in phrases like\\nHe that gathered muck had noihing over, Exodus xvi.,\\nTo whom 7nuch is given, of him much will be required, Luhe xii.,\\nI should so far differ from him, that I should prefer to call\\nit a pronoun, for reasons that will appear in the next\\nchapter.\\nFrom this pronominal use it becomes qualified to enter\\ninto conjunctional phrases, though it does not constitute\\na conjunction all by itself. 1\\nThe geological collection at Scarborough is much as William Smith i\\nleft it.\\nHere much as is the conjunction which adjusts the rela-\\ntion of the two verbs is and le/t. We could not refuse to\\nacknowledge this as a conjunction, seeing we should be\\nforced to admit that inasmuch as djvdi forasmuch as are con-\\njunctions.\\nWhile was once a noun, signifying time. And so indeed\\nit still is, as a long ivhile. But now it is better known as\\na conjunction thus\\nIt is very well established that one man may steal a horse while another\\nmay not so much as look over the hedge,", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 189\\nAs is generally called a conjunction, but we see it in the\\ncharacter of a relative pronoun in the following quotation\\nAs far as I can see, tis them as is done wrong to as is so sorry and\\npenitent and all that, and them as wrongs is as comferble as ever they can\\nstick. Lettice Lisle, ch. xxvii.\\nHere a philological friend steps in, and questions the pro-\\npriety of this example on the ground of authority. This\\nis an unphilological objection. Does he question the fact\\nthat as is so used by millions of speakers No that is out\\nof all question. He only means that it is not established\\nin literature. And I grant that if in any writing of my own\\nI adopted this use of as, I might be justly confronted with\\nthe demand for my authority. If I declined the challenge,\\nand continued to use the expression, it would amount to\\na trial of strength on my part whether I had the power to\\nget this provinciaHsm accepted, or at least permitted. Occa-\\nsionally a strange expression is admitted, but the privilege of\\nushering it belongs chiefly to those lawful lords of literature,\\nthe poets. My friend s objection is in short a grammatical\\nand not a philological objection. I am under the ordinary\\nrules of grammar in my composition, but I entirely repu-\\ndiate them in my illustrations. Why, indeed, the best\\nfacts of language often lie beyond these formal props that\\nfence the park of literature This is a digression, but one\\nfor which I make no apology. On the contrary, I thank the\\nfriend whose objection has led to the re-assertion of a prin-\\nciple which, in the present state of philology, can hardly be\\ntoo often reiterated or too variously exemplified.\\nThe difference of function which one and the same word\\nmay perform, often furnishes the ground of a playful turn\\nof expression, something like a pun. But it is distinct from\\na pun, is more subtle, and is allowed to constitute the point\\nof an epigram, as in that of Mrs. Jane Brereton on Beau", "height": "3176", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "190 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nNash s full-length picture being placed between the busts\\nof Newton and Pope\\nThis picture placed these busts between,\\nGives satire its full strength\\nWisdom and wit are little seen,\\nBut folly at full length.\\nThis is a play on two functions of the word li f/k, which\\nmust here be thought of as adjective and adverb at once,\\ni.e. (in Latin) as equal at once to exigui (small) and to raro\\n(seldom). For want of attention to this, the line has been\\nerroneously edited thus\\nWisdom and wit are seldom seen.\\nIf any one wishes for more illustrations of this fact that\\nthe grammatical character of a word is only a habit, one\\nactual habit out of many possible ones he should consider\\nsome of the following references to Shakspeare.\\nWinters Tale.,\\ni.\\nI.\\n28,\\nvast (substantive).\\n2.\\n5o\\nverily.\\nii.\\n3-\\n63.\\nhand.\\nRichard II.\\nii.\\n3-\\n86,\\nuncle me no tincle.\\nV.\\n3-\\n139\\ndogge.\\nI Henry IV.\\ni.\\n3-\\n76,\\nso.\\niii.\\n3-\\n41.\\ngood cheap.\\n2 Henry IV.\\ni.\\n3-\\n37.\\nindeed (verb).\\niv.\\n1.\\n71,\\nthere (nounized).\\nHenry V.\\niv.\\n3-\\n63,\\ngentle.\\n5-\\n17,\\nfriend (verb).\\nV.\\n2.\\n51.\\nteems (transitive).\\nThese examples all point to the one conclusion that the\\nquaHty of speech-part-ship (if the expression may be for\\nonce admitted), is not a fixed and absolute one, but subject\\nto and dependent upon the relations of each word to the\\nother words with which it is forming a sentence. If we have\\nrecourse, for example s sake, to those languages which have\\npreserved their grammar in the most primitive and rudi-", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 1 91\\nmentary condition, we find that each word has retained\\nits natural faculty for discharging all the functions of the\\nparts of speech.\\nIn Chinese there is no formal distinction between a noun,\\na verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition. The same\\nroot, according to its position in a sentence, may be employed\\nto convey the meaning of great, greatness, greatly, and to be\\ngreat Everything in fact depends in Chinese on the proper\\ncollocation of words in a sentence Between this state of\\nthings and the development of the modern languages, there\\nhas intervened the inflectional state of speech, of which the\\ngrammatical character is as nearly as possible the direct\\nopposite to that which has been stated concerning the\\nChinese. In the inflectional state of language, each word\\ncarries about with it a formal mark of distinction, by which\\nit is known what the habitual vocation of that w^ord is. Thus\\nin Greek the word novos, even standing alone, bears the\\naspect of being a noun in the nominative case. But the\\nEnglish word labour, standing alone, is no more a noun\\nthan it is a verb, and no more a verb than it is a noun.\\nThe inflectional languages are not all equally inflectional;\\nthis character has its degrees. The Greek is not so rigidly\\ninflectional as the Latin. But both of them are far more\\nso than any of the languages of modern Europe. Of afl\\nthe modern languages, that which has most shaken off in-\\nflections is the English, and next to the English, the French.\\nWe have but a very few inflections remaining in our lan-\\nguage. And this increases the freedom with which our\\nlanguage may be handled. We are recovering some of that\\nlong-lost and infantine elasticity which was the property\\nof primitive speech.\\nLectures on the Science of Language, by Max Miiller, 1 861, p. 275.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "192 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.\\nBut while the modern languages, and English especially,\\nare casting off that cocoon of inflections which the habits\\nof thousands of years had gradually swathed about them,\\nthere is no possibility of their getting back to a Chinese\\nstate of verbal homogeneousness. Such a state is incom-\\npatible with a high condition of development. A language\\nof which no part has any fixed character must rank low\\namong languages, just as among animals those which have\\nno distinction of flesh, bone, sinew, or hair. Or, as in com-\\nmunities of men, division of labour, distinct vocations, and\\nall the concomitant rigidity of individual habit, is necessary\\nto advanced civilization.\\nThere is no appearance of a tendency to fall back into\\na primitive state of language. The freedom which modern\\nlanguages are asserting for themselves as against the re-\\nstraints of flexion, may be carried out to its extremest issues,\\nand no appearance would ever arise of a tendency back-\\nwards to a state of pulpy homogeneousness. For there is\\na movement from which there is no going back, a slow but\\nincessant movement, which gradually creates a distinction\\namong words greater and more deeply seated than that of\\nthe parts of speech. This is a movement in which all lan-\\nguages partake more or less, according to the vigour of intel-\\nlectual life with which they are animated. This is a move-\\nment which rears barriers of distinction between one and\\nanother class of words as immoveable as the sea-wall which\\nthe sea itself has sometimes built to sever the pasture from\\nthe bed of the ocean. The explanation of this movement\\nmust occupy another chapter.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER V.\\nOF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nAND OF INFLECTIONS.\\nPhilology makes more use of the signification of words\\nthan grammar does. For grammar deals only with the\\nliterary forms, functions, and habits of words philology\\ndeals with the very words themselves. Grammar regards\\nwords as the instruments of literature; philology regards\\nthem as the exponents of mind. Philology has to do with\\nlanguage in its fullest sense, as being that whole com-\\npound thing which is made up of voice and meaning,\\nsound and signification, written form and associated idea.\\nIt appertains to philology to omit none of the phenomena\\nof language, but to give them all their due consideration.\\nHence it comes to pass that the outward and the inward, the\\nform and the signification, will come by turns under review.\\nAnd though the inward or mental side of language will\\noccupy less of our space than its correlative, yet each\\nreference to it will be more in the nature of a reference to\\nprinciple, and will score its results deeper on our whole\\nmethod of proceeding.\\nAs we proceed, the subject grows upon our hands. We\\ncannot treat of our native language in a philological manner\\no", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "194 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nwithout getting down to some fundamental principles. In\\nthe present work we began like a botanist with the flower\\nbut the progress of the enquiry leads in due time through\\nthe whole economy of the plant, and will at length bring us\\nto its root. While we dwelt over the historical circumstances\\nin the midst of which our language first expanded to the\\nlight, while we noted the source from which it was supplied\\nwith alphabetic characters, while we surveyed its spelling and\\npronunciation, and its homely interjections, we were acting\\nlike a botanist examining a particular floret of the multi-\\ntudinous head of some grassy inflorescence. But now we\\nmove down the stalk which bears many such florets, and we\\nhave to admit principles which embrace the systems of many\\nlanguages. At this point we enter upon the very heart of the\\nsubject; and the growing importance of the matter makes\\nme fear lest I should fail in the exposition of it. All things\\ncannot be rendered equally easy for the student, and I must\\nhere ask him to lend me the vigour of his attention while\\nI try to expound that upon which will hinge much of the\\nmeaning of chapters to come.\\nThere is a distinction in the signification of words\\nwhich calls for primary attention in philology. I would ask\\nthe reader to contemplate such words as spade, heron, hand-\\nsaiv, pike-staff, barn-door and then to turn his mind to such\\nas the following, I, you, they, of, in, over, hut, where, never\\nhow, therefore. It will be at once felt that there is a gulf\\nbetween these two sorts of words, and that there must be\\na natural distinction between them.\\nThe one set presents objects to the mind, the other does\\nnot. Some of them, such as the pronouns, continue to\\nreflect an object once presented, 2J John he. But there is\\na diff erence in nature between the \\\\NordiJohn and the word\\nhe. If I say at Jerusalem there, the word Jerusalem", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 1 95\\nbelongs to the one class, and the words 2/, /kere, belong to\\nthe other class.\\nWe will call these two classes of words by the names of\\nPresentivb and Symbolic.\\nThe Presentive are those which present an object to the\\nmemory or to the imagination; or, in brief, which present\\nany conception to the mind. For the things presented\\nneed not be objects of sense, as in the first list of ex-\\namples. The words Jus /ice, patience, clemency, fairy, elf,\\nspirit, abstraction, generalization, classification, are as pre-\\nsentive as any words can be. The only point of difference\\nbetween these and those is one that does not belong to\\nphilology. It is the difference of minds. There are people\\nto whom some of the latter words would have no meaning,\\nand therefore would not be presentive. But every word is\\nsupposed by the philologer to carry its requisite condition\\nof mind with it.\\nThe Symbolic words are those which by themselves pre-\\nsent no meaning to the mind, and which depend for their\\nintelligibility on a relation to some presentive word or words.\\nWe enter not at present into the question how they became\\nso limited we simply take our stand on the fact. Whether\\nthey can be shown to be mere altered specimens of the\\npresentive class, or whether there is room to imagine in any\\ncase that they have had a source of their own, independent\\nof the presentives, the difference exists, and is most pal-\\npable. And the more we attend to it, the more shall we find\\nthat broad results are attainable from the study of this great\\ndistinction.\\nWhat, for example, is the joke in such a question as that\\nwhich has afforded a moment s amusement to many gene-\\nrations of youth. Who dragged ivhom round what and\\nwhere except this, that symbols which stand equally for any", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "ig6 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS^\\nperson, any thing, or any place, are rendered ludicrous by\\nbeing employed as if they presented to the mind some par-\\nticular person, some particular thing, or some particular\\nplace The question is rather unsubstantial, simply because\\nthe words are symbolic where they should be presentive. It\\nis not utterly unsubstantial, because the verb dragged round\\nis presentive. Put a more symbolic verb in its stead and you\\nhave a perfectly unsubstantial question Who did what, and\\nwhere did he do it? Who s who? To this class of words\\nignorance and vacancy of mind necessarily resort, as the\\nIsraelites, when they saw manna, said Man hu, What is it\\nAnd here it will be very desirable to establish a clear\\nunderstanding of the general difference between presentive-\\nness and symbolism. For this purpose it may be useful to\\nnotice a few cases which are more or less analogous. When\\nbarbers poles were first erected, they were presentive, for\\nthey indicated by white bands of paint the linen bandages\\nwhich were used in blood-letting, an operation practised\\nby the old surgeon-barbers. In our tim.e we only know\\n(speaking of the popular mind) that the pole indicates\\na barber s shop, but why or how is unknown. And this is\\nsymbolism.\\nThe twelve signs of the zodiac are expressed by two sets\\nof figures, the one presentive of a ram, a bull, a crab, c.,\\nthe other set only symbolical of the same, with a trace-\\nable relationship between the symbols and the pictures.\\nBut the most appropriate illustration may be gathered\\nfrom the letters of the Alphabet. The letter a once was\\na picture, and it represented a bull s head, as may more\\neasily be believed by the youthful reader if the letter is put\\nbefore him in the form of 7^, with its two horns. And the\\nancient name of the letter, Aleph, in Hebrew (whence\\nAlpha in Greek) signifies a bull. Now it has long ago", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 1 97\\nceased to picture the animal, and we are in the habit of\\ncalling it a symbol of the vowel-sound with which the name\\nof the animal began.\\nThe consonant b was once a picture of a house, and\\nthat is the meaning of its Hebrew name Beth, whence the\\nGreek name Beta. And in like manner d is an old picture\\nof a door, which is the sense of its name Daleth in Hebrew,\\nwhence the Greek name Delta. But these two letters (like\\nthe vowel above) have long ago lost all but an archaeolo-\\ngical connection with the objects they once pictured, and they\\nare now the mere symhols of the consonantal sounds which\\nwere initial to the names of the represented objects. And so\\nthrough the whole Alphabet. It began in presentation and\\nhas reached a state of symbolism.\\nHere we perceive that there has been a complete change\\nof nature. The pictorial character with which the intention\\nof the first artist invested the figure has gradually and un-\\ndesignedly evaporated from that figure, and has left a mere\\nvague phantom of a character in its place, a thing which is\\nthe representative of nothing. And if we set the gain\\nagainst the loss of such a transition, we find that the symbol\\nhas gained enormously in range, to make up for what it has\\nlost in pictorial force. While it was presentive, it was tied\\nto a single object since it became a symbol, it is ubiquitous\\nin its function.\\nThese observations will apply also in some degree to our\\ntwo systems of numeration, the Roman and the Arabic.\\nThe numerals I and II and III and IIII are presentive of\\nthe ideas of one and two and three and four, as truly as the\\nholding up of so many fingers would be presentive of those\\nideas. The numeral V is practically a mere symbol, though\\nit began in presentation, if it be true that it is derived from\\nthe hand, the thumb forming the one side, and the four", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "198 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nfingers the other. The figures i and 2 and 3 and 4, c.,\\nare and always were pure symbols. And it is worthy of\\nobservation, that the whole system of Decimal Arithmetic\\nhinges upon these symbolic figures, or has acquired im-\\nmense addition to its range of capabilities by the use of\\nthese figures. So in like manner will it be found by and\\nbye, that the modern development of languages has hinged\\nmainly upon symbolic words, and that their instrumentality\\nhas been the chief means of what progress has been made\\nin the capabilities of expression.\\nThe same general tendency which makes symbols take\\nthe place of pictures, makes or has made symbolic words\\ntake the place of presentives in a great number of instances.\\nThis tendency has led to the formation out of the large mass\\nof presentive verbs of a select number of symbolic verbs,\\nwhich are the light and active intermediaries, and the general\\nservants of the presentive verbs. Thus the verbs partake\\nof both characters, the presentive and the symbolic. But as\\nregards the rest of the parts of speech, they fall into two\\nnatural halves under the influence of this distinction. The\\nnouns, adjectives, and adverbs are presentive words; the\\npronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions are symbolic\\nwords. But if the reader should find himself unable to\\nestablish so simple an adjustment between the two systems,\\nI would observe that nothing depends on it. The attempt\\nto effect a harmony between an artificial and a natural\\nclassification, is always liable to fail at certain points. Nature\\nis not such a rigid classifier as man.\\nMoreover there is much of what is arbitrary in the deno-\\nmination assigned by grammarians to many a word. Dic-\\ntionaries and grammars are not quite at one on this head.\\nSome will think perhaps that my symbolic words are found\\nto invade the domain of noun, adjective, and adverb; while", "height": "3188", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS.\\n199\\nthey fail to cover and fully occupy what I have assigned to\\nthem, namely, the pronoun, conjunction, and preposition.\\nTherefore the grammatical scheme should not be trusted\\nto as a frame for the new division. The student must seize\\nthe distinction itself; and the illustration of it by reference to\\nthe grammatical scale is only offered as a temporary as-\\nsistance.\\nThe best illustration of it will be found in its application\\nwhen we come to the syntax. For the present we can only\\ngive a few examples of the transition of a word from a pre-\\nsentive to a symbolic use.\\nThing. This is a very good example, on account of its\\nunmixed simpleness. For it is almost purely symbohc, and\\ndevoid of presentive power. It is still more. It is of\\nuniversal application in its symbolic power. There is not\\na subject of speech which may not be indicated by the word\\nthi7tg. This will at once be acknowledged upon considera-\\ntion of such passages as the following\\nAll things serve Thee.\\nBy these ways, as by the testimony of the creature, we come to find an\\neternal and independent Being, upon which all things else depend, and by\\nwhich all things else are governed, John Pearson, An Exposition of the\\nCreed, Art. I.\\nBy these quotations it is apparent that we cannot name\\na creature, whether visible or invisible, whether an object of\\nsense or of thought, which may not be indicated by the word\\nihmg. It is therefore of universal application in its sym-\\nbolical power\\nBut if we ask, on the other hand, what idea does this\\nword present we answer, none There is no creature.\\nThe few instances in which thing (with a faint rhetorical emphasis) is\\nopposed to person, are to be regarded as stranded relics on the path of the\\ntransition which the bulk of the word has passed through.", "height": "3176", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "200 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nno subject of speech or of thought, which can claim the\\nword thmg as its presenter. There was a time when the\\nword was presentive like any ordinary noun, but that time\\nis now far behind us. The most recent example I am able\\nto quote is of the fourteenth century.\\nIn Chaucer Prologue it occurs twice presentively\\nHe wolde the see were kept for any thyng\\nBitwixen Myddelburgh and Orewelle, (1. 278.)\\nThar to he koude endite and make a thyng. (1. 327.)\\nThe fullness of tone which the rhythm requires for the\\nword ihy7tg in both these places, is by itself almost enough\\nto indicate that they are not to be taken as when we say\\nI would not do it for anything, or Here s a thing will do.\\nIn these trivial instances the word is vague and symboHcal,\\nbut it would hardly have beseemed such a poet as Chaucer\\nto bring the stroke of his measure down upon such gos-\\nsamer. The Merchant desired that the sea should be pro-\\ntected for the sake of commerce at any p7 tce, conditmi, or\\ncost, on any terms. For such is the old sense of the word\\nthing. The old verb to thing, in Saxon \\\\ingian, meant to\\nmake terms, to compromise, pacisci. So also in German the\\nword 5)ing had a like use, as may be seen through its com-\\npounds. The verb 6ebingcn is to stipulate, bargain; and\\n-^ebingimg is condition, terms of agreement, contract.\\nIn Denmark and Norway the word still retains its pre-\\nsentiveness, and signifies a judicial or deliberative assembly.\\nIn Denmark the places where the judges hold session are\\ncalled Ting. In Norway the Parliament is called Stor Ting,\\nthat is. Great Thing. In Molbech s Danish Dictioiiary there\\nis a list of compounds with Ting, in its presentive power of\\nadjudicating or adjusting conflicting interests.\\nIn such a sense it is said by Chaucer that his Sergeaunt of", "height": "3188", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 201\\nLawe could endite and make a thyng, meaning, he could\\nmake a good contract, was a good conveyancer. And when\\nBurns wrote\\nFacts are chiels that winna ding,\\nI understand Facts are obstinate things/ or, to preserve his\\nfigure of speech, Facts are lads that will not be talked over,\\nwill not make terms, will not accommodate matters by a\\ncompromise Facts are stubborn,\\nIt may be objected to the above treatment of the word\\nthi7tg, that it still presents a definite idea, only at a high\\nstage of generalisation. And this is not to be denied. The\\nidea presented by thing is what the mediaeval logicians would\\nhave called entity or quiddity or some such queer name. By\\nthe same rule nothing also presents an idea of its own, to\\nwit, 7ionentity. But to enter into such matters in a work of\\nthis kind, would be to mistake the plane of metaphysics for\\nthat of philology. We take as the standard of philological\\nreasoning the attitude and the glance of the mind as engaged\\nin the direct use of language, and not as engaged in the\\nreflective examination of it.\\nA question may be raised here What part of speech is\\nthis symboKc thing? Grammar, which looks only to its\\nliterary action, will say it is a noun, and that however much\\nit may have changed in sense, it cannot cease to be a noun.\\nYet it will often be found to act the part and fill the place of\\npronouns in the classic tongues. The Latin neuter pro-\\nnouns h(2c, ea, ista, their Greek analogues TavTa, eKelva,\\nroiavra, roaavra, can hardly be rendered in English in any\\nother way than by the expressions these things, those things,\\nsuch things, so great things. If in all cases we must gram-\\nmatically insist that thing is a noun, then what part of\\nspeech are something, nothing, anything, everything It may", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "%0^ OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nbe a question at what stage of symbolism a noun passes\\nover to the ranks of the pronoun, but it appears plain that\\nthere is a point at which this transition must be admitted,\\nand that the whole question turns upon the degree of sym-\\nbolism that is requisite. If the word thifig has not quite\\nattained that degree, it must be allowed that it approaches\\nvery near to it.\\nGrammar is apt to get bound by its own rules, and to\\nbecome the slave of its own traditions. Now the word much\\n(on which I promised some further remarks above, p. i88)\\nhas been traditionally called a noun in certain positions\\nwhich have been specified in the place referred to. This is\\nmerely a consequence of the Latin Grammars and Dic-\\ntionaries of an unphilological age having called niultum\\na noun. English grammarians, taking their cue from Latin\\nstudies, have made much a noun accordingly. If we are to\\nseek a principle in such matters, and not be guided entirely\\nby chance accidents, we must call much, by reason of its\\npurely symbolic nature, a pronoun, in such a phrase as\\nWhere much is given.\\nWill, would; shall, should. The word shall offers\\na good example of the movement from presentiveness to\\nsymbolism. When it flourished as a presentive word, it\\nsignified to owe. Of this ancient state of the word a me-\\nmorial exists in the German adjective fc^ulbig, indebted.\\nFrom this state it passed by slow and unperceived move-\\nments to that sense which is now most familiar to us, in\\nwhich it is a verbal auxiliary, charging the verb with a sense\\nfluctuating between the future tense and the imperative\\nmood. This is that gossamer use of the word in which the\\nwell-known uncertainty arises, whether shall or will is the\\nproper thing to say in particular situations. Into this much-\\nworn theme we will not enter: it has been recently ex-", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "AND 6f inflections. 203\\npounded by Dean Alford in Queen s English, 208 and\\nfollowing. We are now concerned only to illustrate the\\nmovement from presentiveness to symbolism.\\nHow greatly the word will is felt to have changed its\\npower in the last three centuries may be judged from the\\nfollowing. In Matthew xv. 32, where our Bible has I will\\nnot send them away fasting/ it is proposed by Dean Alford\\nas a correction to render, I am not willing to, c. Again,\\nin Matthew xx. 14, I will give unto this last even as unto\\nthee, the same critic finds it desirable to substitute It is my\\nwill to give, c. It should be noticed that in neither of\\nthese criticisms is there any question of Greek involved. It\\nis simply an act of fetching up the expression of our Bible\\nto the level of modern English. Whether such alterations\\nwould or would not be really improvements of our version,\\nis a question which does not come under our consideration.\\nAs evidence that a change is come over the word will, it is\\nall the more valuable as being undesignedly supplied.\\nBoth ivill and shall are seen in their presentive power in\\nthe familiar proposal to carry a basket, or to do any other\\nlittle handy service, will if I shall, that is, I am willing if\\nyou will command me I will if so required.\\nThere are still intermediate uses of the word shall which\\nbelong neither to the presentive state when it signified owe\\nnor to the symbolic state in which it is a mere imponderable\\nauxiliary. In the following quotation it has a sense which\\nlies between these two extremes.\\nIf the Reformers saw not how or where to draw the fine and floating\\nand long-obscured line between religion and superstition, who shall dare to\\narraign them? Henry Hart Milnian, The Annals of St. Paul s, p. 231.\\nWhat has been said about shall applies equally to its\\npreterite should. Its common symbolic use is illustrated in\\nthe following quotation,", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "204 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS\\nLabourers indeed were still striving with employers about the rate of\\nwages as they have striven to this very day, and will continue to strive to\\nthe world s end, unless some master mind should discover the true principle\\nfor its settlement. William Longman, Edward III, vol. ii. ch. iii.\\nLet the reader fully comprehend the nature of this should,\\nthat he may be prepared to appreciate the contrast of the\\nexamples which follow. I found the first near my own home.\\nI was borneing out some allotment ground, and Farmer\\nWebb having driven a corner borne into the ground\\nvery effectively, exclaimed, There, that one 11 stand for\\ntwenty years, if he should/ To a person who knows\\nonly the English of literature, the condition would seem\\nfutile if he should! It would seem to mean that the\\nborne would stand if it happened to stand. But this was\\nnot our neighbour s meaning. The person who should so\\nmisunderstand him, would do so for want of knowing that\\nthe word should has still something extant of its old pre-\\nsentive power. In this instance it would have to be trans-\\nlated into Latin, not thus si fork iia evenerit but thus\\nsi debueril, sifuerit opus if it ought; if it be required to\\nstand so long; or, in the brief colloquial, if required.\\nConnected with this thread of usage, and equally derived\\nfrom the radical sense of owe, is another power of shall\\nand should, which is of a very subtle nature. It is one\\nof the native traits of our mother tongue of which we\\nhave been deprived by the French influence. German\\nscholars well know that Soil has a peculiar use to express\\nsomething which the speaker does not assert but only\\nreports. (Sr goU e8 get^an I)aBen, literally, he shall have\\ndone it, signifies, he is said to have done it. In Saxon\\nthis use was well known. Thus in the Peterborough\\nChronicle, a.d. 1048 (p. 178), we read: for ]?an Eustatius\\nhsefde gecydd Jjam cynge ]?et hit sceolde beon mare gylt\\n3ere burhwara ])onne his forasmuch as Eustace had", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 205\\ntold the king that it was [forsooth I) more the towns-\\nmen s fault than his. Twice in the same Chronicle it is\\nrecorded that a spring of blood had issued from the earth in\\nBerkshire, namely, under the years 1098 and 1200. In both\\nplaces it is added, swa swa manige ssedan ]?e hit geseon\\nSCEOLDAN as many said who professed to have seen it, or\\nwere believed to have seen it. But now this usage is only\\nprovincial. It is very common in Devonshire. I m told\\nsuch a one should say. How ancient it is, we may form an\\nestimate by observing that it exists not only in German but\\nin Danish also. Some specimens of Holberg are given in\\nthe North British Review (July, 1869, p. 426), from one of his\\ndramas, entitled Erasmus Montanus. The pedantic student\\nis at home for vacation, and complaining that there is no one\\nin the town who has learning enough to be a fit associate\\nfor himself. At this point he says, according to the trans-\\nlator, who is substantially correct The clerk and the\\nschoolmaster, it is reported, have studied but I know not to\\nwhat extent. The original Danish is, Degnen og Skole-\\nmesteren skal have studeret, men jeg reed ikke hvorvidt det\\nstrsekker sig Hterally, the clerk and the schoolmaster shall\\nhave studied. These illustrations are so many traces of the\\ncourse which this ancient verb has described in its passage\\nfrom the presentive to the symbolic state. And, taken as\\na whole, they form so beautifully varied a series of phases,\\nthat had they been found in a classical language they would\\nhave been much admired.\\nThe different powers of would are illustrated in the following\\nquotation, where the first would has absolutely nothing re-\\nmaining of that original idea of the action of Will, which is\\nstill present though unobtruded in the second would.\\nIt would be a charity if people would sometimes in their Litanies pray\\nfor the very heahhy, very prosperous, very light-hearted, very much be-\\npraised. John Keble, Life, p. 459,", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "206 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDSj\\nMay, Might. Like wi7l, would, shall, should, this word\\nin its auxiliary character is not presentive but symbolic.\\nBut we get it in its presentive function in our early poetry,\\nas in the following from Chevelere Assigne, 1. 134,\\nI my3te not drowne hem for dole,\\nthe meaning of which is, I was not able to drown them for\\ncompassion. Here myii^te, which is the same as might, is\\npresentive and means potui/ I was able.\\nThis word originally meant, not ability by admission or\\npermission (as now), but by power and right, as in the noun\\nmight and the adjective mighty. We no longer use the verb\\nso. But ti makes a characteristic feature of the fourteenth-\\ncentury poetry\\nThere was a king that mochel might\\nWhich Nabugodonosor hight.\\nConfessio Amantis, Bk. i. vol. i. p. 1316, ed. Pauli.\\nThis would be in Latin, Rex quidam erat qui multum\\nvalebat, cui nomen Nabugodonosoro.\\nSome traces of its presentive use linger about 7?iay. We\\nuse it in its old sense of to be able in certain positions as, It\\nmay be avoided. But, curious to note, we change the verb\\nfor the negation of this proposition, and say No, it cannot*\\nNone but the book-learned would understand No, it may\\nnot.\\nSome. As in Mrs. Barbauld s apostrophe to Life\\nSay not good night, but in some brighter clime,\\nBid me good morning.\\nOr as the following\\nSo valuable a means of research has this new process of analysis proved\\nitself to be, that since its first establishment, some seven short years ago, no\\nless than four new chemical elements have by its help been discovered,\\nHenry E, Roscoe, Spectrum Analysis, 186S, init.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 207\\nstm.\\nThe Old Testament will still be a New Testament to him who comes\\nwith a fresh desire of information. Fuller.\\nMore. This is now generally known to us as a symbolic\\nword, a mere sign of the comparative degree. But it is pre-\\nsentive in Acts xix. 32, the 7nore part knew not where-\\nfore they were come together; and in that sentence of\\nBacon s discretion in speech is more than eloquence.\\nNow. In this word we may illustrate the aerial perspec-\\ntive which exists in symbolism. At first it appeared as an\\nadverb of time, signifying at the present time. Even in this\\ncharacter it is a symbolic word, but it is one that lies very\\nnear the presentive frontier. It is capable of light emphasis,\\nas in Now is the accepted time I But then it moves off\\nanother stage, as, Now faith is the confidence of things hoped\\nfor, the evidence of things not seen. Here the 7iow is incapable\\nof accent; one hardly imagines the rhetorical emergency\\nwhich would impose an emphasis on this now. Thus we see\\nthere is in symbolism a near and a far distance. And this\\nsecond now, the more rarefied and symbolic of the two, is\\ngradually undermining the position of the other. The careful\\nwriter will often have found it necessary to strike out a now\\nwhich he had with the weightier meaning set at the head of\\na sentence, because of its liability to be accepted by the\\nreader for the toneless now.\\nMany years of my life was I puzzled to know what the now\\nmeant in i Corinthians xiii. 13, And now abideth faith,\\nhope, charity, c. Why now I supposed, or had been\\ntaught (I cannot say which), that some special adaptation or\\nappropriation was intended of these virtues to the present\\ndispensation. At length, by maturer familiarity with Greek,\\nit became clear that the now is not one of time at all, but\\nthe merest symbolic, and that it ought not to have that", "height": "3160", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "2o8 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS^\\nemphasis which its English position gives it almost in spite of\\nthe most intelligent reader. The emphasis is on the word\\nabideth, and if this verb were put where it should be in\\nthe place of emphasis, it would then be practicable for\\na reader to render the ?iow as nd No faith, hope, and\\ncharity are permanent. Illustrations drawn from private\\nexperience have this natural weakness about them, that\\nwhen a writer speaks of himself he is in danger of turning\\na personal idiosyncrasy into a fact of general interest. I\\nwill therefore mention that I had actually excluded this\\nillustration for the reason now assigned, when a spon-\\ntaneous communication from a learned friend informed me\\nof the fact that his experience about this passage had been\\nin every particular the very same as my own.\\nDo. This word is presentive in such a sentence as the\\nfollowing\\nMy object is to do what I can to undo this great wrong. Edward A.\\nFreeman, History of the Norman Conquest, vol. iii. init.\\nIt is however in full activity, both as a near and also as\\na far-off symbolic word. I have often heard an old\\nfriend quote the following, which he witnessed at an\\nagricultural entertainment. The speaker had to propose\\nthe chairman s health, and after much eulogy, he apos-\\ntrophized the gentleman thus What I mean to say,\\nSir, is this that if more people was to do as you do,\\nthere wouldn t be so many do as they do do In\\nthe final do do it is clear we have the verb in two\\ndifferent powers, the first being highly symbolic, and\\nthe second almost presentive. Again, in the familiar\\nsalutation, How d ye do.? we have the same verb in two\\npowers. Here moreover the usual mode of writing it\\nconveys the important lesson, that the more symbolic a\\nword is, the more it loses tone and becomes subject to", "height": "3180", "width": "2100", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 209\\nelision. It might seem as if this observation were con-\\ntradicted by the previous example, in which it is plain to\\nthe ear of every reader that of the two words in do do/\\nthe former, that is to say, the more symbolic, is the more\\nemphatic. But this is caused by the antithesis between that\\nword and the was to do, preceding. In short, it is a dis-\\nturbance of the intrinsic relative weight by rhetorical\\ninfluence.\\nIn this gradation of symbolism we see what provision is\\nmade for the lighter touches of expression, the vague tints,\\nthe vanishing points. Towards a deep and distant back-\\nground the full-fraught picture of copious language carries\\nour eye, while the foreground is almost palpable in its\\nreality.\\nWe must not regard either of the two main divisions of\\nwords as having the uniformity of a physical class. Even\\nthe presentive are more or less presentive while the sym-\\nbohc have an infinitely graduated scale of variation. And yet\\nthere is no uncertainty resting over the basis of the dis-\\ntinction here pointed out between presentive and symbolic.\\nAs a further illustration of this distinction it may be\\nobserved that a little more or less of the symbolic element\\nhas a great effect in stamping the character of diction. By\\na Httle excess of it we get the sententious or would-be wise\\nmannerism. By a diminution of it we get an air of prompt-\\nness and decision, which may produce (according to circum-\\nstances) an appearance of the business-like, or the military,\\nor the off-hand. This is one of those observations which\\nmay best be justified by an appeal to caricatures of acknow-\\nledged merit. In the Pickwick Papers, the conversation\\nof Mr. Samuel Weller the elder, a man of maxims and\\nproverbs and store of experience, is marked by an occasional\\nexcess of the symbolic element. While you re a considering\\np", "height": "3176", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "210 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nof it he will proceed to suggest as how/ c. On the\\nother hand, the off-hand impudence of the adventurer Mr.\\nJingle, is represented by the artist mainly through this par-\\nticular feature, which characterizes his conversation through-\\nout, namely, that it has the smallest possible quantity of\\nsymbolic words.\\nTo make it still more distinct what the symbolic character\\nis, I add a paragraph in which the symbolic element is\\ndistinguished by italics.\\nThere is a popular saying, in the Brandenburg district where Bismarck s\\nfamily has been so many centuries at home, which attributes to the Bismarck s,\\nas the characteristic saying of the house, the phrase, Noch lange nicht\\ngenug Not near enough yet and which expresses, we suppose, the\\npopular conception of their tenacity of purpose,-T-. a^ they were not tired out\\nof any plan they had formed by a reiterated failure or a pertinacious opposi-\\ntion which wotdd have disheartened most of their compeers. There is a some-\\nwhat extravagant illustration of this characteristic m Bismarck s wild, youth-\\nful days, if his biographer may be trusted. When studying law at Berlin he\\nhad been more than once disappointed by a bootmaker who did not send home\\nhis boots when they luere promised. Accordingly whe?i this next happened, a\\nservant of the young jurist appeared at the bootmaker s at six in the morning\\ntuith the simple question, Are Herr Bismarck s boots ready? When he\\nwas told they were not, he departed, but at ten minutes past six another ser-\\nvant appeared with the same inquiry, and so at precise intervals of ten minutes\\nit went 071 all day, till by the evening the boots were finished and sent home*\\nDoubt may sometimes arise concerning a particular word,\\nwhen its signification lies on the confines of presentation and\\nsymbolism. In the above passage, I have let the word home\\nstand once presentively, and twice I have marked it as\\nsymbolic.\\nIn English prose the number of symbolic words is gene-\\nrally about sixty per cent, of the whole number employed,\\nleaving forty per cent, for the presentives. A passage with\\nmany proper names and titles in it may, however, bring the\\npresentives up to, or even cause them to surpass, the number\\nof the symbolics. But the average in ordinary prose is what\\nwe have stated.", "height": "3184", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 311\\nMr. Ward sa3 -s very truly thai the men and women of Pope s satires\\nand epistles, his Atticus and Atossa, and Sappho and Sporus, are real types,\\nwhether thsy be more or less faithful portraits 0/ Addison arid the old Duchess,\\nof Lady Mary and Lord Hervey. His Dunces are the Dunces of all times\\nhis orator Henley the mob orator, and his awful Aristarch the don, of all\\nepochs though there may have been sotfie merit in Theobald, soine use even\\nin Henley, a?id though ift Bentley there was undoubted greatness. Bjit in\\nPope s hands individuals become types, a7id his creative power i?i this respect\\nsurpasses that of the Roman satirists, and leaves Dryden hi7nself hehlnd.\\nOut of J 15 words, we here find the unusually large number\\nof fifty-four presentives, and the small proportion of sixty-one\\nsymbolics. But if we compare this with the previous para-\\ngraph, we observe that whereas the presentives are a new\\nset of words, the symbolics are to a large extent identical\\nin the two pieces. The symbolic words, though they hold\\nso large a space in context, yet are but few in the whole\\nvocabulary of the language.\\nIt would be a very interesting investigation, to examine\\nwhether the chief modern languages have any considerable\\ndiversity as to the bulk and composition of their symbolic\\nelement. For here it is that we must look for the matured\\nresults of aggregate national thought, in the case of the\\nmodern languages. The symbolic is the modern element\\nis, we might go so far as to say, the element which alone\\nwill give a basis for a philological distinction between ancient\\nand modern languages.\\nNot that any ancient languages are known which are\\nabsolutely destitute of this element. There is but one that\\nI know, and that for the most part a very unwritten language,\\nin which the symbolic has not yet been started. That is the\\nlanguage of infancy. Whoever has observed the shifts made\\nby prattling children to express their meaning without the\\nhelp of pronouns, will need no further explanation of the\\nstatement that infantine speech is unsymbolic. But I can-\\nnot refrain from establishing this important position by the\\np. 2", "height": "3168", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "212 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nwidely independent testimony of such a philosopher as the\\nlate Professor Ferrier^\\nIn discussing the question, When does consciousness come into manifesta-\\ntion we found that man is not born conscious and that therefore con-\\nsciousness is not a given or ready-made fact of humanity. In looking for\\nsome sign of its manifestation, we found that it has come into operation\\nwhenever the human being has pronounced the word I, knowing what\\nthis expression means. This word is a highly curious one, and quite an\\nanomaly, inasmuch as its true meaning is utterly incommunicable by one\\nbeing to another, endow the latter with as high a degree of intelligence as\\nyou please. Its origin cannot be explained by imitation or association. Its\\nmeaning cannot be taught by any conceivable process but must be origi-\\nnated absolutely by the being using it. This is not the case with any other\\nform of speech. For instance, if it be asked What is a table a person may\\npoint to one and say, that is a table. But if it be asked, What does I\\nmean? and if the same person were to point to himself and say this is\\nthis would convey quite a wrong meaning, unless the inquirer, before\\nputting the question, had originated within himself the notion I, for it\\nwould lead him to call that other person I.\\nIt is quite certain that I has its own special peculiarity,\\nwhich may be said to distinguish it from every other form of\\nspeech. As a token of the dawn of consciousness in a child,\\nthe use of this word may claim some special attention. But\\nin the main it is to be observed that the quality in this wo-rd\\nwhich excited the professor s admiration, is a quality not\\npeculiar to the pronoun I, but of many other pronouns,\\nif not of all pronouns as such. As a general rule, it is pro-\\nbably with the pronoun I that the child first seizes the use\\nof the symbolic element in speech. But it is not always\\nso. In an instance which has been lately before me, a well-\\nobserved instance, supported moreover by conclusions from\\nother less accurately noted cases, the pronoun I has been\\nmaturely acquired and in full use while the pronoun you\\nwas yet in the tentative stage.\\nThe difference so well demonstrated by Professor Ferrier,\\nas separating the nature of the word I from that of the\\nLectures on Greek Philosophy and other Philosophical Remains of\\nJames Frederick Ferrier. Edited by Sir Alexander Grant, p. 252.", "height": "3184", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 21^\\nword table/ is the difference which splits the whole voca-\\nbulary into the two divisions of the presentive and the sym-\\nbolic. A child does not understand any of the symbolic\\nwords at all. Where it uses them, it is by unconscious\\nimitation. This happens particularly in the case of the\\nprepositions, which are to the opening intelHgence not\\nseparate words at all, but mere appendages to the pre-\\nsentives which they understand.\\nWe sometimes talk of the speech of animals. It is hardly\\npossible to deny them all share in this faculty. They cer-\\ntainly communicate their emotions by the voice. And this\\nvoice is not without discrimination. It is not to be sup-\\nposed, for example, that they have merely a spontaneous\\nand uniform utterance for each condition of feeling. The\\ncry of the barn-door fowl at the sight of a fox or of a\\nhawk is such as would tell an experienced person what was\\ngoing on. The various accents of the Newfoundland dog,\\nwhere he has a real understanding with his master, or of the\\ncollie among the sheep on the northern fells, are manifesta-\\ntions wonderfully like inceptive speech and that everybody\\nfeels this to be so, is evidenced from the common meed of\\npraise bestowed on a sagacious dog, that he all but talks.\\nWhether the cries of animals are humble specimens of\\nspeech, or whether they are altogether different in kind, is\\nhovvTver a question which we have not to solve. The sub-\\nject has only been introduced in order that it might afford\\nus another point of view from which to contemplate the im-\\nportant distinction between presentive and symbohc speech.\\nIf we estimate at its very highest the claims that can be\\nmade for the language of the beasts, it v/ill always be limited\\nby the line which severs these two kinds of expression. We\\ncan imagine an orator on behalf of the animals maintaining\\nthat their cries might represent to other animals not only", "height": "3168", "width": "1960", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "214 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nemotions but also objects of the outer sense or even objects\\nreflected in the memory. We should not think a man quite\\nunreasonable if he imagined that a certain whinny of a horse\\nindicated to another horse as much as the word stable. But\\nwe should think him talking at random, if he pretended to\\nbe able to imagine that a horse s language possessed either\\na pronoun or a preposition.\\nHere then we consider ourselves to touch upon that in\\nhuman speech which bears the highest and most distinctive\\nimpress of the action of the human mind. Here we find\\nthe beauty, the blossom, the glory, the aureole of language.\\nHere we seem to have found a means of measuring the\\nrelative progress manifested in different philological eras.\\nAmong ancient languages, that one is most richly furnished\\nVv ith this element which in every other respect also bears off\\nthe palm of excellence. Dr. Arnold was not likely to have\\nwritten the following passage unless he had been sensible\\nof a very high intellectual delight.\\nThere is an actual pleasure in contemplating so perfect a management\\nof so perfect an instrument as is exhibited in Plato s language, even if the\\nmatter were as worthless as the words of Italian music whereas the sense\\nis only less admirable in many places than the language. Life, i. 387.\\nThe admiration which is accorded on all hands to the\\nGreek language is due to the exquisite perfection of its\\nsymbolic element. It is not that Ao yo? or pj;,Ma or ^aivr] have\\nany intrinsic superiority over ratio or verhwn or vox, that\\navr\\\\p or avdpcoTTos is preferable to vi r or /lomo nor is it even\\nthat the music, sweet as it may have been, reaches so effec-\\ntually to the ear of the modern scholar as to carry him\\ncaptive and cause him to forget the more audible march of\\nAusonian rhythms. No it all lies in the coyness of those\\nlittle words whose meaning is as strikingly telling as it is\\nimpalpably subtle. It is those airy nothings which scholars", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 215\\nhave been chasing all these centuries ever since the revival\\nof letters, every now and then, fancying they had seized\\nthem, till they were roused from their sweet delusion by the\\nlaughter of their fellow-idlers. The exact distinction between\\nixrj and ov, the precise meaning of av and cipa and S^ must\\nforsooth be defined and settled and it is very possible that\\nwe have not yet seen the last of these futile lucubrations.\\nThese things will be settled when the truant schoolboy has\\nbound the rainbow to a tree.\\nAs far back as 1829 Dr. Arnold wrote to a learned\\nfriend\\nAnd can you tell me where is to be found a summary of the opinions\\nof English scholars about ojtojs and ottcus ^77, and the moods which they\\nrequire: and further, do you or he hold their doctrine good for anything?\\nDawes, and all men who endeavour to establish general rules, are of great\\nuse in directing one s attention to points which one might otherwise have\\nneglected and labour and acuteness often discover a rule, where indolence\\nand carelessness fancied it was all hap-hazard. But larger induction and\\nsounder judgment teach us to distinguish again between a principle and an\\nusage the latter may be general but if it be merely usage, grounded on no\\nintelligible principle, it seems to me foolish to insist on its being universal,\\nand to alter texts right and left, to make them all conformable to the canon.\\nLife, i. 241.\\nThere are still scholars who seek to render a firm reason\\nfor the Greek article in every place in which it occurs. But\\ncan they do so for their own language Can they say, for\\nexample, what is the value of the definite article which\\noccurs three times in the following couplet\\nAnd to watch as the little bird watches\\nWhen the falcon is in the air.\\nWhere is the man who can handle language so skilfully\\nas to describe and define the value of these articles He\\nmay say they are equivalent to such a word in Greek or to\\nsuch a word in French, but he cannot render an account\\nof what that value is. And yet this word was once a demon-\\nstrative pronoun, and it is time and use that has filed it", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "2l6 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\ndown to this airy tenuity and delicate fineness. The sense\\nwould be affected by the absence of these little words, and\\nyet it cannot be said that they are necessary to the sense.\\nThey seem to be at once nothing and something. The\\ngold is beaten out to an infinitesimal thinness. Indeed, it is\\nwith language as with glory in Shakspeare s description\\nGlory is like a circle in the water,\\nWhich never ceaseth to enlarge it selfe,\\nTill by broad spreading it disperse to naught.\\nI Henry VI. i. 2, 133.\\nIt is painful to think how much good enthusiasm has been\\nAvasted upon learning definitions which were not only unreal,\\nbut absolutely misleading as to the nature of the thing\\nstudied. So far from its being possible to define by rule\\nthe value of the Greek particles, it is barely possible to cha-\\nracterize them by a vague general principle. They vv^ere\\nthe product of usage, and usage is a compound made up of\\nmany converging tendencies, and that which was multitu-\\ndinous in its sources continues to be heterogeneous in its\\ncomposition. As usage produced it, so use alone can teach\\nit. And this is why the skilled examiner will proceed to test\\na knowledge of Greek by selecting a passage not with many\\nhard words in it, but with this symbolic element delicately\\nexhibited. Hard and rare words are useful as a test whether\\nthe books have been got up, but even then the examination\\nis no check on cramming. Whereas, it is a part of the dis-\\ntinct character and peculiar iridescent beauty of the symbolic\\nelement that it cannot be acquired by sudden methods\\nit can only be learnt by a process of gradual habituation,\\nwhich is study in the true sense of the word, and which\\ncannot fail to open the mind. You cannot tack on me-\\nchanically a given English word to a given Greek word\\nin the symbolic element, as you do in the presentive.", "height": "3184", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS.\\nSymbolic words require different terms of rendering in dif-\\nferent connections. They have a diversity of states and\\npowers and functions like living things. This is in each\\nlanguage the pith, the marrow, the true mother tongue.\\nThis is the element which is nearest of kin to thought,\\nso that the efficiency of a writer or speaker depends largely\\non his power over it. In the following quotation from a\\nreview, see how the symbolics too much enable the writer\\njust to hit off the vague idea in his mind.\\nColeridge, though he was as much at home as any man could be in\\nregions of mj ^stery, found Christabel too much for him, for that we sup-\\npose to be the natural explanation of its unfinished condition.\\nThe following passage shews it well in Greek, and it is\\na passage borrowed from an Examination Paper. The\\nsymbolics are printed in thick type.\\nEyw jxev oSv to-TC |X\u00e2\u0082\u00acv al airovlax T]o-av ov-TOxe l7rav6[xrjv fij-ias |A6\u00c2\u00bb\\noiKTiipojv, ^aaiXia St kaI totjs ijvv auroj fxaKapi^cov, diaOecuixevos o.vtS)V\\noortjv fjLtv x ^paj Kal otav exot\u00e2\u0082\u00acv, ks Se dcpdova to, kiriTTfdeLa, occus 84\\nOepdnovTas, ocraSc KT-qv-rj, -xpvadv Se, ecQTJTa Bs. To, S avTwv arpaTLcaTWV\\nOTTOTe ev6vixoifA.r]v otl t\u00c2\u00a3\u00c2\u00bbi jJiev dyaOojv -irdvTcoi gvB^vos tj[xiv [izTzir^, el fzi]\\nTTpiaifxsOa, crov 5 dii Tjaofi^Oa f/deiv oti okiyovq exovras, aXXnz Be -r-ws\\nTTopi^eaOai to. kvir-qbeia r\\\\ divov/xevovs opKovs 4]8ifj Karexovras -fjlJias ravr\\novv Xoyi^ofxevos Iviore to,? airopSas [xaWov l(po^ov[xr]v fjvOv tcv nvX(-\\nfiov. E:Tfl jJLevToi IksIvoi eXvaav rds atrovTsas kekvcOai \\\\xc.i dofcei Kal\\nY) liceivcuv vfipLS Kal fj TjjA\u00e2\u0082\u00acT\u00e2\u0082\u00acpa vjToipia. Xenophon, Anabasis, in.\\nThe symbolics in Latin are strikingly different from those\\nin Greek. They differ as the flowers of the florist differ\\nfrom those of nature. It is manifest to the eye that the\\nsymbolics in Greek have grown spontaneously, while their\\nLatin analogues have a got-up and cultivated look. The\\nmodifying words especially, those which are sometimes\\nroughly comprised under the term particles, look very much\\nlike scholastic products. A long period of Greek education\\npreceded the Augustan age of the Latin language, and the\\nsymbolic part could not help getting an educated develop-", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "2l8 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nment, when the youth of successive generations had been\\ndaily translating their bits of Greek into the vernacular\\nLatin.\\nAnd although the symbolics in Latin are very effective\\nwhen understood, yet it must be allowed that they are very\\nhard to understand. This is the reason why a real Latin\\nscholar, one who can command this title among scholars, is\\nsuch a very rare personage. The symbolical element, which\\nis to the mode of thought the essential element in every\\nphrase in which it is present, did not grow of itself un-\\nconsciously and in the open air as in Greece, but it was the\\nproduct of artificial elaboration and studied adaptation. And\\nit still sits on the Latin Hke a ceremonious garment. The old\\nnative Latin, whose vitality and functionality was all but\\npurely inflectional, springs out of its Greek disguise every\\nnow and then, and shows what it can do by its own natural\\narmour. Look at the muscular collectedness of such\\nsentence as beati mundo corde, and compare it in respect\\nof the total absence of symbolics, either with the Greek\\nMaKapiot ol KaBapol rfj Kapbia, or with the English Blessed are\\nthe pU7 e in heart.\\nThere spoke out the native and pre-classic Latin, a truly\\nancient language^ and one in comparison with which we\\nmust call the Greek truly modern. For that rich and free\\noutflow of the symbolic which marks the Greek, is the\\nbadge and characteristic of modernism in language. On the i\\nother hand, that independence of symbolics, and that power\\nof action by complete inflectional machinery, which marks j\\nthe Latin, is the true characteristic and best perfection of\\nthe ancient or pre-symbolic era. Not that our monuments\\nreach back absolutely to a period when the symbolic ele-\\nment had yet to begin. Already in the Sanskrit, the\\nsymbolic verb is, than which nothing can be more purely", "height": "3184", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 21 g\\nsymbolic, is in as full maturity as it is in our modern lan-\\nguages. The latter have made more use of it, but the oldest\\nlanguages of the Aryan race were already in possession of it.\\nWe learn from Professor Miiller, Lectures, ii. p. 349, that\\nthe Sanskrit root is as, which, in all the Aryan languages,\\nhas supplied the material for the auxiliary verb. Now, even\\nin Sanskrit, it is true, this root as is completely divested of\\nits material character it means io be, and nothing else. But\\nthere is in Sanskrit a derivative of the root as, namely dsu,\\nand in this asu, which means the vital breath, the original\\nmeaning of the root as has been preserved, as, in order to\\ngive rise to such a noun as asu, must have meant to breathe,\\nthen to live, then to exist, and it must have passed through\\nall these stages before it could have been used as the ab-\\nstract auxiliary verb which we find not only in Sanskrit but\\nin all Aryan languages.\\nBut although we cannot pursue our research so far up\\ninto antiquity as to arrive 2X a station where inflections exist\\nwithout symbolic words, yet we have sufficient ground for\\ntreating flexion as an ancient and symbolism as a modern\\nphenomenon. One reason is, that in the foremost languages\\nof the world, flexion is waning while symbolism is waxing.\\nAnother consideration is this, that after the growth of the\\nsymbolic element, the motive for flexion would no longer\\nexist.\\nWe have every reason to anticipate in the future of the\\nworld s history, that symbolic will continue to develope, and\\nthat flexion will cease to grow. A widening divergence\\nseparates them at their hither end. But if we could take\\na look into that far distant antiquity in which they had their\\nrise, we might perhaps find their fountains near each other\\nif not absolutely identified in one well-head. I imagine\\nthat inflections are simply words which, having made some", "height": "3168", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "220 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nprogress towards symbolism, and having lost accordingly\\nin specific gravity, have been attracted by, and at length\\nabsorbed into, the denser substance of presentive words.\\nThis would account for the great start which flexion had\\nover symbolic and yet we should understand how a marked\\nand prominent symbolic word like is, charged with a sin-\\ngular amount of vitality, should have found the opportunity\\nto make a place for itself even as early as our highest\\nattainable antiquity.\\nBe this as it may, there are traces of a something which\\nhas the air of a family likeness between inflections and sym-\\nbolic words. With a hint on this feature, we will close the\\nchaptQi.-.\\nThe distinction between presentive and symbolic words\\nis, I hope, tolerably clear to the reader. And also this that\\npresentive words have a tendency to become symbolic. And\\nalso this\u00e2\u0080\u0094 that the process which changes them from pre-\\nsentive to symbolic is accompanied (unless other forces\\ninterfere) by a relative Hghtening of the vocal stress laid\\non them in a properly modulated discourse. To these\\nobservations we must add that the symboHc words are\\nmarked by a clinging adherent tendency to attach them-\\nselves to other words and as this tendency will often force\\nitself on our attention, we will, for brevity s sake, simply call\\nit symphytism\\nIn the early period of our literature we see the symbolics\\ngrowing on to their presentives and forming one word with\\nthem. In the case of the pronouns with the verbs this was\\nvery conspicuous in early English, as it was also in early\\nGerman. The first personal pronoun which was anciently\\nIc, is found coalescing both before and after its verb. In\\nthe latter case the c is generally developed into ch. In the\\nCanterbury Tales, 14362", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 221\\nLet be, quod he it schal not be, so theech I\\nHere theech is the coalition of thee ic, equivalent to the more\\nfrequent phrase, so mote I thee that is to say, So may I\\nprosper (A.S. jjeon, to flourish, prosper).\\nIn the Owl and Nightingale (a.d. 1250) we find wenestu\\nfor wenest pu, weenest thou wultii, wilt thou shaltu, shalt\\nthou; etestu, eatest thou. In Bamford s Dialect of South\\nLancashire, there is cudto, couldst thou.? cudtono, couldst\\nthou not\\nAnd not only does the pronoun adhere to its verb when\\nit stands as subject to the verb. In the following west-\\ncountry sentence the object-pronoun adheres Telln, what\\na payth out, I ll payn agan Tell him, what he pays out,\\nI will pay him again. Here the n represents the old accu-\\nsative pronoun hine, which has been absorbed into the verb.\\nThe old negative ne coalesces with its verb thus nelt for\\nne wilt navestu for ne havest pu, thou hast not nam for\\nne a7Ji am not Ich 71am of-drad, I am not alarmed.\\nThe particle a coalesces very often as\\nAwinter warm, asumere cold. Owl and Nightingale.\\nTwo symbolics would run together like two drops of\\nwater on a pane of glass. The verb shall is often found\\nmaking one word with be down as late as the seventeenth\\ncentury. Thus, Isaiah xl. 4\\nEuery valley shalhe exalted, and euery niountaine and hill shalbe\\nmade low.\\nIn King Lear, iv. 6, where Edgar assumes the character\\nof a rustic, he says chill for will, and chud for wotdd or\\nshould, it may be doubted which. Here we have to under-\\nstand that the first pronoun was pronounced as Ich, so that\\nchill is just as natural a coalition of ich will as nill is of\\nne will. For this reference I am indebted to my friend the", "height": "3176", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": ",222 OF PRESENTIVE AND SYMBOLIC WORDS,\\nRev. W. Williamson, of Fairstowe, who has also furnished\\nme with the following\\nChill tell thee what, good veil owe,\\nBefore the vriers went hence,\\nA bushell of the best wheate\\nWas zold vor vourteen pence.\\nCham zure they were not voolishe\\nThat made the masse, che trowe\\nWhy, man, tis all in Latine\\nAnd vools no Latine knowe.\\nFtTcy s Reliques, ii. pp. 324, 325.\\nCAam is for zcA am, I am. The same friend, having under-\\ntaken to look out for examples of this kind for me, writes\\nto say that he has met with more than two hundred of these\\nagglutinate forms, including such as ichave, hastow, imliu,\\ndosiu, slepesiow, sechestu, wenestu, Szc.\\nThese examples are enough to prove that there is a dis-\\nposition in the symbolics to be drawn on to and to coalesce\\nwith their presentives, or with one another. The tendency\\nis so decided in that direction that had there not been some\\ngreat counteracting force it must have gone on happening\\non so large a scale as to have completely altered the appear-\\nance and character of the language. And this counteracting\\nforce is nothing more than the natural consequence of\\nliterary habits when they are widely diffused. From this\\ncause has arisen a modern reaction in favour of the preser-\\nvation of all words that are known to have had a separate\\nindividuality. This reaction has put a stop to these coalitions,\\nand in some cases dissolved them where they had seemed\\nto be established. In the early prints of Shakspeare the con-\\nversational abbreviation for zai Il is written Ik, but modern\\nusage requires that the separate existence of each word\\nshould be kept up, and accordingly we write it The\\nsame movement, overshooting its aim, has, at least in one", "height": "3184", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "AND OF INFLECTIONS. 22^\\ninstance, restored a word to a present position which it\\nnever held in the past. The substitution of his for the pos-\\nsessive s, as in John his book/ and other well-known\\ninstances, was done by way of restoring the original ex-\\npHcitness of the language. It furnishes us with a strong\\nillustration of the existence of that counter-force which\\nrestrains the tendency to a symphytic coalition.\\nIn fact the growth of symbolic words and the growth of\\ninflections are naturally antagonistic to, and almost mutually\\nexclusive of, each other. They are both made of the same\\nmaterial. They are the results of opposite states of the ag-\\ngregate mind. If the attention of the community is fully\\nawake to its language and takes an interest in it, no word\\ncan lose its independence. If language is used unreflectingly,\\nthe lighter words will get absorbed by those of greater\\nweight, and then they pass into the dependent condition of\\ninflections attached to the main words. Thus even Greek,\\nour brightest ancient example of symbolism, produced con-\\nglomerations in its obscure and neglected period, as Stamhoul\\n(the modern name of Constantinople), which is a conglo-\\nmerate of Is Ty]v TTokiv. So also Stanchio or Stanko, a con-\\nglomerate of es- r^v Kco, is the modern name for the island\\nanciently known as Cos or Coos. For the passage of a\\nword into the condition of an inflection, a certain neglect\\nand obscurity is necessary while the requisite condition for\\nthe formation of a rich assortment of symbolics is a general\\nand sustained habit of attention to the national Ian2:ua2;e.", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VI.\\nTHE VERBAL GROUP.\\nThe verb is distinguished from all other forms of speech\\nby very marked characteristics and a very peculiar organiza-\\ntion. It has surrounded itself with an assortment of sub-\\nordinate means of expression, such as are found in attend-\\nance on no other part of speech. The power of combining\\nwith itself the ideas of person, time, and all the various\\ncontingencies which we comprise under the term mood, is\\na power possessed by the verb alone. It makes no dif-\\nference whether these accessory ideas are added to the verb\\nby means of inflections or of symbolic words. The im-\\nportant fact is this, that under the one form or the other, the\\nverb has such means of expression at its service in every\\nhighly organized language.\\nThe cause wherefore the verb is thus richly attended\\nwith its satellites becomes very plain when we consider\\nwhat a verb is. A verb is a word whereby the chief action\\nof the mind finds expression. The chief action of the mind\\nis judgment; that is to say, the assertion or the denial of\\na proposition. This is explicitly done by means of the\\nverb. Out of this function of the verb, and the exigencies", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP, 225\\nof that function, have arisen the peculiar features and pre-\\nrogatives of the verb. This part of speech has, by a natural\\noperation, drawn around it those aids which were necessary\\nto it for the discharge of its function as the exponent of the\\nmental act of judgment.\\nIt will be useful to distinguish that which is essential to the\\nverb, from that which is a result of its essential character.\\nThe power of expressing time by those variations which we\\ncall tense (after an old form of the French word for time has\\nattracted notice as the most salient feature about the verb.\\nAristotle defined a verb as a word that includes in itself the\\nexpression of time. The established German word for a verb\\nis ^i\\\\Uvoi)Xt, that is to say, time-word. Others have thought\\nthat the power of expressing action is the real and true cha-\\nracteristic of the verb. Ewald, in his Hebrew Grammar, calls\\nthe verb accordingly 3^!^at=ti:ort, that is to say, deed-word.\\nBut in these expressions the essential is obscured by that which\\nis more conspicuous. Madvig, in his Latin Grammar, seems\\nto me to put it in the right light. He designates the verb as\\nUdsagnsord, that is, Outsayings-word because it udsiger\\nom en Person eller Ting en Tilstand eller en Virksomhed,\\noutsays pronounces, asserts, delivers) about a person or\\nthing a condition or an action. It is th\u00c2\u00a7 instrument by\\nwhich the mind expresses its judgments, or (in modern\\nparlance) makes its deliverances.\\nBy reason of its central position, and by its constant and\\nunsuspended action, the verb has a greater tenacity of form\\nthan any other part of speech. Hence it is that the most\\nremarkable antiquities of the English language are to be\\nfound in the verb. It is in the verb that we find the Saxon\\nforms best preserved, and that we find the most conspicuous\\nproofs of the relationship of our language to the German and\\nDutch and Danish and Icelandic. In fact, it would be\\nQ", "height": "3184", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "226 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nhardly too much to say, that a description of the elder verbs\\nof any of these languages would with very slight alterations,\\npass for a description of the elder verbs of any one of the\\nothers.\\nWe must indeed admit one considerable exception to this\\nstatement. The feature which distinguishes the English\\nverbs from those of the cognate languages is this, that we\\nhave gone further than any of them in dropping the personal\\ninflections. The German says Ich glaube, du glaubest, er\\nglaubtj wir glauben, ihr glaubet, sie glauben. The English-\\nman says, believe, thou believest, he believes we believe, you\\nbelieve, they believe. And as thou believest is but rarely used,\\nmuch more rarely than du glaubest, and perhaps more rarely\\neven than ihr glaubet, we have only the -s of the third\\nsingular he believes as the one personal inflection left in\\nordinary use among us.\\nParticularly is it to be observed that we have lost the n of\\nthe plural present, which is preserved in the German form\\nglaubcN. We know from the Latin sunt, amant, monent,\\nregunt, audiunt, and from other sources, that nt was anciently\\na very wide-spread termination for the plural verb. This we\\nsee well preserved in the Moeso-Gothic verb, as may be seen\\nin the following example of the present indicative of the\\nverb for to believe, galaubjan\\nTSt.\\n2nd.\\n3rd.\\ningular galaubja\\nlural galaubjam\\ngalaubeis\\ngalaubeith\\ngalaubaith\\ngalaubjand\\nHere we have nd in the third person plural. In the Old\\nHigh German it was as in Latin nt. The Germans have\\ndropped the dental t and have kept the liquid n We dropped\\nthe isr, or rather we merged it in a thicker vowel before, and\\na thicker consonant after. The plural termination -a^ of the", "height": "3184", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 227\\nSaxon present indicative is the analogue of the Gothic termi-\\nnation -and. In the same manner an n has been absorbed\\nin the English words tooth, goose, mouth, five, soft, which are\\nin German i\\\\)Xi, @an\u00c2\u00a7, SD cunb, ?^iinf, @anft also in sooth,\\nwhich is in Danish sand. The following is the present in-\\ndicative of the Saxon verb gelyfan, to believe\\n1st.\\n2nd.\\n3rd.\\nSingular\\nPlural\\ngelyfe\\ngelyfaS\\ngelyfest\\ngelyfa\u00c2\u00ab\\ngelyfS\\ngelyfaS\\nThus we never had an n in the third person plural of the\\npresent indicative, not even in the oldest stage of Saxon\\nliterature. For the past tense we retained it, and also for\\nthe subjunctive mood in all tenses. The consequence is,\\nthat in our early literature verbs abound with n in the\\nthird person plural, but never in the present tense. Thus\\nMark xvi. 13, and hig him ne gelyfdon, neither believed they\\nthem. In Exodus iv. 5 we have the plural of the present\\nsubjunctive, pcet hig gelyfan, that they may believe. In the\\nformer of these passages Wyclif has And thei goynge toolden\\nto other e J nethir thei Mleuyden to hem.\\nIt is one of the marks of Chaucer s severance from the old\\nmother tongue that he does not observe this distinction, but\\nuses the N-form of the plural even for the present indicative.\\nIn this, as in so many other points that have been noticed,\\nthat which was before prevalent was now made universal,\\nand many nice distinctions were obliterated.\\nAnd smale foweles mahen melodye\\nThat slepen al the nyght with open lye\\nSo priketh hem nature in hir corages\\nThanne longen folk to goon on pilgrymages.\\nThe same thing may be seen in the quotation from\\nGower, above, p. 163. And this was retained as one of\\nthe recognised archaisms available only for poetical diction,\\nQ 2", "height": "3176", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "2 2S THE VERBAL GROUP,\\nand it long continued in the heroic or mock-heroic\\nstyle, as we see in the following, from the eighteenth\\ncentury.\\nIn every village mark d with little spire,\\nEmbower d in trees and hardly known to fame,\\nThere dwells, in lowly shed and mean attire,\\nA matron old, whom we Schoolmistress name.\\nWho boasts unruly brats with birch to tame\\nThey grieven sore, in piteous durance pent,\\nAw d by the power of this relentless dame,\\nAnd oft times, on vagaries idly bent,\\nFor unkempt hair, or task unconn d, are sorely shent.\\nWilliam Shenstone (1714-1763), The Schoolmistress.\\nIn the ordinary paths of the language, however, the\\npersonal inflections were reduced nearly to their present\\nsimplicity before the Elizabethan epoch.\\nThe tenacity of which we spoke displays itself most con-\\nspicuously in the tense-forms; that is to say, the forms\\nused for expressing varieties of time.\\nThe boldest feature which is found among the verbs of\\nour family, is the formation of the preterite by an internal\\nvowel-change, without any external addition. This character\\nsupplies a basis for the division of the verbs into three\\nclasses, the Strong, the Mixed, and the Weak.\\nI. Steong Veebs.\\nThe strong are of the highest antiquity, are limited in\\nnumber, are gradually but very slowly passing away, as one by\\none at long intervals they drop out of use and are not recruited\\nby fresh members. They are characterised by the internal\\nformation of the preterite, and by the formation of the par-\\nticiple in N. This latter feature has however been less con-\\nstant than the preterite. The following list comprises most", "height": "3184", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nIK)\\nof them. Only those forms which are given in the ordinary\\ntype are in full use. Those in i lacfe \\\\tiitx flourished in me-\\ndiaeval times those in thick type are chiefly of the sixteenth\\nand seventeenth centuries ,and those in italics are negligent\\nforms which were mostly current in the eighteenth century.\\nThe few which are in small capitals are Saxon forms.\\nThose in spaced type are from a collateral language or\\ndialect.\\nOnly the simple verbs are given, and not their compounds.\\nThe Hst contains come, hold, get; but not become, behold, beget;\\nbid but not forbid; give but not forgive, c. On the other\\nhand, those compounds whose simples no longer exist in the\\nlanguage, are here given, as abide, begin, forsake.\\nRESENT.\\nPRETERITE,\\nPARTICIPLE.\\nabide\\nabode\\n[a]bidden*\\nbake\\nbeuk*\\nbaken\\nbear\\nbore, bare\\nborne and born\\nbeat\\nbeat\\nbeaten, beat\\nbegin\\nbegan\\nbegun\\nBELGAN\\nBEAIH\\nBOLGEN, bOWln\\nBEON\\nbeen\\nbid\\nbade, bid\\nbidden, bid\\nbind\\nbound\\nbounden, bound\\nbite\\nbote bit\\nbitten, bit\\nblow\\nblew\\nblown\\nbow\\nBEAH\\nbowne*\\nbreak\\nbroke, brake\\nbroken\\nburst\\nburst\\nbursten, burst\\ncarve\\nmrf*\\nCORFEN\\ncast\\ncoost\\ncasten\\nchide\\nchid, chode\\nchidden, chid\\nchoose\\nchose\\nchosen\\ncleave\\nclove, clave\\ncloven\\nclimb\\nclomb\\ncling\\nclung\\nclung\\ncome\\ncame\\ncomen*, come", "height": "3168", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "230\\nTHE VERBAL GROUP,\\nPRESENT.\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPLE.\\ncreep\\ncrope*, crap*\\ncroptn*, cruppen\\ncrow\\ncrew\\ndelve\\ntfalf c\\ndolven\\ndig\\ndug\\ndug\\ndraw\\ndrew\\ndrawn\\ndrink\\ndrank, drunk\\ndrunken*, drunk\\ndrive\\ndrove\\ndriven\\neat\\nate\\neaten\\nfall\\nfell\\nfallen, fell*\\nfight\\nfought\\nfought, fougMen*\\nfind\\nfound\\nfound\\nfling\\nflung\\nflung\\nfly\\nflew\\nflown\\nforsake\\nforsook\\nforsaken\\nfreeze\\nfroze\\nfrozen\\nget\\ngot, gat\\ngotten, got\\ngive\\ngave\\ngiven\\nglide\\ngloti*\\ngnaw\\ngnew*\\ngnawn*\\ngo\\ngone\\nGRAFE\\nGROF\\ngraven\\ngrind\\nground\\nground\\ngrow\\ngrew\\ngrown\\nheave\\nhove\\nhelp\\nholp\\nholpen, holp\\nhing*\\nhung\\nhold\\nheld\\nholden\\nlade\\nladen, loden\\nlorn\\nlie\\nlay\\nlain, lien\\nmelt\\nmolten\\nplat\\nplet*\\nride\\nrode, rid\\nridden, rid\\nring\\nrang, rung\\nrung\\nrise\\nrose\\nrisen, rose\\nrun\\nran\\nrun\\nseethe\\nsod*\\nsodden\\nshake\\nshook\\nshaken, shooh\\nshape\\nshope\\nshapen", "height": "3188", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP.\\n23 E\\nPRESENT.\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPLE.\\nshave\\nshaven\\nshear\\nshore\\nshorn\\nshew\\nshewn\\nshine\\nshone\\nshone\\nshoot\\nshot\\nshotten\\nshrink\\nshrank, shrunk\\nshrunken, shrunk\\nsing\\nsang, sung\\nsung\\nsinge\\nsung*\\nsink\\nsank\\nsunken, sunk\\nsit\\nsau, sat\\nsttten\\nslay-\\nslew\\nslain\\nslide\\nSlotl slid\\nslidden, slid\\nsling\\nslang slung\\nslung\\nslink\\nslunk\\nslunk\\nslit\\nslat, slit\\nslit\\nsmite\\nsmote\\nsmitten\\nspeak\\nspoke, spake\\nspoken, spoke\\nspin\\nspan\\nspun\\nspring\\nsprang\\nsprung\\nsteal\\nstole\\nstolen\\nstick\\nstuck\\nstuck\\nsting\\nstung\\nstung\\nstink\\nstank and stunk\\nstunk\\nSTRICAN\\nSTRAC\\nstricken or striken\\nstride\\nstrode\\nstridden\\nstrike\\nstruck\\nstricken\\nstring\\nstrung\\nstrung\\nstrive\\nstrove\\nstriven\\nswear\\nswore, sware\\nsworn\\nswell\\nstwal\\nswollen\\nswim\\nswam\\nswum\\nswing\\nswung\\nswung\\ntake\\ntook\\ntaken, took\\ntear\\ntore, tare\\ntorn\\nthrive\\nthrove\\nthriven\\nthrow\\nthrew\\nthrown\\ntread\\ntrod\\ntrodden, trod\\nwake\\nwoke\\nwash\\nwush (Scots)\\nwashen", "height": "3168", "width": "1964", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "232\\nTHE VERBAL GROUP.\\nPRESENT,\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPLE,\\nwax\\niD\u00c2\u00a3I\\nwaxen\\nwear\\nwore\\nworn\\nweave\\nwove\\nwoven\\nWESAN\\nwas\\n[Germ, gewesen]\\nwin\\nwon\\nwon\\nwind\\nwound\\nwound\\nwreak\\nywroken\\nwring\\nwrung\\nwrung\\nwrite\\nwrote, wrat*,\\nwrit\\nwritten, writ, wrote\\nRemarks on the Forms signed with an Asterisk.\\n[ajbidden. We find the simple form in Eger and Grine,\\nline 555\\nHe might full well haue bidden att home.\\nbeuk. Gentle Shepherd, act ii. sc. i.\\nbowln. A relic of a forcible word in Saxon poetry, gebol-\\nGEN swollen, generally with anger, It is found in Surrey s\\nTranslation of the Second Book of the Aeneid, and there it\\nsimply means physically swollen\\nDistained with bloody dust, whose feet were howln\\nWith the strait cords wherewith they haled him.\\nbote. Eger and Grine, 992.\\nbowne.\\nAnd now he is bowne to turne home againe.\\nEger and Grine, 948.\\nHere also must be put the expression Homeward bound\\nthough there is a great claim for the Icelandic buinn.\\nt xi. And carf biforn his fader at the table.\\nChaucer, Prologue, loO.\\nchode. Genesis xxxi. 36; Numbers xx. 3.\\nCOOSt. Maggie coost her head fu high.\\nLooked asklent and unco skeigh,\\nGart poor Duncan stand abeigh.\\nRobert Burns, Duncan Gray^", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "THE VERBA L GROUP.\\ncasten. As in the quotation from Surrey, above, p. 126.\\ncomen. Spenser, Faerie Queene, iv. i. 15, overcommen.\\nAnd if thou be comen to fight with that knight,\\nEger atid Grine, 887.\\ncrop?, fropcn. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, 4257, 11918.\\ncrap. Gentle Shepherd, act v. sc. i.\\ncruppen. The Antiquary.\\ntialfc. Quoted by Richardson from Chaucer, Boecius, Bk. IL\\ndrunken. Luke xvii. 8.\\nfell, participle.\\nWhich thou hast perpendicularly fell.\\nKing Lear, iv. 6. 54.\\nfougMen.\\nOn the foughten field\\nMichael and his Angels prevalent\\nEncamping. Paradise Lost, vi. 410.\\ngloti, for glided. Poem 0/ Genesis and Exodus., 76.\\ngnew. In Tyndale, Prologue to the Prophet Jonas (Parker\\nSociety, p. 456), we ^Yid^ gnew as the preterite oi gnaw.\\nWhereupon for very pain and tediousness he lay down to sleep, for to\\nput the commandment, which so gnew and fretted his conscience, out of\\nmind as the nature of all wicked is, when they have sinned a good, to\\nseek all means with riot, revel, and pastime, to drive the remembrance of\\nsin out of their thoughts or, as Adam did, to cover their nakedness\\nwith aprons of pope-holy works.\\ngnawn. Shakspeare hegnawn with the bots, Taming of\\nthe Shrew, iii. 2. The Saxon form was gnagen.\\ngraven. Psalm vii. 16, elder version, He \\\\i2.\\\\h. graven and\\ndigged up a pit. And often graven image in the Bible\\nof 161 1.\\nholp, participle. Shakspeare, Richard II, v. 5. 62.\\nhing. This form lingers still in Scotland, if we may so con-\\nclude from a story in Dean Ramsay, who puts it into the", "height": "3176", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "334 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nmouth of a Scotch judge of the last generation. [I am\\nassured, on good authority, that it is quite common to\\nthis day.]\\nThis verb made an early transit to the weak form, and\\nwas conjugated thus hang, hanged, hanged. Properly\\nspeaking, this was a new and quite different verb, and\\nshould have had the transitival use, while the strong\\nhing, hang, hung, kept the neuter function. There are\\nextant traces of the observance of this principle. Thus,\\nnobody says that his hat hanged on a peg. But as nothing\\ncan restrain the caprice of speech, this early broke rule,\\nand the young weak form hanged, stood for the neuter\\nsense. Example\\nBut could not finde what they might do to him for all the people\\nhanged vpon him when they heard him, Luke xix. 48. Geneva, 1557\\nholden. Psalm Ixiii. 9, elder version and eleven times in\\nthe authorized version of the Bible.\\nloden. Sir Philip Sidney, An Apologie for Poetrie, 1581\\ned. Edward Arber, p. 19.\\nlien. Though ye have lien among the pots, c., Ps. Ixviii.\\n13, elder version. Shakspeare, King John, iv. i. 50,\\nwhere the first three folios spell it lyen.\\nplet.\\nI took delyte\\nTo pou the rashes green, wi roots sae white;\\nO which, as weel as my young fancy cou d,\\nFor thee I plet the flow ry belt and snood.\\nAllan Ramsay, Gentle Shepherd, act ii. sc. 4.\\nrid.\\nI remember two young fellows who rid in the same squadron of a\\ntroop of horse. Spectator, Aug. 24, 1711.\\nThis form is in present use in Somersetshire and Glouces-\\ntershire\\nHe walked all the way there, Sir but he rid home again. (Swanswick.)", "height": "3184", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 235\\nI find this preterite also in a quotation by Mr. Fur-\\nnivall from Journey of Irish Gentlemen through England\\nin 1752: We set out in our post-chaise Valerius and I\\nrid as before.\\nrose.\\nAnd I was ta en for him, and he for me\\nAnd thereupon these errors are arose.\\nComedy of Errors, v. I. 386.\\nsod. Genesis xxv. 29.\\nshook. The preterite form was much adopted for the par-\\nticiple from the seventeenth to the early part of the\\npresent century. Thus Milton, Paradise Lost, vi. 219:\\nAll Heaven\\nResounded, and had Earth been then, all Earth\\nHad to her Center shook.\\nAnd Edmund Burke, while at Dublin College, writing to\\nan old schoolfellow, says,\\nYou ask me if I read I deferred answering ,this question, till I could\\nsay I did which I can almost do, for this day I have shook off idleness\\nand begun to buckle to. (March, 1746-7.)\\nAnd Samuel Taylor Coleridge\\nFor oh big gall-drops shook from Folly s wing\\nHave blackened the fair promise of my spring.\\nshotten.\\nIn that nooke-shotten He of Albion.\\nShakspeare, Henry V, iii. 5. 14.\\nCompare cup-shotten, Cotgrave, s. v. Vvre. Probably also\\nFalstaiFs shotten herring belongs here,\\nsung, participle oi singe, Gentle Shepherd, act ii. sc. i.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2Sloti. Trevisa.\\nslang. I Samuel xvii. 49.\\nA Temporary Preface to the Six-Text Edition of Chancers Canterbury\\nTales, p. 16.", "height": "3168", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "236^ THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nspoke^ participle. In Shakspeare, King John, iv. i 51; King\\nRichard II 1. 77.\\nstricken. This old participle, meaning gone, advanced, is\\nnow quite extinct. We read it in Luke i. 7, well stricken\\nin years; and we retain it in the compound poverty-\\nstricken, which TCiQ2iW?, far gone in poverty^ extremely poor.\\nIn Sidney s Arcadia (ed. 1599), p. 5, we read, He being\\nalready well striken in years.\\ntook. See what has been said under shook.\\nToo divine to be xaistooh.\\nMilton, Arcades.\\nwaxen. Jeremiah v. 27, 28: They are become great and\\nwaxen rich. They are waxen fat, they shine.\\nywroken, Spenser, Colijt Clouts come home againe, 921\\nThrough judgement of the gods to been ywroken.^\\nwrat. This preterite form occurs in Raleigh s (Edwards,\\nLetter xv.) correspondence under date May 29, 1586:\\nAnd the sider which I wrat to you for.\\nwrote. I have wrote to you three or four times. Spectator,\\nNo. 344. (1712)\\nNotwithstanding the tenacity of which we have spoken\\nthere is a manifest tendency in these strong verbs to merge\\nthemselves gradually into the more numerous class of the\\nweak verbs. Many have dropped their strong form since\\nSaxon times, and adopted the weak. Thus the verb to\\nwreak was anciently conjugated,\\nbut it has long ago adopted the more prevalent form in -ed.\\nThus Smollett (quoted by Richardson) I wreaked my\\nresentment upon the innocent cause of my disgraces.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP,\\n237\\nOther examples of Saxon strong verbs which have been\\naltered:\\nacwele\\nbace\\nbeorge\\nbrede\\nbruce\\nbuge\\nbyrne\\nceowe\\nclimbe\\ncrawe\\ncreope\\ndelfe\\ndufe\\nfealde\\nfleote\\nfrete\\ngeote\\nglide\\ngrafe\\nhele\\nhieape\\nhreowe\\nleoge\\nluce\\nmete\\nmurne\\nreoce\\nrowe\\nscufe\\nscyppe\\nslape\\nsmeoce\\nspume\\nsteorfe\\nswelge\\nteoge\\npersce\\n|)ringe\\nwade\\nwealde\\nPRETERITE.\\nacwsel\\nboc\\nbearh\\nbraed\\nbreac\\nbeah\\nbarn\\nceaw\\nclomm\\ncreow\\ncreap\\ndealf\\ndeaf\\nfeold\\nfleat\\nfrset\\ngeat\\nglad\\ngrof\\nhsl\\nhleop\\nhreaw\\nleah\\nleac\\nmset\\nmearn\\nreac\\nreow\\nsceaf\\nscop\\nslep\\nsmeac\\nspearn\\nstserf\\nswealh\\nteah\\nssrsc\\nrang\\nwod\\nweold\\nPARTICIPLE.\\nacwolen\\nbacen\\nquell\\nbake\\nborgen\\nbroden\\nborrow\\nbraid\\nbrocen\\nbrook\\nbogen\\nburnen\\nbow\\nburn\\ngecowen\\ndumb en\\nchew\\nclimb\\ncrawen\\ncrow\\ncropen\\ndolfen\\ncreep\\ndelve\\ndofen\\ndive\\nfealden\\nfloten\\nfreten\\ngoten\\ngliden\\ngrafen\\nholen\\nfold\\nfloat\\nfret\\nyote pour)\\nglide\\ngrave\\nheal\\nhleapen\\nhrowen\\nleap\\nrue\\nlogen\\nlocen\\nlie (mentiri)\\nlock\\nmeten\\nmete or measure\\nmornen\\nmourn\\nrocen\\nreek\\nrowen\\nrow\\nscofen\\nshove\\nsceapen\\nslapen\\nsmocen\\nshape\\nsleep\\nsmoke\\nsponien\\nstorfen\\nspurn\\nstarve\\nswolgen\\nswallow\\ntogen\\n|5orscen\\ntow\\nthresh\\ngej^rungen\\nwaeden\\nthrong\\nwade\\ngewealden\\nwield\\nThis list does not include the strong verbs that have alto-\\ngether died out since Saxon times. It only contains those", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "238 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nancient strong verbs which still exist in the language under\\nweak forms. The list is of practical utility for reference in\\nreading Chaucer or the Elizabethan writers. Many a strong\\nform, now unfamiliar to us, lingers in their pages. The\\nverb mete, to measure, is one that we do not often use at\\nall, for the whole root is, as Webster says, obsolescent.\\nIn our Bible it has the weak conjugation, as\\nA nation meted out and troden downe. Isaiah xviii. 2.\\nWho hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand and meted\\nout heauen with the spanne, and comprehended the dust of the earth in a\\nmeasure, and weighed the mountaines in scales, and the hilles in a balance\\nIsaiah xl. 12.\\nBut in Chapman s Iliad, iii. 327, we find the strong preterite\\nof this verb\\nThen Hector, Priam s martial son, stepp d forth, and met the ground.\\nIn some cases slight relics of the old strong conjugation\\nare still preserved, though the verb itself has gone off into\\nthe weak or mixed form. Thus the verb to lose is now\\ndeclined, lose, lost, lost. But in Saxon it was\\nleose leas loren\\nand from this ancient conjugation we have retained the\\nparticiple as an adjective, lorn, forlorn. Its participial use\\nmay be seen as late as Milton, Paradise Lost, x. 921,\\nMy only strength and stay forlorn of thee,\\nWhither shall I betake me, where subsist\\nSome of these strong forms, which are now quite strange\\nto us, existed down to a comparatively late date. In a\\nRomance of the date 1450 or later, we have shof as a pre-\\nterite, where we now use shoved And he shof ther-on so\\nsore that he bar hym from his horse to the grounde.\\nMerlyn (Early English Text Society), p. 265.\\nTo set against this gradual defection of strong verbs", "height": "3184", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 239\\ntowards the prevalent form, we rarely find even a slight\\nexample of movement in the opposite direction. New verbs\\nare hardly ever added to the ranks of the strong whatever\\nverb is invented or borrowed is naturally conjugated after\\nthe prevalent pattern. A marked exception to this rule, all\\nthe more conspicuous on account of its rarity, is the Scottish\\nformula of verdict, Not proven. Here we have a French\\nverb which has taken the form of a strong Gothic participle.\\nSometimes a weak verb is treated as a strong, half play-\\nfully. But expressions which have had their rise in froHc,\\nare sometimes repeated so often that they become esta-\\nblished, at least so far as to get into print. Thus we find\\npled as the preterite of the verb to plead, in the Contemporary\\nReview, April, 1869, p. 602\\nThe well-known story of the presbyter deposed from his office for\\nforging the Acts of Paul and Thecla, although he pled that he had done\\nso from the love of Paul.\\nI do not know whether\\ndive dove\\nis recognised on the yonder side of the Atlantic, but I rather\\nsuppose the following is merely a passing fancy of the\\nauthor.\\nI know not why, but the whole herd [of walruses] seemed suddenly to\\ntake alarm, and all dove down with a tremendous splash almost at the same\\ninstant. Dr. Hayes, Open Polar Sea, ch. xxxvi.\\nBut the member of this class which above all others de-\\nmands our attention is the substantive verb to be or rather,\\nthe fragments of two or three ancient verbs which join to\\nfill the place of the substantive verb. The substantive verb\\nis so called, not from any association with or derival from the\\npart of speech called a substantive but for a distinct reason.\\nIt is the verb which expresses least of all verbs for it ex-\\npresses nothing but to have existence. Every other verb implies\\nexistence besides that particular thing which it asserts as,", "height": "3168", "width": "1976", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "ri40 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nif I say think, I imply that I am in existence, or else I\\ncould neither think nor do anything else. The verb sub-\\nstantive, then, is the verb which, unlike all other verbs, con-\\nfines itself to the assertion of existence, which in all other\\nverbs is contained by implication. The Greek word for\\nexistence or being was ova-ia, and this was done into Latin\\nby the word substantia, and by this avenue did the verb\\nwhich predicates nothing but existence come to be named\\nthe substantive verb.\\nIt seems so natural and easy to say that a thing is or was\\nor has been, that we might almost incline to fancy the sub-\\nstantive verb to be the oldest and most primitive of verbs.\\nBut there is more reason for thinking contrariwise, that it\\nwas a mature and comparatively late product of the human\\nmind. The French word for been, is not an old word\\nwe know its history. It is derived from stare, the Latin\\nword for standing, as is witnessed by stato, the Italian par-\\nticiple of the substantive verb. And in many other cases\\nthe substantive verb is of no very obscure origin. We\\nseem to be able to trace our word be, for example, by\\nthe help of the Latin fui and the Greek ^va to the\\nconcrete sense of growing. It has even been thought,\\nand not at all unreasonably, that the stock of our be\\nmay be no other than that familiar verb for building and\\ndwelling which in Scotland is to big, in Icelandic is bua,\\nand which appears in the second member of so many of our\\nDanish town-names in the form of by, as Whitby, Rugby.\\nIn Icelandic bua bui sinu, is to big ane s ain bigging,\\ni.e. to have one s own homestead In these cases, the\\nconcrete sense of growing or standing, or building or dwell-\\ning, has been as it were washed or worn out of the verb, and\\nnothing left but the pale underlying texture of being.\\nIcelandic-English Dictionary, Cleasby and Vigfusson, v. Biia.", "height": "3184", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 24I\\nThe great master of Oriental philology, Ewald, seems to\\nthink that the Hebrew substantive verb HM was developed\\nfrom an ancient root meaning to make, prepare.\\nIn Sanskrit, as the substantive verb, has been developed\\nfrom a root signifying fo breathe, and it seems probable that\\nthis was the original sense of the Greek eVrt, the Latin est,\\nthe German ift, and our is. This has been explicitly stated\\nin a previous chapter, p. 219. Here we catch a glimpse of\\nthe antiquity of our modern languages,, and also of the pro-\\ncess by which the most familiar instruments of speech have\\nbeen prepared for their present use.\\nAs the presentive noun fades or ripens into the symbol\\npronoun as the pronoun passes into the still more subtle\\nconjunction, so also do verbs graduate from particular to\\ngeneral use, from such a particular sense as stand ox grow\\nor breathe, to the large and general sense of being. Nor\\ndoes the trans-animation stop here.\\nIt is not when this verb expresses absolute existence that\\nit has reached its highest state of refinement. When Cole-\\nridge said God has all the power that is/ he made this\\nverb a predicate of existence. In this case the verb to be\\nhas still a concrete function, and is a presentive word but\\nin its state of highest abstraction it is equally in place in\\nevery proposition whatever, and is the purest of symbols.\\nWe can express John runs by John is running and\\nevery proposition is capable of being rendered into this\\nform. The verb substantive here exhibits the highest pos-\\nsible form of verbal abstraction. It is the mere instrument\\nof predication, and conveys by itself no idea whatever. It\\nis the most symbolic of all the symbolic verbs, and it is\\nsymbolised to the utmost that is possible. For it expresses\\nonly that which every verb must express in order to be\\na verb, viz. the mental act of judgment.", "height": "3176", "width": "1960", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "^4^ THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nThe Substantive- and Symbol-Veeb.\\nIndicative present am, art, is are.\\npast was, wast, was were.\\nInfinitive, imperative, and 1\\nsubjunctive present j\\nSubjunctive past were, wert, were were.\\nParticiple present being.\\npast been.\\nIt should be observed that the substantive verb has been\\nmore tenacious of the personal forms than verbs in general,\\nand that the remarks in the beginning of this chapter about\\nthe disuse of the personal forms are much less applicable\\nhere. Until the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries there was\\na larger variety of these forms, among which may be spe-\\ncified the N-forms of the third person plural, am and weren.\\nThe following is from one of the versified precepts of\\ngood manners which are so frequent in the literature of the\\nfifteenth century.\\nThus God ])at is begynnere former of alle thyng.\\nIn nombei weygllt, mesure alle J)is world wrought he\\nAnd mesure he taugllte us in alle his wise werkis,\\nEnsample by the extremitees ])at vicious am euer.\\nThat is to say Extremes are always wrong.\\nThis is, however, a matter of small importance in com-\\nparison with another remark which must here be made.\\nThe symbol-verb is not all of one root, it is a verbal con-\\njugation made up of several roots. For, not to determine\\nanything about the origin of am, art, and are, it is plain\\nthat besides these we have here the fragments of two verbs, i\\nwhose infinitives in Saxon were beon and wesan. Our i", "height": "3184", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 24$\\npresent infinitive to de is from the former. In German the\\nlatter is retained as a neuter noun ba\u00c2\u00a7 2Befen, a word much\\nused for being, existence, substance, essence. It is for the\\nGerman language, not indeed a substantive-verb, but a sub-\\nstantive-noun. Also they have from the same source\\ngeiiDefett, the participle of their symbol-verb. But these are\\nnot the only roots which in our language have exercised\\nthis symbolic power.\\nThere is another substantive-verb in English, which is\\nnow rarely used, and only in poetry. It is the verb wor/k\\n=be. It belongs to the older form of our language, rather\\nthan to modern English. In Saxon it was thus conjugated\\nWEOB^AN, WEAR^, GEWOEDEN The wholc vcrb is still in\\nfull force in German tt^erben, n?arb, getx)orben. But with us\\nit was already archaic in Chaucer s time. It is but rarely\\nfound in his writings. The participial form occurs in his\\nTroilus and Cresside, where he is saying of love between the\\nsexes, that without it\\nNo lifes wiht is worth or may endure,\\ni.e. No living thing has come into being (ift gettjorben) or can\\nescape extermination.\\nIn this place it is the participle. But the form in which\\nit is most generally known is the imperative or subjunctive-\\nimperative as. Wo worth this day that is, Woe be to this\\nday as Ezekiel xxx. 2, and in The Lady of the Lake,\\nWoe worth the chase, woe worth the day\\nThat cost thy Ufe, my gallant grey.\\nWe find the infinitive in the Coke s Tale of Gamelyn\\nCursed mot he worthe bothe fleisch and blood,\\nThat ever do priour or abbot ony good\\nIn the following quotation from the Creed of Piers Plough-", "height": "3176", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "244 I HE VERBAL GROUP.\\nman, 744, we have the infinitive twice, and once with the\\nancient termination\\nNow mot ich soutere his sone setten to schole\\nAnd ich a beggers brol on J^e booke lerne,\\nAnd tvor\\\\ to a writere wi\\\\ a lorde dwell,\\nOJ?er falsly to a frere \\\\)e fend for to seruen\\nSo of ])at beggers brol a bychop schal wor] en.\\nTranslation. Now each cobbler may set his son to school, and every\\nbeggar s brat may learn on the book and become a writer and dwell with\\na lord or iniquitously become a friar, the fiend to serve So of that\\nbeggar s brat, a bishop shall be made, c.\\nIn Shakspeare we find this verb played off against the\\nsubstantive wor/A Her worth worth yours that is, in\\nLatin, Ejus meritum fiat vestrum/ The edition of Messrs.\\nClark and Wright, vol. i. p. 387, where may be seen the\\nconjectures which this passage has provoked.