f AN ENGLISH ¥ i i ! JAMES M.MILNE Y GRAMMAR Q& I SI IYER, BURDETT & COM PA 1 lllliilil LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, "penii Chap, Copyright No. Shelf . M .5 ff. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS JAMES Mr MILNE, Ph.D. "For my aim is not so much to say things that are new, as things that are true." — .1. C. Shairp VJ SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY New York BOSTON Chicago 13335 Library of Congress Two Copies Received JUL 2 1900 CopyrigM adry SECOND COPY. ORDER DIVISION, JUL 12 1900 Copyright, jyiWJ, By SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY. . PREFACE. It has been assumed in the preparation of this text- book on English Grammar that it is for the use of those who can speak and read the English language ; hence much usually found in books on English Grammar has been omitted. It has been the purpose of the author, — I. To present a work purely grammatical, both in method and in facts emphasized. II. To give emphasis to language study through the wealth and variety of illustrations used in the development and elucidation of grammatical facts. III. To present English Grammar in such a way that only a minimum of it will have to be mil earned in studying the grammar of any other language. IV. So to present the method that the maxi- mum of strength will be reached through the minimum of facts learned. V. To use illustrative sentences of such value in giving pleasure and in stimulating thought that the pupils will be led into a love for grammar and thence into a love of' literature. In short, the author has regarded grammar as look- ing toward both logic and literature, — as a process of intellectual discipline and a means of intellectual culture. iii iv PREFACE. The method of the book, by bringing the pupils face to face with numerous examples from literature, Leads them through a study of forms and relations to an understanding of how grammatical statements are for- mulated and applied. The aim of the book is to emphasize the practical rather than the theoretical side of grammar; to place the emphasis on the process of reaching conclusions rather than in memorizing them ; to magnify the spirit of power rather than the spirit of acquisition. Great care has been exercised in selecting sentences that should be at once apposite for illustration, rich in thought, and healthful in sentiment. It is. perhaps, not a vain hope that some of these literary gems may prove potent factors in quickening and refining the literary taste of pupils and in giving to their thoughts rich coloring, thus awakening a greater interest in the treasures of literature and an eager craving for them. The author has attempted to rob grammar of some- thing of its mystery, and to give to the study of it something of freshness, interest, and pleasure. The plan of the book follows the highways rather than the byways of grammar, but the view of the subject has been constantly in the direction of understanding and mastering the fundamental principles and. essential practical facts. No attempt has been made to present the work in a granulated or diluted form, but an earnest effort has been made to have it clear and understandable, giving at all times needed help to those who try to help themselves. Some parts of the book may seem at first glance PREFACE. V too difficult for the pupils, but such portions must be viewed in the light of the strength acquired by them in the complete mastery of the work contained in the preceding pages. In the discussion of potential verb phrases, for example, the work may seem over-difficult, yet it has stood the test of the class-room, and has there won success and commendation. Many former pupils of the author certify to the easy grasp of the subject, and the practical strength acquired in the application of the uses of these potential verb phrases to literature. The arrangement of the subject-matter of the book is based on the natural order of presentation, — that the pupil should not be encumbered with technicalities before he has use for them ; that the same subject must be noted in different relations and observed by repeated views before it can be thoroughly grasped; and that not only must a subject be mastered in parts, but each part must be understood in its relation to the whole. The author's experience and observation in the class- room have led him to omit the subject of false syntax from this A\ r ork, on the ground that if that subject should receive consideration anywhere, it should be in the rhetoric and not in the grammar class. Parsing and diagramming, which have come some- what into disrepute through abuse or misapprehen- sion of their province and use, have been given due consideration as formulas of investigation ait J aiurfysis expression. Part I. is introductory in its nature, and must be thoroughly mastered before any work in Part II. is undertaken. In fact, a complete ami accurate under- standing of the parts of the book preceding any subject vi PREFACE. is the condition on which rests the easy mastery of that subject. Carrying out the suggestions of the "Committee of Fifteen" and other scholarly educators lively con- sulted, the author has added as appendices chapters on Word Building, History of English Language, and Prosody. The leading works on English and general grammar, published in Germany, England, and America, have been freely consulted, and to them the author freely acknowledges his indebtedness. He also wishes to express his appreciation of the generous services rendered by the friends who looked over his preliminary manuscript and gave him the bene- fit of their valuable suggestions. He is indebted in a marked degree to Dr. E. J. Peck for many valuable suggestions, especially on the subjects of Prepositions and Relatives. CONTENTS Introductory Chapter PAGE 1 PART I The Unit Sentence Forms of Sentences . Subject and Predicate Parts of Speech Summary . The Interjection The Expanded Sentence Tails of Speech determined by Use in Sentence Groups of Words used as Parts of Speech Sentences according to Rank .... Sentences according to Composition Analysis . Summary . Outline Classification PART II THE MODIFICATIONS AND RELATIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECH Nouns Classes 59 Gender .......... 68 vii CONTENTS Number Case .... Inflection and Declension Construction and Parsing .Summary . Outline Classification 70 77 95 m; 98 101 Pronouns Personal and Neuter Demonstrative . Indefinite . Interrogative Relative Summary . Outline Classification 103 115 117 125 ISO ltl lb; Adjectives Classes 148 Comparison 150 Summary 165 Outline Classification 107 Verbs Classes 168 Voice 17l' Mode 17.") Tense \ .180 Person 187 Verbals 188 Conjugation 1!>:'> Potential Verb Phrases 211 Defective Verbs 282 Summary 286 CONTENTS ix PAGE Outline Classification 238 Parsing 240 Adverbs Classes 243 Comparison 248 Summary 251 Outline Classification 252 Prepositions Classes 255 Parsing Summary 257 Summary 200 Outline Classification 260 Conjunctions Classes 201 Parsing Summary , 267 Summary 208 Outline Classification 270 In n kimki itions 271 Words with Various Uses 27:5 PART III SENTENCE STRUCTURE, ANAL FSIS Sentence Forms Subject 281 Predicate 282 Objecl 283 CONTENTS Subject Modifiers Object Modifiers Predicate Modifiers Clauses Noun Adjective Adverbial . DsES OF Infinitives OSES of Participles . Connecting Elements . Independent Elements paoi 28 1 285 285 28G 287 288 . 289 . 290 . 292 . 292 PART IV Syntax 296 PART V Sentences fob Analysis APPENDICES T. Historical Sketch «>f the English Lanoi \<-\ . -'117 II. Word Formation 827 III. Prosody 348 IV. Notes fob Teachers 369 Index 367 A knowledge of English Grammar is essential to a good education. — William Wheivell. As Grammar was made after language, so it ought to be taught after it. — Herbert Spencer. Grammar must be learned through language, and not language through Grammar. — Johann Gr. von Herder. No law of a grammarian is absolute, for it may be repealed when brought before the court of last resort, made up of our best speakers and approved authors. — George Campbell ("Philosophy of Rhetoric"). ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INTRODUCTORY. 1. Language, in its most comprehensive sense, Language. includes all ways and means of communicating thought. Language is from the Latin lingua — tongue, or speech. To him who in the love of Nature holds communion with her visible forms, she speaks a various language. — William (fallen Bryant. 2. Language in a more restricted sense comprises the ways and means of communicating thought through the medium of articulate sounds, letters, or characters. 3. Language made up of articulate sounds is Spoken spoken language. Language. 4. Language made up of letters and characters Written is written language. Language. Language is the picture and the counterpart of thought. — Mark Hopkins. l 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. English 5. The language of England, whether used in Language. England or elsewhere in the world, is called the English Language. Grammar. 6. An investigation of the facts, processes, and usages of a language is called Grammar. Grammaris from the Greek gramma — letter, or word. The whole fabric of Grammar rests upon the classifying of words according to their functions in the sentence. — Alexander Bain. Grammar is the logic of speech, even as logic is the grammar of reason. — Richard C. Trench. 7. While every kind of grammar includes to some extent an inquiry into the facts, processes, and usages of language, there are particular kinds of grammar that direct especial attention to these different fields of inquiry. Oompara- 8. Comparative Grammar is an inquiry into the tive comparative forms of words and constructions in different languages, to find common likenesses and common origin, and thus places emphasis on the facts of language. Historical 9. Historical Grammar is an inquiry into the ori- rammar. ^-^ m0( j es f g row th, and development of a lan- guage, and so emphasizes the processes of language. Descriptive 10. Descriptive Grammar is an inquiry into the rammar. f ormg an( | constructions used in a language and a classification of the accepted usages. INTRODUCTORY. 3 11. A Grammar of the English language is an English English Grammar. Grammar. 12. The province of an English Grammar of to- Province of day is to treat present accepted usages of the Eng- English lish language. Its function is not so much to tell how to use the English language, as how it is used by good writers and speakers. Every tongue whatever is founded on use or custom, whose arbitrary sway words and the forms of language must obey. — George Campbell. Use can almost change the stamp of Nature. — Shakespeare. 13. The learning of a language is largely a Learning process of imitation, reaching toward perfection of a through repeated efforts and corrections. Gram- s s ' mar gives rules for use in such corrections. 14. Grammar does not create rules, but simply u, u ies of formulates accepted usages as they are found, and Grammar, records and arranges them into rules. Science deals exclusively with things as they are in themselves. — John RusTdn. A principle in science is a rule in art. — John Playfair. 15. Rules in English Grammar must needs be Rules changed from time to time to embody the changing Change, usages of the English language. A language grows, and is not made. — James Russell Lowell 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16. The unit of language is the complete thought, and its elements are words. Logic is the anatomy of thought. — John Locke. Grammar is the anatomy of speech. The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. — John Stuart Mill. Paet I. THE SENTENCE. I. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 1 17. A group of words used to express a com- The plete thought is a sentence. Sentence. Sentence is from the Latin sententia — a thought. 18. The sentence is the grammatical unit. A. FOEMS OF SENTENCES. 19. Sentences have different forms used hi the expression of thought. Note the form of the following sentences : — 1. Kind words are the music of the world. — Faber. 2. Deeds survive the doers. — Mann. Note that the preceding sentences are used in telling or stating something. 20. A sentence in the form of a statement is a Declarative declarative sentence. Sentence. Declarative is from the Latin declarativus — telling. 1 Sue Notes t'ur Teachers, Appendix IV. 5 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note the form of the following sentences : — 1. Rose, what is become of thy delicate hue ? And where is the violet's beautiful blue'.' — Byrom. 2. Is there any one who does not need patience ? — ( hross. Note that the foregoing sentences are used in asking questions. Interroga- 21. A sentence in the form of a question is an interrogative sentence. Interrogative is from the Latin interrogativw — ask- ing, or questioning. tive Sentence 1. Look into thy heart, and write. — Sidney. 2. Spare the poet for his subject's sake. — Cotoper. 3. Breathe soft, ye winds ; ye waves, in silence sleep. — Oaf. Note that the preceding sentences are used in com- manding, requesting, and entreating. Imperative 22 - A sentence in the form of a com m and. re- Sentence, quest, or entreaty is an imperative sentence. Imperative is from the Latin imperativuB — ordering, or commanding. Note that the following sentences are inform declar- ative (1), interrogative (2), and imperative ( ;, >). but are also used to express feeling or emotion. Such sen- tences are said to be exclamatory in force. 1. Life hath quicksands, life hath snares! — Longfellow. 2. Was ever poet so trusted lie tore ! — Gay. 3. Oh, be my friend, and teach me to be thine] — End rsnn. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 7 23. Declarative, interrogative, or imperative sen- Exclamatory tences used to express force of emotion are exclam- Sentence ' atory sentences. Exclamatory is from the Latin exclamatus — a crying out. 1. Declarative It, p f Exclamatory Declarative 1 Force of 2. Interrogative Emot . ons 3 : Imperative J Exclamatory Interrogative. Exclamatory Imperative. Name the different forms of the following sen- tences : — 1. Schoolhonses are the republican line of fortifications. — Mann. 2. Make me a child again just for to-night ! — Allen. 3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. — Brooks. 4. But when shall spring visit the moldering urn ! Oh, when shall it dawn on the night of the grave ! — Beattie. 5. Why is a wish far dearer than a crown ? — Young. 6. Polly ! Polly ! The cows are in the corn ! — Gilder. 7. Humor is the mistress of tears. — Thackeray. 8. What is life but the choice of that good which con- tains the least evil ! — Haydon. 9. The early morn has gold in its month. — Franklin. 10. Do you think a woman's silence can be natural ? — Farquhar. 11. Man, know thyself ! All wisdom centers there ! — You hi/. 12. A strenuous soul hates cheap successes. — Emerson. 13. Ask me questions concerning tomorrow, Congreve. 14. Rule by patience, Laughing Water! — Longfellow. 15. How can you make a foul perceive that he is a fuul ? — Thackeray. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. B. SUBJECT AM) PREDICATE. Every sentence may be divided into two parts as follows : — I. Tliat of which somothinn is said. II. That ivhich is said of it. 1. A happy heart makes a happy day. 2. True valor lies between cowardice an rashness. 3. Tenderness is the repose of passion. 4. Evil tongues never want a whet. 5. Length of saying makes weariness of hearing. 6. To help one another is a rare privilege. 7. Thinking thoughts is molding life. Subject. 24. The part of the sentence used to represent that of which something is said is the subject. Subject is from the Latin subjection — subject, or foundation. Predicate. 