\\nIn this place we consider the symbol-verb only as a phe-\\nnomenon and 2, product of speech. The production of this\\nparticular word is to the verb-system what the leader is\\nto a tree. Cut it off, and the tree will try to produce\\nanother leader. If we could imagine the whole elaborate\\nsystem of verbs to be utterly abolished from memory and\\nconsigned to blank oblivion, insomuch that there remained\\nno materials for speech but nouns, pronouns, and the rest,\\nthe verb would yet grow again, as surely as a tree when\\nit is cut down (unless it die) will sprout again. The verb\\nwould form itself again, and it would repeat its ancient\\ncareer, and the topmost product of that career would be as\\nbefore, the symbol-verb to he. Proof enough of this will be\\nseen in the fact that many roots have in our stock of lan-\\nguages made a run for this position and in the further fact\\nthat languages whose development has been wide of ours,\\nas the Hebrew, have culminated in the selfsame result the\\nsubstantive-verb and out of it the symbol-verb. In the third", "height": "3184", "width": "2056", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP, 24S\\nsection of the Syntax we shall have to consider this symbol-\\nverb in some of the effects which it has caused.\\nSuch are the strong verbs and the symbol-verbs which\\nthey have produced.\\nWe cannot close this section without a few words of\\ncomment. The venerable sire of Gothic philology, Jacob\\nGrimm, has said of the strong preterites that they constitute\\none of the chief beauties of our family of languages eine\\nhaupt-schonheit unsrer sprachen In this sentiment all\\nphilologers seem agreed. The prefaces and other critical\\napparatus of the volumes of the Early English Text Society\\nafford abundant testimony to the fact that this feature has\\na peculiar attraction for those who are seeking to penetrate\\nthe mysteries of language. To those volumes we refer our\\nreaders for a rich collection of details for which the present\\nmanual has not sufficient space.\\nThe question naturally rises, How did so very singular\\na contrivance come into existence The question is put\\nhere, not so much for the sake of the answer that can now\\nbe given, as for the purpose of directing the student to those\\nenquiries which will supply a definite and practical aim to\\nhis more extended investigations. It has been surmised by\\nGrimm that the origin of this internal and vocalic change\\nis to be sought in reduplication. He particularly instances\\nthe preterite hzgh/, which in the Saxon form was kef, with\\nan older form occasionally used kekf, and which in Gothic\\nwas hdihdit. Gothic Gospels, Luke xiv. 10, 16. This from\\nthe root hat (infinitive haian) looks exceedingly like as if a\\nreduplication of the root had by some sort of compensation\\ngot simplified at length into the form het. The German\\nging, preterite of the verb go, has again a form which\\n(though there is another way of explaining it) might easily\\nhave been produced by a reduplication of the root. But", "height": "3176", "width": "1968", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "2,46 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nnext to hehf, there is no example so striking as that of the^\\nverb to do, which is strong by its participle done, and yet in\\nits preterite has the appearance of a weak form. It is re-\\ndeemed from this anomalous inconsistency by supposing\\ndyde, the Saxon form of did, to be a reduplication of the\\nroot do, and so of a piece with the strong preterites, only\\nless altered. The probability of this explanation is height-\\nened by a comparison of the very similar phenomenon\\namong nouns. A few nouns, and those concerning some\\nof the most familiar objects, form their plurals much as the\\nstrong verbs form their preterites. Examples man, men\\nfoot, feet mouse, mice. In the case of the nouns it is very-\\neasy to imagine that in the primitive poverty of flexion,\\nplurality might have been expressed (it may also be said\\nthat in certain instances at least plurality was expressed)\\nby mere repetition of the noun, which is the parent of redu-\\nplication. It is not quite so plain a thing to see that any\\nanalogy exists between plural number and past time. There\\nmay not be any outward logical analogy, and yet there may\\nbe an inward mental affinity. But if we leave plurality, and\\ncome back to our preterites, we see as a matter of fact that\\nreduplication has been resorted to as a means of expressing\\npast time, in the development both Of the Latin and of the\\nGreek verb. Latin instances are didici, poposci, ietigi, pepuli.\\nBut in Greek the most conspicuous instrument for the\\nexpression of past time is reduplication rervcfja, rervfiixaL\\nneTTOLT]Ka, TrenoiTjfiai nerrpaxa, Tvirrpayfxai TereXeKa, reTeXeaiiai.\\nII. Mixed Veebs.\\nThe second class of verbs are those which may con-\\nveniently be called Mixed, because they unite in themselves\\nsomething of the features of the first and third classes.", "height": "3184", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. ^47\\nSome philologers would deny them the distinction of\\nbeing a class at all. They would insist that there are but\\ntwo principles at work in the verb-flexions namely, internal\\nchange and external addition. And this is the fact. But\\nthen, the variety of relations in which two systems are ranged\\nmay easily give rise to a third series of conditions. When\\nthe sun peers through the foliage of an aged oak, it pro-\\nduces on the ground those oval spots of dubious Hght\\nwhich the poet has called a mottled shade. Each oval has\\nits own outline and its own particular degree of luminous-\\nness but where two of them overlap each other a third\\ncondition of light is induced. Such an overlapping is this\\nsample of mixed verbs, a compromise between the strong\\nand the weak.\\nIn the formation of the preterite, they suffer both internal\\nvowel-change, and also external addition. They form the\\nparticiple in t or d. Such are the following\\nPRESENT,\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPLE.\\nbring\\nbrought\\nbrought\\nbuy\\nbought\\nbought\\ncatch\\ncaught\\ncaught\\ncreep\\ncrept\\ncrept\\ndeal\\ndelt\\ndelt\\nfeel\\nfelt\\nfelt\\nfetch\\nfot\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2flee\\nfled\\nfled\\nhear\\nherd\\nherd\\nkeep\\nkept\\nkept\\nkneel\\nknelt\\nknelt\\nlean\\nlent\\nlent\\nleap\\nlept\\nlept\\nleave\\nleft\\nleft\\nlose\\nlost\\nlost\\nmean\\nment\\nment\\nmeet\\nmet\\nmet\\npitch\\npight\\nreach\\nraught\\nraught\\n[reave]\\nreft\\nreft\\nseek\\nsought\\nsought", "height": "3160", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "1248\\nTHE VERBAL GROUP.\\nRESENT.\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPLE.\\n\u00c2\u00abell\\nsold\\nsold\\nshoe\\nshod\\nshod\\nshriek\\nst)rig]^t\\nsife\\nsigbte sighed)\\nskep\\nslept\\nslept\\nsp\u00c2\u00a3t, spit\\nspet, spate\\nspott\\nstand\\n^stood\\nstood\\nsweep\\nswept\\nswept\\nteach\\ntaught\\ntaught\\ntell\\ntold\\ntold\\nthink\\nthought\\nthought\\nweep\\nwept\\nwept\\nwot\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0wist\\nwork\\nwrought\\nwrought\\nThe preterite wist is sometimes referred to a present wis.\\nBut I should like to hear it ably discussed whether there is\\nor ever was such a verb as I wis. It is in fact almost a\\nmetaphysical problem. It is something like the question\\nwhether pas and point in French are negative particles or\\nonly adverbs. Whether there ever was such a verb as\\nI wis is one of the problems of English philology. Cer-\\ntainly Spenser believed there was, and in the century before\\nhim it was believed. The verb is really a myth. It grew\\nout of a change in the conception of an old adverb gewis\\n(German getuigg to this day) which became a stock word for\\nthe close of lines in the form iwis,ywis, I wis^ I wiss, c.,\\nand then the old preterite wiste helped out the grammatical\\nconception.\\nIn a few instances, such as mean, meant, meant, the\\nordinary spelling has been departed from in order to exhibit\\nto the eye as well as to the ear that there is a change in the\\ninternal vowel.\\nThese verbs are a still less numerous class than the former\\nand they do not admit of addition to their numbers any\\nmore than the strong verbs. They would seem to have been\\nmostly the growth of a limited period that, namely, wherein", "height": "3180", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 249\\nthe transition of habit was taking place from the strong to\\nthe weak methods of conjugation.\\nBut, insignificant as this class is in point of numbers, it\\ncontains within it a small batch of verbs of very high im-\\nportance. These are the symbolics of the class. They are\\nthe verbs commonly called auxiliaries, and they hold (for the\\nmost part) the same place in the German and other branches\\nof our family, as they do in our own English language.\\nshall\\ncan\\nwill\\nshould\\ncould\\nwould\\nmay-\\ndare\\nmote\\nmight\\ndurst\\nmoste, must\\nOught is a preterite which has no present. Indeed, it is\\na preterite only in form and historical development, for it is\\na present in its usage as an auxiliary. I ought to do so\\nsignifies that I am in duty bound to do so. The present owe\\nhas not accompanied the preterite in its transition to this\\nmoral and semi-symbolic use. When the old preterite had\\ndeserted the service of the verb owe in its original sense, that\\nverb supplied itself with a new preterite of the modern type,\\nowed. The distinction between ougk/, the old preterite, and\\nowed, the new preterite, is now quite established, and no con-\\nfusion happens. But the reader of our old poets should\\nobserve that ougkf does duty for both these senses. Here\\nwe have it in Spenser, in a place where the modern usage\\nwould require owed:\\nNow were they liegmen to this Ladie free,\\nAnd her knights service ought, to hold of her in fee.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. i. 44.\\nThese verbs, it will be seen, are destitute of partici-\\nples, and this is merely because they have dropped off\\nthrough disuse. In like manner, and from the same cause,", "height": "3168", "width": "1984", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "2^0 THE VERBAL GROUP,\\nfew of them have infinitives. Indeed, none of them have\\ninfinitives of symboHc use. As symbolics, it has been their\\nfunction to serve the participles and infinitives of other verbs,\\nand to have none of their own. We can indeed say to\\nwill and to dare but in neither instance would the sense\\nor the tone of the word be the same as when we say, it will\\nrain, or I dare say.\\nSo completely has the sense of dare-ing evaporated from\\nthis latter auxiliary, that I dare say is a different thing\\nfrom I dare to say. The latter might be negatived by\\nI dare not to say but I dare not say would not be the\\njust negative of I dare say. In that expression, the verb\\ndare has lost its own colour, and it is infused into say.\\nAnd therefore they often merge by symphytism into one\\nword, as in the following, from a newspaper report of a\\npubHc speech\\nI daresay you have heard of the sportsman who taught himself to shoot\\nsteadily by loading for a whole season with blank cartridge only.\\nThese verbs are all called by the common title of aux-\\niliaries yet there is a gradation of quality in them, which is\\nto be measured by their relative retention of presentive\\npower. Will has still a good deal. Wilt thou have c.\\nwill This word is therefore far less purely a symbol\\nthan shall, of which the infinitive to shall was never heard in\\nour language. In the transition period, we find the verb\\nshall serving as an auxiliary to the infinitive verb will.\\nIn Roberd of Brunne s Handlyng Synne (written a.d. 1303)5\\nwe have\\nY beleue hyt nou3t, ne never shall weyl.*\\n7 believe it nought, nor never shall will.\\nEd. Furnivall, for Roxburghe Club, 1. 372.\\nThis verb in its presentive sense retains, or did retain for\\na long time, one old flexional form, which is never found in", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 2^\\nthe symbolic sense. This is willeth. God willeth Samuel\\nto yield unto the importunity of the people/ i Samuel viii,\\nContents. It is not of him that willeth/ Rom. ix. i6.\\nMay has long been without an infinitive, but there was\\none as late as the sixteenth century in the form mowe.\\nThus in the Secret Instructions from Henry VII respecting\\nthe young Queen of Naples, we read,\\nAnd to knowe the specialties of the title and value therof in every behalf\\nas nere as they shall mowe. National Manuscripts, Part I. 20 Hen. VII.\\nCan originally meant to know, and in this presentive sense\\nof it, we meet with an infinitive to co7t as late as the fifteenth\\ncentury.\\nTo mine well-beloved son, I greet you well, and advise you to think once\\nof the day of your father s counsel to learn the law, for he said many times\\nthat whosoever should dwell at Paston, should have need to con \\\\i.e. know\\nhow to defend himself. Paston Letters, Letter x. a.d. 1444-5.\\nThe French equivalent for this con would be savoir, and\\nin fact the English auxiliary can, could, is largely an imitation\\nof that French verb.\\nSome auxiliaries have become obsolete. Such is mote the\\npresent, of which must is the preterite. It lingered till recent\\ntimes as a formula of wishing well or ill, and indeed an\\nexample of present use has been given above, at p. 174,\\nnote. Its place has now been taken by 7?iay.\\nIn a ballad on the Battle of Flodden Field, a.d. 15 13\\n{Gentlematis Magazine, August, 1866), this benison is be-\\nstowed on the Earl of Surrey\\nIn the myddyll warde was the Erie of Surrey,\\nEver more blessyd mote thowe be\\nThe ffadyr of witte, well call him we may;\\nThe debite [deputy] most trusty of Englond was he.\\nA still older auxiliary which is quite extinct is gan, which\\nwas used as now we use did, and was probably extinguished", "height": "3168", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "2^2 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nby the preference for the latter. This auxiliary must not be\\ntoo closely associated with the more famiHar word 5egan.\\nThis latter is a compound of the word, but the sense of\\ncommencing is the property not of the root so much as of the\\ncompound.\\nOf a wryght I wylle you telle\\nThat some tyme in thys land gan dwelle.\\nThe Wryght s Chaste Wife (a.d. 1460).\\nLet in early times signified the causation of some action.\\nThus it is said of William the Conqueror by the vernacular\\nhistorian that he let speer out all the property of the\\ncountry so narrowly that there was never a rood of land\\nor a cow or a pig that was not entered in his book swa\\nswy^e nearwelice he hit lett ut aspyrian/ c. {Two Saxon\\nChronicles Parallel, p. 2 1 8.) This let is a very different\\nthing from the light symbol now in use, as when one says\\nto a friend, Will you let your servant bring my horse\\nTo this levity of symbolism it had already arrived in the\\nElizabethan era.\\nLet Gryll be Gryll, and have his hoggish minde\\nBut let us hence depart whilest wether serves and winde/\\nThe Faerie Queene, Bk. ii., end.\\nThere is one verb of a character so mixed, that it is for\\ndistinction sake reserved to a place at the end of this section\\nof mixed verbs. It is the verb which, though common to\\nGerman and the other dialects, is yet in one sense peculiar\\nto English, namely as an auxiliary. Speaking generally,\\nwe share our auxiliaries with the rest of the Gothic family,\\nbut there is one all our own. It is\\ndo did done\\nThe anomaly of its form has been touched on at the close\\nof the former section.\\nThe preterite possesses the double character of a presentive", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. iJ53\\nand a symbolic word whereas the participle is never used\\nbut presentively. So that, although it possesses a participle,\\nit differs not from the habit of the other auxiliaries, which\\n(as auxiUaries) are destitute of the participle.\\nThis auxiliary has acquired its peculiar place in our lan-\\nguage through our imitation of the French auxihary/^zr^.\\nThe power of expression which our language possesses\\nby means of the auxiliaries has sometimes been under-\\nvalued. The great proportion of attention which men of\\nlearning have devoted to the inflected languages, has pre-\\nvented our own verbal system from receiving the appre-\\nciation which is due to it. The following quotation from\\nSouthey may not unfitly close this section.\\nI had spoken as it were abstractedly, and the look which accompanied\\nthe words was rather cogitative than regardant. The Bhow Begum laid\\ndown her snufF-box and replied, entering into the feeling, as well as echoing\\nthe words, It ought to be written in a book, certainly it ought,\\nThey may talk as they will of the dead languages. Our auxiliary verbs\\ngive us a power which the ancients, with all their varieties of mood, and\\ninflections of tense, never could attain. It must be written in a book,\\nsaid I, encouraged by her manner. The mood was the same, the tense was\\nthe same; but the gradation of meaning was marked in a way which a\\nGreek or Latin grammarian might have envied as well as admired. The\\nDoctor, c. vii. A. i.\\nIII. Weak Verbs.\\nThe third class of verbs are those which form both their\\npreterite and their participle by the addition of -ed as, kope^\\nI hoped, I have hoped. In some verbs it takes the form of\\nchanging d into T, as send, sent wend, went bend, bent.\\nBut here we must consider the nt as a commutation for\\nNDED, or, as it was written in early times, nde. The preterite\\nof the Saxon sendan was (not sendade but) sende. This con-\\ndensed formation takes place not only with verbs in -nd but\\nalso with those in -ld and -rd.", "height": "3176", "width": "1972", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "a54\\nTHE VERBAL GROUP.\\nOther modes of condensation are used, as made, short for\\nmaked, Saxon macode.\\nThese succinct forms of the weak verb must not lead to\\na confusion with either of the foregoing classes. Most of\\nthem are contained in the following list\\nPRESENT.\\nPRETERITE.\\nPARTICIPL\\nbend\\nbent*\\nbent\\nbleed\\nbled\\nbled\\nbreed\\nbred\\nbred\\nbuild\\nbuilt\\nbuilt\\nclothe\\nclad*\\nclad\\nfeed\\nfed\\nfed\\ngild\\ngilt*\\ngilt\\ngird\\ngirt*\\ngirt\\nhave\\nhad\\nhad\\nlay\\nlaid\\nlaid\\nlead\\nled\\nled\\nlearn\\nlearnt*\\nlearnt\\nlend\\nlent\\nlent\\nlight\\nlit\\nlit\\nmake\\nmade\\nmade\\npen\\npent\\npent\\nrend\\nrent\\nrent\\nsend\\nsent\\nsent\\nspeed\\nsped\\nsped\\nspend\\nspent\\nspent\\nspill\\nspilt\\nspilt\\nwend\\nwent*\\nwent\\nThose which are marked with an asterisk have also the\\nform in -ed.\\nOf the usual form of the weak verb it will not be neces-\\nsary to give many examples. They are of the following\\npattern\\nPRESENT.\\nallow\\nbelieve\\nchange\\ndefend\\neducate\\nfigure\\ngerminate\\nhappen\\nPRETERITE and PARTICIPLE.\\nallowed\\nbelieved\\nchanged\\ndefended\\neducated\\nfigured\\ngerminated\\nhappened", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 2^^\\nPRESENT. PRETERITE and PARTICIPLE,\\ninjure injured\\njoke joked\\nkindle kindled\\nlaugh laughed\\nmention mentioned\\noil oiled\\npresent presented\\nquestion questioned\\nrevere revered\\nsucceed succeeded\\ntarnish tarnished\\nutter uttered\\nvacillate vacillated\\nwonder wondered\\nyield yielded\\nTo this third class belongs the bulk of English verbs. It\\nis regarded as the youngest form of verbal inflection, from the\\nrelation in which we find it standing towards the two classes\\npreviously described. It is the only verbal inflection which\\ncan be properly said to be in a living and active state,\\nbecause it applies to new words, whereas the others cannot\\nmake new verbs after their own pattern. There is a constant\\ntendency of the strong and mixed verbs to fall into the forms\\nof the weak.\\nSteele, in the Spec/a for, March 5, 17 11, wrote, the very\\npoint I shaked my head at. Allan Ramsay, who in his\\nGentle Shepherd has preserved some rare strong forms, yet\\ngives us also on the other side such forms as choosed and\\nputted. In Horace Walpole s Royal and Nolle Authors, we\\nfind, The sovereign meaned Charles, Duke of Somerset.\\nThe patriots meaned to make the king odious. In Hume,\\nHistory of England\\nPerhaps some secret animosities, naturally to be expected in that situa-\\ntion, had creeped in among the great men, and had enabled the king to\\nrecover his authority. ch. xvii.\\nBut while we consider this to be the most recent of the\\nverbal inflections in our language, it is of a very high", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "0,^6 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nantiquity nevertheless. It is common to all the dialects of\\nour family, and in the oldest records it is already established.\\nThe I) of the weak conjugation has been traced to the\\nverb do, did as \\\\i hoped were a condensation of hope-did^.\\nAfter what has been said at the close of each of the previous\\nsections, it would seem as if this verb do, did, were about to\\nclaim a great place as the bridge which unites the three\\nsorts of conjugation. Should this theory be confirmed, the\\nthread of continuity which unites our verbal system, is dis-\\ncovered. And if it should after all prove untenable, it will\\nnot have been (probably) without its use, as temporarily\\nrepresenting the kind of link which philology teaches us to\\nlook for between the various formations of which language\\nis composed,\\nIV. Verb-making.\\nIt has been shewn at p. i8i, that the English language\\ncan turn a noun or other suitable word into a verb, and use\\nit as a verb, without any alteration to the form of the word,\\nsuch as would be caused by the addition of a verbal forma-\\ntive. This does not hinder, however, but that there always\\nhave been verbal formatives in the language, and that the\\nnumber and variety of these is from time to time increased.\\nBy verbal formative is meant any addition to a word, whether\\nprefix or suffix, which stamps that word as a verb independ-\\nently of a context.\\nSuch is the suffix -en, by means of which, from the sub-\\nstantives height, haste, length, strength, are formed the verbs\\nheighten, hasten, leng theft, strengthen. From the adjectives\\ndeep, fast, short, wide, are formed the verbs deepen, fasten,\\nScience of Language, by Max Miiller, M.A., 1861, p. 219.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 257\\nshorten, widen. Other examples of this formative, are\\nslacken, lighten, frighten., ?nadden, broaden (Tennyson), harden,\\nchristen, glisten. This verbal formative n is of Saxon\\nantiquity; but it is quite separate and distinct from the\\nSaxon infinitive form -an.\\nSuch again is the prefix be-, by means of which, from the\\nsubstantives head, friend, tide, are formed the verbs behead,\\nbefriend, betide.\\nThis formative is still in operation, but is less active than\\nit formerly was. It enters into sixty-seven diff erent verbs in\\nShakspeare, as appears in Mrs. Cowden Clarke s Complete\\nConcorda?ice. They are the following\\nbechance, become, befal, befit, befriend, beget, begin, begnaw, begrime,\\nbeguile, behave, behead, behold, behove, behowl, belie, believe, belong, be-\\nlove more beloving than beloved, A7it. and Cleop. i. 2), bemad, beviete,\\nbemoan, bemock, bemoil, bepaint, bequeath, berattle, bereave, berhyme, be-\\nseech, beseek, beseem, beset, beshrew, besiege, beslubber, besmear, besmirch,\\nbesort, besot, bespeak, bespice, bestain, bested, bestill, bestir, bestow, be-\\nstraught, bestrew, bestride, betake, beteem, bethink, bethump, betide, betokeji,\\nhetoss, betray, betrim, betroth, bewail, beware, beweep, bewet, bewitch,\\nbewray.\\nSuch again is the prefix un-, by means of which other\\nwords are made besides verbs, as the substantives and ad-\\njectives unbeliever, unjust, unmeet, c. yet it is also a verbal\\nformative because it forms verbs which even without a con-\\ntext cannot be regarded as being anything else than verbs.\\nExamples unfrock, untie, unlink, unlock.\\nThe above examples of verbal formatives are all genuine\\nnatives the next is after a French model. The suffix fy is\\ntaken from those French verbs which end in -fier, after Latin\\nverbs ending in facere. Examples beatify, beautify, codify,\\ndeify, dignify, dulcify, edify, electrify, horrify, modify, mollify,\\nmortify, nullify, qualify, ratify, satisfy, scarify, stultify, unify.\\nHe never condescended to anything like direct flattery; but he felicitously\\nhit upon the topic which he knew would tickle the amour propre of those\\nwfiom he wished to dulcify. Lord Campbell, Life of Lord Lyndhur t, 1869.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "258 THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nThe news from Spain in the middle of April, 1869, is\\nrendered as follows in the English papers\\nIt is said that Senor Figuerola, the Minister of Finance, proposes to unify\\nthe public debt by allowing the next half-yearly interest, due in June, to\\naccumulate and be added to the capital.\\nThe verbal formative -ate is from the Latin participle pas-\\nsive of the first conjugation as amatus, loved aesiimatusj\\nvalued. Examples calculate, captivate, decimate, eradicate,\\nestimate, exculpate, expostulate, indicate, invalidate, liquidate,\\nmitigate, nominate, ope7 ate, postulate, venerate.\\nThe, above formatives are of great standing in the lan-\\nguage but that which we have now to mention, the formative\\n-ize, is comparatively modern. It occurs in Shakspeare, as\\ntyrannize in King John, v. 7 47; partialize in King Rich-\\nard II, i. I. 120; 77ionarchize, Id, iii. 2. 165, but was not in\\ngeneral use until the time of the living generation. This is\\na formative which we have copied from the Greek verbs\\nending in -l^^iv. Examples advertize, anathematize, ana-\\ntomize, cauterize, christianize, deodorize, evangelize, frater7iize,\\ngeneralize, mesmerize, mo7topolize, patronize, philosophize, solilo-\\nquize, subsidize, symiholize sy77ipathize systematize, utilize.\\nThese verbs have been multiplied indefinitely in our day,\\npartly in consequence of their utility for scientific expression,\\nand partly from the fact that about twenty years ago it\\nbecame a toy of University-men to make verbs in -ize about\\nall manner of things. A walk for the sake of bodily exercise\\nhaving been called a constitutional, the verb co7istitutio7i-\\nalize was soon formed thereupon. It was then caught up in\\ncountry homes, and young ladies who helped the parson in\\nany way were said to parochialize. A. H. Clough, when\\nengaged on his edition of Plutarch s Lives in English, used\\nto report progress to his correspondents by saying that\\nhe devoted so much of his time to Plutarchizing.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "THE VERBAL GROUP. 2^g\\nMr. Liddon has adopted transcendentalize\\nIt has been suggested that the Apostles confused the spiritual Resurrection\\nof an idea with the bodily Resurrection of its Author. But a confusion of\\nthought which may seem natural to the transcendentalized brain of a modern,\\nwould never have occurred in that of a Jew nineteen centuries ago, for the\\nsimple reason that its very materials did not exist. The Power of Christ s\\nRestirrection, St. Paul s, Easter Day, 1869.\\nMr. Matthew Arnold, in a recent paper, endeavouring to\\ndistinguish the local elements in the writings of St. Paul from\\nthat which is essential and permanent, has found it expedient\\nto fashion or adapt to his purpose three verbs, and they are\\nall of this type, Hebraize, Orientalize, Judaize.\\nA large number of these verbs are more commonly writ-\\nten with -ise than with -ize. That is to say, we are met\\nhere, as in so many other passages of our language, with that\\nquiet unnoticed French influence. Here it will probably\\nprove stronger than Greek, as in numerous cases it has\\nmodified the Latin forms.\\nThis form is here regarded as Greek, in compliance with\\nthe view that has been established and consciously acted\\nupon for a long time past. But though it has now acquired\\na right to be called a Greek form, it does not follow that the\\nfirst suggestion of it was due to the Greek language. On\\nthe contrary, reason will be given in the next chapter for\\nsupposing that it had its beginning in the verbification of\\na French substantive.\\nThe English verbs present so great a variety of age and\\nfeaturing, that they may as a whole be compared to a vene-\\nrable pile of buildings, which have grown by successive\\nadditions through a series of centuries. One spirit and pur-\\npose threads the whole, and gives a sort of unity in the midst\\nof the more striking diversity. The later additions are crude\\nand harsh as compared with the more ancient a fact which\\nis partly due to the mellowing effect of age, and partly also\\ns 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "26o THE VERBAL GROUP.\\nto the admission of strange models. In our speech, as well\\nas in our architecture, we are now sated with the classic\\nelement, and we are turning our eyes back with curiosity\\nand interest to what was in use before the revival of letters,\\nand before the renaissance of classic art.\\nExcept that the verbs require not their hundreds, but\\ntheir thousands of years, to be told off when we take count of\\ntheir development, we might offer this as a fitting similitude.\\nThey are indeed variously featured, and bearing the cha-\\nracters of widely differing ages, and they are united only in\\na oneness of purpose and by reason of these characters I\\nhave used the collective expression which is at the head of\\nthis chapter, and designated them as The Verbal Group.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIL\\nTHE NOUN-GROUP.\\nWe are now come to the backbone of our subject. The\\nrelation of the verb to the noun may be figured not unaptly\\nby calling the verb the head-piece, and the noun the back-\\nbone.\\nWhen we say the noun, we mean a group of words which\\ncomprise no less than the whole essential presentives of the\\nlanguage. In grammars these are ordinarily divided into\\nthree groups, the substantive, the adjective, and the adverb.\\nWe call these the presentives, and they will be found pre-\\ncisely co-extensive with that term. It is true that many\\nverbs are presentive, and this may seem a difficulty. More\\nverbs are presentive than are not. But it is no part of the\\nquality of a verb to be presentive if it is presentive, that\\ncircumstance is a mere accident of its condition. But all\\nwhich we shall include in the noun-group are essentially\\npresentive, and they constitute the store of presentive words\\nof the language. When verbs are presentive, they are so\\nprecisely in proportion to the amount of nounal stuff that is\\nmixed up in their constitution.\\nTo know a verb from a noun is perhaps the most ele-\\nmentary step in the elements of grammar. We assume that", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "262 THE NOUN-GROVP,\\nthe reader has not only mastered this distinction, but that he\\nhas so thoroughly accreted it and assimilated it to his habits\\nof mind, that it will not be liable to dislodgement under the\\nrude shock which philology must inflict upon partial con-\\nceptions. Not that there is anything wrong in this gram-\\nmatical distinction, or anything that has to be unlearnt. The\\ndistinction itself is good as a practical statement. But in\\nphilology we seek an explanation of these relations in their\\nnature and origin. And, philologically speaking, the presentive\\nverb is only a noun raised to a verbal power. As a ready\\nillustration of this, we may easily form an alphabetical list of\\nwords which are nouns if they have a or an, and verbs if\\nthey have fo prefixed ape, bat, cap, dart, eye, fight, garden,\\nhouse, ink, knight, land, mark, number, order, pair, question,\\nrange, sail, time, usher, vaunt, wing, yell.\\nAs soon indeed as you put to any one of these the sign of\\na noun or of a verb, a great difference ensues a dif-\\nference hardly less than that between the gunpowder to\\nwhich you have put the match and that over which you have\\nsnapped the pouch s mouth. Little by little, external marks\\nof distinction gather around that word which the mind has\\npromoted to the highest order. Pronunciation first, and\\northography at a slower distance, seek gradually to give\\na form to that which a flash of thought has instantaneously\\ncreated. Pronunciation takes advantage of its few op-\\nportunities, while orthography contends with its many\\nobstacles. We make a distinction in pronunciation between\\na house and to house, between a use and to use between a\\nrecord and to record. But these distinctions of sound are\\nas yet unwritten. In other cases orthography has added its\\nmark of distinction also. We distinguish both by sound and\\nwriting a gap from to gape, an advice from to advise, and a\\nprophecy from to prophesy.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "THE NOUN-GROUP. 263\\nThis is perhaps as much as need here be said to account\\nfor the wide separation now existing between nouns and\\nverbs, though they are one at the root. The difference of\\ncondition that now severs them as by a gulf is the accumu-\\nlated result of the age-long continuation of that process\\nwhose beginnings are here indicated.\\nSo much is here said of the relation of the verb to the\\nnoun, merely in order to justify the statement that the pre-\\nsent chapter is devoted to the presentive words. For we\\nmust regard the verbs always excepting the symboHc\\nverbs that is, verbs which in whole or in part have shed\\ntheir old nounal coat simply as nouns raised to an official\\nposition in the mechanism of the sentence, and qualified for\\ntheir office by receiving a predicative power.\\nAs the verb is most retentive of antiquity, and as it there-\\nfore offers the best point of comparison with other languages\\nof the same Gothic stock, so, on the side of the noun\\nwe may say that it exhibits best the stratification of the\\nlanguage. By which is meant, that the traces of the suc-\\ncessive influences which have passed over the national mind\\nhave left on the noun a continuous series of deposits, and\\nthat it is here we can most plainly read off the history and\\nexperiences of the individual language. The verb will tell\\nus more of comparative philology; but the noun will tell\\nmore of the particular philology of the English language.\\nAnd here we enter on a chapter which will peculiarly\\nneed the relief afforded by illustrative quotations. It may\\ntherefore be expedient to come to an understanding upon\\nthe object and aim of our quotations.\\nOur present pursuit is not Grammar, nor Rhetoric, nor\\nBelles Lettres. We are not concerned with taste, correct-\\nness, or conventional propriety. We neither commend any\\nexpression nor dissuade from the use of it. Our examples and", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "364 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nillustrations are not presented to the reader to stimulate him\\nto imitation but merely in attestation of the hold which the\\nform under consideration has upon the writers of the lan-\\nguage. We simply endeavour to arrange in a consecutive\\nand proportionate order the phenomena of the language.\\nAll that belongs to the domain of taste, or fancy, or fashion,\\nwe leave to be dealt with by the proper authorities in those\\ndepartments.\\nOur first object in quotation is to illustrate th.eyor?n. And\\nthe/orm can often be exhibited to advantage in words of\\na strange and novel character, rather than in those well-\\nestablished words which are so familiar to the eye, that they\\nwaken no feeling of analytical enquiry. Something may\\nindeed here be learnt of the commendable use of the\\nword. But this is a secondary and incidental advantage,\\nand one which is available for that reader only who can judge\\nfor himself how far each expression is worthy of imitation.\\nThe second and more general object in quotation is\\nto show the word in context. And for this reason\\nWords out of context are not seen in their true light,\\nbecause they are not seen in their natural element. The\\ncontext is to a word what water is to a fish. It is only in\\nits native element that it exhibits its native character. It\\nshould be remembered that words have not been invented\\nand moulded by themselves, and then afterwards put to-\\ngether into sentences. The ordinary course of grammar is\\nperhaps a litde apt to betray the mind into an unconscious\\nhabit of thinking somewhat as if this were the case. But the\\nforms which are the terminations of most substantives have\\nthat sort of natural relation to a context which the delicate\\nspongioles at the tips of root-fibres have to the ingredients\\nof the soil in which they have been generated, and on which\\nthey are still dependent for their life and usefulness.", "height": "3180", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES. 26^\\nThe words inwardness and everlasHngness would excite\\nlittle admiration standing by themselves perhaps they might\\nhardly be credited with a right to be entitled words at all.\\nBut look at the quotations in which these words occur\\nbelow among the substantives in -ness, and you will accord\\nto them at least credit, if not admiration.\\nUnder the title then of the Noun-Group three parts of\\nspeech are included the Substantive, the Adjective, and the\\nAdverb. For all these are in fact nouns under different\\naspects.\\nThis chapter will consist of three sections corresponding\\nto these three parts of speech.\\nI. Of the Substantive.\\nThe chief forms are the Saxon, the French, the Latin, and\\nthe Greek forms. The Saxon are generally to be found\\nextant in one or more of the cognate dialects, such as the\\nIcelandic, the Dutch, the German, the Danish, the Swedish.\\nBut substantives will not be found to unite all the languages\\nin one consent so often as the strong verbs.\\nThe oldest group consists of those short words which\\nhave no distinguishable suffix or formative attached to them,\\nor whose formative is now obscured by deformation. The\\nbulk of this class is monosyllabic, not always by origin, but\\noften by condensation. Thus, for example, the words\\nhrain, brawn, king, sail, tile, stairs, snail, are disyllabic in\\nSaxon, viz. brcegen, cyning, segel, tigel, stcsger, snegel. So of\\nmany others which are now monosyllables.\\nThe following w^ords are mostly found in the cognate\\ndialects.", "height": "3152", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "0^66 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nExamples arm, ash, awe, awl, badge, beam, bear, bed, bee,\\nbier, bliss, boat, borough, bread, breast, bride, buck, calf, chin,\\ncloth, corn, cow, craft, day, deal, deed, deer, doom, door, down\\n(on a peach), drink, drone, ear, earth, east, edge, elm, eye, fat\\nvessel), field, fish, flesh, flood, fly, fold, foot, frog, frost,\\nfurze, ghost, goat, goose, glass, gnat, ground, guest, handt., head,\\nheap, heart, hill, hood, hoof, horse, hound, house, ice, ivy, keel,\\nking, knave, knee, knight, knot, lamb, land, laugh, leaf Lent,\\nlore, louse, lust, 7nan, mark, meed, mist, moon, mouse, mouth,\\nnest, 7iet, north, nose, oak, oath, ox, path, pith, rake, ram, rest,\\nrick, ri7id, ring, roof, rope, salve, sap, sea, seal (phoca), seed,\\nshare, sheaf, sheep, shield, ship, shoe, sin, smith, son, song,\\nsough, south, speed, stafl^, stall, star, steer, stone, stow, stream,\\nsun, swine, tear, thief tide, tongue, tooth, tree, wain, way, west,\\nwether, whale, wheel, whelp, wife, wind, wold, wolf, womb,\\nwood, world, worm, yard, year yoke.\\nThese we may regard as simple words, that is to say,\\nwords in which we cannot see more than one element\\nunless we mount higher than the biet of the present treatise.\\nFrom these we pass on to others in which we begin to\\nrecognise the traces of nounal formatives, that is, of termina-\\ntions as distinct from the body of the words.\\nForms in -l churl, earl, evil, fowl, nail, settle (a bench),\\nsail, snail, soul, shovel, spittle, tile.\\nBubble is an instance in which this formative seems to\\nhave a diminutive sense. See Richardson, v. Bub. Car-\\npenters in Somersetshire call their plummet a plumb-bob.\\nHalliwell, v. Bob, quotes the following from manuscript,\\nwhere bobs are bunches\\nThey saw also thare vynes growe with wondere grete bobbis of grapes,\\nfor a mane my3te unnethez here ane of thame.\\nThimble is from thumb with a thinning of the internal\\nvowel.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "I\\nSUBSTANTIVES SAXON. 26 J\\nForms in -m: hosovi, fathom, helm, seam.\\nForms in -n beacon, burden, chicken, heaven, maiden, main\\n(A. S. maegen strength), rain, raven, steven (Chaucer), thane\\n(A.S. ]7egen), token, weapon, welkin.\\nForms in r acre (A. S. secer), brother, cock-chafer, daugh-\\nter, father, feather, finger, leather, liver, mother, sister, stair\\nsummer, thunder, timber, water, winter, wonder.\\nForms inT: bight, blight, fight, height, might, sight.\\nCross-examination resumed. I got the bight of the handkerchief\\nbehind the boy s head, and laid hold of the two corners of it. All this time\\nprisoner was trying, as well as I, to get the boy in. I was lying down^ and\\nso was prisoner, reaching across the water.\\nThe above are from well-known roots but there are others\\nof more obscure origin which bear a resemblance to the\\nabove, as light, right, wight.\\nForms in th as breadth, length, strength, width.\\nHere also belongs math in Tennyson s after-math, from\\nthe verb to 7now.\\nFaith is one of these, which was formed upon the French\\nfoi, anglicised/^. These two words went on for a long\\ntime together, with a tolerably clear distinction of sense.\\nFey meant religious belief, creed, as in the exclamation By\\nmy fey while/azV/^ signified the moral virtue of loyalty or\\nfidelity.\\nIn -ing as king (A. S. cyning), and those which in Saxon\\nend in -ung, as blessing. In this form the noun comes into\\nits closest contact with the verb. Into this group merged\\nthe old Saxon infinitive in -an, as we shall show in the Syn-\\ntax. In the old language the noun and the substantive were\\nwell distinguished by the diff erence of form, but in modern\\nEnglish it is often so hard to say whether a word in -ing is a\\nnoun or a verb, that the decision must be merely arbitrary.\\nHere it will be enough just to give a quotation to illustrate", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "2,6S THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nthis peculiar substantival usage of the verb, and verbal use\\nof the substantive.\\nIn the Glosse to the Shepheards Calender for the month\\nof April, the word making offers an example in which this\\nnoun-form is identified with the infinitive verb.\\nTo make, to rime and versifye. For in this word, making, our olde\\nEnglishe Poetes were wont to comprehend all the skil of Poetrye, according\\nto the Greeke woorde iroieTv to make, whence commeth the name of Poetes.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2In a moment, in the twykelynge of an yje. Wiclif, i Cor. xv. 52.\\nThe old Saxon title yE^eh ng for the Crown Prince, must\\nfind its place here. About the year 1 300, Robert of Glou-\\ncester considered this word as needing an explanation\\nAc Jie gode tryw men of J e lond wolde abbe ymade kyng\\npe kunde eyr, ])e 3onge chyld, Edgar A]?elyng.\\nWo so were next kyng by kunde, me clupe)) hym AJ^elyng.\\npervor me clupede hym so, vor by kunde he was next kyng.\\nEd. Hearne, i. 354.\\nTranslation. Btit the good true men of the land wotdd have made ling\\nthe natural heir, the yotmg Chyld, Edgar Atheling. PT-^oso were next kifig\\nby birthright, men call him Atheling therefore men called him so, for by\\nbirth he was next Mng.\\nIn -ere, as bcecere, baker and boceras, for the scribes\\nin the Gospels, literally bookers. From this source we have\\nalso Conner (as in ale-conner dealer, ditcher, fiddler, fisher,\\nfowler, grinder, harper, listener, -monger, skipper, Webber.\\nThus in Matthew xiii. 45, Eft ys heofena rice gelic ))am\\nmangere, c., which WicHf rendered by a man marchaunt,\\nand the Bible of 1 6 1 1 by mar chant man.\\nThese terminations are of very high antiquity, and we\\ncan give no account of them as separate and independent\\nwords. It is otherwise with those other old formatives,\\n-ness, -dom, -hood, -lock, -rick, -red, -ship. We know the", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES SAXON. 26g\\nmeaning which each of them had in its separate state,\\nprior to its becoming a formative.\\n-ness meant a projection, promontory, point of termina-\\ntion, headland. Thus in Beowtd/ 444, the forelands at sea\\nare called s(X-ncBssas, or sea-nesses and many a headland\\non our coast has still Ness attached to it, or some variety of\\nthat word: e.g. Denge Ness (Kent), Caithness (Scotland),\\nFoulness (Essex); Furness (Lancashire); The Naze (Essex);\\nNash Point (Glamorganshire).\\nIt is hardly possible to imagine a bolder figure, or one\\nmore apt to convey the idea of abstraction, than that which\\npresents the concrete as elongated to a tapering point.\\nExamples: composedness, goodness, heaviness, indebtedness,\\nmeanness, readiness, suppleness, usefulness, weariness, wilder-\\nness, c.\\nIllustrations\\nnew-fangleness.\\nInnovations and new-fangleness. Preface to Book of Common Prayer.\\ncharitableness, contentedness, peaceableness.\\nCharitableness, peaceableness, and contentedness. Proverbs iii, Contents.\\nhighmindedness, dejectedness.\\nHe that cannot abound without pride and highmindedness, will not want\\nwithout too much dejectedness Frame a sufficiency out of con-\\ntentedness. Richard Sibbes, Soul s Conflict, ch. x.\\ncomposedness.\\nSpiritual composedness and sabbath of spirit. Id.\\neverlastingness.\\nBut felt through all this fleshly dress.\\nBright shoots of everlastingness.\\nHenry Vaughan (1621-1695), The Retreat.\\ndarknesses.\\nGlorious in His darknesses. Jeremy Taylor, Life of Christ, vol. ii. p. 59.\\nHeber s ed.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "2/0 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThere has been a period since the seventeenth century. in\\nwhich this formative has been less in vogue, whilst the Latin\\n-ah on has prevailed but of late years it has been much\\nrevived, and has supplied some new words, as indebtedness.\\nIndeed, the form has become a marked favourite, and new\\nturns of speech are readily formed by help of it. In the bold\\nnovelty of some of them we may almost trace a spirit of\\nrebellion against conventionality.\\nnorthness.\\nLong lines of cackling geese were sailing far overhead, winging their way\\nto some more remote point of northness. Dr. Hayes, Open Polar Sea,\\nch. XXXV.\\n??iisswnariness.\\nIt is, I think, alarming peculiarly at this time, when the female ink-\\nbottles are perpetually impressing upon us woman s particular worth and\\ngeneral missionariness to see that the dress of women is daily more and\\nmore unfitting them for any mission or usefulness at all. Florence Night-\\ningale, Notes on Niirsing.\\nnaturalness.\\nThe unaffected country naturalness of the lad, Doctor Johns, by I. K.\\nMarvel, 1866.\\nhopefulness, helieffulness,\\nAnd there is a hopefulness and a beliefFulness, so to say, on your side,\\nwhich is a great compensation, A. H. Clough to R. W. Emerson, 1853.\\nsure-footedness.\\nAnd if the Testament of Love is not in at least some parts a translation\\nor paraphrase, Chaucer was not only a poet but a metaphysician. Otherwise\\nno acquaintance with the philosophy of his time would have carried him\\nsafely over the sensitive ground which he sometimes touches with logical\\nsure-footedness in that remarkable book. Chaucer s Etiglatid, by Matthew\\nBrowne, vol. i. p. 7.\\ninwardness.\\nNor Nature fails my walks to bless\\nWith all her golden inwardness.\\nJames Russell Lowell.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "5* UBSTANTIVES SAXON. ^7 1\\nnon-namekssness.\\nWe may in this respect afBrm that the non-namelessness of the historian\\nis the beginning of historical science. History of Israel, by Heinrich Ewald,\\ned. Martineau, vol. i, p. 57.\\nThe philological value of such examples must not be\\nmeasured by our admiration of them. We may safely\\nassume that these words were viewed with complacency by\\ntheir authors. And they therefore aiford an indirect testi-\\nmony to the prominence which is now given to the formative\\n-ness as a binding and consoHdating agent. If the evidence\\nis exaggerated, it is not on that account to be rejected as\\nworthless. Attempts of this magnitude are not made in the\\nstrength of -red, -lock, nor even of -hood or -ship.\\nThis termination is now frequently substituted for French\\nor Latin terminations of like significance, and this even\\nin words of Romanesque material. A lady asked me why\\nthe author wrote effeminaieness and not effeminacy in the\\nfollowing passage.\\n1812, June 17th. At four o clock dined in the Hall with De Quincey,\\nwho was very civil to me, and cordially invited me to visit his cottage in\\nCumberland. Like myself, he is an enthusiast for Wordsworth. His person\\nis small, his complexion fair, and his air and manner are those of a sickly\\nand enfeebled man. From this circumstance his sensibility, which I have\\nno doubt is genuine, is in danger of being mistaken for efFeminateness.\\nDiary, c., 0/ Henry Crabb Robinson, vol. i. p. 391.\\nIndeed, -cy and -ness are good equivalents, and hence\\nthey are often seen coupled or opposed, as decency and\\ncleanliness.\\nDecency must have been difficult in such a place, and cleanliness im-\\npossible. James Anthony Froude, History of England, August, 1 567.\\nThe collective or abstract -dom is a form of high an-\\ntiquity, being found in all the dialects except the Moeso-\\nGothic. It seems to have originally meant distinction,\\ndignity, grandeur, and so to have been chosen to express", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "272 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nthe great whole of anything. As a separate word it became\\ndoom, meaning authority and judgment.\\nExamples Christendom, heathendovi, kingdom, martyrdom,\\nserfdom, Shirifdome (Camden s Britannia, ed. 1607, p. 698),\\nthraldom, wisdom. Altered form halidam.\\nThe Germans make a variety of nouns with this formative,\\nas 93ift\u00c2\u00a7um bishopdom, Oteic^t^um richdom.\\nThis form has recovered a new activity of late years, and\\nit is now highly prolific. Thus we read of scoundreldom\\nand rascaldom.\\nHigh-born scoundreldom. J. A. Froude, at St. Andrew s, March, 1869.\\nI doubt very much indeed whether the honesty of the country has been\\nimproved by the substitution so generally of mental education for industrial\\nand the three R s, if no industrial training has gone along with them, are\\napt, as Miss Nightingale observes, to produce a fourth R of rascaldom.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094Id. ibid.\\nThe value of the formative has much altered in the case\\nof Christendom. This word is now used to signify the\\ngeographical area which is peopled by Christians but in\\nthe early use it meant just what we now mean by Chris-\\ntianity, the profession and condition of Christianity. William\\nde Shoreham s poem De Baptismo opens thus\\nCristendom his that sacrement\\nThat men her ferst fongeth.\\nMorris, Specimens, p. 121.\\nNouns in -red are, and always w^re, but few^ The forma-\\ntive answers to the German rati) in ^eirat^, marriage,\\noriginally meaning design, but in the formative having only\\nthe sense of condition. It seems to be the same as the\\nfinal syllable in the proper names jEl/red, Eadred, J^pelred.\\nOf this formation I can only produce two words that are\\nstill in current use.\\nExamples kindred, hatred.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES SAXON. ^^73\\nIn Longman s Edward the Third, vol. ii. p. 15, we have\\nmention of a fourteenth-century form\\ngossip-red.\\nBut the enmity between the English by blood and English by birth\\nstill went on, and the former married with the Irish, adopted their language,\\nlaws, and dress, and became bound to them also by gossipred and\\nfosterage.\\nThe words of this formation seem to be specially adapted\\nfor the expression of human relationships, whether natural,\\nmoral, or social. This is the case with the three already\\ninstanced, as well as with others belonging to the Saxon\\nstage of the language. We must not omit the word neigh-\\nbourhood, which is one of these terms of social relation-\\nship, and which was originally neighbourr^^, as we find it\\nfar into the transition period. Thus in the Old English\\nHomilies, ed. Morris (Early English Text Society), p. 137.\\nMon sul Se his elmesse ])enne he heo gefe^ swulche monne Se he for\\nscome wernen ne mei for ne^eburreddej\\nMan sells his alms when he giveth it to such a man as he for very shame\\ncannot warn off decline giving to] by reason of the ties of neighbour-\\nhood.\\n-lock, -ledge. These are very few now, and were not\\nnumerous in Saxon, where the termination was in the form\\n-lac as, brydlac, marriage gu^lac, battle reaflac, spoil\\nscinlac, sorcery, c. The word lac here is an old word\\nfor play, and still exists locally in the term lake-fellow for\\nplayfellow. To lake is common in Cumberland and West-\\nmoreland in the sense of to play. It is not generally known,\\nI believe, it certainly was not known to me until I learnt\\nit by a friendly annotation on this sheet, that when tourists\\nto the Lakes are called lakers, the natives imply the double\\nmeaning of Lake-admirers and idlers.\\nExamples: charlock, wedlock; and in an altered form,\\nk7iowledge.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "274 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nGuthlac was not only a word for battle, but was also a\\nman s name, to wit, of the Hermit of Croyland. So that\\nthe personal signification of z\u00c2\u00a3^izr/(? does not prevent us from\\nregarding it also as one of this class, at least by assimilation.\\nIt is probably a modification of the Saxon wcer-loga, which\\nGrein .eloquently translates veritatis infitiator, and which was\\napplicable to almost any sort of intelligent being that was per-\\nfidious, and under a ban, and beyond the pale of humanity.\\n-hood was an independent substantive in Saxon literature,\\nin the form of had. This word signified office, degree,\\nfaculty, quality. Thus, while the power and jurisdiction of\\na bishop was called biscopdom and biscopric, the sacred\\nfunction which is bestowed in consecration was called\\nhiscophdd. Sax. Chron. (E) 1048. And the verb for or-\\ndaining or consecrating was one which signified the\\nbestowal of had, viz. hadian.\\nExamples boyhood, brotherhood, childhood, hardihood, like-\\nlihood, maidenhood, manhood, sisterhood, zvidowhood.\\nAn altered form is -head, as in Godhead, an alteration\\nwhich makes it difficult for many to see that it is the ana-\\nlogue of manhood, and as if God-hood. It is sometimes\\nwritten -hed, as lustihed, maidenhed (virginitas), sainthed.\\nThis is Spenser s form, with the single or double d, -hed\\nor -hedd, as in his description of a comet\\ndreryhedd.\\nAll as a blazing starre doth farre outcast\\nHis hearie beames, and flaming lockes dispredd,\\nAt sight whereof the people stand aghast\\nBut the sage wisard telles, as he has redd,\\nThat it importunes death and dolefull dreryhedd.\\nThe Faerie Qiieene, iii. i. 16.\\nbountihed.\\nShe seemed a woman of great bountihed.\\nId. iii. I, 41.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES SAXON. 275\\nThe word livelihood merits notice by itself. It has been\\nassimilated to this class by the influence of such forms as\\nlikelihood. The original Saxon word was lif-ladu (vitae\\ncursus), the course or leading of Hfe. In the thirteenth\\nand fourteenth centuries it was written liflode, and was the\\ncommonest word for living in the sense of means of life,\\nwhere we now have the (unhistorical) form livelihood.\\nThis formative is represented in German by -^i\\\\.i, as\\nect)t, genuine; @c^tl)eit, genuineness.\\n-ship is from the old verb scapan to shape and indeed\\nit is the mere addition of the general idea of shape on to\\nthe noun of which it becomes the formative abstract. It\\ncorresponds to the German -fc^aft, as \u00c2\u00a9efell, companion\\n\u00c2\u00a9efellfcf^aft, society.\\nExamples dodorship^ fellowship, friendship, lordship,\\nladyship, ownerships proctorship, trusteeships workmanship,\\nworship worth- ship).\\nIllustrations\\nThe proctorship and the doctorship, Clarendon, History, i. 189.\\nTrusteeship has been converted into ownership, Edward Hawkins, D.D.,\\nOur Debts to CcBsar and to God, 1868.\\nIn the translation of Bunsen s Gott in der Geschichte,\\nby S. Winkworth, vol. i. p. 292, there is the form acquaint-\\nanceship.\\nThe Dutch form is -schap, as in Landschap, German ^ant-\\nfc^aft a word which we have borrowed from the Dutch\\nartists, and which we retain in the form of landscape.\\nThe form -ric is an old word for rule, sway, dominion,\\njurisdiction. We have but one word left with this formative,\\nviz. bishopric. There used to be others, as cyneric, which\\nwe now call kingdom, but which the Germans call ^dntgitic^.\\nThey would not regard the last syllable in this word as a\\nT 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "276 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nformative, but as an independent substantive Qfteid), and they\\nwould regard .fonigreic^ as a compound. We cannot so\\nregard bishopric, simply because we have lost ric as a dis-\\ntinct substantive. But when the word bishopric was first\\nmade, it was made as a compound.\\nThe same is true of all this group of nouns in -dojji, -ness,\\n-had, -red, -ship, that they were originally started as com-\\npounds, but the latter syllable having lost its independent\\nhold on the speech, it has come to be regarded as a mere\\nformative attached to the body of the word by flexional\\nsymphytism.\\nAt the end of the Saxon list it seems most natural to\\nmention a few words which make their appearance for the\\nfirst time with the modern English language, and of which\\nthe origin is obscure. Such are boy, girl, pig, dog.\\nThe next forms of nouns were those which we obtained\\nfrom the French in the period when our language was still\\nin a nascent state. Some of our French nouns are not easy\\nto classify. As examples we may name madam, beldame\\n(Spenser often), and the word garden (Yrench. jardin) which\\nthe people all over the country have such an inclination to\\nterminate with -ing. In this there may possibly be some\\nreminiscence of a French pronunciation. At any rate in\\nAmerica (where the rapid disappearance of the uncultivated\\nforms of speech is teaching writers to prize them) we have\\ngood authority for its recognition.\\nThe second series of Mr. Lowell s Biglow Papers was\\ninscribed to Judge Hoar, who is the judge celebrated in the\\nfollowing lines\\nAn I ve ben sence a-visitin the Jedge,\\nWhose garding whispers with the river s edge.\\nWhere I ve sat mornin s lazy as the bream\\nWhose on y business is to head-up the stream", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 FRENCH. 277\\n(We call em punkin-seed), or else to chat\\nAlong ith the Jedge, who covers with his hat\\nMore wit, an gunnption, an shrewd Yankee sense\\nThan is mosses on an ole stone fence.\\nTo the above may be added hargctm, truant^ minion^\\nrange, issue, and the word aunt, old French aiite (Latin amita),^\\nwhich they have since altered to tante by prefixing a merely\\neuphonic\\nNot unfrequently the French nouns which came into\\nEnglish had been previously borrowed from the Franks, or\\nsome race of Gothic stock. Thus guardian, which occurs\\nin every chief language of Europe, is from an Old High\\nDutch word, which corresponds to the last syllable in the\\nSaxon name Edward. In our form warden, we cast off the\\nFrench guise of the first syllable, but retained the Roman-\\nesque termination, Latin -ianus, French -ien.\\nAmong the most thoroughly domesticated of the French\\nforms is\\n-ry or -ery (French -erii) e.g. cavalry, chapelry, deanery,\\nfishery, iinagery, Jewry, mockery, poetry, pottery, poultry,\\nrookery, sorcery, spicery, swannery, trumpery (French trom-\\nperie), ivitchery.\\nIllustrations shrubbery is from the old homely word\\nscrub in the sense which it bears in Wormwood Scrubs,\\nand in the following quotation\\nIt [the barony of Farney] was then a wild and almost unenclosed alder\\nplain, and consisted chiefly of coarse pasturage interspersed with low alder\\nscrub. W. Steuart Trench, Realities of Irish Life, p. 66.\\nfopperies, trumperies.\\nWhat a world of fopperies there are of crosses, of candles, of holy water,\\nand salt, and censings Away with these trumperies. Bishop Hall.\\nmockeries.\\nI think we are not wholly brain,\\nMagnetic mockeries. In Memoriam, cxix.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "278 THE NOVN GROUP.\\nThis -erie seems to have sprung from a combination of\\nthe old Latin termination -za with the r or -er of the Latin,\\nor rather Roman, infinitive verb. Thus tromperie, from\\ntromper, to deceive. The termination -ia being toneless\\nin Latin, disappeared in the elder French words, those which\\nwere in the truest sense of the word Romanesque. Thus,\\nas M. Brachet has shewn, the Latin angustia became in\\nFrench angoisse (anguish) the Latin invidia became in\\nFrench envie (envy) the Latin gratia became in French\\nand English, grace. In these, which are the earliest progeny\\nof the Latin nouns in -ia, that termination is absorbed into\\nthe body of the word, and has not retained a separate ex-\\nistence. But there were words of later growth words made\\nof barbarian material, but fashioned after the classic pattern\\nin which this -ia was still propagated. Such were many\\nmediaeval nouns, as the IjdXinfelonia, French /elonie, English\\nfelony. This -ia is not unfrequently represented in our\\nEnglish terminations in -y. Thus in Burgundia, Burgundy,\\nwe retain the Latin termination; but in the French form\\nBourgogne it is absorbed. In the case of Britannia we have\\ntwo English forms, the one Britanny, in which the -ia is\\nrepresented, and the other Britain, after the French Bretagne,\\nin which it is absorbed.\\nThis -ia compounded with -er became European in the\\nmiddle ages. To it we may ascribe the geographical terms\\nNeustria and Austria. From it the Germans have borrowed\\ntheir =eret, as SutiStcret, jurisprudence. Poetria was a\\nmediaeval Latin word which we imitated the French in\\nadopting. It has long ago disappeared from French, so\\nthat poetry is now distinctively an English word. As early as\\n161 1, Poeterie is given in Cotgrave as an old word.\\nAnother distinctive word, but of our own stamping, fairy.\\nThis was originally the collective noun from the French _/^", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 279\\nas those little folk are still called across the Channel, but we\\ngradually passed from such expressions as land of faerie and\\nqueene of faerie, to make fairies the modern substitute for\\nthe native title of elves.\\nInto the groove thus prepared by the French -erie, we\\nhave received the word psaltery from the Greek -rjpiov.\\n(Whether these two are of one source originally it belongs\\nnot to this place to enquire.)\\nFor the elements were changed in themselues by a kind of harmonie\\nlike as in a Psaltery notes change the name of the tune, and yet are alwayes\\nsounds. Wisedom of Solomon, xix. 18.\\nNext we will mention the form -son (also -shion and\\n-som), which is after the French from the Latin nouns in\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2^Ho, -tionis. The termination -son represents the Latin\\naccusative case. Thus the French raison answers to the\\nLatin rationem.\\nExamples advowson (advocationem), arson, henison (be-\\nnedictionem), comparison (comparationem), fashion (fac-\\ntionem), garrison (Fr. garnison), lesson (lectionem), malison\\n(maledictionem), orison {px2X\\\\0Ti^m), poison (potionem), ransom\\n(renditionem), reason, season (sationem), treason (traditionem),\\nvenison (venationem).\\nFoison is an interesting word of this class. It is now out\\nof use, but it occurs in Chaucer, Spenser, and Shakspeare.\\nIt signified abundance, copiousness, and represented\\nfusionem the accusative oi fusio, which was used in a sense\\nsomething like our modern Latin word profusion. The\\nmodern Italian has the substantive fusione. It is a very\\nfrequent word in Froissart, as grand foison de gent, a great\\nmultitude of people. The following passage, from a fif-\\nteenth-century description of the hospitahty of a Vavasour,\\nexemplifies the use of this word.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "38o THE NOUN- GROUP.\\nSirs, seide the yonge man, ye be welcome, and ledde hem in to the\\nmiddill of the Court, and thei a-light of theire horse, and ther were I-nowe\\nthat ledde hem to stable, and yaf hem hey and otes, fFor the place was well\\nstuffed and a squyer hem ledde in to a feire halle be the grounde hem for\\nto vn-arme, and the Vavasour and his wif, and his foure sones that he hadde,\\nand his tweyne doughtres dide a-rise, and light vp torches and other lightes\\nther-ynne, and sette water to the fier, and waisshed theire visages and theire\\nhandes, and after hem dried on feire toweiles and white, and than brought\\neche of hem a mantell, and the Vauasour made cover the tables, and sette\\non brede and wyne grete foyson, and venyson and salt flessh grete plente\\nand the knyghtes sat down and ete and dranke as thei that ther-to haue\\ngreat nede, c. Merlin, Early EngHsh Text Society, p. 517.\\n-ment. From the Latin men/um, 2u s, frumentum, jumentum.\\nThis form has figured much more largely in French than it\\never has in English. For example, we have not and never\\nhad in English the two Latin words now quoted. But the\\nFrench have both frovient and jument. They were most\\nnumerous with us during the period when the French in-\\nfluence was most dominant. The following are older than\\nChaucer acupement, adubbement, advancement, af ailment,\\namendement, apparaylment, amonestement, arnement, asseyment,\\nbatelment, cement, chastisement, comandement, compacement, con-\\njurement, coronement, cumberment, deuysement, ditement, element,\\nemparement, enchauntement, enprysonmenl, eysement, feffement,\\nfirmament, foundement, garnement, instrument, juggement, mar-\\ntirement, moment, ornemenl, oynement, parlement, pavement,\\npayment, pimenl, prechement, sacrament, savement, sentement,\\ntabelment, tenement, testament, torment, tornement, vesselment,\\nvestement, warentment. An explanation of the more obscure\\nof these words may generally be found in the Glossarial\\n1 I-nowe enough. The word is just so pronounced to this day in Devon-\\nshire; not however with the eye-sound of I. This prefix represents the\\nSaxon ge in gerioh. The odd tendency to make the ge into a capital I is\\nnot without its importance. By the fidelity of the Early English Text\\nSociety to these little matters, their publications have a greater philological\\nvalue. For the kind of importance that may attach to this capital I, see the\\ncase of I wis above, at p. 248.", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 281\\nIndex to the Printed English Literature of the Thirteenth\\nCentury, by Herbert Coleridge.\\nExamples from Chaucer and later authors commaunde-\\nment [Faerie Queene, iii. 4. 33), condiment, detriment, enchant-\\nment (Chaucer), firmament (Spenser), habiliment, instrument\\n(Chaucer), judgment, parliament {par lenient in Chaucer),\\nregiment.\\nIllustrations\\nhardiment.\\nWith stedfast corage and stout hardiment.\\nFaerie Queene, iii. I. 19.\\ndreriment.\\nTo sorrow huge she turned her former play,\\nAnd gamesome mirth to grievous dreriment.\\nFaerie Queene, iii. 4. 30.\\nIn the following quotation, intendiment means knowledge,\\nfrom the French entendre, to understand.\\nInto the woods thenceforth in haste shee went,\\nTo seeke for herbes that mote him remedy\\nFor she^e of herbes had great intendiment.\\nFaerie Queene, iii. 5. 32.\\nA great and prominent word of the present day is\\nimprovement.\\nIt is true that much was don# for the place from outside. Much of\\nwhat is called sanitary improvement was accomplished and is still effective.\\nBut sanitary improvements do not save souls. Harry Jones, Life in the\\nWorld, 1865.\\nA word which is still more prominent in our times, and\\nwhich may be called one of the words of the period, is\\ndevelopment. This is a modernism with us, and its use cannot\\nbe traced back much more than a century, while its celebrity\\nis still more recent. It is a French word, and is of con-\\nsiderable antiquity in that language. The following from\\nRandle Cotgrave (161 1) is interesting:", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "283 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nDesvelope m. ee f. Vnwrapped, vnfoulden opened, vndone displaied,\\nspread abroad also, cleered.\\nDesvelopement m. An vnwrapping, vn/oulding vndoing, opening;\\nmanifesting, displaying, spreading open.\\nDesveloper. To vnwrap, vtifould vndoe, open, shew forth, display,\\nspread abroad rid, vnpester, cleere.\\nAn apparent but not real member of this group is parch-\\nment, which is from the Latin pergamejia (charta), through\\nthe French iorm. parche?7iin.\\nsentement taste, flavour).\\nAnd other Trees there ben also, that beren Wyn of noble sentement.\\nMaundevile, p. 189.\\nfirmament^ compassemeni.\\nFor the partie of the Firmament schewethe in o contree, that schewethe\\nnot in another contree. And men may well preven by experience and sotyle\\ncompassement of Wytt that men myghte go be schippe alle aboute\\nthe world. Maundevile, p. 180.\\nsavement salvation).\\nFor Seint James, in hys boke\\nWysseth wyd gode mende\\nThat 3yf any by-falthe ry3t syke\\nThe prest he scholde of-sende,\\nTo hys ende\\nAnd he schel elye hym wyth ele,\\nHys savement to wynne.\\nWilliam de Shoreham, p. 4I.\\nThese forms come down very close to Chaucer s day, and\\nby their extremely foreign aspect, shew us how great a\\nchange took place in the fourteenth century. The words in\\n-vieni sometimes made their plural just as they still do in\\nFrench, namely in -mens.\\nmaundemens.\\nTo hem that kepen his testament. And myndeful thai ben of his\\nmaundemens, to do hem. Psalm cii. 18; Hereford s version iti the Wyclif\\nBible.\\nThese words had in many cases superseded a native", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 283\\nword. In the Metrical Psalter, before a.d. 1300, we find in\\nthe corresponding verse wite-word for testament, and bodes\\nfor maundemens.\\n-et. A French diminutive form. Examples .\u00e2\u0080\u0094facet,\\nfloweret (Milton), hatchet, junket.\\nAn instance of its union with a Saxon word is latchet.\\nLynchet is a local word of Saxon origin which has taken\\nthis French facing. In the neighbourhood of Winchester\\nand elsewhere along the chalk hills, it signifies bank/\\nterrace, and it has been applied to those ledges which\\nhave the appearance of raised beaches. It is the old Saxon\\nword Mine, frequently used in Saxon charters for a boundary\\nembankment, artificial or natural. So it gets attached to\\nfrontier wastes, as in the case of the Links of St. Andrews,\\nMalvern Link, c. In Cooper s Provincialisms of Sussex,\\na Link is defined to be A green or wooded bank always\\non the side of a hill between two pieces of cultivated land.\\nIn Jenning s Glossary of the West of England, Linch is de-\\nfined as A ledge a rectangular projection, and here we\\nhave the form which was frenchified into lynchet.\\n-ette. Examples marionette, mignonette, palette, rosette.\\n-let. Examples armlet, bracelet, branchlet, kinglet,\\nringlet.\\nI have found it necessary to make a distinction between branches and\\nhranchlets, understanding by the latter term the lateral shoots which are\\nproduced in the same season as those from which they spring. John Lindley,\\nA Monograph of Roses (1820), p. xxi.\\nIn ^age as baggage, burgage, carriage, cottage, lan-\\nguage, lineage, message, passage, poundage, tonnage, vicarage,\\nvoyage.\\nThese words had for the most part an abstract meaning\\nin their origin, and they have often grown more concrete by\\nuse. The word cottage, as commonly understood, is con-", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "284 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nCrete, but there was an older and more abstract use, accord-\\ning to which it signified an inferior kind of tenure, a use\\nin which it may be classed with such words as burgage,\\nsoccage. The following is from a manuscript of the seven-\\nteenth century, one of the many things to which I have\\naccess by the kindness of Mr. Furnivall in sending me\\nproofs of his Early EngUsh Text materials.\\nThe definition of an Esquire and the severall sortes of them according to the\\nCustome and Vsage of England.\\nAn Esquire called in latine Armiger, Scutifer, et homo ad arraa is he that\\nin times past was Costrell to a Knight, the bearer of his sheild and heime, a\\nfaithfull companion and associate to him in the Warrs, serving on horsebacke,\\nwhereof euery knight had twoe at the least attendance upon him, in respect\\nof the fee, For they held their land of the Knight by Cottage as the Knight\\nheld his of the King by Knight service. Ashmole MS. 837, art. viii.\\nfol. 162.\\nA beautiful use of the word personage, in the sense of\\npersonal appearance, occurs in the Faerie Queene, iii. 2. 26:\\nThe Damzell well did vew his Personage.\\nCarriage now signifies a vehicle for carrying; but in the\\nBible of 161 1 it occurs eight times as the collective for\\nthings carried, impedimenta. In Numbers iv. 24 it is a mar-\\nginal reading for burdens, which is in the text. In Acts xxi.\\n15, We tooke vp our cariages, is rendered by Cranmer\\n(1539) we toke vp oure burthenes, and in the Geneva\\nversion (1557) we trussed vp our fardeles.\\nIt appears to be traceable to Italian influence, as is indi-\\ncated in the Bible Word-Book of Eastwood and Wright. But\\nchiefly it is remarkable as one of the very few instances in\\nwhich an ephemeral expression got into the revision of 16 11,\\ndisplacing more solid and permanent words.\\nVerbiage signifies a superfluity of words, or the excess of\\nwords over meaning in a discourse, or more generally,\\nwords without point. I asked a friend whether his speech", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 285\\nhad been fairly reported Well/ said he, they have given\\nthe verbiage of what I said pretty faithfully/\\nNext to -age we naturally come to the form -ager, as in\\nthe French passager, messager, which has been altered in\\nEnglish to the form -enger, as passenger messenger. With\\nthese must be classed the words in -inger, as harbinger,\\nporringer, pottinger, wharfinger. Also wallinger, a term that\\nis, or was, to be seen on the walls of Chester, in a tablet\\ncommemorative of repairs done to the city wall. The\\nwallingers were annual officers charged with the care of\\nthe wall.\\nIn the fourteenth century there was a public officer known\\nas the King s auhieger, who was a sort of inspector of the\\nmeasuring of all cloths offered for sale, and his title was\\nderived from the French aulne, an ell; aulnage, measuring\\nwith the ell-measure\\nThis seems to be the best place for a word whose origin\\nhas been variously explained. A very great mediaeval\\nword was danger, both in French and English. The reader\\nof our early literature should not too readily assume that he\\nhas understood any passage in which this word occurs. At\\npresent the word is hardly to be distinguished from hazard,\\nperil, risk, liability, exposure. A modern reader would not\\npause to doubt whether Les dangers des bois could mean\\nanything else than The perils of the woods. But it is thus\\ndefined by Cotgrave (161 1): ^The amerciaments, and con-\\nfiscations adiudged vnto the King by the officers of woods, and\\nforrests!\\nIn the early poems of gallantry, which were the staple of\\nBelles Lettres in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and\\nLife and Times of Edward III, by William Longman, vol. i. p. 340\\nfrom 25 Edw. Ill, Stat. 3.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "286 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nof which the ripest example is the Roniaunt of the Rose, the\\nterm Danger is used constantly for the name of one of the\\nallegorical personages.\\nThis name represents that person who, whether as father\\nor husband or lover, has some superior right or title in the\\nheroine of the moment. It resulted from the fundamental\\nidea of these pieces, that such a person must be made odious,\\nand accordingly he appears as a churl, a skulk, a spy, c.\\nThus, in the Romaunt of the Rose, when the prospects of the\\nrose-hunter are most flattering, we read, line 3015:\\nBut than a chorle, foul him betide,\\nBeside the roses gan him hide.\\nTo keepe the roses of that rosere,\\nOf whom the name was daungere\\nThis chorle was hid there in the greves\\nCovered with grasse and with leves.\\nTo spie and take whom that he fond\\nUnto that roser put an hond.\\nIt seems that the word must be derived from Domtnus, which\\nis represented by Dan-, as in Dan Chaucer, c. Thus\\nDaunger or Danger would be equivalent to Dominicarius (Du\\nCange) and the Domigerium of Bracton must be taken as\\na mere latinized form of the word itself.\\nThus the word is apt to occur in the phraseology of\\nescheats and forfeitures, as where Mr. Froude quotes an entry\\nin the Records,\\nThat on the 12th of July, 1568, the Earl of Desmond acknowledging his\\noffences, his life being in peril, his goods liable to forfeiture, and himself in\\ndanger to her Highness for the forfeiture of \u00c2\u00a320,000 by his securities\\nrelinquished into her Majesty s hands all his lands, tenements, houses, castles,\\nsigneries, all he stood possessed of to receive back what her Majesty would\\nplease to allow him, c. History of England, vol. x. p. 487.\\nIn The Merchant of Venice, iv. i, You stand within his\\ndanger, do you not.? is equivalent to You are in his power,\\nare you not? And it is by the introduction of this word\\ndanger that the key-note is struck of that piece which is to", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 287\\nfollow, on the quality of mercy. For Power and Mercy are\\nnatural correlatives. And this moral truth is worked into\\nthe habits of our phraseology for it is much the same thing\\nwith us now to say that one is in another s power, or to say\\nthat he is at his mercy. The latter way of speaking was\\nindeed first invented as a euphemism upon the former, but\\nit has become equally harsh, perhaps rather the harsher of\\nthe two. One example this among thousands, that what-\\never may be the temporary complicity of language in dis-\\nsimulation, no trick of words will ever compel it permanently\\nto act as a cloak of hypocrisy. It has a way of recovering\\nits honesty by the process of an open confession. We may\\nindeed regret the degradation of noble expressions, but\\nthis eifect, which is at first sight so disagreeable, is found\\nto be the condition of preserving language from moral\\ncorruption.\\nThis group has so marked a character that it seemed to\\ndeserve a place by itself, although it belongs in strictness to\\nthe next class in virtue of its final termination.\\nIn -er, from the French -er and -ier. Of this suffix -ier,\\nit is said by M. Auguste Brachet, in his Grammaire His-\\ntorique^ p. 276^ that it is perhaps the most productive of all\\nthe French nounal forms. For in the first place, it is the con-\\nstant form for expressing a man s trade. The Saxon form\\n-ere had the same value, but it was swallowed up in the\\ngreater volume of this French form.\\nExamples baker, bookbinder, butcher, Fletcher, gardener,\\ngrocer, miller, Tucker, vintner. Already in Chaucer we have\\nfour of them in two fines\\nAn Haberdasshere and a Carpenter,\\nA Webbe, a Dyere, and a Tapycer.\\n1 At p. 184 of Mr. Kitchin s Translation, in the Clarendon Press Series,\\n1869.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "288 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nHere the only term which is not in -er, is, oddly enough,\\na curt form of the old Saxon wehhere, weaver.\\nIn Bristol there is (or was) a street called Tucker Street,\\nin which stood the Hall of the Weaver s Guild, till it was\\ndestroyed in making a new road to the railway station. This\\nstreet is called in mediaeval deeds Vicus Fullonum, and the\\npresent name is to the same effect. For the word Tucker\\n(anciently Toukere) is equivalent to clothier. In German the\\ncommon word for cloth is ^u(^.\\nThis form is highly verbal in its constitution. It springs\\nup out of almost any verb as naturally as a participle. Thus\\nwe .make hater, hoper, hopper, runner, talker, thinker,\\nwalker, c. This spontaneity has rather suffered from\\nneglect of its use. The word slanders in Troilus and Cres-\\nsida, iii. 3. 84, is less to be regarded as a noun than as\\na verbal inflection\\nT is certaine, greatnesse, once falne out with fortune.\\nMust fall out with men too What the declin d is,\\nHe shall as soone reade in the eyes of others,\\nAs feele in his owne fall for men, like butter-flies.\\nShow not their mealie wings but to the Summer\\nAnd not a man for being simply man,\\nHath any honour but honour d for those honours\\nThat are without him; as place, riches, and fauour,\\nPrizes of accident as oft as merit\\nWhich when they fall, as being slippery standers.\\nThe loue that leand on them as slippery too,\\nDoth one plucke downe another, and together\\nDye in the fall.\\nescaper.\\nAnd lehu said, If it be your minds, then let no escaper goe. 2 Kings\\nix. 15, margin.\\nAmong the signs of reviving interest in early English is\\nto be noted an occasional straggler of this class welcomed\\nback again. The word co??ier took the place of a Saxon\\ncuma, and though its range was much narrowed by our", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 289\\nadoption of the French stranger, yet it never quite died out.\\nIt occurs once in the Bible of 1 6 1 1 twice in the plays of\\nShakespeare, and once in the poetical works of Milton. Of\\nlate it has been getting more common.\\nChristians in general, therefore, would oppose to such a creed as that of\\nthe Pall Mall Gazette, not the pretence of conclusions which they can\\ndemonstrate against all comers, but strong and deep convictions continually\\nassailed and sometimes agitated by insoluble difficulties. J. Llewelyn Davies,\\nThe Gospel and Modern Life, p. xiii.\\nIn some instances our nouns in -er, ler, represent the\\nFrench -lere, as river (riviere), barrier (barriere).\\nThere is another form, -eer, of more limited use, as mule-\\nteer, charioteer, pamphleteer, privateer.\\nThis form is sometimes used half-playfully\\nfellow-circuiteer.\\nThe enormous gains of my old fellow-circuiteer, Charles Austin, who is\\nsaid to have made 40,000 guineas by pleading before Parliament in one\\nsession. Henry Crabb Robinson, Diary, c., 18 18.\\n-ee. This termination is from the French passive par-\\nticiple.\\nExamples devotee {Spectator, No. 354), guarantee, mort-\\ngagee, trustee.\\nIllustration\\nreferee.\\nIn this clamour of antagonistic opinions, history is obviously the sole\\nupright impartial referee. J. B. Lightfoot, Philippians, 1868.\\nThe original passive character of the form still shines out\\nin most of the examples and often there is an active sub-\\nstantive as a counterpart. Thus lessor, lessee; mortgagor,\\nmortgagee.\\nIn -ard. Examples bastard, buzzard, coivard, dastard,\\nu", "height": "3160", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "290 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\ndotard (Spenser, Faerie Queene, iii. 9. 8), drunkard, dullard,\\nhaggard (a sort of hawk), laggard, mallard, niggard, pollard,\\nsluggard, standard, tankard a little tank, French ^tang,\\nLatin stagnum), wizard.\\nHere should be mentioned also two national designations,\\nSpaniard, Savoyard.\\nAmong these must not be included mustard, of the origin\\nof which word the following story has been told It is said\\nthat the first depot in Europe for the sale of sinapis was at\\nDijon, and that the jars were marked with the local motto\\nMoult me tarde, which in French of the fifteenth century\\nmeant am very impatient. And that to the condensation\\nof this motto we owe the nouii mustard, which is an\\nanglicism of the French moutarde.\\nplacard.\\nGood Lord, how cross and opposite is man s conceit to God s, and how\\ncontrary our thoughts unto His For even ad oppositum to this position of\\nHis, we see for the most part that even they that are the goers forth seem\\nto persuade themselves that then they may do what they list that at that\\ntime any sin is lawful, that war is rather a placard than an inhibition to\\nsin. Lancelot Andrewes, Sermon on Deut. xxiii. 9.\\nwizard.\\nAnd down the wave and in the flame was borne\\nA naked babe, and rode to Merlin s feet,\\nWho stoopt and caught the babe, and cried The King\\nHere is an heir for Uther And the fringe\\nOf that great breaker, sweeping up the strand,\\nLash d at the wizard as he spake the word,\\nAnd all at once all round him rose in fire.\\nSo that the child and he were clothed in fire\\nAnd presently thereafter followed calm,\\nFree sky and stars. Alfred Tennyson, The Coming of Arthur.\\nIn -Tire (Latin -ura, as mensura).\\nExamples meastire, seizure, suture, treasure (assimilated),\\nverdure.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 29 1\\nIllustration\\nclosure.\\nAnd for his warlike feates renowmed is,\\nFrom where the day out of the sea doth spring,\\nUntill the closure of the Evening.\\nFaerie Queene, iii. 3. 27.\\nIn -ise or -ice after two or three various Latin termina-\\ntions, but typically from -z/m.\\nExamples covetise (Spenser), cowardice, fool-hardise\\n(Spenser), justice, malice, merchandise, nigardise (Spenser),\\nnotice, queintise (Chaucer), riotise (Spenser).\\ngentrise, covetise.\\nWonder it ys sire emperour that noble gentrise\\nThat is so noble and eke y fuld with so fyl couetyse.\\nRobert of Gloucester, p, 46.\\nfeyntyse, koyntise quaintise).\\nSo that atte laste Gurguont was kyng\\nStalworthe man and hardy and wys thou3 alle thyng,\\nMuche thing that ys eldore loren thorw feyntyse,\\nThoru strengthe he waun seththe a3ein and thoru ys koyntise.\\nRobert of Gloucester, 39.\\naverice, coveytise.\\nThis myraclis pleyinge is verre witnesse of mennus averice and coveytise\\nbyfore, that is maumetrie, as seith the apostele, for that that thei shulden\\nspendyn upon the nedis of ther ne3eboris thei spenden upon the pleyis. A\\nSermon against Miracle-plays, in Matzner s Altenglische Sprachproben,\\nPt. II. p. 233.\\nFranchise was a great word in the French period, and it\\nhad a wide range of significations. Among other things it\\nmeant privilege, exemption, and also good manners, good\\nbreeding, which latter occurs among the numerous render-\\nings of this word in Randle Cotgrave s Dictionarie of the\\nFrench and English Tongves, 1 6 1 1", "height": "3160", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "29 3 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nfranchise.\\nWe mote, he sayde, be hardy and stalworthe and wyse^\\n3ef we wole habbe oure lyf, and hold our franchise.\\nRobert of Brunne, p. 155.\\nConsideryng the best on every syde,\\nThat fro his lust yet were him lever abyde,\\nThan doon so high a cheerlinch wrecchednesse\\nAgayns fraunchis of alle gentilesce.\\nChaucer, The Franheleyjies Tale, 1. 11828, ed. Tyrwhitt.\\nmalice.\\nAnd it is a great subtilty of the devil, so to temper truth and falsehood\\nin the same person, that truth may lose much of its reputation by its mixture\\nwith error, and the error may become more plausible by reason of its con-\\njunction with truth. And this we see by too much experience for we see\\nmany truths are blasted in their reputation, because persons whom we think\\nwe hate upon just grounds of religion have taught them. And it was plain\\nenough in the case of Maldonat, that said of an explication of a place of\\nScripture that it was most agreeable to antiquity bat because Calvin had so\\nexpounded it, he therefore chose a new one. This was malice. Jeremy\\nTaylor, Liberty of Prophesying, xi. 2.\\nTo this class belonged the French ^noxA pentice or j\\nof which the last syllable had been already before Shak-\\nspeare s time anglicised into house/ making a sort of a\\ncompound, pent-house.\\nWe must admit into this set such words as prejudice,\\nservice, and we cannot make the Latin termination -itium\\na ground of distinction in English philology, where words\\nare assimilated in form.\\nIn the sixteenth century these words were often written\\nwith a z. No variety of sense or even of sound appears to\\nhave been connected with this orthography. It was mere\\nfashion. As y was a fashionable substitute for z*, and as it\\nwas modish to elongate words by a final e, so also with\\nthe 2 as a substitute for s. Queen Elizabeth wrote her\\nname with a z, and that alone was an influential example.\\nIn some cases the fashion disappeared and left no traces", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FRENCH. 2g^\\nbehind it, in other cases it was the origin of the received\\northography. Thus wizard became the recognized form\\ninstead of wisard, which was the spelling of Spenser, as\\nmay be seen above, p. 274.\\nIn the Faerie Queene we see this fashion well displayed.\\nThere are such forms as hruze, uze (iii. 5. 33), wize, disguize,\\nexercize, guize (iii. 6. 23), Paradize (iii. 6. 29), enter prize,\\nemprize, arize, devize (vi. i. 5). So that there is nothing to\\nmarvel at if we find covetise covetousness) spelt covetize\\n(iii. 4. 7), and the substantive which we now write practice\\nwritten practize\\nNe ought ye want but skil, which practize small\\nWil bring, and shortly make you a mayd Martiall, (iii. 3.53)\\nBut there is a much more important observation to be\\nmade concerning this French substantive form. It seems\\nthat we must acknowledge it to have acted as the usher to\\none of the most extensive innovations ever inade in the\\nEnglish language. It was apparently the employment of\\nthis substantive as a verb that gave us our first verbs in\\n-ize, and so ushered the Greek -l^eiv. An example of one\\nof these substantives verbally employed may be quoted\\nfrom the correspondence of Throgmorton and Cecil in\\n1567\\nThey would not merchandise for the bear s skin before they had caught\\nthe bear. Quoted by J. A. Froude, History of England, vol. ix. p. 163.\\nIndeed, there are instances in which the substantive of\\nthis form is no longer known, while the verb is in familiar\\nuse. Such is the verb to chastise, which appears in its\\nsubstantive character, equivalent to chastity, in Turbervile,\\nPoem to his Loue (about 1530)\\nAnd sooth it is, she liude\\nin wiuely bond so well\\nAs she from CoUatinus wife\\nof chastice bore the bell.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "294 I HE NOUN GROVP,\\nI imagine the case is the same with the verbs to jeopardise,\\nand to advertise. Both of these I would identify with this\\nsubstantive form, though I am not prepared with an example\\nof either in its substantive character. But there is perhaps\\nevidence enough in Shakspeare s pronunciation, that the\\nverb to advertise was not formed from the Greek -ize. In all\\ncases, though with degrees of clearness in proportion to the\\nclearness of the passage, does this verb in Shakspeare sound\\nas advertice, and never as now advertize\\nAduertysing, and holy to your businesse.\\nMeasure for Measure, v. i. 381.\\nPlease it your Grace to be aduertised.*\\n2 Henry VI, iv. 9. 22.\\nFor by my Scouts, I was aduertised.\\n3 Henry VI, ii. I. 116.\\nI haue aduertis d him by secret meanes.\\n3 Henry VI. iv. 5. 9.\\n*We are aduertis d by our louing friends.\\n3 Henry VI, v. 3. 18.\\nAs I by friends am well aduertised.\\nRichard III, iv. 4. 501.\\nWherein he might the King his Lord aduertise.\\nHenry VIII. ii. iv. 178.\\nThere is one instance in which the First Folio writes it with\\na z, and the pronunciation is not so plain, yet it is by no\\nmeans certain even here that it is to be pronounced in the\\nmodern fashion\\nI was aduertiz d, their Great generall slept.\\nTroylus and Cressida, ii. 3. 21 1.\\nIn -esse, and by anglicism -ess. Either from the Latin\\n-issa, as abbatissa, or from -itia, like the last. M. Brachet", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 FRENCH. 295\\nderives it from -zVz So that it would be little more than\\na collateral form to the last. And the French language pre-\\nsents us with justice and justesse, co-existent in differing\\nshades of sense.\\nExdiXw^le?,:\u00e2\u0080\u0094 finesse (quite acknowledged as an English\\nword, and found in Mr. Poynder s School Dictionary),\\nlargess.\\nRiches belongs here by its extraction, as it is only an\\naltered form of richesse. The grammatical conception has\\nbeen transformed from a singular noun to a plural which has\\nno singular. This may be set down as one of the effects of\\na Latin education continued during three or four centuries.\\nThe word richesse having been constantly used to render\\nopes or divitice, which are plural forms,and being itself so\\nnearly like an English plural, has thus come to be so con-\\nceived of, and written accordingly.\\nBurgess has taken this shape, but it is from the French\\nbourgeois, and that from the Latin burgensis.\\nThe form -esse as derived from -issa, has its chief im-\\nportance as expressive of the feminine gender. Examples of\\nthis will be found at the close of the present section.\\nAs to the origin of all the forms in the above list, it\\nclearly cannot belong to English philology to do much more\\nthan indicate the source from which we received them.\\nTheir derival into French from Latin has therefore been\\nonly slightly touched upon. The reader who wishes to\\nknow more on this head should consult the Historical\\nGrammar of the French Tongue, by Auguste Brachet, an\\nadmirable manual, which has been rendered accessible to\\nthe English student by Mr. Kitchin s Translation, This\\nbook supplies all the information which is needed for tracing\\nthe forms intelligently from the Latin through the French,\\nto the threshold of their entrance into the English language.", "height": "3176", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "2g6 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThe effect of the French pre-occupation of our language\\nwas not limited to the period of its reign. It also imparted\\na tinge to the subsequent period of classic influence. The\\nLatin words that were next admitted into English, became\\nsubject to those French forms which were already familiar\\namong us.\\n-aey, from the Latin -aci a, 2, fallacy.\\n-ance and -ancy, from the Latin -antia as substance^\\nconstancy. The words acquaintance, cognisatice, and many-\\nothers of this form, are rather French than Latin.\\nIllustration\\ncognisance.\\nThe honourable member ought himself to be aware that in this house\\nwe have no cognisance of what passes in debate in the other house.\\nHouse of Commons, July 21, 1869.\\n-ence and -ency, from the Latin -entia.\\nExamples affluence, beneficence, benevolence, competence,\\nconfidence, conscience, consequence, continence, difference, dif-\\nfidence, eminence, evidence, exigence, experience, impotence,\\ninfluence, licence, magnificence, munificence, negligence, opulence,\\npreference, reticence, science, sequence.\\nIllustration\\npubescence.\\nPubescence on the branches, peduncles, or tube of the calyx is the only\\ninvariable character I have discovered in Roses. Distinctions drawn from it\\nI have every reason to consider absolute. John Lindley, A Monograph of\\nRoses (1820), p. xxiii.\\nThe following are of a different origin, being either from\\nLatin nouns in -ensio, or from Latin participles in -ensus, but\\nthey have been assimilated to this group. Such are defence,\\nexpence (obsolete), offence, pretence. With these may be men-\\ntioned a few which have not succumbed to this assimilation,\\nas incense, sense, suspense, and one which has recovered its\\noriginal classical consonant, namely expense.", "height": "3184", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES LATIN. 297\\nThe -eney form is peculiarly English. Clemency is in\\nFrench demence.\\n-ity, from the Latin -itas as quality, vanity. The English\\ntermination is after the French -ite, with the last syllable ac-\\ncented, because it represents the two syllables of the Latin\\naccusative -tatem.\\nExamples antiquity, benignity, civility, dexterity, equality,\\nfidelity, gratuity, humanity, integrity, joviality, legibility, ma-\\njority, nativity, obscurity, posterity, quality, rapidity, sincerity,\\ntimidity, urbanity, velocity.\\nIllustration\\ncivility, equity, humanity, morality, security.\\nThe morality of our earthly life, is a morality which is in direct subser-\\nvience to our earthly accommodation and seeing that equity, and humanity,\\nand civility, are in such visible and immediate connection w^ith all the secu-\\nrity and all the enjoyment which they spread around them, it is not to be\\nwondered at that they should throw over the character of him by whom\\nthey are exhibited, the lustre of a grateful and a superior estimation.\\nThomas Chalmers, Sermons in Tron Church, Glasgow (1819), Sermon V.\\nAmong these, the forms in -osity have acquired a pro-\\nminence, as animosity, curiosity, impetuosity, pomposity.\\nMulier osity is quoted by Dr. Trench {On Some Deficiencies\\nin our English Dictionaries, p. 7) from Henry More, with\\nthe observation that it expresses what no other word in the\\nlanguage would do. He has also produced others of this\\ntype from writers of the seventeenth century, as fabulosity,\\npopulosity, speciosity. The latter also from Henry More.\\nSo great a glory as all the speciosities of the world could not equalize.\\nOn GodltTiess, iv. 12. 4.\\nThe words in which this formative appears merely as -ty,\\nare of an early mediaeval French strain.\\nExamples casualty, certainty, fealty, loyalty, mayoralty,\\nnicety novelty royalty, shrievalty, soverainty, surety.", "height": "3176", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "298 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nchiefeiy, souverainety.\\nI could wish that in this discourse and in the whole body of your booke\\nwheresoever mention is made of to Kvpiov, you should give yt the same\\nname. You terme yt sometymes chiefety of dominion, sometymes souverain-\\nety, sometimes imperiall power. I thinke theys wordes (souverainety of\\ndominion or souveraine dominion) are the fittest to be alwayes used, and\\nplainest to be understood. If you be of this mynd, you may alter those\\nplaces before, and make them all alike.* George Cranrher, MS. Notes on\\nHookers Sixth Book. Hooker s Works, ed. Keble, vol. iii. p. 1 14.\\n-ion, -tion, -ation, -ition, from the Latin -zo, -ah o, -t h o,\\ngenitive -zom s; as coronation, description, region, compassion,\\ncontrition,\\nsalutation,\\nWe behold men, to whom are awarded, by the universal voice, all the\\nhonours of a proud and unsullied excellence and their walk in the world\\nis dignified by the reverence of many salutations and as we hear of their\\ntruth and their uprightness, and their princely liberalities, c. Thomas\\nChalmers, Sermon V. (1819.)\\nThe exigency of translation occasionally projects new\\nspecimens, as\\nexternalization.\\nThe utter externalization of the religious consciousness by superstitious\\nusages, and the consequent fading of the sense of moral personality and\\nresponsibility. Bunsen, God in History. Translated by S. Winkworth,\\nBk. III. ch. vii.\\nThis is a form upon which new words have been made\\nwith great facility, as witness the off-hand words savation,\\nstarvation. A gardener once desiring to have his work\\nadmired\u00e2\u0080\u0094 he had been moving some of the raspberries, to\\nmake the rows more regular There sir, cried he, that s\\nwhat I call row-tation now! From this facility it has\\nnaturally followed that many have grown obsolete. Jeremy\\nTaylor uses luxatio7i to signify the disturbing, disjointing,\\ndisconcerting, shocking of the understanding\\nAn honest error is better than a hypocritical profession of truth, or a\\nviolent luxation of the understanding. Liberty of Prophesying, ix. 2.", "height": "3188", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "S UBS TA NTIVES LA TIN. 299\\nPerhaps this word is not quite obsolete in its physical\\nsense. It originally meant the putting a limb out of joint,\\nand possibly it is still so employed by surgeons.\\nDr. Trench, in his pamphlet On Some Deficiencies in our\\nEnglish Dictionaries (1857), has cited the following words\\nnow obsolete but once used by good authors, subsannation,\\ncoaxation, delinition, conculcation, quadripartition, excarni-\\nfication, dehonestation. The reader who desires further in-\\nformation on any of these words is referred to the above\\nwork.\\nThis abstract form is capable of a thundering eloquence,\\nunder conditions fitted to exhibit its full effects. When a new\\nship of war of the most advanced and formidable class of\\nturret-ships was lately announced by the name of The\\nDevastation, it might well be said that the new cast of name\\nwas an apt exponent of the weight of metal by which the\\nterrors of marine warfare have recently been enhanced.\\n-our; as ardour, fervour.\\nIn this class of words, derived at secondhand from the\\nLatin in -or, as fervor, ardor, the is a trace of the\\nFrench medium. This distortion has moreover communi-\\ncated itself even where there was previously nothing either of\\nFrench or of Latin, as in the purely Saxon compound neigh-\\nbour {neh nigh, gebilr dweller).\\nA partial disposition has manifested itself to drop this\\nFrench tc. Especially is this observable in American litera-\\nture. But the general rule holds good through this whole\\nseries of nouns from the Latin, that what we call anglicising\\nthem, is the reducing of them to a set of forms which we\\nborrowed originally from French. And thus it is true that\\nthe French influence still accompanies us, even through the\\ncourse of our latinising epoch.\\nLatin scholarship was, however, continually nibbling", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "300 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\naway at these monuments of the French reign. The forms\\nof many of our Romanesque nouns were too permanently\\nfixed to be shaken, but wherever the classical scholar could\\nmake an English word more like Latin, he was fain to do it.\\nThus the French form parlement was drawn nearer to its\\nLatin form of parliamentum and words of old standing,\\nlike Cristen, as old in our speech as the national con-\\nversion, became re-latinized into Christian.\\n-al. This form, which is derived from the Latin adjectival\\nformative -alis^ -ale, has attached itself not only to words\\nradically Latin, as acquittal, dismissal, disposal, nuptials, pro-\\nposal, refusal, rental, but also to others which are purely\\nEnglish, as in the familiar geological term upheaval. Pro-\\nfessor Lightfoot in his Paul and Seneca, uses the uncommon\\nword uprootal.\\nIllustrations\\ntestimonial.\\nAnd thus it is, that there is a morahty of this world, which stands in\\ndirect opposition to the humbling representations of the Gospel which can-\\nnot comprehend what it means by the utter worthlessness and depravity of\\nour nature which passionately repels this statement, and that too on its own\\nconsciousness of attainments superior to those of the sordid and the pro-\\nfligate and the dishonourable; and is fortified in its resistance to the truth\\nas it is in Jesus, by the flattering testimonials which it gathers to its re-\\nspectability and its worth from the various quarters of human society.\\nThomas Chalmers, Sermon V. (1819).\\napproval, refusal.\\nI well remember his [O Connell s] smile as he nodded good-humouredly\\nto us as we passed him, and I must say it was one of approval rather than\\notherwise at our refusal to do him homage. W. Steuart Trench, Realities\\nof Irish Life, p. 39.\\nA word which does not belong here, but which has assumed\\nthe guise of this set, is bridal, from the Saxon beyd bride),\\nand EALO ale), so that it really meant the ale or festivity\\nof the bride. One or two other compounds on this model,\\nsuch as church-ale, scot-ale, have become obsolete.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "SUBSTA NTIVES LA TIN. 3OI\\nAnother word, which has an equally deceptive appearance\\nof being formed with the Latin -al is burial. This is a pure\\nSaxon word from its first letter to its last. The Saxon form\\nis byrigels, a form which is of the singular number, though it\\nends with s. The plural was hyrigehas.\\nThe termination -ary, direct from the Latin -arms (French\\n-aire), is, like the former, originally adjectival but it has\\nsome substantives.\\nExamples contemporary, fiduciary.\\nUnder no circumstances whatever can a trustee appropriate to himself the\\nproperty of which he is the fiduciary. House of Commons, March 18,\\n1869.\\n-tude, from the Latin substantives in -tudo, -tudinis.\\nExamples gratitude, disquietude, latitude, longitude, mag-\\nnitude, multitude, solicitude, turpitude, vicissitude.\\nturpitude.\\nThere is ever with you, lying folded in the recesses of your bosom, and\\npervading the whole system both of your desires and of your doings, that\\nwhich gives to sin all its turpitude, and all its moral hideousness in the sight\\nof God. There is a rooted preference of the creature to the Creator.\\nThomas Chalmers, Sermon III. (1819).\\ndisquietude.\\nLook around this congregation. We are all more or less the children of\\nsorrow. There is not one of us who has not within him some known or\\nsecret cause of disquietude. Charles Bradley, Clapham Sermons, 1831,\\nSermon VII.\\nsolicitude.\\nThe excellent breed of sheep, which early became the subject of legis-\\nlative solicitude, furnished them with an important staple. William H. Pres-\\ncott, Ferdinand and Isabella, vol. i. p. 29 (ed. 1 838),\\nThe substantives in -ite must be reckoned among the\\nLatin ones, as we received the form through the Latin but\\nit is Greek by origin.\\nIt was of European celebrity in the middle ages as a", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "302 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nclass-word, especially for sects and opinions. The fol-\\nlowers of the early heresies were thus designated, as Ophites,\\nCaimles, Monothelites, Maroniies, Marcionifes, Monophysites.\\nYet the odium which now attaches to this form cannot\\nhave been felt in the sixteenth century, or our Bible would\\nnot show the form so generally as it does, not only in such\\ncases as the Canaanttes, Perizzites, Hivites, 2Xi6. Jebusites, but\\nalso in the Levtfes, Gadites, Manassites, and Bethlehemite.\\nAlready, however, at the close of the seventeenth century,\\nwe find the ecclesiastical historian Jeremy Collier, using the\\nterm Widiffists, as if with purpose to avoid writing Wiclifite.\\nAnd thus in our own time the alumni of Winchester are\\njustly sensitive about being called Wykehamites instead of\\nWykehamists.\\nThe fact is, that with our sensitiveness about religious\\ndifferences, this form has become almost odious; and we\\nscruple to quote instances of its appHcation out of respect\\nfor names that may be embodied. Suffice it for illustration\\nto put down such as Joanna- Southcotites and Mormonites.\\nStill, there are terms of speech in which it may come in\\nharmlessly or even pleasantly\\nWhilst the trial was going on, and the issue still uncertain, I met Cole-\\nridge, who said, Well, Robinson, you are a Queenite, I hope? Indeed\\nI am not, How is that possible I am only an anti-Kingite.\\nThat s just what I mean. H. C. Robinson, Diary, 1820.\\nA considerable number of Latin and Greek words have\\nbeen adopted in their original and unaltered forms. Such\\nare, abacus, animus, apparatus, arcafia, area, arena, basis,\\ncensus, chaos, circus, cosmos, compendium, deficit, epitome,\\nequilibrium, fungus, index, interest, item, medium, memento,\\nmemorandum, minutice, modicum, oasis, odium, onus, overplus\\n(Numbers iii. Contents), phenomenon, requiem, residuum,\\nstigma, stimulus, terminus, vortex.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES LATIN, ETC. 303\\nJane Austen censured one of her nieces for writing about\\na vortex of dissipation/ the expression was so intolerably\\nhackneyed.\\narcana.\\nThey may not yet see the arcana of the temple, but they may see the\\nroad which leads to the temple. Thomas Chalmers, Sermons in Tron\\nChurch, Glasgow, 1819; p. 98.\\nepitoyne.\\nPaul s walk is the land s epitome, or you may call it the lesser isle of\\nGreat Britain. It is more than this, the whole world s map, which you may\\nhere discern in its perfectest motion, justling and turning. ^John Earle,\\nMicrocosmography ed. BHss, 181 1 p. 116.\\ninterest.\\nHe hates our sacred Nation and he railes\\nEven there where Merchants most doe congregate,\\nOn me, my bargaines, and my well-worne thrift,\\nWhich he cals interrest Cursed be my trybe\\nIf I forgive him. Merchant of Venice, i. I.\\ninterest (in another sense).\\nYe think, wrote Grange to Randolph, ye think by the division that\\nis among us, ye will be judge and party ye have wrecked Teviotdale, your\\nmistress s honour is repaired, and I pray you seek to do us no more harm,\\nfor in the end you will lose more than you can gain. The Queen your\\nmistress shall spend mickle silver, and tyne our hearts in the end for what-\\never you do to any Scotchman the haill nation will think their own interest.\\nJ. A. Froude, History of England, April, 1 5 70.\\nmedium.\\nMadame de Stael said, and the general remark is true, The English\\nmind is in the middle between the German and the French, and is a medium\\nof communication between them, H. C. Robinson, Diary, vol. i. p. 175.\\nThere are a certain number of nouns which have come\\nto us through the French, from the southern Romance lan-\\nguages. Such are those Spanish words in\\n-ad, -ade, which represent the termination -atus of the\\nLatin participle esplanade, fusillade, lemonade, promenade,\\nmarmalade, masquerade, salad.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "304 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nIllustration:\\nfusillade.\\nEverybody acquainted with country life must be aware of the commotion\\ncreated in some of our villages by the first fall of snow, especially if it\\nhappens on a Sunday. Old and young turn out, leaving the parson to edify\\nwomen and empty pews, and high up on the hills and down in the valleys\\nsuch a fusillade ensues on the day of rest as could hardly be justified by any\\nevent short of the landing of French invaders upon our shores,\\nRound by the Spanish peninsula have also come to us\\nthose English (or rather European) nouns which are de-\\nrived from Arabic, as alchemy, alcohol, alcove, algebra,\\nalmanac, ammiral (Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 294), cipher,\\nelixir, magazine, nadir, zenith.\\nTo these we must add a word, once celebrated, though\\nnow obsolete, algorithm, or more familiarly, augrim. Also\\nsometimes, algorism, after the French form algorisme. This\\nArabic word was the universal term in the fourteenth and\\nfifteenth centuries to denote the science of calculation by\\nnine figures and zero, which was gradually superseding the\\nabacus with its counters.\\nI shall reken it syxe times by aulgorisme, or you can caste it ones by\\ncounters. John Palsgrave, French Grammar, 1530!^.\\nComing now to Greek formations, the most conspicuous\\nare the following\\nNouns in -y from Greek words in -m and -\u00e2\u0082\u00acia as irotiy,\\ntyranny.\\nirony (^elpoiveiaj.\\nThere was no mockery in Miss Austen s irony. However heartily we\\nlaugh at her pictures of human imbecility, we are never tempted to think that\\ncontempt or disgust for human nature suggested the satire.\\nsynonymy (o-vvawfjiia).\\nAs the synonomy is one of the most difficult and perhaps important parts\\nof the subject, it has of course received particular attention. But I have\\nMr. Albert Way s note in Pro^nptorhwi Parvulonon, p. iS.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES GREEK. 305\\nrarely been very anxious about the synonyms of botanists of an earlier date\\nthan the time of Linnaeus, on account of the extreme uncertainty of the pre-\\ncise plants which they intended/ John Lindley, A Monograph of Roses,\\n1820; p. ix.\\nthrenody {6pr]vcdhia).\\nWe crave not a memorial stone\\nFor those who fell at Marathon\\nTheir fame with every breeze is blent,\\nThe mountains are their monument.\\nAnd the low plaining of the sea\\nTheir everlasting threnody.\\nThe Three Fountains (1869), p. 1 00.\\nIn -ism from the Greek -khios as atheism, idolism\\n(Milton), modernism (Sir A. Grant, The Ancient Stoics),\\npropagandism, ventriloquism.\\ncatechism.\\nThe objection to catechisms in the abstract is simply an objection to\\nsystematic religious teaching. Feb. 16, 1870.\\nScotticism, Protestantism, Catholicism, Preshyterianism.\\nFor our part, we should say that the special habit or peculiarity\\nwhich distinguishes the intellectual manifestations of Scotchmen that,\\nin short, in which the Scotticism of Scotchmen most intimately consists\\nis the habit of emphasis. All Scotchmen are emphatic. If a Scotch-\\nman is a fool, he gives such emphasis to the nonsense he utters,\\nas to be infinitely more insufferable than a fool of any other country;\\nif a Scotchman is a man of genius, he gives such emphasis to the good\\nthings he has to communicate, that they have a supremely good chance\\nof being at once or very soon attended to. This habit of emphasis, we\\nbelieve, is exactly that perfervidum ingenium Scotorum which used to be\\nremarked some centuries ago, wherever Scotchmen were known. But em-\\nphasis is perhaps a better word than fervour. Many Scotchmen are fervid\\ntoo, but not all but all, absolutely all, are emphatic. No one will call\\nJoseph Hume a fervid man, but he is certainly emphatic. And so with\\nDavid Hume, or Reid, or Adam Smith, or any of those colder-natured\\nScotchmen of whom we have spoken; fervour cannot be predicated of them,\\nbut they had plenty of emphasis. In men like Burns, or Chalmers, or Irving,\\non the other hand, there was both emphasis and fervour so also with\\nCarlyle and so, under a still more curious copibination, with Sir William\\nHamilton. And as we distinguish emphasis from fervour, so would we dis-\\ntinguish it from perseverance. Scotchmen are said to be persevering, but the\\nsaying is not universally true Scotchmen are or are not morally persevering.", "height": "3176", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "3o6\\nTHE NOUN-GROUP.\\nbut all Scotchmen are intellectually emphatic. Emphasis, we repeat, intel-\\nlectual emphasis, the habit of laying stress on certain things rather than\\nco-ordinating all, in this consists what is essential in the Scotticism of\\nScotchmen. And, as this observation is empirically verified by the very\\nmanner in which Scotchmen enunciate their words in ordinary talk, so it\\nmight be deduced scientifically from what we have already said regarding the\\nnature and effects of the feeling of nationality. The habit of thinking em-\\nphatically is a necessary result of thinking much in the presence of, and in\\nresistance to, a negative it is the habit of a people that has been accus-\\ntomed to act on the defensive, rather than of a people peacefully self-evolved\\nand accustomed to act positively it is the habit of Protestantism rather\\nthan of Catholicism, of Presbyterianism rather than of Episcopacy, of Dissent\\nrather than of Conformity. David Masson, Essays (1856); Scottish\\nInfluence in British Literature.\\nSioi a sm.\\nStoicism was in fact the earliest offspring of the union between the reli-\\ngious consciousness of the East and the intellectual culture of the West.\\nProfessor Lightfoot, St. Paul and Seneca.\\nventriloquism.\\nColeridge praised Wallenstein, but censured Schiller for a sort of ven-\\ntriloquism in poetry. By-the-by, a happy term to express that common\\nfault of throwing the sentiments and feelings of the writer into the bodies\\nof other persons, the characters of the poem. Henry Crabb Robinson,\\nDiary, c., vol. i. p. 396.\\ntruism.\\nBut after this explanation you will perhaps be disposed to think me\\nguilty of a truism for it now appears that when I said that the study of\\nhistory is indispensable to the politician, all I meant was that a politician\\nmust needs study politics. But is it a truism to say this Is it a truism to\\nsay that a politician must study politics? I fear not. Professor Seeley,\\nInaugural Lecture at Cambridge.\\nHow readily new words are builded on this model may\\nbe seen from the following instances\\nThe three schools of geological speculation which I have termed Catas-\\ntrophism, UniformifariaJiisTn, and Evolutionism, are commonly supposed to\\nbe antagonistic to one another. Address of the President of the Geological\\nSociety, 1869,\\nlandlordism.\\nThe sum of the whole matter may be briefly stated If the tenant under\\nthe bill will enjoy security of tenure, it is subject to the condition that he\\ndoes his duty to the landlord and to the proprietor if the landlord finds his", "height": "3172", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES GREEK. 307\\npowers nominally abridged, they are abridged only on the side of arbitrary\\nauthority capricious eviction, all that in Ireland goes by the name of\\nlandlordism \u00e2\u0080\u0094while he remains master of his estate so far as to secure\\nits due cultivation in a proper course of industry, and so far as to be entitled\\nto receive the surplus profits after the farmer is repaid for his industry and\\nthe capital he sinks in its cultivation. (February 17, 1870.)\\nThese nouns are in fact now formed just as readily as\\nthe verbs in -z ze, from which the noun-formative -z sm is an\\noutgrowth.\\nAnd so is the formative -ist; as atheist, egotist, idolist\\n(Milton), 77ies7}ierist, publicist, ritualist, WykehajJiist, minis-\\nterialist (Sir Stafford Northcote, in Times, April 29, 1869;\\nLetter to Editor.)\\npublicist.\\nThe same evening I had an introduction to one who, in any place but\\nWeimar, would have held the first rank, and who in his person and bearing\\nimpressed every one with the feeling that he belonged to the highest class\\nof men. This was Herder. The interview was, if possible, more insig-\\nnificant than that with Goethe partly, perhaps, on account of my being\\nintroduced at the same time with a distinguished publicist, to use the\\nGerman term, the eminent political writer and statesman, Friedrich Gentz,\\nthe translator of Burke on the French Revolution, H, C. Robinson, Diary,\\n1801.\\nindiffer enlist.\\nThere are, it is true, men who. without any knowledge of history, are\\nhot politicians, but it would be better for them not to meddle with politics\\nat all 1 there are men who, knowing something of history, are indiiferentists\\nin politics it is because they do not know history enough. Professor Seeley,\\nInaugural Lecture.\\ndogmatist.\\nIn short, past history is a dogmatist, furnishing for every doubt ready-\\nmade and hackneyed determinations. Present history is a Socrates, knowing\\nnothing, but guiding others to knowledge by suggestive interrogations. Id.\\nibid.\\nInfallibilist.\\nThe concluding words of this Schema appear to us to embody all that\\nhas ever been contended for by the most: extreme advocates of the cause.\\nHence we teach, with the approval of the Holy Council, and define as a\\ndogma of faith, that, by the Divine assistance, the Roman Pontiff, of whom,\\nin the person of St. Peter, it has likewise been said by our Lord Jesus\\nChrist, I have prayed for thee, c., cannot err when, acting as the highest\\nX 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "3o8 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nteacher of all Christians, he authoritatively defines what should be adhered to\\nby the whole Church in matters of faith and morals and that this preroga-\\ntive of incapability to err, or infallibility of the Roman Pontiff, is equally\\nextensive with the infallibility of the Church. If any one should presume to\\ncontradict this our definition, let him know that he thereby falls away from\\nthe truth of the faith. If this language be adopted by the Council, mild\\nthough it maybe in comparrison with other texts which have been projected,\\nthe Infallibilists will have gained the day. (March, 1870.)\\nBut fond as we appear to be of the Greek verbs in -ize and\\nthe Greek nouns in -ism, -isf, we have drawn very Httle from\\na Greek form that lies close beside these. There are Greek\\nverbs in -aze, and corresponding noun-forms in -asm, -ast,\\nwhich have been almost neglected by us. Perhaps we ought\\nto rank among our English nouns those\\nIn -asm, having lately heard so much of protoplasm, and\\nhaving also the well-established words chasm, spasm, pleo-\\nnasm.\\nchasm.\\nOn the night\\nWhen Uther in Tintagil past away\\nMoaning and wailing for an heir, the two\\nLeft the still king, and passing forth to breathe,\\nThen from the castle gateway by the chasm\\nDescending thro the dismal night a night\\nIn which the bounds of heaven and earth were lost\\nBeheld so high upon the dreary deeps\\nIt seem d in heaven, a ship, the shape thereof\\nA dragon wing d, and all from stem to stern\\nBright with a shining people on the decks,\\nAnd gone as soon as seen.\\nAlfred Tennyson, The Coming of Arthur.\\nAnd felt the boat shock earth, and looking up,\\nBeheld the enchanted towers of Carbonek,\\nA caslle like a rock upon a rock,\\nWith chasm-like portals open to the sea,\\nAnd steps that met the breaker\\nId. The Holy Grail.\\nAnd also -ast. For the recent protoplasm has its counter-\\npart in an eidti protoplast, which had its day under the reign\\nof other theories. The word was used to designate the", "height": "3188", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CURTAILED. 309\\nfirst-formed (TrpcoTOTrXao-Tos), that is to say Adam. Men\\ntheorised in the days of protoplast just as hardily as they do\\nin these days of protoplasm. For Richardson quotes Glan-\\nvill in a book entitled The Vanity of Dogmatizing, saying:\\nUpon such considerations, to me it appears to be most reasonable, that\\nthe circumference of our protoplast s senses should be the same with that of\\nnature s activity unless we will derogate from his perfections, and so reflect\\na disparagement on him that made us.\\nIn conclusion, we will notice a group of nouns of a pecu-\\nliarly national stamp. They are easy and familiar expres-\\nsions formed by a curtailment of longer words, and are\\nmostly monosyllabic. It is generally but not always the\\nfirst part that has been retained. Thus for speculation we\\nhear spec, for omnibus bus, for cabriolet cab, for incog-\\nnito i7icog. The curt expression of tick for credit is as old\\nas the seventeenth century, and is corrupted from ticket, as a\\ntradesman s bill was formerly called. John Oldham (1683)\\nhas:\\nReduced to want, he in due time felt sick,\\nWas fain to die, and be interred on tick.\\nIf it appear below the dignity of philology to notice such\\nhalf-recognised slang, let it be remembered that this science\\nis quite as much concerned with first efforts, of however\\nuncouth an aspect, as it is with those mature forms which\\nenjoy the most complete literary sanction. The words\\nwhich one generation calls slang, are not unfrequently the\\nsober and decorous terrris of that which succeeds. The\\nterm bus has made for itself a very tolerable position,\\nand cab is absolutely established. The curt form of gent\\nas a less ceremonious substitute for the full expression\\nof gentleman, had once made considerable way, but its\\ncareer was blighted in a court of justice. It is about\\ntwenty years ago that two young men, being brought", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0321.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "3IO THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nbefore a London magistrate, described themselves as gents.\\nThe magistrate said that he considered that a designation\\nlittle better than blackguard. The abbreviate form has\\nnever been able to recover that shock.\\nA more respectable example of a curt form is the title\\nJlli ss, which, though nothing but the first syllable of Mistress,\\nhas won its way to an honoured position.\\nAlready in 171 1, Mr. Spectator, in an interesting paper for\\nthe study of the English language, No. 135, commented\\nupon the tendency of these curt forms to get themselves\\nestabHshed.\\nIt is perhaps this humour of speaking no more than we needs must, which\\nhas so miserably curtailed some of our words, that in familiar writings and\\nconversations they often lose all but their first syllables, as mob. rep. pos.\\nincog. and the like and as all ridiculous words make their first entry into\\na language by familiar phrases, I dare not answer for these, that they will\\nnot in time be looked upon as part of our tongue.\\nIn fact, these words have a crude and fragmentary look\\nonly while they are recent. Give time enough, and the\\nabruptness disappears. Who now thinks of 7?iok (talpa) as\\na curt form of moldhvarp the mouldcaster Who finds it\\nvulgar to say Consols, though this is but a curt way of saying\\nConsolidated Annuities A peal of bells is even an elegant\\nexpression, although it is curtailed from appeal. Story is\\na pretty word, though curt for history. But it has always\\nborne a comparatively familiar sense, as it does to the pre-\\nsent day. It is only used twice in the text of our Bible,\\nand then to represent midrash, that is, commentary upon\\nhistory rather than history. But into the contents of the\\nchapters, which are couched in homelier speech, we find it\\nmore readily admitted. Thus in Deuteronomy\\nChap. I. Moses speech in the end of the fortieth yeere, briefly rehearsing\\nthe story, c.\\nChap. II. The story is continued, c.\\nChap. III. The story of the cotiqvest of Og king of Bash an*", "height": "3188", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0322.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES CURT FORMS. 3II\\nCurtailments which are now obsolete, are in some cases\\npreserved to us in compound words. Thus the word cobweb\\nseems to indicate that the attercop (old word for spider) was\\ncurtly called a cop or cob.\\nWe have been very easy in our admission of long classic\\nwords; nay, we have exhibited a large appetite for them.\\nBut there still lingers the Saxon taste for the monosyllable,\\nand it often breaks out in the writer of fine taste, when for\\na moment he feels unawed by critical observers. A clear\\nexample of this occurs in a letter of Keble s, wherein he has\\nadopted the highly expressive word splotch.\\nWe have two girls and little Edward with us, and a great splotch of\\nsunshine they make in the house. Life of Kehle, p. 394.\\nThis word has its habitat in Oxfordshire, where school-\\nchildren may be heard to use it in speaking of a blot on\\ntheir copybooks.\\nThere has been in our time a visible reaction against the\\ntyranny of long words, in favour of the despised monosyllable.\\nWe have not indeed arrived at the decision\\nTo banish from the nation,\\nAll long-tail d words in osity and ation^\\nFrere s Whistlecraft.\\nBut ostentation and pride of invention is now seen at least\\nas often in short or Saxon-like words as it is in the long-\\nrobed words of classic sweep. Perhaps it may be the case\\nthat the Americans are leading the way in this. Certain it\\nis that words of this character do win their way into English\\nliterature from across the Atlantic. The following introduc-\\ntion of a new word is in point.\\nBoston is the huh of the world. So say those who, not being Massa-\\nchusetts men themselves, are disposed to impute extravagant pretensions to\\nthe good old Puritan city. The huh, in the language of America, is the", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0323.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "312 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nnave, or centre-piece of the wheel, from which the spokes radiate, and on\\nwhich the wheel turns. As the Americans make with their hickory wood\\nthe best wheels in the world, they have some right to give to one of the\\npieces a name of their own. But, however, Boston need not quarrel with\\nthe saying. Nations, like individuals, are generally governed by ideas, and\\nno people to such a degree as the Americans and the ideas which have\\ngoverned them hitherto have been supplied from New England. But Mas-\\nsachusetts has been the wheel within New England, and Boston the wheel\\nwithin Massachusetts. It has therefore been the first source and foundation\\nof the ideas that have moved and made America and is, in a high and\\nhonourable sense, the huh of the New World. F. Barham Zincke, Last\\nWinter in the United States (1868), p. 279.\\nFamiliar abbreviations of Christian names belong here.\\nThey are commonly made, with alteration or without, from\\nthe first syllable Will, Tom, Wat (from Walter, according\\nto its old faded-French pronunciation Water), Sam, c.\\nThese are specially liable to alteration from the caprices\\nof the little folk among whom they are most current, and\\nto this cause (mixed with the imperfection of the childish\\norgans of speech and the fondness which elder brothers and\\nsisters have for propagating the original speeches of the little\\nones) must be assigned such forms as Bob for Rob, Bill for\\nWill, Dick for Rich. Mr. Charles Dickens signed his writings\\nBoz after a childish alteration of the first syllable of Moses,\\nwhich was a Christian name in his family. In the case of\\nnames beginning with a vowel, the curt form takes a con-\\nsonant, as Ned, Noll, Nell, for Edward, Oliver, and Ellen.\\nWhile we are upon these familiar appellations, we may\\nas well complete the list by noticing some which do not\\nspring from the causes here under consideration. Harry\\nfor Henry is a rough English imitation of the sound of the\\nFrench Henri Jack is the YYQYi.Q}i\\\\ Jacques, which has attached\\nitself somehow to the English John.\\nThe Germans, having a diminutival form =d)en, which attaches to the\\nend of a word, are thus naturally led to preserve the final syllable in their\\nfamiliar abbreviations of Christian names, as C r\u00c2\u00a3tcl)\u00c2\u00a3n, ^ibtU^^lt, (!truXlct)cn,\\nfrom Margarethe, Charlotte, Gertrude.", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0324.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES SLANG FORMS. 313\\nA survey of English nouns would indeed be deficient\\nwhich should omit that curt, stunt, slang element to which\\nwe as a nation are so remarkably prone, and in regard to\\nwhich we stand in such contrast with our adoptive sister.\\nThe French language shrinks from such things as it were\\nfrom an indecorum. Our pubHc-school and university life\\nis a great wellhead of new and irresponsible words. Gra-\\ndually they find their way into literature. For example\\nckaf.\\nHe wishes to confound the whole school of those who think that a faith\\nis to be tested by the inward experience of life. And so he sets himself to\\noverwhelm Mr. Hughes v/ith ridicule, rioting in that kind of banter vulgarly\\ndescribed as chaff, and bringing up against him the stock difficulties which\\ncan always be cast in the way of belief. J. Llewelyn Davies, The Gospel\\nand Moderfi Life, p. xviii.\\nAnd as such words in shoals proceed from the gathering-\\nplaces of young Saxons, so also a kindred work is being\\nachieved by that young Saxon world which lives beyond the\\nwestern main. It almost seems as if they, or a certain school\\namong them, were bent on raising a standard of rebellion,\\nand were resolved to dispute that superiority which the classic\\ntongues have so long exercised over our barbarian language.\\nNothing in American literature bears such a stamp of\\noriginality and determination as those writings in M^hich\\nreverence for antiquity is utterly cast aside, and their old\\nobedience to the King s English is thrown to the winds.\\nThe genial and suasive satire of the Biglow Papers, as well\\nas the mocking horse-laugh of Hafis Breit?jiann, are at one\\nin their contemptuous rejection of the old senatorial dignity\\nof language. It is in both cases an audacious renunciation\\nof the long captivity in which our speech and literature have\\nbeen held under classic sway, and it seems to us at first sight\\nas little less than an impudent assertion of the prior claims", "height": "3188", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0325.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "314 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nof familiarity and barbarism. But it cannot be denied that\\nMr. Lowell has practically demonstrated the power of mind\\nover matter, the power of resolution over restraint, the\\nsuperiority of thought in literature over every conventional\\nlimit that can be imposed upon the forms of expression. It\\nis an assertion of the natural freedom of dialect and lan-\\nguage and diction. Who, with any feeling for humour, can\\nrefuse to condone the literary audacity of the following?\\nNay, who can refuse to it a certain degree of admiration\\nI ve noticed that each half-baked scheme s abettors\\nAre in the habbit o producin letters.\\nWrit by all sorts o never-heerd-on fellers\\nBout as oridgenal ez the wind in bellers\\nI ve noticed tu, it s the quack med cines gits\\n(An needs) the grettest heap o stiflfykits.\\nOr who with any love of nature can let the dialect blind him\\nto the burst of real poetry that there is in this description of\\nthe New England spring, that gives one leap from April\\ninto Tune\\nI\\nThen all comes crowdin m afore you think\\nThe oak-buds mist the side-hill woods with pink,\\nThe cat-bird in the laylock bush is loud.\\nThe orchards turn to heaps o rosy cloud,\\nIn ellum-shrouds the flashin hangbird clings,\\nAn for the summer vy ge his hammock slings,\\nAll down the loose-walled lanes in archin bowers\\nThe barb ry droops its strings o golden flowers\\nNuff sed, June s bridesman, poet o the year.\\nGladness on wings, the boboHnk is here\\nHalf hid in tip-top apple blooms he swings\\nOr climbs against the breeze with quivering wings.\\nOr givin way to t in a mock despair\\nRuns down, a brook o laughter, thru the air.\\nMr. Lowell s dialect is the true Yankee, the speech of the\\nNorthern farmer. It is difficult to believe that Mr. Leland s\\npoetry represents any existing form of speech, but it is\\ndescribed as Pennsylvanian German.", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0326.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "S UBSTA NTIVES FLEXION. 3 1 5\\nInflection of Substantives.\\nThis consists almost entirely of the letter s attached to\\nthe noun for the expression of the genitive singular: and\\nthe same letter does duty for the plural. The latter feature\\nis due to French influence. There was in Saxon a group\\nof masculine nouns which made its plural in -as. Thus\\nSingular.\\nPlural.\\nsmi^ (smith)\\nsmi Sas\\nende (end)\\nendas\\ndsEg (day)\\ndagas\\ncynmg (king)\\ncyningas\\nweg (way)\\nwegas\\nstasf (^letter)\\nstafas\\nThis old plural s is one of the points by which our near-\\nness to the Moeso-Gothic is indicated. In that dialect the\\ns plural has a very much larger incidence than in Anglo-\\nSaxon. In fact it applies to all the masculine and feminine\\nnouns of the dialect. In the Old- and Middle-High German\\nit is untraceable. In the Scandinavian dialects it is repre-\\nsented by R. In the Old-Saxon alone (besides the Moeso-\\nGothic) do we find the plural s there it holds much the\\nsame sort of place as in Anglo-Saxon.\\nThe Saxon influence of this plural will not be highly\\nesteemed, when it is considered that of the nine Anglo-Saxon\\ndeclensions made by Rask, this group occupies only one.\\nThe really dominant plural-form in Saxon times was that\\nin -an, which later was written -en and -yn. Out of Rask s\\nnine declensions three formed their plurals thus, one for\\neach gender. Of these we still retain some little relics, as in\\nthe plural oxe7t. To this we may add the form eyne for eyes,\\nwhich is not altogether obsolete. It is occasionally used\\neven now in the higher forms of poetry. In Chaucer s time", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0327.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "3l6 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nit was spelt eyen, which comes nearer to the Saxon eagan.\\nThus, in the description of the Monk\\nHis eyen stepe and roUyng in his hed.\\nIn the northern dialect it appeared as ene. Thus in the\\nTroy Book, 3821\\nGrete ene and gray, with a grym loke.\\nOf another hero it is said, 3969\\nAll the borders blake of his bright ene.\\nTo this we might add the form shoon, for shoes, as being\\nwithin the horizon of our reading if not of our speaking or\\nwriting. It is however extant in Scotch, as spoken.\\nWe will not leaue one Lord, one Gentleman\\nSpare none, but such as go in clouted shooen.^\\n2 Hefiry VI. iv. 2. 178.\\nSpenser hasy^;?^, meaningy^^j-.\\nGreat Gormond, having with huge mightinesse\\nIreland subdewd, and therein fixt his throne,\\nLike a swift Otter, fell through emptinesse,\\nShall overswim the sea, with many one\\nOf his Norveyses, to assist the Britons fone.\\nFaerie Queene, iii. 3. 33.\\nWe have indeed other plurals in -en but they are younger\\nthan Saxon times. They are a proof of the power to which\\nthis form had arrived, and they indicate that, had not a\\nstronger external influence interfered, the plural -en would\\nhave become as general in modern English, as it is in modern\\nGerman. Such forms are brethren, children, housen (Glouces-\\ntershire and Suifolk), hosen. The latter word is in our Bible,\\nDaniel iii. 21. Mr. Barnes s Poems in the Dorset Dialect\\nsupply others, as cheesen, furzen.\\nOf these, the first two, hretheren and children, are cumulate\\nplurals. They have added the -en plural- form on to an elder", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0328.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "S UBS TA NTIVES FLEXION. 3 T 7\\nplural for h ether and childer were plurals of brother and\\nchild/ The form sisieryn is likewise found, as bretheryn\\nand sisteryn The form sistren is said to be in full use in\\nAmerica, in the phraseology of the meeting-house, as the\\ncounterpart of brethren. Another kind of cumulation some-\\ntimes takes place. The modern s gets added to the old n.\\nIn the passage just quoted from 2 Henry VI. the First and\\nSecond FoHos have shooen, the Third has shoon, and the\\nFourth has shoons With this may be classed the Norfolk\\nboy-expression for birds nests, which is hcds nesens.\\nIt was by the French influence, leading the van of educa-\\ntion for three centuries, that the plural in s, which held so\\nsmall a place in Saxon grammar, became the all but universal\\nlaw of English grammar.\\nOther plural-forms deserve a word of notice. The plurals\\nfeet, geese, men, teeth, made by internal vowel-change from\\nfoot, goose, man, tooth, as strong verbs make their preterites\\nthe forms lice, mice, mere frenchified orthographies of the\\nSaxon plurals lys (from singular lus^ and mys (from singular\\nmus are relics of an ancient class, never numerous within\\nrecorded- knowledge, but which has been reduced by the do-\\nmination of the prevalent forms. Thus, cu (cow) once had its\\nplural cy, a form which survives in the Scotch kye but with\\nus it has been assimilated to the plurals in n, or else infected\\nwith the word swine, and has been converted into kine.\\nSo hoc had for its plural hec, but now it is hooks. We also\\nmeet with gayte in the transition period as a plural of goat\\n{Pricke of Conscience, 6134), and geet (Camden Society s\\nPolitical Songs). Here also we get the cumulate plural.\\nEven if kine is not to be so regarded, yet certainly we have\\nThe Will of Dame jane Lady Barre, 1484, printed in A Memoir of the\\nManor of Bitton, by the Rev. H. T. Ellacombe, sometime Vicar of Bitton.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0329.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "3 1 8 THE NO UN- GR UP.\\nin the Scottish dreeks a cumulate plural, wherein the modern\\ns is imposed upon the old strong plural for in Saxon it was\\nsingular broc plural brec.\\nThere was a group of neuters, forming one of Rask s\\ndeclensions, which formed its plural nominative and accu-\\nsative without inflection. Such were kaf, ^mg, wif, word,\\nand many others, of which the plural was the same as the\\nsingular; not as now, leaves^ things, wives, words. The\\nfeature has survived in two words, which are still of one\\nform for singular and plaral, viz. sheep and deer. To these\\nmight be added swine, only that it seems now to be accepted\\nonly as a plural, while sow and the upstart word/z^, fill the\\noffice of the singular.\\nThose words which we have adopted from Latin or Greek\\nin the singular nominative unaltered, have usually been\\npluralised according to Greek and Latin grammar. Thus\\nthe plural of phenomenon is phenomena of oasis, oases\\nof terminus/ termini of iViXigM^^ fungi. But occasionally\\nwe see the plurals in English form, as when Dr. Badham\\nentides his book, not Edible Fungi, but Esculent Funguses,\\nand uses this plural all through it, as\\nNo country is perhaps richer in esculent Funguses than our own we\\nhave upwards of thirty species abounding in our woods. (p. xiii.)\\nSome few of the nouns which we have admitted from\\nLatin without alteration are not nouns in that language,\\nand consequently have no Latin plurality. These we have\\npluralised with s, as items, ijtterests.\\nOn the subject of inflection there remains to be con-\\nsidered the formation of the feminine noun.\\nThe ancient and native form of the noun feminine was in\\n-en, as God, Deus gyden, dea ivealh, servus wylen, serva,\\nancilla ^egen, minister Jnmen, ministra.\\nBut this form has been supplanted by a French substitute.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0330.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVES FLEXION. 319\\nand so nearly extinguished that it is difficult to find an\\nextant specimen to serve for an illustration. Beyond sport-\\ning circles, not one person in a thousand is aware that vixen\\nis the feminine oi/ox. In general speech it is only known\\nas a stigma for the character of a shrewish woman. Yet\\nthis is the history of vixen and it is a very well preserved\\nform, having enjoyed the shelter of a technical position.\\nNot only is there the -en termination, but also the thinning\\nof the masculine vowel, as in the Saxon examples above. So\\nalso in German fuc^g, fiid^ginn.\\nInstead of this Saxon feminine, we now use the French\\ntermination -ess, as countess, duchess, empress, goddess, go-\\nverness, laundress, marchioness, princess, sempstress\\nGoverness is not invariably applicable as the feminine of\\ngovernor. There are considerations which override gram-\\nmar, as our practice of common prayer witnesses. Yet\\nI remember to have heard Queen and Governess in\\nchurch. But grammar has brought this class of cases under\\nanother rule which she has made, namely this, that the\\nmasculine gender is more worthy than the feminine. And\\non this ground it would have been quite admissible, majes-\\ntatis causa, to have had founder in the following passage\\nwhere we Tt2k,di/ou7idress.\\nThe central plains of Australia, the untrodden jungles of Borneo, or the\\nstill vacant spaces in our maps of Africa, alone now on the globe s surface\\nrepresent districts as unknown and mysterious as the north-east angle of\\nIreland in the reign of the great foundress of the modern British Empire.\\nJ. A. Froude, Reign of Elizabeth History, vol. x. p. 554.\\nOf this feminine form some are found in books which\\nare no longer in use. Dr. Trench has produced from\\nWhy the form sempstress is retained, in preference to the spelling seam-\\nstress, reformed on etymological principles, it will belong to the last chapter\\nto explain.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0331.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "320 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nwriters of the seventeeth century the following buildress,\\ncaptainess^ flatter ess, intrudress, soverazntess. Some Deficiencies\\nin our English Dictionaries, p. 19.\\nThe example of sempstress reminds us that there was a\\nSaxon feminine termination estre, whereof a trace is still\\nvisible in that word between the root seam and the French\\ntermination -ess. This feminine is still extant in spi7iner,\\nspinster.\\nBut we cannot recognise the termination -ster as being, or\\nas having been at some time past, a feminine formative in\\nevery instance. Not only does the present use of such old\\nwords as Baxter, huckster, maltster, songster, Webster, and the\\nmore recent oldster, youngster, roadster, vc^2kQ it hard to prove\\nthem all feminine s, but even if we push our enquiries\\nfurther back, we do not find the group clearly defined as\\nsuch. There was in Anglo-Saxon hcEcere and bcBcistre, and\\nyet Pharaoh s baker in Genesis xl. is bcBcistre. Grimm has\\nconjectured that these nouns in -estre are all that is left of an\\nolder pair of declensions, whereof one was masculine in\\nestra, the other feminine in -estre. This would explain the\\nattachment of masculine functions to some of the group,\\nwhich was clearing itself for a special purpose. In Dutch\\nthese forms are exclusively feminine.\\nConcluding Observation.\\nIf from this point we cast a look back over the verbs\\nand substantives, we perceive a certain quietude in the\\nformer, and a corresponding energy in the latter. In making\\nthis remark I am naturally taking as my standard of com-\\nparison those languages with which the philological student\\nis most likely to be equipped. The remark will hold good,\\nas against the Latin language, still more so as against the", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0332.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 321\\nGreek, and most of all as against the Hebrew. In all of\\nthese languages, but especially in the latter, the mental\\nactivity of the nation is gathered up and concentrated in the\\nverb. This is displayed by the immense superiority of the\\nverb over the substantive in its attractive power of sym-\\nphytism, and its expressive stores of variability. Time has\\nbeen when this was partially true of our ancestral verb in the\\nGothic family. But it is no more so. It certainly is not so\\nin our own insular branch. During the modern period,\\nwhich dates from the fourteenth century, in which we have\\nthe movements of the language historically before us, it is\\nequally remarkable on the one hand how little our verb has\\ndone to extend its compass, and on the other hand how\\nmuch the substantive has done to increase its variability.\\nThe quotations of this section are a sufficient proof that\\nsome of the strongest lineaments of character in the English\\nlanguage are now and have long been finding their chosen\\nseat of expression in our substantives.\\n11. Of the Adjective.\\nThe adjective, or word fit for attachment, is a word which\\npresupposes a substantive, and is for this reason essentially\\nrelative and secondary. This inward nature of adjectives\\nis beautifully expressed in Greek and Latin by the outward\\nconformation of their physical aspect. Whereas the bulk\\nof the Latin substantives are in -us, or -a, or -um, and the\\nbulk of the Greek substantives are in -o$-, or -r), or -ov, their\\nadjectives are, for the most part, not in some one, but in all\\nthree of the forms, as becomes those whose business it is\\nto agree with their consorts in gender, number, and case.\\nY", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0333.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "^22 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThey are furnished with a threefold power of modification,\\nin consideration of their dependent, relative, and secondary\\nnature. Such is the adjective as against the substantive.\\nBoth are presentive words but the substantive is the\\nprimary, and the adjective is the secondary presentive word.\\nBut what is the adjective as against the verb It is plain\\nthat both of them are, as towards the substantive, secondary\\nwords. There is no verb without a subject and that subject\\nis a substantive. The verb and adjective alike have their\\nvery nature based upon the pre-supposition of the sub-\\nstantive. Therefore the verb and the adjective are both\\nsecondary words. And they differ only in the force and\\nenergy of their action. In the beginning of the last section\\nverbs were compared to flame, while substantives were only\\ninflammable stuff. We may fitly continue this metaphor,\\nand say that adjectives are glowing embers. They not only\\ngive warmth, and tell of a flame that has been, but they also\\nretain the power of future activity. If I say good man,\\nit is not asserted, but it is presented to thought that the\\nman is good. If I say 4ive dog, it is contemplated as\\npredicable, though not predicated, that the dog lives. And\\nthus the adjective is nothing more nor less than a dormant\\nverb a verb in a state of quiescence. And by way of\\nendeavouring to indicate the position which they both hold\\nin the general economy of language, we will designate them\\nas Secondary Presentives.\\nWe will begin our catalogue of English adjectives with\\na sample of those whose history belongs to an elder stage\\nthose which were already ancient at the opening of the\\npresent era of our language. Such are dare, bright, dear,\\nfair, fresh, full, good, great, hard, high, late, lief, light, like,\\nlong, much, new, nigh, old, quick, rathe, ripe, short, sick, small,\\nsooth, strong, sweet, swift, true, whole, worth, young.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0334.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 323\\nNext to these should naturally be placed the Saxon forma-\\ntives, such as those in -m, -n, -r, and -sh] those in -y,\\n-ing, -ly, -some, -ed, -ward, -full, -less.\\nIn -1, -el, or -le idle, evil. Utile, middle, brittle, stickle\\nsteep, still used about Dartmoor, and entering into the\\nword stickleback, and the local name Sticklepath, near Oak-\\nhampton), tickle.\\nA fine local example of brittle, in the form of brutel, occurs\\nin a legend carved on an oak clothes-bat in the collection\\nof the Rev. George Weare Braikenridge, of Christchurch,\\nClevedon. It appears to have been a wedding-gift, and\\naltogether it is a remarkably interesting object, the more so\\nas it is dated. The inscription is\\nROS. DAVESON. 1 664. IF YOV LOVE ME LEND ME NOT\\nVNTO A SLLET FOR I VERY BRVTEL WOOD.\\nTo these should be added bri?tdle for although we have\\ncast it into other forms, as brinded (Milton), or the more\\ncommon brindled, yet the pure word still lives in New\\nEngland, where they talk of a brindle yearling, or, as I\\nbelieve it is spoken, brindle yerlin.\\nThe fact is, we are no longer conscious that this termi-\\nnation makes an adjective it is no longer in productive\\noperation. This is the reason why brindle has been con-\\nverted into brindled, because all men know that the termi-\\nnation -ed signifies the possession of a quaUty, but they do\\nnot know that -le has this signification. In the same manner\\nwe now say 7iew-fangled, but the original word is newfangil\\nor new f angel, as in the Babees Book, p. 9, where the letter\\nN is exempHfied by the following line of N-initials\\nTo Noyous, ne to Nyce, ne to Newfangill.\\n(Not to be) too pressing, nor too fastidious, nor too new-\\nfashioned.\\nY 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0335.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "324 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\ntide, tickle (above, p. 152).\\nSo tide be the termes of mortall state,\\nThe Faerie QiieeiiQ, iii. 4. 28.\\nThe Earl of Murray standing in so tickle terms in Scotland. Earl of\\nPembroke, 1569 quoted by J. A. Froude, History of England, ix. 427.\\nAs brindle has been altered into hrindled, so tickle into\\nticklish.\\nThe old word wittol, knowing/ which had a sinister\\nmeaning in Shakspeare s time, has been restored to com-\\nparative innocence by Dr. Anster in his translation of\\nGoethe s Faust:\\nUnmannerly wittol\\nBe quiet a little.\\nIn -m. These have never been numerous within his-\\ntorical times. In Saxon there was earm poor, and rum\\nwide, the former of which is extinct, and the latter altered\\nto roo?ny. The only extant adjectives that I can quote in\\nthis class are grim, warm.\\nThere is a fine old poetic word hrim^ with much the same\\nvariety of meaning as the modern brave\\nShe was brim as any bear.\\nPrim is obscure Richardson says it is short for primitive.\\nI would rather believe it to be a northern form of hrim.\\nHalliwell gives Prim, a neat pretty girl. Yorksh!\\nMim is perhaps worthy of mention it means daintily shy.\\nOut of these two vocables is made the jingling junto mim-\\nminy primminy.\\nIn -n, or -en. Here we are much richer even, oivn, open,\\nfain, stern, heathen, wooden, tinnen, woollen, elmen, treen (made\\nof tree, arboreus Spenser, Faerie Queene, i. 2. 39), leaden,\\nhempen, threaden, oaten, olden, golden.\\nThis class of adjectives cannot be separated by any decisive\\nline from the participial forms, such as drunken, shrunken, c.", "height": "3188", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0336.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 325\\nelmen.\\nWhen the ebnen tree leaf is as big as a farding,\\nIt s time to sow kidney beans in the garding\\nWhen the elmen tree leaf is as big as a penny,\\nYou must sow your beans if you mean to have eny.\\nPopular Rhyme.\\nA leaden acquiescence. Marvel, Doctor Johns, c. 22 (1866).\\nwooden.\\nWooden wals. Spenser, Faerie Queene, i. 2. 42.\\noaten.\\nNought tooke I with me but mine oaten quill. Colin Clouts Come\\nHome Againe, 194.\\nSilvern, golden.\\nSpeech is silvern, but silence is golden. Thomas Carlyle.\\nMilton has the beautiful expressions coral-paven and\\nazurn.\\nhempen.\\nSlow are the steeds that through Germania s roads\\nWith hempen rein the slumbering post-boy goads.\\nPoetry of the Anti-Jacobin, The Rovers, 1798.\\nTennyson has cedarn\\nRight to the carven cedarn doors.\\nRecollections of the Arabian Nights.\\nThis formative has been partially supplanted by the Latin\\n-ian. Thus our ancestors before the revival of letters\\nnever said Christian but Christen A Christen man/ c.\\nA magazine lately started by Blackheath School took the\\nwaggish name of The Blackheathen. Critics asked why not\\nrather Blackheathian The reply might justly be that the\\nLatin formative to a pure English compound is incongruous.\\nThis is, in fact, only one of a multitude of little tokens that\\nour language is sated with classicism.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0337.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "3^^ THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nOf local names this form is found in Furzen Leaze,\\nbetween Cirencester and Kemble.\\nIn -r or -er. Examples wicker, slipper (the elder form\\nfor the modern slippery). Slipper is still the common word\\nin Devonshire, where they say, It s very slipper along the\\nroads to day. A good illustration is afforded by the follow-\\ning line from Surrey, the Elizabethan poet\\nSlipper in sliding as is an eeles tail.\\nIn -sh, or by disguise -eh, representing the Anglo-Saxon\\nadjective in -isc.\\nThis may be called, more than any other particular form,\\nthe native adjective. It is the form of the adjective English\\nitself, and generally of our adjectives by which we designate\\nnationalities Welsh, Irish, Scottish, French, Dutch, Danish,\\nSwedish, Spanish, Turkish, Flemish, Polish. In a few cases,\\nhowever, we have admitted the Latin adjective -anus, as\\nRoman, Italian, Russiaji, German. Here the Germans,\\ntruer to old habit, still say Oiomifc^, Statienifrf;, Oiuffifc^,\\n\u00c2\u00a9eutfc^. The antiquity of this form is sufficiently demon-\\nstrated by the fact that it is the prevalent gentile adjective\\nwith all the nations of our family. The Germans call them-\\nselves 5)eut[cf), the Danes call themselves Dansk, the Nor-\\nwegians call themselves Norsk, the Swedes call themselves\\nSvensk. Besides the recognised nations, there is many an\\nobscure community that asserts its gentility by setting up an\\n-ish of its own. A friend, fresh from travel, writes that\\nwhen he arrived at the Tyrolese valley which is called\\n\u00c2\u00a9roben ^()al, he asked whether they spoke Stalicnifd; or\\n^eutfc^ there He was answered that they spoke \u00c2\u00a9robnerifd).\\nAnd as an illustration how green and vigorous the form is\\nin German to this day, we may observe it combining with\\nsome of the most modern classical innovations, and making", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0338.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. ^1\\nadjectives like nteta:pt)orif(^, metaphorical meta^^^i)jtfc^, meta-\\nphysical met^obifc^, methodical; metonV)mtf^, ^ertow/itKos.\\nIn England the tide of classicality drove back this and many\\nother forms. The Latin -an was the ready substitute for\\n-ish. In 1535, Miles Coverdale, in Daniel i. 4, has and to\\nlerne for to speake Caldeish a form that will be sought\\nin vain in our present Bible.\\nelvisch elf-like, uncanny, shy,\\nat the close of the Prioress s Tale\\nHe semeth elvisch by his countenaunce,\\nFor unto no wight doth he daliaunce.\\nchurlish.\\nWhere the bleak Swiss their stormy mansions tread,\\nAnd force a churlish soil for scanty bread.\\nOliver Goldsmith, The Traveller.\\nThis termination is also put to adjectives, with a diluting\\neffect, as longish, sweetish.\\nIn -y or -ey, representing the Saxon adjective in -ig, as\\nmmtig, empty.\\nExamples bloody, burly, corny (Chaucer, Milton), dainty\\n(Spectator, 354), dirty, doughty, dusty, fatty, flighty, fusty,\\nfilthy, flowery, foody, gouty, haughty, heady, hearty, inky jau7ity\\nleaf (Mark xi. Contents), lusty, mealy, mighty, milky, misty,\\nmoody, murky, musty, Jtasty, noisy, oily, plashy, pretty, ready,\\nreedy, rusty, saucy, silky, silly, speedy, steady, sturdy, sulky,\\ntrusty, weedy.\\nThe word silly has the appearance of belonging to another\\ngroup, namely, those in -ly. But the Saxon scel-ig and the\\ntransition form seely were the precursors of the form silly,\\nwhich appears as early as Spenser:\\nShe wist not, silly Mayd, what she did aile.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 2. 27.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0339.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "328 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThere has been a certain amount of assimilation from\\nFrench forms, as hardy^ which is the French hardi. Espe-\\ncially has this adjectival form been confused with the French\\nin -if (Latin -ivus), as tardy, from French tardif jolly, from\\nOld French jolif. In the case of caitiff, however, we have\\npreserved this Frenchy very emphatically.\\nChaucer uses jolif but in Spenser it is jolly\\nThe first of them by name Gardant^ hight,\\nA jolly person and of comely vew.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. i. 45.\\nReversely also we find genuine members of this class\\nwritten as if they belonged to French adjectives in -if.\\nThus we find in the texts of Chaucer the native word guilty\\nwritten giltif and gultyf\\nThis formative is still in the highest state of activity.\\nThere is more freedom, for example, about making new\\nadjectives in -y than in -ish.\\nIllustrations\\ncorny.\\nNow have I dronk a draught of corny ale.\\nCanterbury Tales, 13871.\\nfoody.\\nWho brought them to the sable fleet from Ida s foody leas.\\nChapman, Iliad, xi. 104.\\nhuttony.\\nThat buttony boy sprang up and down from the box. Thackeray,\\nVanity Fair.\\nplastery, ruhhishy.\\nSt. Peter s disappoints me the stone of which it is made is a poor\\nplastery material and indeed Rome in general might be called a rubbishy\\nplace. Arthur H. Clough.\\nmoody y unhappy.\\nThough moody, unhappy, and disappointed, he was a hard-working\\nconscientious pastor among the poor people with whom his lot was cast.\\nAnthony TroUope, The Last Chronicle of Barset, ch. i.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0340.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES, 329\\nsaucy.\\nIn that clear and saucy style which he knows how to manage.\\nB. Disraeli.\\nplashy.\\nAll but yon widow d, solitary thing,\\nThat feebly bends beside the plashy spring.\\nOliver Goldsmith, The Deserted Village.\\nAn interesting adjective of a rather doubtful kind, but\\nwhich seems to come under this class, is the incony Jew\\nof Shakspeare.\\nPretty is from the same French word as proud, although\\nits sense is not identical with proudie. That famous old\\nFrench word prud, which forms part of the well-known\\nprud hommes, was one of the earliest of the French words\\nthat made themselves quite at home among us. Already\\nin one of the later Saxon Chronicles prut is substituted for\\nthe native word ranc, as a fine word (I suppose) for a vulgar\\none. When prut was first naturahsed, it meant grand,\\nsplendid, proud, magnificent, insolent. From this prut,\\nby our Saxon grammatical procedure, we made an abstract\\nnoun prit or pritte, which signified grandeur, splendour,\\npride, magnificence, insolence. The following lines are\\nfrom a metrical life of St. Chad, in the Library of Corpus\\nChristi College, Cambridge, MS. cxlv.\\nAl a vote he wende aboute ne kepte he nan pritte\\nRiche man J)ei he were imad he tolde J)er of litte.\\nAll afoot he went about, be kept no dignity;\\nRich man though he was made, small count thereof made he.\\nThis form is sometimes found in modern names of places,\\nas Bushy Park.\\nIn -ing, as\\nwilding.\\nO wilding rose, whom fancy thus endears,\\nI bid your blossoms in my bonnet wave.\\nSir Walter Scott, Lady of the Lake, Canto iv, init.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0341.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "330 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nAnd like a crag was gay with wilding flowers.\\nAlfred Tennyson, Enid, p. 17.\\nBut this form is found mostly in combination with an\\nwhich seems to imply that it was grafted on an adjective in\\n-el, as darling, darkling, flailing, yearling.\\nThese words are now but little used as adjectives they\\nhave either got the substantive habit, as darling, yearling\\nor the adverbial, as darkling, flailing, for examples of which\\nsee the next section.\\nIn -ly. In Saxon this formative was -lie, which was at\\nthe same time a noun, meaning body, as it still is in German,\\n^etc^. The transition from the substantival sense of body to\\nthe symbolic expression of the idea of similarity, provokes a\\ncomparison with a transition in the Hebrew, from the word\\nfor bone (and body), which is ^V, to the pronominal sense of\\nvery or same.\\nExamples cleanly, godly, goodly, likely, only, sieelly, un-\\nmannerly, rascally.\\ncleanly.\\nA cleanly housewife.\\nsieelly.\\nSteel through opposing plates the magnet draws,\\nAnd steelly atoms culls from dust and straws. Crabbe.\\nonly.\\nThe only prime minister mentioned in history whom his contemporaries\\nreverenced as a saint. William Robertson, Charles V, Bk. I, a.d. 15 17.\\nIn the adjective likely we have the curious phenomenon\\nof the altered form of a word coming to act as a formative\\nto a better preserved form of itself; the first and last syl-\\nlables of the word being originally the same word lie.\\nThis form has been the less used as an adjective in con-\\nsequence of its general employment for adverbial purposes.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0342.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES, 331\\nAnd often it happens when we come across it in our elder\\nHterature adjectively used, we need a moment s reflection to\\nput us in the train of thought for understanding it. In the\\nfollowing beautiful passage from Chaucer s Boethius, the\\nadjective wepely, in the sense of pathetic, would give most\\nreaders a check. The passage is here printed with its\\nmarginal summary, as a sample of the excellent way in\\nwhich the editors of the Early English Text Society turn\\nout their work.\\nwepely.\\nBlisful is Jiat man ];at may seen J)e clere weile of good. Happy is he that\\nblisful is he at may vnbynde hym fro ])e bonde of heuy g lp lfyle ma^nthat\\nex\\\\Q. ])e poete of trace [Orphez/s] |)at somtyme hadde f,cm twrestrl^i\\nchains The Thra-\\nryjt greet sorowe for the deej\u00c2\u00bb of hys v/ijf. aftir Jsat he cian poet, con-\\nsumed with grief for\\nhadde maked by hys wepely sonees be wodes meueable to the loss of his wife,\\no J- sought relief from\\nrennen. and hadde ymaked jje ryueres to stonden stille. longg^Jrew the\\nand maked hertys a7id hyndes to ioignen dredles hir romng rivers ceas^ed\\nJ 111- J to flow the savage\\nSides to cruel lyou^s to herkene his songe. (p. 100.) beasts becameheed-\\nless of their prey.\\nIn -some adventuresome, darksome, gladsome, handsome,\\nirksome, wholesome, winsome.\\nThis is the German -gam, as langfatn. It looks in spelling\\nas if this termination belonged to our pronoun so7ne, and so\\nit has been interpreted by Dr. Wallis. (See Richardson, v.\\nHandsome.) It is connected however with a different pro-\\nnoun, namely same.\\nadventuresome.\\nAnd now at once, adventuresome, I send\\nMy herald thought into a wilderness.\\nJohn Keats, Endymion.\\ndarksome.\\nDarksome nicht comes down. Robert Burns.\\nThe word buxom belongs here. This might not be", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0343.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "332 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\napparent at first sight. It does not look like one of the\\nadjectives in -some; but it is so, being the analogue of the\\nGerman BiegSam, ready to how or comply.\\nGreat Neptune stoode amazed at their sight,\\nWhiles on his broad rownd backe they softly slid,\\nAnd eke him selfe mournd at their mournful plight.\\nYet wist not what their wailing meant yet did,\\nFor great compassion of their sorow, bid\\nHis mighty waters to them buxome bee.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 4. 32.\\nHence unhuxum and unhuxumness signified disobedient\\nand disobedience/ as in Handlyng Stnne, p. 250 (ed. Fur-\\nnivall), pou art unbuxum.\\nLissom is supposed to be short for lithesome.\\nThis formative is one that is in present activity. In Sir\\nJ. T. Coleridge s Memoir of Keble, p. 464, we find a new\\nadjective on this model namely, long-some: It is thought to\\nlabour under the fault of being long-some. But perhaps\\nwe see here only an imitation of the German langfam.\\nIn -Q\u00c2\u00b1\\\\\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ill-conditioned, landed, learned, leisured, moniedj\\nwicked, wretched.\\nweaponed.\\nhee had beene weaponed as well as I,\\nhe had beene worth both thee mee,\\nEger and Grime, 1039.\\nAs we can draw no decisive line between participles in -en\\nand adjectives in the same termination, so neither can we\\ndistinctly sever between adjectives and participles in -ed.\\nThere are many which everybody would call adjectives, and\\nmany which everybody would agree to call participles. The\\nground of distinction would generally turn upon this, whe-^\\nther they could or could not be derived from a verb. Yet\\nthis is not a very positive rule, because of course it is open\\nto any grammarian to say the root must be a verb in order", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0344.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES.\\nto have generated the form in -ed. Thus, for example, it is\\nopen to any one to maintain that patterned in the following\\nquotation is a participle, and that it implies a verb to pattern.\\nBut to me it appears simpler to class it as an adjective in -ed,\\nformed upon the noun pattern.\\nProfessor Rawlinson tells us that, among the Persians, dresses were not\\noften patterned, but depended generally for their effect on make and uniform\\ncolour only. William Ewart Gladstone, Juventus Mundi, p. 140.\\nAs to the word gifted in the next quotation, I would not\\nundertake to pronounce whether it is the -ed participial or\\nthe -ed adjectival.\\nThe gear that is gifted, it never\\nWill last like the gear that is won, Joanna Baillie.\\nA different use and of another flavour is when we hear\\nof a gifted or talented man expressions both of them which\\nsavour a little of affectation.\\nleisured.\\nWas it true that the legislative Chambers which were paid performed\\ntheir duties more laboriously and conscientiously than the British House of\\nCommons? It was admitted in other countries that that House stood at the\\nhead of the representative assemblies of the world. (Cheers.) What other\\nassembly was there that attempted to transact such an amount of business\\n(^Hear.) What assembly was there whose members sacrificed more of per-\\nsonal convenience and of health in the discharge of its duties? (Hear.)\\nThe condition of this country was peculiar. There was a vast leisured class\\nto which there was nothing parallel on the face of the earth. House of\\nCommons, April 5, 1870.\\nAssociated with these in meaning was a form which we\\nonly mention to deplore. This is the old Saxon adjectival\\nform -eht or -iht, as staniht, stony. Thus, in Cod. Dipt.\\n620, ondlong broces on ^one stanihtan ford, along the\\nbrook to the stony ford. This form is preserved in German,\\nas Bergid^t, hilly; bornic^t, thorny; ecfic^t, angular; grafi(^t,\\ngrassy fteinicf)t, stony and it makes one of the dainties of\\nGerman poetry.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0345.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "334 NOUN-GROUP.\\nUnb ^an Bef^ii^t bie filBertvoUtc^ten ^eerben.\\nAnd Pan protects the flocks with silvery fleeces.\\nWieland, Die Grazien, Bk. I.\\n5lm Btumtd^tett (Se^:^ifen.\\nOti hloo7ny Cephissns. Id. Bk. V.\\nj4\u00c2\u00ab i ros^s to wreathe in his goldilock hair. Id. Bk. VI.\\nGrimm observes that in the written German this sid^t is\\nmuch interchanged with A^^ while the popular speech has\\nsometimes curtailed it to =et. These remarks, which may\\nbe seen in his 5)eutfcf^e \u00c2\u00a9rammatif, ii. 382, are of general\\ninterest to the philologer in regard to that blending of forms\\nwhich is discovered in all great languages.\\nIn -ward, as downward, froward, homeward, inward, lee-\\nward, outward, toward, untoward, upward, wayward.\\nThere was also an old adjective lateward, as we learn from\\nthe following entry in Randle Cotgrave Arrerailles. Late-\\nward seed. Didionarie of the French and English Tongues,\\n1611.\\ntoward, untoward.\\nWhich when his Palmer saw, he gan to feare\\nHis toward perill and untoward blame,\\nWhich by that new rencounter he should neare\\nFor death sate on the point of that enchanted speare.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. i. 9.\\nwayward.\\nOur wayward intellect, the more we learn\\nOf nature, overlooks her author more.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Task, Bk. iii.\\nleeward.\\nThe vain distress-gun, from a leeward shore,\\nRepeated heard, and heard no more.\\nWilliam Wordsworth, On the Power of Sound.\\nIn this vocable ivard we have to notice some very ap-\\npreciable relics of an ancient verbal habit. It represents the", "height": "3184", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0346.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 335\\nSaxon verb weor^an, to become. Not that it is derived\\ntherefrom, but is rather a branchlet of the same stock at an\\nearlier stage. It has, even down to our time, retained traces\\nof an old verbal power, so that it seems now and then to be\\nequivalent not merely to the Latin preposition versus, but\\nalso to have the verb vertere in it, or at least the participle\\nversus, -a, -tim. In Cicero s Letters to Atticus, xvi. lo, there\\nis a passage where verti versus might in old English\\nhave been rendered by the one EngUsh word ward. He\\nis saying that he had changed his plans to avoid Antony\\nI meant to have taken the Appian way direct for Rome.\\nHe would have overtaken me easily For they say he s\\ncoming with Caesar s own speed. So I from Minturnae\\nArpinum-ward. The last clause stands thus in the Latin\\nVerti igitur me a Minturnis Arpinum versus. I do not say\\nthat the translation here given is the best, nor will I even\\ncontend that it makes good epistolary prose, but it is some-\\nthing like the use of ward which is about to be quoted. In\\nChaucer s Prologue, 396, it is said of the hardy shipman.\\nflFul manye a drau3t of weyn hadde he i drawe\\nffrom Burdeux ward, whil that the chapman slep.\\nCambridge MS.\\nThat is to say, he had drawn many a draught of wine out of\\nthe sleeping chapman s casks, while on the voyage from\\nBordeaux. So that ward is equivalent to voyaging, or com-\\ning, or being on the voyage.\\nSomething of the same verbality will be perceived in the\\nhomeward of the following quotation from near the close of\\nthe Laureate s Elaine\\nBut when now the lords and dames\\nAnd people, from the high door streaming, brake\\nDisorderly, as homeward each, the Queen,\\nWho mark d Sir Lancelot where he moved apart.\\nDrew near, and, c.", "height": "3184", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0347.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "^^6 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nWe might go on to enumerate the adjectives in -full and\\n-less, 2J fruitful, thankful, fruitless, thankless,\\nthoughtless.\\nAh what a warning for a thoughtless man,\\nCould field or grove, could any spot of earth.\\nShew to his eye an image of the pangs\\nWhich it hath witnessed render back an echo\\nOf the sad steps by which it hath been trod!\\nWilliam Wordsworth, The Excursion, Bk. VI.\\ndoughful doughty, iii^iiQ.\\nThe isle [of Man] is divided into sheddings (German Scheidungen,\\nboundaries or separations). The judges are called deemsters, that is,\\ndoomsters, or pronouncers of judgment. The title of the king is our\\ndoughtful Lord. The place of proclaiming the law is the Tinwald.\\nH. C. Robinson, Diary, 1833.\\nBut here we are already edging the border that separates\\nour present subject from the adjectival compounds. We will\\ntherefore close the Saxon division with a mention of those\\nadjectives which are formed by reduplication. Such are\\nshilly-shally, ship-shape, wishy-washy,\\nA weak, wishy-washy man, who had hardly any mind of his own.\\nAnthony Trollope, The Last Chronicle of Bar set, ch. vii.\\nComing now to the French forms, the first that claims our\\nnotice is the greatly used -able -ible.\\nSome of our commonest adjectives are of this type.\\nExamples acceptable, accessible, accountable, appreciable,\\napproachable, available, audible, comfortable, contemptible, de-\\nsirable, estimable, forcible, irrepressible, justifiable, lamentable,\\nmanageable, marketable, notable, noticeable, peaceable, practicable,\\npreferable, procurable, profitable, questionable, reasonable, re-\\nmarkable, reputable, respectable, responsible, seasonable, tolerable,\\nvaluable, vulnerable.\\nThis form has much expanded in the last two centuries.\\nMany of the adjectives of this type which are most familiar to", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0348.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 337\\nUS do not occur in Shakspeare. He has neither approachable\\nnor unapproachable, nor available, nor respectable. Although\\nhe has accept, acceptance, accepted, he has not acceptable. Nor\\nhas he accountable, although he has account, accountant, and\\naccounted. He has responsive but not responsible. And\\nalthough he has value, valued, valuing, and valueless, yet he\\nhas not valuable. When we consider the great copiousness\\nof Shakspeare s diction, and his apparently unlimited com-\\nmand of the English of his day, it seems almost equivalent\\nto saying that these terms, so familiar now, had not then\\nbeen coined. And if this be true only of some of them, we\\nhave here a strong mark of the progress of our language in\\na point which might elude general observation.\\npeaceable.\\nHe that is at peace in himself, will be peaceable to others, peaceable in\\nhis family, peaceable in the church, peaceable in the state. Richard Sibbes,\\nSouVs Conflict, ch. ix\\nconscionable conscientious.\\nNot in a furious zeal for or against trivial circumstances, but in a con-\\nscionable practising the substantial parts of religion. Isaac Barrow, The\\nPleasantness of Religion.\\nThis word is no longer used, but its negative unconscionable\\nis still current.\\nunsmotherable.\\nTo the unsmotherable delight of all the porters and bystanders/ Pick-\\nwick Papers, ch. xxviii.\\ncolourable.\\nThe wisard could no longer beare her bord,\\nBut, bursting forth in laughter, to her sayd\\nGlauce, what needes this colourable word\\nTo cloke the cause that hath it selfe bewrayd\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 3. 19.\\nNovember 3, 1869. Vice- Chancellor Malins had before him to-day the\\ncase of Bradbury v. Beeton, in which Mr. Jessel, as counsel for Messrs.\\nBradbury and Evans, the proprietors of Punch, had asked for an injunction\\nto restrain the defendant from publishing a penny weekly publication called\\nZ", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0349.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "^^S THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nPunch a?id Judy, on the ground that it was a colourable imitation of Punch.\\nThe Vice-Chancellor refused the application on the ground that nobody of\\nordinary intelligence could be misled into confounding Punch with Punch\\nand Judy.\\npersonable.\\nA thousand thoughts she fashiond in her mind,\\nAnd in her feigning fancie did pourtray\\nHim such as fittest she for love could find,\\nWise, warlike, personable, courteous, and kind.*\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 4. 5.\\nacceptable.\\nSo at my taking leave of him, hee put ten shillings in my hand, which\\ncame to me in an acceptable time. John Taylor (The Water Poet), Wa7i-\\ndering to see the Wonders of the West, 1649. (Ashbee s Facsimile Reprints,\\np. 14.)\\namiable.\\nOf all the religious men I ever saw, he [Flaxman] is the most amiable.\\nThe utter absence of all polemical feehng the disclaiming of all speculative\\nopinion as an essential to salvation the reference of faith to the affections,\\nnot the understanding, are points in which I most cordially concur with\\nhim earnestly wishing at the same time that I was in all respects like him.\\nH. C. Robinson, Diary, 1821.\\nIn the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries this formative was\\npronounced in EngHsh as it still is in French, with the accent\\non the penultimate. We now say tmpldcdble, but Spenser\\nsounded it implacable\\nI burne, I burne, I burne, then lowde he sayde,\\nO how I burne with implacable fyre\\nThe Faerie Queene, ii. 6. 44.\\n-ard is a form of which it is difficult to say whether its\\nhabit is more that of a substantive or of an adjective.\\nlubbard.\\nOr if the garden with its many cares\\n(All well repaid) demand him, he attends\\nThe welcome call, conscious how much the hand\\nOf lubbard Labour needs his watchful eye.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Garden.\\nIn -al (French -al and -el, Latin -alts).\\nI", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0350.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 339\\nExamples accidental, carnal, confessional, diurnal, eter-\\nnal, formal, habitual, influential, inquisitorial, intellectual,\\nintelligential (Milton), intentional, martial, nuptial, parental,\\npartial, sensual, suicidal.\\nconfessional\\n(from the term confession/ as in Confession of Augsburg\\nSuch was the sweetness and the goodness of Rothe s character, that\\nwhile he lived, the sternest opponents of his school found it impossible to\\nsay anathema to him, and when they heard of his death, strict confessional\\ntheologians came forward and cast a flower upon the grave of the pious\\nRothe. Contemporary Review^ November, 1869.\\nparental.\\nThat, under cover of the Phoenician name, we can trace the chantiels\\nthrough which the old parental East poured into the fertile soil of the\\nGreek mind the seeds of civilisation. William Ewart Gladstone, Juventus\\nMundi, p. 129,\\ninquisitorial.\\nWe are not accustomed, as I believe the Wahabees are, to have the\\nprivate life of the family subjected to an inquisitorial inspection. J. Gregory\\nSmith, Education or Instruction! 1869,\\nseasonal.\\nWe know with what meaning the lily of the field looked up into his\\neye and if the robe of beauty on the earth was to him no dead product\\nof the seasonal machine, but, c. James Martineau, The Three Stages.\\nmatutinal.\\nAnd the patriots of the place, though they declaim on the matter over\\ntheir evening pipes and gin-and-water, have not enough of matutinal zeal\\nto carry out their purpose. Anthony Trollope, The Vicar of Bullhampton.\\nch. i.\\nresidual.\\nBut the planetary orbits turned out to be not quite circular after all\\nand grand as was the service Copernicus rendered to science, Kepler and\\nNewton had to come after him. What if the orbit of Darwinism should be\\na little too circular What if species should offer residual phenomena, here\\nand there, not exphcable by natural selection. T. H. Huxley, Lay Sermons.\\nIn -ie, after the French -ique.\\nExamples angelic, apostolic, aquatic, artistic, domestic,\\nz 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0351.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "340 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nfantastic, gigantic, heroic, lethargic, majestic, narcotic, pedantic,\\nrustic, specific, sulphuric, terrific, volcanic.\\nThese were from the Latin -icus, and this, probably, was\\nfrom the Greek -ims but in tracing the philology of our own\\ntongue, we are not so much concerned with the remote as\\nwith the immediate source. And although the question of\\nFrench or Latin is at times a little embroiled, there can be\\nno doubt that it was under French auspices and tutorship\\nthat we first acquired this formative. This point is set\\nbeyond doubt by the fact that we have another French\\nformative of which this forms the basis. A more dubious\\npoint it oftentimes is to decide whether we ought to refer\\na given adjective to this French class, or to the Greek class\\nin -ic, which will be noticed below. Where the stock of the\\nword is un-Greek, we should class it here. But the reverse\\ndoes not hold. A few purely Greek words belong here\\nrather than below, as apostolic. In this case, history tells\\nus that the word is older than the Greek inundation. In\\nother cases, such as fantastic, although the word is Greek\\nthroughout, yet the spelling with f instead of ph seems to\\nvindicate it for the French reign.\\nHere too must be ranged those national and character-\\nistical designations, Arabic, Bardic, Gaelic, Gallic, Gothic,\\nPtolemaic, Quixotic, Runic, Sardonic.\\nIn -ical, after the French.\\nThis formative is based upon the previous one. In both\\nthe languages, French and English, the cause of this cu-\\nmulative form was probably the same. The adjectives in\\nFrench -ique and English -ic ran with unusual celerity into\\nsubstantival significations, as domestique, domestic; phy-\\nsique, physic; logique, logic. Hence there was a further\\ndemand for an adjectival form which should be unequivocal.\\nThis seems to be the account of that strain of adjectives in", "height": "3180", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0352.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 341\\n-teal, which is one of the notes of the literature of the seven-\\nteenth century, and which has been largely discarded in\\nrecent times.\\ndojnesHcal.\\nDogs and such like domestical creatures. Richard Sibbes, SouVs\\nConflict, ch, x.\\nSuch discarded forms have an air of obsolete old-fashioned-\\nness about them, and it almost excites a surprise to find\\nthat after all we have been rather arbitrary in our discon-\\ntinuance of them, as we have continued to use others whose\\ncase is nowise different. We familiarly use archcEological,\\nlogical, mathematical, mechanical, methodical, (Ecumenical,\\nrhetorical, symmetrical, tropical, whimsical.\\nLanguage is hardly ever perfectly systematic in its pro-\\nceedings. We must not find in this any drawback to the\\npleasure of contemplating its economy. Nor must we think\\nthat principle is absent, because it is not rigidly executed\\nand carried out at all points, and because there is something\\narbitrary in the superficial appearance. s\\nIn -esque. Examples Barbaresque, gigantesque, gro-\\ntesque, picturesque.\\nWe only bow to a universal law, and recognise in the fondness of man\\nfor the barbaresque and the gigantesque the same instincts that make him\\nappreciate the picturesque effects of nature and its grander displays.\\nA Leading Article, Nov. 9, 1868.\\ngrotesque.\\nWithered, grotesque, immeasurably old,\\nWilliam Wordsworth, Fish-women, 1820.\\nNew adjectives of this type are made every day. A. H.\\nClough took the liberty of thus adjectiving Lord Macaulay\\n(in private correspondence)\\nI have only detected one error myself, but it is a very Macaulayesque\\none. He speaks of the oaks of Magdalen they are elms. There was", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0353.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "34^ THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nno occasion to say anything but trees, but the temptation to say something\\nparticular was too strong.\\nMoreover, we sometimes see Dantesque, which may be\\nregarded as an imitation of the Itahan, in which the adjec-\\ntive Dantesco and also its adverb Dantescamente are quite\\nestabhshed. And in truth this French form -esque came\\nfrom the Italian -esco, and this again from the Gothic -isc\\nwhich has become in German -if^. The Old High Dutch\\ndiutisc, which in modern German is 2)etit[d is in Italian\\nTedesco. So that this French -esque is radically the same as\\nour Saxon -isc and English -ish, only having performed a\\ntour through two Romanesque tongues, it has come round\\nto us with a pecuHar complexion of its own,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 an excellent\\nspecimen of the way in which the resources of language are\\nenriched by mere variation.\\nWhile we are touching Italian, we may notice (paren-\\nthetically) an adjectival form which looks Italian, though we\\nprobably adopted it at first from the Spaniards. This is the\\nform -ese, in certain national designations, as Cingalese,\\nChinese, Maltese, Portuguese,\\nThis orthography is rather Italian than Spanish. An\\nEnglishman is in Spanish called Ingles, but in Italian\\nInglese. At the time when our maritime expeditions and\\nour politics brought us most into contact with Spaniards,\\nour literary habits were more influenced by the Italian lan-\\nguage than by the Spanish and hence it is quite probable\\nthat this form may at first have been learnt of Spaniards\\nand afterwards modified by an Italian orthography.\\nBefore we have quite done with our French adjectives,\\nwe ought to notice one which has filled a large space in the\\nhistory of our language. This is the adjective quaint. It\\nwas already a great word in the transition period; it was\\nan established word of old standing when Chaucer wrote,", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0354.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 343\\nand it still retains some vitality. A word so often met with\\nin ages so widely distant, and bearing such a variety of sig-\\nnification, merits a paragraph to itself.\\nThere have been at all periods of history certain prominent\\nand favourite words words of the day. By way of ready\\nillustration, we might mention fine and elegant as favourite\\nwords of last century and nice and interesting as words that\\nare repeated with great frequency in our own day. Such\\nfavourite words are generally adjectives. Such an adjective\\nwas quaint in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries.\\nIn the old French it was written coint, choint, and it has been\\nderived with great probability from the Latin comptus, neat,\\ntrim, orderly, handsome. At the time of the rise of King s\\nEnglish in the fourteenth century, this was a great social\\nword describing an indefinite compass of merit and appro-\\nbation. Whatever things were agreeable, elegant, clever,\\nneat, trim, gracious, pretty, amiable, taking, affable, proper\\nspruce, handsome, happy, knowing, dodgy, cunning, artful,\\ngentle, prudent, wise, discreet (and all this is but a rough\\ntranslation of Roquefort s equivalents for coint), were in-\\ncluded under this comprehensive word.\\nIn Chaucer, the spear of Achilles, which can both heal\\nand hurt; is called a quaint spear\\nAnd fell in speech of Telephus the king\\nAnd of Achilles for his queinte spere,\\nFor he coude with it both hele and dere.\\nCanterbury Tales, 1 05 5 3.\\nBy the time we come to Spenser it has acquired a new\\nsense, very naturally evolved from the possession of all the\\nmost esteemed social accomplishments; it has come to\\nmean fastidious. Florimell, when she has taken refuge in\\nthe hut of the witch, is fain to accept her rude hospitalides\\nAnd gan recomfort her in her rude wyse,\\nWith womanish compassion of her plaint,", "height": "3176", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0355.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "344 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nWiping the teares from her suffused eyes,\\nAnd bidding her sit downe, to rest her faint\\nAnd wearie limbes awhile. She, nothing quaint\\nNor sdeignfuU of so homely fashion,\\n1 Sith brought she was now to so hard constraint.\\nSate downe upon the dusty ground anon\\nAs glad of that small rest as bird of tempest gon.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 7. lO.\\nAnother stage in our national history, and we come to\\nthe period at which the word has stuck fast ever since, and\\nthere rooted itself. We may almost say that the word quaint\\nnow signifies after the fashion of the seventeenth century/\\nor something to that effect. It means something that is\\npretty after some bygone standard of prettyness and if we\\ntrace back the time we shall find it in the seventeenth\\ncentury. As the memory of man is in legal doctrine\\nlocalised to the reign of Richard the Second, as Old\\nEnglish is (or was, before there was an Early English Text\\nSociety, and before Mr. Freeman had arisen to assign a\\nnew meaning to the word English) particularly identified\\nwith the language of the fifteenth century, so quaintness of\\ndiction has acquired for itself a permanent place in the\\nliterature of the seventeenth. In the Edinburgh Review,\\nJanuary, 1842, is an article on Thomas Fuller, in the course\\nof which are some excellent remarks bearing on the word\\nnow before us\\nIn many respects Fuller may be considered the very type and exemplar\\nof that large class of religious writers of the seventeenth century to which\\nwe emphatically apply the term quaint. That word has long ceased to\\nmean what it once meant. By derivation, and by original usage, it first\\nsignified scrupulously elegant, refined, exact, accurate, beyond the reach\\nof common art. In time it came to be applied to whatever was designed\\nto indicate these characteristics though excogitated with so elaborate a\\nsubtlety as to trespass on ease and nature. In a word, it was applied to\\nwhat was ingenious and fantastic, rather than tasteful or beautiful. It is\\nnow wholly used in this acceptation and always implies some violation of\\nthe taste, some deviation from what the natural requires under the given\\ncircumstances Now the age in which Fuller lived was the\\ngolden age of quaintness of all kinds in gardening, in architecture,", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0356.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 345\\nin costume, in manners, in religion, in literature. As men improved ex-\\nternal nature with a perverse expenditure of money and ingenuity made\\nher yews and cypresses grow into peacocks and statues, tortured and\\nclipped her luxuriance into monotonous uniformity, turned her graceful\\ncurves and spirals into straight lines and parallelograms, compelled things\\nincongruous to blend in artificial union, and then measured the merits of the\\nwork, not by the absurdity of the design, but by the difficulty of the\\nexecution, so in literature, the curiously and elaborately unnatural was too\\noften the sole object The constitution of Fuller s mind\\nhad such an affinity with the peculiarities of the day, that what was\\nquaint in others seems to have been his natural element the sort of\\nattire in which his active and eccentric genius loved to clothe itself.\\nThe word sometimes signifies merely a nicety in small\\nthings, as in the following\\nBut how a body so fantastic, trim.\\nAnd quaint in its deportment and attire,\\nCan lodge a heavenly mind demands a doubt.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Time-Piece.\\nHere we may bring our French list to an end, but not\\nwithout the observation, which has been already made above\\nunder the substantive, that the line of division between our\\nFrench and Latin groups is much blurred. The general\\ncase is this We took the form from the French but the\\ngreat bulk of the words that now constitute the group, have\\nbeen derived to us from the Latin. And it may be added that\\nmany words seem now most easily traceable to the Latin,\\nwhich we originally borrowed from the French. In the great\\nlatinising tyranny, many words were purged from the tinge\\nof their originally French nationality, and reclaimed to a\\nLatin standard. The delitahle of Chaucer and Piers Plowman\\nhad become delectahle long before Bunyan wrote of the De-\\nlectable Mountains.\\nWhen the learned of the nation were steeped in Latin,\\nvast quantities of French words in our language had a new\\nsurface of Latin put upon them. And the Latin invasion\\ndid not stop here; many old Saxon forms were modified\\nin a Latin sense.", "height": "3176", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0357.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "34 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nOur list of the Latin formatives begins with one which\\nwas erected upon a Saxon basis. This is the form in -ous,\\n-eous, Latin -ius, or -osus.\\nIn adopting this form we seem to have been continuing\\nand gradually modifying the Saxon adjectives in -wis.\\nThus rihiwis became righteous.\\nExamples boisterous, covetous, dexterous, disastrous,\\nerroneous, glorious, gracious, jealous, luxurious, meritorious,\\nmultitudinous (Shakspeare), necessitous, noxious, obstreperous,\\noutrageous, pious, poisonous, riotous, tedious, zealous.\\njoyous, courteous, gracious, spacious.\\nLong were it to describe the goodly frame,\\nAnd stately port of Castle Joyeous,\\n(For so that Castle hight by commun name)\\nWhere they were entertaynd with courteous\\nAnd comely glee of many gratious\\nFaire Ladies, and of many a gentle knight,\\nWho, through a Chamber long and spacious,\\nEftsoones them brought unto their Ladies sight,\\nThat of them cleeped was the Lady of Delight.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii, I, 31.\\nAnd all wondered at the gracious wordes, that proceeded out of his\\nmouth. Luhe iv. 22.\\nbarbarous.\\nThe Scythian counted the Athenian, whom he did not vnderstand, bar-\\nbarous so the Romane did the Syrian, and the lew, (euen S. Hierome him-\\nselfe calleth the Hebrew tongue barbarous, belike because it was strange\\nto so many) so the Emperour of Comtantinople calleth the Latine tongue,\\nbarbarous, though Pope Nicolas do storme at it so the lewes long before\\nChrist, called all other nations, Log?iazim, which is little better than bar-\\nbarous. The Translators to the Reader, 161 1.\\nrhizopodous.\\nSpongilla is a rhizopodous animal.\\nfastuous.\\nIn reforming the lives of the clergy he was too fastuous and severe.*\\nJeremy Taylor, ed, Eden, vol. v. p. 139.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0358.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 347\\nslumbrous.\\nAnd awaken the slumbrous state of conscience in which too many of us\\nhabitually live. Sir J. T. Coleridge, Memoir of Keble, ch. xiv.\\nerroneous.\\nMr. said the right hon. gentleman who had just sat down had made\\nstatements which, from his experience, he would show to be entirely false.\\nThe Speaker The hon. member means to say erroneous. (A laugh.)\\nMr. begged to apologise for using a word which was not Parlia-\\nmentary, He had been but a short time in the House, and was therefore\\nnot well versed in Parliamentary terms (a laugh), but if there was any Par-\\nliamentary term stronger than the word erroneous, he would beg leave to\\nuse it with reference to some of the statements of the right hon. gentleman.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u0094House of Commons, June 17, 1870.\\nstercoraceous.\\nThe stable yields a stercoraceous heap,\\nWilliam Cowper, The Garden.\\nobstreperous.\\nNor is it a mean praise of rural life\\nAnd solitude, that they do favour most.\\nMost frequently call forth, and best sustain.\\nThese pure sensations that can penetrate\\nThe obstreperous city; on the barren seas\\nAre not unfelt.\\nWilliam Wordsworth, The Exctirsion, Bk. IV.\\nluxurious.\\nA free nation ought not to provoke war but it ought not to be too\\nluxurious and ease-loving to fight, if the occasion should arise. Llewelyn\\nDavies, The Gospel and Modern Life, p. 45.\\ngenerous, conspicuous, illustrious.\\nAs belonging to the old blood he had especially recommended himself to\\nElizabeth s favour by his loyalty, and in 1572 he had been rewarded for his\\nservices by the earldom of Essex. He was young, enthusiastic, generous the\\nfirst conspicuous representative of that illustrious company who revived in\\nthe England of Elizabeth the genius of mediaeval chivalry. He was burning\\nto deserve his honours and in Ireland he saw the opportunity which he\\ndesired. J. A. Froude, History of England, vol. x. p. 551.\\nBumptious was a slang Oxford adjective which started\\nabout 1 84 1. It is now sometimes seen in literature", "height": "3184", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0359.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "348 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nLook at that comical sparrow, she said, Look how he cocks his\\nhead first on one side and then on the other. Does he want us to see him\\nIs he bumptious, or what George Macdonald, The Seaboard Parish,\\nch. xi.\\nThe next place seems due to another form of the Latin\\ntermination -osus. It is as markedly modern as the previous\\none is distinguished for its old standing in the language.\\nIt has an Italian tinge. This is the form in -ose.\\nExamples bellicose, globose (Milton), gloriose, grandiose,\\noperose, otiose, varicose.\\notiose,\\nWe lay out of the case such stories of supernatural events as require on\\nthe part of the hearer nothing more than an otiose assent stories upon\\nwhich nothing depends, in which no interest is involved, nothing is to be\\ndone or changed in consequence of believing them. Paley s Evidences.\\noperose.\\nI heard Dr. Chalmers preach. It was a splendid discourse, against the\\nJudaical observance of the Sabbath, which he termed an expedient for\\npacifying the jealousies of a God of vengeance, reprobating the operose\\ndrudgery of such Sabbaths. Many years afterwards, I mentioned this to\\nIrving, who was then the colleague of Chalmers and he told me that the\\nDeacons waited on the Doctor to remonstrate with him on the occasion of\\nthis sermon. H. C. Robinson, Diary, 182 1.\\nIn -ive, Latin -ivus.\\nExamples active, aggregative, appreciative, associative,\\nauthoritative, comparative, conclusive, creative, detective, dis-\\ntinctive, elective, exclusive, for getive (Shakspeare, 2 Henry IV,\\niv. 3), imaginative, inventive, motive, passive, pensive, positive,\\nreflective, reparative, repulsive, responsive, retentive, sensitive,\\nspeculative, suggestive, superlative.\\nGrew like the Summer Grasse, fastest by Night,\\nVnseene yet cressiue in his facultie,\\nShakspeare, Henry V, i.\\npersistive,\\nPersistive constancy. Troilus and Cressida, i. 3.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0360.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES, 349\\nnarrative.\\nNarrative old age. Alexander Pope.\\nresponsive.\\nThe swain responsive as the milk-maid sung.\\nOliver Goldsmith, The Deserted Village.\\nrepresefitative.\\nHome Tooke having obtained a seat in the House of Commons as\\nrepresentative of the famous borough of Old Sarum. H, C. Robinson,\\nDiary, 1801.\\nSpeculative.\\nHigh on her speculative tower\\nStood Science waiting for the hour.\\nWilliam Wordsworth, The Eclipse of the Sun, 1820.\\naggregative, associative, creative, motive.\\nFancy is aggregative and associative Imagination is creative, motive.\\nJohn Brown, M.D., Horae Subsecivae.\\nconclusive.\\nThe admissions of an advocate are the most conclusive evidence.\\nBishop of St. David s, Charge, 1863.\\nreparative.\\nThe art of nursing, as now practised, seems to be expressly constituted\\nto unmake what God had made disease to be, viz. a reparative process.\\nFlorence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing.\\nAppreciative has been a great word of late. Professor\\nLightfoot {St. Paul and Seneca) speaks of Sir A. Grant s\\nhighly appreciative account of the Stoic school.\\ndistinctive.\\nThere was something so very distinctive in him, traits and tones to make\\nan impression to be remembered all one s life. JohnKeble, Memoir, p. 452.\\nIn -ine, Latin -inus, -ineus.\\nExamples divine, internecine, marine, sanguine.\\nOur pronunciation of marine is decidedly French, and\\nthus we are again reminded that our Latin hst is not purely", "height": "3176", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0361.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "S5^ THE NOUN- GROUP.\\nand exclusively of direct Latin derival, but only preva-\\nlently so.\\nIn -ary, Latin -arms.\\nExamples contemporary, missionary, secondary^ sanitary,\\nstationary, tertiary, visionary.\\npetitionary.\\nRos. Nay, I pre thee now, with most petitionary vehemence, tell\\nme who it is. As You Like It, in. 2.\\nClaspt hands and that petitionary grace\\nOf sweet seventeen subdued me ere she spoke.\\nAlfred Tennyson, The Brook.\\nThis form occurs frequently in its substantival aspect.\\nsignatary.\\nAll the Powers, signataries of the Treaty of 1856. Queens Speech,\\n1867.\\ncontemporary.\\nSeneca was strictly a contemporary of St. Paul. Professor Lightfoot,\\nSt. Paul and Seneca.\\nIn -at cry, Latin -atorius.\\nExamples commendatory, criminatory, derogatory, ex-\\nculpatory, expiatory, migratory nugatory, obligatory, pre-\\nparatory, propitiatory, respiratory, supplicatory.\\ncriminatory.\\nAnd was taken with strongly criminatory papers in his possession.\\nIn -ant and -ent, from the Latin participial terminations\\n-ans, -antis -ens, -eniis.\\nExamples blatant, constant, elegant, expedteftt, insolent,\\ninsolvent, jubilant, petulant, solvent.\\nM-any of these forms are used substantively, as expedient,\\ninsolvent and, in one of its senses,", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0362.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 351\\nsolvent.\\nAnd I say that the Resurrection is a fact attested by various and con-\\nverging evidence defying the action of the critical solvents which unbelief\\napplies to it and, let me add, reigning in the thought of every thinking\\nChristian, as a vast evidential power. H. P. Liddon, at St. Paul s, Easter\\nDay, 1869,\\nSeveral of these are rather French than Latin, as the\\nheraldic rampant.\\npetulant.\\nThe boys, when the periodical vacation drew near, growing petulant at\\nthe approach of liberty. Samuel Johnson, Life of Addhon.\\nThe word elegant merits a special notice. It is now\\ncomparatively little used: we have indeed the traditional\\ncombination Elegant Extracts; but almost the only new\\ncombination it has entered into in our day is in the dialect\\nof the apothecary, who speaks of an elegant preparation.\\nIn the last century however, and down to the close of the\\ngeneration that overlived into this century, we had elegant in\\na variety of honoured positions. Scott spoke of Goethe as\\nthe elegant author of The Sorrows of Werther!\\nIn the very first sentence of Bishop Lowth s address To\\nthe King, which is prefixed to his Isaiah, this word comes in,\\nthus\\nSIRE,\\nAn attempt to set in a just light the writings of the most sublime\\nand elegant of the Prophets of the Old Testament, c.\\nGeorge Home (afterwards Bishop of Norwich), towards\\nthe close of last century published some sermons, and half\\napologising in his Preface said\\nThis form of publication is generally supposed less advantageous at pre-\\nsent than any other. But it may be questioned whether the supposition\\ndoes justice to the age, when we consider only the respect which has so\\nrecently been paid to the sermons of the learned and elegant Dr. Blair. And\\ngreater respect cannot be paid them than they deserve.", "height": "3176", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0363.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "Z THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThe form -lent, from the Latin -lentus, must be distin-\\nguished from the foregoing.\\nExamples corpulent, esculent, feculent, flatulent, fraud-\\nulent, opulent, somnolent, succulent, truculent, violent, virulent.\\nSom.e adjectives in -ent, with an l of the root, have a false\\nsemblance of belonging here, as benevolent, equivalent, indolent,\\ninsolent, prevalent, malevolent. Here we seem almost over\\nthe border of English philology, but in dealing with such\\na borrowing language as ours it is not always easy to draw\\nthe boundary Kne.\\nesculent.\\nThe Chinese present a striking contrast with ourselves in the care which\\nthey bestow on their esculent vegetation A more general knowledge of\\nthe properties and capabilities of esculent plants would be an important\\nbranch of popular education. C. D. Badham, The Esculent Funguses of\\nEngland, ed. F. Currey, p. xvi,\\n-an, -ian, Latin -anus, -ianus, as African, Indian, Russian,\\nPersian, Polynesia}!.\\nThis form acquired its importance in the first century of\\nthe Roman Empire. The soldiers who attached themselves\\nto Julius Caesar in the civil wars were c2Medifuliani, and this\\ngrew to be the established formula for the expression of a\\nbody of supporters or followers. The friends of Otho were\\ncalled Othoniani, those of Vitellius were Vitelliani; and in\\nthe same general period it was that the disciples were called\\nChristians first at Antioch.\\nRobinsojiian.\\nWilliam Wordsworth to H. C. Robinson.\\n12th March, 182 1.\\nMy dear Friend, You were very good in writing me so long a letter,\\nand kind in your own Robinsonian way. H. C. Robinson, Diary.\\nWe will now proceed to the Greek forms.\\n-ic, from the Greek -1K09.\\nExamples academic, acoustic, CBsthetic, analytic, arctic.", "height": "3184", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0364.