25. The part of the sentence used to represent that which is said of the subject is the predicate. Predicate is from the Latin praedieatum — telling, or proclaiming. Name the subject and predicate in the following declarative sentences : — 1. Childhood has no forebodings. — Eliot. 2. Home is the grandest of all institutions. — Spurgeon. 3. To bear is to conquer our fate. — ( 'ampbeU. 4. The smallest speck is seen on snow. — (in;/. 5. A loving heart is the truest wisdom. — Dickens. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 9 6. A babe in the house is a wellspring of pleasure. — Tapper. 7. Biography is the only true history. — Oarlyle. 8. A perfect pond lily is the most satisfactory of flowers. — Hawthorne. 9. The elements of poetry lie in natural objects. — Bryant. 10. To fail at all is to fail utterly. — Lowell. 11. The true greatness and the true happiness of a country consist in wisdom. — Giles. Change the following interrogative sentences, as near as may be, to the declarative form or order, and tell the subject and predicate in each sentence : — 1. How many ships did Columbus have on his voyage of discovery ? l 2. Where did the pilgrims first land in America ? 3. How much land and how much money did Congress vote La Fayette ? 4. AVhen did the first steamship cross the Atlantic Ocean ? 5. Who are regarded as the three greatest statesmen of the nineteenth century ? 6. Did Cyrus Field lay the first Atlantic cable ? 7. Are eight of the United States named from the names of their chief rivers ? 8. Was Elias Howe the inventor of the sewing machine ? 9. Did Betsy Ross make the first American flag ? 10. Which is the highest monument in America ? In imperative sentences the subject is you, >/e, or thou, and is generally omitted and has to be supplied. 1 Columbus had how many ships on his voyage of discover] P 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Lift (you or ye) yourselves higher day by day. 2. Help (thou) thyself in all things. 3. Keverence (thou, you or ye) age. Tell the subject and the predicate of the following imperative sentences : — 1. Be slow in choosing a friend. 2. Keep yourselves pure in heart. 3. Defend me from my friends. 4. Laugh yourselves into good humor. 5. Neglect not the fleeting opportunity. 6. Enjoy all the pleasures of the day. 7. Acquit yourselves like men. 8. Glory in thy privileges. 9. Avoid making yourselves the subject of conversation. 10. Give reverence to age. Construct or select five declarative, five interroga- tive, and five imperative sentences in addition to those given, and indicate the subject and predicate of each. Logical 26. A sentence regarded as a unit of thought is a logical sentence and, as lias been noted, consists of two parts, the subject and the predicate. Gram- 27. A sentence regarded as a unit of speech is ;i Sentence g rammat i cal sentence, and consists of all the differ- ent parts (words) used to form the sentence. To illustrate by the following sentence : — Each day has its duties. The foregoing sentence regarded as a unit of thought consists of two parts, viz. : — Kitliject + Predicate Bach day + has its duties THE UNIT SENTENCE. 11 The same sentence regarded as a unit of speech con- sists of five parts, viz. : — Each + day + has + its + duties. C. PARTS OF SPEECH. 28. The parts of a grammatical sentence are called parts of speech. Select the part of speech in each of the following 1 sentences that is the name of something : — 1. Stars shine. 9. Acting instructs. 2. Plants breathe. 10. Watching wearies. 3. Flowers blossom. 11. Learning refines. 4. Hornets sting. 12. Hypocrisy disgusts. 5. Slugs crawl. 13. America triumphs. 6. Venice charms. 14. Retribution follows. 7. Iliches vanish. 15. Victoria reigns. 8. Simplicity attracts. 1(3. Homer lives. 29. The part of speech that is the name of some Noun, person, place, or thing is called a noun. Noun is from the Latin nomen — a name. Note that the remaining word in each of the fore- going sentences is used in stating or asserting something about some object. 30. The part of speech used to state or assert Verb, something about some person, place, or thing is a verb. Verb is from the Latin verbum — a word. 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31. The verb is the word of the sentence, and is the only part of speech that can never be left out of a sentence. Note that in each of the foregoing sentences the sub- ject is a noun, and the predicate is a verb. Use different nouns as subjects of the following verbs : — 1. cry. 2. shine. 3. roar. 4. dawns. 5. sleeps. 6. swims. 7. depart. 8. returns. 9. decay. 10. vote. Use different verl nouns : - 1. Washington 2. Vice . 3. Birds . 4. Lightning — 5. Lincoln 6. Flowers 7. Martha . 8. Flocks . 9. Running 10. Hudson 11. cackle. 12. vanish. 13. mew. 14. thrive. 15. sews. 10. develop. 17. enlarge. 18. twinkle. 19. deceives. 20. laughs. Verb Phrase. as predicates of the following — . 11. Henry . 12. Groaning . 13. Day . 14. Pain . 15. Virtue . 16. Promises . 17. Sweetness . 18. Friends . 19. Goodness . 20. Light . 32. Sometimes two or more verbs arc taken together and form what is called a verb phrase. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 13 Use different nouns as subjects of the following verb phrases : — 1. is walking. 7. has died 2. are dreaming 8. were surprised. 2. can come. 9. is known. 4. will depart. 10. shall investigate. 5. are hated. 11. have deserted. G. should have. 12. might assert. 13. could have left. 14. have been seen. 15. must have returned. 16. ■ had been forgiven. 17. will have been tried. 18. would have been stopped. 19. may have been interested. 20. might have been lost. 33. Parts of verb phrases are frequently sepa- rated from one another by other parts of speech, as : — 1. Shall not a man have his spring as well as plants ? — Tlioreau. 2. We can never willingly offend where we sincerely love. — Hill. Name the nouns, simple verhs, and verb phrases in the following sentences : — 1. Success never needs an excuse. — Bulwer-I/ytton. 2. The soul never grows old. — Longfellow. 3. Affection, like melancholy, magnifies trifles. — Hunt. 4. I dreamed that Greece might still be live. — Byron. 5. Ignorance gives a large range of probabilities. —Eliot. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6. God sends experience to paint men's portraits. — Beecher. 7. The plea of ignorance will never take away our responsibilities. — Buskin. 8. Proper words in proper places make the true defini- tion of style. — Sivift. 9. One may live as a conqueror, a king, or a magistrate, but he must die as a man. — Webster. 10. Unless a man works he cannot find out what he is able to do. — Hamerton. 11. All great discoveries are made by men whose feelings run ahead of their thinkings. — Parkhurst. 12. If we could read the secret history of our enemies, we should find in each man's life sorrow and suffering enough to disarm all hostility. — Longfellow. 13. We have not read an author till we have seen his object, whatever it may be, as he saw it. — Carlyle. Note that the verb in each of the following sentences has a noun to complete the idea of the action it is used to assert. 1. Labor disgraces no man. — Grant. 2. A mask of gold hides all deformities. — Dickens. 3. Home interprets heaven. — Parkhurst. Object of 34. A noun used to complete the idea of the Verbi action that the verb is used to assert is called the object of the verb. Transitive 35. A verb that requires an object to complete Verb - the idea of the action which it is used to assert is called a transitive verb. Name the transitive verbs and objects in the follow- THE UNIT SENTENCE. 15 1. A great library contains the diary of the human race. — Dawson. 2. True friends have no solitary joy or sorrow. — CJianning. 3. Wear the old coat and buy the new book. — Phelps. 4. Strong reasons make strong actions. — Shakespeare. 5. A gentleman makes no noise. — Emerson. Note that the verbs in the following sentences do not require objects to complete the idea of the action which they are used to assert. 1. The imagination never dies. — Stedman. 2. Valor consists in the power of self-recovery. — Emerson. 3. Feeling comes before reflection. — Haweis. 36. A verb that does not require an object to Intransitive complete the idea of the action which it is used to Verbi assert is called an intransitive verb. Name the transitive and intransitive verbs in the following sentences : — 1. Continual dropping wears away stones. — Franklin. 2. Beauty lives with kindness. — Shakespeare. 3. The sacred influence of light appears. — Milton. 4. History casts its shadow far into the land of song. — Lota/fellow. 5. Ancient travelers guessed ; modern travelers measure. — Johnson. G. The man that makes a character makes foes. — Young. 7. Even success needs its consolation. — Eliot. 8. God blesses want with large sympathies. — Lowell. 9. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. — Tennyson. Note that the predicate in each of the following sentences consists of a verb and a noun. 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note that the noun in the predicate is a word used to explain something about the subject. 1. The dew of compassion is a tear. — Byron. 2. Troubles are God's rains in the world. — Beecher. 3. Penetration seems a kind of inspiration. — Greuoille. Copulative 37. A verb used to unite the subject with a part Verb. f sp eec h which, while explanatory of the subject, is used to help form the predicate, is called a copulative verb. Copulative is from the Latin cop ulativus — a coupling or binding together. The more common copulative verbs are be {am, arc, is, was, were), look, seem, appear, and become. Predicate 38. A noun used to help form the predicate is ■ Noun ' called a predicate noun. Name the copulative verbs and predicate nouns in the following sentences: — 1. Words are men's daughters, but God's sons are things. — Johnson. 2. Faith is a higher faculty than reason. — Bailey. 3. Be a philosopher; but amidst all your philosophy. 1><> still a man. — Hume. 4. No craven-hearted man was ever fit to be a citizen. — Z>\ eckt r. 5. Measures, not men, have always been my mark. — Goldsmith. 6. A book is a garden. A book is an orchard. A book is a storehouse. A book is a party. It is company by the way; it is a counselor; it is a multitude of counselors — B( i '-It, r. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 17 7. The hearts of men are their books ; events are their tutors ; great actions are their eloquence. — Macaulay. 8. They become the parasites and slaves of the great. — Id. 9. Labor is the law of happiness. — Stevens. Note that the subjects in full-faced type in the fol- lowing sentences are verbs used as nouns. Walking is healthful exercise. To walk is healthful exercise. j Dying is gain. ( To die is gain. ( Sailing requires skill. (To sail requires skill. | Sailing a boat requires skill. (To sail a boat requires skill. 39. That form of the verb which is used as a noun is called an infinitive. 40. The infinitive form in the first sentence in each of the foregoing groups may be called the infinitive in ing. 41. The infinitive form in the last sentence in each of the foregoing groups may be called the simple infinitive with to. Name and specify the kind of infinitives in the fol- lowing sentences : — 1. To choose time is to save time. — Bacon. 2. Living is dreaming. — Wallace. 3. Nature seems to have been created to inspire. — King. 4. Doing good is the only certainly happy action of a man's life. — Sidney. o. If you mean to profit, learn to praise — Churchill. Infinitive, 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Name the nouns and verbs in the following sen- tences, and tell the subject, object, and predicate nouns, and the transitive, intransitive, and copulative verbs and infinitives. 1. Morality is the object of government. — Emerson, 2. Physical prowess has had its clay, and the age of reason has come. — Grady. 3. Riches take wings, comforts vanish, hope withers away, but love stays with ns. — Wallace. 4. Talking is like playing on the harp ; there is as much in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibrations, as in twanging them to bring out their music. — Holmes. 5. In the journey of the years, the autumn is Venice, spring is Naples, and the majestic maturity of summer is Rome. — Curtis. (J. It is not work that kills men; it is worry. Work is healthy; you can hardly put more upon a man than he can bear. Worry is rust upon the blade. — Beecher. 7. Life passes, riches fly away, popularity is fickle, the senses decay, the world changes, friends die. — Newman. 8. The same energy which whirls the earth around the sun and crashes the heavens with thunderbolts, produces the lilies of the valley and the gentle dewdrops that keep them fair. — Hunt. 9. Do you remember, in that disastrous siege in India, when the little Scotch girl raised her head from the pallet in the hospital, and said to the sickening hearts <>f the Eng- lish, "I hear the bagpipes; the Campbells arecoming!" and they said, "No, Jessie; it is delirium." And in an hour the pibroch burst upon their glad ears, and the banner of St. George floated over their heads. — Curtis. To what persons or things do the words he, she. t/ij>l<>. 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. Let us be careful to distinguish modest} 7 , which is ever amiable, from reserve, which is only prudent . — Shenstone. 8. I am always afraid of a fool, — one cannot be sure that he is not a knave as well. — Hazlitt. 9. Mankind is always happy for having been happy ; so that if you make them happy now, you make them happy twenty years hence by memory of it. — Smith. 10. The accusing spirit which flew up to heaven's chan- cery with the oath blushed as he gave it in, and the record- ing angel dropped a tear upon the word and blotted it out forever. — Sterne. Fill out the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate pronouns : — 1. Men regarded with suspicion on account of his treachery. 2. Citizens deprive of their rights by neglecting 3. died that might live. 4. gave my wages and also gave his blessing. 5. shines with that brilliancy belongs to . 6. struggle for reputation, strive for character. 7. wept over joys were to be no more. 8. saw do no man could endure. 9. Joy in work is should strive for. 10. is valuable is not enduring. 11. is worth if has a use. 12. are rich when want , not when have . 13. reveal by our acts. 14. are more known to by your hopes. 15. may not get , but should get of . THE UNIT SENTENCE. 21 16. Perseverance is will conquer nearly all things. 17. can afford to be weary, but cannot afford to be lazy. 18. should be free men, should be slaves. 43. Verbs, nouns, and pronouns are the chief parts of speech in the sentence. 44. The subject or the object of a sentence is always a noun or a pronoun, or an equivalent expression. 45. The predicate of a sentence must always have a verb expressed or implied. The remaining parts of speech are either modifying or connecting elements. 1. Boats must keep near shore. 2. Little boats must keep near shore. Regard the noun, boats, in both the foregoing sen- tences, as the name of the same objects. Note that little, the additional part of speech in sen- tence 2, is used to specify the size of the boats, and thus aids the noun, boats, in designating more definitely that for which it stands. In like manner explain ' awe-inspiring ' and ' happy ' in the following sentences : — 1. Mountains are awe-inspiring. 2. All seemed happy. 46. The part of speech that is used with a noun Adjective, or pronoun to designate more definitely that which the noun or pronoun is used to represent is called an adjective. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Adjective is from the Latin adjectivus — joined to, and refers to the adjective as joined to a noun or pronoun. Note from the following groups of sentences that adjectives may be classified according to what they a re- used to specify. Note the adjectives in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences, and to what questions they answer : — What ? What kind ? 