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 353\\nantarctic, apathetic, apologetic, archaic, aromatic, athletic,\\natomic, authentic, barbaric (Milton), cathartic, despotic, ethic,\\ngastric, graphic, telegraphic, theoretic.\\nThese are roughly distinguishable from those in -ic after\\nthe French -ique, by being entirely of Greek material.\\nThat class is more mixed. There is perhaps no form that\\nmore distinctly represents the influx of Greek, and its adop-\\ntion into scientific terminology. A large part of these\\nadjectives are shared by us with all the great languages\\nof western Europe.\\nauthentic.\\nMethinks I see him how his eye-balls rolled,\\nBeneath his ample brow, in darkness paired,\\nBut each instinct with spirit and the frame\\nOf the whole countenance alive with thought,\\nFancy, and understanding while the voice\\nDiscoursed of natural or moral truth\\nWith eloquence, and such authentic power,\\nThat, in his presence, humbler knowledge stood\\nAbashed, and tender pity overawed,\\nWilliam Wordsworth, The Excursion, Bk. VIL\\nIn -astie, -istic, -ustie, from the Greek -o-tiki].\\nExamples antagonistic, caustic, characteristic, drastic,\\npatristic, plastic, pleonastic.\\nMonast-ic belongs to the forms m-ic.\\ncharacteristic (substantively).\\nThe characteristic of that movement is that it seeks to attain its object\\nby arguments bordering on menace.\\nHaving said so much on adjectival forms, let us now\\nendeavour to determine something of the natural quality of\\nthe adjective, and the practical effect of that natural quality\\nupon our habitual conversation. An adjective is plainly of\\nthe nature of a predicate, as plainly as a substantive is of\\nthe nature of a subject. Now, to select a predicate for\\nA a", "height": "3160", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0365.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "554 I HE NOUN-GROVP.\\na subject is an act of judgment. It is manifest that judgment\\nis more exercised in the utterance of adjectives than in that\\nof substantives. I say horse from mere memory of my\\nmother-tongue, and we hardly dignify it as an act of judg-\\nment if a man uses that word in the right place, and shows\\nthat he knows a horse when he sees it. But to say good\\nhorse, bad horse, sound horse, young horse, c., is a matter of\\njudgment. A child knows when he sees a garden, and we\\ndo not call it an act of judgment (except in technical logic)\\nto exclaim There^s a garden. But to use garden adjectively,\\nas when a person comes across a flower, and says it is a\\ngarden flower, this is an act of judgment which it takes\\na botanist to exercise safely. This being so, a speaker runs\\na greater chance of making a mistake, or of coming into\\ncollision with the judgments of others, in the use of ad-\\njectives. Partly from this cause, and partly also, perhaps,\\nfrom the rarity of good and confident judgment, and partly\\nit may also be from the modesty which social intercourse\\nrequires, we perceive this effect, that there is a shyness about\\nthe utterance of adjectives. Of original adjectives, I mean,\\nsuch as can at all carry the air of being the speaker s own.\\nAnd hence it has come about, that there is in each period or\\ngeneration, one or more chartered social adjectives which\\nmay be used freely and safely. Such adjectives enjoy a sort\\nof empire for the time in which they are current. Their\\nmeaning is more or less vague, and it is this quality which\\nsuits them for their office. But while it would be hard to\\ndefine what such an adjective meant, it is nevertheless per-\\nfectly well understood. Obvious examples of this sort of\\nprivileged adjective are the merry of the ballads, and iSi^fair\\nand pretty of the Elizabethan period. In Mrs. Cowden\\nClarke s Concordance to Shakspeare, there are about seven\\nhundred examples oi fair, without counting its derivatives", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0366.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 355\\nand compounds. Perhaps this perpetual recurrence of the\\nword made a butt at it all the more amusing\\nKing. All haile sweet Madame, and faire time of day.\\nQii. Faire in all Haile is fowle, as I conceiue.\\nKing. Construe my speeches better, if you may.\\nLoues Labour s lost, v. 2. 340.\\nSuch was in the last century the adjective fine, and in\\na minor degree the adjective elegant. Of the latter we have\\nalready had some illustrations. Its companion is worthy of\\nthe like honour\\nfine.\\nThe truly philosophical language of my worthy and learned friend Mr.\\nHarris, the author of Hermes, a work that will be read and admired as long\\nas there is any taste for philosophy and fine writing in Britain. Lord Mon-\\nboddo, Origin and Progress of Language, init.\\nBut none of these ever reached a greater, if so great, a\\nvogue as the chartered adjective of our own and our fathers\\ngeneration, namely, the adjective nice.\\nShould an essayist endeavour by description to convey the\\nsignification of this word in those peculiar social uses so\\nfamiliar to all, he would find that he had undertaken a\\ndifficult task. It is applicable to the possession of any\\nquality or qualities which enjoy the approbation of society\\nunder its present code.\\nThe word dates from the great French period, and at first\\nmeant fooHsh, absurd, ridiculous then in course of time it\\ncame to signify whimsical, fantastic, wanton, adroit and\\nthence it slid into the meaning of subtle, deHcate, sensitive,\\nwhich landed it on the threshold of its modern social\\nappKcation. Of this we have already a foretaste in Milton\\nA nice and subtle happiness I see\\nThou to thyself proposest in the choice\\nOf thy associates. Paradise Lost, viii. 399.\\nA more special use is the following, and not the vague\\nA a 2", "height": "3184", "width": "1996", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0367.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "^^6 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nsocial use, yet bordering closely upon it. This sense, in\\nwhich it is nearly equivalent to fastidious, has now but little\\ncurrency, being crowded out by the social use.\\nBut never was a Fight manag d so hardily, and in such a surprizing Man-\\nner, as that which follow d between Friday and the Bear, which gave us all\\n(though at first we were surpriz d and afraid for him) the greatest Diversion\\nimaginable As the Bear is a heavy, clumsy Creature, and does not gallop as\\nthe Wolf does, who is swift, and light so he has two particular Qualities,\\nwhich generally are the Rule of his Actions First, as to Men, who are not\\nhis proper Prey I say, not his proper Prey because tho I cannot say what\\nexcessive Hunger might do, which was now their Case, the Ground being all\\ncover d with Snow but as to Men he does not usually attempt them, unless\\nthey first attack him On the contrary, if you meet him in the Woods, if\\nyou don t meddle with him, he won t meddle with you but then you must\\ntake Care to be very civil to him, and give him the Road for he is a very\\nnice Gentleman, he won t go a Step out of his Way for a Prince, c.\\nRobinson Crusoe. Edited after the Original Editions by J. W. Clark, M.A.\\np. 298,\\nAs far back as 1823, a young lady objected to Sydney Smith\\nOh, don t call me nice, Mr. Sydney people only say that\\nwhen they can say nothing else. This expostulation drew\\nforth his Definition of a Nice Person, which may be seen in\\nthe Memoir of his Life, and which will serve to complete\\nthe case of this important little office-bearing adjective.\\nMorphology of the Adjective.\\nLet us close this section with some observations on the\\nmorphology of the adjective, or in other words, on the\\ndivers ways it has of dressing itself up to act its part on the\\nstage of language. By adjective here is meant the pure\\nmental conception, as opposed to the form. There are\\nthree ways in which the adjectival idea clothes itself and\\nfinds expression, which it may be convenient to call the\\nthree adjections.\\nI. The first, which may be called the Flat, is by colloca-\\ntion. Thus, brick and stone are substantives but mere posi-\\ntion before another substantive turns them into adjectives, as,", "height": "3188", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0368.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVES. 357\\nbrick wall, stone wall; and the latter, when regarded as a com-\\npound substantive, stone-wall, may again by collocation make\\na new adjective, as Stone-wall Jackson/ And a compound\\nnoun of the other sort, that is to say, one with its adjection\\nafter it, as matter-of-fact, may become a flat adjective, thus,\\na matter-off act man.\\nHe rather affects hostility to metaphysics and poetry because, he says,\\nI am a mere matter-of-fact man. H, C. Robinson, Diary, 1830.\\nThus we speak of garden flowers and hedge flowers\\nNear yonder copse, where once the garden smiled.\\nAnd still where many a garden flower grows wild.\\nOliver Goldsmith, Deserted Village.\\nIn some instances we may see that a present adjective\\nwhich is now nothing but an adjective, has been a sub-\\nstantive at no very remote date. Thus 7mlch, in the ex-\\npressions milch cow/ milch goat/ c., is a mere adjective,\\nand yet it is nothing but a phonetic variety of the substantive\\nmilk, just as church and kirk are varieties of the same word.\\nIn the German language the current substantive for milk has\\nthe form of our present adjective, viz. Wi\\\\i^.\\n2. The second, which may be called the Flexional, is by\\nmodification of form either in the way of flexion, as heavey-is\\ngate, or through a symphytic formative, as heavenly mansions.\\nThe latter, being the most prevalent of all modes of adjec-\\ntion, has occupied to itself the whole name of Adjective.\\n3. The third way, which may be called the Phrasal, is by\\nmeans of a symbol-word, and most prominently by the\\npreposition of.\\nIn the compound k?iighihood the word knight is (originally)\\nan adjective, and afl ords an instance of the adjective by col-\\nlocation. We may express the same idea in this form, knight s\\nrank, or thus, knightly rank, as in the second adjection.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0369.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "35^ THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThe third adjection is when we say rank or quality of\\nknight. This form of adjective we have learnt from the\\nFrench and although we use it less than our neighbours,\\nyet we are well acquainted with such expressions as men of\\nproperty, men of learning, persons of strong opinions, the girl of\\nthe period, the men of this generation, arms of precision, c.\\nOur first quotation supplies three instances\\nOriginally it was proposed that all the members (looo) of the Athenaeum\\nshould be men of letters, and authors, artists, or men of science in a word,\\nproducers; but it was found impossible to form a club solely of such\\nmaterials, and had it been possible, it would have been scarcely desirable.\\nSo the qualification was extended to lovers of literature, c. H. C. Robin-\\nson, Diary, 1824.\\nIn the following Yiuts, functions of a man is equivalent to\\nhuman functions\\nI think, articulate, I laugh and weep,\\nAnd exercise all functions of a man.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Garden.\\nSuch are the three ways in which we manage the expres-\\nsion of the adjectival idea, or, as we may conveniently style\\nit, the three methods of adjection.\\nThe third or symbolic method, to which, as the one which\\nmost merits attention, the title of Adjection will be more\\nparticularly suitable, is generally effected by the preposition\\nof, and yet not by this preposition only. Any other preposi-\\ntion can discharge this function. Thus, if we take the pre-\\nposition beyond it is the same thing whether we speak of\\nhope beyond the grave, or of deathless, or immortal hope.\\nAnd it sometimes happens that through ellipse of the sub-\\nstantive-adject, the symbol preposition may by itself fill the\\noffice of an adjective as in the local names of Bishopsgate\\nWithout and Bishopsgate Within.\\nOf the three methods of adjection now described, the\\nmiddle one, or the second variety of it, has so much the", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0370.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS. 359\\ngreater development, that it has appropriated the name of\\nAdjective to itself, and the body of this section has been\\noccupied with it.\\nThis threefold variety of adjectival expression has a phi-\\nlological importance which will more clearly be seen in\\nthe next section, where it will be made the basis of the\\narrangement.\\nIII. Of the Advekb,\\nIn Adverbs our attention shall be given to one leading\\ncharacter. It is that which has been already traced in the\\nadjectives at the end of the last section. The adverbs rise\\nstage above stage in a threefold gradation. They are either\\nFlat, Flexional, or Phrasal and this division gives the plan\\nof the present section.\\nBut before proceeding to exhibit these, it will be desirable\\nto apprehend clearly what an adverb is, in the most pure\\nand simple acceptation of the term. The adverb is the\\ntertiary, or third presentive word. It has been shown above\\nthat the substantive is the primary, that the adjective and\\nverb are co-ordinated as the secondary, and we now com-\\nplete this trilogy of presentives by the addition of the adverb,\\nwhich is the third and last of presentive words. Whatever\\nmaterial idea is imported into any sentence must be conveyed\\nthrough one of these three orders of words. All the rest is\\nmechanism.\\nWe assign to the adverb the third place, although we\\nknow that it does not stand in that order in every sentence.\\nWe do so because this is its true and natural order for it is\\nin this order alone that the mind can make use of it as an", "height": "3176", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0371.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "360 THE NOUN GROVP.\\nadverb. Whether the adverb stand first, as in very fine\\nchild, or in the third place as in John rides well, either way\\nit is equally third in mental order. K?,fine is dependent on\\nchild for its adjectival character, so very is dependent on the\\ntwo for its adverbial character. There is a good meaning\\nin very if I say a very child, but it is no longer an adverbial\\nmeaning.\\nAs a further illustration of the tertiary character of the\\nadverb, it may be noticed that it attaches only to adjectives\\nand verbs, that is, to the two secondary words. The adverb\\nis further removed from the base of language, it is higher\\nabove the foundation by which language is based in physical\\nnature in other words, mind is more deeply engaged in its\\nproduction than it is either in the case of the substantive or\\nof the adjective. Accordingly the adverbs cannot be dis-\\nposed of in a catalogue such as we have made of substantives\\nand adjectives. The power of making adverbs is too un-\\nhmited for us to catalogue them as things moulded and made.\\nThe adverb is to be looked at rather as a faculty than as\\na product, as a potential rather than as a material thing.\\nOf all presentive words, the adverb has most sympathy\\nwith the verb. Indeed, this quality is already intimated in\\nthe very name of Adverb. It is the peculiar companion of\\nthe verb, as the adjective is of the substantive. It continues\\nor intensifies the mental action raised by the verb, or even\\ndirects it into new channels. And here having reached as it\\nwere the third and topmost storey of our edifice, we leave\\nbehind us the care for raw material, and think more and\\nmore of the arts and graces of architectural composition.\\nWe have done with the forest and the quarry, and we are\\nabsorbed in the contemplation of the effect. We may yet\\nincidentally notice that an adverbial form has come from\\nSaxon or other external source but our main attention wili", "height": "3180", "width": "2060", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0372.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (flat). 36 1\\nbe required by a division as truly inward to the adverbs\\nthemselves, as that which formed the plan of the chapter on\\nverbs. Moreover this internal division is the more worthy\\nof consideration, as it is not limited to the adverbs alone,\\nbut is correlated to the general economy and progress of\\nlanguage.\\nI. Of the Flat Adverb.\\nThe Flat Adverb is simply a substantive or an adjective\\nplaced in an adverbial position. The same word which, if it\\nqualified a noun, would be called an adjective, being set to\\nqualify an adjective or a verb is called an adverb. The use\\nof the unaltered adjective as an adverb has a peculiar effect,\\nwhich I know not how to describe better than by the epithet\\nFlat. This effect is not equally appreciable in all instances\\nof the thing; but it may perhaps be recognised in the\\nfollowing case of the adverb\\nvillamous.\\nLike an ape, with forehead villainous low,\\nThe uneasy young traveller in an American car, who (as\\nMr. Zincke relates) exclaimed Mother, fix me good, gave\\nus there an excellent example of this original adverb of\\nnature.\\nAlthough this adverbial use of good is not admitted in\\nliterary English, the analogous use of gut is polite German.\\nIndeed, the fiat adverb is much more extensively used in\\nGerman than in English, as fc^reiBeu (8ie langfam, write\\nslowly. We do also hear in English write slow, but it is\\nrather rustic.\\nOur English examples of this most primitive form of\\nadverb will mostly be found in the colloquial and familiar", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0373.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "^6% THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nspecimens of language. In such homely phraseology as\\nwalk fast, walk slow speak loud, speak low tell me true\\nor again in this, yes, sure we have examples of the flat\\nadverb. We do indeed find stire thus used by good\\nwriters\\nAnd the work sure was very grateful to all men of devotion. Clarendon,\\nHistory, i. 198.\\nclean.\\nSufFre yet a litle whyle, ye vngodly shal be clene gone thou shalt\\nloke after his place, he shal be awaye. Psalm xxxvii. 10. (Miles Cover-\\ndale, 1535.)\\nIn the following, brisk is a flat adverb\\nHe cherups brisk his ear-erecting steed.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Task, Bk. III.\\nstrong.\\nYet these each other s power so strong contest,\\nThat either seems destructive of the rest.\\nOliver Goldsmith, The Traveller.\\nIn the following, warm is a flat adverb\\nOr when the deep green-mantl d earth\\nWarm cherish d ev iy flow ret s birth,\\nAnd joy and music pouring forth\\nIn ev ry grove,\\nI saw thee eye the gen ral mirth\\nWith boundless love.\\nRobert Burns, The Vision.\\nsolemn.\\nAnd wear thou this, she solemn said.\\nAnd bound the holly round my head\\nThe polish d leaves, and berries red\\nDid rustling play\\nAnd like a passing thought she fled\\nIn light away. Id.\\njust.\\nA White Starling in Pembrokeshire. Sir: On the 27th of October\\nlast, at about 10 a.m., I was seated in my room at Solva, Pembrokeshire", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0374.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS {FLAT). ^6^\\na pretty little seaside town at which I was staying for a couple of months.\\nA friend had just sent me a few back numbers of Land and Water, and I was\\nat the above time and place reading in your issue of October the 9th a para-\\ngraph on white starlings, signed C. P., in which the writer says that\\nwhilst on a visit in Berkshire 1 saw a most beautiful specimen of a white\\nstarling. The closely packed plumage of that bird gave it a most lovely ap-\\npearance. He was snowy white, without a spot of colour. He dropped one\\nmorning with a flock in a meadow opposite our window; was also seen at\\nSouthstoke and Basildon, but afterwards disappeared, I fear, before some\\nruthless gun. I had only finished reading the paragraph when, with the\\npaper still in hand, I stepped to the window, and outside, sure enough, there\\nwas a white starling in a flock of others I immediately ran to the house\\nof my friend, Edward Robinson, Esq. a rare ornithologist and taxidermist\\nand by the help of his breechloader we secured the prize. Land and Water,\\nJanuary 8, 1870.\\nextraordinary.\\nWe had an extraordinary good run with the Tiverton hounds yesterday.\\nId. January 15, 1870.\\nI don t mean to hurt you, you poor little thing.\\nAnd pussy-cat is not behind me\\nSo hop about pretty, and put down your wing,\\nAnd pick up the crumbs, and don t mind me.\\nNtirsery Rhymes.\\nThe adverbs have a knack of reverberation, which in\\nflexional adverbs is a mere echo of sound, but in flat adverbs\\nis often a varied reiteration of the sense. The following\\nfrom Mr. Skrine s Translation of Schiller s Song 0/ the Bell^\\nfurnishes an example\\nback home.\\nFrom girls the proud Boy bursts away,\\nThe outer world to roam.\\nWith pilgrim-staff pursues his way.\\nComes back a stranger home. (p. 4.)\\nOther examples of the flat adverb in the same work are\\ntrue.\\nWhen strong with weak is blended right,\\nAnd soft with firm doth well unite,\\nThen ever rings the metal true. (p- 5", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0375.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "364 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nslow, best.\\nWhile the bell is cooling slow\\nMay the workman rest\\nEach, as birds through bushes go,\\nDo what likes him best. (p. 14.)\\nOf our short and homely adverbs there are some few\\nwhich now bear the appearance of belonging to this group,\\nhaving lapsed into it from the flexional group. Such are\\nill, still, which in Saxon are oblique cases, ille, stille (disyl-\\nlabic). But others are ancient substantives or adjectives\\nwhose original character has been overlaid by the adverbial\\nhabit. Such are 7Jifell,/ar, near, up, down, in, out.\\nTo this group belongs a word, provincial indeed, but\\nwhich prevails through the eastern half of the island from\\nNorfolk to Northumberland, namely the adverb geyn (Ger-\\nman gegen), meaning near, handy, convenient. Its use\\nappears in the following dialogue taken from life\\nWhere s the baby s bib, Lavina\\nOn the chair, m m\\nI don t see it anywhere here.\\nWell m I m sure I laid it geyn\\nThe flat adverb is in fact rustic and poetic, and both for\\nthe same reason, namely, because it is archaic. Out of\\npoetry it is for the most part an archaism, but it must not\\ntherefore be set down as a rare, or exceptional, or ca-\\npricious mode of expression. If judgment went by numbers,\\nthis would in fact be entided to the name of the English\\nAdverb. To the bulk of the community the adverb in -ly is\\nbookish, and is almost as unused as if it were French. The\\nflat adverb is all but universal with the illiterate. But\\namong literary persons it is hardly used (a few phrases\\nexcepted), unless with a humorous intention. This will be\\nmade plain by an instance of the use of the flat adverb in", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0376.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS {FLEXIONAL). ^6^\\ncorrespondence. Charles Lamb, writing to H. C. Robinson,\\nFarewell till we can all meet comfortable. H. C. Robinson, Diary,\\n1827.\\nThis flat and simple adverb suffices for primitive needs, but\\nit soon fails to satisfy the demands of a progressive civilisa-\\ntion. For an example of the kind of need that would arise\\nfor something more highly organised, we may resort to that\\nfrequent unriddler of philological problems, the Hebrew\\nlanguage. In Exodus xvi. 5 we read It shall be twice as\\nmuch as they gather dayly. Instead of dayly the Hebrew\\nhas day day, that is, a flat adverb day repeated in order to\\nproduce the eff ect of our day by day or daily. This affords\\nus a glimpse of the sort of ancient contrivance which was\\nthe substitute of flexion before flexion existed, and out of\\nwhich flexion took its rise.\\nBut for a purely English bridge to the next division we\\nmay produce one of the frequent instances in which a flat\\nadverb is coupled with a flexional one, and of which it so\\nhappens that the example at this moment before us is\\nMr. Froude s assertion, that Queen Mary s letters were\\nexamined long and minutely by each and every of the lords\\nwho were present. (Vol. ix. p. 347.)\\n2 0/ the Flexional A dverb.\\nWhen the flexional system of language had become\\nestablished, and the nouns were declined, Nominative, Geni-\\ntive, Dative, Ablative the simplest way of applying a noun\\nadverbially was by adding it to the sentence in its ablative or\\ninstrumental case. This was the general way of making\\nadverbs in Greek and Latin, and also in Saxon. Of these", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0377.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "0^)6 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nwe have little left to show. The clearest and most perfect\\ninstance is that of the old-fashioned adverb tvhilom or\\nwhilome\\nIt fortuned, (as fayre it then befell)\\nBehynd his backe, unweeting where he stood,\\nOf auncient time there was a springing Well,\\nFrom which fast trickled forth a silver flood,\\nFull of great vertues, and for med cine good\\nWhylome, before that cursed Dragon got\\nThat happy land, and all with innocent blood\\nDefyld those sacred waves, it rightly hot\\nThe Well of Life ne yet his vertues had forgot,\\nThe Faerie Queene, i. II. 29.\\nThe ablative plural of nouns in Saxon was in -um, as\\nhwile, while, time hwilum, at whiles, at times. This\\nablative plural is the form which we retain in whilom,\\nwhilome. As this can only be illustrated from the elder\\nform of our speech, we will quote one of the proverbs of\\nour Saxon ancestors Wea bi^ wundrum clibbor, that is.\\nWoe is wonderfully clinging. Here the idea of wonderfully\\nis expressed by the dative plural of the noun wonder, and\\nwufidrum signifies literally with wonders.\\nTo this place we must assign also o/te7t and seldom as if\\noft-um and seld-um. The former is somewhat obscure but\\nof the latter there is less doubt. The simple seld is very\\nancient, and does not appear in the Saxon remains, yet it\\ncrops up curiously enough in Chaucer s Knighfs Tale\\nSelde is the Friday all the weke ylike.\\nCanterbury Tales, 1 5 41.\\ni.e. Rarely is the Friday like the rest of the week.\\nTo the flexional division belong the adverbs in -meal,\\nthough they have now lost their flexion. In Saxon they\\n=hight, i.e. was named.", "height": "3172", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0378.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (FLEXIONAL). 367\\nend in -vicElum, as sticcemcBlum, stitchmeal/ or stitch by\\nstitch, meaning piece-meal (German (Stitcf piece).\\nChaucer has stoundemele, meaning from hour to hour/\\nor from one moment to another/ Thus, in the Romaiint\\nof the Rose, 1. 2304\\nThe life of love is full contraiie,\\nWhich stoundemele can oft varie.\\nand in Troilus and Creseide, Bk. v. 674\\nAnd hardily, this wind that more and more\\nThus stoundemele encreaseth in my face.\\nflockmel.\\nOnly that point his peple bare so sore,\\nThat flockmel on a day to him they went.\\nThe Clerhe s Tale, init.\\nIn the Book of Curtesye, of the fifteenth century, the\\nchilde is advised to read the writings of Gower and\\nChaucer and Occleve, and above all those of the immortal\\nLydgate for eloquence has been exhausted by these and\\nit remains for their followers to get it only by imitation and\\nextracting by ca?tfelmele, by scraps, extracts, quotations\\nThere can no man ther fames now disteyne\\nThanbawmede toung and aureate sentence,\\nMen gette hit nowe by cantelmele, and gleyne\\nHere and there with besy diligence.\\nAnd fayne wold riche the crafte of eloquence\\nBut be the glaynes is hit often sene.\\nIn whois feldis they glayned and have bene.\\nOriel MS. ed. Furnival, Early English Text Society, Extra Series, iii.\\npiecemeal.\\nAnd, when I would have smitten them, heard a voice\\nDoubt not, go forward if thou doubt, the beasts\\nWill tear thee piecemeal. The Holy Grail.\\nlimb-meal.\\nTear her limb-meal.* Cymheline, ii. 4.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0379.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "368 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nHere also I should range the adverbs in -mg or -h ng, as\\ngroveling xa/^a^f\\nLike as the sacred Oxe that carelesse stands,\\nWith gilden homes and flowry girlonds crownd,\\nProud of his dying honor and deare bandes,\\nWhiles th altars fume with frankincense arownd,\\nAll suddeinly, with mortall stroke astownd,\\nDoth groveling fall, and with his streaming gore\\nDistaines the pillours and the holy grownd.\\nAnd the faire flowres that decked him afore\\nSo fell proud Marinall upon the pretious shore.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. 4. 17.\\nflatling.\\nBut it is worthy of memory, to see how the women of that Towne did\\nply themselues with their weapons, making a great Massacre upon our men,\\nand murthered 500 of them in such speedie and furious sort as is wonder-\\nfull wee needed not to haue feared their men at all, had not the women\\nbin our greatest ouerthrow, at which time I my self was maister Gunner of\\nthe Admirals Gaily, yet chained greeuously, and beaten naked with a Turkish\\nsword flatling, for not shooting where they would haue me, and where I\\ncould not shoote. Wehhe his trauailes, 1590 (Ashbee s Facsimile Reprint).\\ndarkling.\\nThen feed on Thoughts, that voluntary move\\nHarmonious numbers as the wakeful Bird\\nSings darkling, and in shadiest Covert hid\\nTunes her Nocturnal note.\\nJohn Milton, Paradise Lost, iii. 39.\\nInstances of the gentive in -es, used as an adverbial sign,\\nare upwards, towards, needs, eggelinges edgewise, Chevelere\\nAssigne, 305), eftsoones (Spenser, Faerie Queene, iii. 11. 38).\\nneeds.\\nSen |50u hast lerned b}^ ])e sentence of plato J)at nedes ];e wordes moten\\nben conceyued to J)o Jiinges of whiche jjei speken. Boethius (Early English\\nText Society), p. 106.\\nTranslation. Since thou hast learned by the sentence of Plato that the\\nwords must needs be conceived (fittingly) to the things of which they speak.", "height": "3188", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0380.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (FLEXIONAL). 369\\nMark xiii. 7.\\nTyndale, 1526. 161 1.\\nWhen ye shall heare of warre And when yea shall heare of\\nand tydinges oiF warre, be ye not warres, and rumors of warres, be yee\\ntroubled for they must nedes be, not troubled For such things must\\nbutt the ende is nott yett. needs be, but the end shall not be yet.\\nsonderlypes severally.\\nWere he neuere of so hey parage,\\nWold he, ne wolde, J)at scholde he do,\\nOlper J)e de] schold he go to.\\npus sonderlypes he dide J\u00c2\u00bbem swer^,\\nTyl Argayl schulde J)ey fai]) here.*\\nR. Brunne s Chronicle (Lambeth MS.) 3876.\\nEarly English Text Society.\\nUpwards,\\nOne s general impression of a mountain is that it should have something\\nof a pyramidal form. The differentia of a mountain is, I suppose, that the\\ncurves of its outline should be concave upwards, whereas those of a hill are\\nconvex.\\nBut the flexion which has obtained the greatest vogue is\\nthat in -ly as, I gave him sixpence willingly.\\nThis adverb might appear to be nothing but a collocative\\nadaptation of the adjective in -ly to the adverbial use. Had\\nthis been its history, it would still have deserved a separate\\nplace from the flat adverbs, because of the almost universal\\nappropriation of this adjectival form as an adverbial inflec-\\ntion. But the fact is, that although the adjective and adverb\\nin -ly have now the same external aspect, this is only a re-\\nsult of that levelling process of the transition period under\\nwhich so many of our flexions disappeared. In Saxon the\\nadjective was in -lic^ as wonderlic, wonderful and the adverb\\nin -lice, as wunderlice, wonderfully. And this final -e was the\\ncase-ending of the instrumental case, and so resembled the\\nLatin adverb from the ablative, as verd.\\nWhen we consider how much has been absorbed in this\\nBb", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0381.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "370 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nadverbial termination, we can understand why the last syl-\\nlable of the adverb in -ly was pronounced so full and long\\ndown to the sixteenth century, as in the following\\nYe ought to be ashamed,\\nAgainst me to be gramed\\nAnd can tell no cause why,\\nBut that I wryte trulye.\\nSkelton, Colyn Clout.\\nThis adverbial form has become so exceedingly prevalent\\nabove all others, as almost to eclipse them and cause them\\nto be forgotten while, moreover, the great dominance of\\nthis form as an adverb has cast a sort of shadow over the\\nadjective of the same form. Sometimes these functions come\\ninto an uncomfortable collision with one another as, Their\\nungodly deeds which they have ungodly committed, where\\nthe first ungodly is an adjective and the second an adverb.\\nThe expression truly and godly serve Thee is not quite\\nfree from the same disturbance.\\nWhat was said in the last section about social adjectives,\\napplies also to adverbs, though in a more superficial way.\\nAdverbs do not take the root that adjectives do. In the last\\ngeneration a marked social adverb was vastly thus, in\\nMansfield Park^ when Edward was resolute that Fanny must\\nhave a horse, we read\\nMrs. N orris could not help thinking that some steady old thing might\\nbe found among the numbers belonging to the Park, that would do vastly\\nwell.\\nAt the present moment it may be said that awfully is the\\nadverb regnant. How do Awfully jolly, thanks.*\\nVerily is an adverb in which a French base has received\\na Saxon formative. This adverb is a memorial of the bi-\\nlingual period of our language. It has not undergone the\\nusual process of formation through an adjective. There\\nhas never been an adjective verily and I do not think the", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0382.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS {FLEXION AL). 37 1\\nadverb has been built upon very after its establishment as an\\nEnglish adjective; but rather that the termination -ly, as\\nthe established sign of adverbiality, has supplanted the\\nFrench adverbial termination -meni. Verily is our insular\\nsubstitute for the French vraiment, Italian veramente, Latin,\\nor rather Roman, vera menie. It is curious to observe that\\nthe Romanesque languages should have taken the word for\\nmind as the material out of which they have moulded a\\nformula for the adverbial idea; while the Saxon equivalent\\nhas grown out of the word for lody lie being body, German\\nchiefly.\\nOnly a sweet and virtuous soul,\\nLike seasoned timber, never gives\\nBut though the whole world turn to coal.\\nThen chiefly lives. George Herbert.\\nBefore we pass from this, one of the most dominant forms\\nof our language, we may glance for a moment at the feeling\\nand moral effects with which it is associated. As the sub-\\nstantive is the most necessary of words, so the adverb is\\nnaturally the most decorative and distinguishing. And as it\\nis easiest to err in that part of your fabric which is least\\nnecessary, so a writer s skill or his incapacity comes out\\nmore in his adverbs than in his substantives or adjectives.\\nIt is no small matter in composition to make your adverbs\\nappear as if they belonged to the statement, and not as mere\\narbitrary appendages. Hardly anything in speech gives\\ngreater satisfaction than when the right adverb is put in the\\nright place.\\nDickens, describing the conversation of two men at a funeral as they\\ndiscuss the fate or prospects of various neighbours, past and present, says,\\nwith one of his happiest touches, that they spoke as if they themselves were\\nnotoriously immortal.\\nHow happy is this notoriously how delicately does it\\nexpose that inveterate paradox of self-delusion whereby\\nBb 2", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0383.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "yjl THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nmen tacitly assume for themselves an exception from the\\noperation of general laws How widely does this differ\\nfrom the common tendency to be profuse in adverbs, which\\nis a manifestation of the impotent desire to be effective at\\nlittle cost. The following is not a strong example, but it\\nwill indicate what is meant\\nMost heartily do I recommend Mr. Beecher s sermons they\\nare instructively and popularly philosophical, without being distractingly\\nmetaphysical. The Pulpit Analyst.\\nAs in art the further an artist goes in embellishment the\\nmore he risks a miscarriage in effect, so it is in language.\\nIt is only the master s hand that can safely venture to lay on\\nthe adverbs thick. And yet their full capability only then\\ncomes out when they are employed with something like\\nprodigality. When there is a well-ballasted paragraph, sohd\\nin matter and earnest in manner, then, like the full sail of\\na well-found ship, the adverbs may be crowded with glad\\neffect. In the following passage, how free from adverbs is\\nthe body of the paragraph; and when we come to where they\\nare lavishly displayed at the end, we feel that the demon-\\nstration is justified. If we quoted only the termination of\\nthis passage, the adverbs would lose their raison d etre.\\nI believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not\\nmean by humiHty, doubt of his own power, or hesitation in speaking his\\nopinions but a right understanding of the relation between what he can\\ndo and say, and the rest of the world s sayings and doings. All great men\\nnot only know their business, but usually know that they know it and are\\nnot only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are\\nright in them only, they do not think much of themselves on that account.\\nArnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence Albert Durer writes\\ncalmly to one who had found fault with his work, It cannot be better\\ndone Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two\\nthat would have puzzled anybody else only they do not expect their\\nfellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them they have a curious\\nunder-sense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not in them, but\\nthrough them that they could not do or be anything else than God made\\nthem. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man\\nthey meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, incredibly merciful.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0384.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (phrasal). 373\\nUnless it is used with skill and discretion, the cumulation\\nof the formal adverb is apt to generate fulsomeness. Nay,\\neven singly put, a certain moderation is requisite for a\\npleasing effect. In short, this form will not bear a very\\nheavy charge, and when the weightiest demonstrations of\\nthis kind have to be made, it is found by experience that the\\nrequisite display of adverbiality is accomplished with another\\nsort of instrument.\\nAs a bridge from this section to the next, the words from\\n2 Cor. ix. 7, not grudgingly or of necessity, will do very\\nwell. Or the following\\nworthily and to great purpose.\\nNotwithstanding, though it [the Septuagint] was commended generally,\\nyet it did not fully content the learned, no not of the lewes. For not long\\nafter Christ, Aquila fell in hand with a new Translation, and after him\\nTbeodotion, and after him Symmachus yea, there was a fift and a sixt\\nedition, the Authours wherof were not knowen. These with the Seuentie\\nmade vp the Hexapla, and were worthily and to great purpose compiled\\ntogether by Origen The S ranslators to the Reader, 161 1.\\nHere we have an adverb of the formal kind coupled with\\none of the phrasal, to which we now proceed.\\n3. 0/ the Phrasal Adverb.\\nThe Phrasal Adverb is already considerably developed, and\\nit is still in course of development; but it attracts the less\\nattention because the thing is going on under our eyes. As\\nthe general progress of our language involves the decay of\\nflexion and the substitution of symbolic words in its place,\\nso this alteration befalls particular groups of words more\\nor less, in proportion to the degree of their elevation and\\nconsequent exposure. The substantive, which is the primary\\npresentive, and which lies at the base of the rest, is naturally", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0385.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "374 NOUN-GROUP.\\nleast affected while the adverb, which is the tertiary or top-\\nmost presentive, is naturally the most exposed to the\\ninnovations of symbolism.\\nThis expansion of the language seems to call for a cor-\\nresponding enlargement in the sense of such a term as\\nadverb. If willingly is an adverb in the sentence I gave\\nhim sixpence willingly/ then what am I to call the phrase\\nwith a good will/ if I thus express myself: I gave him\\nsixpence with a good will In its relation to the mind\\nthis phrase occupies precisely the same place as that word\\nand if a different name must be given on account of form\\nonly, our terminology will need an indefinite enlargement\\nwhile it will have but a superficial signification. I would\\nrather call them both adverbs, distinguishing them as Formal\\nand Phrasal. Often we see that we are obliged to translate\\na formal Greek adverb by a phrasal English one, thus\\noixodvfxadov, in ActS ii. I, Wl l/l one accord dTrepLa-n-daTas, I Cor.\\nvii. 35, without distraction ddiaXelTrrcos, i Thess. v. 17,\\nwithout ceasing.\\nOf a child, in Mark ix. 21, is our rendering of naidioBev,\\nan adverb of the formal and conventional type.\\nGenitival forms of the adverb having ceased to grow in\\nthe language, their place is supplied by the formation of\\nphrasal adverbs with the symbol q/ as, of a truth, of neces-\\nsity, of old.\\nof old.\\nAnd all be vernal rapture as of old.\\nChristian Year, Twenty-third Sunday after Trinity.\\nThe symbol of has taken the place of the genitival flex-\\nion, and we may say generally, that in the modern action\\nof the language the prepositions have taken the place\\nof oblique cases. They enter freely into the formation", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0386.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (phrasal). ^y^\\nof phrases which do the office both of the adjective and of\\nthe adverb.\\nAs a word may be an adjective or an adverb according\\nto its relative place in the sentence, so also there is many\\na phrase which, according to its position, is either an adjec-\\ntive of the third class or an adverb of the third class that\\nis to say, either a phrasal adjective (adjection), or a phrasal\\nadverb (adverbiation). See how this acts, for example, in\\nthe phrases z n Joke, in earnest. If we say he is in joke,\\nor in earnest, they are adjectives but if we say he said\\nso in joke, or in earnest, they are, adverbs.\\nHere we have to do only with the adverbial office of such\\nphrases.\\nExamples at best, at intervals, at large, at least, at length,\\nat most, at random, at worst in earnest, infad^ in good faith,\\nin jest, in truth, in vain..\\nat present.\\nBut at present we may accept these simple laws without going further\\nback. Alfred Russel Wallace, Creation by Law.\\nat last.\\nSo that one may scratch a thought half a dozen times, and get nothing\\nat last but a faint sputter. James Russell Lowell, Fireside Travels, 1864,\\np. 163.\\nin jest.\\nWe will not touch upon him ev n in jest.*\\nAlfred Tennyson, Enid.\\nIn presence is a phrasal adverb which we have borrowed\\nfrom the French, en presence as\\nThe only antagonist in presence came to be treated as the only\\nantagonist in existence.\\nThe phrasal adverb in fact has of late been sometimes\\nmodified to in effect, after the French en effet.", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0387.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "376 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nA phrasal adverb which has coalesced into one vocable, is\\nthat which is formed with the ^-prefix, as abed, afield, agog,\\naloud, afar, afoot, aright, awork. In our earlier printed\\nliterature, and down to the close of the sixteenth century,\\nthis adverb is printed as two vocables\\na right.\\nThey turne them selues, but not a right, are become as a broken bowe.\\nMiles Coverdale, Hosea vii. i6.\\nI derive this a from the French preposition a; thus afooi\\nrepresents a pied.\\nAnother form of the phrasal adverb is where a noun is\\nrepeated with a preposition between, as wave after wave,\\nbridge by bridge, c.\\nAnd then the two\\nDropt to the cove, and watched the great sea fall,\\nWave after wave, each mightier than the last,\\nTill last, a ninth one, gathering half the deep\\nAnd full of voices, slowly rose and plunged\\nRoaring, and all the wave was in a flame.\\nAlfred Tennyson, The Coming of Arthur.\\nNot to be crost, save that some ancient king\\nHad built a way, where, link d with many a bridge,\\nA thousand piers ran into the great Sea,\\nAnd Galahad fled along them bridge by bridge. Id.\\nAnother form of this adverb is that which is inducted by\\nthe demonstrative pronoun, or the definite article, or any\\nother word of a pronominal nature. Such are, in the follow-\\ning quotations, the adverbs that time, no thynge, the while,\\nthe right way, the wrong way. Tt makes no difference whe-\\nther a preposition be understood, as if those phrases were\\nabbreviations for at that time, in no respect, for the\\nwhile, in the right way, in the wrong way. Such a con-\\nsideration makes no difference in regard to the adverbial\\nnature of the phrases, and has, in fact, no place here.", "height": "3188", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0388.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS {phrasal). 377\\n/ha^ time, 7io thynge.\\nIrlond ]?at tyme was bygged no ynge\\nWyJ) hous ne toun, ne man wonynge.\\nR. Brunne s Chronicle (Lambeth MS.)\\nTranslation. Ireland at that time was not-at-all built with house nor\\ntown, nor man resident.\\nthe right way, the wrong way.\\nThe right thing beUeved the right way must inevitably produce the\\nperfect life. Either, then, the civilised world believes the wrong thing, or it\\nbelieves the right thing the wrong way. Laurence Oliphant, Piccadilly,\\n(1870), p. 274.\\nthe while.\\nYet, while they use greater earnestness of entreaty than their Lord,\\nthey must not forget His dignity the while who sends them. J. H.\\nNewman, vol. i. serm. xxiii.\\nRoom enough must be given to the term adverb to let it\\ntake in all that appertains to the description of the con-\\nditions and circumstances attendant upon the statement\\ncontained in the sentence. If I say, I gave him sixpence\\nwith a good will/ and if the phrase with a good will is\\nadmitted to a place among adverbs, then there is no reason\\nto exclude any circumstantial adjunct, such as, with a green\\npurse, or without any purse to keep it in. If any one objects\\nto this as too vague a relaxation of our terminology, I would\\npropose that for such extended phraseological adverbs we\\nadopt the title of Adverbiation. Such a term would furnish\\nan appropriate description for the relative position of a very\\nimportant element in modern diction. At the close of the\\nfollowing quotation we see a couple of phrases linked to-\\ngether, which would come under this designation\\nI had a very gracious reception from the Queen and the Prince Consort,\\nand a large party of distinguished visitors. The affability and grace of\\nthese exalted personages made a deep impression on me. It might be copied\\nby some of our grocers and muffin-bakers to their great improvement, and\\nto the comfort of others surrounding them. The Public Life of W. F.\\nWallett, the Queen s Jester, 1870.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0389.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "3; 8 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nWithout effort and without thought.\\nWhen I contemplate natural knowledge squandering such gifts among\\nmen, the only appropriate comparison I can find for her is, to liken her to\\nsuch a peasant woman as one sees in the Alps, striding ever upward, heavily\\nburdened and with mind bent only on her home but yet, without effort and\\nwithout thought, knitting for her children. T. H. Huxley, Lay Sermons.\\nIf the study of grammar is ever to grapple with the facts\\nof language, one of two things must take place either we\\nmust make a great addition to the terminology, or we must\\ninvest the present terms with a more comprehensive mean-\\ning. If the ancient terms of grammar were the result of\\nmature and philosophical thought, and if they at all reflected\\nthose mental phases which must necessarily underlie all\\nhighly organized speech, then they will naturally and without\\nsuffering any violence bear continual extension, so as still to\\ncover the phenomena of language under the greatly altered\\nconditions of its modern development. A multiplication of\\nterms is not in itself a desirable thing in any method and\\nleast of all in one that holds a prominent place in educational\\nstudies.\\nOne of the best tests of the soundness of a system hinges\\non this Whether it will explain new facts without providing\\nitself with new definitions and new categories. The multi-\\nplication of names and classes and groups is for the most\\npart not an explanation at all, but only an evasion of the\\ndifficulty which has to be explained. We have, then, ex-\\nplained a new phenomenon, when we have shewn that it\\nnaturally belongs to or branches out of some part of the old\\nand familiar doctrine. As therefore it is the condemnation\\nof any system that it should be frequently resorting to new\\ndevices, so it is the greatest recommendation when it appears\\nto be ever stretching out the hand of welcome to admit and\\nassign a niche to each newly observed phenomenon.\\nThese remarks are suggested by the stage at which", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0390.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "ADVERBS (phrasal). 379\\nwe are now arrived in our delineation of the phrasal adverb.\\nFor here we perceive that an opportunity oifers itself to\\nexplain philologcally one of the most peculiar of the phe-\\nnomena of the English language. That which we call the\\nEnglish infinitive verb, such as /o live, to die, is quite a\\nmodern thing, and is characteristic of English as opposed\\nto Saxon. The question, in presence of such a new phe-\\nnomenon, is naturally raised,\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Whence this form of the\\ninfinitive verb We did not borrow it, for it is not French\\nor Latin we did not inherit it, for it is not Saxon How\\ndid it rise, and what gave occasion to it 1\\nThis question is one that enters into the very interior\\ngrowth of language, and one that will supply the student of\\nEnglish with an aim for his observations in perusing our\\nearlier literature. I have indeed my own answer ready but\\nI wish it distinctly to be understood that it is to the question\\nrather than to the answer that I direct attention, and that in\\npropounding this and other roblems for his solution, I con-\\nsider myself to be rendering him the best philological service\\nin my power.\\nMy answer is, that it first existed as a phrasal adverb that\\nit was a method of attaching one verb on to another in an\\nadverbial manner, and that in process of time it detached\\nitself and assumed an independent position. As the fruit\\nof the pine-apple is not the termination of a branch, but the\\nplant continues to push itself forward through the fruit and\\nbeyond it, so it is with language. The sentence is the\\nmature product of language, but out of the extremity of\\nsentences there shoot forth germs for the propagation of\\nnew sentences and the projection of new forms of speech.\\nLet me add an illustration or two.\\nIn the Saxon Chronicle of Peterborough, anno 1085, we\\nread Hit is sceame to tellanne, ac hit ne thuhte him nan", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0391.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "380 THE NOUN-GROUP,\\nsceame to donne It is a shame to tell, but it seemed not\\nto him any shame to do/ The Saxon infinitives of the verbs\\ndo and tell were don and tellan but here these infinitives are\\ntreated as if they were substantives, and put in the oblique\\ncase with the preposition to, by means of which these verbs\\nare attached adverbially to their respective sentences, which\\nare complete sentences already without these adjuncts. We\\nmust not confuse this case with the modern construction\\nto speak of it is shameful, where the verb is now detached,\\nand formed into the modern infinitive, and put as the subject\\nof the sentence. These verbs to tellanne and to donne I call\\nphrasal adverbs even as in the modern sentence, He has\\nthree shillings a week to live on, I call to live on a phrasal\\nadverb.\\nIn modern English this adverbial use is eclipsed to our\\neyes by the far greater frequency of the substantival or in-\\nfinitive use but still it is not hard to find instances of the\\nformer, and there are two in the close of the following\\nparagraph. Mr. Sargent, pleading for colonies and emi-\\ngration, says\\nWe are told also that those who go are the best, the backbone of the\\nnation that the resolute and enterprising go abroad, leaving the timid and\\napathetic at home. This is not the whole truth. If I look around among\\nyoung men of my acquaintance, I see many who are worthy of all respect,\\nbut who cannot settle down to a fixed town employment who long for\\nmovement, air, sunshine, and storm, and who are impatient under the mo-\\nnotonous restraints of everyday occupations. These are the men for volun-\\nteer fire brigades, and, in case of war, for fighting but they are not the back-\\nbone of the nation in times of peace. Emigration, employment in India, a\\nmission to the end of the world, form their natural resources. In sending\\nthem away, we get rid of an explosive material, dangerous in quiet times\\nwe apply the material to a useful purpose, on the plains of Australia, or up\\nthe country in India. In one sense these are our best men they are the\\nbest to go, not the best to stay.* Essays by Members of the Birmingham\\nSpeculative Club, p, 26.\\nAs in French the phrase afaire (occurring often in such\\nconnection as quelque chose afaire, heaucoiip afaire, some-", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0392.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "NUMERALS. 381\\nthing to do/ a great deal to do became at length one\\nvocable, and that a substantive, affaire (English affair), so like-\\nwise in provincial English did to-do become a substantive, as\\nin the Devonshire exclamation, Here s a pretty to-do In\\nplace of this to-do the King s English accepted a composition\\npart French, part English, and hence the substantive ado.\\nIf it be admitted that affair and ado are now separate sub-\\nstantives formed from a preposition and a verb, the strange-\\nness of supposing a similar origin for our formal English\\ninfinitive is much lessened.\\nThis explanation may be confirmed or corrected by the\\nyoung philologer only he should consider in what way the\\ninfinitives may appear to have been formed in other, languages.\\nIt might be worth while to trace the origin of the Danish\\ninfinitive, which Hke ours is phrasal he should also cast a\\nglance at the flexional infinitives of the Greek and Latin, and\\nsee what sort of an account has been rendered of these by\\nthe Sanskrit scholars.\\nThe Numeeals.\\nThe numerals make a little noun-group by themselves,\\nand are (like the chief noun-group) distinguished by the\\nthreefold character of substantive, adjective, and adverb.\\nThe distinction between substantive and adjective is not\\nquite so sharp here as in other presentive words. It is\\nhowever plain that the cardinals when used arithmetically\\nare substantives, as in two and two make four.\\nThe numeral has also this aspect when any person or\\nthing is designated as number one, number two, c., the\\nword number being in the nature of a mere prefix, as is felt\\nwhen we look at the oblique-cased Latin word which the\\nFrench use in this connection.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0393.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "382 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nEn Angleterre, said a cynical Dutch diplomatist, numero deux va\\nchez numero un, pour s en glorifier aupres de numero trois. Laurence\\nOliphant, Piccadilly, Part v.\\nMoreover, when the numeral takes a plural form, it must\\nbe regarded as a substantive, e.g.\\nThere are hundreds of genuine letters of Mary Queen of Scots still\\nextant. John Hosack, Mary Queen of Scots and ber Accusers, p. 198.\\nThere is in some languages an abstract substantive which\\nis formed upon cardinals, and it has a peculiar utility in ex-\\npressing the more conventional quantities or round numbers.\\nThus in French there is huitaine, a quantity of eight, which\\nis only used in talking of the huit jours, eight days of the\\nweek. So they have their dixaine, douzaine, quinzaine, ving-\\niaine, hentaine, quarantaine, cinquantaine, soixantaine, centaine.\\nOf all this we have nothing. Only we have borrowed their\\nword for a tale of twelve, and have angUcised it into\\ndozen. Then we have a native substitute for vingtaine, not\\noriginally a numeral at all, but a word that practically fills\\nthe place of one. This is the word score, an elongate form\\nof scar, meaning a notch on the rind of a stick or some such\\nledger. Our special use of this word seems to indicate that in\\nthe rude reckoning of our ancestors a larger notch was made\\nat every twenty. The following is from The Mystery of\\nEdwin Drood, within a little of its abrupt termination\\nI like, says Mr. Datchery, the old tavern way of keeping scores.\\nIllegible, except to the scorer Hum ha A very small score this a\\nvery poor score\\nHe sighs over the contemplation of its poverty, takes a bit of chalk from\\none of the cupboard-shelves, and pauses with it in his hand, uncertain what\\naddition to make to the account.\\nI think a moderate stroke, he concludes, is all I am justified in scoring\\nup so, suits the action to the word, closes the cupboard, and goes to bed.\\nWhen used numerically, as two stars, three graces, four seas,\\nfive senses, then the numerals are assimilated to adjectives.\\nBut while we trace in the variations of the numeral a\\nbroad and general resemblance to the distinctions which\\nI", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0394.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "NUMERALS. 383\\nmark the nounal group, we should just notice that there is\\nnot in thought the same adjectival character in the numeral\\nas there is in the nounal group. If I say bright stars,\\nfabled graces, uncertain seas, receptive senses, these adjec-\\ntives have the same relation to their substantives, whether\\nthose substantives be taken in the plural or in the singular.\\nWhereas the numerals two, three, four, five, belong to their\\nsubstantives only conjointly and not severally. It may\\nhave been a dim sense of this difference that caused the\\nvacillation w^hich has appeared in language about the ad-\\njectival declension of numerals. In Saxon the first three\\nnumerals were declined. Thus, preora is genitive oi preo\\npis is ])3era Jjreora hida land gemsere, c. This is the\\nland-meer of the three hides, c. (a.d. 974.)\\nAdverbial numerals are such as once, twice, thrice, four\\ntimes, c., where it is to be observed that the difference of\\nadverbial form between the first three numerals and their\\nsuccessors is of a piece with the fact that these three were\\ndeclined, and the others were not, at least not within recorded\\nmemory. The adverbs once, twice, thrice, are in fact old\\ngenitives which have been disfigured by a frenchified ortho-\\ngraphy. In the Ormulum they are spelt thus aness, twiyss,\\nthriyss.\\nThis group is exceedingly retentive of antiquity. Not\\nonly is there a radical identity in the numerals of the Gothic\\nfamily, but these again are identical with the numerals of\\nother families of languages. This indicates a very high an-\\ntiquity. It will be as well to illustrate this fact by com-\\nparative tables. First, we will compare the different forms\\nassumed by the numerals in some of the various branches\\nof our own Gothic family, and then we will pass beyond that\\nlimit and take into our comparison some of the most illus-\\ntrious languages of the Indo-European stock.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0395.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "ffi\\n,\u00c2\u00a33 +j +J +J\\nbo", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0396.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "NUMERALS.\\n385\\nIn consequence of the luxuriant declension of the nu-\\nmerals in Sanskrit, I have followed the authority of Bopp s\\nGrammar for the theme in each case, that is to say, the\\npart of the word which is present or implied in each of the\\nvarious forms under w^hich it appears in literature.\\nIanskrit.\\nGreek.\\nLatin.\\nLithuanian.\\neka\\nhen\\nun\\ndva\\ndu\\ndu\\ntri\\ntri\\ntri\\ntri\\nchatur\\ntessar\\nquatuor\\npanchan\\npetite\\nquinqme\\npenki\\nshash\\nhex\\nsex\\nszeszi\\nsaptan\\nhepta\\nseptem\\nseptyni\\nashtan\\nokto\\nocto\\nasztuni\\nnavan\\nennea\\nnovem\\ndewyni\\ndasan\\ndeka\\ndecern\\ndeszimt\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0ekadasan\\nhendeka\\nundecim\\ndvadasan\\ndodeka\\nduodecim\\ntrayodasan\\ntriskaideka\\ntredecim\\nchaturdasaa\\ntessareskaideka\\nquatuordecim\\nunavinsati\\nundevinginti\\nvinsati\\neikosi\\nviginti\\ntrinsat\\ntriakonta\\ntriginta\\nchatvarinsat\\ntesserakonta\\nquadraginta\\npanchasat\\npentekonta\\nquinquaginta\\nshashti\\nhexakonta\\nsexaginta\\nsaptati\\nhebdomekonta\\nseptuaginta\\nasiti\\nogdoekonta\\noctoginta\\nnavati\\nenenekonta\\nnonaginta\\nsatam\\nhekaton\\ncentum\\nThe numerals have been inserted in this place as a sort\\nof appendix to the nounal group, because of the manifest\\naffinity of their form and their use to that group. At the\\nsame time enough has been said to indicate that they have\\na distinct character of their own, and that it would be un-\\nphilological to let them be absorbed into any class of words\\nwhatever. Their assimilation to the nounal group is less\\nnow than it was in ancient times that is to say, the modern\\nlanguages permit their distinctive character to be more\\napparent than the ancient languages did.\\nc c", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0397.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "385 THE NOUN-GROUP.\\nThat this is the proper place for the numerals we con-\\nclude not only from their assimilation to the nounal group\\non the one hand, but also from certain traces of affinity which\\nthey bear to the pronouns, and on which we shall have to\\ntouch in the next chapter.\\nP.S. By an oversight, which it is now too late to correct\\nin its proper place, the Ordinal numbers have been omitted.\\nIt is in these that the numeral more particularly assumes\\nan adjectival character. We retain all the ordinals in the\\nSaxon form except two, namely, first and second. First rose\\ninto its place from the dialects; but second was borrowed\\nfrom the French a solitary instance among the numerals,\\nproperly so called. The Saxon word in its place was other,\\na word which has now a pronominal value only.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0398.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER VIIL\\nTHE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nWe now cross the greatest chasm in language the chasm\\nwhich separates the presentives from the symbolics. So\\nprofoundly has this separation been felt by philologers, that\\nsome would even regard these two spheres of speech as\\nradically and originally distinct from each other. The con-\\nsideration of this theory would lead us beyond the track of\\nthe present treatise. It is only introduced here as a testi-\\nmony to the greatness of the distinction between nouns and\\npronouns. Bopp, in his Comparative Grammar, 105, taught\\nthat in Sanskrit and the kindred languages (which include\\nEnglish) there are two classes of roots, the one of verbs and\\nnouns, the other of pronouns, all original prepositions, con-\\njunctions, and particles. The former he calls Verbal Roots,\\nthe latter Pronominal Roots.\\nOn the other hand, we find Professor Max Miiller at dif-\\nferent periods holding different views as to the derivation of\\naham, the Sanskrit ego; and at one time he proposed to\\nderive it from a Sanskrit verb ah to breathe, to speak. He\\nhas in his Lectures (Second Series, 1864) given up this view\\nwithout joining the ranks of those who have assigned to it\\na pronominal root. He gives us moreover an excellently\\nc c 2", "height": "3168", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0399.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "388 THE PRONOUN GROUP,\\nsuggestive illustration of the way in which the one class of\\nwords may be transplanted into the place of the other.\\nThe pronoun of the first person in Cochin-Chinese is not\\na pronoun, but means servant. /ove is expressed in that\\ncivil language by servant loves! Thus he appears not to\\nhold the necessity of the division of the radicals into two\\nclasses.\\nIf the word servant in this case is not a pronoun, it is\\nat least in a fair way of becoming so. Already in English\\nyour humble servant/ when used playfully as a substitute\\nfor is a pronoun as much so as your Honour, your\\nLordship, your Grace, your Highness, your Majesty. That\\nall these have passed, or at least are passing, into the region\\nof the symbolic, there can be little doubt. And these recent\\ninstances of the transference enables us to conceive how all\\npronouns may possibly have been generated from nouns.\\nThis wide difference between nouns and pronouns is\\nequally certain, whatever may become of any etymological\\ntheory, inasmuch as it is a difference which depends not\\nupon origin, but upon function. It is not our earliest im-\\npression when we first consider a butterfly, that it is a\\ntransformed caterpiller. But when we have discovered their\\nidentity of origin, we have in no wise removed their dif-\\nference of function. Although we know that the caterpiller\\nand the butterfly are of the same family, this does not a\\nwhit alter the fact that they are two widely difl erent things,\\nin very different conditions of existence. Should it ever\\nbecome capable of proof that all the pronouns had sprung\\nfrom presentive roots, this would not invalidate the state-\\nment, that in passing from nouns to pronouns we traverse a\\nwide gulf, and one which can hardly be overrated as the\\ngreat central valley dividing the two great formations of\\nwhich language is composed.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0400.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "SUB-PRESENTIVE. 389\\nThese two great hemispheres of language, which we\\ndesignate as the Presentive and the Symbolic, which Bopp\\ncalls the Verbal and the Pronominal, may with equal propriety\\nand greater brevity be simply called Nouns and Pronouns,\\nfor in fact every other part of speech branches out of these\\ntwo. Of all the parts of speech hitherto noticed, it is the\\ngeneral quality (putting aside a few marked exceptions, of\\nwhich the most prominent is the symbol-verb to be) that they\\nare presentive. Of all the parts of speech which remain to\\nbe noticed it is the general quality that they are not pre-\\nsentive but symbolic.\\nAnd yet we are not come to a dead level of symboHsm.\\nThere are varieties of this character. And the first pronouns\\nthat we shall consider, are a class which combine with their\\nsymbolism a certain qualified sort of presentive power.\\nHow completely the personal pronouns are entitled to the\\ncharacter of symbolic we have already shown. But here\\nwe have to add, that besides the symbolic character, the\\npronoun (for instance) has also a sort of reflected or\\nborrowed presentiveness. which I propose to call a sub-\\npresentive power. Though this pronoun has absolutely no\\nsignification by itself, yet when once the substantive has\\nbeen given like a keynote, then from that time the pronoun\\ncontinues to have, by a kind of delegacy, the presentive\\npower which has been deputed to it by that substantive.\\nWe may see the same thing, if we consider the third per-\\nsonal pronoun\\nhim.\\nIt has been m}^ rare good fortune to have seen a large proportion of the\\ngreatest minds of our age, in the fields of poetry and speculative philosophy,\\nsuch as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Schiller, Tieck but none that I have ever\\nknown come near him. H. C. Robinson, Diary, 1 831.\\nIf we read the above sentence, and ask Who is himV\\nwe acknowledge the two qualities which constitute the", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0401.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "390 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nsubstantive-pronoun: for we imply that the word does in^-\\ndicate somebody, and that it does not say who the person\\nindicated is.\\nhe.\\nHe was a delightful man to walk with, and especially in a mountainous\\ncountry. He was physically strong, had excellent spirits, and was joyous\\nand boyish in his intercourse with his children and pupils. H. C. Robinson,\\nDiary, 1 842.\\nThis sub presentive character the personal pronouns\\nhave, as if by a right of contiguity to the great presentive\\nbody of words which we leave behind us. As we proceed\\nwith the catalogue of the pronouns, it will become less and\\nless perceptible, until at length, when the pronoun passes into\\nthe conjunction, it entirely fades from the view, and leaves\\nonly the pure symbolic essence of words, whose meaning is\\nso slight as to be imponderable, and whose value for the\\nhighest purposes of language is so great as to be almost\\ninestimable.\\nThe pronouns are, as their name signifies, words which are\\nthe vicegerents of nouns. Accordingly, they vary in habit\\nand function just in the same manner as nouns vary, and fall\\nnaturally into a similar division. This division is therefore\\ninto the same three groups as before, viz. I. Substantival,\\nII. Adjectival, III. Adverbial.\\nI. Substantival Pkonouns\\nThese are the pronouns of which, if the reader asked\\nhimself what presentive word they symbolise, he must make\\nanswer by a substantive. And of these the first in every\\nsense are the personal pronouns. How ancient these are\\nwill best be seen by a comparative table. Most of them will", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0402.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS.\\n391\\nbe found to be radically the same in all the languages of the\\nGothic stock.\\nThe statement would apply much more widely; but we\\nmust be on our guard against wandering when we are\\nentering such a forest primeval as that of the pronominal\\ngroup. Hear Professor Max Miiller on the antiquity of\\nakam, which is the Sanskrit form of\\nIt belongs to the earliest formations of Aryan speech, and we need not\\nwonder that even in Sanskrit the materials out of which this pronoun was\\nframed should have disappeared.\\nAnd just below,\\nThe Sanskrit ahatn, a word carried down by the stream of language from\\nsuch distant ages, that even the Vedas, as compared with them, are but as it\\nwere of yesterday. Lectures, Second Series, p. 348.\\nPronoun of the First Person.\\nGOTHIC.\\nSingular.\\nNorn, ik\\nICELANDIC.\\nek\\nANGLO-SAXON.\\nic\\nENGLISH.\\nI\\nGen.\\nmeina\\nmin\\nmin\\nDat.\\nAce.\\nmis\\nmik\\nmer\\nmik\\nme\\n(mec)\\nme)\\nme\\nDual.\\nNom.\\nGen.\\nDat. -1\\nAcc.j\\nwit\\nunkara\\nunkis\\nwit\\nokkar\\nokkr\\nwit\\nuncer\\nunc\\nPlural.\\nNom.\\nGen.\\nweis\\nunsara\\nwer\\nwar\\nwe\\n(user)\\nure\\nwe\\nDat.\\nAcc.j\\nunsis\\nOSS\\nUS\\nus\\nThe point to be noticed here is the paucity of English\\nforms, when these are compared with the elder languages.\\nPractically the difference is made up by the use of words\\nlike of, to, which have many other uses besides their applica-\\ntion in this place. So that this is a case of simplificationj of", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0403.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "393 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\neconomy of form, in the modern as contrasted with the elder\\nlanguages. The word min as a genitive of Ic or does not\\nexist in English. It exists in a different character as mine,\\nan adjectival pronoun. In German the same change has\\ntaken place the word mein, originally an official genitive of\\nic^, has passed from the condition of a substantival to that of\\nan adjectival pronoun. But the old substantival use of mein,\\nin which it means of me, is retained in certain expressions\\nthus \u00c2\u00a9ebenfe mein think of me. But the English mine is\\nnow adjectival only. The same observation applies exactly\\nto ure, which has altogether dropped out of use as the\\ngenitive plural of a substantival pronoun, and has passed\\ninto the condition of an adjectival pronoun our.\\nThe contrast which the above table exhibits between the\\nEnglish on the one hand, and the ancestral languages on the\\nother, is very striking. It shows how far we have moved\\nfrom their condition in regard to an element of language\\nwhich is justly esteemed among the most constant. But\\nthis will appear still more remarkable if we now proceed to\\ncompare with the English the same feature in French and\\nItalian.\\nSingular.\\nNorn. Je\\nGen. de moi\\nDat. a moi\\nAce. me\\nPlural.\\nNom. nous\\nGen. de nous\\nDat. a nous\\nAce. nous\\nIt is plain that our language has retained its native material\\nthroughout this pronoun, but that the shaping of that ma-\\nITALIAN.\\nENGLISH.\\nlo\\nI\\ndi me\\nof me\\na me\\nto me\\nme\\nme\\nnoi\\nwe\\ndi noi\\nof us-\\na noi\\nto us\\nnoi\\nus", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0404.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS.\\n393\\nterial is entirely copied from the Romance languages. It\\nwill not be necessary to take up space with displaying the\\nsame fact throughout the pronouns of the second and third\\nperson. It will be obvious to any one who has acquired the\\nelements of the Gothic and Romance languages, that the\\nexample applies to those cases, and to a great many others\\nwhich we leave to the young philologer to explore for\\nhimself.\\nPronoun of the Second Person.\\nGOTHIC.\\nICELANDIC.\\nANGLO-SAXON,\\nENGLISH.\\nSingular.\\nNom.\\nthu\\nthu\\nthu\\nthou\\nGen.\\ntheina\\nthin\\nthin\\nDat.\\nthus\\nther\\nthe 1\\n(thee) the i\\nthee\\nAce.\\nthuk\\nthik\\nDual.\\nNom.\\njut\\n(it) thit\\ngit\\nGen.\\ninkwara\\nykkar\\nincer\\nDat.\\ninkwis\\nykkr\\ninc\\nAce.\\ninkwis\\nykkr\\n(incit) ine\\nPlural.\\nNom.\\njus\\n(er) ther\\nge\\n(ye) yoi\\nGen.\\nizwara\\nythar\\neower\\nDat.\\nizwis\\nythr\\neow\\nAec.\\nizwis\\nythr\\n(eowie) eow J\\nyou\\nThe observations which have been made upon the pre-\\nvious pronouns apply also here. The paucity of the modern\\nforms is more marked here, because three out of the four\\nare restricted in use. The genitives thin and eower have dis-\\n.appeared as such, but they retain a place as adjectival\\npronouns, namely, thine and your. Here also, as in the\\ncase of the first pronoun, the blanks which the English\\ncolumn exhibits are supplied by a method of expression\\nwhich we have learned from the French.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0405.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "394 PRONOUN GROUP.\\nPronoun of the Third Person.\\nThis pronoun was in Saxon declined as follows\\nSingular.\\nNom. he\\nheo\\nhit^\\nGen. his f\\nhiref\\nhis\\nDat. him t\\nhire\\nhim\\nAce. hine\\nhi\\nhit*\\nPlural (of all genders).\\nN. and A,\\nhie (hi, hig, heo)\\nGen.\\nhiera (heora, hira)\\nDat.\\nhim (heom)\\nIf you go through this old declension word by word,\\nseeking in each case the modern equivalent, you will find\\nthat only three of its members are still perfectly living. They\\nare those which are marked with an asterisk. I call a given\\nword living, not when the mere form is extant, but when\\nthat form retains the animating function of the original\\nword. In such a comparison we need not notice the\\nchanges of shape, when a word is known to be the same.\\nThus the difference of spelling between the words hire and\\nher is insignificant. But the difference of function must be\\nrigorously weighed, or we shall let the most important\\ndistinctions slip unvalued through our fingers. For this\\nreason I have excluded the genitive case singular neuter, as\\nbeing now a dead language to us. The neuter his no longer\\nexists, except in old literature. It has entirely disappeared,\\nand does not even remain in the discharge of any partial or,\\nlocal function. Instances of its use are abundant in Shak-\\nspeare and our Bible as\\nThey came vnto the yron gate that leadeth vnto the citie, which opened\\nto them of his owne accord, Acts xii. lo.", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0406.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 395\\nEqually extinct is him, the dative neuter. But the masculine\\nand feminine of these cases linger on with a thin and meagre\\nfunction. The his, hire of the genitive are not indeed quite,\\nbut almost entirely represented and superseded by of him\\nand of her. The his and her with which we are most familiar\\nare no longer genitive cases of a substantival pronoun they\\nhave long ago become adjectival words, and they are desig-\\nnated in Grammars as possessives. But as this does not\\nquite shut out an occasional use of his, her, which is identical\\nwith that of Saxon times, I have marked these words with\\na dagger in the declension, to indicate partial continuity with\\nthe present English. And as to the two dative forms, which\\nare also marked as partially surviving in our modern speech,\\ntheir thread of identical vitality is very attenuated. Not once\\nin a thousand times when him or her appear as substantive-\\npronouns, are they to be identified with this dative. We have\\nit in such a rare instance as this\\nSo they sadled him the asse. I Kings xiii. 13.\\nAnd this is not modern English we should now say they\\nsaddled for him. The sort of instance in which the dative\\nhim is still in familiar use, is such as this: I gave him\\nsixpence.\\nHere, as in other cases, the influence of the little words 0/\\nand to have come in, through imitation of the French, to give\\nquite a new character to our declension of the pronoun.\\nNow here would be the place to speak of the reflexive\\npronoun, if we had such a thing. But we lost it at a very\\nearly period, insomuch that it is only by a stretch of our\\nfield that we can regard it as coming within our view at all.\\nThis early deciduousness of our reflex pronoun is a peculiar\\nfeature of our language. In the sister languages it flourishes\\nwithout sign of decay. Of course we have in some sort", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0407.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "39 5 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nsupplied the vacant place, but we can hardly be said to have\\nformed another distinctively reflex pronoun. We make it by\\nadding self to the words him, her, them, and so we get him-\\nself, herself, themselves, instead of the common-gender fic^ of\\nboth numbers, which the German retains, and whereby it\\nreminds us of what we have lost^. The latest surviving\\nform of it in our .language having been adjectival, we shall\\nreturn to this subject in the next section.\\nHere we have to call attention to the fact that, our reflex\\npronoun having perished, the pronoun of the third person\\nhe, she, it, c. performed for a long period the double office\\nof a direct and of a reflex pronoun.\\nAnd Elisha said vnto him, Take bowe and arrowes. And he tooke vnto\\nhim bowe and arrowes. 2 Ki?igs xiii. 15.\\nIf we compare the Dutch version we shall find a distinction\\nwhere our version has unto him in different senses\\nEnde Elisa seyde tot hem Neemt eenen boge ende pijlen ende hy nam\\ntot sicb eenen boge ende pijlen.\\nIn the following verses we have the?n reflexively\\nAnd the children of Israel did secretly those things that were not right\\nagainst the Lord their God, and they built them high places in all their\\ncities, from the tower of the watchmen to the fenced city.\\nAnd they set them vp images and groues in euery high hill, and vnder\\neuery greene tree. 2 Kings xvii. 9, 10.\\nBut later in the same chapter we find themselves\\nSo they feared the Lord, and made vnto themselues of the lowest of\\nthem priests of the high places, which sacrificed for them in the houses of\\nthe high places. ver. 32.\\nStrictly speaking, it was the establishment of one old reflexive pronoun\\nto the exclusion of another. Self is very ancient in this use, as may be seen\\nby its frequency in the Icelandic and German.", "height": "3188", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0408.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 397\\nThus, in the sermon preached at the funeral of Bishop\\nAndrewes, we read\\nThe unjust judge righted the importunate widow but out of compassion\\nto relieve him. Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology, Andrewes, v. 274.\\nThe last word corresponds, not to the Latin eu7n, but to se,\\nand the modern rendering of the passage would be The\\nunjust judge righted the importunate widow only out of\\ncompassion to (relieve) himself.\\nWe have seen that the plural oi himself is themselves, but\\nwe have not yet seen how the word them had found its way\\ninto the circle of our personal pronouns. How recently it\\nhas acquired that position will readily be appreciated by\\na glance at the following brief conspectus of these pronouns\\nas they appear before verbs in some of the most important\\nsister-languages\\nSingular. Plural.\\n1st. 2nd. 3rd. 1st. 2nd. 3rd.\\nGothic ik thu is weis jus eis\\nwer ther their\\nwe ge hi\\nwe (ye) you they\\nvi I de\\nwir ihr sie\\nwij gy zy\\nThe pronoun of the second person singular is lost in\\nDutch; it is reserved as the pronoun of familiarity in\\nGerman, while in English it is used only towards God.\\nThis is not peculiar to English, but a feature which the\\nGermans retain as well as we. I say retain, in the sense\\nof engaging foreign aid, because I do not think it a national\\nproduct, but a result of religious conditions. The two great\\nBible-translating nations have naturally, in their veneration\\nfor the words of Scripture, made this Hebrew idiom their\\nIcelandic\\nek\\nthu\\nham\\nSaxon\\nic\\nthu\\nhe\\nEnglish\\nthou\\nhe\\nDanish\\njeg\\ndu\\nhan\\nGerman\\nIch\\ndu\\ner\\nDutch\\nik\\nhy", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0409.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "398 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nown. It is only to be wondered at how the Dutch should\\nhave done otherwise.\\nThe natural tendency of the western civilization, apart\\nfrom other influences, would be to shrink from such a use\\nof fkou. The French have been led by this feeling, and in\\nall addresses to God they use vous. It is not, therefore,\\nfrom any radical diiference, but only from the effect of cir-\\ncumstances, that the western languages are divided in this\\nmatter. A sensitiveness as to the social use of the second\\npronoun is common to all the nations of the West, but it\\nexhibits itself in unequal degrees. We are influenced by it\\nless than any of the other great languages. We have indeed\\ndropped //lou, but we remain tolerably satisfied with jyoti,\\nalthough we shrink from the use of it where reverence is\\ndue. At such times we are sensible of a void in our speech,\\nunless the personage has a title, as jyour Lordship. Here it\\nis that the pronominal use of Monsieur and Madame in the\\nFrench language is felt to be so admirable a contrivance.\\nOnly, be it noted, that there is a substitution of a third-\\nperson formula to obviate the awkwardness of the second.\\nThis is what all the great languages have done. The\\nGerman has done it in the directest manner by simply\\nputting they (fie) for you (tl^r). Not more direct, but much\\ndryer, is the (now I imagine rather obsolete) Danish fashion\\nof calling a man to his face han, that is, he^ as a polite sub-\\nstitute for the second person. It is common in Holberg s\\nPlays. In Italian it is an abstract feminine substantive.\\nBut the most ceremonious of all in this matter is the\\nancient language of chivalry. The philologer who goes\\nno deeper into Spanish, must at least acquaint himself\\nwith the formula which it substitutes for the second\\nperson. To say vos, that is you^ is with them a great\\nfamiliarity, or even a great insult. At least, in the short", "height": "3188", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0410.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 399\\nform of OS. Something like this exists in Devonshire, where\\nI tell ee what {ee being disrespectfully short for yee) is\\noften heard when altercation is growing dangerous. This\\nis just the j/o OS digo of the following vivacious interview.\\nThe archbishop had remained, while the ambassador was speaking,\\ndumb with anger and amazement. At last, finding his voice, and starting\\nfrom his seat in fury, he exclaimed\\nSirrah I tell you that, but for certain respects, I would so chastise\\nyou for these words that you have spoken, that I would make you an\\nexample to all your kind. I would chastise you, I say I would make you\\nknow to whom you speak in such shameless fashion.\\nSirrah! replied Smith, in a fury too, and proud of, his command of\\nthe language which enabled him to retort the insult, Sirrah I tell you\\nthat I care neither for you nor your threats.\\nQuitad OS Be off with you shouted Quiroga, foaming with rage\\nleave the room awa} I say.\\nIf you call me Sirrah, said Smith, I will call you Sirrah. I will\\ncomplain to his majesty of this. J. A. Froude, Reign of Elizabeth, v. 66.\\nBut to return to our table. While the above table indi-\\ncates great permanence of the personal pronouns in general,\\nit also shows us that this quality is weakest in the third\\nperson of both numbers as between the Saxon and\\nEnglish, it is only in the third person plural that there is a\\nreal change. In that place a new word has been admitted\\nto supersede the Saxon hi. It was a demonstrative pro-\\nnoun, the ancient plural of the word that. In Icelandic and\\nDanish we see the analogous form, and this may partly\\nexplain the influence that made our people substitute they\\nfor hi. There was most hkely a demand for a new word\\nin this place, in consequence of the decay of the old vowel-\\nsounds. For a long time he had been the singular and hi\\nthe plural; and while this was the state of the pronoun,\\nYo OS digo. Sirrah is too mild a word but we have no full equiva-\\nlent. Os is used by a king to subjects, by a father to children, more\\nrarely by a master to a servant. It is a mark of infinite distance between\\na superior and inferior. Dog would perhaps come nearest to the arch-\\nbishop s meaning in the present connexion. Mr. Froude s note.", "height": "3184", "width": "2068", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0411.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "400 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nthere must have been a plain distinction in the sounds of\\nthese words which became obliterated as the vowels e and i\\nboth -underwent vocal modifications. In this predicament\\nthe demonstrative was drawn upon, as will be more fully\\nshown in the next section.\\nBut in leaving this for the present, we must notice a kin-\\ndred point. What is the origin of our affirmative yes\\nThe Saxon form isgese. The former syllable in this word\\nis one of which we can at present give no better account\\nthan to call it a particle. But the second member -se looks to\\nsome eyes like a part of the demonstrative pronoun, which is\\ndeclined in the next section. To others it p.ppears like a part\\nof the symbol-verb is. The former view has a certain support\\nfrom analogies in sister dialects. Thus, in the German of\\nthe thirteenth and fourteenth centuries we find the affirmative\\nparticle ja in combination with pronouns of all persons,\\ngenders, and numbers, like any verb\\nSingular. Plural.\\nja t(^ ia h)ir I\\nja bu l^vcl\\nia e.r ja [i fa eg ja fi\\nJacob Grimm s Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 765.\\nGrimm does not admit that our ge se is analogous to this\\nMid-High-Dutch y 2 er because it would have to be not gese\\nbut ge he. To this it may be replied, that in proportion as\\nwe have evidence that the personal and the demonstrative\\nwere nearing one another, so in the same proportion this\\nobjection loses its force. It is, I believe, admitted that the\\nFrench oui is from the Latin hoc-illiid (Kitchin s Translation\\nof Brachet, p. 161), and that the affirmative oc of the dialect\\nnamed the Lange d oc was just the Latin hoc. But though\\nthe pronominal affinity of the affirmatives is in many cases\\ncertain, this does not interfere with their relation to the", "height": "3188", "width": "2104", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0412.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 4OI\\nsymbol-verb, for between all these there is much of com-\\nmunism. The further prosecution of this enquiry I leave\\nfor the exercise of the young student.\\nWe must now consider the Interrogative and Relative\\npronouns.\\nWho, what, and which, with their inflections, of which\\nwe retain only two in their place namely, whose and whom,\\nare now both interrogative and relative. But in Saxon they\\nwere only interrogative, and not relative. Their change of\\ncharacter took place in the great French period, and was\\na direct consequence of French example. For that lan-\\nguage, in common with all the Romance languages, uses the\\nsame sets of pronouns as interrogative s and as relatives.\\nThe Saxon relative system was based upon the demon-\\nstrative, and we retain a relic of it in our use of that as a\\nrelative. Where w^e now say that ivhich, the Saxon was\\nthat that (jjset ])set). We have another interesting\\nrelic of this demonstrative-relative in our use of the the in\\nsuch expressions as, the more the merrier. Our modern\\nrelative system is simply an adaptation of the Saxon interro-\\ngatives, in imitation of the French. We went even further\\nin this imitation, and combining the definite article with the\\nrelative pronoun, after the example of the French lequel,\\nlaquelle, we got our old familiar the which\\nI will not ouerthrow this citie, le ne subvertirai point la ville de\\nfor the which thou hast spoken. laquelle tu as parle. La saincte\\nGenesis xix. 21. Bible, Rochelle, 1616.\\nSo in the following beautiful stanza\\nWhere making joyous feast theire dales they spent\\nIn perfect love, devoide of hatefuU strife,\\nWhy, where, when, whence, are indeed inflections of who, what, and\\nthey are retained in the language but they are moved to another place,\\nnamely, the company of the adverbs.\\nDd", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0413.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "402 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nAllide with bands of mutuall couplement\\nFor Triamoiid had Canacee to wife,\\nWith whom he ledd a long and happie Hfe\\nAnd Cambel tooke Cambina to his fere,\\nThe which as Hfe were to cache other Hefe.\\nSo all alike did love, and loved were,\\nThat since their dayes such lovers were not found elsewhere.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iv. 3. 52.\\nThis change is more than superficial; it amounts to a\\ntransposition of internal relations in the fabric of our lan-\\nguage. This and other organic changes into which we\\nhave been led by French example, must certainly be unper-\\nceived by those who go on affirming that the influence of\\nFrench upon English has been only superficial.\\nIt belongs, however, to the nature of imitations that a\\nlarge proportion of them are short-lived. They differ fronl\\nthe native growth as cuttings differ from seedlings. Only\\na reduced number gets well and permanently rooted. We\\nproceed to notice an instance of this.\\nThe relative which, as a personal relative, is no longer\\nused, and it is a well-known peculiarity of the English of our\\nBible, that it is so common there. Instances of this use are\\nindeed numerous beyond the pages of that version. The\\nfollowing is from a brass in Hutton Church, near Weston-\\nsuper-Mare\\nPray for ye soules of Thomas Payne Squier Elizabeth hyis wiffe\\nwhich departed y^ xv day of August y^ yere of o lord god m.ccccc.xxviij.\\nBut when this relative is used of persons, it has generally\\na noun closely antecedent and a case like the following has\\nthe effect of a solecism\\nOf us who is here which cannot very soberly advise his brother Sir,\\nyou must learn to strengthen your faith by that experience which heretofore\\nyou have had, c. Richard Hooker, Sermon I, ed. Keble, vol. iii. p. 479.\\nInstead of this first ivhich we should now put that Of\\nthe present company, who is there that cannot very seriously\\nadvise his brother", "height": "3188", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0414.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 403\\nWhich is in its origin a composite word derived from who\\nand like. Its Saxon form was hwilc, which was made of\\nhwa and lie. Compare sueh in the next section.\\nWho7?i is now used only personally. But there is no\\nhistorical reason for this, beyond modern usage. Time was\\nwhen it was used of things as much as what, and examples\\noccur in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The following\\nis of the date 1484, and it contains the which as well as\\nzvhom in the use to be illustrated\\nItem. I bequethe to the auter of saint John the Baptist and saynt\\nNicholas the which is myne owen chapell in the parish chirche of New-\\nlonde in the Forest of Dene in whome my body shalbe buried In primis\\na crosse of silver, c. The Will of Dame Jane Lady Barre, in Mr.\\nEllacombe s Memoir of Bittoti, p. 47.\\nAnd lest it should be supposed that such a use can only\\nbe produced from obscure writings, I may mention the\\nFaerie Queene, in a passage which is quoted above on p. 135,\\nwhere whom refers to a ship.\\nBefore quitting this set, it may be interesting to observe\\nthat ivhat in Anglo-Saxon had a peculiar function as a lead-\\ning interjection, a usage which is familiar to those who know\\nthe dialect of the Lake district. The minstrel often began\\nhis lay with HwcBi I\\nThe noblest of Anglo-Saxon poems, the Beowulf, begins\\nwith this exclamation\\nHwaet we Gar Dena on gear dagum\\npeod cyninga rim ge frunon\\nHu J^a ae Selingas ellen fremedon.*\\nWhat bo I the tales of other times\\nThe Gar-Danes mighty realm and martial proud array\\nAnd practice bold of princes in ajffray.\\nInterrogation, appeal, expostulation, admiration, lie very\\nnear to one another in the structure of the human mind, and\\nhence we see in many languages an approach to this habit.\\nIn Latin there is the rhetorical use of quid in French of\\nD d 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0415.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "404 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nquoi and if we would see a situation in which several of\\nthose meanings blend inseparably, we may refer to Proverbs\\nxxxi. 2, where the version of 1 6 1 1 is rigidly literal, while that\\nof 1535 is homely and unconstrained according to wont:\\nMiles Cover dale. 161 1.\\nMy Sonne, thou sonne of my What, my sonne and what, the\\nbody: O my deare beloued sonne. sonne of my wombe and what, the\\nsonne of my vowes\\nHere we must notice the old substantive-pronoun so,\\nthough it is no longer found in this character standing by\\nitself. The Saxon form was swa, with a rarer poetic form\\nSE and already in the earhest Saxon literature it had lost its\\noriginal independence. Then, as now, it occurred only in\\ncomposite expressions, as swa hwa swa, whoso swa hwcei\\nswa, whatso, c. These are, however, sufficient to deter-\\nmine its ancient habit, and to indicate from what original\\nall the varieties of so and its composite such have had their\\nderival.\\nIn the words whoso, whatso, the so is manifestly subor-\\ndinated, and has lost its accent. This was the result of\\nthe elevation of who, ivhat, with the depression of so.\\nAnciently so was the leading element, what was indefinite\\nand enclitic.\\nWe have yet a set of pronouns to mention before closing\\nthis section namely, the Indefinite. The chief of these was\\nin the Saxon period a symbolised man, which is the chief\\nindefinite pronoun to this day in German. It should also\\nbe noticed that the French on is only a form of homme, in\\nwhich the spelling has varied with the sublimation of the\\nmeaning. This indefinite man, or, as it was oftener writ-\\nten, mon, we lost at an early date, in the great shaking that\\nfollowed the Conquest. But it is so natural a word for a", "height": "3188", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0416.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 405\\npronoun to grow out of, that we do from time to time fall\\nas if unconsciously into this use. In the following quota-\\ntion from Mark viii. 4, a vian is a manifest pronoun; the\\nGreek is dwrjaerai ris. To show the pedigree of the expres-\\nsion in this place, three versions are put side by side\\nWiclif, iJ,^g. Tyndale, 1^26. The Bible of 161 1.\\nWherof a man schal From whence myght From whence can a\\nmowe fille hem with a man sufFyse them with man satisfie these men\\nlooues here in wildir- breed here in the wyl- with bread here in the\\nnesse dernes wildernes\\nThis is, however, but a feeble example of the pronominal\\nuse of the word man, a use which it has been our singular\\nfortune to lose after having possessed it in its fulness. In\\nplace of it, we resort to a variety of shifts for what may justly\\nbe entitled a pronoun of pronouns, that is to say, a pronoun\\nwhich is neither nor we, nor you nor /key, but which may\\nstand for either or all of these or any vague commixture of\\ntwo or three of them. Sometimes we say you not mean-\\ning, nor being taken to mean j ou at all, but to express\\na corporate personality which quite eludes personal appli-\\nIt is always pleasant to be forced to do what you wish to do, but what\\nuntil pressed, you dare not attempt. Dean Hook, Archbishops, vol. iii. c. 4\\nThis jyoti is often convenient to the poet as a neutral\\nmedium of address, applicable either to one particular person,\\nor to all the world\\nYet this, perchance, you ll not dispute,\\nThat true Wit has in Truth its root,\\nSurprise its flower, Delight its fruit.\\nOr haply, this may be more clear,\\nThe pirouette of an Idea\\nWhich, just as you conclude your grasp,\\nSlips laughing from your empty clasp,\\nPresenting in strange combination\\nSome ludicrous association", "height": "3180", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0417.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "406 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nWhich you repel with indignation,\\nBut cannot find its confutation\\nI know no other image fit\\nTo tell you what I mean by Wit.\\nW. M. A. in The Spectator, July 2, 1870.\\nSometimes, again, it is we, and at other times it is they\\nwhich represents this much-desired but long-lost or not-yet-\\ninvented representative pronoun. We render the French\\non dit by they say.\\nBut besides the resort to pronouns of a particular person\\nin order to achieve the effect of a pronoun impersonal, we\\nhave also some substantives which have been pronominaHsed\\nfor this purpose, as person, people, body, folk.\\nBothwell was not with her at Seton. As to her shooting at the butts\\nwhen there, this story, like most of the rest, is mere gossip. People do not\\nshoot at the butts in a Scotch February. Qtiarlerly Review, vol. 128,\\np. 511.\\nbody.\\nThe foolish body hath said in his heart, There is no God. Psahn liii. i,\\nelder version.\\nAnd from this we get the composite pronouns somebody,\\nnobody, everybody. In like manner, but less fixed in habit,\\nsome people, and also some folk, as in the well known refrain,\\nSome folk do, some folk do\\nPerhaps the French on has not been without some sort\\nof undefined eifect in this region of our language, by guiding\\nus through its mere sound to a use of the first numeral\\nwhich is unexampled in other languages. Some of our pro-\\nnominal uses of one are easily paralleled in other languages,\\nthe one and the other Vun et Tautre ofte another Vun\\nTautre, c., but in that particular use of one which more\\nprecisely belongs to this place, as when we say, One never", "height": "3188", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0418.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "SUBSTANTIVAL PRONOUNS. 407\\nknows what this sort of thing may lead to/ it would be im-\\npossible to put in that place u7t or ein or unus or eh.\\nThere are instances in which one language catches up\\na confused idea from another, and a mere sound which has\\nbeen heard will suggest a term totally different in idea from\\nthe meaning of that sound. The first numeral has an\\nintimate natural affinity with the pronominal principle,\\nand this is widely acknowledged in the languages by the\\npronominal uses of it which are very common and very\\nwell known. But this English use is far from com-\\nmon, if it is not absolutely singular namely, when it is\\nemployed as a veiled Ego, thus One may be excused for\\ndoubting whether such a policy as this can have its root in\\na desire for the public welfare.\\nThe o?te of which we speak is quite distinct from those\\ncases in which it is little removed from the numeral, as\\nOne thinks this, and one thinks that. In this case one is\\nfully toned, but not so in the case referred to, as when a\\nperson who is pressed to buy stands on the defensive with,\\nOne can t buy everything, you know here the one is\\nlightly passed over with that sensitiveness which accom-\\npanies egotism.\\nIt is still more distinct from the case in which one appears\\nin concord or under government\\nAs nations ignorant of God contrive\\nA wooden one. William Cowper, The Timepiece.\\nAnd unto one her note is gay,\\nFor now her little ones have ranged\\nAnd unto one her note is changed,\\nBecause her brood is stol n away. In Memoriam, xxi,\\nThe strictly logical deduction from the premises is not always found ia\\npractice the true one. Sir J. T. Coleridge, Keble, p. 388.\\nThere will always be sharp men to practice on dull ones.", "height": "3176", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0419.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "40 8 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nReducing the abject one to a choice between captivity and starvation.\\nAnthony TroUope, The Last Chronicle of Barset, ch. ix.\\nA variety of other pronouns belong to this set, which we\\nhave only space just to hint at. Such are ^/u ng, somethings\\neverything, nothing wight, whit, deal.\\nThere was, towards the close of the Saxon period, an\\nimitation from the Latin, by which the word hwa who was\\nadopted as an indefinite pronoun. The Latin si quis was\\nthe model, after which was made the Saxon gif hwa if who.\\nThus, in the Saxon Chronicle, 1086, Gif hwa gewilnige^,\\nc. Si quis optaverit, c. This is one of the cases already\\ntouched upon, in which imitations prove to be short-lived.\\nWe have thus reached the natural termination of this\\nsection. Having started from the pronouns which were most\\nnearly associated with substantival ideas, we have reached\\nthose whose characteristic it is (as their name conveys) to\\nbe indefinite, to shun fixed associations, and thus to be ever\\nready for a latitude of application as wide as the widest\\nimaginable sweep of the mental horizon.\\nIL Adjectival Pkonouns.\\nThe adjectival character of some pronouns is very ap-\\nparent; others which are classed with them will be found\\nless manifestly adjectival. We will begin the section with\\nsome of the plainest.\\nSuch is a composite word, made up of so and like. The\\nSaxon form was swilc, from swa and lie. In the German\\nform fold; the original elements are very traceable in\\nDanish it is slig, and in Scottish sic. It is curious how\\nwords rediscover the elements of their composition after they\\nhave become obscure, by a tendency to sj^mphytise again", "height": "3188", "width": "2000", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0420.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS. 4O9\\nonce more with the word which they have akeady absorbed.\\nHence we get such-like and still more usual in Scotland\\nis sic-like. This such is a highly pronominal word.\\nIn such matters a little evidence goes a long way.* Archceological\\njournal. No. 104, p. 331.\\nThe pronominal character of such is here apparent from\\nthe fact that the reader must refer to the page quoted in\\norder to recover the presentive idea towards which it pointed\\nin this passage.\\nThis adjective reverts, like other adjectives, to substantival\\nhabits, and it sometimes fills the place which has been left\\nvacant by the ancient substantive-pronoun so described in\\nthe former section. In its substantive and adjective function\\nalike, it is often the antecedent to a relative pronoun, and\\nthere has been a good deal of fastidiousness about this\\nrelative pronoun, as to which is the right one to come after\\nsuch. We have now decided (it seems) that such can\\nhave no relative after it but as. And as a proof of the\\nsort of affection that words bear to kindred, it may be\\nnoticed that as is a composite word made up of all and so.\\nHowever, our literature abounds with instances of other\\nrelatives after such.\\nsuch which.\\nOf such characters which combined the species best, I selected the most\\nremarkable. John Lindley, A Monograph of Roses, 1820, p. xx.\\nsuch who.\\nIt is very natural for such who are treated ill and upbraided falsely, to\\nfind out an intimate friend that will hear their complaints, c. Addison\\n(171 1), Spectator, No. 170.\\nSame. This word is not found (as a pronoun) in Anglo-\\nSaxon literature, and the question arises whence it came to\\nbe so familiar in English. Jacob Grimm thinks it was ac-\\nquired through the Norsk language, in which samr is a", "height": "3184", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0421.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "4IO THE PRONOUN GROUP,\\nprevalent pronoun. The Saxon word in its place was t lk,\\nwhich is so well known to us through Scottish literature.\\nBut, as there are traces of its having existed at an earlier\\nstage of Saxon, it is possible that it had never died out, but\\nthat, having been superseded by z7k in the written language, it\\nhad fallen into temporary obscurity. Many genuinely native\\nelements are found in modern English which are unknown\\nin Saxon literature, and it is only reasonable to conclude\\nthat the vocabulary of the Saxon literature imperfectly repre-\\nsented the word-store of the nation.\\nSundry is an adjectival pronoun formed upon an old\\nSaxon adverb sundor, which we still retain in the compound\\nasunder.\\nEach is from the Saxon celc, having lost its just as\\nwhich and such have. This cbIc was equivalent to our\\npresent every, so that the word for everybody was celcman,\\nand for everything it was (Elcping. The spelling each is\\na modernism in Chaucer it is ech and eche. This is quite\\na distinct word from the ilk mentioned above.\\nEvery grew out of the habit of strengthening ceIc by pre-\\nfixing cefre, whence arose the composite pronoun CBuer-cElc\\nor euer-elc, which means ever-each, and which occurs under\\na variety of orthographic forms in Layamon. It had become\\neverych by Chaucer s time, and then it had attracted to itself\\nanother pronoun, namely one, and so we get the oft-recur-\\nring mediaeval form everychon. To go no further than the\\nPrologue, 1. 31\\nSo hadde I spoken with hem euerichoon\\nThat I was of hir felaweshipe anoon/ Hengwrt MS.\\nWe find this form in Miles Coverdale s Bible, 1535\\nIdols and abhominacions of ye house off Israel paynted euerychone\\n)unde aboute the wall.* Ezechiel viii. lo.\\nVery has retained so much of its old presentive character", "height": "3188", "width": "2080", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0422.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS. 4II\\nthat it has brought over with it all the degrees of comparison,\\nand we have in the ranks of the pronouns very, verier, veriest.\\nThe very presence of a true-hearted friend yields often ease to our\\ngrief. Richard Sibbes, SouVs Conflict, 14.\\nIn the very centre or focus of the great curve of volcanoes is placed the\\nlarge island of Borneo. Alfred Russel Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, ch. i.\\nBoth verier and veriest occur in Shakspeare. A choice\\nillustration may be had from a letter written in 1666 by the\\nwife of the English ambassador at Constantinople to her\\ndaughter Poll in England, which Poll has been adopted by\\na rich relative, and is inclining to vanity\\nWhereas if it were not a piece of pride to have y name of keeping y\\nmaide, she y* waits on y good grandmother might easily doe as formerly\\nyou know she hath done, all y\u00c2\u00b0 business you have for a maide, unless as you\\ngrow old you grow a veryer Foole, which God forbid\\nCertain is an adjective which has been presentive not\\nlong ago, but it is now completely pronominalised\\nAt Clondilever, a farmer was returning from his usual attendance at\\nthe Roman Catholic Chapel on Sunday, when he was stopped by five men\\nwith revolvers, who warned him that if he interfered any further with a cer-\\ntain person as to possession of a certain field, c. April 30, 1870.\\nThe demonstrative pronouns this and that were thus de-\\nclined in Saxon\\nNeut. Masc. Fern.\\nNeut. Masc.\\nFern.\\nNom\\nthast se\\nseo\\nthis\\nthes\\ntheos\\nAce.\\nAbl.\\nthaet thone tha\\nthis\\nthisne\\nthas\\nSingular\\nthy\\nthaere\\nthise\\nthisse\\nDat.\\ntham\\nthsere\\nthisum\\nthisse\\n^Gen.\\nrNom\\nAce.\\nthaes\\nthaere\\nthises\\nthisse\\n1\\ntha\\nthas\\nPlurai,\\nAbl.\\nDat.\\ntham\\nthissum\\n^Gen.\\nthara\\nthiss\u00c2\u00a3\\nOf this vain Poll, the great granddaughter was Jane Austen, and it is in\\nthe Memoir of the latter, by the Rev. J. E. Austen-Leigh (Bentley, 1870),\\nthat this admirable letter has been published.", "height": "3184", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0423.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "41^ THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nOf these two words, the former was in Saxon the more\\nprominent by far, and we should in reference to that stage\\nof the language not say this and that, but rather that\\nand this.\\nIt was f/icB/, se, seo, which supplied the definite article, and\\ntherefore it was current in some one or other of its cases in\\nalmost every phrase that was spoken or written. This will\\nmake it easier to understand how it should have come about\\nthat fAd, the plural of this demonstrative, took the place of\\nh as personal pronoun of the third person plural. And, to\\npursue this transition to its consequences a place was now\\nvacant, the demonstrative required a plural of its own.\\nHere we have a beautiful example of the innate resource\\nof language, which often is most admirable in this, that a\\nnew want is supplied out of a mere nothing. The sister\\ndemonstrative //it s had a plural which was grammatically\\nwritten /Ms, and with this full a it was pronounced so as to\\nbe very like our //lose, which is indeed its modern form.\\nBut people whose education had been neglected were apt\\nto make a plural in their own way by just adding on a little\\nvague e to the singular fh s, and so they (the ungrammatical\\npeople) made a plural /h s-e. After a certain period of con-\\nfusion, during which both demonstratives admitted a great\\nvariety of shapes they at last settled down to this, that the\\nword //lose which was the original old plural of /Ms, should\\npass over to the other side and be the plural of //la/, while\\n/h s should make its plural //lese according to the later\\npopular invention.\\nWhat was at the root of all this stir appears to have been\\nthe newly-felt insufficiency of the distinction between the sin-\\ngular he and the plural hi. And perhaps it should be added\\nFor which see Mr. Morris s Specimens of Early English, pp. xxvii. sq.", "height": "3188", "width": "1992", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0424.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS. 413\\nthe want of distinction between the singular dative km and\\nthe plural dative, also written h m, though sometimes keom.\\nIn the following passage, Mark vi. 48-50, we find Mm three\\ntimes, and in every case it corresponds to the modern\\n//lem\\nAnd he geseah hig on rewette swincende him wses wi Serweard wind\\nand on niht ymbe ))a feor San waeccan, he com to him ofer ])a sae gangende,\\nand wolde hig forbugaii,\\npa hig hine gesawon ofer J^a sae gangende, hig wendon sst hit unfaele\\ngast wsere, and hig clypedon\\nhig ealle hine gesawon and wurdon gedrefede. And sona he spraec to\\nhim, and cwse 5 GelyfaS ic hit eom nelle ge eow ondraedan.\\nSo that, as the English language emerged from its French\\nincubus, it gradually substituted /key, tkeir, them, in the\\nplace of the elder ki, heora, him. This change was not\\nquite established till far on in the fifteenth century. In\\nChaucer we have still the elder forms in free use, and he\\nwrote them thus ki, kir, kem. Here is a couplet with two\\nof these forms in it\\nSo hadde I spoken with hem everichon\\nThat I was of hir felawship anon. Prologue 31.\\nIt may not be amiss to add that when in provincial Eng-\\nlish we meet with em in place of ikevi, it must be regarded\\nas an ehded form not of them, but of hem.\\nThese two pronouns have held a great place in our lan-\\nguage. We can hardly omit to notice what may be called\\ntheir rhetorical use. This has a rhetorical use expressive of\\ncontempt. It was by means of this pronoun that Home\\nTooke expressed his contempt for the philology of Harris s\\nHermes\\nThere will be no end of such fantastical writers as this Mr. Harris, who\\ntakes fustian for philosophy. Diversions of Purley, part ii. c. 6.\\nThat, on the other hand is a great symbol of admiration\\nin illustration of which we may cite Mr. Gladstone s enco-", "height": "3176", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0425.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "414 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nmium of political justice, in the peroration of his speech on\\nthe second reading of the Irish Land Bill, March 1 1, 1870\\nThe face of justice is like the face of the god Janus, It is like the face\\nof those lions, the work of Landseer, which keep watch and ward around the\\nrecord of our country s greatness. She presents one tranquil and majestic\\ncountenance towards every point of the compass and every quarter of the\\nglobe. That rare, that noble, that imperial virtue has this above all other\\nqualities, that she is no respecter of persons, and she will not take advantage\\nof a favourable moment to oppress the wealthy for the sake of flattering the\\npoor, any more than she will condescend to oppress the poor for the sake of\\npampering the luxuries of the rich.\\nBoth of these uses are to be paralleled in Greek and\\nLatin, as the student of those languages should ascertain\\nfor himself, if he is not already familiar with the feature.\\nBut a more peculiar interest attaches to this pronoun\\nfrom the circumstance that out of it has been carved the\\ndefinite article. The word /he is simply an abbreviation of\\n/kcsf on which the French pronoun le has probably exercised\\nsome influence in the way of shaping its form.\\nAnd not unfrequently we experience in the course of\\nreading, especially in poetry, a certain force in the definite\\narticle, which we could not better convey in words than by\\nsaying it reminds us of its parentage, and calls the demon-\\nstrative to mind. It is one of those fugitive sensations that\\nwill not always come when they are called for but perhaps\\nthe reader may catch what is meant if the following line\\nfrom the Chrisiia7i Year is offered in illustration\\nThe man seems following still the funeral of the boy.\\nThe same thing may however be shown in a manner\\nmore agreeable to science. We find cases in which the same\\ntext is variously rendered according as the interpreters have\\nseen a demonstrative or a definite article in the original\\nEzekiel xi. 19.\\n1535- 3611.\\nThat stony herte wil 1 take out 1 wil take the stonie herte out\\nof youre body, geue you a fleshy of their flesh, and will giue them an\\nherte.* heart of flesh.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0426.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS. 4I5\\nBut there is a case, and that rather a frequent one, in\\nwhich the is still a demonstrative and is not a definite article\\nat all. It is the ablative case thy of the Saxon declension\\nabove given, and answers to the Latin eo before com-\\nparatives. When it is doubled, it answers to the Latin qtw\\neo, just as thcet thcBt in Saxon was equivalent to the Latin\\nid quod.\\nThe more luxury increases, the more urgent seems the necessity for thus\\nsecuring a luxurious provision. John Boyd-Kinnear, WomarHs Work, p. 353.\\nThe next adjectival pronoun which we will notice shall\\nbe the word one. It has already been largely spoken of in\\nthe former section, where it was seen to occupy an impor-\\ntant place. But its substantival function is after all less\\nimportant in the development of our language than its\\nadjectival habit because out of this has grown that member\\nwhich is the most distinctive perhaps that can be fixed upon\\nas the mark of a modern language. The definite article is\\nfound in some of the ancient languages, as in Hebrew and\\nGreek, but none of them had produced an indefinite article.\\nThe general remark has already been made in an earlier\\nchapter, that it is in the symbolic element we must seek the\\ndistinctive character of the modern as opposed to the\\nancient languages. And we may appeal to the indefinite\\narticle as the most recent and most expressive feature of this\\nmodern characteristic. In the Greek of the New Testament\\nthere are certain indications (known to scholars) of some-\\nthing like an indefinite article.\\nIn its adjectival use this pronoun is generally set in\\nantithesis to another as,\\nYf one Sathan cast out another. Matt. xii. tr. Coverdale (1535).\\nMike. I say one man s as good as anither what do you say, Pat\\nPat. To be shure and that he is, and a dale betther too", "height": "3184", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0427.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "4l6 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nOut of this has been produced the indefinite article. It\\nhas not sprung directly from the numeral one, but from that\\nword after it has passed through the refining discipline of\\na symboHc usage,\\nThe old spelling of the numeral was an; and this\\nancient form is preserved in the article an or a. This gives\\nus occasion to remark that old forms are often preserved in\\nthe more elevated functions, while the original and inferior\\nfunction has admitted changes.\\nHaving thus indicated the sources of our two articles, let\\nus observe that they still carry about them the traces of their\\nextraction. The magnifying quality of the demonstrative\\n//la/ has been noticed above. Its descendant the definite\\narticle retains something of this ancestral quality. We all\\nknow how the ceremonious T/ie adds grandeur to a name,\\nand how all titles of office and honour are jealously retentive\\nof this prefix.\\nOn the other hand, the indefinite ardcle, which is de-\\nscended from the litdest of the numerals, exercises a\\ndiminishing effect, as in the following\\nThis little life-boat of an earth, with its noisy crew of a mankind, and\\nall their troubled history, will one day have vanished. Thomas Carlyle,\\nEssays Death of Goethe.\\nThese minute vocables are the real winged words of\\nhuman speech or, to speak with more exactness, they are\\nthe wings of other words, by means of which smoothness\\nand agility is imparted to their motion. It is in the ardcles\\nthat the symbolic element of language finds its most ad-\\nvanced development and it is not by means of these alone,\\nbut by means of that whole system of words of which these\\nare the foremost and most perfect type, that the modern\\nlanguages when compared with the ancient are found to\\nexcel in alacrity and sprightliness.", "height": "3188", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0428.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 417\\nIII. Adverbial Pronouns.\\nThis chapter of pronouns keeps up on the whole a\\nparallel course to the chapter on nouns. Like that, it is\\ndivided into three main sections, Substantives, Adjectives,\\nAdverbs. Moreover, as in that chapter the third section\\nassumed a trifid form, so also here do we find ourselves\\ncompelled by the nature of the subject to divide this final\\nsection into three paragraphs. In this symbolic as well as\\nin that presentive region, the adverbs assume the three forms\\nof Flat, Flexional, and Phrasal.\\nI. Of the Flat Pronoun- Adverbs.\\nThe higher we mount in the structure of language the\\nmore delicate a matter will it be to analyse and make sharp\\ndistinctions. The presentive adverbs pass off by such fine\\nand imperceptible shadings into a symbolic state, that the\\ndivision must needs be exposed to uncertainty. To let this\\nthe more plainly appear, we will begin here with the same\\nstrain of adverbs as we left off with at the close of the\\nnounal adverbs.\\nUp. This is clearly a presentive word so long as the\\noriginal idea of elevation is preserved. But it passes off\\ninto a more refined use, a more purely mental service, and\\nthen we call it no longer a noun but a pronoun.\\nThe instance of breaking-up is an interesting one. It is\\none of those in which the flat adverb at one time attached\\nitself closely to the verb, indeed almost symphytically, and\\nhad with the verb been subjected to a peculiar appropriation\\nof meaning. This expression now is apt to suggest the\\nE e", "height": "3180", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0429.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "41 8 THE PRONOUN GROUP,\\nholidays of a school-boy, but in the sixteenth century it was\\nthe proper expression for burglary\\nIf a thiefe bee found breaking vp. Exodus xxii. 2,\\nSuffered his house to be broken vp. Matthew xxiv. 43.\\nIf he beget a sonne that is a breaker vp of a house. Ezekiel xviii. 10\\n(margin).\\nMr. Froude quotes a letter of the reign of Queen Elizabeth,\\nin which a burglary is confessed in these terms\\nWith other companions who were in straits as well as myself, I was\\nforced to give the onset and break up a house in Warwickshire, not far\\nfrom Wakefield. History, vol. xi. p. 28.\\nAlso an old ship is sold to be broken up, and there is\\na rich variety of expressions in which up figures in such\\na character as belongs here, e.g. to be knocked up,\\ndone up, patched up, to be up to a thing, up with\\na person, c.\\nstill.\\nHaving past from my hand under a broken and imperfect copy, by fre-\\nquent transcription it still run {sic) forward into corruption. Thomas\\nBrown, Religio Medici, Preface.\\nThey are left enough to live on, but not enough to enable them still to\\nmove in the society in which they have been brought up. John Boyd-\\nKinnear, Womafi s Work, p. 353.\\nIn these two examples the reader should notice that still\\nrun and still to move would be mere stultifications if the\\nword s/i ll were taken in its original and presentive significa-\\ntion of stillness. This affords a sort of measure of the\\ngreat change that has passed over the word.\\njusl.\\nHow much of enjoyment life shows us, just one hair s breadth beyond\\nour power to grasp The Bramleighs, ch. xxxi.\\nThe word rather may serve as an illustration of the\\ngrounds on which we assign these words to the pronominal", "height": "3188", "width": "2088", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0430.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 419\\ncategory. In an interesting letter from Sir Hugh Luttrell,\\nin the year 1420, we have this word in its presentive sense.\\nHe is in France, and he is displeased that certain orders of\\nhis have not been carried out, and he hints that if his com-\\nmands are not fulfilled, he is alive, and schalle come home,\\nand that rather than som men wolde, that is t*\u00c2\u00a9 say, he\\nshall be at home earlier than would be agreeable to some\\npeople. Rather is the comparative of an obsolete adjective\\nrathe, which signified early. It is found once in Milton,\\nLycidas, 142\\nBring the rathe Primrose that forsaken dies,\\nThe tufted Crow-toe, and pale Gessamine.\\nNow compare the way in which we habitually employ this\\nword; and a plainer example could hardly be found of the\\ndistinction between the nature of the noun and that of the\\npronoun. The word is so common that we can hardly read\\na paragraph in any daily or weekly article without coming\\nacross it, and probably more than once.\\nVarious appropriate sermons were preached with all desirable promp-\\ntitude, and the assertion was made in various forms that Mr. Dickens was\\none of the chief teachers of the day he had provided the public with a\\ngreat quantity of thoroughly innocent literature Mr. Dickens shewed\\na thoroughly kindly nature in every line that he wrote. Yet all this\\nscarcely entitles a man to the sort of praise which belongs to great moral\\nreformers. It was his chief fault that he played with sentimental situations\\nin a way that seems to imply an absence of very profound feeling. He\\nfails to be truly pathetic because we do not see the agony wrung out of a\\nstrong man by the inevitable wrongs and sorrows of the world, but the easy\\nyielding of a nature that rather likes a little gentle weeping. Mr, Pickwick\\nwith his love of mankind, stimulated by milk-punch, is not the most elevated\\ntype of philanthropy, though it is one which is unfortunately prevalent at\\nthe present day. In these respects Mr. Dickens s influence tended rather\\ntowards a softening of the moral fibre than towards strengthening it,\\nWe can only take the morality preached in his published works, of which\\nevery man is at liberty to form an opinion And though we may admit it\\nto be perfectly harmless, and to provide a pleasant stock of maxims for\\npeople who wish to get through the word quietly and easily, we cannot\\nhold that it was of that invigorating character which is most to be desired\\nor which would entitle its organ to be considered as on that account a great\\nE e 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0431.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "420 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nbenefactor of mankind. We rather feel that it is poor food for the soul of\\nman, and that the preachers who have identified it with their own highest\\naspirations have not raised our opinion of their insight into the wants of\\nthe age. July 1 6, 1870.\\n/OO.\\nSpake I not too truly, O my knights\\nWas I too dark a prophet when I said\\nTo those who went upon the Holy Quest,\\nThat most of them would follow wandering fires,\\nLost in the quagmire Alfred Tennyson, The Holy Grail.\\nThat famous pronominal factor so, which has already-\\nbeen spoken of in both the previous sections, must come in\\nhere likewise\\nAnd he was competent whose purse was so.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Time-Piece.\\nA declaration so bold and haughty silenced them and astonished their\\nassociates.\\nThe presentive idea to which this so points back may-\\nbe found by reference to Robertson s Charles the Fifth,\\nBk. I., anno 1516, and the abruptness of the clause as it\\nstands, gives a measure of the pronominal nature of the\\nadverb so.\\nfurther,\\nOr dwells within our hidden soul\\nSome germ of high prophetic power,\\nThat further can the page unveil.\\nAnd open up the future hour.\\nG. J. Cornish, Come to the Woods, and Other Poems, Ixxiii.\\njump.\\nIn goodness, therefore, there is a latitude or extent, whereby it cometh\\nto pass that even of good actions some are better than other some whereas\\notherwise one man could not excel another, but all should be either abso-\\nlutely good, as hitting jump that indivisible point or centre wherein goodness\\nconsisteth or else missing it they should be excluded out of the number of\\nwell-doers. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws, c., I. viii. 8.\\nsoh d.\\nYou don t mean that I do, solid (Leicestershire.)", "height": "3188", "width": "2048", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0432.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 4^1\\n/low.\\nHow dull sermons are, compared with the brilliant compositions which\\nmay be read in the newspapers J. Llewellyn Davies, The Gospel and\\nModern Life (1869), p. 218.\\nNow we come upon a feature which is inconsiderable in\\nits bulk, unimposing in its appearance, and which is incon-\\nspicuous by the very continuousness of its presence but\\nyet one which covers with its influence half the realm of\\nlanguage, which involves one of the most curious of pro-\\nblems, and which raises one of the most important questions\\nin the whole domain of philological speculation. This is\\nthe apparatus of Negation. It may be out of our reach to\\nattain to the primitive history of the negative particle but\\nif we are to judge of its source by the track upon which it\\nis found, if origin is to be judged of by kindred, if the\\nunknown is to be surmised by that which is known, it is in\\nthis portion of the fabric of speech namely, in the flat\\npronoun-adverbs that we must assign its birthplace to the\\nnegative particle.\\nThe negative particle in our language is simply the con-\\nsonant N. In Saxon it existed as a word ne, but we have\\nlost that word, and it is now to us a letter only, which enters\\ninto many words, as into no, not, nought, none, never. In\\nFrench, however, this particle is still extant as a separate\\nword as Je ne vols pas.\\nThe following parallel quotations exhibit this particle both\\nin its pure and simple state, and also in combinations such\\nas we are, and also such as we are not, familiar with\\nAnglo-Saxon, 995. Wydiffe, 1389.\\nNe geseah naefre nan man God, No man euere sy3 God, no but\\nbuton se an-cenneda sunu hit cy(5de, the oon bigetun sone, that is in the\\nse is on his fseder bearme. And Saet bosum of the fadir, he hath told out.\\nis Johannes gewitnes, Sa da Judeas And this is the witnessing of John,\\nsendon hyra sacerdas and hyra dia- whanne lewis senten fro Jerusalem\\nconas fram Jerusalem to him, ^aet hi prestis and dekenys to hym, that", "height": "3188", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0433.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "4^2 THE PRONOUN GROUP,\\naecsodon hyne and ?Jus cwae don, Hwaet thei schulden axe him, Who art thou?\\neart ?Ju And he cy Sde, and ne And he knowlechide, and denyede\\nwiSsoc, and Sus cwae^, Ne eom ie not, and he knowlechide, For I am\\nna Crist. And hig acsodon hine and not Crist. And thei axiden him,\\nSus cwse don, Eart ^li Elias And What therfore art thou Elye\\nhe cwae|) Ne eom ic hit. Da cwsedon And he seide, I am not. Art thou\\nhi, Eart \u00c2\u00a9li witega And he and- a prophete And he answeride,\\nwyrde and cwaej), Nic Nay.\\nSt. John i. 18-21, Bosworth s Gospels.\\nIn Anglo-Saxon this particle was used not only for the\\nsimple negative, as in the above quotation, but likewise as\\nour nor and both of these uses of the particle continued\\nto the fourteenth century. Thus, in the Vision of Piers the\\nPloivman, Prologue 174\\nAlle |)is route of ratones to ])is reson J?ei assented.\\nAc ])o \\\\t belle was yboujt and on Jje beise hanged,\\npere ne was ratou/z in alle ])e route for alle J)e rewme of Fraunce,\\npat dorst haue ybounden Jie belle aboute cattis nekke,\\nNe hangen [it] aboute J)e cattes hals al Engelonde to wynne.\\nBut the second use nor) survived the other it occurs\\nrepeatedly in Spenser and other writers of the sixteenth\\ncentury. In the following quotation, from the same source\\nas above, we see it in Wicliffe\\nSt. Matthew vi. 20.\\nGold-hordiaJ) eow sojdice gold- But tresoure jee to 50U tresouris\\nhordas on heofenan, Sser naSor 6m in heuene, wher neither rust ne\\nne moJ)|)e hit ne fornimj), and Sar mou3the distruyeth, and wher theues\\njjeofas hit ne delfaS, ne ne forstelaj). deluen not out, ne stelen,\\nIn Chaucer we find the ne in both senses. The following\\nexamples are from the Prologue\\nne not.\\nHe neuere yit no vilonye ne saide. (1. 70.)\\nThat no drop ne fell upon hir breste. (1. 131.)\\nSo that the wolf ne made it not miscarie. (1. 513.)", "height": "3188", "width": "2056", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0434.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 4^3\\nne nor.\\nNe wete hir fyngres in hir sauce depe. (1. 1 29.)\\nNe that a monk whan he is recheles. (1. I79-)\\nNe was so worldly for to haue ofEce. (1. 292.)\\nNe of his speche dangerous ne digne. (1. 517.)\\nNe maked him a spiced conscience. (1. 526.)\\nne in both senses.\\nBut he ne lefte nought for rayn ne thondre. (1. 492.)\\nWhen ne as a simple negative had been superseded by\\n?to/, it still continued in the sense of nor, and thus we find it\\nin Spenser\\nThen mounted he upon his Steede againe,\\nAnd with the Lady backward sought to wend.\\nThat path he kept which beaten was most plaine,\\nNe ever would to any byway bend,\\nBut still did follow one unto the end,\\nThe which at last out of the wood them brought.\\nSo forward on his way (with God to frend)\\nHe passed forth, and new adventure sought\\nLong way he travelled before he heard of ought.\\nThe Faerie Queene, i. i. 28.\\nBy them they passe, all gazing on them round,\\nAnd to the presence mount; whose glorious view\\nTheir frayle amazed senses did confound\\nIn living Princes court none even knew\\nSuch endlesse richesse, and so sumpteous shew\\nNe Persia selfe, the nourse of pompous pride,\\nLike ever saw. And there a noble crew\\nOf Lords and Ladies stood on every side,\\nWhich with their presence fayre the place much beautifide.\\nId. i. 4. 7.\\nJacob Grimm would distinguish the former ne from the\\nlatter, writing the simple negative as ne, and the equivalent\\nof *nor as ne. This he educes from comparison of the\\ncollateral forms, such as nih in Gothic for nor. He thinks\\nthat this ne represented an older neh. The poetical quota-\\ntions do not help us in this, for they show no distinction in", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0435.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "4^4 PRONOUN GROUP,\\nthe quantity. Neither could we get any light from the\\nSaxon poetry, for it had no regulated metres. But it is\\nsome confirmation of Grimm s view, that the ne to which he\\ngives the long vowel, outlived the other, and that it took so\\nmuch longer time to absorb it into newer forms. This is in\\nitself an argument for the probability of its having been a\\nweightier syllable.\\nAnother form of this negative was the prefix un~, which\\nhas lived through the Saxon and English period without\\nmuch change. It has always been a peculiarly expressive\\nformula, and often strikingly poetical.\\nungrene.\\nFolde waes a. gyt\\nGrass ungrene, garsecg Jjcahte. Caedmon, Ii6.\\nThe field was yet-whiles\\nWith grass not green; ocean covered all.\\nIndeed, it is a very great factor in Anglo-Saxon. It stands\\nin places where we have lost and might gladly recover its use,\\nand where at present we have no better substitute than the\\nunnatural device of prefixing a Latin non.\\nIn the Laws of Ine, we have the distinction between land-\\nowners and non-landowners expressed by land dgende and\\nunland dgende.\\nIn Chaucer and in the Ballads we meet with unset\\nSteven for chance-meeting, meeting without appointment.\\nGavin Douglas, in The Palace of Honour^ written in 1501,\\nranks Dunbar among the illustrious poets, and adds that he\\nis yet undead: Dunbar yit undeid.\\nundescribed, unset-down.\\nWhen they urge that God left nothing in his word undescribed, whether\\nit concerned the worship of God or outward poHty, nothing unset-down, c.\\nRichard Hooker, 0/ the Laws, c.. III. xi. 8.\\nunborrowed.\\nWith orient hues, unborrowed of the sun. Gray.", "height": "3188", "width": "2092", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0436.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 4^5\\nunchurch.\\nOur position does not force us to unchurch (as it is termed) either\\nof the other great sections of Christendom as they do mutually one another\\nand us. John Keble, Life, p. 425.\\nAnd this N-particle is not limited to the Gothic family.\\nIt appears in Latin ne^ non, and in-, the negative prefix so\\nwell known in our borrowed Latin words, as indelible, in-\\ntolerable, invincible, inextinguishable, c. In Greek it appears\\nin the prefix an-, as in our borrowed Greek w^ords, anodyne,\\nwhich cancels pain anonymous, which is unnamed.\\nThere is something strange and fascinating about this\\nfaculty of negation in language. It has been often asserted\\nthat there is nothing in speech of which the idea is not\\nborrowed from the outer world. But where in the outer\\nworld is there such a thing as a negative Where is the\\nnatural phenomenon that would suggest to the human mind\\nthe idea of negation There are, it is true, many appearances\\nthat may supply types of negation to those who are in search\\nof them. They who are in possession of the idea of nega-\\ntion may fancy they see it in nature, in such antitheses as\\nlight and shade, day and night, joy and sorrow. But they\\nonly see a reflection of their own thought. There is no\\nnegative in nature. All nature is one continued series of\\naffirmatives; and if this term seem too rigid, it is only\\nbecause the very term affirmation is a relative one, and\\nimplies negation in other words, the expression is improper\\nonly because of the lack of such a foil in nature as negation\\nsupplies in the world of mind. Negation is a product of\\nmind. The first crude hint of it is seen in the mysterious\\nanalogies of instinct. A horse that has put his head into his\\nmanger and found nothing there but chaff, gives a toss and\\na snort that are strongly suggestive of negation. This is\\na case of expectation baulked.", "height": "3188", "width": "2052", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0437.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "425 THE PRONOUN GROUP,\\nThe negative in speech seems to be of this kind. Man is\\nessentially a creature of special pursuits and limited aims.\\nEverything in the world but that which he is at the time in\\nsearch of is a Nay to him. Call it the smallness and narrow-\\nness of his sphere, or call it the divine, the creative, the\\npurposeful, which out of the vast realm of nature carves for\\nitself a route, a course, a direction it is to this intentness of\\nman that every obstacle, or even every neutral and indifferent\\nthing, becomes contrasted with his momentary bent, and\\nawakens the sense of a negative in his mind.\\nThe last great feature that rose in our path was the\\nindefinite article. Nothing could be easier to understand\\nhow it came and what it was derived from indeed, it seems\\nthe most obvious and natural thing in the world. One\\nmight almost imagine it to be unavoidable. And yet it is\\na rare possession, and a peculiar feature of modern lan-\\nguages. On the other hand, the negative is exceedingly\\nmysterious in its nature and sources, and yet it seems to be\\ncommon to all human speech, and to be as familiar at the\\nearliest stage of primitive barbarism, as in the most cultured\\nlanguages of the civilised world. I have never heard of\\na language that had no negative. But I have heard of native\\ndialects in Australia, in which the negatives have been\\nselected as the features of distinction, and have set the names\\nby which the races named themselves, and were known to\\nothers Just as the two main dialects of the Old French\\nThe aboriginal tribes on the western slopes of the Australian Cordillera,\\nfrom the south of Queensland to Victoria, speak a language quite distinct\\nfrom that of the neighbouring tribes to the east and west, whose people, in\\nvery rare instances indeed, are found to understand it.\\nThe language itself, and these tribes, are called by themselves, and by the\\ncoast and more central natives, Werrageries, from their negative Werri.\\nThe other great family or chain of tribes to the west of them again,\\noccupying the vast western lands of Australia, are designated (I have been\\ntold) in their turn by their peculiar negative.", "height": "3188", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0438.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 427\\nlanguage were distinguished by their several affirmatives, and\\nwere called the Langue d oil and Lafigue d oc.\\nNegation then being a sentient product, a subjective thing\\nat its very root, we ask with curiosity out of what materials its\\nformula was first made. Of this I have no opinion whatever\\nto offer. But of the probable history of the N-formula I will\\nboldly give my own notion, not so much from confidence in\\nits certainty, as for the incidental illustration which will thus\\nbe called out. My conjecture is that our N-particle is the\\nrelic of some such a word as one, or an, or any, three words\\nwhich, as the student knows, are radically identical. I con-\\nceive that of the primitive formula of negation we know\\nnothing, or only know that it has perished. Like the primi-\\ntive oak, it has passed away; but it has left others instinct with\\nits organism. Men are markedly emphatic in denial, and\\nhence such formulas as not one, not any, not at all, not a lit,\\nnot a scrap, not i?i the least, c. See how any echoes back,\\nand that with an emphasis, the antecedent negative\\nWe come back to Sir Roundell Palmer s suggestion, and repeat the\\ninquiry whether a majority is never to be allowed any rights or privileges?\\nMarch 26, 1870.\\nHence too, in French, the pas and point, which back up the\\nnegation, also rie7i and aucun and jamais, and other indif-\\nferent words which by long contact with the negative, like\\nsteel from the company of the loadstone, have got so instinct\\nwith the selfsame force that they often figure as negatives\\nsole. Thus,/\u00c2\u00abj encore, point dutout while the other three are\\nso well known as negatives, that when they stand alone they\\nBy the kind intervention of a friend, I have this very pertinent note from\\nthe pen of Mr. George Macleay, of Pendhill Court, many years resident in\\nNew South Wales.\\nTo the same friend I am also indebted for the information that the natives\\nof the Pacific Islands universally designate Frenchmen as We- Wees.", "height": "3184", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0439.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "428 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nhardly are anything else. Yet none of these words possess\\nby right of extraction the slightest negative signification.\\nThe fact seems to be that the word which is added for the\\nsake of emphasis, becomes a more enduring element that\\nits principal, and comes to bear the stress of the function, by\\nthe mere virtue of its emphasis. As in French we see but\\none or two extant relics of negation without the subjoined\\nadverb, and as the subjoined adverb has in many instances\\ngrown into a recognised negative in its own right, so there\\nis every reason to apprehend that but for the conservative\\ninfluences of literature, the ne would have been by this time\\nvery much nearer to vanishing from the language than it act-\\nually is. And, had this happened, it would have been only a\\nrepetition of that process in which I conceive ne to have\\nformerly borne the converse part of the action. Ne is\\nprobably the relic of some adverbial pronoun, which at first\\nserved a long apprenticeship under some ancient and now\\nforgotten negative, of whose function it long bore the stress\\nand emphasis, until at length it became the sole substitute.\\nThe Welsh dim, which means no, none, is known through\\nthe familiar answer Dim Saesoneg, which means No Saxon,\\nor, I don t speak English. Now this word dim etymo-\\nlogically is merely the word for //img. Poh means every, and\\npoh ddim is the Welsh for everything, Thus, in modern\\nGreek, the negative Sev is the relic of ohhh, not one the\\nnof has perished, and the one is now the negative.\\nAs a further illustration it may be added that in the\\nwestern counties it was common thirty years ago for rustic\\narithmeticians to call the tenth cipher, the Zero or Nought,\\nby the name of Ought, thus retaining only that part of the\\nword which was purely affirmative by extraction.\\nNought is an abbreviation for nan-wuht, no-whit and\\nthe verbal negative not is but a more rapid form of nought.", "height": "3188", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0440.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 4%^\\n2 0/ the Flexional Pronoun- A dverhs.\\nUnder this head come such old familiar forms as here,\\nthere, where, when, then, hence, whence, why, hither, whither,\\nwhich are ancient flexional forms that sprung from adverbs\\nof the substantival and adjectival classes. The tracing of\\nsome of these to their origin is a matter of obscure antiquity\\nothers are clear but the enquiry belongs rather to Saxon\\nthan English philology.\\nThen there are compounds of these, as wherethrough\\n(Wisdom xix. 8).\\nelsewhere.\\nElsewhere the plebeian element of nations had risen to power through\\nthe arts and industries which make men rich the Commons of Scotland\\nwere sons of their religion. J. A. Froude, History of England, February,\\n1850.\\notherwhere.\\nAnd one hath had the vision face to face,\\nAnd now his chair desires him here in vain,\\nHowever they may crown him otherwhere.\\nAlfred Tennyson, The Holy Grail.\\nSpace will not permit us to unravel the history of each of\\nthese words, and therefore we will choose one as a specimen\\nfor fuller treatment. This shall be the adverb-pronoun there\\nand its co-flexionists.\\nFrom the declension of that have sprung those composite\\npronouns which may be looked upon as a sort of half-\\ndeveloped new inflection of the word.\\nNom.\\nthat (or it)\\nGen.\\nthereof\\nDat.\\nthereto or therefor(e)\\nAce.\\nthat {or it)\\nAbl.\\ntherefrom\\nInstr.\\nthereby.", "height": "3176", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0441.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "430 THE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nIn the following stave of the twelfth century we have\\nthereby in the physical sense of by thai place\\nMerie snngen Se muneches binnen Ely,\\nDa Cnut ching rew Serby\\nRoweS cnites near Se lant,\\nAnd here we Ses muneches sang.\\nMerry sang the monks in Ely,\\nAs king Canute rowed thereby\\nRow ye boys nigher the land.\\nAnd bear we these rnonhs song.\\nTherefore is used interchangeably with of it in i Kings\\nvii. 27.\\nThe pronoun the^ which has been spoken of in a former\\nsection, belongs here. When we say so much the better/\\nthis the is an instrumental case of the demonstrative that,\\nand answers to the Latin eo, and is in its place here among\\nthe flexional adverb-pronouns.\\nThe first numeral has a peculiarly pronominal tendency,\\nand so its flexional adverb once, when used without any\\nnumerical value, as in the following quotation, passes over\\nfrom its place in the former chapter, to this present section.\\nAs in those domes, where Csesars once bore sway,\\nDefac d by time and tottering in decay.\\nThere in the ruin, heedless of the dead,\\nThe shelter-seeking peasant builds his shed\\nAnd, wondering man could want the larger pile,\\nExults, and owns his cottage with a smile,\\nOliver Goldsmith, The Traveller.\\nSuch also is our use of this word when we open a child s\\nstory with Once upo?i a time it is the Latin aliquando, and\\nmay be compared with the provincial English somewhen.", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0442.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 43 1\\n3. Of the Phrasal Pronoun- Adverls.\\nAs the flexional character becomes obscure, and the\\nflexional signification is forgotten, symbolic words are called\\nin to supplement the enfeebled adverb. Thus whence gets\\nthe larger {oimuia,/rom whence, as Genesis iii. 2 3\\nMiles Coverdale, 1535. 161 1.\\nThe LoRDE God put him out of Therefore the Lord God sent\\nthe garden of Eden, to tyll y^ earth, him foorth from the garden of Eden,\\nwhence he was taken. to till the ground, from whence he\\nwas taken.\\nBut more commonly a new sense is gained by the em-\\nployment of the phrasal adverb, as\\n/or ever.\\nPrussians and Bavarians have fought side by side, and have equally dis-\\ntinguished themselves. The Maine is bridged over for ever. August 4,\\n1870.\\nfor somethi7ig.\\nOur volition counts for something, as a condition of the course of events.\\nT. H. Huxley, Lay Sermons.\\nTo this section belong all such adverbial phrases as these:\\naf all, at once, after all, of course, in a way, in a fashion, in a\\nmanner, in a sort of way, in some sort, after a sort (the two\\nlatter in R. Hooker, Of the Laws, I. v. 2).\\nSome of these naturally develope with pecuHar luxuriance\\nafter negative verbs and as a complement to the negation, as\\nin the following from Hugh Latimer, The Ploughers, 1549\\nWhereas in deede it toucheth not monkerie, nor maketh anything at all\\nfor any such matter.\\nnot at all.\\nNot at all considering the power of God, but puifed vp with his ten\\nthousand footmen, and his thousand horsemen, and his fourescore elephants.\\n2 Maccabees xi. 4.", "height": "3176", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0443.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "432\\nTHE PRONOUN GROUP.\\nThe progress of modern languages, turning as it does in\\ngreat measure upon the development of the symbolic ele-\\nment, naturally sets towards the production of grouped expres-\\nsions, and this again displays itself with particular activity in\\nthe adverbial parts of language, whether they be presentively\\nor symbolically adverbial, that is to say, whether the nounal\\nor the pronounal character is prevalent. For the tendency\\nof novelty is to show itself prominently in the adverbs of\\neither category, just on the same principle as the extremities\\nof a tree are the first to display the newest movements of\\ngrowth. The adverbs are the tips or extremities of speech.\\nHence such adverbial phrases as the following\\nsomewhere or other.\\nHe is somewhere or other in France, leading that dreary purposeless life\\nwhich too many of our ruined countrymen are forced to lead in continental\\ntowns.\\nSome of the phrasal adverbs have assumed the form of\\nsingle words, by that symphytism which naturally attaches\\nthese light elements to each other. Hence the forms withal^\\nhowever, whenever, howsoever, whensoever, whatever, neverthe-\\nless, notwithstanding.\\notherwise.\\nImpossible therefore it is we should otherwise think, than that what\\nthings God doth neither command nor forbid, the same he permitteth with\\napprobation either to be done or left undone. Richard Hooker, Of the\\nLaws, c., II. iv. 4.\\ncontrariwise.\\nNot rendring euill for euill, or railing for railing but contrarywise\\nblessing. i Peter iii. 9.\\nUpside-down is an adverb that has been altered by a\\nfalse light from up-so-down, or, as Wiclif has it, up-se-down,\\nwherein so is the old relative, and the expression is equivalent\\nto up-what-down.\\ni", "height": "3188", "width": "2076", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0444.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "ADVERBIAL PRONOUNS. 433\\nHe is traitour to God tumej) J\u00c2\u00bbe chirche upsedown. John Wiclif,\\nThree Treatises, ed. J. H. Todd, Dublin, 1 851, p. 29.\\nThus es this worlde torned up-so-downe.\\nHampole, MS. Bowes after Halliwell, v. Upsodoun.\\nat leastwise.\\nAnd every effect doth after a sort contain, at leastwise resemble, the\\ncause from which it proceedeth. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws c. I. v. 2;\\nalso id. II. iv. 3.\\nat no hand.\\nAnd in what sort did these assemble In the trust of ther owne know-\\nledge, or of their sharpenesse of wit, or deepenesse of iudgment, as it were in\\nan arme of flesh At no hand. They trusted in him that hath the key of\\nDauid, opening and no man shutting they prayed to the Lord. The\\nTranslators to the Reader, 161 1.\\nwhich way, that way.\\nMarke which way sits the Wether-cocke,\\nAnd that way blows the wind.\\nBallad Society, vol. i. p. 344.", "height": "3176", "width": "2004", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0445.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER IX,\\nTHE LINK -WORD GROUP.\\n1 BORROW the title of this chapter from Mr. Thring s\\nGrammar, though I somewhat vary the scope of the term\\nLink-word by comprising within it both prepositions and\\nconjunctions. I know not of any happier term to com-\\nprise that vague and flitting host of words which, starting\\nforth from time to time out of the formal ranks of the\\nprevious parts of speech to act as the intermediaries of\\nwords and sentences, are commonly called Prepositions and\\nConjtinctions.\\nThese two parts of speech have a certain fundamental\\nidentity, combined with a bold divergence in which they\\nappear as perfectly distinct from one another. Their dis-\\ntinction is based on the definition that prepositions are used\\nto attach nouns to the sentence, and conjunctions are used\\nto attach sentences or to introduce them.\\nThe neutral ground on which they meet, and where no\\nsuch discrimination is possible, is in the generic link -words\\nand, or, also, for, but.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0446.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "PREPOSITIONS. 435\\nI. Of Prepositions.\\nThe preposition may be defined as a word that expresses\\nthe relation of a noun to its governing word. A few ex-\\namples must suffice for the illustration of a class of words so\\nfamiliarly known and so various in their shades of significa-\\ntion. The examples will be mostly of the less common uses,\\nas we shall consider the common uses to be present to the\\nmind of the reader; the object being to suggest to the\\nreader s mind the almost endless variety of shades of which\\nprepositions are susceptible. First, the prepositions of the\\nsimpler and mostly elder sort.\\naf/er.\\nFull semyly aftir hir mete she raughte.\\nf Prologue, [36.\\nThe vintners were made to pay licence duties after a much higher scale\\nthan that which had obtained under Ralegh. Edward Edwards, Ralegh\\n(1868), ii. p. 23.\\nby.\\nBut say by me as I by thee,\\nI fancie none but thee alone.\\nBallad Society, vol. i. p. 244.\\nI will do the right thing by him.\\nOr, as Jane Austen, Mansfield Park, ch. v.\\nI think he will consider it a right thing by Mrs. Grant as well as by\\nFanny.\\nWhere we should now say as regards Mrs. Grant, or as\\nfar as Fanny is concerned.*\\nBy having originally meant aboutj acquired in various\\nlocalities, notably in Shropshire, a power of indicating the\\nknowledge of something bad about any person, insomuch\\nthat I know nowt by him is provincially used for I know\\nno harm of him/ And it is according to this idiom that our\\nversion makes St. Paul witness of himself, I know nothing\\nF f 2", "height": "3188", "width": "2036", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0447.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "43^ THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nby myself, yet am I not hereby justified and the expression\\noccurs more than once in the curious book from which the\\nfollowing is quoted\\nThen I was committed to a darke dungeon fifteene dayes, which time\\nthey secretly made enquiry where I had lyen before, what my wordes and\\nbehauiour had beene while I was there, but they could find nothing by me.\\nWebbe, his trauailes, 1 590.\\nThis preposition is now mostly used as the instrument of\\npassivity\\nIt is not unqualifiedly true that the rose would smell as sweet by any\\nother name, at least not the doctrine which that famous expression is used\\nto assert. We do feel the pleasure enhanced when, in a beautiful spot, we\\nfind that that spot has been the theme of praise by men of taste in many\\ngenerations. H. C. Robinson, Diary, 1 83 7.\\nbut.\\nBut (on this day) let sea-men feare no wracke\\nShakspeare, King John, iii. I. 92,\\nwhere the parentheses have the unusual signification of\\nthrowing the enclosed words into a composite lump to make\\na noun under the government of the preposition outside. It\\nis equivalent to except on-this-day.\\nAnd who but Rumour, who but onely I.\\n2 Henry IV, Induction, 1. 11.\\n/or.\\nYe shal be slayne in all the coastes of Israel, I wil be avenged of you\\nto lerne you for to knowe, that I am the Lorde. Ezechiel xi. 10. (1535).\\nIf wee will descend to later times, wee shall finde many the like examples\\nof such kind, or rather vnkind acceptance. The first Romane Emperour did\\nneuer doe a more pleasing deed to the learned, nor more profitable to pos-\\nteritie, for conseruing the record of times in true supputation then when he\\ncorrected the Calender, and ordered the yeere according to the course of the\\nSunne and yet this was imputed to him for noueltie, and arrogancie, and\\nprocured to him great obloquie. So the first Christened Emperour (at the\\nleastwise that openly professed the faith himselfe, and allowed others to doe\\nihe like) for strengthening the Empire at his great charges, and prouiding for\\nthe Church, as he did, got for his labour the name Pupillus, as who would\\nsay, a wastefull Prince, that had neede of a Guardian, or ouerseer. So the", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0448.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "PREPOSITIONS. 437\\nbest Christened Emperour, for the loue that he bare vnto peace, thereby to\\nenrich both himselfe and his subiects, and because he did not seeke warre\\nbut find it, was iudged to be no man at armes, (though in deed he excelled in\\nfeites of chiualrie, and shewed so much when he was prouoked) and con-\\ndemned for giuing himselfe to his ease, and to his pleasure. The Trans-\\nlators to the Reader, l6ll.\\nOut of that great past he brought some of the sterner stuff of which the\\nmartyrs were made, and introduced it like iron into the blood of modern\\nreligious feeling. J. C. Shairp, John Kehle, 1866.\\nOf is the most frequent preposition in the English lan-\\nguage. Probably it occurs as often as all the other prepo-\\nsitions put together. It is a characteristic feature of the\\nstage of the language which we call by distinction English,\\nas opposed to Saxon. And this character, Hke so many\\ncharacters really distinctive of the modern language, is\\nFrench. Nine times out often that ^is used in English it\\nrepresents the French de. It is the French preposition in a\\nSaxon mask. The word 0/ is Saxon, if by word we under-\\nstand the two letters andy, or the sound they make when\\npronounced together. But if we mean the function which\\nthat httle sound discharges in the economy of the language,\\nthen the word is French at least nine times out of ten.\\nWhere the Saxon of was used, we should now mostly\\nemploy another preposition, as\\nAlys us of yfle.\\nDeliver us from evil.\\nThe following from the Saxon Chronicle, a.d. 894, shows\\none place where we should retain it, and one where we\\nshould change it\\nNe com se here oftor call ute of The host came not all out of\\npsem setum Jjonne tuwwa. o} re si])e the encampment oftener than twice\\nJ)a hie arest to londe comon. ser once when they first to land came,\\nsio fierd gesamnod wsere. o])re si] e ere the fierd was assembled once\\n|)a hie of psem setum faran wol- when they would depart from the\\ndon, encampment.", "height": "3176", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0449.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "438 THE LINK- WORD GROUP,\\nThus the Saxon 0/ has to be sought with some care by\\nhim who would find it in modern English. Those of the\\ncurrent type, such as are illustrated in the following quota-\\ntion, are French\\nThus it has come to pass that women have, by change to times of set-\\ntled peace, and by the reformation of religion, lost something of dignity, of\\nusefulness, and of resources. John Boyd-Kinnear, Woman s Work, p. 352.\\nNumerous as are the places in which this preposition now\\noccurs, it is less rife than it was. In the fifteenth and six-\\nteenth centuries the language teemed with it. It recurred\\nand recurred to satiety. This Frenchism is now much\\nabated. I will add a few examples in which we should no\\nlonger use it.\\nPaul after his shipwreck is kindly entertained of the barbarians. Ads\\nxxviii. (Contents.)\\nI follow after, if that I may apprehend that for which also I am appre-\\nhended of Christ lesus. Phil. iii. 12.\\nThis as the instrument of passivity has been displaced,\\nand 5y has been substituted in its stead.\\nHow shall I feast him What bestow of him.\\nTwelfth Night, iii. 4. 2.\\nWhat time the Shepheard, blowing of his nailes.\\n3 Henry VI. ii. 5. 3.\\nDoe me the favour to dilate at full,\\nWhat haue befalne of them and thee till now.\\nComedy of Errors, i. i. 124.\\nIn the Fourth Folio this last ^is at length omitted.\\nSolomon was greater than Dauid, though not in vertue, yet in power\\nand by his power and wisdome he built a Temple to the Lord, such a one\\nas was the glory of the land of Israel, and the wonder of the whole world.\\nBut was that his magnificence liked of by all The Translators to the\\nReader, 161 1.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0450.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "PREPOSITIONS. 439\\nOff is now little used prepositionally it has become a\\nseparate word, appropriate to a peculiar set of what we must\\ncall adverbial uses, as be off, take off, wash off, write off,\\nthey who are far off, c. But this is a modern distinction,\\nand it exhibits one of the devices of language for increasing\\nits copia verhorum. Any mere variety of spelling may acquire\\ndistinct functions to the enrichment of speech.\\nIn Miles Coverdale s Bible (1535) there is no distinction\\nbetween and off as may be seen by the following from\\nthe thirteenth chapter of the prophet Zachary\\nIn that tyme shall the house off Dauid, and the citesyns off lerusalem\\nhaue an open well, to wash of synne and vnclennesse. And then (sayeth the\\nLoRDE off hoostes) I will destroye the names of Idols out off the londe.\\nIn a series of Acts i)assed over the veto of the President, Congress pro-\\nvided for the assemblage in each Southern State of a constituent Convention,\\nto be elected by universal suffrage, subject to the disfranchisement of all\\npersons who had taken an active part in the civil or military services of the\\nConfederacy.\\nTill is from an ancient substantive til, still flourishing in\\nGerman in its rightful form as jiel, and meaning goal, mark,\\naim, butt. Thus in some Saxon versified proverbs, printed\\nin the Introduction to my Saxon Chronicles, p. xxxv\\nTil sceal on eSle\\ndomes wyrcean.\\nMark shall on patrimony\\ndoom-wards work.\\ni. e. a borne or landmark shall be admissible as evidence.\\nThe preposition is now appropriated to Time we say till\\nthen, till to-morrow but not till there, c. Earlier it was\\nused of Place, as in Shakspeare s Passionate Pilgrim\\nShe, poor bird, as all forlorn\\nLean d her breast up till a thorn,\\nAnd there gan the dolefull st ditty,\\nThat to hear it was great pity.", "height": "3180", "width": "2020", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0451.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "440 THE LINK- WORD GROUP,\\nto comparable to).\\nA sweet thing is love,\\nIt rules both heart and mind\\nThere is no comfort in the world\\nTo women that are kind.\\nBallad Society, vol. i. p. 320.\\nUp07t.\\nThere were slaine of them, vpon a three thousand men. i Maccabees iv.\\n15-\\nwithout.\\nBut now what pietie without trueth what trueth (what sauing trueth)\\nwithout the word of God what word of God (whereof we may be sure)\\nwithout the Scripture? The Translators to the Reader^ 161 1.\\nThe prepositions are more elevated in the scale of sym-\\nbolism than the pronouns. They are quite removed from\\nall appearance of direct relation with the material and the\\nsensible. They constitute a mental product of the most\\nexquisite sort. They are more cognate to mind they have\\ncaught more of that freedom which is the heritage of mind\\nthey are more amenable to mental variations, and more ready\\nto lend themselves to new turns of thought, than pronouns\\ncan possibly be. To see this it is necessary to stand outside\\nthe language for these things have become so mingled with\\nthe very circulation of our blood, that we cannot easily put\\nourselves in a position to observe them. Those who have\\nmastered, or in any effective manner even studied Greek,\\nwill recognise what is meant. To see it in our own speech\\nrequires more practised habits of observation. But here\\nI can avail myself of testimony. Wordsworth had the art of\\nbringing into play the subtle powers of English prepositions,\\nand this feature of his poetry has not escaped the notice of\\nPrincipal Shairp. In his Studies in Poetry and Philosophy,\\nwhen speaking of Wordsworth, he says Here, in pass-\\ning, I may note the strange power there is in his simple", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0452.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "PREPOSITIONS. 441\\nprepositions. The star is on the mountain-top; the silence is in\\nthe starry sky the sleep is among the hills the gentleness of\\nheaven is on the sea not broods o er, as the later editions\\nhave it. (p. 74.)\\nWordsworth dedicated his Memorials of a Tour in Italy to\\nhis fellow-traveller, Henry Crabb Robinson. The opening\\nlines are\\nCompanion by whose buoyant spirit cheered,\\nIn whose experience trusting, day by day.\\nIt was originally written To whose experience, c. Mr.\\nRobinson suggested that In would be better than To,\\nand the poet, after offering reasons for a thing which can\\nhardly be argued upon, ended by yielding his own superior\\nsense to the criticism of his friend. [Diary, 1837.)\\nA second series of prepositions are those in which flexion\\nis traceable, especially the genitival form, as against, besides,\\nsi thence, c.\\nbesides without, or contrary to).\\nBesides all men s expectation. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws Sec.\\nPreface, ii. 6.\\nWhich Scripture being given to teach matters of belief not less than of\\naction, the Fathers must needs be and are even as plain against credit besides\\nthe relation, as against practice without the injunction of Scripture. Id.\\nBk. II. V. 3.\\nsithence.\\nWe require you to find out but one church upon the face of the whole\\nearth, that hath been ordered by your discipline, or hath not been ordered\\nby ours, that is to say, by episcopal regiment, sithence the time that the\\nblessed Apostles were here conversant. Richard Hooker, Of the Laws, c.\\nPreface, iv. i.\\n;zmr (comparative of ;zz^/^).\\nThe fruitage fair to sight, like that which grew\\nNear that bituminous lake where Sodom fiam d.\\nParadise Lost, x. 562.", "height": "3176", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0453.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "44^ THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nnext (superlative).\\nHappy the man whom this bright Court approves,\\nHis sov reign favours, and his Country loves,\\nHappy next him, who to these shades retires.\\nAlexander Pope, Windsor Forest, 335.\\nPerhaps we ought to range in this series such a preposi-\\ntion as save, which having come to us through the French\\nsauf, from the Latin salvo, is still, at least to the perceptions\\nof the scholar, redolent of the ablative absolute.\\nIn one of the public areas of the town of Como stands a statue with no\\ninscription on its pedestal, save that of a single name, volta. John Tyn-\\ndall, Faraday as a Discoverer.\\nA third series of prepositions, consisting of more than one\\nword, are the phrasal prepositions. In the development of\\nthis sort of preposition, we have been expedited by French\\ntuition. A constant and necessary element in their forma-\\ntion is the preposition of. They are the analogues of such\\nFrench prepositions as aupres de, autour de, c.\\nlong of; along of.\\nAll long of this vile Traitor Somerset.\\nI Henry VI. iv. 3. 33.\\nLong all of Somerset, and his delay, Ibid. 46.\\nAn older form of this preposition was long on or along on,\\nas it is still frequently heard in country places. The French\\n^prevailed over the native on, as it did also in some other\\npositions. Chaucer has\\nI can not tell whereon it was along.\\nBut wel I wot gret stryf is us among,\\nCanones Yemannes Tale.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0454.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "PREPOSITIONS. 443\\nin spight of; in spite of.\\nAs on a Mountaine top the Cedar shewes,\\nThat keepes his leaues in spight of any storme.\\n2 Henry VI. v. i. 206.\\nin presence of (French en presence de).\\nThe object of this essay is not religious edification, but the true criticism\\nof a great and misunderstood author. Yet it is impossible to be in presence\\nof this Pauline conception of faith without remarking on the incomparable\\npower of edification which it contains. Matthew Arnold, St. Paul and\\nProtestantism, p. 135.\\nfor sake (with genitive between).\\nNow for the comfortless troubles sake of the needy. Psalm xii. 5\\n(Elder version).\\nBut if any man say vnto you, This is offered in sacrifice vnto idoles, eate\\nnot for his sake that shewed it, and for conscience sake. i Cor. x. 28.\\nFor Sabrine bright her only sake.\\nBallad Society, vol. i. p. 386.\\nThis is the formula throughout the English Bible, and\\nthroughout Shakspeare with three exceptions, according to\\nMrs. Cowden Clarke. In the above examples, troubles, his,\\nconscience are in the genitive case. The s genitival is not\\nadded to conscience, because it ends with a sibilant sound,\\nand where there are two sibilants already, a third could\\nhardly be articulated. The s of the genitive case is, how-\\never, often absent where this reason cannot be assigned.\\nThus\\nFor his oath sake. Twelfth Night, iii. 4.\\nFor fashion sake. As You Like It, iii. 2.\\nFor sport sake. I Henry IV. ii. I.\\nFor their credit sake. Id. ii. i.\\nFor safety sake. Id. v. i.\\nBut for your health and your digestion sake.\\nTroilus and Cressida, ii. 3.", "height": "3184", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0455.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "444 THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nInstead of this genitive, however, the present use of the lan-\\nguage substitutes an ^form, which occurs in Shakspeare\\nthree times\\nfor the sake of.\\nAnd for the sake of them thou sorrowest for.\\nComedie of Errors, i. I. 12 2.\\nIf for the sake of Merit thou wih heare mee.\\nAnthony and Cleopatra, ii. 7. 54.\\nA little Daughter, for the sake of it\\nBe manly, and take comfort. Pericles, iii. i. 21.\\nThis class of prepositions is useful as letting us see how\\nthe older prepositions came into their place, and (to speak\\ngenerally) how the symbolic element sustains itself and pre-\\nserves itself from the natural decay of inanition. Here is a\\npresentive word enclosed between two prepositions, as if it\\nhad been swallowed by them, and gradually undergoing the\\nprocess of assimilation. By and bye the substantive becomes\\nobsolete elsewhere, and lives on here in a preposition, with\\na purely symbolic power. For instance, none but scholars\\ncan see anything but a preposition in such a case as\\ninstead of.\\nII. Of Conjunctions.\\nOf all the parts of speech the conjunction comes last in\\nthe order of nature. As the office of the conjunction is to\\njoin sentences together, it presupposes the completion of the\\nsimple sentence and as a consequence, it would seem to\\nimply the pre- existence of the other parts of speech, and to\\nbe the terminal product of them all. It is essentially a sym-\\nbolic word, but this does not hinder it from comprising\\nwithin its vocabulary a great deal of half-assimilated pre-", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0456.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "CONJ UNCTIONS. 445\\nsentive matter. This is a point which will have to be further\\nnoticed in the course of the chapter.\\nThe necessity for conjunctions (other than and, or) does\\nnot arise until language has advanced to the formation of\\ncompound sentences. Hence the conjunctions are as a\\nwhole a comparatively modern formation. Here we have\\nnot an array of short and ancient and obscure examples,\\nas in the case of the prepositions. Almost all the conjunc-\\ntions are recent enough for us to know of what they were\\nmade. And indeed they may conveniently be divided accord-\\ning to the parts of speech out of which they have been\\nformed.\\nOf the derival of a conjunction from a preposition, we\\nhave a ready instance in the old familiar hut, at first a pre-\\nposition and compounded of two earlier prepositions,\\nnamely, by and out in Saxon butan, from be and utan.\\nOthers of the same character are\\nfor.\\nFor thou, for thou didst view,\\nThat death of deaths, companion true.\\ntill.\\nAs there are a thousand thoughts lying within a man that he does not\\nknow till he takes up the pen to write, so the heart is a secret even to him\\n(or her) who has it in his own breast. W. M. Thackeray, Esmond, Bk. II.\\nch. i.\\nuntil.\\nShakspeare was quite out of fashion until Steele brought him back into\\nthe mode. W. M. Thackeray, Esmond, Bk. 11. ch. x.\\nNo character is natural until it has been proved to be so. W. S.\\nMacleay, quoted by Professor Rolleston, Forms of Animal Life, p. xxi.\\nThen there are conjunctions formed by the symphytism\\nof a preposition with a noun, as in the Shakspearian belike,\\nwhich is pure English, or per adventure, which is pure French,\\nor perhaps, which is half French and half Danish.", "height": "3184", "width": "2028", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0457.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "44^ THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nperadventure.\\nSome peraduenture would haue no varietie of sences to be set in the\\nmargine, lest the authoritie of the Scriptures for deciding of controuersies by\\nthat show of vncertaintie, should somewhat be shaken. The Translators to\\nthe Reader, i6ii.\\nIn Chaucer, Knight s Tale, 2488, we find the full phrase\\nout of which has been made the compressed form\\nbecause.\\nBut by the cause that they sholde ryse Bot be ])e cause |;at Jjei scholde rise\\nEerly for to seen the grete fight Erly for to seen \\\\)e. grete fighte\\nVn to hir reste wenten they at night. Vnto her reste went ]/ei,att nihte.\\nEllesmere MS. Lansdowne MS.\\nA conjunction formed from the reference of a preposition\\nto a foregoing adverb, is\\ntoo to.\\nI have seen too much of success in life to take off my hat and huzza to\\nit as it passes in its gilt coach. ^W. M. Thackeray, Esmond, Bk. I. p. 30.\\nBut the great source of conjunctions is the pronoun.\\nHere the ancient relative pronoun so is one of the most fre-\\nquent factors, not only in its own form but likewise in also\\nand in as, which is shortened from an elder form of also,\\nnamely ealswa, i. e. entirely, altogether so, quite in that\\nmanner.\\nIn the following line of Chaucer, Prologue 92, we see\\nthe after as already mature, while the fore one is still in the\\ncourse of formation. We see al and so in various stages of\\napproximation until their final coalition in the form of as.\\nBy means of Mr. FurnivalFs Six-Text Print we have the\\ncomparison of the manuscripts ready to our hand\\nHe was al so fresche as is mone]) of Mai.\\nLansdowne MS,\\nHe was also fressh as ys e moneth of May.\\nPetworth MS,", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0458.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 447\\nHe was als freissch as is |)e monj) of May.\\nCorpus MS.\\nHe was as frosch as is the monyth of May.\\nCambridge MS.\\nThe volume of a gas increases as its temperature is raised, and decreases\\nas the temperature is lowered.\\nas as and as.\\nThe only kind of faith which is inseparable from life is a divine convic-\\ntion of truth imparted to the intellect through the heart, and which becomes\\nas absolute to the internal conscience as one s existence, and as incapable of\\nproof. Laurence Oliphant, Piccadilly, p. 275.\\nSo and as frequently make up a conjunction by their\\ncombined action, when if we were to consider them apart,\\neach by itself, we should be forced to call them adverbial\\npronouns and it is by their inherent capacity of standing to\\neach other as antecedent and relative, that they together\\nconstitute a conjunction.\\nas so and so.\\nAs great men flatter themselves, so they are flattered by others, and so\\nrobbed of the true judgment of themselves. R. Sibbes, Soul s Conflict,\\nch. xiv.\\nWith a depth so great as to make it a day s march from the rear to the\\nran, and a front so narrow as to consist of one gun and t)ne horseman.\\nA. W. Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. iii. ch. ix.\\nThe use of as for a conjunction- sole is now disallowed,\\nand is in fact one of our standard vulgarisms. It is seen in\\nthe familiar saw, Handsome is as handsome does. Yet\\nthis use occurs in the Spectator, No. 508 in the course of\\na correspondent s letter it is true, but the correspondent is\\na young lady, and writes like one\\nIs it suflferable, that the Fop of whom I complain should say, as he\\nwould rather have such-a-one without a Groat, than me with the Indies", "height": "3188", "width": "2044", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0459.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "44o THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nSO f/iaf.\\nOne is so near to another that no air can come between them. Job\\nxli. 1 6.\\nRich young men become so valuable a prize that selection is renounced,\\nJohn Boyd-Kinnear, Woman s Work, p. 353.\\n/hen or /kan.\\nA wise man will make better use of an idle pamphlet, then a fool will\\ndo of sacred Scripture. John Milton, Areopagitica.\\nwhere or whereas.\\nWhere in former times the only remedy for misgovernment real or sup-\\nposed was a change of dynasty, the evil is now corrected at no greater cost\\nthan that of a ministerial crisis. Where in former times serious evils were\\nendured because the remedy was worse than the disease, trivial incon-\\nveniences now excite universal complaints and meet with speedy remedy.\\nWhere formerly ministers clung to office with the tenacity of despair, and\\nrival statesmen persecuted each other to the death, the defeated premier\\nnow retires with the reasonable prospect of securing by care and skill a\\ntriumphant return and both he and his successors mutually entertain no\\nother feelings than those to which an honourable rivalry may give rise.\\nWhere formerly every subsidy was the occasion of the bitterest contention,\\nand was given at last grudgingly and with mistrust, the House of Commons\\nhas never since the Revolution refused to the Crown the maintenance of a\\nsingle soldier or reduced the salary of a single clerk. W. E. Hearn, The\\nGovernment of England, 1867, p. 126.\\nWhether. This interesting word is a substantive-pro-\\nnoun in such passages as\\nWhether of them twaine did the will of his father They say vnto him,\\nThe first. Matthew xxi. 31.\\nWhether is greater, the gold, or the Temple Id. xxiii. 17.\\nBut this pronominal use is now antiquated, and whether is\\nused only as a conjunction\\nWhether they wil heare, or whether they will forbeare. Ezekiel ii. 5.\\nWhether it were I or they. i Cor. xv. il.\\nTo this same group belongs a conjunction, not so common\\nas it once was, but one that has a fine old English ring with", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0460.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 449\\nit, albeit a translation from the French. We mean the /low\\nbefore narratives, or the summary of a narrative, as in the\\nheading of chapters. It comes from the age of chivalry\\nalmost every chapter in Froissart begins with Coviment.\\nNor has it quite lost the romantic character. Sometimes\\nit has a sort of archness about it, as if it would prepare the\\nreader for something droll\\nI have related how an eminent physicist with whose acquaintance I am\\nhonoured, imagines me to have invented the author of the Sacra Privata\\nand that fashionable newspaper, the Morning Post, undertaking as I seemed,\\nit said, very anxious about the matter to supply information as to who\\nthe author really was, laid it down that he was Bishop of Calcutta, and that\\nhis ideas and writings, to which I attached so much value, had been among\\nthe main provocatives of the Indian mutiny. ^Matthew Arnold, St. Paul\\nand Protestantism, Y J^.\\nThere are also of this group that run into phrasal for-\\nmulae, as\\nfor all thai.\\nYet for all that it cannot be dissembled, that partly to exercise and whet\\nour wits, partly to weane the curious from loathing of them for their\\neuerywhere-plainenesse, partly also to stirre vp our deuotion to craue the\\nassistance of Gods spirit by prayer, and lastly, that we might be forward to\\nseek ayd of our brethren by conference, and neuer scorn those that be not\\nin all respects so complete as they should bee, being to seeke in many\\nthings our selues, it hath pleased God in his diuine prouidence, heere and\\nthere to scatter wordes and sentences of that difEcultie and doubtfulnesse,\\nc. The Translators to the Reader, 161 1.\\nOf all the elements that go to make conjunctions, none\\ncome near the pronouns in importance. Often where other\\nparts of speech get a footing in this office, it has been by\\npronominal ushering. Thus, in the case of directly, quoted\\nbelow, it is clear that this word originally came in as an\\nadverb to a pronominal conjunction it was at first directly\\nas or directly that/\\nOf the conjunctions which are of pronominal extraction\\nthe so and the as are our Saxon inheritance, whereas the con-\\njunctional use of who, whose, whom, which, what, whence, c.,", "height": "3184", "width": "2028", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0461.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "450 THE LINK-WORD GROUP.\\nare French imitations. In the Latin language, and in those\\nwhich spring from it, the relative pronoun is the chief\\nconjunction. In French, for example, ^ui and gue play a\\npart which their equivalents in English do not come near.\\nIndeed, the degree in which these relatives act as conjunc-\\ntions is almost the touchstone of a Latinised or Frenchified\\nstyle. For the Latin scholar, one has only to name a few\\nof such sentence -links as the following qucs quum ita smf,\\nquo facto, quihus peractis, quod si, quare, quoin or quum, c.\\nFor a French instance, I quote the following example\\nfrom Pere Lacordaire, Quarantieme Conference, with the\\nanonymous translation as published by Chapman and Hall,\\n1869:\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nVous ne fonderez done pas une doctrine, eussiez-vous devant vous mille\\nans multiplies par mille ans. Que si vous sortez des principes de I incre-\\ndulit^, a I instant meme vous retombez en Jesus-Christ, le seul maitre\\npossible de quiconque reconnait une autorite.\\nYou would not then found a doctrine, even if you had a thousand years\\nmultiplied by another thousand before you. If you quit the principles of\\nunbelief, at that very moment you fall back upon Jesus Christ, the only\\npossible master for whosoever acknowledges an authority.\\nAlthough this translation is almost in the extreme of\\nverbal fidelity, yet the Que is passed over in silence. And\\nrightly so.\\nAs we turned who and which from interrogatives into\\nrelatives under French influence, as already shewn, so it\\nfollowed that these words took a place also as conjunctions,\\njust as the French qui and que do. Moreover, we accepted\\nalso the symbol-cases of these words as conjunctions,\\nnamely, of whom, in which, c, and we said, There is the\\nman to whom I sent you, This is the thing of which I\\nspoke instead of The man I sent you to, The thing\\n1 spoke of. This Romanesque form of speech was well-\\nestablished among us in the seventeenth century, and it still", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0462.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 45 1\\nretains its place, though there has been a reaction, which\\nAddison has the credit of.\\nIt often happens that when foreign idioms are admitted\\ninto a language, they make awkward combinations with the\\nnative material, at least in unskilled hands. So this relative\\nconjunction is always getting into trouble. It is much com-\\nplained of that even the correspondents of first-class news-\\npapers will write and which, and where, c., inappro-\\npriately. Of course there is a position in which such\\nexpressions would be unimpeachable. If two clauses, each\\nof them beginning with which have to be combined by mid^\\nthe second clause will necessarily begin with and which.\\nBut this will not justify examples like the following, drawn\\nfrom the Bath Chronicle, where the subject has been recently\\nnoticed\\nThe Oxford correspondent of the Standard, in his letter of Saturday,\\nwrites In the afternoon the Flower Show will be held in the gardens of\\nWorcester College, afid at which the band of the Coldstreams will assist;\\nand again, At night Miss Neilson, the well-known actress, and who has\\nobtained in a very short time a considerable reputation as a reader, will give\\na dramatic reading from the Ingoldsby Legends, Tennyson, c., in the\\nClarendon-rooms, and where one may expect a crowded audience. In\\nyesterday s paper he writes, Then again parties without number were\\nlionising, c. c., while some went to see an assault of arms conducted by\\nMr. Blake, at the Holywell Concert-room, and where Mr. Buller, of the\\nGuards, exhibited some feats, c. c,\\nConjunctions from adverbs\\ner, or, ere (Saxon cer),\\nForsaketh sinne or sinne you forsake.\\nCanterbury Tales, 12,220.\\nThere are two kinds of biographies, and of each kind we have seen\\nexamples in our own time. One is as a golden chaHce, held up by some wise\\nhand, to gather the earthly memory ere it is spilt on the ground. The other\\nis as a millstone, hung by partial yet ill-judging friend, round the hero s\\nneck to plunge him as deep as possible in oblivion. J. C. Shairp, John\\nKehle, p. 69.\\nGg 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2024", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0463.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "4^2 ^^^-E LINK-WORD GROUP.\\nThis old conjunction is often strengthened by the addition\\nof ever\\nAnd the Lyons had the mastery of them, and brake all their bones in\\npieces or euer they came at the bottome of the den. Daniel vi. 24.\\nSometimes two forms of the same word were combined, as\\nor ere.\\nTwo long dayes journey (Lords) or ere we meete.\\nShakspeare, King John, iv. 3. 20.\\nnevertheless.\\nI cannot fully answer this or that objection, nevertheless I will persevere\\nin beUeving. J. Llewelyn Davies, The Gospel and Modern Life, p. xiv.\\ndzreclly.\\nOn the contrary, is it not the case that everybody and every section are\\ntelling us continually that the religious difficulty, directly you come to\\npractice, becomes insignificant, and that it is a difficulty made rather for\\nParliament and for debate than one which would be raised within the\\nschools House of Commons, June 25, 1870.\\nJust.\\nJust as the confusion of tongues thwarted the bold attempt which men\\nonce made to ascend the heavens, so a confusion of ideas seems to wait\\nupon all attempts to build up theories with reference to those dealings of\\nGod with man, for which Scripture affords no sufficient materials. Scrip-\\nture Revelations [J. W. Flower, Esq.] i860, p. 338.\\nConjunctions from adjectives\\nkasf, modern lest.\\nLastly, followers are not to be liked, least while a man maketh his\\ntraine longer, he maketh his winges shorter. Bacon s Essays, ed. W. Aldis\\nWright, p. 275.\\nno more than.\\nThis is now little more than an illustrative way of saying\\nnot at all. But it once had its literal and quantitative sig-\\nnification\\nSo bote he loved that by nightertale\\nHe slep no more then doth the nightingale.\\nChaucer s Prologue, 98.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0464.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 453\\nThe idea here is not that he watched all night, but that he\\nwas a short sleeper.\\nConjunctions formed from nouns as wh k, the old\\nsubstantive for time/\\nBut, while his province is the reasoning part,\\nHas still a veil of midnight on his heart.\\nWilliam Cowper.\\n7^/iaf time as.\\nThou calledst upon me in troubles, and I delivered thee and heard thee\\nwhat time as the storm fell upon thee. Psalm Ixxxi. 7, elder version.\\nSi /k is an old substantive for journey/ road/ turn\\nit is used as a conjunction in Ezechiel xxxv. 6, and not again\\nin the text of our Bible\\nBeing iustified by faith, wee haue peace with God, and ioy in our hope.,\\nthat sith we were reconciled by his blood, when wee were enemies, wee\\nshall much more be saued being reconciled. Romans v. Contents.\\nIt occurs five times in the First Book of Hooker, Of the\\nLaws of Ecclesiastical Polity^ as appears by the Glossary to\\nMr. Church s edition.\\nConjunctions formed from verbs, or containing verbs in\\ntheir composition. The first place here is claimed by the\\nold familiar if Saxon gif imperative of the verb gifan, to\\ngive.\\ni- Ac gif ic haefde swilcne anweald, swilce se aelmihtega God hsef}) Sonne\\nne lete ic no Sa yfelan derian Sam godum swa swij)e swa hi nu do]?.\\nKing Alfred s Boethius, ed. Cardale, p. 304.\\nBut if I had such power as the Almighty God has; then would not I let\\nthe evil hurt the good so much as they now do.\\nHome Tooke says that an in such expressions as An it\\nplease your honour, is the imperative of the Saxon verb\\nunnan, to grant. I doubt the explanation; but as I cannot\\ndisprove it, I place the word here. For my. own part I", "height": "3176", "width": "2020", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0465.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "454 I HE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nwould as lief think it merely a special habit of the common\\nand, and we know it was often written so.\\nAnd my will is that xii pore men and they may be gete have xii gownes,\\nc. The Will of Dame Jane Lady Barre, 1484, in A Memoir of the Ma?ior\\nof Bitton, by the Rev, H. T. Ellacombe, formerly Vicar of Bitton.\\nhowbeif, notwithstanding.\\nHowbeit (as evermore the simpler sort are, even w^hen they see no ap-\\nparent cause, jealous notwithstanding over the secret intents and purposes of\\nwiser men) this proposition of his did somewhat trouble them. Richard\\nHooker, Of the Laws, c., Preface, ch. ii.\\nseeing.\\nAnd one morn it chanced\\nHe found her in among the garden yews,\\nAnd said, Delay no longer, speak your wish,\\nSeeing I must go to-day. Idylls of the King.\\naccording.\\nTheir abominations were according as they loved. Hosea ix. 10.\\ntalk of.\\nTalk of the privileges of the Peerage, of Members exemption from the\\nEighth Commandment, of the separate jurisdiction secured on the Continent\\nto soldiers, what are they all put together to a privilege like this\\ndepend upon it.\\nDepend upon it, a good deal is lost by not looking round the corner.\\nMrs. Prosser, Quality Fogg s Lost Ledger.\\nWhen a sentence is opened with IVo doubt, this seems to\\nclaim a place among these verbal conjunctions, being a\\ncondensed expression for There is no doubt that. It has,-\\nhowever, a less emphatic burden than would be conveyed by\\nthe latter formula\\nNo doubt a determined effort would be made by many of those who are\\nnow engaged in these occupations, to prevent the admission of females to\\nthem, and to keep up the monopoly of sex. Frederic Hill, Crime. its\\nAmoufit, Causes, and Remedies, 1853, p. 86.\\nHere it may be objected Do you call these ivords sym-\\nbolic What does presentive mean, if such words as see,", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0466.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 455\\ntalk, depend, doubt, are not presentive In what sense can\\nthese belong to a group which is called essentially symbolic\\nThis very contradiction troubled the author of Hermes,\\na famous book on universal grammar, which was published\\nin 1 75 1. He had pitched upon the distinction of presentive\\nand symbolic as the fundamental and essential distinction\\nof his universal grammar. He did not, indeed, use the terms\\nbut he spoke of v/ords as (i) significant by themselves, or\\nsignificant absolutely, and (2) significant by association,\\nor significant relatively. When he treats of conjunctions,\\nhe regards them as belonging to the second class, and yet\\nhe cannot shut his eyes to certain refractory instances. The\\nembarrassment of James Harris on this occasion became\\nthe sport of Home Tooke, who published his Divej sions of\\nPurley in 1786. In his saucy manner he sums up the\\ndoctrine of the Hermes as follows\\nThus is the conjunction explained by Mr. Harris\\nA sound significant devoid of signification,\\nHaving at the same time a kind of oh cure signification\\nAnd yet having neither signification nor no signification,\\nShewing the attributes both of signification and no signification\\nAnd linking sigiiification and no signification together.\\nDiversions of Ptirley, Part I. ch. vii.\\nThis is of course a caricature, and we only avail ourselves\\nof its exaggerated features, in order to raise up before us in\\nbolder reHef the difficulty which we are here confronting.\\nThe solution seemxS to be this That the essential nature\\nof a conjunction (or of any other organic member of speech)\\ndiscovers itself, not in the recent examples of the class, but\\nin those which have by long use been purged of accidental\\nelements. This will be clearer by an illustration drawn\\nfrom familiar experience.\\nIt is well known that many words in common use are\\nmasked, that they do not express plainly the sense which", "height": "3176", "width": "2064", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0467.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "45^ THE LINK- WORD GROUP,\\nthey are notwithstanding intended to convey. We do not\\nalways call a spade a spade. We have recourse in certain\\nwell-known cases to forms of expression as distant from the\\nthing meant as is any way consistent with the intention of\\nbeing understood. In such cases it will have struck every\\nphilological observer that it becomes necessary from time\\nto time to replace these makeshifts with others of new device.\\nIn fact, words used to convey a veiled meaning are found\\nto wear out very rapidly. The real thought pierces through\\nthey soon stand declared for what they are, and not for what\\nthey half feign to be. Words gradually drop the non-\\nessential, and display the pure essence of their nature. And\\nthe real nature of a word is to be found in the thought which\\nis at the bottom of its motive. As we know full well how\\nthis nature pierces through all disguise, casts off all drapery\\nand pretext and colour, and in the course of time stands\\nforth as the name of that thing which was to be ignored\\neven while it was indicated, so in the case now before us.\\nThere are reasons why the speaker is not satisfied with\\nthe old conjunctions, and he brings forward words with\\nmore body and colour to reinforce the old conjunctions or\\nto stand as conjunctions alone. If these words continue for\\nany length of time to be used as conjunctions, the presentive\\nmatter which now lends them colour will evaporate, and\\nthey will become purely symbolic. Of this we may be sure\\nfrom the experience of the elder examples. Who now\\nthinks of if as an imperative verb Even in such a con-\\njunction as because, where the presentive matter is still very\\nplain, it has, generally speaking, no existence to the mind\\nof the speaker.\\nIt is not indeed a singular quality in the conjunction,\\nthat being itself essentially symbolic, it should receive acces-\\nsions from the presentive groups. This is seen also in the", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0468.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS. 457\\npronoun and in the preposition, and it is only as a matter\\nof degree that the conjunction is remarkable in this respect.\\nAs far as observation reaches, the symbolic element is every-\\nwhere sustained by new accessions from the presentive, and\\nit is worthy of note that the extreme symbolic word, the con-\\njunction, which is chiefly supplied from groups of words\\npreviously symbolic, seems to be the one which most eagerly\\nwelcomes presentive material, as if desirous to recruit itself\\nafter its too great attenuation through successive stages of\\nsymbolic refinement.\\nThe employment of conjunctions has greatly diminished\\nfrom what it once was, as the reader may readily ascertain\\nif he will only look into the prose of three centuries back.\\nThe writings of Hooker, for example, brisde with conjunc-\\ntions, which we have now for the most part learned to dis-\\npense with. The conjunction being a comparatively late\\ndevelopment, and being moreover a thing of literature to a\\ngreater extent than any other part of speech, was petted by\\nwriters and scholars into a fantastic luxuriance. It connected\\nitself intimately with that technical logic which was the\\nfavourite study of the middle ages. Logic formed the base\\nof the higher region of learning, and was the acquirement\\nthat popularly stamped a man as one of the learned, and\\nhence it came that men prided themselves on their where-\\nfores and iherefores^ and all the rest of that apparatus which\\nlent to their discourse the prestige of a formulated piece\\nof ratiocination.\\nBut this is now much abated, and the connection of\\nsentences is to a large extent left to the intelligence of the\\nreader. Two or three very undemonstrative conjunctions,\\nsuch as if, hut, for, that, c., will suffice for all the conjunc-\\ntional appliances of page after page in a well-reasoned book.\\nOften the word and is enough, where more than mere", "height": "3184", "width": "2020", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0469.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "45^ THE LINK- WORD GROUP.\\nconcatenation is intended, and this colourless link-word\\nseems invested with a meaning which recalls to mind what\\nthe and of the Hebrew is able to do in the subtle depart-\\nment of the conjunction. Indeed, we may say that we are\\ncoming back in regard to our conjunctions to a simplicity\\nsuch as that from which the Hebrew language never de-\\nparted. The Book of Proverbs abounds in examples of the\\nversatility of the Hebrew a7td. Our but, as a conjunction,\\ncovers the ground of two German conjunctions, fonbertt and\\na6er. If we look at Proverbs x, there is a but in the middle\\nof nearly every verse, equivalent to fonbern. These are all\\nexpressed in Hebrew by and. If we look at i. 25, 33\\nii. 22 iv. 18, we see but m the weightier sense of aBer, and\\nhere also the same simple and in the Hebrew.\\nIn the close of the following quotation, the and is equiva-\\nlent to and yet or and at the same time.\\nIn Mecklenburg, Pommern, Pommerellen, are still to be seen physiogno-\\nmies of a Wendish or Vandalic type (more of cheek than there ought to be,\\nand less of brow otherwise good enough physiognomies of their kind)\\nbut the general mass, tempered with such admixtures, is of the Platt-Deutsch,\\nSaxon, or even Anglish character we are familiar with here at home. A\\npatient stout people meaning considerable things, and very incapable of\\nspeaking what it means. Thomas Carlyle, Frederick the Great, Bk, II. ch. iv.\\nIn conversation we omit the relative conjunction very\\nusually, and poetry often does the same with great gain of\\nease and simplicity\\nFor I am he am born to tame you Kate.\\nTaming of the Shrew, ii. I.\\nWhere is it mothers learn their love John Keble.\\nBut in proportion as conjunctions are less the vogue in\\nrecent times, they are employed with wider effect. See the\\nexpanse both ways over which, in the following quotation, v/e\\nperceive the radiance of the conjunction", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0470.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "CONJUNCTIONS, 459\\njyef.\\nThe children attending these [parochial schools in Ireland] are, for the\\nmost part, clothed in rags, and fed upon the scanty and homely fare afforded\\nin the cabin of an Irish peasant. In the charter schools, on the contrary,\\nthe children are comfortably lodged, well clad, and abundantly fed. No\\npains are spared to preserve their health. On the first appearance of disease,\\nmedical aid is procured and their teachers are in all cases equal, and\\ngenerally far superior, to those employed in the daily and parochial schools.\\nYet I was invariably struck with the vast superiority in health, in appear-\\nance, in vivacity, and in intelligence, of the half-naked, and one almost\\nwould suppose half-starved, children who lived in their parents cabins, over\\nthose so well-maintained and so carefully instructed in the charter schools.\\nThe reasons of this striking fact it might not be difficult to assign. In the\\ncharter schools all social and family affections are dried up children once\\nreceived into them are, as it were, the children, the brothers, the sisters,\\nthe relations of nobody They have no vacation they know not the\\nfeeling of home and hence it is primarily, whatever concomitant causes\\nthere may be, that they are so frequently stunted in body, mind, and heart.\\nQuoted by Florence Hill in Contemporary Review, September, 1870.\\nYou may paint with a very big brush, and yet not be a great painter.\\nThomas Carlyle, Frederick the Great, Bk. I. ch. i.", "height": "3176", "width": "2028", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0471.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER X.\\nOF SYNTAX.\\nSyntax is a Greek word, signifying the order or array of\\nwords in a sentence. The study of this subject may be\\napproached in two opposite ways. Either we may start\\nwith parts of speech as with a store of material, and out of\\nthese we may build up our syntax constructively. This is\\nthe method which is followed in grammatical exercises.\\nThe other way is to regard the sentence as the thing given,\\na growth or product of nature, and to proceed by the light of\\nits sense, known to us as we know our mother tongue, to\\nresolve it into its component parts, and so get at our syntax\\nby a process of analysis. That this is the actual order of\\nthings we may see by a moment s reflection on the number\\nof people who not only talk, but who daily read their news-\\npaper, without the slightest notion of the parts of speech.\\nThis then is the natural, and consequently the philological,\\nmethod.\\nSyntax will accordingly mean the resolution of the sen-\\ntence into its component parts, with a view of tracing by\\nwhat contrivances it is made to produce a continuous and\\nconsistent signification. And we shall find that there are", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0472.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 46 1\\nthree kinds of instrumentality which are the most active in\\nthe production of this effect.\\nThe first of these is collocation, or the relative position of\\nwords. So far as this agency is exerted, the parts of a sen-\\ntence tell their function by the mere order of their arrange-\\nment. This sort of syntax we call Flat.\\nThe second is where the functions of the members of the\\nsentence are shewn by modifications in the forms of words.\\nThis is the Flexional Syntax.\\nThe third is where the same relations are expressed by\\nsymbolic words. This is the Phrasal Syntax.\\nThe analytical action of syntax resolves the sentence not\\nmerely into words, but into parts of speech. The knowledge\\nof words as parts of speech is the sum total of the doctrine\\nof syntax. And it happens quite naturally that many of the\\ndetails which are ordinarily comprised under the head of\\nsyntax have already been disposed of in the foregoing chap-\\nters on the parts of speech. Accordingly, we have in the\\npresent chapter only to attend to the salient points, and those\\nwhich are of the most essential value in the mechanism of\\nthe sentence and these are comprised in the above division,\\nwhich will therefore constitute the plan of this chapter.\\nI. Of Flat ok Collocative Syntax.\\nHow important an element mere position is in the structure\\nof the English sentence, may readily be seen by the con-\\ntrast which appears if we consider how unimportant, or at\\nleast secondary the same element is in Latin. If we have to\\nsay that men seek victual, the words by which this would be\\nexpressed in Latin are so unaffected by the order of their", "height": "3176", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0473.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "462 OF SFNTAX.\\narrangement that it is impossible to dislocate the sentence.\\nIt is good in any order\\nHomines quaerunt victum\\nQiiaerunt victum homines\\nVictum homines quaerunt\\nHomines victum quaerunt\\nVictum quaerunt homines.\\nAll these variations are possible, because each word has its\\ninflection, and that inflection determines the relative office of\\neach word and its contribution towards the meaning of the\\nwhole. But in English the sense depends upon the arrange-\\nment, and therefore the order of the English sentence can-\\nnot be much altered without detriment to the sense\\nMen seek victual.\\nCats like fish.\\nBoys love play.\\nFools hate knowledge.\\nHorses draw carts.\\nDiamonds flash light.\\nThese examples present us with the simplest scheme of a\\nsentence and in these examples we see that the sense\\nrequires the arrangement of the words in a certain order of\\ncollocation.\\nEach of these three words is capable of amplification. In\\nthe first place the subject may be amplified by an adjective\\nthus,\\nHungry men seek victual.\\nWise men desire truth.\\nHealthy boys love play.