1. Hasty climbs have sudden falls. 2. Little pitchers have great ears. 3. Knotty timbers require sharp wedges. 4. March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers. 5. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 6. Running horses do not need the spur. How many? How much? 1. One eyewitness is better than ten hearsays. 2. He killed two birds with one stone. 3. Possession is nine points of the law. 4. Little money brings little care. 5. Many drops of water will sink a ship. . What or what one ? 1. Yon moon tells of dry weather. 2. Second thoughts are sometimes best. 3. The coin most current is flattery. 4. Lean not on a reed. Note that rolling and running in sentences 5 and ffi')>? Fortune rarely brings good or evil singly. > Well begun is half done. ) r , „ 1 ! T • 1 ! • f HOW? Slowly and sadly they laid him down. J Happiness is too good to keep. ") „- » - What's done we partly may compute. \ _ ,. , , „ ") To what exU nt is Death does not end all. „ ., asst rhon true Opportunity certamly meets every one. v 11 J * J ). or untrue? The following groups of sentences contain adverbs belonging to the classes corresponding to the foregoing group letters ; name each adverb and tell with what part of speech it is used : — When? 1. Brighter days are coming soon. 2. The truth will then be known. 3. The shadows will some tame vanish. 4. The daisies are now dotting the meadow. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 27 5. The sun is always shining. 6. Lately the shops have been closed at six o'clock. 7. The fountain of truth will never fail. Where ? 1. Nowhere was light, and everywhere was darkness. 2. The battle was fought yonder where the monument is. 3. We looked overhead, and stars were visible. 4. In the cataract below are hidden rocks. 5. The ships sailed thence at daybreak. 6. Fireflies here and there look like flashes of light. 7. Messengers went hence with good news. 8. The snow drifting hither and thither bewildered him. 9. Nowhere has the fountain of youth been found. 10. Opportunity meets us everywhere. How Often ? 1. Thrice he refused the crown. 2. Sometimes the days must be dismal and dark. 3. One by one our duties come. 4. The heart often becomes weary. 5. The right thing to do is always the best thing to do. 6. Expected troubles rarely 'come. 7. Temptations are repeatedly testing us. 8. The head should daily grow wiser. 9. Hope is ever bright and fair. How ? 1. Sailors eagerly scan the heavens for changing signs. 2. The lazy boy goes reluctantly to school. 3. He who does his best does well. ■I. The news was enthusiastically received. 5. Thus was the story told by grand Cat her. 6. The train rushed rapidly through the darkness. 7. Men move lazily upon the wharf. 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 8. Our master was fondly regarded by all. 9. The plans were promptly executed. 10. The prize money was evenly divided. How Much ? 1. The voters are largely responsible for civic vices. 2. He was thoroughly aware of our attitude. 3. Our tasks were nearly finished. 4. The sun had almost set. 5. Boys are too eager to be men. 6. Age loves the sunshine more and more. 7. Our ogre Avas only a tow-headed boy. 8. The more he ate, the larger he grew. 9. Grandmother is rather hard of hearing. 10. The engineer was somewhat troubled by smoke. To What Extent is the Assertion True or Untrue f 1. True friends are not suspicious of one another. 2. The end must certainly be considered. 3. You have seen him, yes, — and have told him every- thing ? 4. Chance, perhaps, is not so blind as it is all-seeing. 5. Our terms will undoubtedly be accepted. 6. He was, indeed, a man of sterling worth. 7. Their efforts will probably be successful. 8. His rights, accordingly, were respected. 9. Possibly we may be mistaken. 10. Verily, they have received their reward. Name the adverbs in the following sentences, tell to what foregoing class eacli belongs, and with what word it is used : — 1. There is always safety in valor. — Emerson. 2. What we frankly give forever is our own. — Gran n'/lr. 3. They always talk who never think. — Prior. 4. They live too long who happiness outlive. — Dryden. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 29 5. Cruel people are ever cowards in emergency. — Swift. 6. Your little child is the only true democrat. — Stowe. 7. Even peace may be purchased at too high a price. — Franklin. 8. Vanity is often the unseen spur. — Thackeray. 9. It is a sad discovery that history is so mainly made by ignoble men. — Lowell. 10. On argument alone my faith is built. — Young. 11. He who is only just is cruel. — Byron. 12. When Greeks joined Greeks, then was the tug of war. — Lee. 13. The object of oratory alone is not truth, but per- suasion. — Macaulay. 14. Life is but thought. — Coleridge. 15. Where MacGregor sits, there is the head of the table. — Macdonald. 16. For he that once is good is ever great. — Johnson. 17. There is no virtue so truly great and godlike as justice. — Addison. Note that if the words in full-faced type in the fol- lowing sentences be omitted, the noun, city, is not con- nected to the rest of the sentence. 1. The general rode his horse into the city. 2. The general rode his horse about the city. 3. The general rode his horse around the city. 4. The general rode his horse through the city. Note that there are four different relations expressed in the foregoing sentences, and that the word in each sentence which is not common in all the sentences must express the relation idea. Note that these relation words in the preceding sen- tences are used to indicate the relations between the verb, rode, and the noun, city. 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Preposition. 53. The part of speech used to connect a noun or pronoun to some other part of speech in the sentence, and to indicate a relation between them, is called a preposition. Preposition is from the Latin prepositus — placing before, and refers to the early mode of using such words as prefixes of verbs. Supply appropriate prepositions in blanks of follow- ing sentences : — 1. The oldest map the heavens is the Xational Library Paris. 2. The phonograph was invented Thomas A. Edi- son 1877. 3. Roses were first brought England Holland 1522. 4. Companion originally meant one who ate the same table you. 5 Comrade originally meant one who slept the same chamber you. 6. The telephone is an instrument designed to repro- duce sounds a distance means electricity. 7. The highest fall water the world is that the Yosemite California. 8. Our American Arbor Day is a day set apart the planting shade trees school children. 9. The largest bell the world is Moscow Russia, and the weight it nearly two hundred and fifty tons. 10. The Cathedral St. Mark's Venice Italy is considered some to be the finest the world. Note the prepositions in the following sentences, and tell what eaeli one connects: — THE UNIT SENTENCE. 31 1. Society is built upon trust. — South. 2. A man in pursuit of greatness feels no little wants. — Emerson. 3. Self-control is only courage under another form. — Smiles. 4. There is no genius in life like the genius of energy and activity. — Mitchell. 5. The conduct of men depends upon the temperament, not upon a bunch of dusty maxims. — Beaconsjield. 6. Architecture is a creation of the human intellect adding to the stores of beauty in the world. — King. 7. The highest liberty is in harmony with the highest laws. — Giles. 8. Echo is the voice of a reflection in a mirror. — Hawthorne. 9. It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is the chief fact with regard to him. — Carlyle. 10. Cheerfulness, the character of common hope, is, in strong hope, like glances of sunshine on a cloudy day. — Baillie. 11. He was as a man moving his goods into a far coun- 1 iv. who at intervals and by portions sends them before him, till his present abode is well-nigh unfurnished. — Newman. Note thai there are two distinct sentences in each of the following sentences : — 1. Opportunity comes, and opportunity goes. -. Some are careless, or they are indolent. 3. Fear weakens, but courage strengthens. 4. Socrates died because he took poison. Note that the words, and, or, but, and because, are iisiiI tn join sentences together. Note that the words, and, but, and or, in the follow- ing sentences are used l«> join together similar parts of the same sentence. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Few are equally gifted in writing and in speaking. 2. Push and pluck will work wonders. 3. Sometimes justice seems blind, or asleep. 4. He has been ailing, but has recovered. 5. Dewey was loyally and enthusiastically received. Conjunction. 54. The part of speech used to join together sen- tences or like parts of the same sentence is called a conjunction. Conjunction is from the Latin conjunctus — joined together. Note that the conjunctions in full-faced type in the following sentences are used to join together sentences or parts of sentences of equal rank. 1. Art .is long and time is fleeting. — Longfellow. 2. Private opinion is weak, but public opinion is almost omnipotent. — Beecher. 3. Knowledge advances by steps, and not by leaps. — Macavlay. 4. Virtue is an angel, but she is a blind one. — Mann. 5. The public have neither shame nor gratitude. — Razlitt. 6. Eeligion is not a dogma, nor an emotion, but a service. — Hitchcock. Coordinate 55. A conjunction used to join together con- Conjunction. s tructions of equal rank is called a coordinate con- junction. Note that the conjunctions in full-faced type in the following sentences are used to connect the sentences which they introduce to sentences of a higher rank. 1. Liberty, when it begins to take root, is a plant of rapid growth. — Washington. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 33 2. Strike while the iron is hot. — Farquhar. 3. Would you know what money is ? go borrow some. — Herbert. 4. Look before you ere you leap. — Butler. 5. If you would be loved, love and be lovable. — Franklin. 56. A conjunction used to connect a construe- Subordinate tion of a lower rank to one of a higher rank or Conjunction. order is called a subordinate conjunction. 57. A sentence introduced by a subordinate .con- Subordinate junction is called a subordinate sentence. Sentence. Note that subordinate sentence (5) is used to denote condition. The subordinate part of the conditional sentence is called the condition part (protasis). The part on which the protasis depends is called the conclu- sion (apodosis). Note in foregoing sentence (3) that in a conditional sentence when the conditional conjunction is omitted, the subject follows the verb. Name the conjunctions in the following sentences ; state whether coordinate or subordinate, and tell the sentences or parts of sentences that each is used to join together. 1. She must weep, or she will die. — Tennyson. 2. Letters should be easy and natural. — Chesterfield. 3. Love the offender, yet detest the offense. — Pope. 4. Shakespeare hath neither equal nor second. — Macaulay. 5. Great works are prepared, not by strength, but by perseverance. — Johnson. 6. (Jive me liberty or give me death. — Henry. 7. If misfortune comes, she brings along her bravest virtues. — Thompson, 31 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 8. Some must watch while some must sleep. — Shaks- spectre. 9. We rise in glory as we sink in pride. — Young. 10. Cost is the father, and compensation is the mother of progress. — Holland. 11. Politeness goes far, yet costs nothing. — Smiles. 12. There is something noble in publishing truth, though it condemn oneself. — John son. 13. The bluebird is a home bird, and I am never tired of recurring to him. — Burroughs. 14. Life is not a holiday, but an education. — Drummond. 15. Do not think that years leave us and find us the same. — Meredith. 16. Jokes are the cayenne of conversation and the salt of life. — Chatfield. 17. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle which fits them all. — Holmes. 18. Though punishment be slow, still it comes. — Herbert. 19. Happiness grows at our own fireside, and is not to be picked in strangers' gardens. — Jerrold. D. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. A sentence is a group of words used to express a complete thought. A declarative sentence is that form of sentence which is used in making a statement. An interrogative sentence is thai form of sen- tence which is used in asking questions. An imperative sentence is that form of sentence which is used in expressing a command or entreaty. An exclamatory sentence is any form of sentence that gives expression to feeling or emotion. THE UNIT SENTENCE. 35 A logical sentence is a sentence regarded as a unit of thought. The parts of a logical sentence are subject and predicate. The subject is the part of a sentence used to denote that about which something is said. The predicate is the part of a sentence used to denote that which is said of the subject. A grammatical sentence is a sentence regarded as a unit of speech. Parts of speech are the parts (words) of gram- matical sentences. A noun is the part of speech used as the name of some person or thing. A verb is the part of speech used to state or assert something about some person or thing. A pronoun is the part of speech used as a refer- ence word to represent some person or thing. An adjective is the part of speech used with the noun or pronoun to designate more definitely that which the noun or pronoun is used to represent. An adverb is the part of speech used with the verb to designate more definitely that which the verb is used to express. A preposition is the part of speech used to con- nect a noun or pronoun to sonic other part of speech in the sentence, and to indicate a relation between them. A conjunction is the part of speech used to join 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR together sentences, or like parts of the same sen- tence. A coordinate conjunction is a conjunction used to join together constructions of equal rank or order. A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction used to join a construction of a lower rank or order to one of a higher rank or order. An infinitive is a verb form used as a noun. A participle is a verb form used as an adjective. An object of a verb is a noun or pronoun used to complete the idea of the action that the verb is used to express. A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object. An intransitive verb is a verb that does not require an object. A copulative verb is a verb used to connect the subject with some part of speech which, explana- tory of the subject, is used to help form the predicate. A predicate noun is a noun used with a verb to help form a predicate. A predicate adjective is an adjective used with a verb to help form a predicate. E. THE INTERJECTION. 58. There are a number of words in the lan- guage that do not belong to the sentence as con- stituent parts of it, hence they cannot be regarded THE UNIT SENTENCE. 37 as parts of speech. They are emotional words that are thrown into the sentence, and are used to desig- nate the kind of feeling with which the thought expressed by the sentence is to be regarded. Such words are called interjections. Interjection is from the Latin word interjectio — an insertion. To illustrate : — 1. The battleship has gone down. 2. Hurrah ! The battleship has gone down. 3. Alas ! The battleship has gone down. Note that the same statement is made in each of the foregoing sentences. ' Note that the additional words in sentences (2) and (3) are used to tell the kind of feeling with which the fact stated is regarded. Name the probable form of feeling expressed in each of the following sentences : — 1. See ! The cars are coming. 2. Why ! The cars are coming. 3. Look out ! The cars are coming. 4. Huzzah ! The cars are coming. 5. Oh dear ! The cars are coming. 6. Help! The cars are coming. 7. Ah me ! The cars are coming. 59. An exclamatory word or expression used to intersection. designate the kind of feeling with which the thought expressed in the sentence is regarded is called an interjection. 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. II. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. A. PARTS OF SPEECH DETER MIXED BY USE IN SEXTEXGE. 60. Many words alike in form have different uses in the sentence, hence they are used as differ- ent parts of speech. 61. Some words similar in sound are used as different parts of speech and should be carefully noted. Note carefully the words in full-faced type in the following sentences, state the part . To be happy at home is the ultimate resull of all ambition. — Johnson. 42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Note that each of the indicated groups of words in the following sentences is used as a part of speech. 1. We are best known by what we do. 2. That the majority should rule is an accepted theory. 3. The man who reads rinds hidden treasure. 4. The air was cooler when the sun went down. Note that each group contains a subject and predi- cate. Clause. 65 - A g rou P °f words that is used as a part of speech and contains a subject and predicate is called a clause. Name the clauses in the following sentences, and state for what part of speech each one is used : — ~ 1. How near to good is what is fair. — Dryden. 2. What is said upon a subject is gathered from a hun- dred people. — Johnson. 3. God grants liberty only to those who love it. — Webster. 4. Never spend your money before you have it. — Jefferson. 5. Children are what their mothers are. — Landor. 6. I always get the better when I argue alone. — Goldsm ith 7. Character is the diamond that scratches every other stone. — Bartol. Name and state the use of each of the clauses and phrases in the following sentences : — 1. To be prepared for war is one of the most efficienl means of preserving peace. — Washington. 2. Purpose is what gives life meaning. — Parkhurst 3. Being in a ship is like being in a jail with a chance of being drowned. — Johnson. 4. Smiles are smiles only when the heart pulls the wire. — Winthrop, THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 43 5. There is an aching that is .worse than any pain. — Macdonald. 6. To have what we want, is riches ; but to be able to do without it, is power. — Id. 7. The standard which no genius has ever reached is his own severe conception. — Hawthorne. 8. Too low they build who build beneath the stars. — Young, 9. I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country. — Hale. 10. The hill has not yet lifted its face to heaven that perseverance will not gain at last. — Dickens. Note that direct quotations may be used as parts of speech. 1. " I am always nearest myself," says the Latin proverb. — Macaulay. 2. The Chinese have an excellent proverb, " Be modest in speech, but excel in action." — Maun, 3. The ancient poet said, "The gods sell all things at a fair price." — Emerson. 4. Cicero tells us that, "Brevity is a great praise of eloquence." — Everett. 5. Democracy means not, "I am as good as you are," but, "You are as good as I am." — Parker. C. SENTENCES ACCORDING TO BANK Note that the following- sentences are independent; i.e., not dependent on other sentences for their meaning — ■ 1. A sneer is the weapon of the weak. — Lowell. 2. Man cannot choose his duties. — Eliot. '3. Courage is fire, and bullying is smoke. — Beaconsfield. 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Principal 66 - A sentence that is not dependent on another Sentence, sentence for its meaning is called an independent or principal sentence. Note that the following sentences in full-faced type are dependent on other sentences for their complete meaning : — 1. There is no time of life at which books do not influence a man. — Besant. 'J. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. — Shakespeare. 3. Difficulties spur us whenever they do not check us. — Beade. Subordinate 67 - ^ sentence that is dependent on another Sentence, sentence for its complete meaning is called a de- pendent or subordinate sentence. 1 68. A subordinate sentence, as a modifying ele- ment, is always used as a part of speech, hence, iii use, it is a clause. Name the principal and subordinate sentences in the following : — 1. Whenever luxury ceases to be innocent, it also ceases to be beneficial. — Hume. 2. He that can have patience can have what he will. — Franklin. 3. As society advances, the standard of poverty rises. — Parker. 4. If we wish ourselves to be high, we should treat that which is over us as high. — TroUope. 5. No nation can bear wealth that is not intelligent first. lir> cht r. 1 See Notes for Teachers, 1. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 45 6. But there are times when patience proves at fault. — Browning. 7. Art must anchor in nature, or it is the sport of every breath of folly. — Hazlitt. 8. When all shoot at one mark, the gods join in the com- bat. — Emerson. 9- A sculptor wields The chisel, and the stricken marble grows To beauty. — Bryant. D. SENTENCES ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION We have learned that a sentence is a group of words used to express a complete thought, and that it con- sists of two parts — the subject and the predicate. 69. A sentence that consists of one subject and simple one predicate is called a simple sentence. Sentence. 1. Sponges are animals. 2. A starfish has an eye at the end of each ray. Note that each of the preceding typical sentences (•(insists of a single subject and a single predicate. 1. Oxygen and hydrogen are gases. 2. Animals and vegetables have life. Note that each of the preceding typical sentences consists of two single subjects and a single predicate. 1. The Dutch founded and settled New Amsterdam. 2. Some birds both run and fly. Note that each of the preceding typical sentences consists of a single subject and two single predicates. 1. Example and experience teach and train men. 2. Neither wind nor tide obeys or waits for any man. 46 ENGLISH GRAMMA It. Note that each of the preceding typical sentences consists of two single subjects and two single predicates. Observe that a simple subject means a single subject or any number of single subjects regarded as one subject. Observe that a simple predicate means a single pred- icate or any number of single predicates regarded as one predicate. State to which one of the foregoing classes each of the following simple sentences belongs: — 1. Every artist clips his brush into his own soul and paints his own nature into his picture. — Beecher. 2. Accent and emphasis are the pith of reading. — Disraeli. 3. We make our fortunes and call them fate. — Beaconsfield. 4. Laughter is the chorus of conversation. — Steele. 5. Knavery and flattery are blood relations. — Lincoln. 6. Good manners and good morals are sworn friends and firm allies. — Bartol. 7. He watched and wept and prayed and felt for all. — Goldsmith. 8. The busy have no time for tears. — Byron. 9. Fancy and pride seek things at vast expense. — Young. 10. Death robs the rich and relievos the poor. — Basford. 11. Lies can destroy, but not create. — Tupper. 12. Mother is the name of God in the Lips and hearts of little children. — Thackeray. Note that each of the following sentences consists of two principal or independent sentences. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 47 1. Sorrow makes men sincere, and anguish makes them earnest. — Beecher. 2. Just praise is only a debt, but flattery is a present. — Johnson. 3. Sunlight is painting ; moonlight is sculpture. — Hawthorne. 70. A sentence that consists of two or more Compound principal sentences is called a compound sentence. Sentence. Name the principal sentences in each of the follow- ing 1 compound sentences : — 1. Work is the means of living, but it is not living. — Holland. 2. Keep cool ; auger is not argument. — Webster. 3. A statesman makes the occasion, but the occasion makes the politician. — Hillard. 4. Taxation reaches clown to the base, but the base is labor, and labor pays all. — Piatt. Note that each of the following sentences consists of one principal sentence and one or more subordinate sentences: — 1. Conceit is the most incurable disease that is known to the human soul. — Beecher. 2. Diogenes struck the father when the son swore. — Baxter. 3. Hypocrisy is the shell after the kernel is eaten out. —Bartol. 4. We shall be judged not by what we might have been, but what we have been. — Lowell. 71. A sentence that consists of one principal Complex sentence and one or more subordinate sentences is Sentence, called a complex sentence. 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. How blessings brighten as they take their flight. — Young. 2. Greatness is unsociable. — Landor. as we daily see it 3. He only has power over it. — Richardson. Iho avelifj matters speed well. 4. Where there is a mother in the house — Alcott. Note in the preceding representations of the relations of sentences, that a subordinate sentence is placed on a plane below the principal sentence. According to the foregoing scheme, express the rela- tions of the sentences contained in the following com- plex sentences: — 1. If Hero means sincere man, why may not every one of us be a Hero ? — Carlyle. 2. No grace can help any man unless he helps himself. Hi < 'In r. 3. He who ordained the Sabbath loved the poor. — Holmes, 4. My heart leaps up when I behold . A rainbow in the sky. — Wordsworth. 5. Night brings out stars as sorrows show us truths. — Jinil, //. 6. Beauty is part of the finished language by which goodness speaks. — Eliot. 7. Bravery has uo place where it can avail nothing. — Joint si >i( THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 49 8. The only jewel which will not decay is knowledge. — Longford. 9. Other men are lenses through which we see our own minds. — Emerson. 10. They that stand high have many blasts to shake them. — Shakespeare. 11. An idler is a watch that wants both hands. — Oowper 12. When the world frowns we can face it. — Lytton. Note from the following compound sentences that one or more of the independent elements of a sentence may be modified by a subordinate sentence : — l. 1 He will undervalue others ; I I that overvalues himself and he will oppress them. that undervalues others — Joh nson . laws are useless ; I 2. When men are pure laws are broken. — Beaconsjield. I When men are corrupt 3. Laws are not masters, but servants, and he rules them who obeys them. — Beech&r. Name the sentences and their relations to one an- other in each of the following compound sentences, and represent their relations according to the foregoing scheme of representation : — 1. When liberty is gone, life grows insipid and has lost LtS ivlish. — AddlSOU. 1 Sit Notes for Teachers. 1'. 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. He who loves goodness harbors angels, reveres rev- erence, and lives with God. — Emerson. 3. Resolve to be thyself, and know that he who finds himself loses his misery. — Arnold. 4. Do not believe that happiness makes us selfish ; it is treason to the sweetest gift of life. — " Ouida." 5. The honors we grant mark how high we stand, and they educate the future. — Phillips. Name and give the elements of the following simple, complex, and compound sentences : — 1. If you want learning, you must work for it. — Holland. 2. Slow are the steps of Freedom, but her feet never turn backward. — Loivell. 3. There never was a person that did anything worth doing who did not really receive more than he gave. — Bet cht r. 4. The hills were already green; the early grain waved in the fields, and the air was sweet with blossoming orchards. — Curtis. 5. As I speak to you to-day, I wish to tell you of a soldier who lay wounded on a hard-fought field. — Grady. 6. When night is on the deep, when the headlands are obscured by the darkness, and when storm is in the air. that man who undertakes to steer by looking over the side of the ship, over the bow or over the stern, or by looking at the clouds or his own fears, is a fool. — Beecher. 7. The habit of reading is the only enjoyment I know in which there is no alloy. It lasts when all other pleasures fade. It will be there to support you when all other re- sources are gone. It will be present to you when all tin- energies of your body have fallen away from you. It will last you until your death. It will make your hours pleasant to you as long as you live. — TroUope. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 51 E. ANALYSIS. 1. Good taste always rejects excessive nicety. Name the two elements in the foregoing sentence that constitute the thought. Name the words in the same sentence used as the Verb, Subject of verb, Object of verb, Word used with the verb (modifier), Word used with subject (modifier), Word used with object (modifier). 72. The separation of a sentence into its ele- Analysis. ments is called analysis. Analysis is from the Greek analysis — a resolving into elements. 73. The opposite process, or the putting together Synthesis, the elements to form a sentence, is called synthesis. 74. The separation of a sentence into its thought Logical elements is called logical analysis. Analysis. 75. The separation of a sentence into its word Gram- elements (parts of speech) is called grammatical matical Analysis. analysis. 76. An expression of the products of an analysis Diagram- ed a sentence may be made through some visual mm £- representation of the relations of the different parts of the sentence. Such a visual representa- tion of the analysis of a sentence is called map- ping, or diagramming. 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR For example : the visual representation of the analy- sis of the sentence already considered might be ex- pressed thus : — Good taste /\ always rejects excessive nicety. (Logical.) taste I rejects I nicety I , L . . . ^r- 1 ^ — — r- 1 —. — (Grammatical.) good | always | excessive | v Note in the preceding scheme for visual representa- tion of grammatical analysis that the subject, verb, and object are on the same plane, and that the word modi- fier of each is on a plane below. Note also how the subject, verb, and object are separated, and how the word modifiers are connected. Give the logical and grammatical analyses of the following sentences : — 1. All things obey fixed laws. 2. Youth has many longings. 3. Moderation holds the middle ground. Represent the analysis of each of the foregoing sen- tences by diagram according to forms given. Analyze the following sentence : — Self-denial is the best riches. Note how the relation of verb with predicate, noun, or adjective may be expressed in tin 1 following visual representation : — Self-denial ^ is the best riches. (Logical.) Self-denial | is / riches the licst (Grammatical.) Note how the predicate noun is separated from the verb. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE- 53 Note liow two modifiers used with the same word are represented. Analyze the following sentences and afterward ex- press the analysis according to the foregoing diagram form : — 1. The best men are the heroic men. 2. Corrupted freemen are abject slaves. 3. A great fortune is a great care. 4. Personal revenge is never sweet. Analyze the following sentence : — Boasting is the wisdom of the fool. Note how the relation of a prepositional phrase may be expressed in the following visual representation : — Boasting y\ is the wisdom of the fool. (Logical.) Boasting | is / wisdom | (Grammatical.) ~the~P of Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards express the analysis according to the foregoing diagram forms : — 1. Impatience never commands success. — Ckapin. 2. Good manners are a part of good morals. — Whatdy. 