\\nThis adjective has its proper collocation. We have no\\nchoice whether we will say himgry men or men hungry. The\\nlatter is inadmissible, unless it were for some special exigency", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0474.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 463\\nsuch as might rise in poetry and then the collocation would\\nso far affect the impression communicated, that after all it\\ncould not be called a mere alternative, whether we would say\\nhungry men or men hungry.\\nThe next thing is the placing of the article. The article\\nstands immediately before the adjective\\nThe hungry man seeks victual.\\nThe healthy boy loves play.\\nThe wise man desires truth.\\nThis ampHfication brings out to view an important conse-\\nquence of the order last observed. As w^e put our adjective\\nbefore our substantive, it results that when the article is put\\nbefore both, it is severed from the substantive to which it\\nprimarily appertains.\\nThe French, who can put the adjective either before or\\nafter its noun, have by this means the opportunity of keep-\\ning the article and noun together in most cases where it is\\ndesirable. This is a trifle, so long as it is confined to the\\ndifference between the wise man, a good man, and Thomme\\nsage, un homme ban. But then the adjective being capable of\\namplification in its turn, the gap between the article and its\\nnoun may be considerably widened. An adverb may be put\\nto the adjective, and then it becomes the truly wise man, a\\nreally good ma?i. Or, as in the following\\nThe inadequacy of our means to meet the spiritual wants of the annually\\nincreasing population of this colony. Letter of the Bishop of Adelaide,\\n1859-\\nThe severance between the article and its noun had not\\nextended beyond such examples as these, until within the\\nrecent period which may be designated as the German era.\\nOur increased acquaintance with German literature has\\ncaused an enlargement in this member of our syntax. We\\nnot unfrequently -find a second adverb, or an adverbial", "height": "3176", "width": "2072", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0475.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "464 OF SYNTAX.\\nphrase, or a negative, iaelnded in the interval between the\\narticle and its noiin thus, y\\nIn that not more populous than popular thoroughfare.* Charles Dickens,\\nPickwick Papers, ch. xii.\\nA young man, with some tints of academical training, and some of the\\nlivid lights of a then only incipient Rationalism on his mind. Edwin Pax-\\nton Hood, Lectures to Students for the Ministry, 1867.\\nAnd is it indeed true that they are so plied with the gun and the net and\\nthe lime that the utter extinction of their species in these islands may be\\nlooked upon as a by no means remote eventuality\\nIn a translation from the German which I happen to be\\nnow reading, the following illustrations present themselves:\\nA not altogether unsatisfactory picture.\\nThere he puts down the varied and important matter he is about td say,\\naccording to a large plan and tolerably strictly carried out arrangement.*\\nThis is now sometimes used by highly qualified English\\nwriters. In the following, from Mr. Weld s Vacation in\\nBrittany, 1866, our stands in the place oi the:\\nI have now travelled through nearly every Department in France, and I\\ndo not remember ever meeting with a dirty bed this, I fear, cannot be said\\nof our happily in all other respects cleaner island.\\nDouglas, in the Nenia, p. 10, is so far as I know the first who called\\nattention to this passage of our great poet [Hamlet v. l], as illustrating the\\nvery commonly to be observed presence of shards, flints, and pebbles, in\\ngraves, into which it is diflScult to think they could have got by accident.\\nGeorge Rolleston, On Romano-British and Anglo-Saxon Sepidture.\\nThis expansibility of the noun applies equally to the sub-\\nject and to the object that is to say, it may take place either\\nbefore or after the verb, or even both. It does not often\\nhappen that the two wings of the sentence are expanded in\\nthe same manner, because the effect would not be pleasing.\\nBut the same order rules on the one side as on the other\\nand variety is sought only to avoid monotony. If we were", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0476.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 465\\nspeaking of the sense of liberty which is nourished in a\\npeople by the habit of discussing and correcting the laws\\nwhich bind them, we might say,\\nDeliberation implies consent.\\nContinuous deliberation implies continuous consent.\\nA continuous deliberation implies a continuous consent.\\nA continuous deliberation on the law implies a continuous consent to tlie\\nlaw.\\nA continuous deliberation on the law by the subject, implies a continuous\\nassent to the law on the part of the subject.\\nSo well established is the general order of collocation, that\\nmarked divergences arrest the attention, and have, by reason\\nof their exceptional character, a force which may be con-\\nverted into a useful rhetorical eifect; thus,\\nbeauties the most Oi\\nHaving been successively subject to all these influences, our language has\\nbecome as it were a sort of centre to which beauties the most opposite con-\\nverge. H. T. W. Wood, The Reciprocal Influence of French and English\\nLiterature in the Eighteenth Century, 1870.\\nAnd it occasionally happens that the surprise of an unusual\\norder becomes the evidence to our minds that there is such a\\nthing as a usual order of collocation. In the following sen-\\ntence the putting of the comparative clause before the verb\\nis an illustration of this\\nAnd this it is that I think I have seen, and that J wish, if I can be so\\nhappy, to shew to those who need it more than myself, and who better than\\nmyself may profit by it. The Mystery of Pain,\\nWhen in the Idylls we read of the Table Round, we ex-\\nperience a sort of pleasure from the strangeness of the collo-\\ncation by which the adjective is put after its substantive\\nstarting from the principle that the reverse is the true\\nEnglish order of collocation. This is one of the things\\nHh", "height": "3184", "width": "2096", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0477.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "4^6 OF SYNTAX.\\nwhich we have adopted for use in poetry .and in high style\\ngenerally, and it is one of the traces which early French\\nculture has left on our literature\\nA spring perennial rising in the heart.\\nEdward Young, Night Thoughts, viii. 958.\\n*Futl many a gem of purest ray serene.\\nThomas Gray, Elegy in a Country Churchyard.\\nDevastation universal. Henry Taylor, Natural History of Enthusiasm.\\nSome parts of speech exhibit what may be called, without\\ntoo strong a figure, a jealousy of their position in the sen-\\ntence. The adjective offers a ready illustration of this.\\nThe place between the article and the substantive is first\\nand foremost the property of the adjective. An adverb may\\nbe there as attendant on an adjective, but not alone. To\\nexemplify this we need a word that has changed from an\\nadjectival to an adverbial habit. Such a word we have in\\nonly. As an adjective, the place of this word is between\\nthe article and the substantive The only path. In our\\nearly literature this word is usually an adjective, but at\\npresent it is usually an adverb. And this is why the reader\\nis often checked by meeting this word in what seems an\\nunintelligible position. Spenser has {The Faerie Queene, iii.\\n2.38)\\nBut th only shade and semblant of a knight\\nwhere we should now say only the shade, c. If we\\npreserve the order we must change the word, and say, the\\nmere shade.* When only had come to be an adverb, it was\\nfelt that its collocation required altering, so as to be outside\\nthe pale of the article and substantive.\\nAnd as the adjective only, having acquired the habit of", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0478.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 467\\nan adverb, had to shift from the place of the adjective to\\nthat assigned to the adverb; in hke manner may we find\\ncases where the same adjective might well shift its position\\nfrom the adverb s place, for fear of the inconvenience of\\nbeing accounted an adverb.\\nIn Psalm Ixxxiii. 18 (elder version), it is said, Thou art\\nonly the most Highest over all the earth/ So Richard\\nSibbes {Puritan Divines, vol. i. p. 92) has which will only\\ngive us boldness, meaning to say that which we should now\\nexpress by this which only {or alone) will give us boldness.\\nTo understand this only as an adverb would be to stultify\\nthe sense. How absurd would it sound to say that the\\nQueen is only the supreme authority in the British Empire\\nWhile only had no character but its original one of an\\nadjective, the above order might stand without risk of con-\\nfusion but after the adverbial habit had developed itself, it\\nbecame necessary, not only for the adverb to keep out of\\nany place where it might be accounted an adjective, but also\\nequally necessary for the adjective to keep out of any\\nposition in which it might look like an adverb. And there-\\nfore it must be thus collocated Thou only art, c. Thus\\nwe see in the case of this word two contrary illustrations of\\nits sensitiveness in matter of collocation. In the former\\ncase it has to move from the adjectival place because it can\\nno longer sustain the adjectival character, having come to\\nbe reputed as an adverb in the latter case it has to protect\\nits adjectival character against adverbial appearances by\\nmoving from that position in front of an article which is the\\nlot of the adverb.\\nBefore the development of flexion and symbolism,\\nthere was a dearth of means for expressing those modifica-\\ntions which are now efi ected by adverbs and adverbial\\nphrases. In the collocational stage of syntax, the chief\\nH h 2", "height": "3176", "width": "2084", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0479.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "468 OF SYNTAX.\\nmeans resorted to for this end was repetition. Early lan-\\nguages bear about them traces of this contrivance. The\\nHebrew is remarkable for this. The following little speci-\\nmen may serve as an indication. In Mark vi. 39, 40, there\\noccurs a Hebraism in the Greek text which is not rendered,\\nand indeed hardly could be rendered, in English. The\\nHebrew (we will call it) says companies companies, and\\nranks ranks. The English says by companies and in\\nranks/ Here we have a certain idea expressed in the one\\nby a syntax of collocation for repetition is a form of collo-\\ncation, and in the other by a syntax of symbolism namely,\\nby th\u00c2\u00ab intervention of prepositions. Here then we have\\nthe most ancient form of expressing this idea, contrasted\\nwith the most modern. Between these t^vo lies the flexional\\nway of saying the same thing. The true Greek idiom or\\nthe Latin gives it to us flexionally in the forms \u00e2\u0082\u00acik-qh6v and\\ncatervaHm, which we cannot match by any extant expression\\nin English.\\nIt seldom happens that means which have once been\\nlargely used, even though they should be superseded by\\nother contrivances, are -entirely abolished. We still have\\nrecourse to mere repetition for heightening an effect as\\nA lesson too too hard for living clay.\\nThe Faerie Queeite, iii. 4. 26.\\n*Oh that this too too solid flesh would melt!\\nHamlet, i. 2.\\nB\\\\it we proceed to notice a feature of flat syntax which is\\npeculiarly English. This is the transformation of a sub-\\nstantive into an adjective by position alone. I doubt whether\\nthere is anything that is so characteristic of our language as\\nthis particular faculty.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0480.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 469\\ncottage dames.\\nWhat sages would have died to learn,\\nNow taught by cottage dames.\\nChristian Year, Catechism.\\nIn the region of pre-historic archaeology alone we hear\\nof the stone period, a copper period, the bronze period, and\\nthe iron period. In all these expressions the epithets are\\nsubstantives converted into adjectives by position alone.\\nThere are three examples of this in the following short\\nquotation from Sir John Lubbock\\nStone weapons of many kinds were still in use during the age of bronze,\\nand even during that of iron, so that the mere presence of a few stone im-\\nplements is not in itself sufficient evidence that any given find belongs\\nto the stone age. Pie-Historic Times, 2nd ed. 1869, p. 3.\\nvme discasey cattle disease, potato disease.\\nIn Hungary there has been no vine disease, no cattle disease, and no\\npotato disease.\\nIn Hebrews x. Contents, we find an instance which\\namounts to a solecism the law sacrifices.\\nThis constructive juxtaposition of two nouns stands in\\nan intimate relation with that great body of English com-\\npounds which will be treated of in the first section of the\\nnext chapter. But nearly related as these two features are,\\nthey must be carefully distinguished from one another, as\\ntheir very tendency to blend makes it the more necessary to\\nkeep them well apart. Just as the lowest stage of organised\\nexistence is that in which we are met by the difficulty of dis-\\ntinguishing between animal and vegetable life, so here, in\\nthe most elementary region of syntax, we are hardly able to\\nkeep the organism of the sentence distinct from that of the\\nword. In many instances there is fair room for doubt\\nwhether two words are in the compound or the construct", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0481.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "47 O OF SYNTAX.\\nState. Perhaps some of the following m^y be so regarded\\nrace horse, horse race field path, path field herb garden,\\ngarden herb. These may be written either with or without\\nthe hyphen, that is to say, either as compound words or as\\nwords in construction. In such cases it is not to be sup-\\nposed that principle is wanting, but that through the fine-\\nness of the difference our discernment is at fault in the\\napplication of the principle.\\nThe following from a first-class print is a clear instance\\nof a misplaced hyphen it ought to be written thus\\nffiarriage settlements.\\nThe Married Women s Property Act, 1870, was intended to prevent the\\npersonal property of a woman, her wages and earnings, being at the absolute\\nmercy and control of her husband s creditors. It was supposed that it would\\nbe an especial protection to that poorer class of women whose property\\nbefore marriage was too small to be worth the expense and life-long trouble\\nof marriage-settlements.\\nThere are in English two great formulas for the con-\\nstruction of substantival phrases, and there is perhaps no\\nmore convenient, as there certainly cannot be a more\\nnational medium of exhibiting these, than through the long\\nand short titles of our Acts of Parliament.\\nAccording to one of these formulas, the words and\\nphrases which constitute a substantival whole, are con-\\ncatenated by means of prepositions thus:\\nAn Act further to amend the Laws relating to the Representation of\\nthe People in England and Wales.*\\nAn Act for the Abolition of Compulsory Church Rates.\\nAn Act to make further Amendments in the Laws for the Relief of the\\nPoor in England and Wales.\\nThe Other formula merely collocates some of the more\\nsubstantival words in juxtaposition, and that in a reversed\\norder: as", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0482.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 47 1.\\nThe Representation of the People Act.\\nThe Compulsory Church Rate Abolition Act.\\nThe Poor Law Amendment Act.\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2The Sea Birds Preservation Bill.\\nOur speech has acquired this faculty and range of varia-\\ntion by its historical combination of the two great linguistic\\nelements of Western civilization, the Roman and the Gothic.\\nThe long style of structure is that which we have learned\\nfrom the French the shart and reversed style is our own\\nnative Saxon.\\nWe will close this section with the flat infinitive, or in-\\nfinitive expressed by position alone. The most peculiarly\\nEnglish use is that of the infinitive after the verb do, as do\\nthink, I did expect In order to understand the original\\naction of the auxiliary do, we must remember that it has\\nbeen symboHsed into its present function from a state in\\nwhich it meant make to with an infinitive of the act\\nIn the Ordinance of the Guild of St. Katherine at Stam-\\nford (1494) we may see an instance of do followed by a flat\\ninfinitive, and in the course of the same sentence a second\\ninstance where do has the phrasal infinitive after it, and the\\npower of do is the same in the one case as in the other\\nAlso it is ordeyned, that when any Broder or Suster of this gilde is\\ndecessed oute off this worlde, then, wdthyn the xxx. dayes of that Broder or\\nSuster, in the Chirch of Seynt Poules, ye Steward of this Gilde shall doo\\nRinge for hym, and do to say a placebo and dirige, w* a masse on ye\\nmorowe of Requiem, as ye comoun use is.\\nBut the construction is precisely similar in such cases as\\nthe following\\nI will hope.\\nI shall go.\\nYou cannot think.\\nYou may try.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0483.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "472 OF SYNTAX.\\nYou might get.\\nThey would have.\\nThey should not have.\\nThey shall smart.\\nIn all these the final word is an infinitive by position.\\nIn Saxon it would have been expressed by a flectional\\ninfinitive.\\niErest mon sceal God lufian. Ne First we must love God. We\\nsceal mon mann slean. ne stelan. must not man-slay, nor steal, nor\\nne leasimga secgan. ac aelcne mann tell lies but we must always respect\\nmon sceal a weorJ)ian. and ne sceal every man and no man ought to do\\nnan mann don o Srum J)aet he nelle to others what he would not they\\nJ)aet him mon do. Suuithun, p. 112. should do to him.\\nOur present flat infinitive cannot therefore be derived\\nfrom Saxon, but must be regarded as an example in lan-\\nguage of a tendency to reversion from the more advanced\\nand developed to the more primitive and archetypal forms\\nof speech.\\nThe positional stage of syntax is most highly displayed\\nin the Chinese language. This is in itself S, confirmation\\nof the claim which Chinese literature makes to an exceed-\\ningly high antiquity. Speaking generally, it may be said\\nthat the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position.\\nChinese words change their grammatical character as sub-\\nstantives, adjectives, verbs, according to their relative posi-\\ntions in the collocation of the sentence. M. Julien has\\npublished a Chinese syntax with a title in which this prin-\\nciple is conspicuously displayed^. From a notice of this\\nSyntaxe Nouvelle de la Langue Chinoise, fondee sur la Position des\\nMots, suivie de deux Traites sur les Particules, et les principaux Termes de\\nGrammaire, d une Table des Idiotismes, de Fables, de Legendes et d Apo-\\nlogues traduits mot a mot. Par M. Stanislas Julien, Paris Librairie de\\nMaisonneuve. London: Triibner and Co. 1869.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0484.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "FLAT OR COLLOCATIVE SYNTAX. 473\\nwork in the Academy the following illustrations are bor-\\nrowed\\nFor instance, the character tch i, to govern, if placed before a sub-\\nstantive remains a verb, as tch i koUe, to govern a kingdom; if the order\\nof these two characters is reversed, they signify, the kingdom is governed\\nand if the character tch i be placed after chi, a magistrate, it becomes a\\nsubstantive, and the two words are then to be translated, the administration\\nof the magistrates.\\nVery remarkable is the plasticity of signification which\\nsuch a grammatical system demands.\\nFor instance, we find the expression i tsouan tsonan tchi. The primary\\nmeaning of the character tsouan is an awl, or anything with which a hole\\nis bored and in this sentence we recognise that, since the first tsouan is\\npreceded by i, the sign of the instrumental case, it stands in the place of a\\nsubstantive i tsouan, therefore, means with an awl but the character\\ntchi being plainly the object of a verb, the second tsouan must, by virtue of\\nits position, be considered as a verb, and the sentence will then read thus.^\\nwith an awl to bore it {tchi).\\nIt must not be supposed that the Chinese language stands\\nalone in the possession of such a syntax what it does stand\\nalone in, is in the development of a great literature through\\nmeans so rudimentary. The whole outer field of so-called\\nAllophylian languages, those namely which lie outside the\\nAryan and Semitic families, appear to be of this character.\\nMr. Farrar in his Families of Speech, p. 160, divides these\\ninto (i) Isolating, i.e. monosyllabic and unsyntactical (2)\\nAgglutinating (3) Poly synthetic and all these are but\\ndifferent stages and conditions of the positional. This is\\ntherefore to be regarded as the basement storey of all syntax^\\nand it is largely discoverable in the English language.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0485.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "474 OF SYNTAX,\\nII. Syntax of Flexion.\\nFlexion is any modiiication of a word whereby its relation\\nto the sentence is indicated. The syntax of the English\\nlanguage is weakest in this division. We can only collect\\na few remaining features, which have lived through the\\ncollision of the transition period, and have up to the present\\ntime defied the innovations of the symbolic movement.\\nWe have retained the genitive singular of nouns, as\\nSimon s wife s mother. Luke iv, 38. With regard to the\\npossessive s there is a sort of canon stated by S. T. Cole-\\nridge in a letter to H. C. Robinson, which though perhaps\\na litde oif-hand, is worth consideration\\nI have read two pages of Lalla Roolih, or wiiatever it is called. Merci-\\nful Heaven I dare read no more, that I may be able to answer at once to\\nany questions, I have but just looked at the work. Oh, Robinson if I\\ncould, or if I dared, act and feel as Moore and his set do, what havoc could\\nI not make amongst their crockery-ware! Why, there are not three lines\\ntogether without some adulteration of common English, and the ever-recur-\\ning blunder of using the possessive case, compassion s tears, c. for the\\npreposition of a blunder of which I have found no instances earlier than\\nDryden s slovenly verses written for the trade. The rule is, that the case s\\nis always penonal either it marks a person, or a personification, or the\\nrelique of some proverbial personification, as Who for their belly s sake,\\nin Lycidas. Diary, 1817.\\nThis doctrine cannot now be rigidly insisted upon. The\\nfollowing is from the editorial part of a leading English\\njournal\\nPresident Woolsey \\\\North American Review, October, 1870] incidentally\\nraises one point which is at the present time being warmly discussed with\\nus the question whether international injuries are independent of municipal\\nlaw or arise out of it and are to be measured by it. The American jurist\\nholds to the former opinion. The rights of other nations do not end with\\nthe provisions of any country s municipal law.\\nThe last clause would in French have to be expressed", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0486.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 475\\nafter in this manner the provisions of the municipal law\\nof any country.\\nReligious great men have loved to say that their sufficiency was of God.\\nBut through every great spirit runs a train of feeling of this sort and the\\npower and depth which there undoubtedly is in Calvinism, comes from\\nCalvinism s being overwhelmed by it. Matthew Arnold, St. Paul and\\nProtestantism, p. 120.\\nOther inflections of the noun we have lost, but there\\nsometimes remains in construction a reminiscence of some\\nobsolete case-flexion. Thus in i Kings vii. 40, The work\\nthat he made king Solomon/ the two final words are in\\na dative position though not in dative forms. The same\\nmay be said of the words their bodies in the following\\nquotation\\nThey surely trust to win their bodies a resurrection to immortality.\\nHomily on the Sacrament, Part I.\\nOf pronominal inflection there is but little remaining\\nwhich really serves any purpose of syntax. In such cases\\nas o/me, to him, from them, it is true that me, him, them, are\\ninflections; but then the relation which they once served to\\nexpress is now expressed by th^ preposition. Mine may be\\nregarded as a flexion by an archaeological efl ort of mind,\\nfor it is an old genitive of me. But in its ordinary use there\\nis no call to think of this, for it appears as an adjectival pro-\\nnoun. But when there is a phrase in which it shews a trace\\nof its old genitival extraction, then it is accompanied with a\\npreposition as, That boy of mine.\\nWe have, however, dative pronouns without the preposi-\\ntion, as in give me, teil him, and in our elder literature more\\nfrequently\\nme.\\nThat my hand may be restored mee againe. i Kings xiii. 6.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0487.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "47 6 OF SYNTAX.\\nIn the following quotation him in the second part is equiva-\\nlent to the unto him that went before\\nLend not vnto him that is mightier then thy selfe for if thou lendest\\nhim, count it but lost. Ecclesiasticm viii. 12.\\nIn the next quotation, we should now say to him\\nAnd sent him them to Jezreel. 2 Kings x. 7.\\nNot even a poet in our day could write her for to her in such\\na structure as this\\nHis lovely words her seemd due recompence.\\nThe Faerie Queene, i. 3. 30.\\nMethinks is now written as one word. It consists of me in\\nthe dative case, and thinks, an old impersonal equivalent to\\nthe Latin videtur, radically connected no doubt with our verb\\nI think, he thinks, c., but quite distinct from it. The\\ndistinction is kept up in German between benft the verb\\nof thought, and biiinft of seeming, which is that now\\nbefore us.\\nBut the verb is the great stronghold of flexion. More\\nthan any other part of speech it attracts and attaches inflec-\\ntions to itself in times when flexion is growing and on the\\nother hand, when flexion is on the wane, the verb is the\\nmost retentive of its relics, and the most reluctant to part\\nwith them. There is no language of Western Europe in\\nwhich the verb has parted with its flexion more than in\\nEnglish. The Gothic languages are the most advanced in\\nthis respect, and especially the Danish, Swedish, and\\nEnglish.\\nThe verbal inflections which are still used to express\\nperson, tense, or mood, are as follows\\n(See) seest, sees, seeth, saw, sawest, seen, seeing.\\n(Look) lookest, looks, looketh, looked, lookedst, looking.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0488.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 477\\nHalf of these are antiquated, and all that are in habitual use\\nare,\\nsees, saw, seen, seeing,\\nlooks, looked, looking.\\nA feature worthy of contemplation is that whereby the\\nflexion which expresses past time is employed also for con-\\ntingency or uncertainty. It appears as if the link of sym-\\npathy between the two things thus rendered by a selfsame\\nformula were remoteness from the speaker s possession.\\nLooking at the ^oxdi attempted hy\\\\i? e\\\\i ^e should associate\\nit with the idea of past time, but in the following sentence it\\nexpresses contingency and not time, or if it regards time at\\nall, the time is future.\\nHis power would break and shiver like glass, if he attempted it.\\nhad (subjunctive).\\n*I say not that she ne had kunnyng\\nWhat harme was, or els she\\nHad coulde no good, so thinketh me.\\nAnd trewly, for to speke of trouth.\\nBut she had had, it had be routh.\\nChaucer, The Booke of the Dutchesse, 996.\\nIf this man had not twelve thousand a-year, he would be a very stupid\\nfellow. Jane Austen, Mwisfield Par}, ch. iv.\\nAnd some among yau held, that -if the King\\nHad seen the sight he would have sworn the vow;\\nNot easily, seeing that the King must guard\\nThat which he rules, and is but as the hind\\nTo whom a space of land is given to plough.\\nWho may not wander from the allotted field.\\nBefore his work be done. Alfred Tennyson, The Holy Grail.\\nIn the single case of the verb to be, however, there are\\ndistinct forms or flexions for the subjunctive. Be was\\noriginally indicative, as it still is in Devonshire, and in our\\nBible: They be blind leaders of the blind. Matt. xv. 14.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0489.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "47 8 OF SYNTAX.\\nBut inasmuch as the present had another form ts, are, a\\ndivision of labour took place, whereby be was reserved for\\nthe subjunctive and conditional present. In the revision\\nof the Common Prayer Book in 1661, are was substituted\\nfor be in forty-three places, and the indicative be was left\\nstanding in one place only, namely this Which be they\\nThe subjunctive thus recently acquired is now antiquated;\\nand not even in a sermon of the present day should we\\nmeet with the like of this of Isaac Barrow s\\nBe we never so urgently set, or closely intent upon any work (be we\\nfeeding, be we travelling, be we trading, be we studying), nothing yet can\\nforbid, but that we may together wedge in a thought concerning God s good-\\nness, and bolt forth a word of Praise for it. The Duty of Prayer.\\nOn the same principle was and were took distinct offices:\\nI am not able to unfold, how this cautelous enterprise of licencing can be\\nexempted from the number of vain and impossible attempts. And he who\\nwere pleasantly dispos d, could not well avoid to lik n it to the exploit of\\nthat gallant man who thought to pound up the crows by shutting his Park-\\ngate. ^John Milton, Areopagitica.\\nIf every action which is good or evill in man at ripe years, were to be\\nunder pittance, and prescription, and compulsion, what were vertue but a\\nname, what praise could be then due to well-doing, what grammercy to be\\nsober, just, or continent Id.\\nThis were is not so freely employed now as it once was,\\nand if it goes out, it will be a beauty lost. But however it\\nmay be with colloquy and familiar prose, it can hardly be\\nspared from poetry and the style of dignity\\nBut to live by law,\\nActing the law we live by without fear;\\nAnd, because right is right, to follow right\\nWere wisdom in the scorn of consequence.\\nAlfred Tennyson, CEnone.\\nFrom the beautiful photozincographic facsimile done at the Ordnance\\nSurvey Office in Southampton, 1870.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0490.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 479\\nBut should these subjunctives be and were fall into complete\\ndesuetude, they will leave behind some fossil traces of their\\nexistence in the conjunction howbeit, and in the phrasal\\nadverb as it were.\\nUnder the head of Flexional Syntax we must notice that\\nparticipial and generalising prefix ge-, which once was so\\nrife in our language, and which still flourishes with such a\\nfine effect in German. With us it has dwindled into a\\npoetical curiosity, and it has taken the form oi y- or other\\nforms still less recognisable.\\nychain d.\\nYet first to those ychain d in sleep,\\nThe wakeful trump of doom must thunder through the deep.\\nJohn Milton, On the Morning of Christ*s Nativity, xvi.\\nyclept.\\nBut come thou Goddess fair and free,\\nIn Heaven ycleap d Euphrosyne. Id. VAllegro.\\nypointing.\\nWhat needs my Shakespear for his honour d Bones,\\nThe labour of an age in piled Stones,\\nOr that his hallow d reliques should be hid,\\nUnder a Star-ypointing Pyramid? Id. On Shahspear, 1630.\\nOur examples of English flexion are mostly of the\\ndecrepit kind, in the last stage of decay. They are rather\\nrelics of a flexion that has been active in a former stage of\\nthe language, than of what properly belongs to modern\\nEnglish. But there is at least one instance of a flexion that\\nhas taken form within the English period. Such is the\\nadverbial flexion beginning with the French preposition a,\\nwhich has in most instances become symphytic. It has lost\\nthe memory of its origin and has become a mere flexion.\\nThus, amain or aright is as much an adverbial flexion of the", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0491.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "480 OF SYNTAX.\\nsubstantive main or the adjective ngkf, as is the adverb\\nmainly or rightly.\\namain,\\nAnd with his troupes doth march amaine to London,\\n3 Henry VI, iv. 8. 4.\\nIn early times the a was often written as a separate pre-\\nposition, to the confusion of modern annotators\\nThere-fore he was a prikasoure a right.\\nChaucer, Prologue, 189 Lansdowne MS,\\na laughter.\\nAnd therewithal a laughter out he brast.\\nThe Court of Love^ ad finem.\\na forlorn.\\nAnd forc d to Hue in Scotland a Forlorne.\\nShakspeare, 3 Henry VI, iii. 3. 26.\\nIn this passage we are furnished with tlie correction all\\nforlorn/\\nWe will close this section as we closed the previous one,\\nwith the infinitive. The old grammatical infinitive in -en\\nlingered in our language as late as the Elizabethan period.\\nThus Surrey\\nsayen.\\nGive place, :ye lovers, here before\\nThat spent your boasts and brags in ^-aiu;\\nMy lady s beauty passeth more\\nThe best of yours, I dare well sayen,\\nThan doth the sun the candle light.\\nOr brightest day the darkest night.\\nBut while we lost the form in -en, we unconsciously re-\\ntained the same thing in a slightly disguised form, namely\\nwith the ending in -ing. The function of this infinitive was\\nchiefly (but not entirely) restricted to what in Latin grammar\\nwould be called gerundial uses. The tendency to turn -an", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0492.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 48 1\\nor -en into -mg shews itself elsewhere thus, Ahhandun has\\nbecome Abingdon and we are all pretty familiar with such\\nforms as garding, capting, lunching. When the mind has\\nlost its hold on the meaning of a given form, the organs\\nof speech are apt to slide into any contiguous form that has\\nmore present currency or is more vital with present meaning.\\nThe -an or -en of the infinitive became -ing because it was\\nsurrounded with nouns and participles in -ing which differed\\nfrom the infinitive by a difference too fine to be held-to in\\nthe transition and Early English periods, with their neglect\\nof the vernacular. Hence it has become traditional to\\nexplain this form always either as a substantive or as a\\npresent participle. But there is a large class of instances\\nto which these explanations will not apply. In such a sen-\\ntence as the following, Europeans are no match for\\nOrientals in evading a question, evading is clearly a verb\\ngoverning its substantive and yet it is not a participle, for\\nit has nothing adjectival about it. By an infinitive I under-\\nstand a verb in a substantival aspect by a participle, a verb\\nin an adjectival aspect. In the saying of Rowland Hill to\\nhis co-pastor Theophilus Jones, Never mind breaking\\ngrammar if/ c., the word breaking is clearly a verb, and\\ncan be no otherwise grammatically designated than as an\\ninfinitive. The nature of the participle is seen in the\\nfollowing\\nAll is hazard that we have,\\nHere is nothing bideing\\nDayes of pleasure are like streams\\nThrough faire Medows gliding.\\nBallad Society, vol. i. p. 350.\\nThe analysis of a sentence is, however, a subjective act,\\nas we have already observed and if any insist on mentally\\nsupplying the formula requisite to establish the participial", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0493.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "482 OF SYNTAX.\\ncharacter ot every verb in -mg, I know of no argument\\npotent enough to restrain them. But there is a large number\\nof instances in which I think that whether the case be his-\\ntorically or grammatically tested, it must be pronounced an\\ninfinitive. As this is a point of some importance, I have\\ncollected rather a copious Ust of examples of the infinitive\\nin -ing.\\nHistorically there is no case clearer than that in which it\\nfollows verbs of going as\\nOh how shall the dumb go a courting Bloomfield.\\nPerhaps the plainest instances (to the modern grammatical\\nsense) are those in which the word has a verbal government,\\nand yet canno^; be accounted a participle, as\\nfitiding.\\nAnd I can see that Mrs. Grant is anxious for her not finding Mansfield\\ndull as winter comes on. Jane Austen, Mansfield Park, vol. ii. ch. iii.\\nsimplifying,\\nI feel it a surprise, every time I see Parry there seems to be a power\\nof simplifying whatever comes near him, an atmosphere in which trifles\\ndie a natural death. Memoirs 0/ Sir W. E. Parry.\\nbelieving in.\\nBabes are not expected to prove their relationship before believing in\\ntheir mothfers. Laurence Oliphant, Piccadilly (1870), p. 275.\\norganizing, gathering, obtaining, distributing, detecting.\\nOrganizing charitable relief over areas conterminous with those of the\\nPoor Law, and gathering together all the representative forces we can for\\ncommon action, seems to us the best method of obtaining the two impor-\\ntant aims of distributing judicious charity and detecting imposition.\\nAlsager Hay Hill, Tiines, October 22, 1869.\\nmarrying, abandoning.\\nTheir choice lies, then, only between marrying money, or abandoning\\nall their connexions, habits, and amusements. John Boyd Kinnear,\\nWoman s Work, 353.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0494.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 4S3\\ncreating.\\nIt does not seem safe in regard to this to rely on the ordinary rule of\\ndemand creating supply. Sir J. T. Coleridge, Keble, p. 381.\\npredicting, conspiring.\\nSome people will never distinguish between predicting an eclipse and\\nconspiring to bring it about.\\nA very good illustration of our point may be got from\\nsentences of the following type, in which the infinitive-\\nregnant with to stands counterposed with our flexional\\ninfinitive\\nWhere the case is so plain, it is not for the dignity of this house to\\ninquire instead of acting. TzTOgs, February 11, 1870, Summary.\\nSometimes the infinitive with to has been pushed beyond\\nthe sphere now alloted to it, and a rendering by the infinitive\\nin -ing would seem more natural. Spenser has\\nFor not to have been dipt in Lethe lake\\nCould save the son of Thetis from to die\\nwhich in modern English would be expressed thus His\\nhaving-been-dipped in Lethe could not save Achilles from\\ndying.\\nThe following is somewhat similar\\nIt comes either from weakness or guiltiness, to fear shadows. Richard\\nSibbes, Soul s Conjiict, ch. x.\\nThe following passages contain some mixed examples\\nI am convinced a man might sit down as systematically and as suc-\\ncessfully to the study of wit, as he might to the study of the mathematics\\nand I would answer for it, that, by giving up only six hours a day to being\\nwitty, he should come on prodigiously before midsummer, so that his\\nfriends should hardly know him again. For what is there to hinder the\\nmind from gradually acquiring a habit of attending to the lighter relations\\nof ideas in which wit consists Punning grows upon everybody, and pun-\\nning is the wit of words. Sydney Smith, Wit and Humotir.\\nI i 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0495.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "4^4\\nOF SYNTAX.\\nBut it is clear that, as society goes on accumulating powers and gifts,\\nthe one hope of society is in men s modest and unselfish use of them in\\nsimplicity and nobleness of spirit increasing, as things impossible to our\\nfathers become easy and familiar to us; in men caring for better things\\nthan money and ease and honour in being able to see the riches of the\\nworld increase and not set our hearts upon them in being able to admire\\nand forego. R. W. Church, Sermons, ii. 1 868.\\nDefend me, therefore, common sense, say I,\\nFrom reveries so airy, from the toil\\nOf dropping buckets into empty wells,\\nAnd growing old in drawing nothing up.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Garden.\\nTrue religion prescribes a kind of grace, not only before meals, but\\nbefore setting out for a pleasant walk, for a moonlight ramble, for a pleasant\\nmeeting a grace before reading any author that delights us, Charles\\nLamb, Essays of Elia, Grace before Meat.\\nShe had then no alternative but to take the path of the thicket, nor did\\nshe pursue it long before coming in sight of a singular spectacle. Sir Walter\\nScott, Castle Dangerous, ch, iv.\\nA case that deserves a place apart is that of being and\\nhaving when they enter into the composition of infinitives,\\nactive or passive\\nThe present apparent hopelessness of a really CEcumenical Council being\\nassembled. John Keble, Life, p. 425.\\nIn the next piece it would be allowable to substitute to\\nhave heard for having heard\\nI recollect having heard the noble lord the member for Tiverton deliver\\nin this House one of the best speeches I ever listened to. On that occasion\\nthe noble lord gloried in the proud name of England, and, pointing to the\\nsecurity with which an Englishman might travel abroad, he triumphed in\\nthe idea that his countrymen might exclaim, in the spirit of the ancient\\nRoman, Civis Romanus sum. John Bright, Speeches, 1853, ed. J. E. T.\\nRogers.\\nIn our next quotation it appears in a passive form\\nGreat men like Sylla and Napoleon have loved to attribute their success\\nto their fortune, their star religious great men have loved to say that their\\nsufficiency was of God. But through every great spirit runs a train of feeling\\nof this sort and the power and depth which there undoubtedly is in Cal-\\nvinism, comes from Calvinism s being overwhelmed by it. Matthew\\nArnold, St. Paul and Protestantism, p. 1 20.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0496.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX OF FLEXION. 485\\nThe expression in the following line is certainly con-\\ndensed, and the grammar by no means explicit, but I should\\nbe curious to know by what process of thought the word\\nivriting could be accepted in any other character than that\\nof an infinitive\\nNature s chief master-piece is writing well.\\nAlexander Pope, Essay on Criticism, 725.\\nThe expression about doing anything is considered bad\\ngrammar, yet it is met with in authors of repute\\nHe was about retracing his steps, when he was suddenly transfixed to\\nthe spot by a sudden appearance. Charles Dickens, Pickwick Papers,\\nch. xxiii.\\nThe aversion which there is to this particular expression\\nmight perhaps be modified if the verb in -ing were acknow-\\nledged to be an infinitive. I do not mean to say that this\\nconsideration ought to be decisive. Language is not alto-\\ngether governed by logic. Any form of speech is doomed,\\nif it minister occasion to confusion of thought.\\nThe really dubious cases are those where this infinitive\\nis so like a noun-substantive as to be hardly distinguished\\nfrom it. In fact these two blend so closely as to defy all\\nattempts at a Hne of demarcation. One could not even\\nconvince a determined adversary on the ground of their\\ngoverning a case, if he were quick enough to remember that\\nin Plautus the Latin substantive in -lo governs an accusative\\ncase just like a verb I will therefore only say, that in such\\ninstances as the following I think the meaning is better\\napprehended by regarding them as verb-substantives, that\\nis to say, infinitives.\\nversing.\\nI once more smell the dew and rain,\\nAnd relish versing. George Herbert.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0497.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "486 OF SYNTAX.\\nflying.\\nJohnny watched the swallows trying\\nWhich was cleverest at flying.\\nprelating, labouring, lording.\\nAmende therfore, and ye that be prelates loke well to your office, for\\nright prelatynge is busye labourynge and not lordyng. Hugh Latimer,\\nThe Ploughers, 1 549.\\nWhile we are on this flexional infinitive, I must call atten-\\ntion to one of the finest of our provincialisms. It is when\\nthis infinitive is used as sonething between active and\\npassive, as if it were a neutral voice, like the so-called\\nmiddle voice in Greek. In all classes of society in York-\\nshire it may be heard as, Do you want the tea making/\\nI want my coat brushing, c.\\nIn the prospectus of a projected almanack which was\\ncirculated in November, 1869, and which was dated from\\nDarwen, Lancashire, it is said that\\nThe miscellaneous matter on the other pages of the almanack treats of\\ntopics which the clergy are likely to want prominently placing before their\\nparishioners.\\nNot very unlike this is the expression in the Offertory\\nRubric While these sentences are in reading. In modern\\nEnglish we should make it passive, and say While these\\nsentences are being read.\\nWe may well contend for the infinitival character of this\\n-ing, if only to rescue from the wreck of our old flexional\\nsystem some time-honoured relic. The English language\\nhas divested itself of flexion to a most remarkable degree.\\nBut we must not suppose that when a language puts off the\\ngarb of flexion it becomes with her as if she had never put\\nit on. No; we must allow for something like what the\\nnaturalists calls heredity whereby a result once obtained\\nis continued traditionally.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0498.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS. 487\\nIf it was difificult to accomplish the task of the first section\\nof this chapter, and delineate in a complete manner a\\nsyntax of collocation, this is due to the influence of flexion.\\nFlexion itself may pass away, but its consequences remain.\\nThe maxim of the jurist, Cessante causa cessat effectus/\\ndoes not govern language.\\nIn a deflexionised language like ours, though almost all\\nthe flexions have themselves disappeared, they have not\\ncarried away with them those modifications of arrangement\\nand collocation of which they first furnished the occasion.\\nIII. Of Syntax by Symbolic Words.\\nAs the natural division of flexion is into the two kinds,\\nthe flexion that attaches to the noun and that which attaches\\nto the verb, and as symboUsm is an equivalent of flexion,\\nthe most convenient plan for this section will be the division,\\ninto the symboHsm of the verb and the symbolism of the\\nnoun.\\nAnd this division will not only be found to rest upon a\\nsound philological basis, but it will also prove convenient\\nfrom a historical point of view. For that explicitness of\\nsyntax which we have acquired by the development of sym-\\nbolism, is drawn partly from the Gothic and partly from the\\nRoman source. It may be said, speaking in general terms,\\nthat the explicit verb has come to us from the Saxon, and\\nthe explicit noun from the French,\\nThe most signal example of a symbolic word, which exists\\nentirely to serve the purposes of syntax, is the symbol-verb\\nto be. From the moment that this verb had acquired its\\nsymbolic value, we may say that the reign of flexion was", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0499.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "488 OF SYNTAX.\\ndoomed. Not that it is the universal solvent of flexion, but\\nit has been the chief means of undermining it in its own\\nfavourite stronghold, the verb. We are told by Sanskrit\\nscholars that this symbol is found in the oldest Sanskrit\\nmonuments, and that none of the Aryan languages are with-\\nout it. But if we compare its functions now in the great\\nlanguages of Europe with those which it had in Greek and\\nLatin, we shall find that the agency of this verb to be has\\ngreatly enlarged its sphere. Take for example the passive\\nverb, which had a complete flexional apparatus in Greek as\\n(f)iXov[iai with its parts, and in Latin as a?7ior with its parts\\nall these flexions have disappeared, and in place of each one\\nof them has stepped in a function of this symbolic verb.\\nAmor, I am loved.\\nAmabar, I was loved.\\nAmabor, I shall be loved.\\nAmarer, I should be loved, c.\\nThis substitution of symbol-verbs for inflections is found\\nequally in French and German Je suis aimd 3^ Bin\\ngelie6t. But in English we have our own peculiar little\\nopenings for enlarging this ever-growing power of be. Such\\nidiomatic terms as I am to go, She is to do it, Such a\\nthing is to be, I m to be queen of the May, are thoroughly\\nEnglish. On the other hand, Where have you been I\\nhave been to seek for you, is French Ou avez vous ^t^\\nJ ai ^t^ vous chercher.\\nThe great power of this symbol-verb for revolutionizing\\nflexional languages has lain a long time dormant. Espe-\\ncially has this been the case in sacred languages. The\\nHebrew is an eminently flexional language, especially in\\nregard to its system of verbs. The symbol-verb is there\\nfound in full development, but in very limited action. The\\nfollowing little piece of statistics wifl give some idea of this.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0500.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS. 489\\nIn the English version of the little Book of Jonah, I count\\nforty-two occurrences of the verb to be, but when I refer\\nto the original, I find that only six of these are represented\\nby the verb to be in Hebrew. And as one of the cases\\nis not symbolic but substantive, we have the still wider ratio\\nof five to forty-one.\\nI one day expressed to an intimate friend my regret that\\nthe collectors of vocabularies among savage tribes did not\\ntell us something about the verb to be, and especially I\\ninstanced the admirable word- collections of Mr. Wallace.\\nTo this conversation I owe the pleasure of being able to\\nquote Mr. Wallace s own observations on this subject in his\\nreply to my friend s query. He says\\nAs to such words as to be, it is impossible to get them in any savage\\nlanguage till you know how to converse in it, or have some intelligent inter-\\npreter who can do so. In most of the languages such extremely general\\nwords do not exist, and the attempt to get them through an ordinary inter-\\npreter would inevitably lead to error. Even in such a comparatively\\nhigh language as the Malay, it is difficult to express to be in any of our\\nsenses, as the words used would express a number of other things as well,\\nand only serve for to be by a roundabout process.\\nKeeping a sort of company with the verb to be, there is\\nfound in all the great languages a verb which signifies to\\ncome to be, to get to be. This is in Greek ylveadai, in Latin\\nJien, in French devenir, and in German txierben symbol-\\nverbs of great mark each in its own language. In our\\nnative tongue the old word was weor^an, the analogue of the\\nGerman tcerben, but we gradually lost it and now we retain\\nonly a fossil relic of it in the imperative or subjunctive worthy\\nas in the expression, Woe worth the day. Instead of this\\nweor^an we have qualified a new word for its place, a com-\\npound of the verb comCy namely become. In early times the\\nsense of coming was dominant in this word. In the Saxon\\nGospels, Luke ii. 38, theos thaere tide becumende answers\\nto our she coming-in that instant.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0501.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "49^ OP SYNTAX.\\nEven as late as Shakspeare this sense was still vigorous\\nas\\nRiji. But Madam, where is Warwicke then become\\nGray. I am inform d that he comes towards London.\\n3 Henry VI. iv, 4. 25.\\nIn our day where and become will not construe together,\\nbecause the latter has lost all signification of locality. Eithet\\nwe should ask Where is Warwick gone to or What is\\nbecome of Warwick In short, the word has been tho-\\nroughly symboHsed, and so qualified to take the place of our\\nlost verb weoi^an. And here again, as in so many other\\nplaces, it has to be observed that we have followed the\\nFrench. It is the French devenir that we give expression to\\n(nay, that we mimic) in our modern verb becoine.\\nBut this is a matter of only superficial importance so far\\nas syntax is concerned. What does it matter whether a\\ncertain function is discharged by weor^an or by devenir?\\nit is functions and not roots that structural philology attends\\nto. In so far as we construe our become difi erently from the\\nconstruction of the old weor^an, so far is the change struc-\\ntural, and no further. Broadly speaking, the analogues of\\nthis become have a general resemblance of construction in\\nall the great languages, so that the fact of our having changed\\nour word under French tuition is a matter of small structural\\nconsideration.\\nBut now we come to a symbol-verb of a peculiarly insular\\ncharacter, namely, the auxiliary do.\\nThis also is French under a Saxon exterior. It is the\\nYrench /aire, as in f aire f aire., to cause a thing to be done.\\nAnd, at first, even in English, its action was just the same\\nas is that of the Siuxilmiy /aire to this day in French. Thus\\ndede translate (Early English Text Society, Extra Series^", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0502.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "SFNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS, 49 1\\nvol. i. p. ix.) meant not, as now, our did translate/ but\\ncaused to be translated/\\nNext it came to figure as a representative or vicegerent\\nfor any antecedent verb\\nA wise man will make better use of an idle pamphlet, then a fool will\\ndo of sacred Scripture. John Milton, Areopagitica.\\nThen as a symbolic expression of tense, both in affirmative\\nand negative sentences. This is its pecuharly English\\nfunction.\\nBut now it has dropped half its function, for it is not\\nused with the affirmative verb unless something more than\\nthe ordinary force of assertion is required. The affirmative\\nand negative verb therefore are thus declined:\\nFFIRMATIVE.\\nNegative.\\nI wish\\nI do not wish\\nI wished\\nI did not wish\\nGo\\nDo not go\\nIf I go\\nIf I do not go\\nIf I went\\nIf I did not go\\nThus we see the affirmative side is clear of this auxiliary.\\nApart from emphasis, it is confined to the negative pro-\\nposition, and to interrogations\\nWhere did you go\\nWhat do you think?\\nBut the earlier usage still holds in provincial dialects, as\\nin the following from the Dorset Poems\\nWhere wide and slow\\nThe stream did flow,\\nAnd flags did grow and lightly flee,\\nBelow the grey-leaved withy tree\\nWhilst clack clack clack from hour to hour\\nDid go the mill by cloty Stour.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0503.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "49^ OF SYNTAX.\\nHow thoroughly this is a word of the modern language,\\nand how recently it ascertained its own final place and func-\\ntion, may be seen from the following quotation, wherein\\nSpenser, a contemporary of Shakspeare, yokes dz d with a\\nverb in the preterite\\nAstond he stood, and up his heare did hove.\\nThe Faerie Queene, i. 2. 31.\\nAt present this auxiliary is not used to form tenses of the\\nverb to de, but we find it so used in the Ballads and\\nRomances. Thus, in I^ger and Grime\\nGryme sayd, how farr haue wee to that citye\\nwhereas that Ladyes dwelHng doth bee Line 758.\\nwhy Sir, said shee, but is it yee\\nthat in such great perill here did bee Line 788.\\nIt was a heauenly Melodye\\nfor a Knight that did a louer bee. Line 926,\\nThe verb do is thus an auxiliary which peculiarly belongs\\nto English, though at its start it was a French- borrowed\\nplume. But the great bulk of the auxiliaries of our language\\nare of home origin and development, and they will be found\\nto correspond to the verbal modes of expression which are\\nused in German and the other dialects of the Gothic stock.\\nI speak of such auxiliaries as shall, will, may, can, let, might,\\ncould, would, should. An example or two will suffice to\\nindicate how greatly we are in a state of contrast with the\\nRomanesque tongues on this feature.\\namare\\namero\\naimerai\\nI shall or will love.\\nainariamos\\nameremmo\\naimerions\\nwe should or would love.\\namemos\\namiamo\\naimons\\nlet us love.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0504.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS.\\n493\\nThere is yet another feature in the symbolism surromiding\\nthe verb, in which the English use is in accordance with the\\nGothic languages, and at variance with the Romanesque.\\nThis is in regard to those adverbs which in the Romanesque\\nlanguages have the habit of prefixing themselves inseparably\\nto their verbs. The equivalents of these are not always, but\\nfor the most part, separate or at least separable in EngHsh\\nand German and the Gothic languages generally. This will\\nbe readily understood by the help of a few examples of this\\ncontrast between French and English. They are taken from\\nRandle Cotgrave, 1611\\nAbboyer, to barke or bay at,\\nDecourir, to run down.\\nDeprier, to pray instantly.\\nDescrier, to cry down,\\nEntrecouper, to cut between.\\nParservir, to ser/. thoroughly,\\nProteler, to shift off.\\nPourvoir, to provide for,\\nRebouillir, to boil once more,\\nRebouler, to bowle againe.\\nIf we turn now from the symbolism that surrounds the\\nverb, to that which is attendant on the noun, we shall see\\nthat the latter is most prominently drawn from the articles\\nand the prepositions. These are the symbolic satellites of\\nthe noun. And there is perceivable a certain co-operation\\nwith one another in their action. When two substantives\\nare united by a genitival relation, as servus servorum,\\nJunonis ob iram, haelejja hleo, heofena rice, my\\nbody s length (3 Henry VI, v. 2. 26), man-kind, and you\\nsubstitute an qf^OT the genitival flexion, or genitival relation\\nof the one noun, you find yourself often obliged to give the\\nother noun an article thus, a servant of servants, for", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0505.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "494 SFNTAX.\\nJuno s wrath avoiding both preposition and article, or\\nusing them both, for the wrath of Juno/ heroes shelter,\\nheroum columen, or, the shelter of heroes, the kingdom\\nof heaven, the length of my body, the family of man.\\nIf we compare the Versions of 1535 and of 161 1 in\\nDaniel i. 2, the elder has and there brought them in to his\\ngods treasury but the younger has it into the treasure-\\nhouse of his god/ The change of structure from flexional\\nto symbolic has thus brought in two symbols to attend on\\nthe noun namely, the preposition and the article.\\nAnd this is not the only class of instances in which the\\nintroduction of one symbolic word provokes a tendency to\\ncall in another. In the earlier stages of Saxon Hterature\\nwe find a preposition with a bare noun but this is less the\\ncase in the riper language of the tenth century, and in\\nmodern English it is (with certain special exceptions)\\naltogether inadmissible.\\nAdrifen of biscopdome.\\nDriven from the see or, from bis see.\\nOf wealle geseah.\\nFrom the wall he saw.\\nThe substitution of the preposition instead of the case of\\nthe noun, has been extended also to the pronoun. Hence\\nthe variety of phrases, such as o/?jiy own, from thence.\\nof itself.\\nWarsaw is not of itself a strong fortress, but it closes the railway and\\ndefends the passage of the Vistula.\\nAnd as the pronouns are the great source of conjunctions,\\nthe latter soon catch this phrasal habit.\\nout of which.\\nBut those wise and good men whose object it had been all along to save\\nwhat they could of the wreck, out of which to construct another ,ark, c.\\nBlunt, History of the Reformation^ ch. ix.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0506.jp2"}, "507": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS. 495\\nThis has been felt to be a Frenchism or a classicism,\\nand the English humour has never thoroughly liked it. At\\nbest it is but book-English. It is one of the most salient of\\nthe features of Addison s style that he asserted the native\\nidiom in this particular, as This is the thing which I spoke\\nto you of. This English reluctance to welcome the of\\nwhich, to which, from which, as a conjunction, is to be\\nnoted as the point where our instincts lead us to resist the\\nfurther progress of the symbolic element. At this point\\nthere is, however, much vacillation and uncertainty the\\nEnglish ear not being satisfied with either construction.\\nThe following is from one of Addison s papers in the\\nSpectator, No. 499\\nThis Morning I received from him the following Letter, which, after\\nhaving rectified some little orthographical Mistakes, I shall make a Present\\nof to the Publick.\\nThe contact of two such words as 0/ to is not pleasing.\\nOne of the prepositions has acquired for itself a very\\nremarkable function, and that not in attendance on a noun,\\nbut on a verb. And yet it is a noun also it is at the point\\nof union between noun and verb, that is to say, the infinitive.\\nHere the preposition to has made for itself a permanent\\nplace, just as at has in Danish, and a (Latin ad) in Walla-\\nchian.\\nDanish,\\nEnglish.\\nWallachian\\nat baere\\nat skrive\\nto bear\\nto write\\na purta\\na scrie\\nThus we perceive that the prepositional form of the infinitive\\nis not peculiar to English, nor yet to the Gothic, as opposed\\nto the Romance family of languages but that it springs up\\nindifferently under various conditions, and therefore must be", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0507.jp2"}, "508": {"fulltext": "49^ OF SYNTAX.\\nreferred to some general tendency. What that tendency is\\nI have already surmised in the chapter on the adverbs.\\nModern languages have a continuity of development\\nand a flexibility of action, and growing out of these a\\npower of following the movements of the mind, such\\nas was never attained by the classical languages. If we\\ntake Demosthenes and Cicero as the maturest products\\nof the Greek and Latin languages, we feel that they do not\\nattain to the range of the best modern writers, or even to that\\nof the fine passages in the prose writings of Milton. Great\\nelasticity, great plasticity, has been added to language by\\nthe development of symbolism great acquisitions have been\\nmade both in the compass and in the go of language.\\nThis of course displays itself chiefly in the grander oratorical\\nefforts. The capacity of a language is seen best in the\\nmasterly periods of great orators. In our day we have\\nheard much praise of short sentences and that praise for\\nthe most part has been well bestowed. The vast majority\\nof writers are engaged in the diffusion of knowledge, in\\npopularising history or science or else they write with the\\navowed purpose of entertaining. Wherever the object is to\\nmake knowledge easy, or to make reading easy, the short\\nsentence is to be commended. But when the mind of an\\noriginal thinker burns with the conception of new thoughts,\\nor the mind of the orator is aflame with the enthusiasm of\\nnew combinations and newly perceived conclusions, it is\\nnatural for them to overflow in long and elaborately sub-\\nordinated sentences, which tax the powers of the hearer or\\nreader to keep up with them. These are among the greatest\\nefforts of mind, and their best expression naturally con-\\nstitutes the grandest exhibition of the power of human\\nspeech and this power has received great accessions by the\\nmodern development of symbolism.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0508.jp2"}, "509": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS. 497\\nShort sentences are prevalent in our language, as long ones\\nare in the German. In all things we incline to curtness and\\nstuntness. Not that this gives the full account of the mat-\\nter. German literature has been far more engaged in the\\nacquisition, while English literature has been employed more\\nin the diffusion, of knowledge. This is probably the chief\\ncause of our short and easy sentences. But we can use the\\ncumulate construction when needed, and there are places in\\nwhich force would be lost by dividing it into two or three\\nsuccessive and seriatim sentences. The following affords\\na fair example of a cumulative subject. It is all subject\\ndown to the words printed in capitals,\\nThe houses of the grandmothers and great-grandmothers of this genera-\\ntion, at least the country houses, with front-door and back-door always\\nstanding open, winter and summer, and a thorough draught always blowing\\nthrough; with all the scrubbing and cleaning and polishing and scouring\\nwhich used to go on the grandmothers and still more the great-grand-\\nmothers always out of doors and never with a bonnet on except to go to\\nchurch these things, when contrasted with our present civilized habits,\\nENTIRELY ACCOUNT for the fact so often seen of a great-grandmother who\\nwas a tower of physical vigour, descending into a grandmother perhaps a little\\nless vigorous but still sound as a bell and healthy to the core, into a mother\\nlanguid and confined to her carriage and house, and lastly into a daughter\\nsickly and confined to her bed. Florence Nightingale, Notes on Nursing.\\nHe who hopes that his writings may be an agreeable\\naccompaniment to tea and bread-and-butter, may well\\nadopt as his literary type the conversational sentences of\\nAddison, the father of popular English literature, and the\\nfounder of easy writing for recreative study\\nIt is with much satisfaction that I hear this great city inquiring day by\\nday after these my papfers, and receiving my morning lectures with a becom-\\ning seriousness and attention. My publisher tells me that there are already\\n3000 of them distributed every day; so that if I allow twenty readers\\nto every paper, which I look upon as a modest computation, I may reckon\\nabout three score thousand disciples in London and Westminster, who I hope\\nwill take care to distinguish themselves from the thoughtless herd of their\\nignorant and inattentive brethren. Since I have raised to myself so great an\\naudience I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable and their\\ndiversion useful. For which reasons I shall endeavour to enliven morality wit\\nKk", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0509.jp2"}, "510": {"fulltext": "498 OF SYNTAX.\\nwit, and to temper wit with morality, that my readers may, if possible, both\\nways find their account in the speculation of the day. And to the end that\\ntheir virtue and discretion may not be short, transient, intermittent starts of\\nthought, I have resolved to refresh their memories from day to day, till I\\nhave recovered them out of that desperate state of vice and folly into which\\nthe age is fallen. The mind that lies fallow for a single day sprouts up in\\nfollies that are only to be killed by a constant and assiduous culture. It was\\nsaid of Socrates that he brought philosophy down from heaven to inhabit\\namong men and I. shall be ambitious to have it said of me, that I have\\nbrought philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell\\nin clubs and assemblies, at tea tables, and in coffee houses.\\nI would, therefore, in a very particular manner, recommend these my\\nspeculations to all well-regulated families, that set apart an hour in every\\nmorning for tea and bread-and-butter and would earnestly advise them for\\ntheir good to order this paper to be punctually served up, and to be looked\\nupon as a part of the tea equipage. Spectator, No. 10.\\nBut he who wishes for periods that will furnish a mental\\ngymnastic, must read page after page of Milton s prose\\nworks, or of the very dissimilar Jeremy Taylor, where, amidst\\nmuch that is almost chaotic in its irregular massiveness, he\\nmay from time to time fall in with such a piece of architecture\\nas will reward his patient quest. If the following piece from\\nthe close of Milton s Re/orjiiation in England appears to\\nthe reader hardly to match this description, it will at least\\nserve to give a taste of what a really great sentence can be.\\nThen, amidst the hymns and hallelujahs of saints, some one may perhaps\\nbe heard offering at high strains in new and lofty measures, to sing and cele-\\nbrate Thy divine mercies and marvellous judgments in this land throughout\\nall ages, whereby this great and warlike nation, instructed and inured to the\\nfervent and continual practice of truth and righteousness, and casting far\\nfrom her the rags of her old vices, may press on hard to that high and happy\\nemulation to be found the soberest wisest and most Christian people at that\\nday, when Thou, the eternal and shortly expected King, shalt open the\\nclouds to judge the several kingdoms of the world, and, distributing national\\nhonours and rewards to religious and just commonwealths, shalt put an end\\nto all earthly tyrannies, proclaiming Thy universal and mild monarchy\\nthrough heaven and earth; where they undoubtedly, that by their labours\\ncounsels and prayers, have been earnest for the common good of religion and\\ntheir country, shall receive, above the inferior orders of the blessed, the regal\\naddition of principalities, legions, and thrones with their glorious titles, and,\\nin supereminence of beatific vision, progressing the dateless and irrevoluble\\ncircle of eternity, shall clasp inseparable hands with joy and bliss, in over-\\nmeasure for ever.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0510.jp2"}, "511": {"fulltext": "SYNTAX BY SYMBOLIC WORDS. 499\\nIt is a gain to our general literature that the long sentence\\nis but rarely used, for it is sorely out of place in ordinary\\nwriting, such as historical narrative, or any other kind that is\\nproduced at a moderate temperature. It is the defect of\\nClarendon s style that his sentences are too long for their\\nenergy. Long sentences are intolerable without enthusiasm.\\nIt is only under the glow of passion that the highest capabilities\\nof a language are displayed. As, however, we are not now\\nengaged upon the rhetorical aspect of the language for its\\nown sake, but only by way of illustrating the resources of\\nmodern syjitax for continuous and protracted structure, it\\nshould be added that to the beauty of the long sentence it is\\nnot necessary that the passion be at all furious, but only that\\nthe feeling be strong enough to sustain itself during the flight\\nfrom one resting-place to another. The following four\\nstanzas from In Memonani constitute but one period, which\\nthough quiet enough is yet well sustained\\nI past beside the reverend walls\\nIn which of old I wore the gown\\n1 roved at random through the town,\\nAnd saw the tumult of the halls;\\nAnd heard once more in college fanes\\nThe storm their high-built organs make,\\nAnd thunder-music, rolling, shake\\nThe prophets blazon d on the panes;\\nAnd caught once more the distant shout,\\nThe measured pulse of racing oars\\nAmong the willows paced the shores\\nAnd many a bridge, and all about\\nThe same gray flats again, and felt\\nThe same, but not the same; and last\\nUp that long walk of limes I past\\nTo see the rooms in which he dwelt,\\nK k 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0511.jp2"}, "512": {"fulltext": "500 OF SYNTAX.\\nIf we ask, What is this sustaining power, which bears\\nalong more than a hundred words in one movement, with\\nall the unity of an individual organism? the answer is,\\nthat it is rhythm. The particular notice of rhythm will find\\nits place in the last chapter here, it will be enough to illus-\\ntrate what manner of thing symbolic syntax is when it is\\nwithout rhythm.\\nIf we want to see this form of syntax carried out to an\\nextreme and exaggerated development, unsupported more-\\nover and unbalanced by rhythm, we have only to read a\\nlegal document, such as a marriage settlement, or a re-\\nlease of trust. Often whole lines are mere strings of\\nwords till the reader s head swims with the fluctuations\\nof the unstable element, and, like a man at sea, or in a\\nballoon, he longs to plant his feet on terra firma.\\nAnd that the said sum when paid should be held upon the trusts there-\\ninafter declared of and concerning the same.\\nFour other of the children of the said testator are entitled respectively\\nto one other of the remaining four other of the said shares.\\nThe following is from a release of trust:\\nAnd also of from and against all and all manner of actions and suits\\ncause and causes of action and suit reckonings debts duties claims and demands\\nwhatsoever both at Law and in Equity which they the said releasing and\\ncovenanting parties or any or either of them their or any or either of their\\nheirs executors administrators or assigns or any other person or persons\\nwhomsoever {sic) claiming or who shall or may at any time hereafter claim\\nby from through under or in trust for them him or her or any or either of\\nthem may or can have claim challenge or demand of from or against the\\nsaid.\\nAnd so it goes floating on, when it could almost all be said\\nby a mere passive verb as. The trust is discharged.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0512.jp2"}, "513": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XL\\nOF COMPOUNDS.\\nIn a general way of speaking, compounds are merely\\nmorsels of syntax which, from being often together, have\\nbecome adherent, and have grown into something between\\nphrases and words. A mature language makes fresh com-\\npounds after the pattern established but the origin of the\\npattern is to be sought in the habits, often the earlier habits,\\nof the syntactical structure. Compounds vary extremely as\\nregards laxity and compactness of fabric. When first made\\nthey are very lax, and hardly to be distinguished as com-\\npounds from words in syntax. Such loose compounds are\\ndaily made by little more than the trick of inserting hyphens.\\nIn the Cornhill Magazine a writer upon rhetoric designates\\na certain style of diction as the allude-to-an-individual style.\\nIn those languages which have a ready faculty of com-\\npound-making, this sort of off-hand compound has always\\nbeen one of the recognised means of being funny. Passing\\nover this sort, which are hardly to be ranged as compounds\\nat all, we have such loose examples 2i?, forget-me-not, and\\nsuch compact examples as mankind, nostril, boatswain, which\\nthrough long use are so well knit as to be more like simple", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0513.jp2"}, "514": {"fulltext": "502 OF COMPOUNDS.\\nwords than compounds. The compound state, properly so\\ncalled, is an intermediate condition between the phrase and\\nthe word a transition which the phrase passes through in\\norder to become gradually condensed into a simple word.\\nWe are of old familiar with the grammatical idea that phrases\\nare made out of words, but we now recognise that the\\nreverse of this is also true, and that words are made out of\\nphrases.\\nThe distinctive condition which marks that a compound\\nhas been formed, is the change of accent. The difference\\nbetween black bird and blackbird is one of accent. Or,\\nwhen it is stated of a horse that he is two years old/ each\\nof these words has its own several tone. But make a\\ntrisyllable of it, and say a two-year-old, and the sound is\\ngreatly altered. The second and third words lean enclitic-\\nally upon the first, while the first has gathered up all the\\nsmartness of tone into itself, and goes off almost like the\\nsnap of a trigger. The written sign which is used to signify\\nthat a compound is intended, is the hyphen; which may\\ntherefore be regarded as being indirectly a note of accent.\\nThis is the reason why the hyphen is so much more used\\nin poetry than in prose. The poet is attending to his\\ncadences, and therefore feels the need of the accentual sign\\nof the hyphen. Our prose (on the other hand) is sprinkled\\nwith compounds which are written as if they were in construc-\\ntion. There is no need to search for examples, they offer\\nthemselves on the page of the moment. On the page that\\nhappens to be under my eye, I find two compounds, one of\\nthe first and one of the second order both without hyphens.\\ncoas/-h ne.\\nIndeed these old coal layers call to mind our peat bogs. We find a layer\\nof peat nearly everywhere on our coast line between high and low water\\nmark.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0514.jp2"}, "515": {"fulltext": "OF COMPOUNDS. 503\\nI think most people would read coal layers and peal dogs as\\ncompounds also but on these there might be a difference of\\nopinion. The same may be said of millslone gril in the next\\nquotation. But there can be no doubt as to\\ncoal-producing.\\nYou know that if you heat a poker, it expands the heat making it\\nlonger. The earth is in the same state as a hot poker, and parts of it expand\\nor contract as the heat within it ebbs and flows. I have here a section of the\\ncoal measures of Lancashire. Upon a thick base of millstone g rit, of which\\nmost of our hills are composed, you have the coal producing rocks, which,\\ninstead of being horizontal as they were originally, have been tilted up.\\nW. Boyd Dawkins, On Coal.\\nAn incident which attends upon the act of compounding\\nis this, that the old grammatical habit of the final member is\\nsubjected to the grammatical idea of the new compound.\\nAny parts of speech will assume in compounding the sub-\\nstantive character, and will pluralise as such. Th.\\\\xsforgel-\\nme-nol, plural forget-me-nots. I remember a quaker lady,\\nwho, with the grave and gentle dignity that formed part of\\nher beautiful character, disapproved of chimney-ornaments,\\non the ground that they were need-nots. A plural form, on\\nentering into composition, takes a new character as a singular,\\nand withal a new power of receiving a new plurality. Thus,\\nsixpence, plural sixpences.\\nInasmuch then as compounds are in their nature and origin\\nnothing but fragments of structure in a state of cohesion, it\\nfollows that they will most naturally be classified according\\nto the divisions of syntax. And although a precise classifi-\\ncation may hardly be practicable, owing to the vast play of\\nfancy, and the consequent inter-crossing of the kinds of\\ncompounds, yet we shall experience in following such a\\ndivision some of that practical convenience which attends a\\nmethod that is substantially true to nature. The relation\\nbetween the parts of a compound is expressed either by the", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0515.jp2"}, "516": {"fulltext": "504\\nOF COMPOUNDS.\\nrelative position of the parts, as in the difference between\\npathfield, racehorse, 2ir\\\\di fieldpath, horserace or by an inflec-\\ntion of one of the parts, as in suhtle-cadenced or by the\\nintervention of a symbolic word, as in man-of-war, hread-\\nand-cheese. We will speak of these three as Compounds of\\nthe First Order, Compounds of the Second Order, and\\nCompounds of the Third Order.\\nI. Compounds of the First Order.\\nThe most prevalent means by which compounds are made\\nis by mere juxtaposition. This is the case in many im-\\nportant languages besides English. In Hebrew for example,\\nBeer signifies a well, and Sheba signifies an oath and when\\nthese two are put together, we have the name Beersheba,\\nwhich means the well of the oath. But in the true English\\nanalogue the positions of the parts would be reversed, and\\nit would stand as Oath-well. In Welsh the order is the same\\nas in Hebrew, and the reverse of the EngHsh order. Thus\\nLlan is church, and Fair is an altered form of Mair, which is\\nMary, and the Welsh express Mary-church in the reverse\\norder, Llanfair. In all these instances the compound fol-\\nlows the order usual in the syntactical construction of each\\nlanguage.\\nBut our English order of juxtaposition is the most widely\\nadopted, and it may be regarded as the most natural. The\\nfamous collection of ancient Sanskrit hymns is called the\\nRig-Veda, and this title answers part for part to our Hymn-\\nbook.\\nThe general principle of the compounds of the first order\\nis this, that two words are united, with the understanding", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0516.jp2"}, "517": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE FIRST ORDER.\\n505\\nthat the first is adjectival or adverbial to the second in other\\nwords, the second is principal and the first modificatory.\\nThe simplest examples are those which are made of an\\nadjective and a substantive, as hlackhird. The most cha-\\nracteristic are those which are made of two nouns, the first\\nacting as an adjective. Such are the following\\nair-balloon\\nmain-spring\\nalder-bush\\nmarsh-mallow\\nbed-stead\\nnine-pins\\nbell-wire\\nnut-cracker\\nboat-swain\\noak-apple\\ncart-horse\\npacke-horse (Shakspeare)\\nclock-work\\npark-paling\\ncoal-scuttle\\npig-nut\\ndog-kennel\\nprize-03^\\nedge-tool\\nquern-stone\\nfire-balloon\\nrick-yard\\nfish-wife\\nring-leader\\ngift-horse\\nsail-yard\\ngirl-graduates (Tennyson)\\nship-mate\\ngoat-herd\\nspindle-whorl\\nhand-loom\\ntar-barrel\\nhearth- stone\\ntime-piece\\nheir- loom\\ntown-clerk\\nhorse-box\\nupas-tree\\ningle-nook\\nvine-yard\\nink-horn\\nwar-horse\\nking-cup\\nwater-hole (Australia)\\nlamp-oil\\nyeaning-time\\nloop-hole\\nyoke-fellow\\nThis is the sort of compound for which the German lan-\\nguage is so distinguished. The flat syntax has disappeared\\nfrom that language, and it has gone to swell the numbers of\\ntheir flat compounds. Examples are such as ^anb^fcf^u^\\n(hand-shoe), glove; B^ingcr^ut (finger-hat), thimble; (\u00c2\u00a3rb=funbe\\n(earth-knowledge), geography; @^rac^4c^re, speech-lore.\\nThere is so close an affinity between the German and\\nEnglish compounds of the first order, that the one will\\noccasionally supply a comment on the other.\\nHandywork affords an example of this. As we find it", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0517.jp2"}, "518": {"fulltext": "5o6\\nOF COMPOUNDS.\\nprinted, it has the appearance of our adjective handy com-\\nbined with a substantive work. But the German \u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00a7anbti3erf\\nsuggests a truer etymology. It consists, in fact, of two sub-\\nstantives, namely i^^;z^ zndi geweorc, or (medisevally) ywork\\nso that it would be more correctly written thus, hand-ywork.\\nBut if this looks too archaic, it should be spelt handiwork, as\\nindeed it is given in Dr. Latham s edition of Johnson s\\nDictionary. The Saxon original is found in Deuteronomy\\niv. 28\\nAnd ge ])eowia}) fremdum godum, And ye (shall) serve foreign gods,\\nmanna hand geweorc, treowene and men s handiwork, tree-en and stonen,\\nstaenene, ])a ne geseoj), ne ne gehiraj), that see not, nor hear and they eat\\nne hig ne eta|), ne hig ne drinca]). not, and drink not.\\nOther Saxon compounds there are of the same mould, but\\nnone that have so nearly preserved their original form as\\nhandiwork has. One of these was hand gewrit, which has\\nbeen turned into handwriting. There is no hyphen in\\nSaxon manuscripts, but words that have an accentual at-\\ntraction were often written somewhat nearer to one another.\\nIn the text of my Saxon Chronicles, this is represented by a\\nhalf-distance, where the originals justify it. Some words\\nwere thus divided in two, which have coalesced since.\\nA.D. 47;\\n(K) here reaf\\narmy-spoil\\n495\\naldormen\\nchief-men\\n514\\nWestSeaxe\\nWest-Saxons\\n633\\nbiscepsetl\\nbishop-seat\\n643\\nCenwalh.\\n648\\nCu red.\\n660\\nbiscepdom\\nbishopric\\n676\\nCentlond\\nKent-land\\n704\\nmunuchad\\nmonk-hood\\n738\\nEoforwic\\nYork\\n755\\ngodsunu\\ngodson\\n773\\nset] gong\\nsetting (of sun)\\n823\\nEcgbryht\\n832\\nSceapige\\nSheppey\\n833\\nwaelstow\\nbattle-ground\\n8k I\\nhealfhund\\nhalf-hundred", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0518.jp2"}, "519": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE FIRST ORDER.\\n507\\n853-\\nbiscepsunu\\ngod-son\\nmonigmon\\nmany-a-man\\n855-\\nhamweard\\nhomeward\\nhealfgear\\nhalf-year\\n866.\\nwinter setl\\nwinter-quarters\\n871.\\nwael sliht\\nbattle-slaughter\\n878.\\nmorfaesten\\nmoor-fastness\\ncrismlising\\nchrysom-loosing\\n882.\\nsciphlsestas\\nship-loads\\n887.\\nbro|}orsunu\\nnephew (lit. brother-son)\\nfolcgefeoht\\nfolk-fight\\n891.\\nboclasden\\nbook-Latin\\n894.\\nherehy S\\narmy-stuff\\n896.\\nstalwyrS\\nstal worth\\n921.\\nmundbora\\nprotector\\n933.\\nland here\\nland-array\\nsciphere\\nship-array\\n937-\\nbeah gifa\\nbadge-giver\\ngarmitting\\nspear-meeting\\nwsepen gewrixl\\nweapon-wrestling\\nwslfeld\\nbattle-field.\\nThe following have an adjective (or participle) in the second\\nplace, and the same relation holds good between the parts\\nfor the first part, whatever its habit as a part of speech, is\\nstill the subordinate and modificatory of the two\\nspedacle-hestrid.\\nMisled by custom, strain celestial themes\\nThrough the pressed nostril, spectacle-bestrid.\\nWilliam Cowper, The Timepiece.\\nblood-thirsty\\nfancy-free (Shakspeare)\\nfull-blown\\nfoot-sore\\nheart-sick\\nheart-weary\\nThe following are Tennysonian\\nfive-words-long\\nlove-loyal\\nheart-whole\\nlife-long\\nrathe-ripe\\nthunder-struck\\nweather-wise\\nmock-solemn\\nmaiden-meek\\nIn these compounds each part retains its presentive sig-\\nnification, although the one part is subordinated to the other", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0519.jp2"}, "520": {"fulltext": "5o8 OF COMPOUNDS.\\nin the act of producing a united sense. This subordination\\nis expressed by an accentual elevation whereby the specific\\nword is raised into a sharp prominence, while the generic\\nword is let down\u00c2\u00bbto a low tone. There are some exceptions,\\nas in the word man- kind but the general rule is that the\\naccent strikes the first or specific part of the compound.\\nThis is not the place to speak of accents, any further than\\njust to notice that the accent indicates where is the stress of\\nthought. This will be found to explain the occasional\\nexception.\\nOut of composition has grown, and by insensible modifi-\\ncations developed itself, that phenomenon so interesting to\\nthe philologer, and so frequent in his discourse, namely.\\nFlexion. The origin of flexion appertains to this eldest\\ngroup of compounds but for the action and behaviour of\\nflexion when once established, we may go to the second\\nor middle order of compounds and indeed, we may speak\\nmore generally, and say: Flexion occupies the middle zone\\nof the whole sphere of human language as it is historically\\nknown to us.\\nA slight indication of the process is all that can be at-\\ntempted in this place.\\nThe chief attention being usually fixed on the fore-part\\nof the compound, the after-part is left free to undergo\\nalteration. This has been attended with remarkable con-\\nsequences, in certain instances, where the termination was\\nalready of a widely generic character. The slighting of the\\ntone and the generalisation of the sense, go on together\\nand favour one another. At length the termination reaches\\na symboHc value, and we obtain those forms in which the\\nafter-part is merely an abstract or collective sign to the fore-\\npart; as childhood, friendship, happiness, kingdom, kindred,\\nwarfare, wedlock.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0520.jp2"}, "521": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE FIRST ORDER. 509\\nOther cases there are in which the second part passes into\\na sort of adjectival or adverbial termination as graceful,\\ncareless, froward, contrariwise.\\nSo far we can still regard these as a sort of compounds.\\nBut the symbolising process goes on, and with it the waning\\nof the form of the second part, until we are landed in\\nflexion thus from good-like we at length get goodly.\\nSuch are the steps whereby composition passes into\\nterminal flexion. But there is a sort of flexion which is\\ninitial, which takes place at the beginning of a word. And\\nto see how this comes about, we must consider another\\ngroup of compounds. These are they in which the fore-\\npart is an adverb or preposition, as beco7?ie, belong, forego,\\nforeshorten, forlorn, forward, mistake^ purblind, undo, with-\\nstand.\\nfore-right.\\nIf well thou hast begun, go on fore-right.\\nRobert Herrick.\\nIn these the attention as well as the accent is m-ostly on\\nthe second part, and as a consequence the first part, being\\nsymbolised to begin with, passes soon into the higher sym-\\nbolism, which constitutes flexion. The whole class of prefixes\\n(as they are called) lie in the region between compounds\\nand flexion. When the prefix comes to be so destitute of\\nseparate meaning as is the a- in the following instances,\\nwe may then regard it as an inflection of the word to which\\nit is prefixed ajar, akin, along, aloud, away, afield, aright,\\nafar, astir, abed, athwart. This is a favourite strain of\\nwords in the seafaring life, as ahead, astern, alongside, aback,\\nabaft, aloof aloft, aboard, ashore, aground, afloat.\\nalow, aloft.\\nStunsails alow and aloft! said he,\\nAs soon as the foe he saw.\\nJohn Harrison, Three Ballads.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0521.jp2"}, "522": {"fulltext": "5IO OF COMPOUNDS.\\nA very large majority of the words of a mature language,\\nif we could analyse them correctly, would be found to dis-\\nsolve into phrases. So that we may reverse the ordinary\\ngrammatical view whereby words are regarded as the material\\nof sentences; and we should be philologically justified in\\nthis seeming paradox The Seiitence is the raw material of\\nthe Word.\\n11. Compounds of the Second Order.\\nThis group consists of those in which the connection of\\nthe parts of the compound is indicated by flexion. Many\\ncompounds have flexion without belonging to this group,\\n2^s/ar-seeifig, which I should range with the previous group.\\nBut when the inflection is applied in such a manner as to\\nbelong only to the combination and not to the latter part\\nby itself, then we have a flexional compound of the most\\ndistinct kind. In the above example, seeing is equally an\\ninflected word whether it be in or out of the compound, and\\nthe ing has no more special relation to the compound than\\nthe -ful has in the compound all-powerful. But if we take\\nlong-legged, this is a flexional compound. It is not a com-\\nbination of long and legged, but rather of long and leg or legs,\\nwhich are clamped together into one formation by the par-\\nticipial inflection.\\nrock-thwarted.\\nOne show d an iron coast and angry waves.\\nYou seem d to hear them climb and fall,\\nAnd roar rock-thwarted under bellowing caves,\\nBeneath the windy waU.\\nAlfred Tennyson, The Palace of Art.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0522.jp2"}, "523": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE SECOND ORDER. 511\\nSuch are the following, of which the less common are\\nmarked with the initials of Milton or Tennyson\\narrow-wounded (T) large-moulded (T)\\nbare-headed lily-handed (T)\\nbroad-shouldered meek-eyed (M)\\nbush-bearded (T) neat-handed (M)\\ncrest-fallen open-hearted\\ncross-barred (M) pure-eyed (M)\\ndeep-throated (M) royal-towered (M)\\neagle-eyed (M) self-involved (T)\\nfair-haired serpent-throated (T)\\nfar-fetched sinew-corded (T)\\ngolden-shafted (T) thick-leaved (T)\\nhard-grained (T) vermeil-tinctured (M)\\nhigh-toned white-handed (M)\\nicy-pearled (M)\\nThis class of compomids is seen in its highest perfection\\nin the Greek language, and the authors who have used this\\nform of speech with the greatest effect and in the most op-\\nposite ways are vEschylus and Aristophanes. What was a\\ntrumpet to the former was employed as a bauble by the\\nlatter. Our modern poets are great performers upon this\\ninstrument. Keats handled it very effectively. In his\\nEndymion we read of yellow-girted bees also\\nsuhtle-cadenced.\\nTwas a lay\\nMore subtle-cadenced, more forest wild\\nThan Dryope s lone lulling of her child. Id.\\nlidless-eyed.\\nWhereat, methought, the lidless-eyed train\\nOf planets all were in the blue again. Id.\\nAlso Mr. Robert Browning may well be quoted to illus-\\ntrate this fondness\\nbillowy-bosomed.\\nHush if you saw some western cloud\\nAll billowy-bosomed, overbowed\\nBy many benedictions.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0523.jp2"}, "524": {"fulltext": "512 OF COMPOUNDS.\\nfawn-skin-dappled.\\nThat fawn-skin-dappled hair of hers.\\nOthers by the same poet honey-coloured, fruit-shaped,\\nfairy-cupped, elf-needled.\\nOne from a still more recent poem\\ncountry-featured.\\nAnd all glad things were welcome in thy sight,\\nSave the glad air of heaven all things bright.\\nSave the bright light of day and all things sweet,\\nSave country-featured Truth and Honesty\\nAll these thou didst abolish from thy seat,\\nBecause these things were free.*\\nRobert Buchanan, Napoleon Fallen, 1870.\\nIn such instances the inflection reacts on the whole com-\\npound with a consolidating force. Several words may thus\\nbe strung together. When the last member of a linked\\ncomposite has an inflection, it seems to run back pervadingly\\nthrough the others, supplying the whole with a thread of\\ncoherence. We do not use this power so much as the\\nGermans do. Richard Rothe said of his student life at\\nHeidelberg, that it was ein ^oetifc\u00c2\u00a7=retigiog=njiffettc\u00c2\u00a7aftlic^eg\\nIn the following quotation, though it is not so printed,\\nyet the word old is part of the compound.\\noldfriend-ish-ness.\\nThe author having settled within himself the most direct mode of securing\\nthe ear of his readers, throws himself upon their favour with an air of trust-\\nfulness and old friend-ish-ness, which cannot fail to secure him welcome and\\naudience. Quarterly Review, vol. cxxviii. p. 545.\\nHere also seem to belong those instances in which the\\nlast member is a present participle, governing the former\\nmembers of the compound\\nAs a tool-and-weapon-using being, man stands alone, E. T. Stevens,\\nFlint Chips, Preface.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0524.jp2"}, "525": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE THIRD ORDER. 513\\nhovie-enfolding.\\nThe lonely wand rer under other skies\\nThinks on the happy fields he may not see.\\nThe home-enfolding landscape seems to rise\\nWith sunlight on the lea.\\nHorace Smith.\\nIndeed, wherever there is a verbal government between\\nthe parts of a compound, I would reckon that compound as\\nbelonging to this section, because rection, though not neces-\\nsarily connected with flexion, has ever been found as its\\nclose companion and ally. In the above examples, we have\\nhowever an unequivocal trace of the work of flexion, in the\\ndisplacement of the governed word and its being put before\\nthe verb. But even where such grounds are wanting, if\\nonly government exists between the parts, I should regard\\nit (at least in our own language) as presumable that the\\ncompound had its roots in a former state of flexional syntax.\\nAccordingly, I range here such compounds as makeshift^\\nmakeweight^ viakehelieve, marplot, pickpocket, pickpurse, pick-\\nthank.\\nIII. Compounds of the Third Ordee.\\nHere belong all those compounds which are formed by\\nan accentual union of phrases wherein the syntactical con-\\nnection is entirely or mainly symbolic. There was a\\nmediaeval English expression for vain regret, which was\\nmade up of the words had I wist, that is to say, Oh, if\\nI had only known what the consequence would be. It was\\nvariously written, and the variations depend on the degree\\nof accentual intensification\\nH", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0525.jp2"}, "526": {"fulltext": "514 OF COMPOUNDS.\\nhadde-y-wiste.\\nAnd kepe ])e well from hadde-y-wiste.\\nBabees Book, p. 15, ed. Furnivall, Early English Text Society.\\n/iad} -zvj s/.\\nWhen dede is doun hit ys to lat\\nbe ware of hady-wyst.\\nThe chief symbol which threads together these com-\\npounds is the preposition of, as will-d -the-wisp, cat-d -nine-\\ntails, man-of-war, lighi-d-love.\\nThe distinction between compounds and constructs is a\\ndehcate one, so much so that two persons of Hke birth and\\neducation may be found to differ upon it. When however\\nwe see the of abraded to d or when we hear it in speech,\\nas we often hear man-d-war, then there is no doubt of the\\ncompound state of that expression.\\nThis class of compounds is essentially French, and it is\\nfrom our neighbours that we have caught the art of making\\nthem. Thus, we say after them\\nmot-d ordre word-of-command\\npoint-d honneur point-of-honour\\nBut the instances in which we make use of it are far less\\nnumerous than those in which we keep to our natural com-\\npound, that of the first order. It is only necessary to offer\\na few examples by which it will appear how very far we are\\nfrom overtaking the French in the use of their compound\\nchef-d oeuvre master-piece\\nmaison-de-campagne country-house\\nchemin-de-fer rail-road\\nbonnet-de-nuit night-cap\\ntete-de-pavot poppy-head\\nculottes-de-peluche plush-breeches\\nBureau-de-Poste Post-OfEce", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0526.jp2"}, "527": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF THE THIRD ORDER. 515\\nAnd if we are slow to adopt their compounds with de,\\nstill less do we concern ourselves to imitate those which\\nthey so readily make with other prepositions as\\narc-en-ciel rain-bow\\nverre a vin wine-glass\\nmanche a balai broom-stick\\nSo strong is our preference for our own old hereditary\\ncompound, that even where we substantially adopt the ex-\\npression of a French compound, we alter it to the world-old\\nform, as in the case of coup-de-Bourse, which in the following\\nnewspaper-cutting is turned into\\nExchange-stroke,\\nSecretary Boutwell was in New York almost on the eve of the outbreak.\\nHe was aware, as indeed the whole city was, that a conspiracy was brewing\\nthat what we might call an Exchange stroke was contemplated.\\nThe transition from the construct to the compound state\\nis a slight and delicate thing, but it takes time to accomplish.\\nThe symbolic syntax has produced few as yet the flexional\\nsyntax has produced far more, for the compounds of the\\nsecond order have been greatly fostered by the study of\\nGreek. But the great shoal of Enghsh compounds is\\nderived from the eldest form of syntax, and they have their\\nroots in a time immeasurably old. They claim kindred with\\nRed-Indian compounds like Tso-?nec-cos-fee and Tso-me-cos-\\nte-won-dee and Pah-puk-kee na and Pah-Puk-Kee wis and\\nother such, of which the ready and popular repertory is the\\nSong of Hiawatha.\\nLl 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0527.jp2"}, "528": {"fulltext": "CHAPTER XII.\\nOF PROSODY, OR THE MUSICAL ELEMENT IN\\nSPEECH.\\nPoint not these mysteries to an Art\\nLodged above the starry pole\\nPure modulations flowing from the heart\\nOf divine Love, where Wisdom, Beauty, Truth,\\nWith Order dwell, in endless youth\\nWilliam Wordsworth, On the Power of Sound.\\nThe first of these chapters was on the Alphabet, out of\\nwhich, by a multiplicity of combinations, a conventional\\ngarb has been devised for the visible representation of lan-\\nguage. By the artifice of literature, speech is presented to\\nthe eye as an object of sight. Partly in consequence of\\nthe pains which we are at to acquire literary culture partly\\nalso, perhaps, in consequence of the greater permanency of\\nthe visual impressions upon the mind certain it is, that the\\ncultivated modern is apt to think of language rather as a\\nwritten than as a spoken thing. And this, although he still\\nmakes far greater use of it by the oral than by the literary\\nprocess. It is, however, quite plain that writing is but an\\nexternal and necessarily imperfect vesture, while the true\\nand natural and real form of language is that which is made\\nof sound, and addressed to the ear.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0528.jp2"}, "529": {"fulltext": "OF PROSODY. 517\\nHuman speech consists of two essential elements, and\\nthese are Voice and Meaning. I say meaning rather than\\nthought/ because it seems a more comprehensive term, in-\\ncluding the whole sphere of emotion, from its innermost and\\nleast explored centre to its outermost frontiers in physical\\nsensation.\\nVoice will, moreover, be found to consist of two parts,\\nby a distinction worthy to be observed. For, in the first\\nplace, there is the voice which is the necessary vehicle of\\nthe meaning; and, in the second place, there is the voice\\nwhich forms a harmonious accompaniment to the meaning.\\nIt is the former of these which is represented in literature\\nfor the latter literature is almost silent. Here the mechan-\\nical arts of writing and printing can do but little.\\nOne may put her words down, and remember them, but how describe\\nher sweet tones, sweeter than musick? W. M. Thackeray, E 7nond,\\nBk. ii. ch. XV.\\nPoetry, which is the highest form of literature, makes\\ngreat efforts to express this finest part of the voicing of\\nlanguage. All the peculiar characteristics of poetry, such\\nas verse, rhythm, metre, rhyme, alliteration, assonance, are\\ndirected towards this end. In prose this is only faintly and\\nremotely indicated by such means as punctuation and italics\\nand parentheses. But the distinction here drawn applies\\nto prose as well as to poetry. It is perfectly well known,\\nand generally recognised. It lies at the base of the demand\\nfor good reading. A man may articulate every word, pro-\\nnounce faultlessly, read fluently, and observe the punctuation,\\nand yet be far from a good reader. So much of voice as\\nis the vehicle of sense is given, but the harmony is wanting,\\nand there is no pleasure in Hstening to him. It is felt that,\\nbesides the sound which conveys the sense of the words,\\nthere is a further and a different kind of sound due as an", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0529.jp2"}, "530": {"fulltext": "5l8 OF PROSODY.\\nillustrative accompaniment, and it is the rendering of this\\nwhich crowns the performance of the good reader, as it is\\nthe perception of this which constitutes the appreciative\\nlistener.\\nOr again. Consider the sound of a passionless Oh as\\nit might be uttered by a schoolboy in a compulsory reading\\nlesson, and then consider the infinite shades of meaning of\\nwhich this interjection is capable under the emotional vibra-\\ntions of the voice, and we must acknowledge that the dis-\\ntinction between these two elements of vocal sound is of\\na character likely to be attended with philological con-\\nsequences.\\nOf sound as the necessary vehicle of speech, and as the\\npassive material of those phenomena which our science is\\nconcerned to investigate, we have already treated in the\\nfirst and second chapters. But of sound as bearing an ac-\\ncordant, concentive, illustrative part, as being an outer\\nharmony and counter-tenor to the strains of the inner\\nmeaning of sound as an illustrative, a formative, and\\nalmost a creative power in the region of language, we must\\nendeavour to render some account in this concluding chapter.\\nThe distinction here urged is akin to that which is me-\\nchanically effected by the musical instrument maker. A\\nmusical note on an instrument is a natural sound from\\nwhich another sort of sound, namely that which we call\\n7toise, has been eliminated. All mechanical collision pro-\\nduces sound, and that sound is ordinarily of a complex kind,\\nbeing in fact a noise with which a musical note is con-\\nfusedly blended. It is the work of art to contrive me-\\nchanical means whereby these two things may be parted, so\\nthat the musical notes which give pleasure may be placed\\nat the command of men. What he does physically, we may\\ndo mentally. We may separate in our minds between the", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0530.jp2"}, "531": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 519\\nmere brute sound necessary to speech, and that musical\\ntone which more or less blends with it according to the\\ntemper and quality of various voices. The latter is a sove-\\nreign agency in the illustration and formation and develop-\\nment of language, and this is the Sound of which the present\\nchapter treats.\\nI. Of Sound as an Illustrative Agency.\\nThe modulatory accompaniment of speech is not un-\\nworthy of comparison with music, although it is far more\\nrestricted in the range of its elevations and depressions. If\\nits ups and downs are altogether on a smaller scale, if its\\nmotions are more subdued and less brilliant, yet, on the other\\nhand, it has an advantage in the extent of its province.\\nMusic is the exponent of emotion only it cannot be said\\nto have any share in the expression or illustration of\\nthought intellectual. Now speech-tones are in force over\\nthe whole area of human cognisance and feeling they are\\ncoincident with the whole extent of meaning. They are\\nemphatically the illustration of meaning.\\nAs music is made of two elements, time and tune, so also\\nis the modulation of speech. Time is expressed in quantity\\nand tune, or rather tone (which is the rudiment of tune),\\nis embodied in accent. Our grammatical systems now take\\nlittle heed of quantity, except as a poetical regulator in\\nclassical literature. The poetry of the classics was measured\\nby quantity; that of the moderns is measured by accent.\\nThe period at which quantity was consciously and studiously\\nobserved as an element of ordinary speech, must have been\\nvery remote. Perhaps we may even venture speculatively", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0531.jp2"}, "532": {"fulltext": "530 OF PROSODY.\\nto regard quantity as the speech-note of that primitive period\\nbefore the rise of flexion, when language was (as it still is\\nin some respectable nations) syllabic or agglutinative. We\\nknow from a thousand experiences how conservative poetry\\nis, and we may reasonably imagine that the quantitive\\nmeasure of Greek poetry had descended with a continuous\\nstream of song from high antiquity. With the decay of the\\nRoman empire it ceased to be a regulative principle even\\nin poetry, and from that time accent has been foremost, as\\nit had previously been in the background. We must not\\nsuppose the principle of quantity to be extinct but it is no\\nlonger formulated it is absorbed into that general swelling\\nand flowing movement of language which is known under\\nthe somewhat vague name of rhythm.\\nLeaving quantity then, we proceed to consider the illus-\\ntrative value of accent.\\nIn the first place, accent appears as the ally and colleague\\nof sense in the structure of words. In the first order of\\ncompounds we have to do with words like the following\\nash-house, bake-house, brew-house, wood-house. In these\\nwords the accent is on the predicate. That is to say, the\\nstress of sound falls on that member of the word which\\nbears the burden of the meaning. That which is asserted\\nin those words is not house, but ash, bake, brew, wood.\\nHouse is the subject or thing spoken of, and that which is\\nasserted concerning it is contained in the word prefixed.\\nx\\\\nd this word or syllable is signalised, as with a flag, by\\nhaving the accent upon it.\\nThere is a diff erence between good 7nan and goodman.\\nThe difference in the sense ought to be rendered by a dis-\\ntinction in the sound. Good man is a spondee good-\\nman is a trochee. The latter means a man, not who is\\ngood (adjective), but a man who is master of the good (sub-", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0532.jp2"}, "533": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 5 21\\nstantive), i.e. of the household or property. Randle\\nCotgrave (16 11), under the word Maistre/ says, towards\\nthe close of his definition\\nA Iso, a title of honour {such as it is) belonging to all artificers, and\\ntradesmen; whence Maistre Pierre, Maistre Jehan, c. which we giue not\\nso generally, but qualifie ihe mea?ier sort of them (especially in countrey\\ntownes) with the title of Goodman {too good for many)\\nThis illustration is useful for the English reader towards\\nthe understanding of Matthew xx. 11\\nAnd when they had received it, they murmured against the goodman\\nof the house\\nwhich, in the Geneva Bible of 1560, is thus rendered\\nAnd when they had received it, they murmured against the master of\\nthe house.\\nIt is not always that we hear this word properly pro-\\nnounced in church; and our Bibles, from 16 11 down nearly\\nto our own time, appear to have printed it erroneously.\\nThe reprint of 161 1 itself has good man in two words.\\nThe handsome folio Baskerville of 1763 has it in the same\\nmanner. But in the modern prints of the last thirty years\\nthis has been set right, and it may be hoped that the true\\nvocal rendering will also be restored by and by.\\nThe fact is, the early printers did not attend to these\\nminutiae. As a rule they left such matters to the intelli-\\ngence of the reader. In the first folio of Shakspeare, Love s\\nLabour s Lost, i. i. 289, it is printed, He lay my head to any\\ngood mans hat, where, plainly, the meaning is goodman s\\nhat, as suggested in the Cambridge edition. And it is\\nastonishing to find that such a critic as Capell should have\\nproposed to correct as follows I ll lay my head to any\\nman s good hat, prosaically deeming that, for the purpose\\nof the wager, the goodness of the hat was of more import-\\nthan that of its wearer.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0533.jp2"}, "534": {"fulltext": "S22 OF PROSODY.\\nJust in the same manner chapman has the accent on the\\nfirst syllable. The meaning of this word is a man engaged\\nin chaffare, or merchandise. It is of the same family of\\nwords as Cheapside, which means market-side. It occurs in\\nanother form in Chippenham, Chipping Norton, and Copen-\\nhagen. It is still the standard word in German for a mer-\\nchant, ^aufmann. But when the French word had occupied\\nthe foremost place in English, the native word chapman fell\\ninto homelier use. This may be seen in the following\\nquotation, which exhibits also the accentuation of the word\\non its first or determinating syllable\\nBeauty is bought by iudgement of the eye,\\nNot uttred by base sale of chapmens tongues.\\nLoves Labours, Lost, ii. I. 15.\\nConsidering the relation of thought which exists between\\nthe two parts of a compound, it is plain that there is a har-\\nmony between the thought and the sound, when the first\\nor specific part of the compound is distinguished in the\\naccentuation. We have hitherto noticed only the instance\\nof a compound consisting of two monosyllabic words, as good-\\nmafi, blackbird. But where the first element of the compound\\nhas more than one syllable, there we find a secondary accent\\nrests upon the after, or generic part or, if it cannot be said\\nto have an accent, it recovers its full tone, as water-course,\\nor in Crabbe s expressions of Whitechapel-bred, lonely-wood.\\nHis, a lone house, by Deadman s dyke-way stood\\nAnd his, a nightly haunt, in Lonely-wood.\\nSometimes we fall in with a triple compound, with its\\nthree storeys or stages of accentuation forming a little\\ncascade of gradations, as Spenser s holy-water-sprinckle in\\nthe following lines\\nShe alway smyld, and in her hand did hold\\nAn holy-water-sprinckle, dipt in deowe,\\nWith which she sprinckled favours manifold.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0534.jp2"}, "535": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 523\\nThe habit of putting the specific or predicative part of\\na compound first, and the habit which leads us to throw our\\naccents back on the former part of a long word, are plainly\\nto be regarded as an example of harmonious action between\\nthe intelligence and the sentiency of the mind.\\nEven when the reasons arising from the structure of a\\nword are no longer present, there is a tendency to pursue\\nthe track which habit has created, and to throw the accent\\nback. Many a word of French origin has thrown its accent\\nback according to this English principle of accentuation.\\nHere we are able to give an illustration in which Shak-\\nspeare s spelling represents his pronunciation. One of the\\ndifficulties of dealing with the whole subject of sound in\\nlanguage arises from the imperfections of orthography.\\nSpelling is so traditional, and gives us so little information\\nof the shades of pronunciation, that when we do get a\\nlittle light from this niggard source, we may value it the\\nmore highly. In Richard II. we have the word revenues,\\nand the larger number of the early prints spell it with nn.\\nBut some even of the quartos spell it with a single n ac-\\ncording to the modern pronunciation. And if we look at\\nthe line we find that the modern pronunciation is that which\\nreads most smoothly. So that it appears as if the diversity\\nof spelling in this place was due to a conflict between the\\nFrench and English manner of pronouncing the word.\\nTowards our assistance, we do seize to us\\nThe plate, coine, reuennewes, and moueables,\\nWhereof our Uncle Gaunt did stand possest.\\nRichard ii. i. 161.\\nMany a word has had its accent moved a syllable further\\nback within the period of the last generation. The protest\\nof the poet Rogers has often been quoted, ^Contemplate,", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0535.jp2"}, "536": {"fulltext": "534 Oi^ PROSODF.\\nsaid he, is bad enough, but hdlcony makes me sick. Now-\\na-days contemplate is the usual pronunciation. It was already\\nso accented by Wordsworth.\\nThe good and evil are our own and we\\nAre that which we would contemplate from far.\\nThe Excursion, Bk. v.\\nThe elder pronunciation is indeed still used in poetry, as\\nWhen I contemplate all alone. In Memoriam, Ixxxii.\\nContemplating her own unworthiness.\\nEnid (1859), P- 29-\\nThe pronunciation of balcony^ which seemed such an\\nabomination to Rogers, is now the only pronunciation that\\nis extant. The modern reader oi John Gilpin^ if he reads\\nwith his ear as well as his eye, is absolutely taken aback\\nwhen he comes upon balcony in the following verse\\nAt Edmonton, his loving wife\\nFrom the balcony spied\\nHer tender husband, wondering much\\nTo see how he did ride.\\nWe often find the Americans outrunning us in our\\nnational tendencies. There are many instances in which\\nthey have thrown the accent back one syllable further than\\nis usual in the old country. When we speak of St. Augus-\\ntine, we put the accent on the second syllable, and we have\\nno idea of any other pronunciation. But in the following\\nverse by Longfellow we have the name accented on the first\\nsyllable.\\nSaint Augustine well hast thou said,\\nThat of our vices we can frame\\nA ladder, if we will but tread\\nBeneath our feet each deed of shame\\nIn the same way they say invalid, partisan, not for the\\nancient weapon pertuisan, but for the more familiar word", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0536.jp2"}, "537": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. ^2^\\nand I am informed by Mr. Fraser that they also pronounce\\nresources in a manner that would suggest the union of the\\nFrench spelling of the word ressources, with the English\\ntrisyllabic pronunciation.\\nAnd here it may be noticed that there is to be found in\\nEnglish country places an excess of clustering words together\\nin pronunciation, beyond anything that is acknowledged in\\nthe standard language. I often find it hard to understand\\nthe name of a rustic child, because the child utters Christian\\nand surname together as one word. One little girl I well\\nremember how she puzzled me by repeatedly telling me she\\nwas called An ook. I had to make further enquiries before\\nI learnt that this represented Ann Hook.\\nThe following instance is not the less to our purpose,\\nbecause it is borrowed from fiction. I can myself confirm\\nits fidelity. It is useful here, and it adds this circumstance,\\nthat the peculiar pronunciation is not from rustic lips, but\\ncomes from a lady\\nHowever, Miss Max had adopted Jameskennet (she always said the\\nname as one word), and he had been a great comfort to them all. L.\\nKnatchbull-Hugessen, The Affirmative (Macmillan s Magazine, May, 1 8 70).\\nHitherto we have been chiefly concerned with that inter-\\npretative power of sound which we call accent. We must\\nnow distinguish between accent and emphasis.\\nAccent is that elevation of the voice which distinguishes\\none part of a word from another, as in the compounds\\nexemplified above.\\nEmphasis is the distinction made between one word and\\nanother, by the note or tone of its utterance.\\nAnd this may happen in two ways, either grammatically\\nor rhetorically. The grammatical emphasis rests upon such\\n1 Not yet Bishop of Manchester when these pages were written.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0537.jp2"}, "538": {"fulltext": "526 OF PROSODY.\\npoints as the following. There are certain words which are\\nnaturally unaccented, and in a general way it may be said\\nthat the symbolic words are so. It is the province of\\ngrammar to teach us what words are symbolic and what\\npresentive. Grammar teaches, for instance, when the word\\none is a numeral, and when it is an indefinite pronoun. In\\nthe former case it is uttered with as full a note as any other\\nmonosyllable but in the latter case it is toneless and enclitic.\\nIt can hardly be a good line wherein this word, standing as\\nan indefinite pronoun, receives the ictus of the metre, as in\\nthe following\\nWhere one might fancy that the angels rest.\\nHe would be an ingenious man who should devise a\\nsentence in which this word ought to bear the accent.\\nA wTiter in the Christian Remembrancer for January, 1866,\\nundertook to shew that almost any word may be so placed\\nas to be the bearer of emphasis. In proof of this he devised\\nan hexameter in which a and the are emphasized\\nA man might have come in, but the man certainly never,\\nThus a rhetorical emphasis can be contrived for most\\nwords. You can emphasize any word to which you can\\noppose a true antithesis. To the word one you can oppose\\nin some instances the word two, or any other number. And\\nthus one may be emphasized, as\\nI asked for one, you gave me two.\\nIn other cases the word none would be a natural antithesis\\nto one. But when we use the word one in the sense of the\\nFrench pronoun on, it is incapable of antithesis, and\\ntherefore it cannot carry emphasis. These being gram-\\nmatical distinctions, we call the emphasis which is based\\nupon them the grammatical emphasis.\\nTo give another example. It belongs to grammar to", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0538.jp2"}, "539": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 527\\ndirect the attention towards the antecedent referred to by\\nany pronoun; and according as that antecedent is under-\\nstood the pronoun will or will not carry emphasis.\\nIn Psalm vii. 14, the word kim admits of two render-\\nings according to the antecedent which it is supposed to\\nrepresent,\\n13 If a man will not turn, he will whet his sword he hath bent his\\nbow and made it ready.\\n14 He hath prepared for him the instruments of death he ordaineth\\nhis arrows against the persecutors.\\nWe sometimes hear it read as if it were a reflexive pro-\\nnoun, such as would be represented in Latin by sz dz] in\\nwhich case it is toneless. But if the reference be, as it is\\ngenerally understood, to the man who will not turn/ spoken\\nof in the preceding verse, then the reader ought to express\\nthis by an emphatic utterance of the word h m, such as shall\\nmake it apparent that it is equivalent to/br thai man. This\\nis again an emphasis which is used to mark a grammatical\\ndistinction. But when words grammatically identical are\\nexposed to variations of emphasis, this is due to the exigencies\\nof the argument, and we call such emphasis rhetorical.\\nThis happens in the following passage with the pronoun\\nsome\\nVery likely to some phenomena there is, as yet, no explanation. Per-\\nhaps Newton himself could not explain quite to his own satisfaction why he\\nwas haunted at midnight by the spectrum of a sun though I have no doubt\\nthat some later philosopher, whose ingenuity has been stimulated by New-\\nton s account, has by this time suggested a rational solution of that enigma.\\nLord Lytton.\\nThe natural tone of symbolic words is low came^ 1 saw,\\nI conquered. No one would emphasize the pronouns here.\\nThe same may be observed of the pronouns in the following\\nquotation\\nI went by, and lo, he was gone I sought him, but his place could no\\nwhere be found. Psalm xxxvii. 37.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0539.jp2"}, "540": {"fulltext": "528 OF PROSODY.\\nBut words of this rank may receive the rhetorical em-\\nphasis. The reply of Sir Robert Peel to Cobbett makes a\\ngood illustration\\nWhy does the hon. Member attack mef I have done nothing to merit\\nhis assaults, never lent him a thousand pounds.\\nHere the pronouns are emphasized, because there is an\\nallusion to Mr. Burdett, who had lent Cobbett a thousand\\npounds, and had been rewarded with scurrility. At the\\nclose of the Night Thoughts we have this line,\\nThe course of nature is the art of God.*\\nHere it will be perceived that the symbol-verb comes in for some\\nemphasis, receiving as it does the ictus of the metre though\\nthis little word is naturally toneless. The emphasis which it\\nhere carries awakens the remembrance of the fact that there\\nare philosophers in the world who would question the state-\\nment. W-e may show ourselves that this is the case by play-\\ning a variety or two upon the phrase. If we say thus, the\\ncourse of nature is changeful, the symbol- verb does its duty\\nin the most unobtrusive manner. If now we contrive to\\nforce the is into prominence, we shall convert a proposition\\nwhich, as it stands, is a very inoffensive truism, into a ludi-\\ncrous dictum emphasizing a statement which nobody denies.\\nAnd this may be done by expressing that truism in the\\nform of a heroic line, with the stroke of the metre upon\\nthe symbol verb.\\nThe course of nature is a course of change.\\nThe elevation given to the word is produces the effect of\\nleaving one to expect a pointed assertion in the predicate,\\nand the disappointment of this expectation produces the\\npalpable bathos.\\nEmphasis, then, is a distinct thing from accent. The latter\\nis an elevation of a syllable above the rest of the word the\\ni", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0540.jp2"}, "541": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 529\\nformer is the elevation of a word over the rest of a phrase.\\nBut it should be noticed that, while there is this difference of\\nrelation between emphasis and accent, there is, on the other\\nhand, an identity of incidence. The emphasis rests on the\\nselfsame point as does the accent. We say indeed that the\\nemphasis is on such and such a word, because by it one\\nword is distinguished above all other words in the phrase.\\nBut the precise place of the emphasis is there where the\\naccent is, in all words that have an accent; that is to say, in\\nall words that have more than one syllable. In the case of\\na polysyllable, which has more than one accented syllable,\\nthe emphasis falls on the syllable that has the higher tone.\\nAn accented word is emphasized by the intensification of its\\nchief accent.\\nIn Acts xvii. 28, for we are also his offspring, there is no\\ndoubt that the emphatic word is offspring. The Greek\\ntells us so explicitly, by prefixing to this word a particle,\\nwhich is in our version ill rendered by also. A reader\\nwho enters into the spirit of the reasoning in this place, will\\nvery markedly distinguish the word offspring. And he will\\ndo so by sharpening the acuteness of that accent which\\nalready raises the first syllable above the second.\\nThere is a well-known line in the opening of the Satires\\nof Juvenal, which the greatest of translators has thus rendered,\\nand thus emphasized by capitals\\nHear, always hear nor once the debt repay\\nIn this instance of a disyllabic emphasized, the rhetorical\\nemphasis rests on that syllable which had the accent, while\\nthe word was in its private capacity. In fact, emphasis is\\na sort of public accent, which is incident to a word in regard\\nof its external and social relations.\\nWhere a polysyllable, like elementary, has two accents, the", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0541.jp2"}, "542": {"fulltext": "S3^ OF PROSODY.\\nemphasis heightens the tone of that which is already the\\nhigher. In a sentence like this, I was not speaking of\\ngrammar schools, but of elementary schools, the rhetorical\\nemphasis falling on ekmen/arj, will heighten the tone of the\\nthird syllable.\\nIn all this there is no change of quantity, no lengthening\\nof the syllable so affected by accent and emphasis together.\\nIt is true, we often hear such a syllable very sensibly length-\\nened, as thus I beg leave once more to repeat, that I was\\nspeaking only of ele-ma-entary schools. The syllable is\\nisolated and elongated very markedly, but then this is some-\\nthing more than emphasis, it is stress.\\nIn living languages, accent and emphasis are unwritten.\\nThe so-called French accents have nothing whatever to do\\nwith the accentuation of the language, but belong solely to\\nits etymology and orthography. In Greek, as transmitted to\\nus, the accents are written, but they were an invention of\\nthe grammarians of Alexandria. In the Hebrew Bible, not\\nonly are the accents written, but likewise the emphasis;\\nthese signs are, however, no part of the original text, but a\\nscholastic notation of later times.\\nWritten accents are very useful as historical guides to a\\npronunciation that might be lost without them. But for the\\npresent and living exercise of a living language they are\\nundesirable. All writing tends to become traditional, and\\ncharacters once established are apt to survive their significa-\\ntion. Had our language been accentuated in the early\\nprinted books, we should have had in them a treasure of\\ninformation indeed, but it would have been misleading in\\nmodern times, and probably it would have cramped the\\nnatural development of the language. For example, we\\nnow say wMtso and whoso, but in early times it was whatso\\nand whoso. This change is in natural and harmonious keep-\\n1", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0542.jp2"}, "543": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 53 1\\ning with the changes that have taken place in the relative\\nvalues and functions of the words entering into these com-\\npounds, as already explained above, p. 404. Here, there-\\nfore, we see the accent still true to its office as an interpreter\\nand illustrator. An instance of the old emphasis on so\\noccurs in The Faerie Queene, iii. 2. 7\\nBy sea, by land, where so they may be matt.\\nBut, while we make no attempt to write accent, we may\\nbe said to attempt some partial and indirect tokens of em-\\nphasis by means of our system of punctuation. It is, how-\\never, in our old Saxon literature that we find emphasis in the\\nmost remarkable manner signalised. The alliteration of the\\nSaxon poetry not only gratified the ear with a resonance\\nlike that of modern rhyme, but it ^Iso had the rhetorical\\nadvantage of touching the emphatic words falling as it did\\non the natural summits of the construction, and tinging them\\nwith the brilliance of a musical reverberation.\\nThe most convenient illustration we can offer of the Saxon\\nalliteration will perhaps be obtained by selecting from the\\nSong of the Fight of Maiden, such staves as have retained\\ntheir alliteration in Mr. Freeman s version, in Old English\\nHistory for Children\\nEac him wolde Eadric Eke to him would Eadric\\nhis ealdre gelsestan. his Elder serve.\\nlucon lagu-streamas Locked them the lake-streams\\nto lang hit him ])uhte. too long it them thought.\\nwigan wigheardne, A warman hard in war\\nse waes haten Wulfstan. he hight Wulfstan.\\nWodon ]ja wael-wulfas, Waded then the slaughter-wolves,\\nfor waetere ne murnon. for water they mourned not,\\nbogan waeron bysige, Bows were busy,\\nbord ord onfeng. boards the point received.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0543.jp2"}, "544": {"fulltext": "532 OF PROSODY.\\nhe sceaf a mid am scylde, He shoved then with his shield,\\naet se sceaft to baerst. that the shaft burst.\\nWiga wintrum geong, Warrior of winters young,\\nwordum maelde. with words spake.\\nhale to hame, Hale to home,\\no SSe on here cringan. or in the host cringe.\\nmod sceal ])e mare, Mood shall the more be,\\n])e ure maegen lytlaS. as our main lessens.*\\nHad we continued to be isolated from the Romanesque\\ninfluence, like the people of Iceland, we might have de-\\nveloped this form of poetry into something of the luxuriance\\nand precision which it has in Icelandic literature, as may be\\nseen in the Preface to Mr. Magnusson s Lilja, 1870.\\nSince we have adopted the French principles of poetry,\\nalliteration has retired into the background. As late as the\\nfourteenth century we find it pretty equally matched as a\\nrival with the iambic couplet in rhyme; but within that\\ncentury the victory of the latter was assured. By Shaks-\\npeare s time alliteration was spoken of contemptuously,\\nas if it had reached the stage of senility. The pedantic\\nHolofernes says he will affect the letter, that is to say,\\ncompose verses with alliteration.\\nHoi. I will something affect the letter, for it argues facilitie.\\nThe prayfull Princesse pearst and prickt a prettie pleasing Pricket,\\nSome say a Sore, but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting.\\nLoves Labours Lost, iv. 2.\\nBut however much it had come to be despised, it has not-\\nwithstanding managed to retain a certain position in our\\npoetry. Alliteration s artful aid is still found to be a real\\nauxiliary to the poet, which, sparingly and unobtrusively\\nused, has often an artistic effect, though its agency may be\\nunnoticed. Shakspeare himself provides us with some very\\npretty instances of alliteration.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0544.jp2"}, "545": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY. 533\\nIf what in rest you haue, in right you hold.\\nKing John, iv. 2. 55.\\nFear d by their breed, and famous by their birth.\\nKing Richard II. ii, i. 52.\\nAnd sigh d my English breath in forraine Clouds,\\nEating the bitter bread of banishment\\nWhile you haue fed upon my Seignories,\\nDis-park d my Parkes, and fell d my Forrest Woods.\\nId. iii. I. 20.\\nOne of the boldest poets in its use is Spenser, as\\nMuch daunted with that dint her sense was daz d.\\n*Add faith unto your force, and be not faint.\\nHis gall did grate for griefe and high disdaine.\\nSober he seemde, and very sagely sad.\\nThe Faerie Queene, i. i, 18, 19, 29.\\nIn Blew Cap for Me, a ballad of the time of James I, is this\\ngood alliterative line\\nA haughty high German of Hamborough towne.\\nIn Paradise Regained we have the following\\nYet held it more humane, more heavenly, first\\nBy winning words to conquer willing hearts. i. 221,\\n*A table richly spread in regal mode. ii. 339.\\nWeepe no more, wofuU shepherds, weepe no more.\\nLycidas.\\nThe French came foremost, battailous and bold.\\nFairfax, Tasso, i. 37.\\nTalk with such toss and saunter with such swing.\\nCrabbe, Parish Register, Part II.\\nThe ploughman homeward plods his weary way.\\nGray, Elegy.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0545.jp2"}, "546": {"fulltext": "534\\nOF PROSODY,\\nA very good example, and one which, from the coin-\\ncidence of the emphasis with the alliteration, recalls the\\nancient models, is this from Cowper s Garden\\nHe settles next upon the sloping mount,\\nWhose sharp declivity shoots off secure\\nFrom the dash d pane the deluge as it falls.\\nThe Christian Year affords some very graceful examples.\\nOn Palm Sunday we read\\nYe whose hearts are beating high\\nWith the pulse of Poesy.\\nBy whose strength ye sweep the string.\\nThat thine angels harps may ne er\\nFail to find fit echoing here.\\nThe ancient taste for alliteration has produced some per-\\nmanent effects on the stock phraseology of the language.\\nIt is doubtless the old poetic sound that has guaranteed\\nagainst the ravages of time such conventional couplings as\\nthese\\nCark and care.\\nRhyme and reason.\\nWeal and woe.\\nWise and wary, (Cf. Chaucer, ProZo^z/e, 1. 312.)\\nWit and wisdom.\\nAnd to the same cause I would attribute the preservation of\\nthe old word sooth in the phrase sooth to say. Except in the\\nzQim^^ovccidi forsooth^ the word sooth is otherwise quite unused.\\nA little attention would soon discover a great many other\\ninstances, showing how dear to humanity is the very jingle\\nof his speech, and how he loves, even in his riper age, to keep\\nup a sort of phantom of that harmony which in his infancy\\nblended sound and sense in one indistinguishable chime.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0546.jp2"}, "547": {"fulltext": "SOU^ D AS AN ILLUSTRATIVE AGENCY.\\nThe various kinds of by-play in poetry, such as alliteration,\\nrhyme, and assonance, seem all to harmonise with the ac-\\ncentuation. While alliteration belongs naturally to a lan-\\nguage which tends to throw its accent as far back as possible\\ntowards the beginning of the word, rhyme and assonance\\nsuit those which lean rather towards a terminal accentuation.\\nHence alliteration is the domestic artifice of the Gothic\\npoetry, as rhyme and assonance are of the Romanesque.\\nRhyme has indeed won its way, not only in England, but\\nin nearly all the other seats of Gothic dialects; still it is\\nin the Romance literatures that we must observe it, if we\\nwould see it in the full swing, which is possible only in its\\nnative element.\\nLet us conclude this section with an observation of a more\\ncomprehensive kind than any which has yet been made in\\nregard to the illustrative energies of sound.\\nA rich and various modulation is the correlative of a\\nrichly variable collocation in matter of syntax. One illus-\\ntration of this may be gathered from the fact that all lan-\\nguages use greater freedom of collocation in poetry than in\\nprose that is to say, in the more highly modulated literature\\nthe freedom of displacement is greater. Anything like the\\nfollowing would be simply impossible in English prose\\nWho meanes no guile be guiled soonest shall.\\nThe Faerie Queene, iii. I. 54.\\nAnother manifest illustration of the same lies in the fact\\nthat it is in the most musical languages we meet with the\\nextremest liberty of collocation. How strangely variable was\\nthe collocation of the classical languages, is pretty well\\nknown to all of us, whose education consisted largely in\\nconstruing Greek and Latin, that is to say, in bringing\\ntogether from the most distant parts of the sentence the", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0547.jp2"}, "548": {"fulltext": "53^ OF PROSODY.\\nwords that belonged to one another functionally. If we\\nhave in English less of such violent and apparently arbitrary\\ndisplacements, it should be remembered that we also have\\nless of musical animation to render justice withal to the\\nsignification of such displacements. And further, if the\\nmodern languages generally have less variation of arrange-\\nment than the ancient classics had, it is supposed that\\neven the most musical of the modern languages are less\\nmusical than were the Greek and Latin. But in this\\nsovereign quality of music, a language is not doomed\\nto be stationary. There is such a thing as progress in\\nthis no less than in syntax. And as an argument that\\nmusical progress has been made in EngUsh, we have only to\\nreflect how modern is the public sense of modulation, and\\nthe general demand that is made for good reading. All\\nthings are double over against one another and the demand\\nfor well-modulated reading is one indication that the power\\nand range of modulation is progressing. And with this\\nmodulatory progress there is certainly a collocatory progress\\nafoot. The proofs are not perhaps very conspicuous, but\\nmey are visible to those who look for them, demonstrating\\nthat a greater elasticity and freedom of displacement (so to\\nspeak) are being acquired by the English language.\\n11. Of Sound as a Formative Agency.\\nWe now proceed to consider sound as a power which\\naffects the forms of words. The attention must be directed\\nto the accentuation and its consequences.\\nI. The simplest instance is where the accent has a con-\\nservative effect upon the accented syllable, while the unac-\\ncented syllable gradually shrinks or decays. Thus, in the word", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0548.jp2"}, "549": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS A FORMATIVE AGENCY. 537\\ngoodwife the accented syllable was preserved in its entirety,\\nwhile the second syllable shrank up into such littleness as\\nwe are familiar with in the form goody. This is a plain\\nexample of a transformation conditioned by the incidence\\nof sound.\\nIn American literature the word grandsire has assumed\\nthe form of grandsir from the same cause. The accented\\nsyllable remains complete, while the unaccented dwindles.\\nThe following quotation will be sufficient to establish the\\nfact\\nViewing their townsman in this aspect, the people revoked the courteous\\ndoctorate with which they had heretofore decorated him, and now knew\\nhim most famiharly as Grandsir DoUiver. All the younger portion\\nof the inhabitants unconsciously ascribed a sort of aged immortality to\\nGrandsir DoUiver s infirm and reverend presence. Nathaniel Hawthorne.\\nThe way in which the accent has wrought in determining\\nthe transformation of words from Latin into French, has\\nbeen briefly and eff ectively shewn by M. Auguste Brachet,\\nin his Historical Grammar of the French Tongue. The\\nunaccented parts have often lost their distinct syllabi-\\nfication, while the syllable accented in Latin has almost\\nbecome the whole word in French. Thus\\nLatin. French.\\nangelus\\nange\\ncomputum\\ncompte\\ndebitum\\ndette\\ndecima\\ndime\\nporticus\\nporche\\nMr.\\nKitchin s Translation, p. 33 sqq.\\nThis is but a small part of the case as there expounded,\\nand the student should by all means go to the book itself,\\nand master this portion, for this is the marrow of philology.\\nA good example is afforded by the modern Greek nega-\\ntive. The negative in modern Greek is 5eV, and this is an", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0549.jp2"}, "550": {"fulltext": "53^ OF PROSODY.\\nabbreviation from the classical Greek ovdcv. A person who\\nlooked at ovdev might be inclined to say that the essential\\npower of that negative is stored up in the first syllable, while\\nthe second is a mere ^expletive or appendage. From this\\npoint of view it would be inconceivable how the first part\\nshould perish and the second remain. But if we consider\\nthat the first is the elder part, and that the second was added\\nfor the sake of emphasis, it is plain that the second part\\nwould carry the accent, as indeed the traditional notation\\nrepresents it.\\nThis eff ect of the accent must be particularly attended to,\\nas presenting, perhaps, the best of all keys for explaining\\nthe transformations which take place in language. Were\\nwe to disregard the influence of the laws of sound, and\\nimagine that sense was the only thing to be taken into con-\\nsideration, we should often be at a loss to understand why\\nthe most sense-bearing syllables have decayed, while the\\nless significant ones have retained their integrity. The\\nnational and characteristic Scottish word u7tco is an instance.\\nIt is composed of un and coufh, the ancient participle of the\\n^\u00e2\u0080\u00a2erb ciinnan, to know. So that uncouth meant unknown,\\nunheard-of, and consequently strange. In England the\\nword has retained its original form, because the accent is on\\nthe second syllable; but in Scotland, the accent having\\nbeen placed on the first, and the word having been much\\nused in such a manner as to intensify the accent by em-\\nphasis, the second syllable has shrunk up to the condition\\nwhich is so familiar to the admirers of Scottish literature.\\n2. So far we have been considering the formative effect of\\naccent in its simplest instances, those namely where the\\naccented syllable retains its integrity, while the unaccented\\nseems to wither, as it wxre, by neglect. But we must now\\nproceed to a somewhat more complicated phenomenon.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0550.jp2"}, "551": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS A FORMATIVE AGENCY. 539\\nThe accent does not always prove so conservative in its\\noperation. It is like wind to fire a moderate current of air\\nwill keep the fire steadily burning, but if the air be applied\\nin excess, it will destroy the flame which before it preserved.\\nSo with the accent; if it be highly intensified it will not\\nconserve, but rather work an alteration in the syllable to\\nwhich it is applied.\\nA familiar instance of the eff ect of an accent in altering\\nthe form of a syllable may be seen in the word woman.\\nThis word is compounded of wife and man, and the change\\nwhich has taken place in the first syllable exhibits the altering\\neffect of an intense accent.\\nThe same thing may be observed in the word gospel.\\nThis word is composed of good and spel but the first syl-\\nlable has been reduced to its present proportion by cor-\\nreption, if we may revive the very happy Latin term by\\nwhich a shortened syllable was said to be seized or snatched.\\nWhen we seek the cause why accent should have operated\\nin manners so opposite, we shall probably find that the\\ndiversity of result is due to a difference of situation in the\\nusual employment of a given word. A word, for instance,\\nwhose lot it was to be often emphasized would naturally be\\nthe more liable to correption of its accented syllable.\\n3. As we have seen that each of the syllables of a di-\\nsyllabic word may be in different manners affected by the\\naccent, so we may next observe that both of these changes\\nmay sometimes be found in one and the same word.\\nThe word housewife is often pronounced huz if and this\\npronunciation is the traditional one. The full pronunciation\\nof all the letters in housewife is not produced by the natural\\naction of the mother tongue, but by literary education.\\nRegarding huz if then, as the natural and spontaneous\\nutterance of housewife^ we see that both syllables have", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0551.jp2"}, "552": {"fulltext": "540 OF PROSODY.\\nsuffered alteration. The condition of the second syllable\\nis accounted for by the absence of the accent; while the\\nfirst syllable has suffered from an opposite cause. There\\nit has been the intensification of the accent that has occa-\\nsioned the change. And when, through the beat of metre,\\nthe accent becomes emphasis, we sometimes find the first\\nsyllable spelt with correption.\\nIn Milton s Co?nus, 1. 751, this occurs:\\nBeauty is Nature s brag, and must be shown\\nIn Courts, at Feasts, and high Solemnities,\\nWhere most may wonder at the workmanship\\nIt is for homely features to keep home,\\nThey had their name thence coarse complexions\\nAnd cheeks of sorry grain will serve to ply\\nThe sampler, and to teize the huswives wooll.\\n(Ed. Tonson, 1 7 25.)\\nThe name of Shakspeare, it is well known, appears with\\nmany variations of orthography. The most curious perhaps\\nof all its forms is that of Shaxper which exhibits both of\\nthe phenomena that we are now considering. In Shaxper\\nwe see that each of the two syllables is shrunken, but from\\nopposite causes. The first syllable is compressed by the,\\nintensifying power of the accent, while the second syllable\\nis impaired by reason of the languor of an enclitic position.\\nThese changes, which thus result from accentuation, are\\nsometimes seen to carry with them interesting phonetic ac-\\ncompaniments. Standish is the name of a place in Glouces-\\ntershire, but it is better known as a man s name in the poetry\\nof Longfellow. This word is an altered form of Stonehouse,\\nor rather of that word in its ancient shape of Stanhus. Here\\nthe accented syllable has drawn a d on to it, and the languid\\nsyllable an h. The former is but an instance of a well-\\nThis form is found with the date of 1579. Shakespeareana Genealogica,\\ncompiled by George Russell French. 1869.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0552.jp2"}, "553": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS A FORMATIVE AGENCY. 54I\\nknown phonetic affinity which in various languages has so\\noften produced the combination nd. But that the kzis should\\nhave lapsed into zsk is something more particularly English,\\nand belongs to the same class of tendencies by which that\\nsound has often risen among us both out of Saxon and out\\nof French materials.\\nA great number of transformations which are a stock\\nitem of astonishment with us, are only to be accounted for\\nby the consideration of accentual conditions. Such are\\nCiceter for Cirencester; Yenion for Erdington; Ransom for\\nRampisham (Dorset) Posset for Portishead, c. So Clat-\\nfordtun has become Claverton Cunacaleah is Conkweil,\\nc. The scene of the following quotation is laid in the\\ntime of Queen Anne\\nCandish, Chumley.\\nWhy should we say goold and write gold, and call china chayny, and\\nCavendish Candish, and Cholmondeley Chumley W. M. Thackeray,\\nEsmond, Bk. III. ch. iii.\\nHere may be noticed such a familiar formula as Good dye,\\nwhich has come out of God be with ye.\\nBut there are effects traceable to accent, which are of\\na more deep-seated and comprehensive character. It is to\\naccent that we must attribute the rise of flexion, in the great\\nbulk of the phenomena included under that name. Flexion\\nis the result of the adhesion of low-toned words to those\\nwhich are higher toned, to words rendered eminent and\\nattractive by a superiority of accent. Thus, if the word ibo\\nresolves itself into three words answering to the three letters\\nof which the word is now composed, and if these three\\nwords stood once free of each other in this order go will i,\\nit was because of the accentual pre-eminence of go that the\\nother two words first of all began to lean enclitically on it,\\nand at length were absorbed into unity with it.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0553.jp2"}, "554": {"fulltext": "542 OF PROSODY.\\nAnd as the action of sound is a matter of great conse-\\nquence in the shaping of words, so also we may detect a\\nlike power working to effect transpositions in phraseology.\\nWhy do people often say bred and born instead of born\\nand bred/ except that they like the sound of it better?\\nThere is in most newspapers a quarter which is thus headed\\nBirths, Marriages, and Deaths. But in conversation it\\nis hardly ever quoted in this form. The estabHshed col-\\nloquial form of the phrase is this Births, Deaths and\\nMarriages. Now it is plain that the latter does violence\\nto the natural order of things, to which the printed formula\\nadheres. Whence then has this inconsequence arisen?\\nSolely, as it seems, from the fact that the less reasonable\\norder offers the more agreeable cadence to the ear.\\nIII. Of Sound as an Instinctive Object of\\nAttraction.\\nOur path leads us more and more away from the con-\\nscious action of man in the development of speech, to mark\\nhow the sentient and instinctive tendencies of his nature\\nclaim their part in the great result. There is observable\\na certain drawing towards a fitness of sound that is to say,\\nthe speaker of every stage and grade strives after such an\\nexpression as shall erect his language into a sort of music\\nto his own ear. And this is reached when harmony is\\nestablished between the meaning and the sound; that is\\nto say, when the sound strikes the ear as a becoming repre-\\nsentative of the thought. It is a first necessity in language,\\nthat it should gratify the ear of the speaker.\\nAs the savage and the civilised man have different stand-\\nards of music, so have they different standards of what is", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0554.jp2"}, "555": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 543\\nharmonious in their speech. The civilised nations are con-\\nverging towards an agreement on both these heads but\\nthey will sooner be at one on the matter of music than they\\nwill on the modulation of speech. In the very elements\\nof the melody of language, namely the tones which are\\nproper to the several vowels, there is an hereditary differ-\\nence which, though of the most delicate and subtle kind,\\nyet produces by combination great divergences in the\\nmodulation of speech. Each separate nation has in fact\\na vowel-gamut of its own.\\nThe following paragraph, which is borrowed from the\\nAcademy (December, 1870), gives the results of some minute\\ninvestigations which have recently been made in the gamut\\nof the North German dialect\\nThe Nature of Vowel-Sounds. A discovery announced in the Comptes\\nrendiis for the 25th of last April, by Rudolf Koenig, the well-known maker\\nof acoustical apparatus, seems likely to have an important bearing on some\\npoints of philology. It is known that Helmholtz has shown that the dis-\\ntinctive character of the vowel-sounds is due to fixed tones characteristic of\\neach, and that he has investigated the pitch of the tones proper to the dif-\\nferent vowels, by examining the resonance of the cavity of the mouth, when\\nadjusted for whispering them, by means of vibrating tuning-forks held near\\nthe opening of the lips. In this way he arrived at the following results\\nVowel U O A E I\\nCharacteristic tone h 6\u00c2\u00bbb d\\\\^\\nKoenig, on repeating Helmholtz s experiments with more complete ap-\\nparatus, has entirely confirmed his general result, but has arrived at slightly\\ndifferent conclusions as to the characteristic tones of the vowels U and I,\\nwhich he finds are respectively lower and higher octaves of the tones of the\\nintermediate vowels. For the North German pronunciation (to which\\nHelmholtz s results also refer) the vowels are accordingly characterised as\\nfollows\\nVowel U O A E I\\nCharacteristic tone b\\\\) h^\\\\) 6 b b ^^^lJ\\nSimple vibrations per) o h,^\u00c2\u00ab\u00c2\u00ab\\nsLnd {approximate)] 9\u00c2\u00b0\u00c2\u00b0 ^S\u00c2\u00b0\u00c2\u00b0 3^00 7200\\nAs Koenig points out, it is more than probable that the physiological reason\\nof the occurrence of nearly the same five vowels in different languages, is to", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0555.jp2"}, "556": {"fulltext": "544 OF PROSODY.\\nbe sought for in the simplicity of these ratios, just as the simplicity of the\\nratios of the musical intervals explains the adoption of the same intervals by\\nmost nations.\\nIn consonants there is a great difference as regards\\nnational standards of taste. The Gothic ear enjoys a pre-\\ncipitous consonantism, while the Roman family prefers a\\nsmooth and gentle one. And as a natural consequence of\\nthis difference, we, when we were most Gothic, could endure\\nan abruptness of consonants which now that we have been\\nFrenchified in our tastes, is displeasing to our national ear.\\nThus, we now count it vulgar to say ax, and yet this\\nsound was quite acceptable to the most cultivated Saxon.\\nWe have transposed the consonants, and instead of ks we\\nsay sk instead of ax we say ask and we prefer tusks to\\nthe Saxon tuxas. In like manner, we now say grass, cress,\\nwhere the elder forms were gcers, ccErs. Reversely, however,\\nwe say bird, third, cart, in preference to the elder forms\\nbrid, thridde^ crcEt. There is observable at different eras in\\nthe language of a nation a certain revolution of taste in\\nregard to sounds; and this exhibits itself in modifications\\nof the vowel-system, and in conversions or transposi-\\ntions of old established consonantisms. It is not possible\\n(apparently) to reduce such cases to any other principle than\\nthis, that it has pleased the national ear it should be so.\\nThis national taste is inherited so early, and rooted so\\ndeep in the individual, that it becomes part of his nature, and\\nforms the starting-point of all his judgments as to what is\\nfitting or unfitting in the harmony of sound with sense. The\\nassociation between his words and his thoughts is so intimate,\\nthat to his ear the words seem to give out a sound like the\\nsound produced by the thing signified; nay, further, that\\nhis words seem like the thing signified even where it is an\\nabstract idea or some other creation of the mind. So that it", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0556.jp2"}, "557": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 545\\nbecomes a difficult matter to say how far certain words are\\nreally like certain natural sounds, for instance or whether\\nit is only an inveterate mental association which makes us\\nthink so. That is the first difficulty about the onomatopoetic\\ntheory of the origin of language. That theory appeals to a\\nsense which we have of likeness between many of our words\\nand the natural sounds of the things signified. Sir John\\nLubbock, in his recent work On the Origin of Civilisaiion Sec,\\nhas given lists of words of which, in his opinion, there can\\nbe no doubt that the origin is onomatopoetic. That is to\\nsay, they were coined at a blow in imitation of audible\\nsounds. Now the fact is, that many of them are resoluble in\\nearlier forms, which had meanings distinct from the present\\nmeanings; and the onomatopoetic appearances are the\\nresults of that instinctive attention to fitness of sound, which\\nis one of the habitual accompaniments of linguistic develop-\\nment. An example will make it clearer Sir John Lubbock\\nsays,\\nFrom pr, or prut, indicating contempt or self-conceit, comes proud,\\npride, c.\\nFrom fie, we have fiend, foe, feud, foul, Latin putris, Fr. puer, filth,\\nfulsome, fear. In addition I will only remark that.\\nFrom that of smacking the lips we get yXvKvs, dulcis, lick, like. p. 282.\\nWe shall all as Enghshmen be ready to acknowledge that\\nproud and pn de do sound like the things signified. But how\\nare we to reconcile the supposed onomatopoetic origin of\\nthese words with the fact that they have an earlier history,\\nwhich may be seen inDiez, Lexicon Linguarum Romanarum,\\nand which leads us far enough out of the track of the idea\\nhere assigned to pr. They are traced either to Old French\\nprude, moral, decorous; or to the Latin prudens, providus,\\nprudent, provident.\\nIt is not too much to say that all of these examples rest\\nupon the ground of a superficial appearance, and that their", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0557.jp2"}, "558": {"fulltext": "54^ OF PROSODY.\\nonomatopoetic origin will not bear inspection. Let us\\nproceed to the last of the series. The work like is here\\nderived from the sound of smacking the lips. It is in fact the\\nold Saxon word for body/ lie, which in German is to this\\nday Seicfc, pronounced almost exactly as our like. Great as\\nthe distance may seem between body and the liking of taste,\\nit is measured at two strides. There is but one middle\\nterm between these wide extremes. From substance to\\nsimilitude the transition is frequent and familiar and so lie,\\nbody/ easily produced the adjective like. That likeness breeds\\nlikiiig is proverbial. This fact has been used by Dr. Trench,\\nParables, p. 24, to explain the natural delight of the\\nhuman mind in the method of teaching by similitude or\\nparable where also is added the following note, so germane\\nto our present study\\nThis delight has indeed impressed itself upon our language. To like a\\nthing is to compare it with some other thing which we have already before\\nour natural or our mind s eye and the pleasurable emotion always arising\\nfrom this process of comparison has caused us to use the word in a far wider\\nsense than that which belonged to it at the first. That we lilie what is Wke\\nis the explanation of the pleasure which rhyme gives us.\\nIf the reader desires to enquire further into the onomato-\\npoetic theory, he will find all that can be said in its favour in\\nthe philological writings of Mr. Wedgwood and there is a\\njudicial examination of onomatopoeia by Professor Max\\nMiilier in the ninth lecture of his First Series.\\nOur present interest in this theory is rather incidental. It\\nbears by its very existence a valuable testimony to that prin-\\nciple which we are just now concerned to elucidate. It\\nproves that several men of the best and most highly ex-\\nercised faculties do perceive throughout language such a\\nharmony of the sound of words with their sense, that they\\nnot only would rest satisfied with an account of the origin\\nof language which referred all to external sound, but that it", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0558.jp2"}, "559": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 547\\nappears to them the only rational explanation. Those who\\nreject the onomatopoetic theory need not discredit the phe-\\nnomenon on which it relies. They may admit that there is,\\nrunning through a great part of human speech, a remarkable\\nchime of sound with sense, and yet doubt whether language\\nwas founded upon an imitation of external sounds. The\\nphenomenon itself may not have been primitive and original,\\nbut rather the ripe fruit of late efforts of the genius of speech.\\nAt every stage in the development of every word, there are\\na great number of possible variations or alternative modes of\\nutterance; and before a word settles down into an estab-\\nlished position, it must have been (unconsciously) recog-\\nnised as the best for that particular purpose of all those that\\nwere in the field of choice and among the qualifications and\\nconditions of the competition, the satisfaction of the ear has\\nnever been absent, though it may have been little noticed.\\nWhen we speak of the satisfaction of the ear, we of course\\nmean a mental gratification namely, that which arises from\\na sense of harmony between voice and meaning. There is\\na pleasure in this, and as there is a pleasure in it, so there is\\nnaturally a preference for it, and, other things being equal,\\nthe utterance which gives this pleasure will survive one\\nthat gives it not. One of the words which has been thought\\nto favour the onomatopoetic origin is squirrel. If this word\\nhad been destitute of a pedigree, and had been dashed off at\\na moment of happy invention, then its evidence might have\\nbeen invoked in that direction. But when we perceive that it\\nhas a long Greek derivation, and that the idea upon which\\nthe word was moulded was that of umbrella-tail, we can\\nonly marvel at the sonorous fitness of the word to express\\nthe manners of the funny little creature, after all traces of the\\nsignification of the word had been forgotten and we must\\nallow that somewhere in the speech-making genius there\\nN n 2", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0559.jp2"}, "560": {"fulltext": "54^ OF PROSODY.\\nmust be a faculty which concerns itself to seek the means of\\nharmony between sound and sense.\\nIt would indeed be too much to say that the basis of this\\nharmony is not in any absolute relations between things and\\nideas on the one hand, and sounds on the other. But this\\nmay be said that while such absolute relations have been\\noften maintained by a certain show of reason, there has not\\nas yet been any proof such as science can take cognisance\\nof. It seems rather as if each race had its own fundamental\\nnotions of harmony, and that from these the consonance of\\nwords had taken shape as from some elementary postulates.\\nWell as squirrel seems to us to harmonise with its object,\\nthere is no reason to doubt that in the judgment of a Red\\nIndian it would appear very inappropriate, and that he\\nwould consider Adjidaumo as much more to the point.\\nBoys shall call you Adjidaumo,\\nTail in air the boys shall call you.\\nLongfellow, Song of Hiawatha.\\nTaking it then as certain, that there is in speech a striving\\nafter this expressiveness of sound, we must next observe the\\nvarying ways it has of displaying itself, in the successive stages\\nof the development of human speech. It does not always\\noccupy the same ground. The English language has passed\\nthat stage in which words are palpably modified to meet the\\nrequirements of the ear. And accordingly, those who make\\nlists of words in support of the onomatopoetic theory, will\\nbe found to lean greatly to old-fashioned and homely and\\ncolloquial words, in short, to such words as figure but little\\nin the forefront of modern English literature. They are the\\noffspring of a period when the chime of the word was more\\naimed at than it now is. And we may in some ancient\\nliteratures find this so-called onomatopoeia in greater vigour\\nthan in English.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0560.jp2"}, "561": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 549\\nMost abounding in examples of this kind is the Hebrew\\nlanguage, where we have a glorious literature that was\\nformed under the conditions now spoken of; that is to say,\\nwhile the language was still sensitive to the grouping of\\nconsonants in the chime of its words. The details cannot\\nhere be produced, but the student may find his way to them\\nin the Heh-ew Grammar of Heinrich Ewald, as for instance,\\nsections 58, 59, sqq., on the meeting of consonants, 3ufam=\\nmentrefen s?on 3i)titlauten. But without minute details, an\\nillustration or two may be given.\\nIt is no mere illusion which causes even a slightly imbued\\nHebrew scholar to feel that in the kindly, soothing, noc-\\nturne sound of Mlah, the Hebrew word for night, there is a\\nsuggestion of that thought which some have supposed to be\\netymologically expressed by the Greek evcppovrj, the thought\\nwhich is thus rendered in familiar lines from the Hebrew\\nfountain\\nAnd from the due returns of night\\nDivine instruction springs,\\nThe Hebrew word for righteousness, zedakah, has a\\nmelody which chimes admirably with the idea. Whatever\\nbeauty of thought is embodied in the Themis and Dike and\\nAstraea of the Greek personifications, may all be heard in\\nthe sound of the Hebrew zedakah. Nor is this mere fancy.\\nThat the word spoke not to the mind alone through the\\near as a mere channel, but that the sound of the word\\nhad a musical eloquence for the musical ear of the He-\\nbrew, we have such evidence as the case admits of. We\\nfind it set against the cry of the oppressed zeghdkah, where\\nthe dental has been exchanged for the most rigid of gut-\\nturals, represented here by gh. In fact, there is a stage in\\nlanguage, when the musical appropriateness of the word is\\nthe chief care. This is the age of the Hebrew antitheses", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0561.jp2"}, "562": {"fulltext": "K^^O OF PROSODY.\\nand parallelisms. In the passage alluded to, not only is\\nthere the contrast already described, but also that of mishpat,\\njudgment, with viishpach, oppression, and here also the\\ngende sound of the dental is changed to the grating sound\\nof a guttural, though milder than in the other instance.\\nHe looked for judgment {mishpat), but behold oppression (mishpach)\\ntor righteousness (zeddkah), but behold a cry (zeghdkah).^ Isaiah v. 7.\\nThis class of cases has been sometimes inconsiderately\\ntreated as if they approached in some sort to the nature of\\nthe paronomasia or pun. But no two things could be more\\ndistinct. The pun rests on a duplicity of sense under unity\\nof sound, and it is essentially of a laughter provoking\\nnature, because it is a wanton rebellion against the first\\nmotive of speech, whereby diversity of sense induces diversity\\nof sound, that the sound may be an echo to the sense.\\nA few years ago, in the time of spring, two men were\\nriding together across the fields, and observing how back-\\nward the season was. Neither of them had seen the may-\\nblossom yet. Presently, one dashed ahead towards some-\\nthing white in a distant hedge, but soon turned round again,\\nexclaiming to his companion No, it is not the may, it is\\nonly the common sloe. Whereupon the ready answer came\\nThen the may is uncommon slow That is a pun, where\\nthe unity of sound between widely different words is sud-\\ndenly and surprisingly fitted into the sense of the con-\\nversation.\\nDifferent, but akin, is the Double-meaning, where the two\\nsenses of an identical word are played upon. Mr. Wadge,\\nin his speech of thanks on the occasion of a presentation\\nbanquet in his honour, at the Albion, June i, 1866, was\\ndilating on the interest he had taken from earliest youth in\\nthe study of mineral deposits how he found matter even in\\nhis school-books to feed this enthusiasm; how he devoured", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0562.jp2"}, "563": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION 55 1\\nLucretius De Rerum Natura, but especially the passage\\nabout the discovery of metals. This being delivered with\\nsome intenseness, was pleasantly relieved by the ensuing\\nremark, that only in one thing did the speaker differ from\\nthe poet. Lucretius deplored that whereas in the good old\\ntime, brass was highly valued and gold disregarded, now that\\nwas changed, gold had dethroned brass, and the harder\\nmetal was of no account by the side of the softer.\\nI have nothing to say against gold, which certainly now, as when the\\npoet wrote, is m summum hotioretn but I must say something for brass.\\n(Laughter.) Whatever may have been the case when Lucretius wrote, it\\ncannot now be truly said nunc jacet aes for in my experience brass is,\\nnext to gold, the greatest power that influences the world. (Great cheers\\nand laughter.)\\nSuch are the double-meaning and the pun. But these\\nthings are very wide of the feature now under consideration.\\nThese are laughable from their eccentricity. They are funny\\nbecause they traverse the law of the language in a playful\\nmanner. As an expression of wit they are perfectly legiti-\\nmate only so long as the rhetoric of the language turns on\\nword-sound. In English, they are now half-recognised,\\nbecause the language has passed beyond that stage of\\nwhich they were a wanton inversion. Hence we may ob-\\nserve that the mind of the scholar, that is to say, the mind\\nwhich is imbued with the elder conditions of language, is\\never prone to punning.\\nIn contradistinction to all this, the Hebrew antitheses arise\\nout of the legitimate exercise of the rhetorical properties of\\nthe language; and their very consonance with the present\\ncondition of the language is an element of their solemnity.\\nIn every successive stage of language there is a music\\nproper to that stage and if we seek the focus of that music,\\nwe must watch the action of the language in its exalted\\nmoods. When we see that the poetry and the oratory of a", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0563.jp2"}, "564": {"fulltext": "^^Q, OF PROSODY.\\nlanguage avails itself largely of the contrast of word-sounds,\\nwe cannot doubt that the national ear is most alive to that\\nparticular form of speech-music which gives prominence to\\nindividual words. This is the case of the Hebrew paral-\\nlelisms; and it is the key also to alliteration in poetry,\\nwhere the echo of word to word is the sonorous organ of\\nthe poet. But a period comes in the course of the higher\\ndevelopment of language, when the sonorousness of words\\ngives place to the sentiment of modulation, whereby a\\nmusical unity is given to the sentence like the unity of\\nthought. It is to this that the foremost languages of the\\nworld, and the English language for one, have now at-\\ntained. If we look at Saxon literature, we see two widely\\ndifferent eras of language Uving on side by side, the elder\\none in the poetry, and the later one in the prose. The\\nalliterative poetry belongs to an age in which the word-sound\\nwas the prominent feature; the prose is already far gone\\ninto that stage in which the sound of the word has fallen\\nback and become secondary to the rhythm of the sentence.\\nThe development of rhythm had already become so full and\\nample by the time of the Conquest, that the restraint of\\niambic metre was needful, and it was readily accepted at the\\nhands of our French instructors. Rhyme also was adopted,\\nnot indeed for the first time, for occasional examples occur\\nbefore; but the general use of rhyme came in with the\\niambic metre under French influence. Rhyme is an attend-\\nant upon metre, but it acts in concert with rhythm neces-\\nsarily and for the most part it corresponds to the divisions\\nof syntax, though this is unessential. Rhyme is a very\\ninsignificant thing philologically, as compared with allitera-\\ntion: for whereas this is, as we have before shown, an\\naccentual reverberation, and rests upon the most vital part\\nof words; rhyme is but a syllabic resonance, and rests", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0564.jp2"}, "565": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 553\\nmost frequently upon those syllables which are vocally of\\nthe lowest consideration. It is, however, one among the\\nmany little tributaries towards the evidence of a fondness in\\nman for a sonorous accompaniment to his language.\\nRhyme is a feature attached to metre its office is to mark\\nthe verse or /urn of the metre, where it begins again. The\\nrelation of verse to syntax is undetermined. The line may\\nend with a grammatical pause, or it may end in the middle\\nof a phrase where the most lavish punctuationist could not\\nbestow a comma. But it must never mar the rhythm with\\nor without rhyme, the turn of a verse must never occur but\\nat a rhythmical subdivision, and these are finer and more\\nfrequent than grammatical subdivisions.\\nSo thy dark arches, London Bridge, bestride\\nIndignant Thames, and part his angry tide.\\nThe poetry of the Anti-Jacobin is a good repertory for\\nvarieties of verse-making, because it contains lawless as well\\nas lawful examples. In the above couplet, the reader will\\nperceive that though there is not a grammatical division be-\\ntween the Hues, there is a rhythmical one, and that there is\\na real gain to the effect by the voice being made to rest\\na perceptible time on bestride the modulation so obtained\\nis a help to the picture on the imagination.\\nOne of the commonest means for producing the effect of\\ndrollery in verse, is by offending against this rule, and break-\\ning the verse in spite of rhythm.\\nWeary Knife-grinder! little think the proud ones.\\nWho in their coaches roll along the turnpike-\\nroad, what hard work tis crying all day Knives and\\nScissors to grind O\\nMetre and rhythm must be wedded together, in order to\\nproduce the true harmony of poetry. A limping line is the\\nresult of discord between these two. Not long ago a manu-", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0565.jp2"}, "566": {"fulltext": "554 OF PROSODY.\\nscript of Samson Agonistes was sold at Messrs Sotheby s\\nauction-rooms in which the prosaic lines\\nFor God haih wrought things as incredible\\nFor his people of old what hinders now\\nwere rendered so majestic as to be worthy of the poet by the\\nfollowing simple transposition\\nFor God of old hath for his people wrought\\nThings as incredible what hinders now\\nThe same alteration has rectified at once both the metre and\\nthe rhythm, but the gain in metre is a small thing compared\\nto the gain in having those two lines restored to rhythm.\\nThe metre of the passage is that which has been used by all\\nour poets in their chief works, from Chaucer to Tennyson.\\nBut the rhythm of those two lines, as of all lines which we\\nrecognize as Miltonic, is the author s own. The identity of\\nthe metre does not hinder varieties in the character of poetry,\\nany more than the identity of the letters of the alphabet\\nexcludes varieties in the forms of words. Shakspeare, whose\\nverse has a sound so peculiar to itself, employs the most\\nordinary metre.\\nDryden s grand feats of musical language are sometimes, it\\nis true, combined with extraordinary metres, as in Alex-\\nander s Feast. But these are not necessary to him, as witness\\nthe following lines from the opening of his JEneid\\nFrom hence the line of Alban fathers come,\\nAnd the long glories of majestic Rome\\nThe blank verse of Thomson is framed on the same\\nmetre with that of Milton. Metre is to rhythm what logic\\nis to rhetoric what the bone frame of an animal is to its\\nliving form and movements. As the bony structure of a\\nbeautiful animal is amply enveloped as the logic of a good\\ndiscourse is there, but undisplayed, so is the metre of good", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0566.jp2"}, "567": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION.\\npoetry lost to the view, while the ear is entirely occupied\\nwith its rhythm. And as men use rhetoric before logic, so,\\nlikewise, did they use rhythm before metre. Metre may be\\nartificially transplanted from one nation to another, as the\\nFrench m.etre was transplanted to our language. But\\nrhythm is more deeply rooted in the race and nation, and\\nthe individual writer can only within a limited range play\\nvariations upon the natural rhythm of his mother tongue.\\nIn common parlance we give a writer the credit of his\\nrhythm, as we do to Milton. But the elemental stuff out of\\nwhich it is made, is rather an inheritance than a personal\\nproduct. Every man inherits a certain national intonation.\\nThis is that which is most ineradicable of all things which go\\nto constitute language. This is that which we call the\\nbrogue of the Irishman, the accent of the Scotchman, or of\\nthe Welshman. By great care and early training it may be\\ndisciplined out of an individual, but we have no experience\\nof its wearing out of a population. The people of Devon,\\nwho hardly retain two Welsh words in their speech, have an\\nintonation so peculiar, that it can only be interpreted as a\\nrelic of the otherwise extinct West- Welsh language.\\nAny one with an ear for the melody of language, and with\\na heart accessible to romantic feelings, cannot but be drawn\\ntowards the Irish people, if it were only for the singular and\\nmysterious air which constitutes the melody of their speech.\\nWhat though they speak Saxon now instead of Erse, the\\nrhythm is unshaken. It runs up into, and is indistinguish-\\nable from, that native music which is the surest exponent of\\nnational character and its most tenacious product, over-\\nliving the extinction of all other heirlooms, as it is touch-\\ningly and tunefully said in fitting cadences by Thomas\\nD Arcy Mc Gee in the following Ode", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0567.jp2"}, "568": {"fulltext": "OF PROSODY.\\nTO OSSIAN.\\nLong, long ago, beyond the misty space\\nOf twice a thousand years,\\nIn Erin old, there dwelt a mighty race,\\nTaller than Roman spears\\nLike oaks and towers, they had a giant grace,\\nWere fleet as deers\\nWith winds and waves they made their biding-place,\\nThese Western shepherd-seers.\\nGreat were their deeds, their passions, and their sports\\nWith clay and stone\\nThey piled on strath and shore those mystic forts\\nNot yet o erthrown\\nOn cairn-crown d hills they held their council-courts\\nWhile youths alone,\\nWith giant-dogs, explored the elk resorts.\\nAnd brought them down.\\nOf these was Finn, the father of the bard\\nWhose ancient song\\nOver the clamour of all change is heard,\\nSweet-voiced and strong.\\nFinn once o ertook Granu, the golden-hair d,\\nThe fleet and young\\nFrom her the lovely, and from him the fear d,\\nThe primal poet sprang.\\nOssian two thousand years of mist and change\\nSurround thy name\\nThy Fenian heroes now no longer range\\nThe hills of fame.\\nThe very names of Finn and Gaul sound strange,\\nYet thine the same,\\nBy miscall d lake and desecrated grange\\nRemains, and shall remain\\nThe Druid s altar and the Druid s creed\\nWe scarce can trace\\nThere is not left an undisputed deed\\nOf all your race.\\nSave your majestic song, which hath their speed,\\nAnd strength and grace;\\nIn that sole song they live, and love, and bleed,\\nIt bears them on through space.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0568.jp2"}, "569": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION 557\\nOh, inspired giant shall we e er behold\\nIn our own time\\nOne fit to speak your spirit on the wold\\nOr seize your rhyme\\nOne pupil of the past, as mighty-soul d\\nAs in the prime\\nWere the fond, and fair, and beautiful, and bold,\\nThey, of your song sublime\\nThe distinctiveness of all that which we call brogue,\\naccent, c., is ultimately resoluble into a speciality of modu-\\nlation or rhythm. Here is the stronghold of Nature and\\nthe seat of national and provincial peculiarity. The fact\\nthat the English language has not retained the music of the\\nSaxon, is the greatest of all evidences how profound a change\\nwas accomplished by the great French interval of the transi-\\ntion. Had the new language started with a provincial basis,\\ninstead of springing up as it did in the Court, the result\\nmight have been different. As it was, we got a new music,\\nbased on a new key-note, and one quite distinct from any of\\nits constituent elements.\\nBut while we acknowledge in rhythm something pro-\\nfounder than metre, we must not deny to the latter a certain\\nmagisterial and interpretative function, which it obtains by\\nits position and office. As the man of formulas often directs,\\nand sometimes practically determines the action of his\\nsuperior, so metre exercises a sort of judicature even over\\nrhythm.\\nMetre acts as a sort of stiffener to the rhythm. It\\nhas on the one hand a suppressive, and on the other\\na sustaining agency. It helps to sustain elevation, while it\\ncontrols the natural swell of enthusiastic rhythm. This con-\\nstraint exercised by metre over the rhythmical movement is\\nleast felt in blank verse, because terminal rhymes are like\\nso many studs or clasps, which pin down the metre from\\npoint to point, and greatly add to its stringency.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0569.jp2"}, "570": {"fulltext": "^^S OF PROSODY.\\nRhyme has developed its luxuriance in its native regions,\\nthat is to say, in the Romanesque dialects. The rhyming\\nfaculty was not born with our speech, and it is still but im-\\nperfectly naturaUsed among us. The English language is\\nfound to be poor in rhymes when it is put to the proof, as\\nin the essay of translating Dante in his own /erza rima.\\nOf all the forms which the Romanesque metres have\\nassumed in the English language, the blank verse is that\\nwhich we have most completely nationalised and made\\nour own. And the probable explanation of this is, that\\nRhyme is too confining for our native rhythm, when it would\\nput forth its full strength. On the other hand. Metre,\\nthough it restrains, does unquestionably help to sustain the\\nelevation, by the way in which it brings out the subordinate\\npauses and finer articulations in the rhythm. I would ask\\nthe reader to consider the following lines, lending his ear\\nespecially to the verse-endings which close without punc-\\ntuation\\nA gracious spirit o er this earth presides,\\nAnd o er the heart of man invisibly\\nIt comes, to works of unreproved delight,\\nAnd tendency benign, directing those\\nWho care not, know not, think not what they do.\\nThe tales that charm away the wakeful night\\nIn Araby, romances legends penned\\nFor solace by dim light of monkish lamps\\nFictions, for ladies of their love, devised\\nBy youthful squires adventures endless, spun\\nBy the dismantled warrior in old age.\\nOut of the bowels of those very schemes\\nIn which his youth did first extravagate\\nThese spread like day, and something in the shape\\nOf these will live till man shall be no more.\\nDumb yearnings, hidden appetites, are ours,\\nAnd they must have their food. Our childhood sits.\\nOur simple childhood, sits upon a throne\\nThat hath more power than all the elements.\\nWilliam Wordsworth, The Prelude, Bk. V.\\nAll true poetry feels after, and grows towards, a sweet low\\nJ", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0570.jp2"}, "571": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 559\\nmusical accompaniment, which sounds to the ear of the mind\\nh ke the thing described, even though it should be the process\\nof nature, which marches in silence. The following lines,\\nfrom an unknown poet who signs G. M., display this har-\\nmony of the rhythm with the description\\nOn that opposing hill, as on the stage\\nOf rural theatre, or Virgil s page,\\nI watch the shifting scenes of country life,\\nMan s patient labour and his world-old strife.\\nFirst, the stout team drags on the biting plough;\\nThro the hard clods it cuts and pierces slow\\nThe careful yeoman guides the furrow d way,\\nThe rook succeeds, and lives another day.\\nThen come the sowers, who with careless skill\\nScatter the grain and every fissure fill\\nThen the light harrow the smooth soil restores,\\nAnd soon the field feels life in all her pores.\\nNext some bright morning, as I mark the scene,\\nMy fancy soothes me with a shade of green,\\nWhich after every shower more vivid grows.\\nTill em rald brightly o er the surface glows,\\nThen yellow clothes the scene, and soon, too soon,\\nRed ears bow heavy to the harvest moon.\\nIn making a poetical translation, the first thing is to\\nget hold of a melody. The metre, and even in some mea-\\nsure the grammar, must be secondary else there can be no\\nrhythm, and therefore no unity. Your verses may parse,\\nand they may scan, and be but doggerel after all. The\\nmaster-principle then is rhythm. In the following lines from\\nMr. Griffith s translation of the Rdmdyana, we have not only\\nwords and phrases and metre, but we have also a rhythm,\\nwhich gives the whole a unity and an individuality, making\\nit like something and we, who do not read Sanskrit, can\\nenquire whether that is a faithful rendering of the effect of\\nthe original\\nBalmy cool the air was breathing, welcome clouds were floating by,\\nHumming bees with joyful music swelled the glad wild peacock s cry.\\nTheir wing-feathers wet with bathing, birds slow flying to the trees\\nRested in the topmost branches waving to the western breeze.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0571.jp2"}, "572": {"fulltext": "560 OF PROSODY.\\nBut no English reader, with a cultivated ear, would be\\nlikely to ask whether the following bore any resemblance to\\nHorace, simply because, through lack of rhythm, it has no\\nunity, and it leaves on the mind no impression of having\\nany likeness or similitude of its own\\nMethinks Dame Nature to discriminate\\nWhat *s just from what s unjust entirely fails\\nThough doubtless fairly she can separate\\nWhat s good from what is bad, and aye prevails\\nWhat to avoid, what to desire, to state\\nAnd Reason cannot prove that in the scales\\nThe man who broke another s cabbage-leaf\\nShould weigh as guilty as the sacrilegious thief.\\nIt would lead us too far if we attempted to exemplify in\\ndetail the conclusion at which these latter pages are pointed.\\nIt is this Our language has passed on beyond the stage\\nat which the chime of words is a care to the national ear,\\nand it has adopted instead thereof the pleasure of a musical\\nrhythm, which pervades the sentence and binds it into one.\\nEwald has happily described the perception of rhythm as\\n\u00c2\u00aeinn fiirS anjc a feeling or sentiment for the Whole. When\\nthe English language is now used so as to display a sonorous\\naptness in the words, we call it Word-painting.\\nWe will conclude this final chapter by a few illustrations\\nto the same effect drawn from the inceptive stages of speech.\\nThe first dawn of intelligence, the first smile of the infant\\non the mother, is in response to the tones of her maternal\\nencouragements\\nIncipe parve puer risu cognoscere matrem.\\nVergil, Eclogue iv. 60.\\nSmile then, dear child, and make thy mother glad.\\nTranslation by H. D. Skrine, 1868.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0572.jp2"}, "573": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION, 56 1\\nBefore speech is attained by the infant, he gets a set of\\nnotes or tones to express pleasure or offence, assent or\\nrefusal. The first attempts to speak are mere chirruppings\\nand warblings that is to say, it is the music of what is said\\nthat is caught at first, while the child has as yet no ears for\\nthe harder sense. By a beautiful and true touch of nature,\\nand all the more noticeable because it is not a common-\\nplace of poetry, a poet of our own day has coupled the\\nearly speech of children with the singing of birds\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2I love the song of birds,\\nAnd the children s early words.\\nCharles Mackay, A Plain Man s Philosophy.\\nJohn Keble has justified the teaching of divine truths to\\nchildren, on the ground that, if the sense is beyond them,\\nthere is a certain musical path of communication\\nOh say not, dream not, heavenly notes\\nTo childish ears are vain.\\nThat the young mind at random floats,\\nAnd cannot reach the strain:\\nDim or unheard the words may fall,\\nAnd yet the heaven-taught mind\\nMay learn the sacred air, and all\\nThe harmony unwind.\\nThe general effect of such observations is towards this\\nThat the sentient and emotional parts of human nature have\\na greater share in the origins of language than the intel-\\nlectual faculty. The first awakener of language is love.\\nI knew a litde orator who, at the age of five years, would\\nmake speeches of irresistible force, though he was more\\nthan usually backward in grammatical sequence. It being\\none morning said in his presence that he had been found\\nhalf out of bed, and the cause surmised that his brother\\nelbowed him out, he exclaimed, Yes, he elbowed me\\no o", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0573.jp2"}, "574": {"fulltext": "562 OF PROSODY.\\nharder and harder could be! In modulation this was\\na perfect utterance the voice had risen very gradually and\\nplaintively so far as harder and harder then a pause,\\nas he was feeling after a climax and then out broke\\nin an octave higher the decisive words could be\\nIt was the same boy who once said it was not his bed\\ntime this reckly, a compromise between this tninute and\\ndirectly/ but which, in the way it was delivered, very far\\nsurpassed either of these forms of expression.\\nThe fact is that children have a greater appreciation\\nof sound than of sense, and that accordingly their early\\nwords are in good melody and bad grammar. Their\\njudgment of the fitness of words for the office they fill,\\nwill often be very distinctly pronounced. And this judg-\\nment rests, as indeed it can rest, on nothing else than\\nthe chime of the sound with their notion of the thing\\nindicated. The judgment of children is often found so firm\\nand distinct on this matter, that we must conclude a great\\npart of the early exercise of their wakening minds has been\\nconcerned with the discrimination of sounds. A little watch-\\ning might supply many illustrations on this head what is\\nhere produced is not the result of any careful selection, but\\njust what offered itself about the time that this chapter was\\nin preparation.\\nA father who took an interest in some pigeons that were\\nkept for the amusement of his children, had the whim to\\ncall them all by some fanciful name and as they multiplied\\nit became harder to invent acceptable names. So it hap-\\npened that, after many familiar names, there came in some\\nfrom classical sources. Of these it was observed (months\\nafter) that one had fixed itself in the memory of the\\nchildren. They were playing with the kitten, and their\\ninward glee was venting itself in the name of Andromache,", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0574.jp2"}, "575": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. ^6^\\nwhich they used as a term of endearment. Some days later,\\nwhen they were again at play, and shouting Andromache,\\ntheir father asked them, Which is Andromache The\\nyounger answered with an exuberance of satisfaction\\nJohnnie s calling me Andromache Their father replied,\\nIf Johnnie calls you Andromache, Td call him Polyhymnia\\nAt this, Johnnie (a boy of six years old) towered up like\\na pillar of moral indignation, and in a tone of mingled\\ndisdain and deprecation, said Augh Nobody couldn t\\nbe called that, I m sure\\nA boy of five years old was asked, Do you know where\\nyour cousin Johnnie is at school No I don t know\\nwhere is he At Honiton. At Hon-t-iton Isn t that\\na funny place call it\\nHere it will be observed the place is judged of by the\\nsound of its name there is no distinction between the name\\nand the thing.\\nIn the minds of children and savages the word and the\\nthing are absolutely identified. If they are able to grasp\\nthe name, they seem to have a satisfaction analogous to that\\nwhich the mature mind tastes in the fullest description or\\nanalysis.\\nI was staying in the house of a friend, where the youngest\\nchild was a brave, bold, golden-locked boy, under three years\\nold. As I was dressing in the morning he came into my\\nroom, and we had a long and varied conversation. One\\nof the topics was broached and disposed of somewhat in\\nthe following manner Are Mabel and Trixey coming\\nto-day he asked. I m sure I don t know. Who are\\nMabel and Trixey Thereat he took up a strong and\\nconfident attitude, and with a tone which at once justified\\nhimself and refuted me, he said They are Mabel and\\nTrixey that s their names the last clause a perfect bar\\n2", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0575.jp2"}, "576": {"fulltext": "564 OF PROSODY.\\nof remonstrative music as much as to say, You surely are\\nsatisfied with /haf\\nThis is very delightful in a child, as all truly childish\\nthings are. But in more advanced stages of human Hfe,\\nwhen childishness is formulated into a sort of wisdom of the\\nancients, then it gradually assumes a less agreeable aspect.\\nWe no longer admire this identification of the word with\\nthe thing, when an eastern doctor or charmer writes a good\\nword on a slip of paper and makes of it a pill for his patient.\\nHere the childish conception of speech has stagnated into\\na fetichism which is at the root of incantations and verbal\\ncharms.\\nThe following most significant record of native talk in the\\nAru Islands is from The Malay Archipelago, by Alfred\\nRussell Wallace (1869):\\nTwo or three of them got round me, and begged me for the twentieth\\ntime to tell them the name of my country. Then, as they could not pro-\\nnounce it satisfactorily, they insisted that I was deceiving them, and that\\nit was a name of my own invention. One funny old man, who bore a\\nludicrous resemblance to a friend of mine at home, was almost indignant.\\nUnglung said he, who ever heard of such a name anglang anger-\\nlang that can t be the name of your country; you are playing with us.\\nThen he tried to give a convincing illustration. My country is Wanumbai\\nanybody can say Wanumbai. I m an orang-Wanumbai but, N-glung\\nwho ever heard of such a name Do tell us the real name of your country,\\nand then when you are gone we shall know how to talk about you. To\\nthis luminous argument and remonstrance I could oppose nothing but asser-\\ntion, and the whole party remained firmly convinced that I was for some\\nreason or other deceiving them. ch. xxxi.\\nThis is a very significant narrative, and I have authority\\nfrom Mr. Wallace to add that it is a literal and faithful\\nrecord. He says it was written down on the spot the day\\nafter it occurred, and is strictly accurate as far as I could\\nreproduce the words and tone of it in English\\nCommunicated to me through the Rev. George Buckle, to whom also\\nI owe many other acknowledgments.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0576.jp2"}, "577": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. ^6^\\nThe notion that by the possession of the name of the\\ncountry they would have the wherewithal to talk of their\\nvisitor after his departure, is an excellent illustration of the\\ngermination of the Myth as expounded by Professor Max\\nMiiller in the Oxford Essays of 1856.\\nAll these are instances of the inability of man, in the ear-\\nlier stages of his career, to assume the mastery over language.\\nHis mind is enthralled by it, and is led away after all its\\nsuggestions.\\nWe are told by Professor Jowett that the Greek philoso-\\npher, the contemporary of Plato and Socrates, was incapable\\nof resisting the power of any analogy which occurred to him\\nand he was helpless against the influence of any word\\nwhich had an equivocal or double sense\\nIt may be imagined that we, in our advanced condition\\nof modern civilisation, are now completely masters over\\nlanguage, but an investigation of the subject might pro-\\nduce an unexpected verdict. Philology is one of the\\nmost instrumental of studies for investing man with the\\nfull prerogative over his speech, for its highest office is\\nto enable him to comprehend the relation of his words\\nto the action of his mind, and thus to render the mind\\nsuperior to verbal illusions.\\nThose who think that the sounds of nature first sug-\\ngested language to man, hold a theory of language which\\nmay be compared to that theory of music by which music\\nis derived from the cataract in the mountains, the wind in\\nthe trees, or the sound of the ocean on the shore. It appears\\nto me that there is nothing in inward or outward experience\\nThe Dialogues of Plato, vol. ii. p, 505,", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0577.jp2"}, "578": {"fulltext": "566 OF PROSODY.\\nto justify such a theory. Music and language ahke must\\nhave come from within, from the greatest depths of our\\nnature.\\nMan s conscious work upon language in fitting it to\\nexpress his mind, is the least part of the matter. The\\ngreater part is worked out unconsciously. And long eras\\npass after the perfecting of its processes, before intellectual\\nman awakes to perceive what he himself has done. This\\nonly proves from what a depth within his own nature this\\npower of speech is evolved only proves what a mystery\\nman is to himself: and it casts a doubt over the prospect\\nof our ever tracing a scientific path up to those springs\\nwhich fancy calls the Origin of Language.\\nFor me, the poet speaks most appropriately on this theme,\\nbecause he speaks most vaguely, most wonderingly and\\nmost inquiringly\\nYe wandering Utterances, has earth no scheme.\\nNo scale of moral music, to unite\\nPowers that survive but in the faintest dream\\nOf memory? O that ye might stoop to bear\\nChains, such precious chains of sight\\nAs laboured minstrelsies through ages wear\\nO for a balance fit the truth to tell\\nOf the Unsubstantial, pondered well\\nTo make a path from the visible, ponderable, and sub-\\nstantial, to that which is invisible, imponderable, and spiritual,\\nwith no other material than vocal sound to erect a bridge\\nfrom matter to mind, tempering it in the finest filtered\\nharmonies that can be appreciated by the sentient, emo-\\ntional, and intellectual nature of man this seems to be the\\ntask and function of human speech.\\nOf its origin W3 can only say, it is of the same root with\\nthat poetic faculty whereby man makes nature echo his\\nsentiments; it is correlated to the invention of music, whereby", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0578.jp2"}, "579": {"fulltext": "SOUND AS AN OBJECT OF ATTRACTION. 567\\ndead things are made to discourse of human emotions it is\\na peculiar property of that nature whose other chief and\\n.proper attributes are the power of Love, and the capacity\\nfor the knowledge of God.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0579.jp2"}, "580": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0580.jp2"}, "581": {"fulltext": "IN DEX.\\n[The ordinary Roman type is used to indicate English forms that have\\nbeen illustrated or exemplified the Italic type indicates those of the\\nTransition stage of the language forms of high antiquity are put in\\nSMALL CAPITALS the TMck type indicates Subjects that have been treated\\nor touched upon, over and above those which are already indicated by the\\ngeneral plan of the work.]\\nA, the article, 416.\\nthe character, 196.\\nthe vowel, 105, 107.\\naback, 509.\\nabacus, 302.\\nabaft, 509.\\nabandoning, 482.\\nabed, 376, 509.\\nabet, 81.\\nabidden, 229, 232.\\nabide, 229.\\nAbingdon, 481.\\n-able, 336.\\naboard, 509,\\nabode, 229.\\nabout, 38, 129, 435.\\nabstraction, 195.\\nabut, 84.\\nacademic, 352.\\nAccent, 537,\\naccept, 79, 337.\\nacceptable, 336, 337,\\n338.\\nacceptance, 337.\\naccepted, 337.\\naccessible, 336.\\naccidental, 339.\\naccord, 79.\\naccording, 454.\\naccount, 36, 337.\\naccountable, 336, 337.\\naccountant, 337.\\naccounted, 337.\\nace, 56.\\naches, 149.\\nacknowledge, 114.\\nacoustic, 352.\\nacquamt, 79.\\nacquaintance, 296.\\nacquaintanceship, 275.\\nacquittal, 300.\\nactive, 348.\\nacupement, 2 3o.\\n-acy, 296,\\n-ad, 303.\\nadd, 79.\\n-ade, 303.\\nadieus, 180.\\nado, 381.\\nadubbement, 280.\\nadvance, 79.\\nadvancement, 280.\\nadventure, 79.\\nadventuresome, 331.\\nadverse, 79.\\nadvertize, 258, 294.\\nadvice, 262.\\nadvise, 262.\\nadvowson, 279.\\nAlfred, 272.\\n^theling, 268.\\niEthelred, 272.\\nsesthetick, 114, 352.\\nafaitment, 280.\\nafar, 376, 509.\\naffair, 38 1,\\naffluence, 296.\\nafield, 376, 509.\\nafloat, 509.\\nafoot, 376.\\na-forlorn, 480.\\nAfrican, 352.\\nafter, 435.\\nafter all, 431.\\nafter a sort, 431,\\naftermath, 267.\\nagaine (Spenser), 138.\\nagainst, 38, 441.\\n-age, 283.\\n-ager, 285.\\nAgglutinating lan-\\nguages, 473.\\naggregative, 348, 349.\\nagoe, 129.\\nagog, 376.\\naground, 509.\\nAHAM, Sanscrit pronoun\\nego, 391.\\nahead, 509.\\naid and abet, 81.\\nair-balloon, 505.\\najar, 509.\\nakin, 509.\\n-al, 299, 338.\\nalack, 166.\\nalas, 165.\\na-laughter, 480.\\nalchemy, 304.\\nalcohol, 304.\\nalcove, 304.\\nalder, 21, ill.\\nalc er-bush, 505,\\nAldhelm, Bishop of\\nSherborne, 28.\\nAleph, 196.\\nAlfred, King, 29.\\nalgebra, 304.\\nalgorism, 304.\\nalgorithm, 304\\nall, 107, 138, 409.\\nalley, ill.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0581.jp2"}, "582": {"fulltext": "570\\nINDEX.\\nall hail, 173.\\nAlliteration, 531.\\nAllophylian lan-\\nguages, 473.\\nallow, 254.\\nallowed, 254.\\nall-poweiful, 510.\\nallude-to-an-individual\\nstyle, 501.\\nalmanac, 304.\\naloft, 50Q.\\nalong. 509.\\nalong of. 442.\\nalong on, 442.\\nalongside, 509.\\naloof, 509.\\naloud, 376, 509.\\nalow, 509.\\nAlpha, 196.\\nalso, 434, 446.\\nalsoe, 129, 134.\\nALWALDA, 27.\\nalway, always, 136.\\nam, 242.\\namain, 479, 480.\\namen, 174.\\namendement, 280.\\namiable, 79, 338.\\namid, 38.\\nammiral, 304.\\namo?iesiement, 2 So.\\nAmerican nsage,\\n133, 186, 239, 311,\\n524.-\\namong, 441.\\nan, numeral and article,\\n33, 38, 416, 427.\\nan, form of and,\\n453-\\n-an (adj.), 326, 352.\\n-an (inf.), 481.\\nanalytic, 352.\\nanathematize, 258.\\nanatomize, 258.\\n-ance, 296.\\nancient, 185.\\n-ancy, 296.\\nand, 129, 434, 445,\\n454.457.458-\\nangehc, 330.\\nAngle, 25.\\nAnglian dialect, 48,\\n53-\\nAnglo Saxon, the\\nterm, 17.\\nanimosity, 297.\\nanimus, 302.\\nanodyne, 425.\\nanonymous, 425.\\nanother, 415.\\n-ant, 350.\\nantagonistic, S53.\\nantarctic, 353.\\nantiquity, 297.\\nany, 427.\\napathetic, 353.\\nape, 262.\\napologetic, 353.\\nopos(le7ie, 67.\\napostolic, 339, 340.\\napparatus, 302.\\napparayl merit, 280.\\nappeal, 310.\\napple, 2 I\\nappreciable, 336.\\nappreciative, 348, 349.\\napproachable, 336.\\napproval, 300.\\naquatic, 339.\\nArabic, 340.\\narcana, 302, 303.\\narchaeological, 341.\\narchaic, 353.\\nArctic. 352.\\n-ard, 289, 338.\\nardor, 299.\\nardour, 299,\\nare, 149, 242.\\narea, 302.\\narena, 302.\\naright, 376, 479, 480,\\n509.\\narize (Spenser), 293.\\narm, 266.\\narmlet, 283.\\narms of precision, 358.\\narnement, 280.\\naromatic, 353.\\naround, 38.\\narray, 79.\\narrow-wounded, 51 T,\\nArticle, in Danish\\nand Swedish, 7.\\nartistic, 339,\\n-ary, 300, 350.\\nAryan languages,\\n391. 473-\\nAS, Sanscrit root, 219.\\nas, 1 89, 409, 446, 447.\\nas as, as so, 447.\\nascendant, 79.\\nascetick, 137.\\nash, 21, 266.\\nash-house. 520.\\nashore, 509.\\nas it were, 479,\\n-asm, 308.\\naspect, 133.\\naspen, 21.\\nassay, 79.\\nassent, 79.\\nasseyment, 280.\\nassize, 79.\\nassociative, 348, 349.\\n-ast, 308.\\nastern, 509.\\n-astic, 353.\\nastir, 509.\\nasuinere, 221.\\nasunder, 410.\\nat, preposition, 37.\\nat all, 431.\\nat best, 375.\\nat intervals, 375.\\nat large, 375.\\nat last, 375.\\nat least, 375.\\nat leastwise, 433.\\nat length, 375.\\nat most, 375.\\nat no hand, 433.\\nat once, 431.\\nat present, 375.\\nat random, 375.\\nat worst, 375.\\nate, 107, 230,\\n-ate, 258.\\natheism, 305.\\natheist, 307.\\nathletic, 353.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0582.jp2"}, "583": {"fulltext": "athwart, 509,\\n-ation, 270, 298.\\natomic, 353.\\n-atory, 350.\\nattempted, 477.\\nattercop, 311.\\naudible, 336.\\nauditor, 79.\\naugrim, 304.\\nAugust, 186.\\naiilnage, 285.\\naulneger, 285.\\naunt, 277.\\nAustria, 278.\\nauthentic, 353.\\nauthoritative, 348,\\navailable, 336.\\navarice, 291.\\na vaunt, 79.\\naway, 509.\\nawe, 266.\\nawfully, 370.\\nawinter, 221.\\nawl, 266.\\nawork, 376.\\nAxe, 20.\\nAytoun, 155.\\n-aze, 308.\\nazure, 79.\\nazurn, 325.\\nB, the character, 197.\\nbace {for base), 138.\\nback home, 363.\\nbacon, 44.\\nbade, 229.\\nbadge, 266.\\nEaeda s account of\\nthe Saxon colo-\\nnists, 17.\\nBaeda quoted, 26.\\nbaggage, 283.\\nbaiie and borowe, 81,\\nbairn, 90.\\nbait, 85.\\nbake,li, 128, 229, 237.\\nbakehouse, 520.\\nbaken, 229.\\nbaker, 268, 287.\\nbalcony, 524.\\nINDEX.\\nball, 108.\\nbanish, 77, 79.\\nbarbaresque, 341.\\nbarbaric, 353.\\nbarbarous, 346.\\nbard, 22.\\nBardic, .^40.\\nbare, 229, 322.\\nbareheaded, 511.\\nbargain, 277-\\nbarn-door, 194.\\nbarrier, 289.\\nbasis, 302.\\nbasket, 20.\\nbastard, 289.\\nbat, 107, 262.\\nbate, 107.\\nbatelment, 280.\\nbath, II.\\nBath, 20.\\nbattels, 85.\\nBaxter, 320.\\nbe, verb, 4, 239, 240,\\n24IJ 243, 478.\\nBE (preposition), 38.\\nbe off, 439.\\nbeacon, 266.\\nBEAH, 229.\\nBEALH, 229.\\nbeam, 21, 266.\\nbean, 21,\\nbear, 4, 229, 266.\\nbeard, 11.\\nbeast, 79.\\nbeat, 229.\\nbeaten, 229.\\nbeatify, 257.\\nbeating (Yarmouth),\\n84.\\nbeautify, 257.\\nbeauty, 79.\\nbecalm, 39.\\nbecause, 40, 446, 456.\\nbechance, 257.\\nbeck, II.\\nbecome, 257, 489, 509.\\nBECUMAN, 39.\\nbed, 266.\\nbedabble, 39.\\nbedaub, 39.\\n57^\\nbedeck, 39.\\nbedew, 39.\\nBEDiciAN, 39.\\nbed-ridden, 23.\\nbedstead, 505.\\nbee, 266.\\nbeech, 4, 21.\\nbeef, 44, 94.\\nbeen, 229, 240.\\nbefall, 39, 257.\\nbefit, 39, 257.\\nbefool, 39.\\nbefore, 39, 136, 187.\\nbefriend, 39, 257.\\nbegan, 229, 251.\\nBEGAN GAN, 39.\\nbeget, 39, 136, 257.\\nbegin, 39, 229, 257.\\nbegnaw, 257.\\nbegrime, 39, 257.\\nbegrudge, 39.\\nbeguile, 39, 257.\\nbegun, 229,\\nBEGYRDAN, 39.\\nbehalf, 40.\\nbehave, 39, 257.\\nbehead, 136, 257.\\nBEHEAFDIAN, 39.\\nBEHEALDAN, 39.\\nbehest, 40.\\nbehide, 39.\\nbehind, 39.\\nbehold, 39, 257.\\nbehoof, 40.\\nBEHORSIAN, 39.\\nbehove, 39, 257.\\nbehowl, 257.\\nBEHREAWSIAN, 39.\\nBeing, idea of, 340.\\nbelabour, 39.\\nBELANDIAN, 39.\\nbelate, 39.\\nbelay, 39.\\nbeldame, 276.\\nbeleaguer, 39.\\nbeleeue, 124.\\nBELENDAN, 39.\\nBELGAN, 229.\\nbelie, 39, 257.\\nbelieffulness, 270.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0583.jp2"}, "584": {"fulltext": "57^\\nbelieve, 39, 155, 226,\\n254. 257-\\nbelieving in (inf.), 482.\\nbelike, 39, 445.\\nBELISNIAN, 39.\\nbellicose, 348.\\nbell-v^rire, 505.\\nbelong, 39, 257, 509.\\nbelove, 39, 257.\\nbelow, 39, 136.\\nbemad, 257.\\nbemete, 257.\\nbemoan, 39, 257.\\nbemock, 257.\\nbemoil, 257.\\nbench, 1 1,\\nbend, 253, 254,\\nbeneath, 39.\\nBenedicite 169.\\nbeneficence, 296.\\nbenevolence, 296.\\nbenevolent, 352.\\nbenign, 79.\\nbenignity, 297.\\nBENIMAN, 39.\\nbenison, 279.\\nbent, 253, 254.\\nBEON, 229, 242.\\nBeowTilf, the poem,\\n27.\\nbepaint, 257.\\nbequeath, 3 136, 257.\\nbequest, 136.\\nberattle, 257.\\nBercta, 112.\\nBerctfrid, 112.\\nBertgils, 112.\\nBercthun, 112.\\nBerctred, 112.\\nBerctuald, 112.\\nhere, 21, 43, 108.\\nBEREAFIAN, 39.\\nbereave, 257.\\nberhyme, 257.\\nBESCIERAN, 39.\\nbeseech, 39, 257.\\nbeseek, 257.\\nbeseem, 39, 257.\\nbeset, 82, 257.\\nbeshrew, 39, 257.\\nINDEX.\\nbesides, 40, 441.\\nbesiege, 79, 82, 257,\\nBESITTAN, 39.\\nbeslubber, 257.\\nbesmear, 257.\\nbesmirch, 257.\\nbesort, 257.\\nbesot, 39, 257.\\nbespatter, 39.\\nbespeak, 39, 257.\\nbespice, 257.\\nbesprinckled (Spenser),\\n138.\\nbest, 364.\\nbestain, 257.\\nbested, 257.\\nbestill, 257.\\nbestir, 39, 257.\\nbestow, 39, 257.\\nbestraught, 257.\\nbestrew, 257.\\nbestride, 257.\\nBESYREVi^IAN, 39.\\nBeta, meaning of, 197-\\nbetake, 257.\\nbeteem, 257.\\nbeteli, 39.\\nBeth, Hebrew letter,\\n197\\nbethiifk, 39, 136, 257.\\nBethlehemite, 302.\\nbethump, 257.\\nbetide, 257.\\nbetoken, 257.\\nbetoss, 257.\\nbetrap, 39.\\nbetray, 39, 82, 257.\\nbetrim, 257.\\nbetroth, 257,\\nbetween, 39,\\nbetwixt, 39.\\nBETYNAN, 39.\\nbeuk (Scottish), 232.\\nbewail, 257.\\nbeware, 136, 257.\\nbewed, 39.\\nbeweep, 257.\\nbewet, 257.\\nbewitch, 257.\\nbewray, 257.\\nbeyond, 39, 136, 358.\\nBible translations.\\nII, 12, 27, 404.\\nbid, 229.\\nbidden, 229.\\nbide, II.\\nbier, 1 1, 266.\\nbight, 267.\\nbill, 312.\\nBillingsgate, 49.\\nbillowy-bosomed, 511.\\nbind, 229.\\nbirch, 21.\\nbird, 544.\\nbishop, 62.\\nbishopric, 275.\\nBishopsgate, Without.\\nWithin, 358.\\nbit, 85, 108, 229.\\nbite, 85, 109, 229.\\nbitten, 229.\\nblackbird, 505, 522.\\nBlackheathen, -ian,\\n325-\\nblacksmith, 135.\\nblame, 79.\\nblanc-mange, 79-\\nblatant, 350.\\nbled, 254.\\nbleed, 254.\\nblemish, 77.\\nblessing, 267.\\nblew, 229.\\nblight, 267.\\nblincked (Spenser), 138.\\nbhss, 266.\\nbloodshed, 135.\\nbloodthirsty, 507.\\nbloody, 327.\\nbloom, 2r.\\nblossom, 21.\\nblow, 229.\\nblown, 229.\\nboard, 43.\\nboat, 22, 266.\\nboatswain, 501, 505.\\nbob, 266.\\nBob, 312.\\nbodes command-\\nments), 283.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0584.jp2"}, "585": {"fulltext": "body, II, 330, 406.\\nbog, 109.\\nboil, 79.\\nboisterous, 346.\\nbold, II.\\nBOLGEN, 229.\\nbone, II, 128, 330.\\nbonnie, 90, 94.\\nbookbinder, 287.\\nbooks, 317.\\nboor, 43.\\nboot to-boot 83.\\nbore, 229.\\nborn, II, 229.\\nborne, 229.\\nborough, 266.\\nborowe, 8r.\\nborrow, 237.\\nbosom, 266.\\nbote (noun), 84.\\nbote (verb), 229, 232.\\nboth, 128.\\nbottle of hay, 85.\\nbought, 247.\\nbound, 229.\\nbounden, 229.\\nbountihed, 274.\\nbourne, 86.\\nBournemouth, 87,\\nbow, 229, 237, 332.\\nbowln, 229, 232.\\nbowne, 229, 232,\\nboy, 276.\\nboyhood, 274,\\nBoz, 312,\\nbracelet, 783.\\nBrad Scots dia-\\nlect, 28.\\nbraid, 87, 237.\\nbrain, 265.\\nbrake, 229.\\nbramble, 21.\\nbran, 20.\\nbranchlet, 283.\\nbrave, 32 j.\\nbrawn, 265.\\nbread, 266.\\nbread-and-cheese, 504,\\nbreadth, 267.\\nbreak, 229.\\nINDEX.\\nbreaking up, 417.\\nbreast, 266.\\nbreathe, 24 1,\\nbreeches, 20.\\nbred, 254.\\nbreed, 254.\\nbreeks (Scotch), 318.\\nbrether, 317,\\nbrethren, 316, 317,\\nBretwalda, 27.\\nbrewhouse, 520.\\nbrick, 356.\\nbrick-wall, 357.\\nbridal, 300.\\nbride, 266.\\nbridge by bridge, 376.\\nbright, 1 12, 322.\\nBrihthelm, 112.\\nBrihtnoth, 112,\\nBrihtric, 112.\\nBrihtwold, 112.\\nBrihtwulf, 112.\\nbrim, .-^24.\\nbrimstone (Spenser),\\n136.\\nbrinded, 323.\\nbrindle, 323.\\nbrindled, 323.