3. Literature is the garden of Avisdom. — Ellis. 4. A fat kitchen makes a lean will. — Franklin. 5. The only cure for grief is action. — Lewes. 6. A narrow niiiul begets obstinacy. — Dryden. 7. A dandy is a, clothes-wearing man. — Carlyle. 8. Principle is a fashion for truth. — HasHitt. 9. A fuol is tin- zero of humanity. — Basford. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 10. Home is the sacred refuge of our life. — Dryden. 11. The truth university of these days is a collection of books. — ■ Cad; lie. 12. Children will imitate their fathers in their vices. — Spurgeon. 13. The practical effect of a belief is the real test of its soundness. — Froude. Analyze the following sentences, and note how the relations of infinitive phrases are expressed in subse- quent visual forms : 1. To work is life. 2. To rest is to rust. 3. He was anxious to go. 4. He expected to die. 5. To oppose the measure is to kill it. 6. To be busy is to be happy and contented. 1. To work | is / life . 2. To rest | is / to rust. 3. He | was / anxious | I to go . 4. He | expected | to die. 5. To oppose | measure | is / to kill | it. the | happy and 6. To be busy | is / to be / contented Note how an infinitive phrase differs from a preposi- tional phrase in representation. Note how two or more adjectives arc represented in the predicate (G). THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 55 Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards express the analysis according to the foregoing diagram forms : — 1. To be gentle is the test of a lady. — Feltham. 2. A nation cannot afford to do a mean thing. — Sumner. 3. To be furious in religion is to be irreligiously religious. — Penn. 4. To be ignorant of one's ignorance is the melody of ignorance. — Alcott. 5. To be selfish is to be ignoble. — Hcuceis. 6. To be true is manly, chivalrous. Christian. — Garlyle. Analyze the following sentences, and note how the relations of clause forms are expressed in subsequent diagram forms : — 1. Trees grow while we sleep. 2. They who mourn shall be comforted. 3. All noticed that the birds were leaving. 4. That he was courageous can hardly be denied. 5. If sorrow is shadow, joy is sunshine. 6. He asked what he was doing. Trees [ grow | while sleep 2. They | shall be comforted who | mourn | 3. All noticed that birds | were leaving | the | 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. That 4. | he | was / courageous 5. Joy | is / sunshine | if sorrow is / shadow | can bo denied ' hardly 6. He | asked | he | was doing | what Analyze the following sentences, and afterwards express the analysis according to the foregoing dia- gram : — 1. If knowledge is power, patience is powerful. —Robert 11"!/. 2. What I have done is due to patient thought. — Sir Isaac Newton. 3. The lowest ebb is the turn of the tide. — Longfellow. 4. Clothes form the intellect of the dandy. — Shaw. 5. Every fact that is learned becomes a key to other facts. — Youmans. 6. To cultivate kindness is a valuable part of the busi- ness of life. — Johnson. 7. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron. 8. Not to know what happened before we were born is always to remain a child. — Chatfidd. 9. What we seek we shall find; what we flee from, flies from us. — Emerson. 10. Success is full of promise till men get it, and then it seems like a nest from which the bird has flown. — Beecht r. THE EXPANDED SENTENCE. 57 F. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. A phrase is a group of words that is used as a part of speech and does not contain a subject and predicate. A clause is a group of words that is used as a part of speech, and contains a subject and predicate. A principal sentence is a sentence that is not dependent on another sentence for its meaning. A subordinate sentence is a sentence that is dependent on another sentence for its complete meaning. A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of one subject and a predicate, or a number of sub- jects and predicates regarded as one. A compound sentence is a sentence that consists of two or more principal sentences. A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of one principal sentence and one or more subordi- nate sentences. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its parts or elements. Synthesis is the putting together of the elements or parts of a sentence to form a sentence. Logical analysis is the separation of a sentence into its thought elements. Grammatical analysis is the separation of a sen- tence into its word elements. Diagramming is a visual representation of the products of an analysis. 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. I. Sentences as to form of expression. 1. Simple. 1. Declarative. 3. Imperative. 2. Interrogative. 2. Emotional. 1. Exclamatory Declarative. 2. Exclamatory Interrogative. 3. Exclamatory Imperative. II. Sentences as to elements. 1. Logical. 1. Subject. 2. Predicate. 2. Grammatical. 1. Simple. 1. Verb. 5. Adverb. 2. Noun. (!. Preposition. 3. Pronoun. 7. Conjunction. 4. Adjective. 2. Equivalents of parts of speech. 1. Phrase. 2. Clause. III. Sentences as to rank. 1. Principal. 2. Subordinate. IV. Sentences as to composition. 1. Simple. 3. Complex. 2o Compound. Part II. THE MODIFICATIONS AND RELA- TIONS OP PARTS OF SPEECH. I. NOUNS. A. CLASSES OF NOUNS. A noun is a word used as the name of some person, place, or thing. Note that each of the following nouns is the name of a class, or the name shared by individuals of a class : — man day weeping bird chair desk heroism sky street singing money book taste reading pencil boy envy joy wealth room 77. A noun that is the name of a class or the Common name shared hy individuals of a class is called a Noun. common noun. Common is from the Latin communis — common, general. Note that each of the following common nouns is used as a name of a group of similar things: — audience bevy group family convention crowd fleet regiment 1 pie swarm flock school army covey brood jury 50 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Collective 78 - A. common noun that is used as the name of Noun. a group of similar things is called a collective noun. Collective is from the Latin collectivus — gathered together. In a collective noun the names of things are gathered together or collected into a single group. The unit of the collective noun is not an individual person or thing, but is a group of persons or things. Note that each of the following nouns is used as the name of a quality, an action or a state of action : — sourness mildness choice manhood singing deceit horsemanship service purity- heroism sleeping strength Abstract 79 - A common noun used as the name of an Noun, action, a quality, or a state of action is called an abstract noun. Abstract is from the Latin abstractns — drawn away. Note that the quality, action, or state of action that an abstract noun is used to name has existence in the object to which it belongs, but has no real existence apart from that object. Its existence can only in thought be drawn away from the object. To illustrate: When we say the apple is sweet, we state that the apple has a given quality. Now in thought draw away that quality from the apple. The name of the quality drawn away is sweetness, the ab- stract noun formed from the adjective sweet. When we say the horse trots, we state that the horse is doing a given kind of action. Now in thought draw NOUNS. 61 away that action from the horse. The name of the action drawn away is trotting, the abstract noun formed from the verb trot. In like manner explain and form abstract nouns from the following: — 1. Adjectives: just, wide, wise, dark, pure. 2. Verbs : learn, advise, judge, plan, invent. 3. Nouns : leader, child, martyr, hero, man. Note in the following sentences that an abstract noun may be used like a collective noun to express a group idea. 1. The youth (collective body of young people) of Amer- ica has great possibilities. 2. The nobility (collective body of titled persons) of England is rich in privileges. Note that each of the following nouns is used as the name of an individual thing not belonging to a class: — Dewey Emerson Horace Mann Richmond San Francisco Napoleon Lincoln Boston Michigan Chicago St. Louis James Eussell Lowell 80. A noun used as the name of an individual thing not belonging to a class is called a proper Noun. noun. Proper is from the Latin proprius — one's own, or belonging to. A proper noun is a name belonging to one person or thing as a mark of identification. Note in the following sentences thai a proper noun may be used to designate a number of the same family, name, etc. Proper 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. The Adamses and the Harrisons have each furnished two presidents of the United States. 2. The Booths have added luster to the annals of the American stage. 3. The Pitts made a mighty impress on English states- manship. 81. A proper noun becomes a common noun when it is used as the name of a class or character- istic. 1. Lincoln is called the "Washington of our new- nationality. 2. Virgil was called the Homer of the Romans. 82. A common noun may be regarded as a proper noun when it is used as an individual name by personification, as : — 1. Now Nature hangs her mantle green On every blooming tree. — Burns. 2. If you don't give Justice the first place at th e^ table, all the other virtues eat up her share. — Lyttenr. 3. Auspicious Hope: in thy sweet garden grow Wreaths for each toil ; a charm for every woe. . — ( 'unijihr!/. Name the nouns in the following sentences and tell to what class each belongs : — 1. Caesar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his Crom- well ; and George the Third, — may profit by their ex- ample. — Henr>/. 2. No, there come in lots The American Disraelis, Luhvers, and Scotts. — Lowell. NOUNS. 63 3. Measure your health by your sympathy with morning and spring. If there is no response in you to the awaken- ing of Nature, if the prospect of an early morning walk doth not banish sleep, if the warble of the first bluebird does not thrill you, know that the morning and spring of your life is past. — TJwreau. 4. Webster could awe a senate, Everett could charm a college, and Choate could cheat a jury; Clay could magnet- ize the million, and Corwin lead them captive. But O'Con- nell was Clay, Corwin, Choate, Everett, and Webster in one. Before the courts, logic; at the bar of the senate, unanswer- able ; on the platform, grace, wit, and pathos ; before the masses, a whole man. — Phillips. 5. This government carries the hope of the human race. Blot out the beacon that lights the portals of this Republic, and the world is adrift again. But save the Republic, estab- lish the light of its beacon over the troubled waters, and one by one the nations of the earth shall drop anchor and be at rest in the harbor of universal liberty. — Grady. B. GENDER. Name the sex of the individual to which each of the following nouns refers: — Esther John nephew landlady brother aunt Mary queen boy heroine widow Ruth niece widower sister "William Sex is a distinction between animals or other living things as male or female. 83. The grammatical distinction between the g enj j e names of animals or living things by reference to sex is called gender. 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Masculine Gender. Feminine Gender. Gender is from the Latin genus — kind. Sex is a distinction between individuals. Gender is a corresponding distinction between words used as tl it- names of individuals. When the sex of the individual is known, the gender of the noun can be definitely known ; otherwise the gender will be indeterminate. Animals are of two sexes, male and. female. Nouns used as names of animals are of two corre- sponding genders. 84. A noun used as the name of an animal of the male sex is in the masculine gender. Masculine is from the Latin masculinus — a male. 85. A noun used as the name of an animal of the female sex is in the feminine gender. Feminine is from the Latin fe?7iininus — a female. Name the sex to which each of the following nouns refers : — child neighbor servant company cousin partner friend audience teacher waiter writer group Common Gender. Note that the sex to which the preceding nouns refer is not determinable. 86. A noun used as the name of an animal or animals whose sex is unknown is in the indeter- minate or common gender. Note that the following nouns are used as names of inanimate thinffs : — NOUNS. 65 ear Syracuse flower chair house eye sand store hand rock Albany wagon Inanimate things have no sex distinction ; hence, names of inanimate things can have no gender. 87. 1 A noun used as the name of an inanimate ]j eu ter thing is a genderless or neuter noun. Noun. Neuter is from the Latin neuter — -neither. Tell the gender of the f ollowing nouns : — bride master people witch earl sheep colt emperor author parent heiress preceptor wife Jewess lamb woman Write out ten additional nouns with masculine gender. Write out ten additional nouns with feminine gender. Write out ten additional nouns with common gender. Write out twenty additional neuter nouns. 88. The gender of most English nouns is simply a classification of nouns according to meaning and by reference to sex. There are, however, a num- ber of nouns that have distinguishing forms for masculine and feminine genders. This class of purely grammatical gender nouns has three dis- tinct methods of denoting gender, as follows: — 1. By use of different words for masculine and feminine. 2. By use of different suffix endings. 8. By use of distinguishing words added or prefixed to common gender nouns. 1 Sec Notes I'm- Teachers, :). 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89. Gender denoted by different words. MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. I KM 1 SINK. husband wife king queen papa mamma earl countess father mother lord lady son daughter wizard witch brother sister uncle aunt nephew niece sir madam gentleman lady bachelor maid boy girl monk nun tutor governess friar sister lad lass beau belle cock or rooster hen ram or buck ewe dog bitch stag hind buck doe bull cow horse mare sire dam drone bee Suffix ess. 90. Gender denoted by different suffix endings (inflection). The early English suffixes used to denote gendei have passed away, and to-day are found only in isolated words, such as spinster, having the feminine suffix ster, and vixen, with the feminine suffix en. Modern taste is rapidly discouraging the use of feminine forms of masculine nouns. Some proper names formerly used exclusively of one sex are now sometimes used of either. 91. The only suffix used in forming new femi- nine words is the French suffix ess. The suffix follows : — is used in fonni emmme nouns as heir peer prior host priest Quaker Jew patron Shaker lion shepherd viscount NOUNS. 67 1. By adding it directly to the masculine gender noun. According to the foregoing rule form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns : — baron count deacon giant 2. By adding ess to masculine nouns with the vowel of last syllable of masculine nouns cut out. According to the foregoing rule form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns : actor ogre tiger director benefactor prince traitor arbiter enchanter hunter votary negro preceptor waiter 3. By adding ess to masculine nouns with the last syllable of masculine nouns dropped ; for example : — MASCULINE. FEMININE. caterer cateress murderer murderess emperor empress * mister mistress 1 Note that the following nouns used in legal phrase- ology, and taken directly from the Latin, have the end- ing tor for masculine and trix for feminine nouns : — MASCULINE. FEMININE. executor executrix prosecutor prosecutrix testator testatrix administrator administratrix 1 Note that the vowel e is cut out (syncopated) in uniting. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note that the following nouns have irregular gender forms : — MASCULINE. FEMININE. god goddess duke duchess marquis marchioness hero heroine man woman widower widow bridegroom bride drake duck gander goose 92. Gender denoted by distinguishing masculine and feminine words : — 1. Prefixed to common gender nouns : — MASCULINE. FEMININE. man-servant maid-servant he-goat she-goat cock-sparrow hen-sparrow bull-elephant cow-elephant buck-lamb ewe-lamb bull-calf heifer-calf 2. Added to gender or neuter nouns : — MASCULINE. FEMININE. Englishman Englishwoman landlord landlady horseman horsewoman stepfather stepmother godfather godmother stepson stepdaughter turkey-cock turkey-hen NOUXS. Foreign Gender Forms. MASCULINE. czar seilor signor sultan khedive viceroy don infante or infant FEMININE. czarina senorita signora sultana khedivah vicereina donna or dona infanta Notes on Gendek. 1. When one gender noun is formed from another, the masculine form is used as the basis for forming the feminine in all cases excepting the masculine nouns, bridegroom, toidower, drake, and gander, which are formed from the feminine nouns, bride, widoiv, duck, goose. 2. Songstress and seamstress have double feminine forms, viz., ster and ess : — Songstress = song + ster + ess. Seamstress = seam -!- ster + ess. 3. Names of living things are sometimes used as neuter nouns when the sex notion is disregarded ; as in the names of small children and lower animals : for example, — The baby was sleeping, Its mother was weeping. — Samuel Lover. 4. A common noun may become a determinate gender (masculine or feminine) noun when the definite sex to which it refers becomes known . for example, — The happy parent clasps her child to her breast. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. An inanimate thing is frequently regarded as a person, and a noun used as the name of such person may become masculine or feminine by personification ; for example : — Virtue is her own reward. — Dryden. Did Amaranthus all his beauty shed, And Daffodillies fill their cups with tears ? ■ MUton. Number. C. NUMBER. Select from the following list of nouns those which are used as the name of a single object ; also those which are used as the name of more than one object : — lamp villages acorn enemies books town France friend Buffalo roads horses Africa Henry cities dollars eggs Mary carpets dogs shop street flower trees Helen Note that the foregoing nouns have the property of designating whether one or more than one object is named. 93. That property of a noun which indicates whether one or more than one object is designated is number. Singular 94 - The number that indicates that one object Number. i s designated is the singular number. Plural 95 - The number that indicates that more than Number, one object is designated is the plural number. NOUNS. 71 Formation of Plural Number. I. The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular form. According to Rule I. give plurals of the following singular nouns : — pencil pen flower per op spoon bottle father stamp cart cup ink wine Note 1. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a conso- nant change y to ie before adding s to form the plural. According to Note 1 form plurals from the following singular nouns : — fly daisy duty lady sky lily army body baby liberty city charity Note 2. — Three nouns ending in fe change fe to ve before adding s to form plural. Form plurals of knife, wife, life. II. The plural is sometimes formed by adding es to the singular form. 1. When the singular ends in letters having a hiss- ing sound (s, #, z, sh and ch soft, like eh in mucli) Form plurals according to (1) of fox ash dash patch topaz tax watch wish mass leech guess crutch pench pass blush rush 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Twelve nouns ending in / change f to v before adding the plural ending es. Form plurals of beef calf elf half leaf wharf loaf self sheaf shelf thief wolf 3. Some nouns ending in o add es to singular to form plural. According to foregoing rule form plurals of hero potato echo cargo veto mulatto negro tomato motto Note. — In some nouns ending in o which are recenl additions to the language, s is regularly added to the singular to form the plural. Ex. banjo, dynamo, piano, lasso, solo, quarto, port- folio, octavo, oratorio, tyro, folio, nuncio, rondo. III. The plural of the following nouns is formed by adding en to the singular : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. ox oxen child children brother brethren Note. — Children and brethren arc in reality double plurals. Ohilder and br ether are old English plurals. and in dialect language of to-day childer is the plural of child : — childer + en = chUderen, shortened to children. brether + en = bretheren. shortened to brethren. NOUNS. 73 IV. In the following nouns the vowel or vowels of the singular are changed to form the plural : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. man men foot feet woman women mouse mice goose geese tooth teeth V. The apostrophe ( ' ) with s is added to the singular to form the plural of numbers, letters, characters, words, phrases, or clauses regarded as unit names ; as, — 1. In the number 8 are four 2's, or two 4's. 2. He always dotted his i's and crossed his t's with pain- ful exactness. 3. The I's and my's and me's in his sj)eech pass beyond the bounds of modesty and good taste. 4. His " I told you so's " were wearisome, and his " It might have been's " were annoying. Peculiarities in Number. 1. Some nouns are singular in form and in use. 1. Names of materials ; as, clay, silver, gold, wheat, flesh, flour, platinum. 2. Names of qualities; as, pride, patience, peace, faith, whiteness, thankfulness. 3. Names of diseases; as, dyspepsia, pneumonia, pleu- risy, rheumatism. 2. Some nouns are singular in form, but singular or plural in use ; as, — deer, sheep, grouse, salmon, trout, hose, heathen. 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Some nouns are singular in form, but generally regarded plural in use ; as, — alms, eaves, riches. 4. Some nouns are plural in form and use ; as, — trousers, scissors, billiards, bans, tongs, nuptials, spec- tacles, thanks, premises. 5. Some nouns are plural in form, but singular in use ; as, — news, tidings, amends, statics, optics, economics, physics, measles. 6. Some nouns are plural in form, but singular or plural in use ; as, — wages, means, politics, athletics, odds. 7. Some nouns have one plural with two different meanings : as, — custom customs effect effects ground grounds letter letters number numbers pain pains part parts shroud shrouds (habits) (manifestations) (lauds) (alphabet) (figures) (suffering) (pieces or divisions) (robes for dead) (revenue duties) (goods) (dregs) (literature) (poetical parts) (care) - (faculties or abilities) (stay ropes for ships) 8. Some nouns have two plural forms with different meanings ; as, — NOUNS. 75 SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL brother brothers brethren (of family) (of society) cloth cloths clothes (kinds or pieces (garments) of cloth) die dice (gaming cubes) fish fishes (number of) genius geniuses (men of original power) index indexes (contents) pea peas (number of) penny pennies (number of) shot shot (number of balls) 9. The singular number is frequently used for the plural in nouns expressing quantity or number, when the plural idea of quantity or number is expressed by the words used with the nouns ; as, — A hundred-yard dash, a ten-mile race, a ten-foot pole, two brace of partridges, three pair of shoes, four yoke of oxen, two span of horses, a hundred head of cattle. Proper nouns are generally singular, but when used in the plural, follow the regular law of plural forma- tions ; as, — Yagers, Duffeys, Lanes, lleids, Halls. dies (coining stamps) fish (quantity of) genii (powerful spirits) indices (algebraic signs) pease (quantity of) pence (value of) shots (number of discharges) 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. When a title of address precedes the noun, either the title or the name may receive the plural ; as, — Misses Fordham, or Miss Fordhams, Messrs. Murdock, or Mr. Murdocks ; Drs. Didama, or Dr. Didamas. Both of these forms are in common use, yet in formal address it is preferable to pluralize the title of address. Compound Nouns. The plural of compound nouns is formed in three different ways. 1. When the compound word is regarded as a unit word, the plural is added at the end of the compound word ; as, — forget-me-nots, receiving-houses, four per cents, basket- fuls, wagon-loads. 2. When the compound word has an important word in the union, that word receives the plural ; as, — hangers-on, sons-in-law, men-of-war, minute-men, reed- birds. 3. When the compound noun consists of words that are regarded of equal importance in the union, each part receives the plural ; as, — men-servants, women-servants, lords-justices," knights- templars. Notes on Number. 1. Proper nouns do not regularly admit of a plural, but may be used in the plural number to designate more than one of the same family, name, etc. (Sit 80.) NOUNS. 77 2. Common class nouns designating material objects do not admit of a plural excepting to denote different qualities or component parts of materials ; as, — soaps, teas, coffees, breads, sandstones, etc. 3. Some abstract nouns become common class nouns, and as such are used in the plural to denote particular action or particular varieties of quality ; as, — liberties, virtues, vices, negligences. D. CASE. It has been stated that the sentence is the grammati- cal unit, and that its component elements are parts of speech. The parts of speech are bound together in a sentence by certain relation ; to illustrate, regard Henry — brought — Mary 8 — letters, as isolated words, and ideas are suggested, but no thought is expressed by them. Form these same words into a sentence ; as, Henry brought Marys letters, and the only addition made is the linking or relating of these words to one another. In nouns and pronouns this relating element is called case. 96. The property or use of a noun that denotes its relation to other words in the sentence is called case. Case is from the Latin casus = a falling (or varying from a standard form). Note the case relations expressed in the foregoing sentence. The noun, Henry, is the subject of the verb, brought, hence denotes the subjective relation. The 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. noun, letters, is the object of the verb, brought, hence denotes the objective relation. The noun, Mart/*, is used to denote the possessor of that which is expressed by the noun, letters, hence it denotes the possessive relation. In modern English there are three cases or groups of relations : the nominative, the objective, and the possessive. Nominative Case. 1 Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are subjects of verbs : — 1. Roger Williams founded Providence. 2. Being is better than seeming. 3. Jefferson was elected president by the House of Representatives. 4. Darwin was a great naturalist. Subject 97 - The subject of the verb is in the nominative Nominative, case and is called the subject nominative. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are predicate nouns : — 1. Carbon is the chief element of charcoal. 2. Jupiter is the largest planet. 3. The Indians are the wards of the nation. Predicate 98 - A predicate noun (see 38) is in the same Nominative, case as the subject of its verb, and when in the nominative is called the predicate nominative. Name the subject and predicate nominatives in the following sentences : — 1 See Notes for Teachers, 4. NOUNS. 79 1. Shakespeare is an intellectual miracle. — Chalmers. 2. True wisdom is the price of happiness. — Young. 3. Action is the true joy of the soul. — Gay. 4. Occupation alone is happiness. — Johnson. 5. Brisk talkers are generally slow thinkers. — Swift. 6. Absence of occupation is not rest. — Cowper. 7. The eye is the only true notebook of the poet. — Lowell. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are placed after nouns to add clefiniteness to the meaning of these nouns : — 1. Napoleon, the Emperor, died at St. Helena. 2. Harvey, a physician, discovered the circulation of the blood. 3. The glory of Greece is Plato, the philosopher. 99. A noun placed after another noun to describe or to add definiteness to the meaning of that noun pp0S1 lve ' is called an appositive. Appositive is from the Latin appositus — placed after or joined to. 100. An appositive is in the same case as the noun whose meaning it defines, and when in the Appositive nominative is called the appositive nominative. Nominative. Name the subject, predicate, and appositive nomina- tives in the following sentences: — 1. A noble deed is a step toward heaven. — Holland. 2. Faith is power, the material of effect. — Parkhurst. 3. The essence of friendship is entireness, a total mag- nanimity and trust. — Emerson. 4. Virtue is its own reward. — Gay. 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. The monarch oak, the patriarch of trees, Shoots rising up, and spreads by slow degrees. — Dryden. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are grammatically separated from the rest of their sentences. Note that they are used as names of persons or things addressed : — 1. Comrades, let us strive to do our best. 2. Remember, John, that a rolling stone gathers no moss. 3. Come, my brave fellows, let us do or die. 4. My mountain home, I love thee ! 5. Tell us, mighty obelisk, what you have seen. Vocative 101. The name of a person or thing addressed is Nominative. m the nominative case and is called the vocative nominative. Vocative is from the Latin vocativus — of calling or addressing. Name the vocative nominatives in the following sen- tences : — 1. Brother, brother, we are both in the wrong. — Qay. 2. These are Thy glorious works, Parent of good. — MUton. 3. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. — Longfellow. 4. Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber ; Holy angels guard thy bed! — Isaac Watts. Note that each of the nouns in full-faced type in the following sentences is modified by a participle. Note that the noun, participle, and their modifiers are separated or cut off from close grammatical relations with the rest of the sentence. NOUNS. 81 Note that these cut off or absolute constructions are used for adverbial clauses. 1. The noon bell having struck, we hastened home. 2. The season having been wet, the crops are poor. 3. The ships being in sight, curiosity possessed us. 4. All things looked bright, the sun shining. 5. The army advanced, a trail having been discovered. 6. The ground being wet, we concluded that it had rained. 102. A noun which, with a participle, is sepa- , T ... ' _ . . Nominative rated from close grammatical relations with the Absolute. rest of the sentence, but which is used to express ideas additional to the sentence, is in the nomina- tive case and is called the nominative absolute. Absolute is from the Latin absolutus — set free. Expand the foregoing absolute constructions into their equivalent adverbial clauses. Name the nouns in the nominative case in the follow- ing sentence, and state the kind of nominative in each case : — Fellow citizens, delay having failed, patience no longer seems a virtue, a thing to be desired, but has come to be a vice, a thing undesirable. From the foregoing uses of the nominative case we have the following summarized definition :• — ■ 103. The case of a noun that is used to denote >T . . . . . -Nominative the relation <>l a subject to a verb, or m agreement Case. the predicate or appositive relation, or in indepen- dent constructions the case of address or the case it) isolate, is called the nominative case. 