\\nbring, 247.\\nbrisk, 362.\\nBritanny, 278.\\nEritisb. words, 19\\nfoil.\\nBrito Eoman\\nwords, 19.\\nbrittle, 323.\\nbroaden, 257.\\nbroad-shouldered, 511.\\nBrogue, 557.\\nbroided, 87.\\nbroider, 87.\\nbroidered, 87.\\nbroke, 229.\\nbroken, 229.\\nbrook (verb), 237.\\nbroomstick, 515.\\nbrother, 4, 267.\\nbrotherhood, 274.\\nbrought, 247.\\nbrutel brittle), 323,\\nBrutes, language of,\\n213.\\nbruze (Spenser), 293.\\nbubble, 266.\\nbuck, 266.\\nbuds nesens (Norfolk),\\n317-\\nbuild, 254.\\nbuildress, 320.\\nbuilding, 240.\\nbuilt, 254.\\nbumptious, 347.\\nburden, 266.\\nburgage, 283.\\nburgess, 295.\\nBurgundy, 278.\\nburial, 300.\\nburly, 327.\\nburn, 86, 237.\\nburned, 78.\\nburnish, 78,\\nBurns, his lan-\\nguage, 28,201,232.\\nburst, 229.\\nbursten, 229.\\nbus, 309.\\nbush-bearded, 511.\\nBushy Park, 329.\\nbusiness, 85, 86.\\nbusy, 85.\\nbutcher, 94, 287.\\nbut, 186, 194, 434,\\n436, 445, 457, 458.\\nbuttony, 328.\\nbuttress, 84.\\nbuxom, 34, 331,\\nbuy, 247.\\nbuzzard, 289.\\nby, 4o 435 438.\\n-by, 240.\\nby r leave, 1 70.\\nC, the consonant, II r.\\ncab, 309.\\ncable, 182\\nCaedmon, the poet,\\n26.\\nCiEG, 127.\\nCainites, 302.\\nCaistor, 155.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0585.jp2"}, "586": {"fulltext": "574\\nINDEX.\\nCaithness, 269.\\ncaitiff, 79, 328.\\ncalculate, 258.\\ncalf, 44, 266.\\ncall, 107, no.\\ncame, 229.\\ncan, 33, 36, 128, 249,\\n251, 492.\\nCanaanites, 302.\\ncantelmele, 367.\\ncap, 262.\\ncape, 79.\\ncaptainess, 320.\\ncapting, 48 1,\\ncaptivate, 258.\\ncards, 56.\\ncareless, 509.\\ncarf, 229, 232.\\ncark and care, 534.\\ncarnal, 339.\\ncarpenter, 79, 81.\\ncarriage, 283, 284.\\ncarry, 79.\\ncart, 544.\\ncart-horse, 505.\\ncarve, 229.\\ncast, 229.\\ncasten, 229, 233.\\ncastle, 42, 43.\\ncasualty, 297.\\ncat, 107.\\ncatastrophism, 306.\\ncatch, 247.\\ncatechism, 305.\\ncathartic, 353.\\ncatholic, 137.\\nCatholicism, 305.\\ncat-o -nine-tails, 514.\\ncattle, 79.\\ncattle disease, 469.\\ncaught, 247.\\ncause, 79.\\ncaustic, 353.\\ncauterize, 258.\\ncavalry, 277.\\nCavendish, 541.\\nCAZiEi, 120.\\nCEAFU, 127.\\nCE ASTER, 127, 155.\\ncedarn, 325.\\ncelestial, 79.\\ncelestiall, 138.\\ncement, 280.\\nCENE, 127.\\ncensus, 302.\\nCENT, 127.\\nCEOL, 127.\\nCEORL, 127.\\nCEOSAN, 127.\\nCEP AN, 127,\\ncertain, 79, 41 1.\\ncertainly, 297.\\ncertainty, 297.\\n-ch, 326.\\nchaff, 313.\\nChaldee, 2, 327.\\ncham 1 am, 221.\\nchampion, 79.\\nchance, 57, 79\\nchancellor, 42.\\nchange, 254.\\nchanged, 254.\\nchangez (French), 171.\\nchaos, 302.\\nchapman, 522.\\nchapelry, 277.\\ncharacteristic, 353.\\ncharioteer, 289.\\ncharitableness, 269.\\ncharlock, 273.\\ncharm, 79.\\nchasm, 308.\\nchastise, 293.\\nchastisement, 2S0.\\nChaucer, 61, 68, 75,\\n91, 122, 169, 200,\\n221, 227, 243, 335.\\n343 367 410, 446.\\ncheap, 184, 190.\\ncheat, 153.\\ncheer, 79.\\ncheesen (Dorset), 316.\\n-Chester, 18.\\nchew, 237.\\nchicken, 267.\\nchid, 229.\\nchidden, 229.\\nchide, 229.\\nchiere and face, 81.\\nchiefety, 298.\\nchiefly, 371.\\nchilder, 3 1 7.\\nchildhood, 274, 50S,\\nchildren, 316.\\nchill I will, 221.\\nchin, 266.\\nChina, 149.\\nChinese, 342.\\nChinese syntax, 191,\\n472.\\nchivalrous, 79,\\nchivalry, 79.\\nchode, 229, 232.\\nCholmondeley, 541.\\nchoose, 229.\\nchoosed, 255.\\nchose, 229.\\nchosen, 229.\\nChristendom, 272.\\nchristian, 325.\\nChristianity, 272.\\nChristianity and\\nlanguages, 11.\\nchristianize, 258.\\nchud, 1 would, 221.\\nchurch, 127.\\nchurch ale, 300.\\nchurchyard, 34.\\nchurl, 43, 56, 266,\\nchurlish, 327.\\nCiceter, 541.\\ncmAN, 127.\\nCILD, 127.\\nCingalese, 342.\\nciNNE, 127,\\ncink, 56, 57.\\ncipher, 304.\\nCIRCE, 127,\\ncircuit, 79.\\ncircus, 302.\\ncity, 79.\\ncivility, 297.\\nclad, 254.\\nClarendon s style,\\n499.\\nclassification, 195.\\nclave, 229.\\nClaverton, 541.\\nclean, 362.\\ncleanliness, 271.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0586.jp2"}, "587": {"fulltext": "515\\ncleanly, 330.\\ncleare (Spenser), 138.\\ncleave, 232.\\nclemency, 195, 297.\\nclerk, 146.\\nclimacterick, 138.\\nclimb, 229, 237.\\ncling, 229.\\nclock, 22.\\nclockwork, 505.\\nclomb, 229.\\nclosure, 291.\\ncloth, 266.\\nclothe, 254.\\nclout, 20.\\nclove, cloven, 229.\\nclover, 21.\\nclung, 229.\\nclupie ciW, 61.\\nCNAPA, 127.\\nCNAWAN, 127.\\nCNEDAN, 127.\\nCNEOW, 127.\\nCNIHT, 127.\\ncoal-layers, 503.\\ncoal-producing, 503.\\ncoal-scuttle, 505.\\ncoast-line, 502.\\ncoaxation, 299.\\ncob, 311.\\ncobweb, 311.\\ncock-boat, 22.\\ncockchafer, 267.\\ncockle, 20.\\ncod, 21, no.\\ncodify, 257.\\ncognizance, 296.\\ncolourable, 337.\\ncomandement, 280.\\ncome, 229.\\ncomen, 229, 233.\\ncomer, 288.\\ncomestibles, 185.\\ncomfortable, 336.\\ncommauudement, 281.\\ncommendatory, 350,\\ncommeth, 124.\\ncommission, 79.\\ncompacement, 280, 282.\\ncompanion, 67.\\ncompany, 79.\\ncomparative, 348.\\ncomparison, 279.\\ncompass, 79.\\ncompassion, 79, 298.\\ncompendium, 302.\\ncompetence, 296.\\ncomplain, 79.\\ncomplete, 136.\\ncomplexion, 79.\\ncomposedness, 269.\\ncon to be able, 251.\\nconceive, 155.\\nconcerns, 36.\\nconclude, 79.\\nconclusion, 79.\\nconclusive, 348, 349.\\nconculcation, 299.\\ncondiment, 281.\\nconfessional, 3^9.\\nconfidence, 296.\\nconjurement, 280.\\nConkwell, 541.\\nConner, 267.\\nconquest, 79.\\nconscience, 79, 296.\\nconscionable, 337.\\nconseili, 61.\\nconsequence, 296.\\nconsider, 79.\\nconsols, 310.\\nconspicuous, 347.\\nconspiring, 483.\\nconstancy, 296.\\nconstant, 350,\\nconstitutionalize, 258,\\ncontemplate, 524.\\ncontemporary, 185,\\n30i 350.\\ncontemptible, 336.\\ncontent, 79.\\ncontentedness, 269.\\ncontest, 133.\\ncontinence, 296.\\ncontract, 20 1,\\ncontrariwise, 432, 509.\\ncontrary, 133, 134.\\ncontrition, 298.\\ncook, 79.\\ncoost (Scotch), 232.\\ncop, 311.\\ncope, 79.\\ncoral-paven, 325.\\ncordial, 79.\\nCORFEN, 229.\\ncorn, 21, 266,\\nCornwall, 24.\\ncorny, 327, 328.\\ncoronation, 79, 298.\\ncorone77ient, 280.\\ncorpulent, 352.\\ncosmos, 302.\\ncottage, 283.\\ncottage dames, 469.\\ncould, 141, 146, 249,\\n251, 492.\\ncounsell, 138.\\ncount, 42.\\ncountenance, 79.\\ncountless, 42, 319.\\ncountry, 79.\\ncoun ry-featured, 512.\\ncountry-house, 514.\\nCourt English, 74,\\n76, 89, 97.\\nCourt Hand, 69.\\ncourteous, 79, 346.\\ncovenant, 79.\\ncover, 79.\\ncover-chief, 79.\\ncovetise, 291.\\ncovetize (Spenser), 293.\\ncovetous, 346.\\ncovey tise, 291.\\ncow, 44, 266.\\ncoward, 289.\\ncowardice, 291.\\ncrack, 114.\\ncraft, 266.\\ncrag, 20.\\ncrap, 230, 233.\\ncreating (inf.), 483.\\ncreative, 348, 349.\\ncreature, 154.\\ncreep, 230, 237, 247.\\ncreeped, 255.\\ncrept, 247.\\ncrescive, 348.\\ncress, 544.\\ncrest-fallen, 51 1.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0587.jp2"}, "588": {"fulltext": "51^\\nINDEX.\\ncrew, 230.\\ncriminatory, 350.\\ncristen christian, 257,\\n30^. 325-\\ncrock, 20.\\ncrope, 230, 233.\\ncropen, 250, 233.\\ncross-barred, 511.\\ncrotiny (infinitive), 61.\\ncrow, 230, 237.\\ncrowd, 36.\\ncruel, 79.\\ncruell, 138.\\ncruppen, 233, 230.\\nCudberct, 112.\\nCudbriht, 112.\\ncudto, cudtono (Lan-\\ncashire), 221.\\nctiviherment, 280.\\ncure, 79.\\ncuriosity, 297.\\nciirteisye, 82.\\ncustom, 79.\\ncut, 110.\\ncw^S, 115.\\ncwALM, 115.\\nCWEN, 115.\\ncwic, 115.\\n-cy, 271, 296.\\ncyS, 127.\\nCTLE, 127.\\nCYN, 127.\\nCYNERIC, 275.\\nCITMAN, 127.\\nD, the consonant, ill,\\n197.\\n-d, as form of past\\ntense, 256.\\ndafter, 126.\\ndagger, 107.\\ndainties, 79.\\ndainty, 327.\\ndale, 9.\\nDaleth, Hebrew letter,\\n197.\\ndalfe, 230, 233.\\ndamn, 79.\\ndance, 79.\\ndanger, 79, 285, 286.\\nDanish, 326.\\nDanish language, 8,\\n205, 225, 381, 398,\\n408, 495.\\nDantesque, 342.\\ndare, 249.\\ndarkling, 330, 368.\\ndarknesses, 269.\\ndarksome, 331.\\ndarling, 330.\\ndart, 262.\\nDartmouth, 147.\\ndastard, 289.\\ndate, 107.\\ndaughter, 4, 9, 112,\\n113, 126, 267.\\nday, 9, III, 266.\\nlayly, 365-\\ndeaf, 9.\\ndeal, 9, 247, 266, 408.\\ndealer, 268,\\ndeanery, 277.\\ndear, 322.\\ndeath, 9, 154.\\ndebate, 79.\\ndeceive, 155.\\ndeceived, 123.\\ndecency, 271.\\ndecimate, 258.\\ndeed, 9, 266.\\ndeep, 256.\\ndeepen, 256.\\ndeep-throated, 51 1,\\ndeer, 44, 266, 317.\\ndefence, 79, 296.\\ndefend, 254.\\ndefended 254,\\ndeficit, 302.\\ndegree, 69,\\ndehonestation, 299.\\ndeify, 257.\\ndejectedness, 269.\\ndelectable, 345.\\ndelight, 79.\\ndelinition, 299,\\ndeli table, 3^5.\\nDelta, Greek letter,\\n197.\\ndelve, 229, 237.\\nDenge Ness, 269.\\ndeodorize, 258.\\ndepart, 79.\\ndepend upon it, 454.\\nDerby, 146.\\nderogatory, 350.\\nDerwent, 20,\\ndescription, 79, 298.\\ndesirable, 336.\\ndesire, 79,\\ndespotic, 353.\\ndestiny, 79.\\ndesyre, 138.\\ndetecting, 482,\\ndetective, 348.\\ndetriment, 281.\\ndeuce, 56,\\ndeuysement, 280.\\ndevelopment, 281.\\ndevize, 293.\\ndevotee, 289.\\ndevour, 79.\\ndexterity, 297.\\ndexterous, 346.\\nDialects, 93, 96.\\ndice, 56.\\nDick, 312,\\ndid, 246, 251, 256.\\ndiet, 79.\\ndifference, 296.\\ndiffidence, 296.\\ndig, 230.\\ndigestible, 79,\\ndignify, 257.\\ndiligent, 79.\\ndim, 428.\\ndip, 9, 108.\\ndirectly, 449, 452.\\ndirty, 327.\\ndisastrous, 346.\\ndiscreet, 79.\\ndiscretion, 79.\\ndisdain, 79.\\ndisese and wo, 81.\\ndisguize (Spenser), 293.\\ndish, 18.\\ndislodge, 79.\\ndismissal, 300.\\ndisobedience, 332.\\ndisobedient, 332.\\ndispite, 79.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0588.jp2"}, "589": {"fulltext": "disposal, 300.\\ndisquietude, 301,\\ndistinctive, 348, 349.\\ndistress, 79.\\ndistributing, 482.\\nditcher, 268.\\nditement, -280.\\ndiurnal, 339.\\ndive, 237, 239.\\ndivine, 137, 349.\\ndivision, 79.\\ndo, 109, 208, 246, 251,\\n256, 471, 490.\\ndoctor, 79.\\ndoctorship, 275.\\ndog, 109, 296.\\ndoge, 109.\\ndogge, 138, 190.\\ndog-kennel, 505.\\ndogmatist, 307.\\ndole, 88.\\ndoleful, 88.\\ndolven, 230.\\n-dom, 268, 271.\\ndome, 42.\\ndomestic, 339, 340.\\ndomestical, 341.\\ndone, 246, 251.\\ndone-up, 418.\\ndoom, 266, 272.\\ndoor, 9, 266.\\nDorset Dialect, 59,\\n93, 144, 491.\\ndostu, 2 2 2.\\ndotard, 290.\\ndoth (doeth), 124.\\ndouble, 79.\\nDouble Meaning,\\n550.\\ndoubt, 79.\\ndoughtful, 336.\\ndoughty, 327.\\ndove (noun), 129.\\ndova (verb pret.), 238.\\ndown, 364.\\ndown (of a peach), 266.\\ndownward, 334.\\ndozen, 382.\\ndrag, 9.\\ndrank, 230.\\nINDEX,\\ndrastic, 353.\\ndraught, 126.\\ndraw, 230.\\ndrawn, 230.\\ndreriment, 28 1.\\ndreryhedd, 274.\\ndress, 79.\\ndrew, 230.\\ndrink, 9, 230, 266.\\ndrive, 9, 230.\\ndriven, 230.\\ndrone, 266.\\ndrove, 230.\\ndrunk, 230,\\ndrunkard, 290.\\ndrunken, 230, 233,\\n324-\\nDual pronouns, 391,\\n393-\\nduchess, 319.\\ndug, 230.\\nduke, 42.\\ndulcify, 257.\\ndullard, 290.\\nDunbar, Scottish\\npoet, 28.\\ndurst, 249.\\ndusty, 327.\\nDutch, 326.\\nDutch Language,\\n16, 275, 396.\\nduty, 85.\\ndwelling, 2 40.\\nE, the vowel, 108.\\n-e final, 140.\\nEA, pronunciation of,\\n152.\\nEA water, 155.\\neach, 410.\\nEadred, 272.\\neagle-eyed, 511.\\nEAHTA, 155.\\nEALD, 165.\\near, 19, 266.\\nearl, 42, 266.\\nearlier, 419.\\nEarly English Text\\nSociety, 245, 273,\\n284, 331, 344.\\nPp\\n577\\nearth, 266.\\nearthquake, 135.\\nease, 152.\\neast, 266.\\neat, 10, 16, 153, 230.\\neaten, 230.\\necchoed (Spenser), 138.\\nEcgbriht, 112.\\n-ed, 323. 33^. 333-\\nedge, 266.\\nedge-tool, 505.\\nedify, 257.\\neducate, 254.\\neducated, 254.\\n-ee, 289.\\n-eer, 289.\\neffect, 79.\\neffeminacy, 271.\\neffeniinateness, 271,\\neftsoones, 368.\\neglantine, 21.\\negotist, 307.\\neight, 155.\\n-el, 323. 330.\\nelective, 348.\\nelectrify, 257.\\nelegant, 343, 350, 351,\\n355-\\nelement, 280.\\nelementary, 529.\\nelf, 195.\\nelf-needled, 512.\\nelixir, 304.\\nelm, 21, 266.\\nelmen, 324, 325.\\nelsewhere, 429.\\nelvisch, 327.\\nem them, 413.\\nembellish, 78.\\nembroider, 87.\\neminence, 296.\\nemparement, 280.\\nEmphasis, 528.\\nempress, 5 J 9.\\nemprize, 293.\\nempty, 327.\\n-en, 316, 324, 481.\\nenchantment, 79, 280.\\nenchauntement, 280.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0589.jp2"}, "590": {"fulltext": "578\\nINDEX.\\n-ence, 296.\\n-ency, 296.\\nendite, 79.\\nendless, 136.\\nendure, 79.\\nene eync, eyes, 316.\\nengender, 79.\\n-enger, 285.\\nEnglisc, 17, 27.\\nEnglish Language,\\n68.\\na peculiar fea-\\ntvire of, 468.\\nsibilaney of, 88.\\nEnnglish, 50.\\nEnngliss, 50.\\nenough, 126, 280\\nenprysonment, 280.\\nensample, 79.\\n-ent, 350.\\nenterprize, 293.\\nenvy, 79.\\nEC (vowel-combina-\\ntion), 130.\\nEOFORwic, 118.\\n-eous, 346.\\nepitome, 302, 303.\\nequality, 297.\\nequilibrium, 302,\\nequity, 297.\\nequivalent, 352.\\ner (conjunction), 451.\\n-er, 287, 288, 326.\\neradicate, 258.\\nere (conjunction), 451.\\nerroneous, 346, 347.\\n-ery, 277.\\n-es (adverbial), 368.\\nescaper, 288.\\nesculent, 318, 352.\\n-tst, 342.\\nesplanade, 303.\\n-esque, 341.\\n-ess, 294, 319.\\n-esse, 294.\\nEssex, 27.\\nestate, 79.\\nestimable, 336.\\nestimate, 258.\\n-et, 283.\\neternal, 339.\\neternall, 138.\\netestu, 221.\\nethic, 353.\\nEton, 155.\\n-ette, 283.\\nevangelize, 258.\\neven, 324.\\neverlastingness, 265,\\n269.\\nevery, 410.\\neverybody, 406.\\nevery ch, 410.\\nevery chon, 410.\\neverything, 408^\\nevidence, 296.\\nevil, 266, 323.\\nevolutionism, 306.\\newe, no, 119.\\nexalt, 116.\\nexcarnification, 299.\\nexcellence, 79.\\nexchange, 79.\\nexchange-stroke, 515.\\nexclusive, 348.\\nexculpate, 258.\\nexculpatory, 350.\\nExe, 2D.\\nexercize (Spenser), 293.\\nexhaust, 116.\\nexigence, 296.\\nexotic, 116,\\nexpedient, 350.\\nexpence, 296.\\nexpense, 296,\\nexperience, 296.\\nexpiatory, 350.\\nexport, 116, 117.\\nexpostulate, 258.\\nexpound, in.\\nextend, 116.\\nexternalization, 298.\\nextraordinary, 363.\\n-ey, 327.\\neye, 262, 266.\\neyen, 315.\\neyes, 67.\\neyne, 315.\\neysement, 280.\\nfabulosity, 297.\\nface, 79, 81.\\nfacet, 283.\\nfaculty, 79.\\nfain, 324.\\nfair, 322, 354, 355.\\nfair-haired, 511.\\nfairy, 195, 278.\\nfairy-cupped, 512.\\nfaith, 267.\\nfaithful, 138.\\nfall, 107, 230.\\nfallacy, 296.\\nfallen, 230.\\nFamilies of Speech,\\n473-\\nfancy-free (Shakspeare),\\nfantastic, 340.\\nfar, 364.\\nfar-fetched, 511,\\nfar-seeing, 510.\\nfare, 128.\\nfarewells, 180.\\nfashion, 279.\\nfast, 256.\\nfasten, 256.\\nfastidious, 343.\\nfastuous, 346.\\nfat, 107.\\nfat a vessel, 266.\\nfate, 107.\\nfather, 4, 267.\\nfathom, 266.\\nfatty, 327.\\nfawn-skin-dappled,5 1 2\\nfealty, 297.\\nFEAWA, 116.\\nfeat, 153.\\nfeather, 267.\\nfeculent, 352.\\nfed, 254.\\nfeed, 4, 254.\\nfeel, 247.\\nfeet, 67, 246, 317.\\nfeffement, 280.\\nfelicity, 79.\\nfell, 230, 233.\\nfellow-circuiteer, 289.\\nfellowship, 275.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0590.jp2"}, "591": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n579\\nfelony, 79, 278.\\nfelt, 247.\\nfervor, 299.\\nfervour, 299.\\nfetch, 247.\\nfew, 116,\\nM 257.\\nfeyjity e, 29I.\\nfiddler, 2 ^8.\\nfidelity, 297.\\nfiduciary, 300.\\nfield, 266-\\nfield-path, 470, 504.\\nfight, 230, 262, 267.\\nfigure, 79, 254.\\nfigured, 254.\\nfilly, 4.\\nfilthy, 327.\\nfind, 230.\\nfinding, 482.\\nfine, 343, 355.\\nfinesse, 295.\\nfinger. 267.\\nfinish, 78.\\nfire, 4.\\nfire-balloon, 505.\\nfire-bote, 84.\\nfirmament, 280, 281,\\n282.\\nfish, 4, 266.\\nfisher, 268.\\nfishery. 277.\\nfishwife, 505.\\nfist, 4.\\nfit, 108.\\nfitz, 57.\\nfive, 4, 59, 227.\\nfive-words-long, 507.\\nflail, 43.\\nPlat adjective, 356,\\n468.\\nadverb, 361.\\npronoun-adverb,\\n417.\\nsyntax, 461.\\nflatling, 330, 36S.\\nflatteress, 320.\\nflatulent, 352.\\nflax, 21.\\nflea, 151.\\nfled, 247.\\nflee, 247.\\nFlemish, 326\\nflesh, 266,\\nFletcher, 287.\\nflew, 230.\\nPlexion, 223, 508.\\nPiesional adjective,\\n357-\\nadverb, 365.\\npronoun-adverb,\\n429.\\nsyntax, 474,\\nflighty, 327.\\nfling, 230.\\nfloat, 237,\\nflockmel, 367.\\nflood, 266.\\nflourish, 78.\\nflower, 79.\\nfloweret, 283,\\nflowery, 327,\\nflown, 230.\\nflung, 230.\\nfly, 230, 266.\\nflying, 486.\\nfoal, 4.\\nfoe, 109, 129.\\nfoes, 316.\\nfoil, 129.\\n/oison plenty, 279.\\nfold, 237, 266.\\nfolk, 406.\\nfolly, 79.\\n/owe foes, 316.\\nfoody, 327/ 32S.\\nfool-hardise, 291.\\nfoot, 4, 246, 266.\\nfoot-sore, 507.\\nfopperies, 277.\\nfor, 4, 187, 434, 436,\\n445. 457-\\nfor all that, 449.\\nforcible, 336.\\nfore, 4, 109,\\nforego, 509.\\nforeigners, 24.\\nfore-right, 509.\\nforeshorten, 509.\\nforest, 79, 186.\\nP p 2\\nfor ever, 431.\\nforgetive, 348.\\nforget-me-not, 501,\\n503-\\nforlorn, 238, 509.\\nform, 79.\\nformal, 339.\\nforsake, 230.\\nfor sake (with gen-\\nitive between), 443.\\nforsaken, 230.\\nfor something, 431.\\nforsook, 230.\\nforsooth, 534.\\nforth, 4, 61.\\nfor the sake of, 444.\\nfortune, 79.\\nforward, 509.\\nfot fetched, 247..\\nfought, 230.\\nfoughten, 230, 233.\\nFoulness, 269.\\nfound, 230.\\nfoundeynent, 280.\\nfounder, 319.\\nfoundress, 319.\\nfour, loa\\nfour times, 383.\\nfowl, 44, 266.\\nfowler, 268.\\nfox, 319.\\nfranchise, 291, 292.\\nfraternity, 79.\\nfraternize, 258.\\nfraudulent, 352.\\nFrederick, 138.\\nfredom, 82.\\nfreeze 230.\\nFrench, 62, 326.\\nFrench influence,\\n42, 65, 72, 78, 85,\\n89, 97, III, 113,\\n115, 130, 133, 146,\\n151. 253, 257, 267,\\n276, 280, 293, 312,\\n315. 336. 345. 358.\\n370, 375 381, 38\\n392, 401, 437, 442,\\n445, 471, 479, 487,\\n544. 552.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0591.jp2"}, "592": {"fulltext": "58o\\nINDEX.\\nFrench contrasted\\nwith. English, 133,\\n398, 493, 514.\\ntresh, 322.\\nfret, 237.\\nfriend, 190, 257,\\nfriendship, 275, 508.\\nfrighten, 257.\\nfrog, 266.\\nFroissart, Chro-\\nnicler, 279, 449.\\nfrolic, 185.\\nfrom, 4.\\nFrome, 20.\\nfrom whence, 431.\\nfrost, 266.\\nfroward, 334, 509.\\nfroze, 230.\\nfrozen, 230.\\nfruitful, 336.\\nfruitless, 336.\\nfruit-shaped, 512.\\nfudge 171.\\nfull, 139, 322.\\n-full. 32 3 336.\\nfull-blown, 507,\\nFuller, Thomas,344.\\nfungi, 318.\\nfungus, 302.\\nFurness, 269.\\nfurnish, 78.\\nfurther, 136, 420.\\nfurze, 21, 266.\\nfurzen, 316.\\nFurzen Leaze, 326.\\nfusillade, 303, 304.\\nfusty, 327.\\nfyi 257.\\nG, the letter, iii.\\nGadites, 302.\\nGaelic, 340.\\nGaelic Language,\\n22.\\ngall, 107.\\nGallic, 340.\\ngan, 251.\\ngander, 107.\\ngap, 263.\\ngape, 107, 262.\\ngarden, 18, 262, 276.\\ngardener, 28\\ngarden flowers, 357.\\ngarden herb, 470.\\ngarding, 481.\\ngarnement, 280.\\ngarrison, 279.\\ngastric, 353.\\ngathering (infinitive),\\n482.\\ngay, 79-\\ngayte=^02X%, 317.\\nGE, 117,\\nGEAR, 117.\\nGEARD, 117.\\nGEARO, 117.\\ngeese, 317.\\ngeet, 317.\\nGELYFAN, 227.\\ngeneralize, 258.\\ngeneralization, 195.\\ngenerous, 347.\\ngent, 309.\\ngentle, 79, 190.\\ngefitrise, 291.\\ngeometry, 79.\\nGEORN, I I 7.\\nGerman, 326.\\nGerman influence,\\n463-\\nGerman Language,\\n5, 9, 200, 202, 204,\\n226, 243, 272, 316,\\n319. 331. 334. 357.\\n392, 396, 400, 439.\\n479,489, 505, 512.\\ngerminate, 254.\\ngerminated, 254.\\nGESE, 117.\\nget, 230.\\ngewesen (Germ.), 232.\\ngewcrden(Germ.), 243.\\ngeyn (Cambridgeshire),\\n364.\\nghost, 266.\\nGIELD, 1x7.\\ngifted, 333.\\ngift-horse, 505.\\ngigantesque, 341.\\ngigantic, 340.\\ngild, 254.\\nGILPAN, 117.\\ngilt, 254.\\ngird, 254.\\ngirl. 276.\\ngirl of the period, 358.\\ngirl-graduates, 505.\\ngirt, 254.\\nGIT, I 17.\\ngive, III, 230.\\ngive me, 475.\\ngiven, 230.\\ngladsome, 331.\\nglass, 266.\\nglen, 22.\\nglide, 230, 237.\\nglisten, 257.\\nglobose, 348.\\nglod, 230, 233.\\nglorious, 346.\\ngloriose, 348.\\nGloucester, 20, 48.\\ngluttony, 57.\\ngnat, 266.\\ngnaw, 230.\\ngnawn, 230, 233.\\ngnew, 230, 233.\\ngo, 109, 230.\\ngoat, 266, 317.\\ngoat herd, 505.\\ngoddess, 319.\\ngodhead, 274.\\ngodly, 330.\\ngold, 149.\\ngolden, 325.\\ngolden-shafted, 511.\\ngone, 230.\\ngood, 95, 322, 361.\\ngood-bye, 541.\\ngoodlike, 509.\\ngoodly, 330, 509.\\ngood cheap, 190.\\ngoodman, 520, 522.\\ngoodness, 85, 269.\\ngoose, 227, 266.\\ngot, 230.\\nGothic, 340.\\nGothic Family of\\nlanguages, 6, 476.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0592.jp2"}, "593": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n581\\nGothic Moeso-\\nGothic) Dialect,\\n12, 14, 226, 245,\\n315-\\ngotten, 230.\\ngouty, 327.\\ngovernance, 79\\ngoverness, 319.\\nGower, the poet, 68,\\n75, 78.\\ngown and gownd, ill.\\ngrace, 278.\\ngraceful, 509.\\ngracious, 346.\\nGRAFE, 230.\\ngraff, 183.\\nGrammar, 176, 201,\\n264, 378-\\ngrandiose, 348.\\ngrandsir (American),\\n537-\\ngrant, 79.\\ngraphic, 353.\\ngrass, 21, 544.\\ngrasshopper, ill.\\ngratitude, 301.\\ngratuity, 297.\\ngrave, 237.\\ngraven, 230, 233.\\ngray. iii.\\ngreat, 152, 322.\\nGreek influence,\\n259 302, 308, 318,\\n340, 515.\\nGreek Language,\\n191, 214, 2 16, 218,\\n323, 246, 374, 415,\\n440, 468, 486, 511,\\n530.\\ngrew, 530.\\ngrig, III.\\ngrim, 324.\\nGrimm s Law, 2, 5,\\nGrimm, quoted, 245,\\n423-\\ngrind, 230.\\ngrinder, 268.\\ngrocer, 287.\\nGROF, 230.\\ngrotesque, 341.\\nground, 230, 266.\\ngroveling, 368.\\ngrow, 230.\\ngrowing, 240.\\ngrown, 230.\\nguarantee, 289.\\nguardian, 277.\\nguerdon, 140.\\nguess, 140.\\nguest, 1 40, 266.\\nguild, 140.\\nguile, 140.\\nguilt, 140.\\nguilty, 328.\\nguize (Spenser), 293.\\nGuthlac, 274.\\nH, the letter, 112.\\nha! 180.\\nhabiliment, 281.\\nhabitual, 339.\\nhad, 354,\\nhad (subjunctive), 477-\\nhadde-y-wiste, hady-\\nwist, 514.\\nhaggard, 290.\\nhag-ridden, 23.\\nhail 172.\\nhale, 128.\\nhalidam, 272.\\nhall, 42, 107.\\nhand, 190, 266.\\nhandicap, 181.\\nhandiwork, 505.\\nhandloom, 505.\\nhandsaw, 194.\\nhandsome, 331.\\nhandwriting, 505.\\nhandy-work or hand-\\nywork? 505.\\nhang, 230.\\nhappen, 254.\\nhappened, 254.\\nhappiness, 508.\\nharbinger, 285.\\nharbour, 79.\\nhard, 322.\\nharden, 257.\\nhard-grained, 511.\\nhardihood, 274.\\nhardiment, 281.\\nhardy, 328.\\nhare, 128,\\nharper, 268.\\nHarris, author of\\nHermes, 355.!4i3.\\n455-\\nHarry, 312.\\nhasardery, 57.\\nhaste, 79, 256,\\nhasten, 256.\\nhastow, 222.\\nhat, 107.\\nhatchet, 283.\\nhate, 107.\\nhater, 288.\\nhatred, 272.\\nhaughty, 327.\\nhaunt, 7g.\\nhave, 254.\\nHavelok, the poem\\nof, 60.\\nhaw, 21.\\nhawk, 129.\\nhazard, 57.\\nhe, 108, 390, 396, 398,\\n399,412.\\nhead, 257, 266.\\n-head, 274.\\nheady, 327.\\nheal, 237.\\nheap, 33, 36, 266.\\ni(jpar, 168, 247.\\nheart, 266.\\nheart-sick, 507.\\nheart-weary, 507.\\nheart-whole, 507.\\nhearth, 43.\\nhearth-stone, 505.\\nhearty, 327.\\nheat, 152.\\nheathen, 324.\\nheathendom, 272.\\nheave, 230.\\nheaven, 59, 267.\\nheaviness, 269.\\nHebraize, 259.\\nHebrew influence,\\n397-", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0593.jp2"}, "594": {"fulltext": "5S2\\nINDEX.\\nHebreTV Language,\\n2, 330, 415. 458,\\n468, 488, 504, 5,9.\\n-hed, 274.\\n-hedd, 274..\\nhedge, 128.\\nhedge-flowers, 357.\\nheigh-ho 166.\\nheight, 256, 267.\\nheighten, 256,\\nheir-loom, 505.\\nheld, 230.\\nhelm, 266.\\nhelp, 230.\\nhempen, 324, 325.\\nhems, 180.\\nhence, 429.\\nher, 394, 395.\\nher (dative), 476.\\nherb-garden, 470.\\nherd, 247.\\nhere, 429.\\nHereberct, 112.\\nheroic, 340.\\nheron, 194.\\nherself, 396.\\nHI, 412.\\nhigh, 109, 322.\\nHigh Dutch, 6.\\nhigh-mindedness, 269.\\nhigh-toned, 511.\\nhight, 245.\\nHighway, why the\\nQueen ^s, 68.\\nhill, 266.\\nhim, 389, 395, 396,\\n3Q7 4i3-\\nhim (dative), 476.\\nhimself, 396, 3(^7.\\nhimselfe (Spenser), 1 3-.\\nhind, 43.\\nhine, 221,\\nhing (Scotch), 230,\\n233-\\nHIRE (pronoun), 394.\\nhis, 223, 394, 395.\\nhistory, 310.\\nhither, 429.\\nHivites, 302.\\nhoe, no, 130,\\nhoised, in.\\nhold, 230.\\nholden, 230, 234.\\nholp, 230, 233.\\nholpen, 230.\\nholt, 21.\\nholy water sprinckle,\\n522.\\nhomage, 42.\\nhome, 43.\\nhome-enfolding, 513.\\nhomeward, 334. 335-\\nhonest, 79.\\nhoney-coloured, 512.\\nhonour, 79, 82, 129.\\nhonorable, 133.\\nhood, 266.\\n-hood, 268, 274,\\nhoof, 266.\\nHooker, Richard,\\n420,431, 432, 441,\\n453. 457-\\nhop, 109.\\nhope, 109, 253.\\nhopefulness, 270.\\nhoped hope-did\\n256.\\nhoper, 288.\\nhopper, 288.\\nhome (Spenser), 137.\\nHome Tooke, 167,\\n183,413.453.455.\\nhorrible, 79.\\nhorrify, 257.\\nhorrour, 129.\\nhorse, 266,\\nhorse-box, 505.\\nhorse-race, 470, 504.\\nhoseli to house!, 61.\\nhosen, 316.\\nhost, 79,\\nhot, 10, 128.\\nhound, 266.\\nhour, 79.\\nhouse, 43, 262, 266.\\nhousen (provincial),\\n316.\\nhousewife, 539.\\nhove, 230.\\nhow, 194, 421, 449.\\nhowbeit, 454, 479.\\nhowever, 432.\\nhowsoever, 432.\\nHRYCG, 128.\\nHuaetberct, 112.\\nhub (American), 31 1.\\nhuckster, 320.\\nhum, 180;\\nhuman, 136,\\nhumane, 136.\\nhumanity, 297.\\nhumble, 79.\\nhumour, 79.\\nhung, 230, 234.\\nhusk, 21.\\nHWA, 125.\\nHW^L, 125.\\nHW^R, 125.\\nHWffiS, 125,\\nHW^T, 125.\\nHWJETE, 125.\\nHW^T-STAN, 125.\\nHWEOL, 125.\\nHV7I, 125.\\nnwiL, 125.\\nHWISPERUNG, 125.\\nHWISTLERE, I 25.\\nHWIT, 125.\\nHWYLC, 125.\\nhydraulic, 119.\\nhypocrisy, 119.\\nhypothesis, 119.\\nhyrst, 120.\\nhyson, 120.\\nhyssop, 119.\\nHythe, 120.\\nI, the pronoun, 194,\\n212, 391.\\nI, the vowel, 106, 109.\\n-ian, 325, 352.\\n-ible, 336.\\n10 (Saxon pronoun),\\n220.\\n-ic, 339. 352.\\n-ical, 340.\\n-ice, 291.\\nice, 266.\\nIcelandic poetry,\\n532.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0594.jp2"}, "595": {"fulltext": "583\\nichave, 222.\\nicy-pearled, 5 1 1,\\nidle, 323.\\nidolism, 305,\\nidolist, 307.\\n-ier, 289,\\nif, 453, 456, 457.\\n-if, 328.\\nile I ll (Shakspeare)\\n222.\\nilk (Scotch), 410.\\nill. 364-\\nill-conditioned, 332.\\nillustrious, 347.\\nimage, 79.\\nimagery, 277.\\nimaginative, 56, 348.\\nimpetuosity, 297.\\nimplacable (Spenser),\\n338.\\nimpound, ill.\\nimpotence, 296.\\nimprovement, 281,\\nin. 37\u00c2\u00bb 194. 364. 441-\\nin a fashion, 431.\\nin a manner, 431.\\nin a sort of w^ay, 431.\\nin a way, 431.\\nincense, 296.\\nincog., 309.\\nincony, 329.\\nincrease, 79.\\nindebtedness, 269, 270.\\nindeed, 169, 190.\\nindelible, 425.\\nindex, 302.\\nIndian, 352.\\nindicate, 258.\\nindifFerentist, 307.\\nindolent, 352.\\nIndo-European lan-\\nguages, I.\\n-ine, 349.\\nin earnest, 375,\\nin fact, 375.\\nin good faith, 375.\\nin jest, 375.\\nin joke, 375.\\nin presence, 375,\\nin presence of, 448.\\nm some sort, 431.\\nin spight of, 443.\\nin spite of, 443.\\nin truth, 375.\\nin vain, 375.\\nin vi^hich, 450.\\ninextinguishable, 425.\\ninfallibilist, 307.\\ninfernal, 79.\\nInfinitive, 379, 471,\\n481,405.\\nInflectional stage of\\nlanguage, 219,\\n468, 508.\\ninfluence, 296.\\ninfluential, 339.\\n-ing. 323. 329. 368,\\n481.\\n-inger, 285.\\ningle-nook, 505.\\ninjure, 255.\\nink, 262.\\nink-horn, 505.\\ninky, 327.\\ni-nowe enough, 280.\\ninquisitorial, 339.\\ninsolent, 350, 352.\\ninsolvent, 350.\\ninstead of, 444.\\ninstrument, 79, 280,\\n281.\\nintegrity, 297.\\nintellectual, 339.\\nintelligential, 339.\\nmtendiment, 281.\\nintent, 79.\\nintentional, 339.\\nintercede, 108.\\ninterest, 302, 303.\\ninteresting, 343.\\ninterests, 318.\\ninternecine, 349.\\nintervene, 108.\\nintolerable, 425.\\nintrudress, 320.\\ninvalid, 524.\\ninvalidate, 258.\\ninventive, 348.\\ninvincible, 425.\\ninwardness, 265, 270.\\n-ion, 298.\\nIrish, 326.\\nIrish modulation,\\n.555-\\nirksome, 331.\\nirrationals, 185.\\nirrepressible, 336.\\nirony, 304.\\nis, the substantive verb,\\n218, 220, 241.\\n-ise, 291.\\n~ish, 326, 328.\\n-ism, 305.\\nissue, 277.\\n-ist, 307,\\n-istic, 353.\\nit, 396.\\nItalian, 326.\\nItalian influence,\\n284, 342.\\nItalian Language,\\n29, 392, 492.\\n-ite, 301.\\nitem, 302.\\nitems, 318.\\n-ition, 298.\\n-ity, 297.\\nlUNG, 118.\\n-ive, 348.\\nivy, 266.\\n-ize, 258,\\nJ, the letter, 113.\\nJack, 114, 312.\\njailor, 79.\\njangle, 55, 79.\\njangler, 55, 113.\\njangleress, 55.\\njape, 55, 107.\\njaper, 55.\\njapery, 55.\\njapeworthy, 55.\\njaunty, 327.\\njealous, 113, 346.\\nJebusites, 302.\\njeopardise, 294.\\njeopardy, 57, 79, 129.\\njest, 113.\\njewel, 79, 113.\\nJewry, 277.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0595.jp2"}, "596": {"fulltext": "584\\nJews, 67.\\nJoanna Southcotites,\\n302.\\njocose, 136.\\njocund, 79.\\nJohn, 312.\\njoin, 8o, 113, 147.\\njoint, 147.\\njoke, 255.\\njoked, 255.\\njolif, 328.\\njollity, 81.\\njolly, 80, 113, 328.\\njourney, 80, 113.\\njoust, 113.\\njoviality, 297.\\njoy, 80, 113.\\njoyous, 346.\\njubilant, 350.\\nJudaize, 259.\\njudge, 80, 113, 123.\\njudgment, 281.\\nJudgment, the means\\nof expressing, 224,\\n354-\\njuggement, 280.\\nJ Jggler, 55.\\nJuly, 113.\\njump, 420.\\njunket, 283.\\njust, 362, 418, 452.\\njustice, 80, 113, 195,\\n291.\\njustifiable, 336.\\nJutes, the nation, 1 7.\\nK, the letter. T13.\\nK, in Swedish, 128.\\nkeel, 266.\\nkeep, 114, 247.\\nliempa, 114.\\nhene, 114.\\nKent, 20, 1 1 4.\\nkept, 247.\\nkiln, 144.\\nkin, 114.\\nkind, 81.\\nkindle, 255.\\nkindred, 272, 508.\\nkine, 317.\\nINDEX.\\nking, 42, 1 14, 265, 266,\\n267.\\nking-cup, 505.\\nkingdom, 272, 508.\\nkinglet, 283.\\nKing s English, 68.\\nKirk (Scotch), 127.\\nkite, 109.\\nknave, 266.\\nknee, 266.\\nkneel, 247.\\nknelt, 247.\\nknight, 262, 266, 357.\\nknighthood, 357.\\nknocked-up, 418.\\nknot, 266.\\nknow, 37, 251.\\nknowledge, 36, 1 28,273.\\nkoyntise, 291.\\nkye (Scotch), 317.\\nkyind (American), 107.\\n-1 (terminal), 323.\\nla 163.\\nlabouring, 486.\\n-lac, 273.\\nlack, 114.\\nlackadaysical, 166.\\nlade, 128, 230,\\nladen, 230.\\nladyship, 275.\\nlaggard, 290.\\nlaid, 254.\\nlain, 230.\\nlake, 128.-\\nlake to play), 273.\\nlakefellow, 273.\\nlakers, 273.\\nlamb, 266.\\nlamentable, 336.\\nlamp-oil, 505.\\nland, 107, 128, 262,\\n266.\\nlanded, 332.\\nlandlordism, 306.\\nlandscape, 275.\\nlanguage, 80, 283.\\nLangue d oil, d oc,\\n427.\\nlarge, 80.\\nlarge-moulded, 51 f.\\nlargess, 80, 295.\\nlatch, 128.\\nlatchet, 283.\\nlate, 107, 322.\\nlateward, 334,\\nLatin language, 32,\\n191,217, 468, 537.\\nLatin, usurping it\\nover French, 345.\\nlatitude, 301.\\nlaugh, 255, 266.\\nlaughter, 36, 126.\\nlaundress, 319.\\nlaw, 67.\\nlay, 230, 254.\\nLayamon, 48, 132,\\n172, 410.\\nlayed laid, 124.\\n-le, 323.\\nlea, 151.\\nLea, family name, 155.\\nlead, 254.\\nleaden, .^24, 325,\\nleaf, 266, 318.\\nleafy, 327,\\nlean, 247.\\nleap, 237, 247.\\nleain, 254.\\nlearned (adj.), 332.\\nlearnt or learned, 254.\\nLEAS, 238.\\nleast (modern lest), 45 2.\\nleather, 267.\\nleave, 247.\\nleaves, 318.\\n-ledge, 273.\\nleek, 21.\\nleeward, 334.\\nleft, 247.\\nlegibility, 297.\\nleisured, 332, 333.\\nlemonade, 303.\\nlend, 254.\\nlength, 256, 267.\\nlengthen, 256.\\nLent, 266.\\nlent, 352.\\nLEOSE, 238.\\nlese, 230.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0596.jp2"}, "597": {"fulltext": "-less, 323, 336.\\nlessee, 289.\\nlesson, 279.\\nlessor, 289,\\nlet, 251, 492,\\n-let, 283,\\nlethargic, 340.\\nletter, 102.\\nletters, 102.\\nLevites, 302.\\nlice, 317.\\nlicence, 139, 296.\\nlicense, 139.\\nlicht (Anglian), T12,\\n113-\\nlidless-eyed, 511.\\nlie (jacere), 230.\\nlie (mentiri), 237.\\nlief, 322.\\nlien or lain, 230, 234.\\nlife-long, 507.\\nlight, J09, 254, 267,\\n322.\\nlighten, 257.\\nlightning, 136.\\nlight-o -love, 514.\\nLIHT, 125.\\nlike, 187, 322, 403,\\n408, 437, 546.\\nlikelihood, 274.\\nlikely, 330.\\nlikeness, 546.\\nliking, 546.\\nlilac, 149.\\nlilly (Spenser), 138.\\nlily-handed, 511.\\nlimb-meal, 367.\\nlime, 21.\\nlinch, 283.\\nlincked (Spenser), 137.\\nlineage, 80, 283.\\n-ling, 368.\\nLink, 283.\\nliquidate, 258.\\nlissom, 332.\\nlistener, 268,\\nlit, 254.\\nliterary, 102.\\nliterature, J02.\\nlitten, 34.\\nINDEX.\\nlittle, 190, 323.\\nlivelihood, 275.\\nliver, 267.\\nlo! 163.\\nload, 129.\\nLOG, 163,\\nLocal names, 20, 48,\\n120, 126, 155, 269,\\n278, 283, 288, 323,\\n326, 329, 358.\\nlock, 237.\\n-lock, 268, 273.\\nloden, 230, 234.\\nlogic, 340.\\nlogical, 341.\\nLondon, 20, 147.\\nlonely-Wood, 522.\\nlong, 322, 365.\\nlongish, 327.\\nlongitude, 301.\\nlong-legged, 510.\\nlong of, 442.\\nlong on, 442.\\nlongsome, 332.\\nlook, 476,\\nlookedst, 476.\\nloop-hole, 505.\\nlop, 109.\\nlording (inf 486.\\nlordship, 275.\\nlore, 266.\\nlorn, 230, 238.\\nLOREN, 238.\\nlose, 238, 247.\\nlost, 238, 247.\\nlouse, 266.\\nlove, 59, 129.\\nloved, 177.\\nlove-loyal, 507.\\nloyalty, 297.\\nlubbard, 338.\\nlunching, 481.\\nlust, 266.\\nlustihed, 274.\\nlusty, 327.\\nluxation, 298.\\nluxurious, 346, 347.\\n-ly, 323. 330. 369-\\nlynchet, 283.\\nLYS, 317.\\n585\\n-m (terminal), 323,\\n324-\\nMacaulayesque, 34I,\\nMadam, 80, 276.\\nMadame (in French),\\n398.\\nmadden, 257.\\nmade (short for maked),\\n254.\\nmagazine, 304.\\nmagic, 80.\\nmagnificence, 296.\\nmagnitude, 301.\\nmaiden, 267.\\nmaidenhed, -hood, 274.\\nmaiden-meek, 507.\\nmain, 184, 267.\\nmainspring, 505.\\nmajestic, 340.\\nmajority, 297.\\nmake, 107, 128, 254.\\nmake-believe, 513.\\nmakeshift, 513.\\nmake to, 471.\\nmake-weight, 513.\\nmaking, 268.\\nmaking mouths at, 87.\\nmalady, 80.\\nmalevolent, 352.\\nmalice, 291, 292.\\nmalison, 279.\\nmallard, 290.\\nmalt, 107.\\nMaltese, 342.\\nmaltster, 320.\\nman, 33, 34, 107, 128,\\n246, 266, 404, 405.\\nmanageable, 336.\\nManassites, 302.\\nManchester, 20,\\nmanhood, 274.\\nmankind, 501, 508.\\nmanner, 80.\\nman-of-war, 504, 514.\\nmanor, 20.\\nmansion, 80.\\nmantle, 80.\\nmarchioness, 319,\\nMarcionites, 302.\\nmarine, 349.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0597.jp2"}, "598": {"fulltext": "5S6\\nINDEX.\\nmarionette, 283.\\nmark, 262, 266.\\nmarketable, 336.\\nmarmalade, 303.\\nMaronites, 302.\\nmarplot, 513.\\nmarriage. So.\\nmarriage settlements,\\n470.\\nmarrying (inf.), 482.\\nmarsh-mallow, 505.\\nmartial, 339.\\nmartirement, 280.\\nmartyrdom, 272.\\nmasquerade, 303.\\nmaster, 80.\\nmasterpiece, 514.\\nmatch, 127.\\nmath, 267.\\nmathematical, 341.\\nmatter, 36, 80.\\nmatter-of-fact, 357.\\nmatutinal, 339.\\nmajindemens, 282.\\nmay (symbolic), 206,\\n249, 251, 492.\\nmayoralty, 297.\\nme, 108.\\nme (dative), 475.\\n-meal, 366.\\nmealy, 327.\\nmean, 247.\\nmeaned, 255.\\nmeanness, 269,\\nmeasure, 152, 290.\\nmeasureable, 80.\\nmeat, 80.\\nmechanical, 341.\\nmedium, 302, 303.\\nmeed, 266.\\nmeek-eyed, 511.\\nmeet, 247.\\nmelt, 230.\\nmemento, 302.\\nmemorandum, 302.\\nmemory, 80.\\nmen, 317.\\nmen of learning, 358.\\nmen of property, 358.\\nmen of this generation,\\n35\u00c2\u00bb.\\n-ment, 280.\\nmention, 255.\\nmentioned, 255.\\nmercenary, 80.\\nmerchandise, 291, 293.\\nmerchant, 80, 147.\\nmeritorious, 346.\\nmerry, 354.\\nmesmerist, 307.\\nmesmerize, 258.\\nmessage, 283.\\nmessenger, 285.\\nmet, 238, 247.\\nmete measure), 237,\\n238.\\nmethinks, 476.\\nmethodical, 341.\\nMetre, 557.\\nmice, 246, 317.\\nMichaelmas, 63.\\nmid, 38.\\nmiddle, 323.\\nMiddle Voice, 486.\\nMiddlesex, 27.\\nmight, 109, 206, 249,\\n267, 492.\\nmighty, 327.\\nmignonette, 283.\\nmigratory, 350.\\nMIHT, 125.\\nmilch, 357.\\nmilky, 327.\\nmiller, 287.\\nmillstone-grit, 503.\\nMU:-PADAS, 18.\\nMilton, John, 184,\\n419. 49 S 498^ 540.\\n554-\\nmim, 324.\\nmimminy primminy,\\n324-\\nmine, 109, 392, 475.\\nminion, 277.\\nminister, 80.\\nministerialist, 307,\\nminutely, 365.\\nminutiae, 302.\\nmiracle, 80.\\nmirth, 81.\\nmischief, 80.\\nmisease, 152.\\nMiss, 310.\\nmissionariness, 270.\\nmissionary, 350.\\nmist, 266.\\nmistake, 509.\\nmisty, 327.\\nmitigate, 258.\\nmockery, 277.\\nmock-solemn, 507.\\nmodernism, 305.\\nmodicum, 302.\\nmodify, 257.\\nmoist, 80.\\nmoldiwarp, 310.\\nmole (talpa), 310.\\nmollify, 257.\\nmolten, 230.\\nmoment, 280.\\nmon (Scottish), 128.\\nmonarchize, 258,\\nmonastic, 353.\\nmonger, 268.\\nmonied, 332.\\nMonophysites, 302.\\nmonopolize, 258.\\nMonothelites, 302.\\nMonsieur, 398.\\nmonster, 80.\\nmood, 10.\\nmoody, 327, 328.\\nmoon, 266.\\nmop, 109.\\nmoral, 80.\\nmorality, 297.\\nmore, 207.\\nMormonites, 302.\\nmortal, 80.\\nmortall (Spenser), 138.\\nmortgagee, 289.\\nmortgagor, 289.\\nmortify, 257.\\nmoss, 21.\\nmosfe, 249.\\nmote, 174, 249, 251.\\nmotive, 348, 349.\\nmother, 267.\\nmourn, 237.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0598.jp2"}, "599": {"fulltext": "587\\nmouse, 246, 266.\\nmouth, 227, 266.\\nmove, 129.\\nmowe, 251.\\nmuch, 188, 202, 322.\\nmuleteer, 289.\\nmulierosity, 297.\\nmultitude, 301.\\nmultitudinous, 346.\\nmunificence, 296.\\nmurky, 327.\\nmust, 180, 249.\\nmustard, 290.\\nmusty, 327.\\nmutton, 44, 94.\\nMTS, 317.\\nmystery, loi.\\n-n (terminal), 323, 324.\\nN (particle), 421, 425,\\n427.\\nnadir, 304.\\nnail, 266.\\nnam, 221.\\nname, 128.\\nnap, 107.\\nnape, 107.\\nnarcotic, 340,\\nnarrative, 349.\\nNash Point, 269.\\nnasty, 327.\\nnativity, 297.\\nnatural, 80.\\nnaturall, 138.\\nnaturalness, 270.\\nnature, 81.\\nNautical speech.,\\n509-\\nnavestu, 221.\\nNaze, The, 269.\\nNE, 422, 423, 428.\\nnear, 364, 441.\\nneat-handed, 511.\\nnecessitous, 346.\\nnecht (Anglian), 112,\\n113-\\nNed, 312.\\nneed-nots, 503.\\nneeds, 368.\\nNegation, 421,\\nnegligence, 296.\\nneighbour, 129, 299.\\nneighbourhood, 273,\\nNell, 312.\\nnelt, 221.\\n-ness, 268, 269, 271.\\nnest, 266.\\nnet, 266.\\nNeustria, 278.\\nnever, 194, 421.\\nnevertheless, 432, 452.\\nnew, 322.\\nnew-fangled, 323.\\nnew-fangleness, 269.\\nNewport Pagnell, 18.\\nnext, 442.\\nNibelungen Lied, 6.\\nnice, 343, 356.\\nnicety, 297.\\nnigardise, 291.\\nniggard, 290.\\nnigh, 322, 441.\\nnight, 109.\\nnight-cap, 514.\\nnightshade, 21.\\nNIHT, 126.\\nNIMAN, 39.\\nnine-pins, 505.\\nnip, 108.\\nno, 421.\\nnobody, 406.\\nno doubt, 454.\\nnoisy, 327.\\nNoll, 312.\\nnominate, 258.\\nno more than, 452.\\nnone, 421.\\nn\u00c2\u00abn-namelessness, 270.\\nnor, 422, 423.\\nNorman Conquest,\\n42.\\nNorsk, 325.\\nnorth, 266.\\nnorthness, 270.\\nnose, 266.\\nnostril, 501,\\nNorthern English,\\n47, 48-\\nnot, 421, 423.\\nnot a bit^ 427,\\nnot any, 427.\\nnot a scrap, 427.\\nnot at all, 427, 431.\\nnot in the least, 427.\\nnot one, 427.\\nnotable, 336.\\nnote, 80.\\nnothing, 408.\\nnotice, 291.\\nnoticeable, 336.\\nnotwithstanding, 432,\\n454-\\nnought, 421, 428.\\nnourish, 78.\\nnourishing, 80.\\nnovelty, 297.\\nnow, 207.\\nnoxious, 346.\\nnugatory, 350.\\nnullify, 257.\\nnumber, 262,\\nnuptial, 339.\\nnuptials, 300.\\nnut-crackers, 505.\\nO, the interjection, 162.\\nO, the vowel, 105.\\noak, 21, 266.\\noak-apple, 505.\\noasis, oases, 302, 318.\\noaten, 324, 325.\\noath, 266.\\noats, 43.\\nobey, 34.\\noblidge, 129.\\nobligatory, 350.\\noblige, 149.\\nobscurity, 297.\\nobstacle, 80.\\nobstinate, 80.\\nobstreperous, 346, 347.\\nobtaining, 482.\\nodium, 302.\\n-oe, 130.\\noecumenical, 341.\\nof, 37, 194, 357, 358,\\n374, 39I 395, 437,\\n438, 442.\\nof a child, 374.\\nof a truth, 374.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0599.jp2"}, "600": {"fulltext": ".^S8\\nJ\\nINDEX.\\nof course, 431.\\nof it, 430.\\nof itself, 494.\\nof me, 475.\\nof necessity, 374.\\nof old, 374.\\nof whom, 450.\\nOFERS.^WISCA, 115.\\noff, 439.\\noffence, 296.\\noffice, 80.\\nofficer, 80.\\nOfficial Adjectives,\\n354-\\noffspring, 135.\\noften, 366.\\noh 159, 161.\\noi (diphthong), 130.\\noil, oiled, 255.\\noily, 327.\\nold, 322.\\nOld English, 344.\\nold-friendishness, 512.\\noldster, 320.\\non. 33- 37. 441-\\nonce, 383, 430.\\nonce upon a time, 430.\\none, 35, 38, 100, 143,\\n406, 410, 415, 416,\\n427, 4^8.\\none another, 406, 415.\\nonly, 330, 446.\\nOnomatopoeia, 5.15.\\nonus, 302.\\nopen, 324.\\nopen-hearted, 511.\\noperate, 258.\\noperose, 34*^.\\nOphites, 302.\\nopinion, 80.\\noppression, 80.\\nopulence, 296.\\nopulent, 352,\\nor, 434, 445. 451-\\n-or, 299.\\norchard, 18.\\nordain, 80.\\norder, 262.\\nordinance, 80.\\nor ere, 452.\\nor ever, 452.\\norganizing (inf.), 482.\\norientalize, 259.\\norison, 279.\\nOrmulum, 50, 122,\\n383.\\norneme?it, 280,\\n-ose, 348.\\n-osity, 297.\\nOssian, 556.\\nostler, 80,\\notherwhere, 429.\\notherwise, 432.\\notiose, 348.\\nou (diphthong), 130.\\nought, 237, 428.\\nour, 392, 464.\\n-our, 299.\\n-ous, 346.\\nOuse, 20.\\nout, 186, 364,\\nout of which, 494,\\noutrageous, 346.\\nover, 194, 4^9.\\noverplus, 302.\\nowe, owed, ought, 249.\\nowl, 62.\\nown, 324.\\nownership, 275.\\nox, 44, 266.\\noxen, 315.\\nOxford, 20.\\noynemetit, 280.\\nP, the letter, 114.\\npace, 80.\\npacke-horse, 505.\\npaddock, 20.\\npaint, 80.\\npair, 80, 99, 262,\\npalace, 4?, 43.\\npalette, 283.\\npalfrey, 81.\\npall, 108.\\npamphleteer, 289.\\npan, 107.\\npane, 107.\\nparchment, 282.\\npare, 99.\\nparental, 339.\\npark-paling, 505.\\nparlement, 280, 300.\\nparliament, 80, 281.\\nparochial, 80.\\nparochialize, 258.\\npartial, 339.\\npartialize (Shakspeare).\\n258.\\npartisan, 524.\\nparty, 80.\\npass, 80.\\npassage, 283.\\npassenger, 285.\\npassive, 348.\\npatched up, 418.\\npatent, 80.\\npath, 114, 266.\\npath-field, 470, 504.\\npatience, 195.\\npatient, 80.\\npatristic, 353.\\npatronize, 258.\\npatterned, 333.\\npavement, 280.\\npayment, 280.\\npea, 151.\\npeaceable, 336, 337.\\npeaceableness, 269.\\npeal, 310.\\npear, 18, 99.\\npease, 151.\\npease-cod, 21.\\npeason, 151.\\npeat bogs, 503.\\npedantic, 340.\\npen, 254.\\npenance, 84.\\npensive, 348.\\npent, 254.\\npentice, 292.\\npeople, 129, 4^6.\\nperadventure, 445, 446.\\nperceive, 155.\\nperfect, 80.\\nperhaps, 445.\\nperish, 78.\\nPerizzites, 302.\\nPersian, 352.\\npersistive, 348.\\nperson, 80, 406.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0600.jp2"}, "601": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\npersonable, 338.\\npersonage, 284.\\npestilence, 80.\\npetitionary, 350.\\npetulant, 350, 351.\\nPet words, 343.\\nphenomena, 318.\\nphenomenon, 302.\\nphilosopher, 80.\\nphilosophize, 258.\\nphilosophy, 80.\\nPhrasal Adjectives,\\n357-\\nAdverbs, 373.\\nPronoun Ad-\\nverbs, 431.\\nSyntax, 487.\\nphysic, 340.\\npick-pocket, 513.\\npick-purse, 513.\\npick-thank, 513.\\nPickwick Papers,\\n209.\\npicturesque, 341.\\npiecemeal, 367.\\npig, 276, 318.\\npight, 247.\\npig-nut, 505.\\npikestaff, 194.\\npimen 280,\\npious, 346.\\npipe, 109.\\npit, 4.\\npitch, 247.\\npith, 266.\\npity, 80.\\nplacard, 290.\\nplace, 80.\\nplain, 80.\\nplashy, 327, 329.\\nplastery, 328.\\nplastic, 353.\\nplit, 230.\\nplay, 114.\\nplea, 151.\\npleasant, 80.\\nplease, 80, 152.\\npleasure, 152.\\npled pleaded), 238.\\nplenteous, 80.\\npleonasm, 308.\\npleonastic, 353.\\nplet (Scottish), 230,\\n234-\\nplight, 82.\\nplough, 43, 126.\\nplow-bote, 84.\\nplumb-bob, 266.\\nplush-breeches, 514.\\nPlutarchize, 258.\\npoetick, 139.\\npoetry, 277, 278.\\nPoetry, 517.\\npoignant, 80.\\npoint-of-honour, 514.\\npoison, 279.\\npoisonous, 346.\\nPolish, 326.\\npolite, 136,\\npolitick, 114, 139.\\npollard, 290.\\nPolynesian, 352.\\npomp, 80.\\npomposity, 297.\\npooh 166.\\npoor, 80.\\npoppy-head, 514.\\npopulosity, 297.\\npork, 44, 94.\\nporringer, 285.\\nPORT, 18.\\nport (Chaucer), 80.\\nPortuguese, 342.\\npositive, 348.\\nPosset Portishead),\\n541-\\nposterity, 297.\\npost-office, 514.\\npostulate, 258.\\npotato-disease, 469.\\npottery, 277.\\npottinger, 285.\\npouch, 80.\\npoultry, 277.\\npound, 80.\\npoundage, 283.\\npourtray, 80.\\npowder, 80.\\npracticable, 336.\\npractiser, 80.\\npractize (Spenser), 293.\\nprechement, 280.\\npredicting (inf.), 483.\\npreferable, 336.\\npreference, 296.\\nprejudice, 292.\\nprelating (inf.), 486.\\npreparatory, 350.\\nPresbyterianism, 305.\\npresent (vb.), 255.\\nPresentive words.\\n195.\\npretence, 206.\\npretty, 327, 329, 354,\\n363.\\nprevalent, 352.\\npreventive, 185.\\npride, 545.\\nprim, 324.\\nprimitive, 324.\\nprince, 42, 80.\\nprincess, 80, 319.\\nprison, 80.\\nprivateer, 289.\\nprivily, 80.\\nprize, 80.\\nprize ox, 505.\\nprocess, 80.\\nproctorship, 275,\\nprocurable, 336.\\nprofitable, 336,\\npromenade, 303.\\npromise, 80.\\npropagandism, 305.\\nprophecy, 139, 262.\\nprophesy, 139, 262.\\npropitiatory, 350.\\nproposal, 300.\\nProtestantism, 305.\\nprotoplasm, 308, 309.\\nprotoplast, 308, 309.\\nproud, 329, 545.\\nprove, 80, 129.\\nproven, 239.\\nProvincial English,\\n69, 93, 96, 204,\\n316, 364.413-\\nprude, 545.\\npsaltery, 279.\\npsha 166.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0601.jp2"}, "602": {"fulltext": "590\\nINDEX,\\nPtolemaic, 340,\\npubescence, 296.\\npublicist, 307.\\npulled (Chaucer), 77-\\npullet, 44.\\npunish, 78, 147.\\nPunning, 550.\\npurblind, 509.\\npurchase, 80.\\npure-eyed, 511.\\npttrveatince, 72, 154.\\nputted (Allan Ramsay),\\n255-\\nQ_, the letter, 115.\\nquadripartition, 299.\\nquaint, 342, 343, 341.\\nquake, 115.\\nqualify, 257.\\nquality, 255.\\nqualm, 1 15.\\nQuantity, 520.\\nquarrel, 115.\\nquarry, 1 1 5.\\nquart, 56, 1 15.\\nquarter, 115.\\nquarterne, 1 1 5.\\nquash, 115.\\nqueen, 115.\\nQueen s English,\\n68, 91, 96.\\nguei?itise, 291.\\nqueU, 115, 237.\\nquern-stone, 505.\\nquestion, 255, 262.\\nquestionable, 336.\\nquestioned, 255.\\nquha (Scottish), 125.\\nquhat, 125,\\nquhilk, 125.\\nquick, 115, 322.\\nquire, 1 1 5,\\nquit, 80, 115,\\nQuixotic, 340,\\n-r (terminal), 323, 326.\\nracehorse, 470, 504.\\nradish, 21.\\nrail-road, 514.\\nrain, 267.\\nrain-bow, 514.\\nrake, 266.\\nram, 266.\\nrampant, 351.\\nran, 230.\\nrang, 230.\\nrange, 262, 277.\\nransom, 80, 279, 541.\\nrapidity, 297.\\nrascal, 55.\\nrascaldom, 272.\\nrascally, 330,\\nrat, 107.\\nrate, 107.\\nrathe, 322, 419,\\nrather, 418, 419,\\nrathe-ripe, 507.\\nratify, 257.\\nraught, 142, 247.\\nraven, 55, 267.\\nravener, 55.\\nravenous, 55.\\nreach, 127, 247.\\nreadiness, 269.\\nready, 327.\\nrealm, 42.\\nreason, 279.\\nreasonable, 336.\\nreasons (Shaksp.), 153.\\nrebel, 136.\\nreceive, 155.\\nreck, 142.\\nreckless, 142.\\nrecklessness, 142.\\nrecord, 136, 262.\\nrecords, 67.\\n-red, 268, 272.\\nreed, 21.\\nreedy, 327.\\nreek, 237.\\nreferee, 289.\\nreflective, 348.\\nreft, 247.\\nrefusal, 300.\\nregion, 80, 298.\\nrehearse, 80.\\nremarkable, 336.\\nremedy, 80.\\nrend, 254.\\nrenown, 80.\\nrent, 80, 254.\\nrental, 300,\\nreparative, 348, 349.\\nrepresentative, 349.\\nreprieve, 155,\\nrepulsive, 348.\\nreputable, 336.\\nrequest, 80,\\nrequiem, 302.\\nresidual, 339.\\nresiduum, 302.\\nresources, 525.\\nrespectable, 336.\\nrespiratory, 350.\\nresponsible, 336, 337.\\nresponsive, 337, 348.\\nrest, 266.\\nrestore, 80,\\nretentive, 348.\\nreticence, 296.\\nrevel, 56.\\nrevellers, 56.\\nrevelling, 56.\\nrevelry, 56.\\nrevere, revered, 255.\\nreverence, 80.\\nrevenues, 523.\\nrhetorical, 341.\\nrhizopodous, 346.\\nrhyme, 119.\\nBhyme, 553, 558.\\nrhyme and reason, 534.\\nBhythm, 500, 553,\\n555-\\nribald, 55.\\nribaldry, 55.\\nriches, 295.\\nrick, 128, 266.\\n-rick, 268, 275.\\nrick-yard, 505.\\nrid, 230, 234,\\nridden, 230.\\nride, 230.\\nridge, 128.\\nright, 109, 267.\\nrighteous, 346.\\nrind, 266.\\nring, 230, 266,", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0602.jp2"}, "603": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n591\\nring-leader, 505.\\nringlet, -283.\\nriotise, 291.\\nriotous, 346.\\nripe, 322.\\nrise, 230,\\nrisen, 230.\\nritch (Spenser), 128.\\nritualist, 307.\\nriver, 289.\\nroad, 129.\\nroadster, 320,\\nrobby (infinitive), 61.\\nrobe, 80.\\nRobert of Glouces-\\nter, 61.\\nRobinsonian, 352,\\nrock-thwarted, 510.\\nrode, 230.\\nroe, 109, 129.\\nRoman, 326.\\nBoman Numerals,\\n197.\\nRome, 148.\\nroof, 43, 266.\\nrookery, 277.\\nroomy, 324.\\nroot, 21.\\nrope, 109, 266.\\nrose, 230, 235.\\nrosette, 283.\\nrote, 80.\\nrough, 126\\nroune, loi.\\nrow, 237.\\nrown, 102.\\nroyally, 80.\\nroyal-towered, 511.\\nroyalty, 42, 297.\\nrubbishy, 328.\\nrude, 80.\\nrue, 237.\\nRugby, 240.\\nrule, 109.\\nrun, 230.\\nrung, 230.\\nRunic, 340.\\nBunic characters,\\nloi.\\nrunner, 288.\\nRunes, 103.\\nRussian, 326, 352.\\nrustic, 340.\\nrusty, 327.\\n-ry, 277.\\nrye, 2r, 43.\\n-s (possessive), 474.\\nsacrament, 280.\\nsacrifice, 2.\\nsaddle, 128.\\nsail, 262, 265, 266.\\nsailyard, 505.\\nsainthed, 274.\\nsake, 129, 443.\\nsalad, 303.\\nsallow willow, 21,\\n128.\\nsalutation, 298.\\nsalve, 266.\\nSam, 312,\\nsame, 330, 321, 409.\\nsang, 231.\\nsanguine, 80, 349.\\nsanitary, 350.\\nsank, 231.\\nSanskrit, 13, 488,\\n559-\\nsap, 266.\\nsardonic, 340.\\nsat, 107, 231.\\nsate, 231.\\nsatisfy, 2 5 7.\\nsauce, 80.\\nsaucy, 327, 329.\\nsaugh willow), 21.\\nsavation, 298.\\nsave, 80, 178, 442,\\nsavement, 280, 282.\\nSavoyard, 290.\\nsaw, 476.\\nsawest, 476.\\nSaxon Chronicles,\\n120, 274, 329, 379,\\n437 506.\\nSaxonforms,i7, 277,\\n283, 299, 301, 315,\\n320, 364, 369, 380,\\n383, 394, 400, 408,\\n411, 421, 424.\\nsayen, 480.\\nScandinavian lan-\\nguages, 7, 381,\\n495-\\nscarify, 257.\\nscene, 1 40.\\nscent, 140.\\nsceptre, 42, 140.\\nscholar, 80.\\nschool, 80.\\nscience, 80, 140, 296.\\nscion, 140,\\nscite, 140.\\nscituation, 140,\\nscore, 382.\\nscot-ale, 300.\\nScotch, 28.\\nScotticism, 305,\\nScottish, 326.\\nScottish speech, 90,\\n187, 408, 410, 538.\\nscoundreldom, 272.\\nscymitar, 140.\\nScythea, 154.\\nsea, 151, 153, 266.\\nseal (phoca), 266,\\nseam, 266.\\nseason, 80, 154, 279.\\nseasonable, 336.\\nseasonal, 339.\\nsechestu, 222.\\nsecondary, 350.\\nsecret, loi.\\nsecurity, 297.\\nsee, 476.\\nseed, 266.\\nseeing, 454, 476.\\nseek, 247.\\nseely, 327.\\nseest, seeth, seen, 476.\\nseethe, 230.\\nseizure, 290.\\nseld, 366.\\nseldom, 366.\\nself, 396.\\nself-involved, 511.\\nsell, 248.\\nSemitic family, 473,", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0603.jp2"}, "604": {"fulltext": "592\\nsempstress, 319, 320.\\nsend, 253, 254.\\nsense, 296.\\nsensitive, 348.\\nsensual, 339.\\nsent, 253, 254.\\nsentement, 280, 28 2.\\nsentence, 80.\\nSepherus, 120.\\nsequence, 296.\\nserfdom, 272,\\nserpent- throated, 511.\\nservant, 80.\\nservice, 80, 292.\\nsession, 80.\\nsettle (a bench), 266.\\nSevern, 20.\\n-sh, 323, 326.\\nshaft, 48, ia8.\\nshake, 128, 230.\\nshaked, 255.\\nshaken, 230.\\nShakspeare, 2, 106,\\n122, 148, 153, 183,\\n216, 233, 257, 288,\\n294, 316, 337, 348,\\n436, 439, 443, 521,\\n554-\\nshalbe, 221.\\nshall, 47, 48, 128, 202,\\n249, 250, 492.\\nshaltu, 221,\\nshame, 48, 128.\\nshank, 128.\\nshape, shapen, 230,\\n.237-\\nshare, 266.\\nsharp, 48, 129.\\nshave, shaven, 231.\\nShaxper Shakspeare,\\n540.\\nshe, 108, 396.\\nsheaf, 128, 266.\\nshear, 48, 231.\\nsheath, 48.\\nsheep. 44, 128, 266,\\n317-\\nShenstone, the poet\\n228.\\nshew, shewn, 231.\\nINDEX.\\nshield, 48, 265.\\nshilly-shally, 336.\\nshine, 231.\\n-shion, 279.\\n-ship, 268, 275.\\nship, 48, 62, 266.\\nship-mate, 505.\\nship-shape, 336.\\nshire, 62.\\nshirifdome (Camden),\\n272.\\nshod, 248.\\nshoe, 109, 128, 248,\\n266.\\nshof, 238.\\nshone, 48, 231.\\nshooen, 317,\\nshook, 230, 235.\\nshoon, 316,. 317.\\nshoons, 317.\\nshoot, 231.\\nshope, 230.\\nshore, 48, 231.\\nshorn, 231.\\nshort, 48, 128, 256,\\n322.\\nshorten, 256.\\nshot, 48, 231.\\nshotten, \u00e2\u0080\u00a2231, 235.\\nshould, 62, 144, 202,\\n249, 492.\\nshoulders, 48.\\nshove, 58, 130, 237.\\nshoved, 238.\\nshovel, 266.\\nshrank, 231.\\nshriek, 248.\\nshrievalty, 297,\\nshrighi, 248.\\nshrink, 231.\\nshrive, 62.\\nshroud, 58.\\nshrubbery, 277.\\nshrunk, 231.\\nshrunken, 231, 324.\\nshunned, 48.\\nSibbes, Bichard,\\n467-\\nsick, 322.\\nsickle, 43.\\nsic-like (Scottish,) 409\\nsiege, 80,\\nsight, 112, 267.\\nsighie, 248.\\nsiht, 112.\\nsign, 80.\\nsignatary, 350.\\nsike, 248.\\nsilky, 327.\\nsilly, 327.\\nsilvern, 325.\\nsimple, 80.\\nsimplifying, 482.\\nsin, 266.\\nsiNC, 120.\\nsincerity, 297.\\nsinew-corded, 51 1.\\nsing, 231.\\nsinge, 231.\\nsink, 231.\\nsire, 80.\\nSir-John, 147.\\nsister, 267.\\nsisterhood, 274.\\nsisteryn, 317.\\nsistren, 317.\\nsit, 108, 231.\\nsith, 453.\\nsithence, 441.\\nsitten (part.), 231.\\nsixpence, sixpences,\\n503-\\nsixt-thou, 112.\\nskill, 36.\\nskipper, 268.\\nskirmish, 80.\\nslacken, 257.\\nslain, 231,\\nslang (vb.), 231, 235.\\nSlang diction, 309,\\n313-\\nslat, 23T,\\nslaughter, 126.\\nslay, 231.\\nsleep, 237, 248.\\nslepestcw, 222.\\nslept, 248.\\nslew, 231.\\nslid, 231.\\nslidden, 231.\\n1\\nQ.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0604.jp2"}, "605": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n593\\nslide, ?3l.\\nsling, 231.\\nslink, 231.\\nslipper, 326.\\nslippery, 326.\\nslit, 231.\\ndod, ^31.\\nsloe, 109.\\nslope, 109.\\nslow, 361, 364.\\nsluggard, 290.\\nslumbrous, 347.\\nslung, 231.\\nslunk, 231.\\nsmall, 322.\\nsmite, 231.\\nsmith, 33, 36, 266.\\nsmitten, 231.\\nsmoke, 237.\\nsmote, 231.\\nsnail, 265, 266.\\nso, 190, 404, 408, 409,\\n420, 446.\\nso as, 447.\\nsober, 80.\\nsoccage, 284.\\nsod. 230, 235.\\nsodden, 230.\\nsoft, 227,\\nsoil, 88, 129.\\nsolace, 80,\\nsold, 248.\\nsolemn, 80, 362.\\nsolicitude, 301.\\nsolid, 420.\\nsoliloquize, 258.\\nsolvent, 350, 351.\\n-som, 279.\\nsome, 206, 231.\\n-some, 323, 331, 332\\nsomebody, 35, 406.\\nsome folk, 406.\\nsomnolent, 352,\\nsome people, 406.\\nsomething, 408.\\nsomewhen, 430.\\nsomewhere or other,\\n432.\\nson, 266.\\n-son, 279.\\nsonderlypes, 369.\\nsong, 266.\\nsongs, 67.\\nsongster, 320.\\nsooth, 322.\\nsooth to say, 534.\\nsorcery, 277.\\nso that, 448.\\nsough, 266.\\nsought, 247.\\nsoul, 266.\\nsound, III.\\nsounding, 80.\\nsouth, 266.\\nsouverainety, 298.\\nsoveraintess, 320.\\nsoverainty, 297.\\nsovereign, 42.\\nsow, 318.\\nspace, 80,\\nspacious, 346.\\nspade, 43, 194.\\nspake, 231.\\nspan, 231.\\nSpaniard, 290.\\nSpanish, 326.\\nSpanish language,\\n342, 398, 492.\\nspasm, 308.\\nspate, 248.\\nspeak, 231.\\nspec, 309.\\nspecial, 80.\\nspecific, 340.\\nspeciosity, 297.\\nspectacle-bestrid, 507.\\nSpectator, The, 447,\\n495\u00c2\u00bb 497-\\nspeculative, 348, 349.\\nsped, 254.\\nspeech, 128.\\nspeed, 254, 266.\\nspeedy, 327.\\nspend, 80, 254.\\nSpenser, 135, 274,\\n338, 343. 466, 522.\\nspent, 254.\\nspet, 248.\\nspicery, 277.\\nspill, 254.\\nQq\\nspilt, 254.\\nspin, 231.\\nspindlewhorl, 505.\\nspinner, 320.\\nspinster, 320.\\nspirit, 195.\\nspit, 248.\\nspittle, 266.\\nsplotch, 311.\\nspoke, 231, 236.\\nspoken, 231.\\nsprang, 231.\\nspring, 231.\\nsprung, 231.\\nspun, 231.\\nspurn, 237.\\nspytt, 248.\\nsquire, 80.\\nsquirrel, 547.\\nstable, 80.\\nstaff, 266.\\nstair, 267.\\nstairs, 265.\\nstall, 266.\\nStamboul, 223,\\nStanchio, 223.\\nstand, 128, 24S.\\nstandard, 290.\\nstanders, 288,\\nstanding, 240.\\nStandish, 540.\\nstank, 231.\\nstaple, 12S.\\nstar, 266.\\nstare, 128.\\nstarvation, 298.\\nstarve, 237.\\nstate, 107.\\nstationary, 350.\\nstatute, 80.\\nsteady, 327.\\nsteal, 231.\\nsteedes and palfreys, 81.\\nsteelly, 330.\\nsteer, 44, 266.\\nstep, 129.\\n-ster, 320,\\nstercoraceous, 347.\\nstern, 324.\\nSteven (Chaucer), 267.,", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0605.jp2"}, "606": {"fulltext": "594\\nINDEX.\\nsticcem.5:lum, 367.\\nstick, 231.\\nstickle, 323.\\nstickle-back, 323.\\nSticklepath, 323.\\nstigma, 302.\\nstill, 207, 364, 4r8.\\nstimulus, 302.\\nsting, 231.\\nstink, 231.\\nStoicism, 306.\\nstole, 231.\\nstolen, 231.\\nstone, 266, 356.\\nStonehouse, 540.\\nstone- wall, 357.\\nStonewall Jackson, 357.\\nstood, 248.\\nstory, 80, 310.\\nstoundemele, 367.\\nstow, 266,\\nSTRAC, 231.\\nstrait, 80.\\nstrange, 81.\\nstranger, 289.\\nstream, 266.\\nstreet, 18.\\nstrength, 256, 267.\\nstrengthen, 256.\\nStress, 530.\\nSTRICAN, 231.\\nstricken, 231, 236.\\nstride, stridden, 231.\\nstrike, striken, 231.\\nstring, 231.\\nstrive, striven, 231.\\nstrode, 231.\\nstrong, 322, 362.\\nstrove, 231.\\nstruck, 231.\\nstrung, 231.\\nstuck, 231.\\nstudy, 80.\\nstultify, 257.\\nstung, 231.\\nstunk, 231.\\nsturdy, 327.\\nsubsannation, 299.\\nsubsidize, 258.\\nsubstance, 80, 296.\\nSubstantive verb,\\n239, 487.\\nsubtle cadenced, 504,\\n511.\\nsucceed, -ed, 255.\\nsucculent, 352.\\nsuch, 403, 404, 408,\\n409, 410.\\nsuch as, 409.\\nsuch-like, 409.\\nsuch which, 409.\\nsuch who, 409.\\nsuggestive, 348.\\nsuicidal, 339.\\nsulky, 327.\\nsulphuric, 340.\\nsummer. 267.\\nsun, 266.\\nsundry, 410.\\nsung, 231.\\nsung singe-d, 231,\\n235-\\nsunk, sunken, 231.\\nsuperfluity, 80.\\nsuperlative, 348.\\nsupper, 80.\\nsuppleness, 269.\\nsupplicatory, 350.\\nsure, 362.\\nsurefootedness, 270.\\nsurety, 297.\\nStirrey, the poet,\\n126, 151, 326.\\nsuspense, 296.\\nSussex, 27.\\nsusteini, 61.\\nsuture, 290,\\nswal, 231.\\nswallow, 237.\\nswam, 231.\\nswannery, 277.\\nsware, 231.\\nswear, 231.\\nSwedish, 326.\\nSwedish language,\\n7, 128.\\nsweep, 248.\\nsweet, 322.\\nsweetish, 327.\\nswell, 231.\\nswept, 248.\\nswift, 322.\\nswim, 231.\\nswine, 44, 266, 317,\\n318.\\nswing, 231.\\nswollen, 231.\\nswore, 231.\\nsworn, 231.\\nswum, 231.\\nswung, 231.\\nSymbolic words,\\n195, 210, 217. 487.\\nsymbolize, 258.\\nsymmetrical, 341.\\nSymphytism, 220.\\nsynonomy, 304.\\nsystematize, 258.\\ntabelment, 280.\\ntable, 43, 80.\\ntackle, 10.\\ntail, 10.\\ntake, 231.\\ntaken, 231.\\ntake off, 439.\\ntale, 10, 107.\\ntalented, 33^.\\ntilk, 107.\\ntalker, 288.\\ntalk of, 454.\\ntall, 107.\\nTamar, 20.\\ntame, 10, 128.\\ntankard, 290.\\ntar-barrel, 505.\\ntardy, 328.\\ntare (vb.), 231.\\ntares, 21.\\ntarnish, 255.\\ntart, 107.\\ntaught, 248.\\ntavern, 80.\\ntea, 150.\\nteach, 127, 248.\\nteacher, 36.\\nteam, 10.\\ntear (subst.), 4, 9, 10,\\n154, 266.\\ntear (verb), 231.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0606.jp2"}, "607": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n595\\ntedious, 346.\\nteem, 9.\\nteems (Shaksp.), 190.\\nteeth, 317.\\ntelegraphic, 353.\\ntell, 10, 248.\\ntell him, 475.\\ntell me true, 362.\\nteirn(Devonshire),22l.\\ntempest, 80.\\nten, 4, 9, 10.\\ntenement, 280.\\ntent, 10, 80.\\nterm, 80.\\ntermini, 318.\\nterminus, 302.\\nterrific, 340.\\nterrour, 129.\\ntertiary, 350.\\ntestament, 280.\\ntestimonial, 300.\\nThames, 20.\\nthan, 448,\\nthane, 267.\\nthank, 9.\\nthankful, 336.\\nthankless, 336.\\nthanklesse (Spenser),\\n138.\\nthat, 9, 104, 399, 401,\\n402, 411, 412, 413,\\n416, 429, 430, 457.\\nthatch, 127.\\nthat that, 401.\\nthat time, 376.\\nthat way, 433.\\nthat which, 401.\\nthe, 414,415, 416,430.\\nthe one and the other,\\n406.\\nthe right way, 376.\\nthe the, 401.\\nthe which, 401, 403.\\nthe while, 376.\\nthe wrong way, 376.\\ntheatre, 80,\\nthee, 9, 108.\\ntheech, 221.\\ntheir, 413.\\nthem, 9, 104, 413.\\nthemselves, 396, 397.\\nthen, 9, 429, 449.\\ntheoretic, 353.\\nthere, 190, 429.\\nthereby, 430.\\ntherefor (American)\\n138.\\ntherefore, 136, 194,\\n430.\\nthese, 412.\\nthey, 35,194, 398,399,\\n405, 406, 413.\\nthey say, 406.\\nthick, 104.\\nthick-leaved, 511.\\nthief, 266.\\nthimble, 266.\\nthine, 104, 393.\\nthing, 33, 36, 104, 199,\\n317,408.\\nthings, 201, 318.\\nthink, 9, 248.\\nthinker, 288.\\nthird, 544.\\nthirst, 9.\\nthis, 2, 104, 411, 412,\\n413-\\nthis-e, 412.\\nthistle, 21.\\nthole, 9.\\nthorn, 21.\\nthorough, 186.\\nthose, 412.\\nthou, 9, 398.\\nthough, 9, 112, 113,\\n126.\\nthought, 248.\\nthoughtless, 336.\\nthraldom, 272.\\nthread, 104.\\nthreaden, 324.\\nthree, 9, 100.\\nthrenody, 305.\\nthresh, 237,\\nthrew, 231.\\nthrice, 383.\\nthrive, 104, 231,\\nthriven, 231,\\nthrone, 42.\\nthrong, 237.\\nQ q 2\\nthrough, 9, 126.\\nthrove, 231.\\nthrow, thrown, 231.\\nthumb, 266.\\nthunder, 267.\\nthunder-struck, 507,\\nthy, 415.\\ntick (slang), 309.\\ntickle, 323, 324.\\ntide, 324.\\ntide, 10, 257, 266.\\ntile, 10, 18, 265, 266.\\ntill, 9, 10, 138, 439,\\n445-\\ntill then, 439.\\ntimber, 9, 10, 267.\\ntime, 262.\\ntime-piece, 505.\\ntimidity, 297.\\ntinder, 9.\\ntinnen, 324,\\n-tion, 298.\\nto, 10, 37, 109, 391,\\n395, 440, 495.\\nto-do (Devonshire), 38 1\\ntoe, 109, 129.\\ntoken, 9, 10, 267.\\ntold, 248.\\ntolerable, 336.\\nto live on (adv.), 380.\\ntoll, 10.\\nTom, 312.\\ntone, 109.\\ntongue, 4, 9, 88, 266.\\ntonnage, 283.\\ntoo, 420.\\ntook, 231, 236.\\ntooth, 9, 10, 227, 366.\\ntoo to, 446.\\ntop, 109,\\nTor, 3, 109.\\ntore, 231.\\ntorment, 280.\\ntorn, 231.\\ntornement, 280.\\nTothill, 10.\\ntow, 237.\\ntoward, 33^!-\\ntowards, 368.\\ntower, 80.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0607.jp2"}, "608": {"fulltext": "596\\nINDEX.\\ntown-clerk, 505.\\ntoy, 9.\\nTranslations, 12, 27,\\n205, 207, 218, 363,\\n450. 559-\\ntranscendentalize, 259.\\ntray, 154.\\ntread, 231.\\ntreason, 80, 154, 279.\\ntreasure, 152, 390.\\ntreasurer, 42.\\ntree, 4, 7, 21, 266.\\ntreen, 324.\\nTrent, 20.\\nirey, 56.\\ntrod, 231.\\ntrodden, 231.\\ntroop, 36.\\ntropical, 34I.\\ntroth, 82.\\ntrough, 88.\\ntrouthe, 82.\\ntruant, 277.\\ntruculent, 352.\\ntrue, 322,363.\\ntrueth (A.V. 161 1),\\n124.\\ntruism, 306.\\ntrumpery, 277.\\ntrustee, 289.\\ntrusteeship, 275.\\ntrusty, 327.\\ntruth, 109.\\nTucker, 287.\\n-tude, 301.\\nTuesday, lo.\\nTurkish, 326.\\nturpitude, 301.\\nTweed, ?o.\\ntwice, 383.\\ntwinkling, 268.\\ntwo, 4, 9, 100.\\ntyrannize, 258.\\ntyranny, 80, 304.\\ntyrant, 80, 1 19.\\nU, the vow^l, 105.\\nun-, the prefix, 257,\\n424.\\nunapproachable, 337.\\nunbeliever, 257-\\nunborrowed, 424.\\nunbuxom, 332.\\nunbuxomness, 332.\\nunchurch, 425.\\nuncle, 190.\\nUIKO, 5.:^8.\\nunconscionable, 337.\\nuncouth, 538.\\nuncouthe and strange,\\n81.\\nundead, 424.\\nundescribed, 424.\\nundo, 50\\nunequall (Spenser), 139.\\nunfrock, 257.\\nungodly, 370.\\nUNGRENE, 424.\\nuniformitarianism, 306.\\nunify, 257.\\nunjust, 257.\\nunlink, 257.\\nunlock, 257.\\nunmannerly, 330.\\nunmeet, 257.\\nunset-down, 424.\\nunset Steven (Chaucer),\\n424.\\nunsmotherable, 337.\\nuntie, 257.\\nuntil, 62, 445.\\nuntoward, 334.\\nup, 364, 417,418.\\nupas tree, 505.\\nupheaval, 300.\\nupon, 440.\\nupright, 135.\\nuprootal, 300.\\nupside down, 432.\\nup so down, 432.\\nup to a thing, 418.\\nup with a person, 418.\\nupward, 334.\\nupwards, 368, 369.\\nurbane, 136.\\nurbanity, 297.\\n-ure, 290.\\nusage, 80.\\nuse, 262.\\nusefulness, 269.\\nusher, 262.\\nUsk, 20.\\nusquebaugh, 20.\\n-ustic, 353,\\nutilize, 258.\\nutter, uttered, 255.\\nuze (Spenser), 293.;\\nV, the letter, 115.\\nvacillate, 255.\\nvaine, 115.\\nvale, 108.\\nvaluable, 336, 337.\\nvalue, 337.\\nvalueless, 337.\\nvaluing, 337.\\nvanity, 297.\\nvaricose, 348.\\nvast, 190.\\nvastly, 370,\\nvat, 107.\\nvaunt, 262.\\nveal, 44, 94.\\nvelocity, 297.\\nvenerate, 2 5 8.\\nvenerie, 115.\\nvenerye, 8 1,\\nvenison, 44, 279.\\nventriloquism, 305,\\n306.\\nveray, 115,\\nverbiage, 284.\\nverdure, 290,\\nverier, veriest, 411.\\nverily, 34, 190, 370,\\n371-\\nvermeil-tinctured, 511.\\nVersification, G-o-\\nthic, and Roman-\\nesque, 535.\\nversing, 485.\\nvesselment, 280.\\nvestement, 280.\\nvery, 80, 330, 410.\\nvicarage, 283.\\nvicissitude, 301.\\nvictual, 80.\\nvillain, 43, 55, 56.\\nvillainous, 361.\\nvine disease, 469.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0608.jp2"}, "609": {"fulltext": "vineyard, 505.\\nvintner, 287.\\nviolent, 352.\\nvirtue, 80, 115.\\nvirulent, 352.\\nvisage, J 15.\\nvisionary, 350\\nvisit, 80.\\nvixen, 319.\\nvolcanic, 340.\\nvortex, 302.\\nvoyage, 283.\\nvulnerable, 336.\\nW, the character, 115.\\nwa 164.\\nwade, 237.\\nvi^ain, 266.\\nwake, 128, 231.\\nwakefull (Spenser), 139,\\nwala 165.\\nWales, 23.\\nwalk, 107.\\nwalker, 288.\\nwalk fast, 362.\\nwalk slow, 362.\\nwall, 18, 107.\\nWallachia, 24.\\nWallachian lan-\\nguage, 495.\\nwallinger, 285.\\nWallis, the Canton, 24.\\nWalloons, 24.\\nwan, 128.\\nwane, 107.\\nwant, 107.\\nward, 78.\\n-ward, 323, 334, 335.\\nwarden, 78, 277.\\nware, 77-\\nivarentment, 280.\\nwarfare, 508.\\nwar-horse, 505.\\nwarish, 77.\\nwarlock, 274.\\nwarm, 324, 362.\\nwarrior, 36.\\nwary, 77.\\nwas, 232, 478.\\nWash, The, 20.\\nINDEX.\\nwash (verb), 231,\\nwashen, 231.\\nwash off, 439.\\nwastel, 78.\\nWat Walter, 312.\\nwater, 10, 20, 107, 267.\\nwater-course, 522.\\nwater-hole (Australia),\\n505-\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0Watling- Street, 17.\\nwave after wave, 376.\\nwax, 231.\\nwaxen, 232, 236.\\nway, 266.\\nwaybread, 21.\\nwayward, 334,\\nwe, 35, 108, 405,406.\\nweal and woe, 534.\\nweapon, 267.\\nweaponed, 332.\\nwear, 232.\\nvi EAR S, 243.\\nweariness, 269.\\nweather-wise, 507.\\nweave, 232,\\nWebber, 268.\\nWebster, 320,\\nwedge, 128,\\nwedlock, 273, 508.\\nweed, 2 r\\nweedy, 327.\\nweep, 248.\\nweeping, 67.\\nwelkin, 267.\\nwell, 364.\\nwelladay 165.\\nwellaway 165.\\nWelsh, 23, 326.\\nWelsh, 2, 17, 22.\\nwend, 253, 254.\\nwenestii, 221, 222.\\nwent, 253, 254.\\nWEORDAN, 243.\\nwepely, 331.\\nwept, 248.\\nwere, 478.\\nWEsAN, 232, 242.\\nWessex, 27.\\nwest, 266.\\nWest-Welsh, 555.\\n597\\nwether, 266.\\nwex, 232,\\nwhale, 141, 266.\\nwharf, 141.\\nwharfinger, 285.\\nwhat, 141, 401, 403,\\n449.\\nwhatever, 432.\\nwhatso, 404, 530.\\nwhat time as, 453.\\nwheat, 21, 43, 141.\\nwheel, 141, 266.\\nwhelp, 266,\\nwhen, 141, 429.\\nwhence, 429, 431, 449.\\nwhenever, 432.\\nwhensoever, 432.\\nwhere, 141, 194, 429,\\n448.\\nwhereas, 448.\\nwherefore, 457.\\nwherethrough, 429.\\nwhether, 448.\\nwhich, 141, 401, 402,\\n403, 410, 449. 450.\\nwhich way, that way,\\n433-\\nwhight (Spenser), 126.\\nwhile, 91, 92. 188.\\nwhilome, 366.\\nwhilst, 92.\\nwhimsical, 341.\\nwhin, 21.\\nwhiskey, 20.\\nwhisper, loi.\\nwhit, 408, 428.\\nWhitby, 240,\\nwhite, 10.\\nWhitechapel-bred, 522.\\nwhite-handed, 511.\\nwhither, 141, 429.\\nwho, 141, 401, 403,\\n449. 450.\\nwhole, 141, 322.\\nwholesome, 331.\\nwhom, 401, 403, 449.\\nwhome home, 141.\\nwhose, 401, 449.\\nwhoso, 404, 530.\\nwhote hot, 141, 142.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0609.jp2"}, "610": {"fulltext": "598\\nINDEX.\\nwhy, 429.\\nwicked, 332.\\nwickedness, 85.\\nwicker, 326.\\nwicket, 20.\\nWiclif, 227, 405,421,\\n432.\\nWicliffists, 302.\\nWiclifite, 302,\\nwide, 256.\\nwiden, 257.\\nwidowhood, 274.\\nwidth, 267.\\nwield, 237.\\nWIF, 318.\\nwife, 266.\\nwight, 267, 408.\\nwilderness, 269.\\nwilding, 329.\\nWill, 312.\\nwill (symbol-verb), 202,\\n249, 250, 492.\\nwilleth, 237.\\nwill-o -the-wisp, 514.\\nwillow, 21.\\nwiltu, 222.\\nwilyness, 85,\\nwin, 232.\\nWinchester, 20.\\nwind, 232, 266.\\nwine, 109.\\nwine-glass, 515.\\nwing, 262.\\nwinsome, 331.\\nwinter, 267.\\nwire, 182.\\nwis verb), 248.\\n-wis, 346.\\nWisbech, 20.\\nwisdom, 272.\\nwise, 83.\\nwise and wary, 534.\\nwishy-washy, 336,\\nwist, 248.\\nWISTE, 248.\\nwit, 108.\\nwit and wisdom, 534.\\nwitchery, 277.\\nwite word testa-\\nment), 283.\\nwith, 38.\\nwith a good will, 374.\\nwithal, 432.\\nwith one accord, 374.\\nwithout, 440.\\nwithout ceasing, 374.\\nwithout distraction,\\n374-\\nwithout effort, 377.\\nwithout thought, 377.\\nwithstand, 38, 509.\\nwittol, 324.\\nwives, 318.\\nwizard, 290, 293.\\nwize (Spenser), 293.\\nwo, 81, 164.\\nwoe, 129.\\nwoke, 231.\\nwold, 266.\\nwolf, 266.\\nwoman, 539.\\nwomb, 266,\\nwon, 232.\\nwonder, 255, 267.\\nwondered, 255.\\nwonderfully, 366.\\nwonnes (Spenser), 1 38.\\nwood, 7, 2T, 266.\\nwooden, 324, 325.\\nwoodhouse, 520.\\nwoollen, 324.\\nword, 33, 35, 318.\\nword of command, 514.\\nWord-painting, 560.\\nwords, 318.\\nwore, 232.\\nwork, 248.\\nworkmanship, 275.\\nworld, 266.\\nworm, 266,\\nwormwood, 21.\\nworn, 232.\\nworship, 275.\\nwort, 2 r\\nworth (adj.), 322.\\nworth (subst.),244.\\nworth (verb), 243, 489.\\nworthily and to great\\npurpose, 373.\\nworthy, 185..\\nworthyness, 85.\\nwot, 248.\\nwould, 146, 202, 249,\\n492.\\nwound, 232.\\nwove, 232.\\nwoven, 232.\\nWRiEc, 236.\\nwrat wrote, 232, 2 3 S,\\nwrath, 141.\\nwreak, 141, 232, 236.\\nwreath, 141.\\nWRECE, 236.\\nWRECEN, 236.\\nwrestle, 141.\\nwretch, 127, 142.\\nwretched, 332.\\nwretchlessness, 141.\\nWright, 141,\\nwriht (Chaucer), 81.\\nwring, 232.\\nwrist, 141.\\nwrite, 141, 232.\\nwrite off, 439,\\nwrite slow, 361.\\nwriting, 485.\\nwritten, 232.\\nwrote, 232, 236,\\nwrote root, 141.\\nwrought, 142, 248.\\nwrung, 232.\\nwultu, 221.\\nwush (Scottish), 231.\\nWykehamists, 30 2 30 7\\nX, the letter, 116.\\nY, the letter, 117,\\n-y (terminal), 304,323,\\n327, 328.\\nyable (Dorset), 118,\\nyachen (Dorset), 1 18.\\nyacre (Dorset), 118.\\nyakker (Dorset), 118.\\nyale (Dorset), 118.\\nyarbs (Dorset), 118.\\nyard, 117, 266.\\nyare, in, 117.\\nyarm (Dorset), 118.\\nyarn (Dorset), 118.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0610.jp2"}, "611": {"fulltext": "INDEX,\\n599\\nyamest (Dorset), Ii8,\\nyarrow, 21.\\nychain d, 479.\\nyclept, 479.\\nye, III, 117.\\nye the), 104.\\nyea. 149.\\nyean, 118.\\nyeaning- time, 505.\\nyear, iii, 117, r54,\\n266.\\nyearling, 330.\\nyearn, 117.\\nyeaze (Dorset), 1 18.\\nyell, 262.\\nyellow, 149,\\nyellow-girted, 511.\\nyelp, 117.\\nYenton, 541.\\nyeoman, 129.\\nyes, 117, 400.\\nyes sure, 362.\\nyet, III, 117,459.\\nyeve (Chaucer), 11 1.\\nyew, 21.\\nyield, 117, 255.\\nyielded, 255.\\nyoke, 266.\\nyoke-fellow, 505.\\nYork, 20, 1 18.\\nyote pour), 237.\\nyou, 35, 194, 398, 405.\\nyoung, 88, 118, 129,\\n322.\\nyoungster, 320.\\nyour, 393.\\nyour grace, 388.\\nyour highness, 388.\\n388,\\nyour honour, 388\\nyour lordship,\\n398-\\nyour majesty, 388.\\nypointing, 479.\\ny* that), 104.\\nywroken (Spenser),\\n232, 236.\\nz, the letter, 1 20.\\nzealous, 346.\\nzeir (Scottish), 117.\\nzenith, 304.\\nzephyr, 119,\\nzinc, 120.\\nzit (Scottish). 117.\\nzork (Scottish), 118.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0611.jp2"}, "612": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0612.jp2"}, "613": {"fulltext": "October, 1871.\\nBOOKS\\nPRINTED AT\\nTHE CliABENDON PRESS, OXFORD,\\nAND PUBLISHED FOR THE UNIVERSITY BV\\nMACMILLAlSr AND CO.,\\ni6, BEDFORD STREET, CO VENT GARDEN, LONDON.\\nLEXICONS, GRAMMAES, c.\\nA Greek-English. Lexicon, by Henry George Liddell,\\nD.D., and Robert Scott, D.D. Sixth Edition, Revised and Auginented. 1870,\\n4to. cloth, \\\\l. i6j.\\nA Greek-English. Lexicon, abridged from the above,\\nchiefly for the use of Schools. Thirteenth Edition, 1869. square i2mo. cloth,\\nA copious Greek-English Vocabtilary, compiled from the\\nbest authorities. 1850. 24mo. boinid, 3J.\\nGraecae Grammaticae Eudimenta in usum Scholanim.\\nAuctore Carolo Wordsworth, D.C.L. Seventeenth Edition, 1870. i2mo. do^tfid, 4s.\\nA Practical Introduction to Greek Accentuation, by\\nH. W. Chandler, M.A. 1862. 8vo. cloth, los. 6d.\\nScheller s Lexicon of the Latin Tongue, with the German\\nexplanations translated into EngUsh by J. E. Riddle, M.A. 1835. foL cloth.\\nA Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language, ar-\\nranged with reference to the Classical Languages of Europe, for the use of\\nEnglish Students, by Monier Williams, M.A. Third Edition, 1864. 8vo. cloth,\\n15^.\\nAn Icelandic-English Dictionary. By the late R. Cleasby.\\nEnlarged and completed by G. Vigfusson. Part I. 1869. 4to. i/. is.\\nGREEK AND LATIN CLASSICS.\\nAeschylus Tragoediae et Fragmenta, ex recensione Guil.\\nDindorfii. Second Edition, 1851. 8vo. cloth, 5^. 6d.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0613.jp2"}, "614": {"fulltext": "Catalogue of Books\\nSophocles Tragoediae et Fragmenta, ex recensione et cum\\nGuil. Dindorfii. Third hdition, 2 vols. i860, fcap. 8vo. cloth.\\nEach Play separately, Ihnp, 2s. 6d.\\nThe Text alone, printed on writing paper, with large\\nmargin, roj al i6mo. cloth, Ss.\\nThe Text alone, square i6mo. cloth, 3s, 6d.\\nEach Play separately, li7n/ 6d.\\nSophocles Tragoediae et Fragmenta cum Annotatt. Guil.\\nDindorfii. Tonii II. 1849. 8vo. cloth, loj.\\nThe Te.xt, Vol. I. y. 6d. The Notes, Vol. II. 4J. 6d.\\nEiiripides Tragoediae et Fragmenta, ex recensione Guil.\\nDindorfii. Tonii II. 1S34. 8vo. cloth, 10s.\\nAristophanes Comoediae et Fragmenta, ex recensione\\nGuil. Dindorfii. Toiui 11. 1835. 8vo. cloth, iis.\\nAristoteles ex recensione Immanuelis Bekkeri. Accedunt\\nIndices Sylburgiani. Tonii XI. 1837. 8vo. cloth, 2I. loj.\\nEach volume separately, SJ. 6d.\\nCatulli Veronensis Liber. Recognovit, apparatum criticum\\nprolegomena appendices addidit, Robinson Ellis, A.M. 1867. 8vo. cloth, \\\\6s.\\nDemosthenes ex recensione Guil. Dindorfii. Tomi IV.\\n1846. 8vo. cloth. Price reduced fron 2/. \u00e2\u0096\u00a02s. to \\\\l. \\\\s.\\nHomerus Ilias, ex rec. Guil. Dindorfii. 1856. 8vo. cloth,\\n5J-. M.\\nHomerus Odyssea, ex rec. Guil. Dindorfii. 1855. 8vo.\\ncloth, 5J. td.\\nPlato The Apology, with a revised Text and English\\nNotes, and a Digest of Platonic Idioms, by James Riddell, M.A. 1867. 8vo.\\ncloth, 8j. ed.\\nPlato Philebus, with a revised Text and English Notes,\\nby Edward Poste, M.A. 1S60. 8vo. cloth, -js. 6d.\\nPlato Sophistes and Politicus, with a revised Text and\\nEnglish Notes, by L. Campbell, M.A. 1S66. 8vo. cloth, i8j.\\nPlato Theaetetus, with a revised Text and English Notes,\\nby L. Campbell, M.A. 1861. 8vo. cloth, gs.\\nXenophon Historia Graeca, ex recensione et cum annota-\\ntionibus L. Dindorfii Seco7id Editioii, 1852. 8vo. cloth, ioj. 6d.\\nXenophon Expeditio Cyri, ex rec. et cum annotatt. L. Din-\\ndorfii. Second Edition, 1855. 8vo. cloth, los. 6d.\\nXenophon Institutio Cyri, ex rec. et cum annotatt. L. Din-\\ndorfii. 1857. 8vo. cloth, 10s. 6d.\\nXenophon Memorabilia Socratis, ex rec. et cum annotatt.\\nL. DindorfiL 1862. 8vo. cloth, -js. 6d.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0614.jp2"}, "615": {"fulltext": "Printed at the Clarendon Press.\\nTHE HOLY SCRIPTUIIES.\\nThe Holy Bible in the Earliest English Versions, made from\\nthe Latin Vulgate by John Wycliffe and his followers edited by the Rev. J.\\nForshall and Sir F. Madden. 4 vols. 1850. royal 4to. cloth. Price reduced from\\n5/. 15J. 6d. to 2,1. 3s.\\nThe Holy Bible an exact reprint, page for page, of the\\nAuthorized Version published in the year 1611. Demy 4to. half bound, xl. -ls.\\nVetus Tesfcaraentum G-raece secundum exemplar Vaticanum\\nRomae editum. Accedit potior varietas Codicis Alexandrini. Tomi III. 1S48.\\ni8mo. cloth, 14J.\\nNovum Testamenturo. G-raece. Edidit Carolus Lloyd,\\nS.T.P.R., necnon Episcopus Oxoniensis. 1869. iSmo. cloth, y.\\nThe same on writing paper, small 4 to. cloth, ids, 6d.\\n]^7ov-llm Testamentinn Graece juxta Exemplar Millianum.\\n1868. i8mo. cloth, 2S. 6d.\\nThe same on writing paper, small 4to. cloth, 6s. 6d.\\nEvangelia Sacra Graece. 1870. fcap. 8vo. limp, is. 6d.\\nECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, c.\\nBaedae Historia Ecclesiastiea. Edited, with English\\nBingham s Antiquities of the Christian Church, and other\\nAVorks. 10 vols. 1855. 8vo. cloth. Price reduced from. 5/. 5^. to 3/. 3J.\\nBurnet s History of the Reformation of the Church of\\nEngland. A new Edition. Carefully revised, and the Records collated with\\nthe originals, by N. Pocock, M. A. With a Preface by the Editor. 7 vols. 1865.\\n8vo. cloth, 4I. 4s.\\nEusebii Pamphili Historia Ecclesiastiea. 8vo. cloth, 8s. 6d.\\nPatrum Apostolicorvim, S. Clemen tis Romani, S. Ignatii,\\nS. Polycarpi, quae supersunt. Edidit Guil. Jacobson, S.T.P.R. Tomi II.\\nFourth Edition, 1863. Svo. cloth, il. is.\\nEK^GLISH THEOLOGY.\\nButler s Works, with an Index to the Analogy. 2 vols.\\n1849. 8vo. cloth, izs.\\nGresweli s Harmonia Evangelica. Fifth Edition, 1856.\\n8vo. cloth, gs. 6d.\\nHooker s Works, with his Life by Walton, arranged by\\nJohn Keble, M.A. Ez/th Edition, 1865. 3 vols. 8vo. cloth, il. lu. 6d.\\nHooker s Works the text as arranged by John Keble, M.A,\\n2 vols. 1865. 8vo. cloth, iij.\\nPearson s Exposition of the Creed. Revised and corrected\\nby E. Burton, D.D. Fifth Edition, 1864. Svo. cloth, xos. 6d.\\nWateriand s Review of the Doctrine of the Eucharist, with\\na Preface by the present Bishop of London. 1868. crown Svo. cloth, 6s. 6d.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0615.jp2"}, "616": {"fulltext": "Booh Printed at the Clarendon Press.\\nENGLISH HISTOKY.\\nClarendon s (Edw. Earl of) History of the Rebellion and\\nCivil Wars in England. To which are subjoined the Notes of Bishop War-\\nburton. 7 vols. 1849. medium 8vo. cloth, 2/. loj.\\nClarendon s (Edw. Earl of) History of the RebelHon and\\nCivil Wars in England. 7 vols. 1839. i8mo. cloth, il. js.\\nFreeman s (E. A.) History of the Norman Conquest of\\nEngland its Causes and Results. Vols. I. and II. 8vo. New Edition, -with\\nhidex, \\\\l. i6s.\\nVol. III. The Reign of Harold and the Interregnum. 1869. 8vo. cloth, il. is.\\nVol. IV. In the Press.\\nKogers s History of Agiiculture and Prices in England, a.d.\\n1259 1400. 2 vols. 1866. 8vo. cloth, il. 2j.\\nMATHEMATICS, PHYSICAL SCIENCE, c.\\nAn Acconnt of Vesuvius, by John Phillips, M.A., F.R.S.,\\nProfessor of Geology, Oxford. 1869. Crown 8vo. cloth, ioj. td.\\nTreatise on Infinitesimal Calculus. By Bartholomew\\nPrice, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, O.xford.\\nVol. I. Differential Calculus. Second Edition, 1858. 8vo. cloth, 14J. 6d.\\nVoL II. Integral Calculus, Calculus of Variations, and Differenticil Equations.\\nSecond Edition, 1865. 8vo. cloth, z^s.\\nVol. III. Statics, including Attractions Dynamics of a Material Particle.\\nSecond Edition, 1868. 8vo. cloth, i6s.\\nVol. IV. Dynamics of Material Systems together with a Chapter on Theo-\\nretical Dynamics, by W. F. Donkin, M. A., F.R.S. 1862. 8vo. cloth, 16s.\\nMISCELLANEOUS.\\nA Course of Lectures on Art, delivered before the Univer-\\nsity of o.xford. By John Ruskin, M.A., Slade Professor of Fine Art. 1870.\\n8vo. cloth, 6s.\\nA Critical Account of the Drawings by Michel Angelo\\nand RafFaello in the University Galleries, Oxford. By J. C. Robinson, F.S. A.\\n1870. Crown 8vo. cloth, 4s.\\nBacon s Novum Organum, edited, with English Notes, by\\nG. AV. Kitchin, M.A. 1855. 8vo. cloth, 9J. 6d.\\nBacon s Novum Organum, translated by G. W. Kitchin,\\nM.A. i8ss. 8vo. cloth, gs. 6d.\\nSmith s Wealth of Nations. A new Edition, with Notes,\\nby J. E. Thorold Rogers, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. cloth, 21s.\\nGaii Institutionum Juris Civilis Commentarii Quatuor\\nor, Elements of Roman Law by Gaius. With a Translation and Commentary.\\nBy Edward Poste, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, and Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.\\n8vo. cloth, i6i-. Just published.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0616.jp2"}, "617": {"fulltext": "\u00e2\u0082\u00achxm):im ft^ss ^txin.\\nThe D^egates of the Clarendon Press having undertaken\\nthe publication of a series of works, chiefly educational, and\\nentitled the Clarcntlon ^rcSS Series, have published, or have\\nin preparation, the following.\\nThose to which pri\\nI. GKEEK AND LATIN CLASSICS, c.\\nA Greek Primer, in English, for the use of beginners. By\\nthe Right Rev. Charles Wordsworth, D.C.L., Bishop of St. Andrews. Second\\nEdition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, is. 6d.\\nGreek Verbs, Irregular and Defective their forms,\\nmeaning-, and quantity embracing- all the Tenses used by Greek writers, with\\nreference to the passages in which they are found. By W. Veitch. New\\nEditiojt. Crown 8vo. cloth, zos. 6d. Just published.\\nThe Elements of Greek Accentuation (for Schools)\\nabridged from his larger work by H. W. Chandler, M. A., Waynflete Professor\\nof Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, Oxford. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 2j. 6rf.\\nAeschines in Ctesiphontem and Demosthenes de Corona.\\nWith Introduction and Notes. By G. A. Simcox, M.A., and W. H. Simcox,\\nM.A., Fellows of Queen s College, Oxford. In the Press.\\nAristotle s Politics. By W. L. Newman, M.A., Fellow\\nand Lecturer of Balliol College, and Reader in Ancient History, Oxford.\\nThe Golden Treasury of Ancient Greek Poetry being a\\nCollection of the finest passages in the Greek Classic Poets, with Introductory\\nNotices and Notes. By R. S. Wright, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.\\nExt. fcap. Bvo. cloth, 8j. ed.\\nA Golden Treasury of Greek Prose being a Collection of\\nthe finest\\nt pa\\nNotices and Notes. By R.\\nand J. E. I.. Shadwell, M.A\\ncloth, 4J. 6(3?.\\nrincipal Greek Prose Writers, with Introductory\\nWright, M. A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford\\nSenior Student of Christ Church. Ex t. fcap. Bvo.\\nHomer. Iliad. By D. B. Monro, MA., Fellow and Tutor\\nof Oriel College, Oxford.\\nHomer. Odyssey, Books I-XII (for Schools). By W. W.\\nMerry, M. A., Fellow and Lecturer of Lincoln College, Oxford. Ext. fcap. 8vo.\\nclpth, ifS. 6d.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0617.jp2"}, "618": {"fulltext": "Clarcndoii Press Series.\\nHomer. Odyssey, Books I-XII. By W. W. Merry, M.A.,\\nFellow and Lecturer of Lincoln College, Oxford and the late James Riddell,\\nM.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.\\nHomer. Odyssey, Books XIII-XXIV. By Robinson Ellis,\\nM.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford.\\nPlato. Selections (for Schools). With Notes, by B. Jowett,\\nM.A., Regius Professor of Greek; and J. Purves, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer\\nof Balliol College, Oxford.\\nSophocles. Oedipus Rex: Dindorf s Text, with Notes by\\nthe Ven. Archdeacon Basil Jones, M. A., formerly Fellow of University College,\\nOxford. Secofid Editioji. Ext. fcap. 8vo. limp cloth, is. 6d.\\nSophocles. By Lewis Campbell, M.A., Professor of Greek,\\nSt. Andrews, formerly Fellow of Queen s College, Oxford, hi (he Press\\nTheocritus (for Schools). With Notes, by H. Snow, MA.,\\nAssistant Master at Eton College, formerly Fellow of St. John s College, Cam-\\nbridge. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, ^s. td.\\nXenophon. Selections (for Schools). With Notes and\\nMaps, by J. S. Phillpotts, B.C.L., Assistant Master in Rugby School, formerly\\nFellow of New College, Oxford. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, y. (,d.\\nCaesar. The Commentaries (for Schools). Part I. The\\nGallic War, with Notes and Maps, c.,by Charles E. Moberly, M.A., Assistant\\nMaster in Rugby School; formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Ext.\\nfcap. 8vo. cloth, 4s. 6d.\\nAlso, to follow Part II. The Civil War by the same Editor.\\nCicero s Philippic Orations. With Notes, by J. R. King,\\nM.A., formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. Demy Svo.\\nclorh, los. 6d.\\nCicero pro Cluentio. With Introduction and Notes. By\\nW. Ramsay, M.A. Edited by G. G. Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity,\\nGlasgow. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, y. 6d.\\nCicero. Selection of interesting and descriptive passages.\\nWith Notes. By Henry Walford, M.A., Wadham College, Oxford, Assistant\\nMaster at Haileybury College. In three Parts. Ext. fcap. Svo. cloth, 4s. 6d.\\nAlso sold separately.\\nPart I. Anecdotes from Grecian and Roman History, cloth, is. 6d.\\nPart II. Omens and Dreams Beauties of Nature, cloth, is. 6d.\\nPart IK. Rome s Rule of her Provinces, cloth, is. 6d.\\nCicero. Select Letters. By Albert Watson, M.A., Fellow\\nand Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Demy Svo. cloth, i8j.\\nCicero de Oratore. With Introduction and Notes. By\\nA. S. Wilkins, M.A., Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0618.jp2"}, "619": {"fulltext": "Claj-endon Press Series.\\nCicero and Pliny. Select Epistles (for Schools). With\\nCornelius Ifepos. With Notes, by Oscar Browning. M.A.,\\nFellow of King s College, Cambridge, and Assistant Master at Eton College.\\nExt. fcap. 8vo. cloth, \u00e2\u0096\u00a0zs. 6d.\\nHorace. With Notes and Introduction. By Edward C.\\nWickham, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford.\\nAlso a small edition for Schools.\\nLivy, Books I-X. By J. R. Seeley, M. A., Fellow of Christ s\\n8vo. cloth, 6s.\\nAlso a small editi\\n1 for Schools.\\nOvid. Selections for the use of Schools. With Introduc-\\ntions and Notes, and an Appendix on the Roman Calendar. By W. Ramsay,\\nM.A. Edited by G. G. Ramsay, M.A., Professor of Humanity, Glasgow. Ext.\\nfcap. 8vo. cloth, ss. 6d.\\nFragments and Speciraens of Early Latin. With Intro-\\nduction, Notes, and Illustrations. By John Wordsworth, M.A., Brasenose\\nCollege, Oxford.\\nSelections from the less known Latin Poets. By North\\nFinder, M.A., formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Demy 8vo. cloth.\\nPassages for Translation into Latin. For the use of\\nPassmen and others. Selected by J. Y. Sargent, M.A., Tutor, formerly Fellow,\\nof Magdalen College, Oxford. Secotid Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 2S. 6d.\\nII. MEISTTAL AND MOBAL PHILOSOPHY.\\nThe Elements of Deductive Logic, designed mainly for\\nthe use of Junior Students in the Universities. By T. Fowler, M.A., Fellow\\nand Tutor of Lincoln College, Oxford. Fourth Edition, with a Collection of\\nExamples. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, y. 6d.\\nThe Elements of Inductive Logic, designed mainly for\\nthe use of Students in the Universities. By the same Author. Ext. fcap. 8vo.\\ncloth, 6s.\\nA Manual of Political Economy, for the use of Schools.\\nBy J. E. Thorold Rogers, M.A., formerly Professor of Political Economy,\\nOxford. Second Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 4J. 6d.\\nIII. MATHEMATICS, c.\\nAcoustics. By W. F. Donkin, M.A,, F.R.S., Savilian Pro-\\nfessor of Astronomy, Oxford. Crown 8vo. cloth, yj. 6d.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0619.jp2"}, "620": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\nAn Elementary Treatise on Quaternions. By P. G.\\nTait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh\\nformerly Fellow of St. Peter s College, Cambridge. Demy 8vo. cloth, t.2s. 6d.\\nBook-keeping. By R. G. C. Hamilton, Accountant to the\\nBoard of Trade, and John Ball (of the Firm of Messrs. Quilter, Ball, Co.),\\n^__._ .r --ts Exam\\nI Book-keeping for the Society of Arts Examination. Third\\nEdition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, js. 6d.\\nA Course of Lectures on Pure Geometry. By Henry J.\\nStephen Smith, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Balliol College, and Savilian Professor\\nof Geometrj in the University of Oxford.\\nA Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. By J. Clerk\\nMaxwell, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, King s Col-\\nlege, London. /?t the Press.\\nIV. HIS TOBY.\\nA Manual of Ancient History. By George Rawlinson,\\nM.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History, formerly Fellow of Exeter College,\\nOxford. Demy 8vo. cloth, i+r.\\nSelect Charters and other Illustrations of English\\nConstitutional History from tlie Earliest Times to the reign of Edward I.\\nBy W. Stubbs, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University\\nof Oxford. Crown 8vo. cloth, Zs. 6d.\\nA Constitutional History of England. By W. Stubbs,\\nM.A., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford.\\nA History of Germany and of the Empire, down to the\\nclose of the Middle Ages. By J. Bryce, B.C.L., Fellow of Oriel College,\\nOxford.\\nA History of Germany, from the Reformation. By Adol-\\nphus W. Ward, M.A., Fellow of St. Peter s College, Cambridge, Professor of\\nHistory, Owens College, Manchester.\\nA History of British India. By S.J. Owen, M.A Lee s\\nReader in Law and History, Christ Church, and Teacher of Indian Law and\\nHistory in the University of Oxford.\\nA History of Greece. By E. A. Freeman, M.A., formerly\\nFellow of Trinity College, Oxford.\\nA History of France. By G, W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly\\nCensor of Christ Church.\\nV. LA^W.\\nElements of Law for the use of Students. By William\\nMarkby, M.A., one of the Justices of the High Court of Judicature, Calcutta.\\nNearly ready.\\nCommentaries on Roman Law from the original and the\\nbest modem sources. By H. J. Roby, M.A., formerly Fellow of St. John s\\nCollege, Cambridge Professor of Law at University College, London.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0620.jp2"}, "621": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\nVI. PHYSICAL SCIENCE.\\nNatural Philosophy. In four volumes. By Sir W. Thom-\\nson, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow; and\\nP. G. Tait, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh; formerly Fel-\\nlows of St. Peter s College, Cambridge. Vol. I. 8vo. cloth, iL 5J.\\nBy the same Authors, a smaller Work on the same subject,\\nforming a complete Introduction to it, so far as it can be carried out with\\nElementary Geometry and Algebra. /;z the Press.\\nDescriptive Astronomy. A Handbook for the General\\nReader, and also for practical Observatory work. With 224 illustrations and\\nnumerous tables. By G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S., Barrister-at-Law. Demy 8vo.\\n856 pp., cloth, il. zs.\\nChemistry for Students. By A. W. Williamson, Phil.\\nDoc, F. R.S., Professor of Chemisti-y, University College, London. A neit;\\nEdition, with Solutions. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 8j. 6d.\\nA Treatise on Heat, with numerous Woodcuts and Dia-\\ngrams. By Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Observatory at\\nKew. Second Edition. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, js. 6d. Jiist published.\\nForms of Animal Life. By G. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.,\\nLinacre Professor of Physiologj Oxford. Illustrated by Descriptions and\\nDrawings of Dissections. Demy 8vo. cloth, i6j.\\nExercises in Practical Chemistry. By A. G. Vernon\\nHarcourt, M.A., F.R.S., Senior Student of Christ Church, and Lee s Reader\\nin Chemistry and H. G. Madan, M.A., Fellow of Queen s College, Oxford.\\nSeries I. Qualitative Exercises. Crown 8vo. cloth, js. 6d.\\nSeries II. Quantitative Exercises.\\nThe Valley of the Thames its Physical Geography and\\nGeolog-y. By John Phillips, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geology, Oxford.\\nIn the Press.\\nGeology. By J. Phillips, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Geo-\\nlogy, Oxford.\\nMechanics. By Bartholomew Price, MA., F.R S., Sedleian\\nProfessor of Natural Philosophy, Oxford.\\nOptics. By R. B. Clifton, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experi-\\nmental Philosophy, Oxford formerly Fellow of St. John s College, Cambridge.\\nElectricity. By W. Esson, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and\\nMathematical Lecturer of T/Ierton College, Oxford.\\nCrystallography. By M. H. N. Story-Maskelyne, MA.,\\nProfessor of Mineralogy, Oxford and Deputy Keeper in the Department of\\nMinerals, British Museum.\\nMineralogy. By the same Author.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0621.jp2"}, "622": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\nPhysiological Physics. By G. Griffith, MA., Jesus Col-\\nlejje, Oxford, Assistant Secretary to tlie British Association, and Natural\\nScience Master at Harrow School.\\nMagnetism.\\nVII. ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.\\nA First Reading Book. By Marie Eichens of Berlin and\\nedited by Anne J. Clout;li. Ext. fcap. 8vo. stiff covers. Ad.\\nOxford Reading Book, Part I. For Little Children.\\nExt. fcap. Svo. siiff covers, 6d.\\nOxford Reading Book, Part II. For Junior Classes.\\nExt. fcap. Svo. stiff coolers, 6d.\\nOn the Principles of Grammar. By E. Thring, M.A.,\\nHead Master of Uppingham School. Ext. fcap. Svo. cioth, 4s. 6d,\\nGrammatical Analysis, designed to serve as an Exercise\\nand Composition Book in the Enj^lish Lang^uage. By E. Thring, M.A.. Head\\nMaster of Uppingham School. Ext. fcap. Svo. ctof^, 3J. 6d.\\nSpecimens of Early English being a Series of Extracts\\nfrom the most important English Authors, Chronologically arranged, illustrative\\nof the progress of the English Language and its Dialectic varieties, from A.D.\\n1250 to .\\\\.D. 1400. With Grammatical Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By\\nR. Morris, Editor of The Story of Genesis and Exodus, c. Ext. fcap. Svo.\\ncloth, ys. 6d.\\nSpecimens of English from a.d. 1394 to a.d. 1579 (from\\nthe Crede to Spenser): selected by W. W. Skeat, M.A., formerly Fellow of\\nChrist s College, Cambridge. t/te Press.\\nThe Vision of V(7 illiam concerning Piers the Plowman,\\nby William Langland. Edited, with Notes, by W. W. Skeat, M.A., formerly\\nFellow of Christ s College, Cambridge. Ext. fcap. Svo. c/ot/t, 4s. 6d.\\nThe Philology of the English Tongue. By J. Earle,\\nM.A., formerly Fellow of Oriel College, and Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Oxford.\\nExt. fcap. Svo. doth, 6s. bd. Jiist published.\\nTypical Selections from the best English Authors from the\\nSixteenth to tlie Nineteenth Century, (to ser^ e as a higher Reading Book,) with\\nIntroductory Notices and Notes, being a Contribution towards a History of\\nEnglish Literature. Ext. fcap. Svo. cloth, \\\\s. bd.\\nSpecimens of the Scottish Language; being a Series of\\nAnnotated Extracts illustrative of the Literature and Philology of the Lowland\\nTongue from the Fourteenth to the Nineteenth Century. With Introduction\\nand Glossary. By A. H. Burgess, M.A.\\nSee also XII. below for other English Classics.\\nVIII. FRENCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.\\nBrachet s Historical Grammar of the French Language.\\nTranslated by G. W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly Censor of Christ Churcn. Ext.\\nfcap. Svo. cloth, y. bd.", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0622.jp2"}, "623": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Set\\nAn Etymological Dictionary of the French Language, with\\na Preface on the Principles of French Etymology. By A. Brachet. 1 ranslated\\nby G. W. Kitchin, M. A., formerly Censor of Christ Church, hi the Press.\\nComeille s Cinna, and Moliere s Les Femmes Savantes.\\nEdited, with Introduction and Notes, by Gustave Masson. Ext. fcap. 8vo.\\ncloth, 2J. dd.\\nKacine s Andromaque, and Comeille s Le Menteur. With\\nLouis Racine s Life of his Father. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth,\\n2S. 6rf.\\nMoliere s Les Fourberies de Scapin, and Racine s Athalie.\\nV\\\\ ith Voltaire s Life of Moliere. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth,\\n2s. 6d.\\nSelections from the Correspondence of Madame de Sevigne\\nand her chief Contemporaries. Intended more especially for Girls Schools.\\nBy the same Editor. Kxt. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3s.\\nVoyage autour de ma Chambre, by Xavier de Maistre\\nUurika, by MADAME DE DURAS; La Dot de Suzette, by FlEVEE Les Ju-\\nmeaux de i Hotel Corneille, by Edmond ABOUT Mesaventnres dun Ecolier,\\nby P.ODOLPHE TOPFFER. By the same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 2s. bd.\\nA Complete Theory of the French\\n1 French and Eng-lish, and numerous Examples to\\nLanguage. By Jules Bue, Honorary M.A. of\\nA French Grammar.\\nLanguage, with the rules ii\\nserve as first Exercises in\\nOxford Taylorian Teacher of French, Oxford Examiner in the Oxford Local\\nExaminations from 1S58.\\nA French Grammar Test. A Book of Exercises on French\\nGrammar; each Exercise being preceded by Grammatical Questions. By the\\nsame Author.\\nExercises in Translation No. i, from French into English,\\nwith general rules on Translation and containing Notes, Hints, and Cautions,\\nfotmded on a comparison of the Grammar and Genius of the two Languages.\\nBy the same Author.\\nExercises in Translation No. 2, from English into French,\\non the same plan as the preceding book. By the same Author.\\nIX. GERMAnsr LAISTGUAGE AND LITERATUIIE.\\nGoethe s Egmont. With a Life of Goethe, c. By Dr.\\nBuchheim, Professor^of the German Language and Literature in King s Col-\\nlege, London and lixaminer in German to the University of London. Extra\\nfcap. 8vo. cloth, 3J.\\nSchiller s Wllhelm Tell. With a Life of Schiller an histo-\\nrical and critical Introduction, Arguments, and a complete Commentary. By\\nthe same Editor. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3J. 6d.\\nLessing s Minna von Barnhelm. A Comedy. With a Life\\nof Lessing, Critical Commentary, c. By the same Editor.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0623.jp2"}, "624": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\nX. ART, c.\\nA Handbook of Pictorial Art. By R. St. J. Tyrwhitt,\\nM.A., formerly Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. With coloured\\nIllustrations, Photogfraphs, and a chapter on Perspective by A. Macdonald.\\n8vo. half morocco, i8j.\\nA Treatise on Harmony. By Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley,\\nBart., M.A., Mus. Doc, Professor of Music in the University of Oxford. 410.\\ncloth, IQS.\\nA Treatise on Counterpoint, Canon, and Fugue, based\\nupon that of Cherubini. By the same Author. 4to. cloth, 16s.\\nXI. MISCELLANEOUS.\\nThe Modern Greek Language in its relation to Ancient\\nGreek. By E. M. Geldart, B.A., formerly Scholar of Balliol College, O.xford.\\nExtr. fcap. 8vo. clotli, 4J. 6 .i.\\nThe Cultivation of the Speaking Voice. By John Hullah.\\nCrown 8vo. cloth, ^s. 6d.\\nA System of Physical Education Theoretical and Prac-\\ntical. By Archibald Maclaren, The Gymnasium, Oxford. Extra fcap. 8vo.\\ncloth, 7 J. M.\\nXII. A SERIES OF ENGLISH CLASSICS.\\nDesigned to meet the wants of Students in English Lite-\\nrature under the superintendence of the Rev. J. S.\\nBrewer, M.A., of Queen s College, Oxford, and Professor\\nof English Literature at King s College, London.\\nThere are two dangers to which the student of English Lite-\\nrature is exposed at the outset of his task his reading is apt to\\nbe too narrow or too diffuse.\\nOut of the vast number of authors set before him in books\\nprofessing to deal with this subject he knows not which to select\\nhe thinks he must read a little of all he soon abandons so hope-\\nless an attempt he ends by contenting himself with second-hand\\ninformation and professing to study English Literature, he fails\\nto master a single English author. On the other hand, by con-", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0624.jp2"}, "625": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\n13\\nfining his attention to one or two writers, or to one special period\\nof English Literature, the student narrows his view of it he fails\\nto grasp the subject as a whole and in so doing misses one of\\nthe chief objects of his study.\\nHow may these errors be avoided How may minute reading\\nbe combined with comprehensiveness of view\\nIn the hope of furnishing an answer to these questions the\\nDelegates of the Press, acting upon the advice and experience of\\nProfessor Brewer, have determined to issue a series of small\\nvolumes, which shall embrace, in a convenient form and at a\\nlow price, the general extent of English Literature, as repre-\\nsented in its masterpieces at successive epochs. It is thought\\nthat the student, by confining himself, in the first instance, to\\nthose authors who are most worthy of his attention, will be\\nsaved from the dangers of hasty and indiscriminate reading. By\\nadopting the course thus marked out for him, he will become\\nfamiliar with the productions of the greatest minds in English\\nLiterature and should he never be able to pursue the subject\\nbeyond the limits here prescribed, he will have laid the founda-\\ntion of accurate habits of thought and judgment, which cannot\\nfail of being serviceable to him hereafter.\\nThe authors and works selected are such as will best serve to\\nillustrate English Literature in its historical aspect. As the eye\\nof history, without which history cannot be understood, the\\nliterature of a nation is the clearest and most intelligible record\\nof its life. Its thoughts and its emotions, its graver and its less\\nserious modes, its progress, or its degeneracy, are told by its best\\nauthors in their best words. This view of the subject will sug-\\ngest the safest rules for the study of it.\\nWith one exception all writers before the Reformation are\\nexcluded from the Series. However great. may be the value of", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0625.jp2"}, "626": {"fulltext": "14 Clarendon Press Series.\\nliterature before that epoch, it is not completely national. For\\nit had no common organ of language it addressed itself to\\nspecial classes it dealt mainly with special subjects. Again of\\nwriters who flourished after the Reformation, who were popular\\nin their day, and reflected the manners and sentiments of their\\nage, the larger part by far must be excluded from our list.\\nCommon sense tells us that if young persons, who have but a\\nlimited time at their disposal, read Marlowe or Greene, Burton,\\nHakewill or Du Bartas, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton will be\\ncomparatively neglected.\\nKeeping, then, to the best authors in each epoch and here\\npopular estimation is a safe guide the student will find the fol-\\nlowing list of writers amply sufficient for his purpose Chaucer,\\nSpenser, Hooker, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Dryden, Bunyan,\\nPope, Johnson, Burke, and Cowper. In other words, Chaucer is\\nthe exponent of the Middle Ages in England Spenser of the\\nReformation and the Tudors Hooker of the latter years of\\nElizabeth Shakespeare and Bacon of the transition from Tudor\\nto Stuart Milton of Charles I and the Commonwealth DrydA\\nand Bunyan of the Restoration Pope of Anne and the House\\nof Hanover Johnson, Burke, and Cowper of the reign of\\nGeorge HI to the close of the last century.\\nThe list could be easily enlarged the names of Jeremy\\nTaylor, Clarendon, Hobbes, Locke, Swift, Addison, Goldsmith,\\nand others are omitted. But in so wide a field, the difficulty is\\nto keep the series from becoming unwieldy, without diminishing\\nits comprehensiveness. Hereafter, should the plan prove to be\\nuseful, some of the masterpieces of the authors just mentioned\\nmay be added to the list.\\nThe task of selection is not yet finished. For purposes of\\neducation, it would neither be possible, nor, if possible, desirable,\\nto place in the hands of students the whole of the works of the", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0626.jp2"}, "627": {"fulltext": "Clarendon Press Series.\\n15\\nauthors we have chosen. We must set before them only the\\nmasterpieces of literature, and their studies must be directed, not\\nonly to the greatest minds, but to their choicest productions.\\nThese are to be read again and again, separately and in combina-\\ntion. Their purport, form, language, bearing on the times, must\\nbe minutely studied, till the student begins to recognise the full\\nvalue of each work both in itself and in its relations to those that\\ngo before and those that follow it.\\nIt is especially hoped that this Series may prove useful to\\nLadies Schools and Middle Class Schools in which English\\nLiterature must always be a leading subject of instruction.\\nBy Professor\\nA General Introduction to the Series.\\nBrewer, M.A.\\n1. Chaucer. The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales The\\nKnightes Tale; The Nonne Prest his Tale. Edited by R. Morris, Editor for\\nthe Early English Text Society, c., c. Second Editioti. Extra fcap. 8vo.\\ncloth, 2s. 6d.\\n2. Spenser s Faery Queene. Books I and II. Designed\\nchiefly for the use of Schools. With Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By\\nG. W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly Censor of Christ Church. Extra fcap. 8vo.\\nclot/i, 2S. 6d. each.\\n3. Hooker. Ecclesiastical Polity, Book I. Edited by R. W.\\nChurch, M.A., Rector of Whatley formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.\\nExtra fcap. 8vo. cloi/t, 2s.\\n4. Shakespeare. Select Plays. Edited by W. G. Clark,\\nM.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; and W. Aldis Wright, M.A.,\\nTrinity College, Cambridge.\\nI. The Merchant of Venice. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, xs.\\nII. Richard the Second. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, is. 6d.\\nIII. Macbeth. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, is. 6d.\\n5. Bacon. Advancement of Learning.\\nWright, M.A. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 45-. 6d.\\nEdited by W. Aldis\\n6. Milton. Poems. Edited by R. C Browne, M.A., and\\nAssociate of King s College, London. 2 vols. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 6s. 6d,\\nSold separately, Vol I. 4J., Vol. II. y.", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0627.jp2"}, "628": {"fulltext": "1 6 Clarendon Press Series.\\n7. Dry den. Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell\\nAstraea Redux Annus Miiabilis Absalom and Achitophel Religio Laici\\nThe Hind and the Panther. Edited by W. D. Christie, M.A., Trinity CoUege,\\nCambridge. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3^. 6d.\\n8. Bunyan. Grace Abounding; The Pilgrim s Progress.\\nEdited by E. Venables, M. A., Canon of Lincoln.\\n9. Pope. With Introduction and Notes. By Mark Pattison,\\nB. D. Rector of Lincoln College. Oxford.\\nI. Essay on Man. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, is. 6d.\\nIL Epistles and Satires. In the Press.\\n10. Johnson. Rasselas; Lives of Pope and Dryden. Edited\\nby C. H. O. Daniel, M. A., Fellow and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford.\\n11. Burke. Thoughts on the Present Discontents; the Two\\nSpeeches on America Reflections on the French Revolution. By Mark Patti-\\nson, B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford.\\n12. Cowper. The Task, and some of his minor Poems.\\nEdited by J. C. Shairp, M.A., Principal of the United College, St. Andrews.\\nPublished for the University by\\nMACMILLAN AND CO., LOK DO]Sr.\\nThe Delegates of the Press invite suggestions and advice\\nfrom all persons interested i?i education; and will be thankful\\nfor hints, tc., addressed to either the Rev. G. W. Kitchin,\\nSt. Giles s Road East, Oxford, or the Secretary to the\\nDelegates, Clarendon Press, Oxford.\\niBJe-OS", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0628.jp2"}, "629": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3219", "width": "1988", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0629.jp2"}, "630": {"fulltext": "-^d\\nh..\\nv^^\\nC\\n,-0\\naV\\n,0 c\\n^y. v-^\\nv^^ rJ\\n1%\\nA^\\ns^\\n-o 0^", "height": "3188", "width": "2008", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0630.jp2"}, "631": {"fulltext": "c\\n;^-xv^\\nr^ ^.o-\\n=1", "height": "3184", "width": "2112", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0631.jp2"}, "632": {"fulltext": "", "height": "3414", "width": "2198", "jp2-path": "philologyofeng00earl_0632.jp2"}}