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Analyze the following sentences, name the noons in these sentences, and give special use of each noun in the nominative case : — Our flag, the hope of the world, must he respected. My friends, this day has been a delight. The city was London, the capital of England. Citizens, we must be men of decision. The sun having risen, the travelers proceeded on their journey. Note how the analysis of foregoing sentences is ex- pressed in the following diagrams. Note especially the form of diagram used to express the different nominative case relations : — flag | must be respected | Our | hope the of world the | 2 friends day | has been / delight | this | 3. city | was / London The capital the | of | England NOUNS. 83 4. Citizens we | must be / men of | decision | 5. travelers | proceeded the on | journey | their | The | having risen | Analyze the following sentences, and express the analysis by diagram according to forms given : — 1. Come, Death, and snatch us from disgrace. — Bulwer. 2. The supper being over, the strangers requested to be shown to their places of repose. — Haiothorne. 3. Method is the arithmetic of success. — Shaw. 4. Come, Nero, thou awful Roman emperor, seek your equal here. — Parker. 5. The next day being Sunday, and the new church not yet being opened, he kept his room. — Allen. 6. Principle is a passion for truth. — Hazlitt. 7. Flow gently, sweet Afton, disturb not her dream. — Burns. 8. The river being frozen over, they were obliged to perform the journey by land in the depths of winter. — Irving. 9. Disease is the retribution of outraged nature. — BaOou. 10. Adieu! Sir Walter, pride of all Scotchmen, take our proud and sail farewell.— Carlyle. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11. Money, Paul, can do anything. — Dickens. 12. See deep enough and you see musically, the heart of nature being everywhere music, if you can only reach it. — Carlyle. Objective Case. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are used as objects of verbs : — 1. Some bees gather honey. 2. General Wolfe defeated General Montcalm at Quebec. 3. General Grant treated his opponents with respect. 4. Lightning destroyed the tower. 104. A noun used to denote the relation of the Object °bj ec t of a verb ( see 34 ) i s m the objective case, Objective, and is called the direct object objective. Construct or select ten additional sentences illustrat- ing the direct object objective. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences designate the objects indirectly affected by the action expressed by the verb : — 1. They promised my brother a castle in Spain. 2. The authorities gave the general the freedom of the city. 3. He told his father the story. 4. He loaned the school many books. Indirect 105. A noun used to denote the relation of an Object object indirectly affected by the action expressed Objective. . J , . , . \ ,, , ... i • n j by the verb is in the objective case, and is called an indirect object objective. NOUNS. 85 Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are used with prepositions : — 1. Health is the creator of happiness. 2. Three hundred Greeks fell at Thermopylae. 3. The American continent has the longest rivers in the world. 106. A noun used with a preposition is in the ,, 1 L Preposi- objective case and is called the prepositional ob- tional jective. Objective. Name the nouns in the objective case in the follow- ing sentences and state the kind of objective in each case : — 1. Truth needs no flowers of speech. — Pope. 2. Poetry is the breath of beauty. — Hunt. 3. I built my soul a lordly pleasure house. — Tennyson. 4. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death. — Young. 5. The Lord's Prayer contains the sum total of religion and morals. — Wellington. 6. Simple duty hath no place for fear. — Whittier. 7. Manners carry the world for the moment ; character, for all time. — Alcott. Note that each of the transitive verbs in the follow- ing sentences takes an infinitive phrase as an object. Note that each infinitive has a noun used with it as a subject : — 1. The general ordered 2. All Troy believed the enemy I to be dislodged. the Greeks ! to have sailed. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. He will not suffer | thy foot | to be moved. 4. The soldiers knew the stranger | to be / a spy. Subject 107. The subject of an infinitive is in the objec- Objective. t,i ve case an( j i s called the subject objective. 108. The infinitive with a subject is equivalent to a noun clause generally introduced }jy the word that ; as, — double rations to be issued. that double rations should be issued. The captain required Change the infinitives with subjects in the foregoing sentences into their equivalent noun clauses. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are predicate nouns : — 1. History will acknowledge Hobson to be a hero. 2. The world expects America to be the home of the dis- tressed. 3. Nearly all concede Napoleon to be the greatest general of modern times. Predicate 109- ^ predicate noun is in the same case as the Objective, subject of its verb, and when in the objective is called the predicate objective. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are in apposition with the nouns which they follow: — NOUN'S. 87 1. Paul was born in Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. 2. Rugby honors Arnold, the great teacher. 3. Massachusetts loved Whittie\, the Quaker poet. 110. An appositive is in the same case as the Appositive noun whose meaning it defines, and when in the Objective, objective, is called the appositive objective. Name the nouns in the objective case in the following sentences, and state the kind of objective in each case : — 1. Night is the dark stem of the lily, Day. — Loivell. 2. The continent will not suffer England to be the work- shop of the world. — Beaconsfiehl. 3. Man should always feel himself too great to be a slave. — (Manning. 4. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety. — Shakespeare. 5. I hold that gentleman to be the best dressed whose dress no one observes. — Trollope. 6. A wise man knows himself to be a fool. — Shakespeare. Note that the nouns in full-faced type in the follow- ing sentences are used to denote adverbial relations: — 1. The war lasted seven years. (How long?) 2. That book is worth two dollars. (How much?) 3. He weighed two hundred pounds. (How much ? ) 4. All were happy that afternoon. (When ?) 5. The soldiers returned home. (Whither ? ) 6. The ship sailed twenty miles. (How far ? ) 7. The farm measured one hundred acres. (How much ?) 111. A noun used to express an adverbial rela- Adverbial tion is in the objective case, and is called the Objective. adverbial objective. 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Name the nouns in the objective case in the following sentence, and state the kind of objective in each cast': — Last evening the society voted Jones, its most gifted member, a resolution of thanks, because in his writings lie had recognized the society to be a mighty power in public education. From the foregoing uses of the objective case we have the following summarized definition: — Objective 112- ^he case °^ a noun that ^ s usec ^ *° denote Case. the relation of an object to a verb, or the relation of a subject to an infinitive, or in agreement the predicate or appositive relation, or that is used with a preposition, or to denote the expression of adverb- ial relations, is called the objective case. Analyze the following sentences, name the nouns, and give the especial use of each noun in the objective case : — 1. Time brings students many opportunities. 2. Patriotism requires the citizen to be a man. 3. The lamp of life does not burn many years. 4. Truth will come home at last. 5. Pandora saved hope, the parent of faith. Note how the analysis of the foregoing sentences is expressed in the following diagrams. Note especially the form of diagram used to express the different relations of the objective case. 1. Time | brings | opportunities | uianyj - NOUNS. 89 2. Patriotism | requires citizen | to be / man | the 3. lamp 1 does burn The of life not | years many 4. Truth | will come home at | last | 5. Pandora | saved | hope ] parent | the of I faith Analyze the following sentences and express the analysis by diagram according to forms given : — 1. Gravestones tell truth scarce forty years. — Broicne. 2. To be seventy years young is sometimes far more cheerful than to be forty years old. — Holmes. 3. Thus when I seek Scylla, your father, I fall into Charybdis, your mother. — Shakespeare. 4. A wise man will find us to be rogues by our faces. — Swift. 5. I awoke one morning and found myself famous. — Byron. C>. I would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be a prodigy of learning. — Sheridan. 7. Let his tormentor, conscience, find him out. — Milton. 8. Homer, thy s<>n^ men Liken t" ill" aea "With all the notes of music in its tone. — Lang. 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9. I take all knowledge to be my province. — Bacon. 10. I have not wept these forty years. — Dryden. 11. Every aster in my hand Goes home loaded with a thought. — Emersoh. 12. The ugliest of trades have their moments of pleas- ure. — Jerrold. Possessive Case. Note that the words in full-faced type in the fol- lowing expressions are used to denote the possessor or the person concerned in some way with the thing possessed. 1. A bird's wing. 2. My brother's house. 3. Motley's histories. 4. Washington's birthday. 5. LongfeUow's Excelsior. 113. The case of a noun used to denote owner- ship, authorship, or similar relations, is called the possessive case. Possessive is from the Latin possessions — indicating possession. Note in the foregoing forms that the possessive case has characteristic endings. In the old English forms the possessive endings were is, ys, and es (in German es is still used as a possessive ending). In the present possessive ending the final 8 of the old endings is retained, and the omission of the preceding vowel is indicated by the sign of the apostrophe (') (a mark denoting the omission of one or more letters in a word). NOUNS. 91 Observe the typical forms in full-faced type in the following sentences, and note that the possessive case is formed by affixing s preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative. 1. The mother's heart is the child's schoolroom. — Beecher. 2. Men's vows are women's traitors ! — Shakespeare. Observe the typical forms in full-faced type in the following sentences, and note that when the nominative plural ends in a hissing sound the apostrophe alone is affixed as the possessive ending. 1. It is the hour when lovers' vows Seem sweet in every whispered word. — Byron. 2. Like Angels' visits, short and bright ; Mortality's too weak to bear them long. — Nbrris. Some writers use the apostrophe alone as an affix to the nominative to form the possessive singular, under one or both of the following conditions : — 1. When the nominative singular ends and the next word begins with a hissing sound. 2. When the nominative singular is a word of more than two syllables and ends with a hissing sound ; as, — 1. For shortness' sake, I will call it the idea of freedom. -^Parker. 2. It was Lazarus' faith and not his poverty which brought him into Abraham's bosom. — Trench. 3. A Damocles' sword of respectability hangs forever over the poor, English life writer. — Carlyle. Observe the typical forms in the following sentences, and note that in compound words or expressions the possessive ending is affixed to the last word. 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Like mountain eat who guards her young, Full at Fitz-James's throat he sprung. — Scott. 2. It sent them with great good humor into Mrs. Penden- nis's drawing room. — Thackeray. 3. But the grandsire's chair is empty, The cottage is dark and still. — Winter. Observe the typical possessive forms in the following sentences, and note that when connected words denote separate possession, the possessive ending is affixed to each word : — 1. The grocers', butchers', and fruiterers' shops were thronged with customers. — Irving. 2. They spoke with far more interest and miction and emotion of their morning's breakfast, or yesterday's, to-day's, or to-morrows's dinner, than of the shipwreck of forty or fifty years ago. — Hawthorne. Modern typography is gradually dropping the apos- trophe in suc'h expressions as the Regents examination, a teachers association, etc. Observe typical possessive constructions in the fol- lowing sentences, and note that a noun in the possessive case may be used without its modifying noun when such noun can readily be inferred or supplied from the context. 1. I shed no tears at my own wedding, but I did at Flora's. — Curtis. 2. St. Paul's is on a scale of grandeur excelling anything I have seen. — Taylor. 3. The mind is this world's, but the soul is God's. The preposition of with the objective ease is used to denote possession. NOUNS. 93 114. Note from examples in the following sentences that a construction in the form of a double possessive has received the sanction of good authority : — 1. This . . . did to an unusual degree disclose itself in these rhymed romances of Scott's. — Carlyle. 2. Mr. Bourne, the millionaire, was an old lover of Prue's. — Curtis. 3. Rights are grand things, divine things, in this world of God's. — Robertson. 4. Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences of Caesar's can have come down to us. — Fronde. 115. In early English the possessive case quite generally followed the uses of the Anglo-Saxon genitive case, which expressed not only possession and similar relations, but also was used to express source, fitness, time, etc. This gave the possessive case a variety of uses, some of which remain cur- rent in such expressions as, the earth's axis, a stone's throw, a nine days' wonder. In modern usage the possessive case is quite generally re- stricted to nouns used as names of individuals, animals, and things personified. Change the following possessive phrases to corre- sponding possessive noun forms : — 1. The tomb of Grant. 2. The rays of Phoebus. 3. The style of Dickens. 4. The tragedies of Euripides. 5. The war of the Normans and Saxons. G. The homes of Longfellow, W'hittier, Holmes, and Emerson. 94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. The laws of God and Nature. 8. The haunts of the elephant, lion, and tiger. 9. The searchings of science. 10. The speed of the horse. 11. The stupidity of the ass. 12. The reign of George the Fourth. 13. The cathedrals of St. Peter and St. Paid. Name the class, the gender, the number, and the case of each noun in the following sentences, and explain the possessive form : — 1. Gossip is a sort of smoke that comes from the dirty- tobacco pipes of those who diffuse it ; it proves nothing but the bad taste of the smoker. — Eliot. 2. A greater autobiography than Edward Gibbon's is our own Benjamin Franklin's. — Brooks. 3. Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination. — Shakespeare. 4. Be a reader, getting all the information you can, and every fresh information Avill paint some commonplace article for you with brightness. — Hunt. 5. Let all the ends thou aimst at be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's. — ShaJiesjware. 6. Anger is like a full, hot horse, who, being allowed his way, self-mettle tires him. — Id. 7. On Friday evening I dined at Mr. T. B. Reade's, the poet and artist, with a party composed of painters and sculptors. — Hawthorne. 8. There was reason for these Xerxes' tears. — Emerson. 9. Then shall man's pride and dullness comprehend His actions', passions', being's use and end. — Pope. 10. The Bruce's heart was buried below the high altar in Melrose Abbey. — Scott. 11. Necessity, my friend, is the mother of courage as of invention. — Id. NOUNS. 95 12. Books, like men, their authors, have no more than one way of coining into the world. — Swift. 13. My dear, your everlasting blue velvet quite tires me. — Thackeray. 14. Here's a health to the glowworm, Death's sober lamplighter. — Meredith. 15. A good man's character is the world's common legacy. — Whittier. 16. Everything is twice as large measured on a three- year-old's three-foot scale as on a thirty-year-old's six-foot scale. — Holmes. 17. Where go the poet's lines ? Answer, ye evening tapers ! Ye auburn locks, ye golden curls, Speak from your folded papers. — Id. E. INFLECTION AND DECLENSION. We have seen that the same word may express different properties and relations by means of internal changes or variable endings. 116. The variation in the form of the word to indicate its properties and grammatical relations in the sentence is called inflection. Inflection is from the Latin inflect ere — to bend or vary from a direct course. The English language has but few inflected forms. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declen- sion. In a technical sense there is no declension of nouns in English and only a partial declension of pronouns. The declension of nouns and pronouns in English has come to be regarded as simply the form of the ikuui or pronoun in the nominative, possessive, and objective cases in the singular and plural numbers. Inflection. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Declension. 117. In a true sense declension is the deviation of a noun or pronoun from its unit form and its variations to indicate its properties and grammat- ical relations in the sentence. Declension is from the Latin declinatlo — a bending aside or deviating from. Note the declension of the nouns, man and boy. Singular, nom. poss. obj. man man's man boy boy's boy Plural. nom. poss. obj. boys boys' boys Construc- tion of a Sentence. Parsing. F. CONSTRUCTION AND PARSING. We have learned the elements of a grammatical sentence and that these elements are built up into sentences, or bound together into a sentence by certain relations. 118. The way that a sentence is built up or con- structed is called the construction of a sentence. Construction is from the Latin eonstructio — a putting together. The different ways that sentences are built up are the different constructions of sentences. While parts of speech are sentence elements, they are also units with regard to the different ways that they are used with one another in sentence construction. The resolving of a sentence into its elements is analysis. 119. The resolving of the elements into their kinds, forms, uses, and relations is called parsing. NOUNS. 97 Parse is from the Latin pars — a part. We are now prepared to parse a noun. To parse a noun is to answer the following questions regarding it : — 1. What kind of noun is it ? 2. What gender, if any, has it ? 3. What number does it express ? 4. What is its relation in the sentence construction ? Parse the sentence, "Washington taught truthfulness." Washington tamrht truthfulness is a word used as a name, hence a is a noun not belonging to a class, hence a is used to refer to male sex, hence, is used to refer to a single indi- vidual, hence, is used as subject of verb, taught, hence, is a word used to express what Washington does, hence a is a word used as a name, hence a is a noun used as the name be- longing to a class, hence a is a common noun used as the name of a quality, hence an is not used to refer to sex, hence is used to denote an individual thing, hence, is used as object of verb taught, hence, proper noun. masculine gender. singular number. nomina- tive case. verb, noun, common noun. abstract noun. a neuter noun. singula! number objective case. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Parsing Summary. Washington is a proper noun, masculine gender, singular number, nominative ease, subject nominative of verb, tau ■(/lit. Truthfulness is a common, abstract, neuter noun, singular number and objective case, direct object objec- tive of verb, taught. Analyze the following sentences, express the analysis by diagram, and parse each noun: — 1. Much wisdom often goes with fewest words. 2. Excess of duty speaks a lack of mind. 3. A flock of geese saved Rome. 4. Camoens is Portugal's greatest poet. 5. Excess weakens the spirits. 6. Hope is a waking man's dream. 7. Perseverance kills the game. 8. Toleration is the best religion. 9. Landscapes are Nature's pictures. 10. All our dignity lies in our thoughts. G. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. A common noun is a noun that is used as the name of a class, or the name shared by individuals of a class. A collective noun is a common noun that is the name of a group of similar objects. An abstract noun is a common noun thai is the name of an action, a quality or a state of action. A proper noun is a noun that is used as the name of an individual object not belonging to a class. Gender is the grammatical distinction between NOUNS. 99 the names of animals or living things by reference to sex. The masculine gender is the gender that desig- nates a noun as the name of an animal of the male sex. The feminine gender is the gender that designates a noun as the name of an animal of the female sex. The common gender is the gender that designates a noun as the name alike of both sexes. Number is that property of a noun which indi- cates whether one or more than one object is designated. The singular number is the number that indi- cates that one object is designated. The plural number is the number that indicates that more than one object is designated. Case is that property or use of a noun that denotes its relation to other words in the sentence. The subject nominative is the nominative case used to denote the relation of a subject to its verb. The predicate nominative is the nominative case used to denote the relation of a predicate noun to its verb. The appositive nominative is the nominative case used to denote the relation of an appositive to another noun in the nominative. The vocative nominative is the nominative case used to denote the relation of the person or thing addressed. LofC. 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR The nominative absolute is the nominative case used in absolute constructions. The direct object objective is the objective case used to denote the relation of an object to a tran- sitive verb. The indirect object objective is the objective case used to denote the relation of the object indirectly affected by the action that the verb is used to express. The prepositional objective is the objective case used with a preposition to denote various rela- tions. The subject objective is the objective case used to express the relation of a subject to an infinitive. The predicate objective is the objective case used to denote the relation of a predicate noun to an infinitive with the subject objective. The appositive objective is the objective case used to denote the relation of an appositive to another noun in the objective case. The adverbial objective is the objective case used to denote adverbial relations. The possessive case is the case that is used to denote the relation of ownership, authorship, or similar relations to the object designated. The construction of a sentence is the way a sen- tence is built up or constructed. Parsing is the resolving of the elements of a sentence into their kinds, forms, uses, and relations. NOUNS. 101 OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND RELATIONS. I. Classes. II. Gender. 1. Proper. 1. Masculine. 2. Common. 2. Feminine. a. Collective. 3. Common b. Abstract. (Neuter nouns) III. Number. 1. Singular. 2. Plural. IV. Case. 1. Nominative. 2. In agreement. a. By predication (Predicate nominative). b. In apposition (Appositive nominative). 3. In independent relations. a. By address (Vocative nominative). b. In absolute constructions (Nominative absolute). 2. Possessive. 3. Objective. 1. As object. a. Direct (Direct object objective). b. Indirect (Indirect object objective). 2. With preposition (Prepositional objective). 3. As subject of infinitive (Subject objective). 4. In agreement. a. By predication (Predicate objective). b. In apposition (Appositive objective). 5. In adverbial relations (Adverbial objective |. 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. II. PRONOUNS. 1 A pronoun is a reference word used to represent some person or thing. (Review 42-44.) Inasmuch as nouns and pronouns axe used to desig- nate the same persons or things, a pronoun may refer to a noun to obtain through it definiteness of meaning. Note the nouns to which pronouns refer in the fol- lowing sentences : — 1. Heaven never helps the men who will not act. — Shakespeare. 2. Knowledge cannot be stolen from ns. It cannot be bought or sold. — Burritt. 3. Thy wife is a constellation of virtues. She's the moon, and thou art the man in the moon. — Congn m . 4. The hooded clouds, like friars, Tell their beads in drops of rain. — Longfellow. . . , 120. The noun to which a pronoun refers for Antecedent. . ... definiteness of meaning is called its antecedent. 121. The antecedent of a pronoun is a noun or equivalent expression used either to name or desig- nate the person or thing to which the pronoun refers. 122. Pronouns are used to distinguish gender, number, person, and case. While in nouns the distinguishing of gender, number, and case is largely a matter of classification, in pronouns 1 See Notes for Teachers, 5. PRONOUNS. 103 gender, number, and case are most commonly designated by separate forms. A. PERSONAL AND NEUTER PRONOUNS. 1 Simple Personal and Neuter Pronouns. Note that tlie pronouns in full-faced type in the following sentences are used to designate persons as speaking, spoken to, or spoken about : — 1. I mean to stand upon the Constitution. I need no other platform. — Webster. 2. He that has lost his faith, what staff has he left ? — Bacon. 3. Experience converts us to ourselves when books fail us. — Alcott. 4. If thou art rich, thou art poor. — Shakespeare. 123. That property of pronouns which, is used to designate a person as speaking, spoken to, or spoken about, is called person. 124. Pronouns that by their form are used to distinguish or designate the different relations of Pronouns, person are called personal pronouns. Personal is from the Latin personalis — personal or individual. Note that the personal pronoun, /, in sentence (1), is used to refer to a person as speaking. Note that the personal pronoun, we, in sentence (2), is used to refer to a person as speaking of himself and others. 1. i preached as never sure to preach again. — Baxter. L'. "Pis swci't to think where'er we roam We an' sure to liml something blissful ami dear. — Moore. 1 Sic Nuits tor Teachers. •'>. Person. Personal 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. First Person. Second Person. 125. A personal pronoun used to refer to a person as speaking of himself, or of himself and others, is called a personal pronoun of the first person. Note that the personal pronouns, thou, you, and ye, in the following sentences are used to refer to persons spoken to and spoken about. 1. Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend. — Pope. 2. You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will, But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. — Moore. 3. Ye may trace my steps in the waking earth. — Hemans. 126. A personal pronoun used to refer to a per- son as spoken to, and at the same time spoken about, is called a personal pronoun of the second person. Third Person. Note that the personal pronouns, he, she, and they, in the following sentences are used to refer to persons spoken about, without at the same time speaking to them. 1. He was ever precise in promise keeping. — Shakespeare. 2. She is not made to be the admiration of everybody. — Burke 3. What persons are by starts, they are by nature. — Sterne. 121. A personal pronoun used to refer to a per- son as spoken about, but not at the same time spoken to, is called a personal pronoun of the third person. PRONOUNS. 105 DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Singular. Plural, nom. poss. obj. nom. poss. obj. _ ( mine ( our II. X -\ 111C we (my (. ours j Th0U ithy ne thee ye I yol you I You j y0Ur you you jy° U1 " you I (yours J J (yours J (He his him (their IIL She ]|- to ^ i«-i- ( ( hers 1 The neuter pronoun is declined as follows : — them It its it they \ ,, . them J ( theirs The neuter pronoun bears the same relation to per- sonal pronouns that a neuter noun does to gender nouns. All personal pronoun and neuter pronoun forms are derived from the Anglo-Saxon. Note in the foregoing declension that you and its in- flected forms are used in both the singular and plural numbers. In earlier English you was a plural pronoun, the objective case of ye. You now is used to refer to one or more than one person, but when used as a subject is followed by the plural verb form. TJiou and its forms, thy, thine, thee, and the plural form, ye, are sometimes called second personal pronouns of the "Old Form." These forms were at one time used in terms of inti- macy, superiority, or content, but now are used only in poetry and elevated forms of prose, as invocations, prayers, etc.; as, — 1 See Notes for Teachers, 7. 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. — Byron. 2. Father, Thy hand Hath reared these venerable columns ; Thou Didst weave this verdant roof. — Bryant. 3. Come, shade of Jeffreys, thou judicial butcher; for over two hundred years thy name has been pilloried on the face of the world and thy memory gibbeted before mankind. — Parker. 4. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. — Knowles. 5. If ye are brutes, then stand here like fat oxen waiting for the butcher's knife ; if ye are men, follow me. — Kellogg. The " Old Form," somewhat modified, is used to-day by the society of Friends or Quakers, who use thee as a subject and also an object form. Note in the foregoing declension that there are two pronoun forms in the third person, singular; he, the masculine gender pronoun, and she, the feminine gender pronoun. Note in the foregoing declension that the same form is used for the plural of the masculine and feminine genders of the third personal pronouns, and also for the plural of the neuter pronoun; hence, the definite mean- ing of they, their, theirs, and them can only hi- known through the medium of their antecedents; as, — 1. If ladies be but young and fair. They have the gift to know it. — Shakespeare. 2. Heroes, it would seem, exist always and a certain worship of them. — Carlyle. 3. And shade tin 1 violets That they may bind the moss in leafy nets. — Keats, PRONOUNS. 107 The neuter pronoun, it, is used in referring to an ,, inanimate object that has no sex distinction, or to an animate object when sex distinction is disregarded; as, — 1. No star seemed less than what science taught us that it is. — Cooper. 2. A simple child That lightly draws its breath, And feels its life in every limb, What should it know of death ? — Worclsivortli. My and thy are shortened forms of mine and thine. p Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are double possessive forms, forms, as they are constructed by possessive endings being affixed to the possessive forms, our, your, her, their; as, — Our -f- es = oures = our's = ours. Ours, yours, hers, theirs are used to express the pos- sessive relation without modifying nouns. Our, your, her, their, my, thy, are used to express pos- sessive relations with modifying nouns. Mine, thine, his, its, are used to express the possessive relation with or without modifying nouns. At one time mine and thine were used in any form of discourse before modifying nouns beginning with a vowel sound, but are now used only in poetry and im- passioned prose; as, — 1. Mine eye shall see my desire on mine enemies. — Bible. -. Why, man, she is mine own. — Shakespeare. .'!. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. — Howe. 4. I bade thee grasp that treasure as thine honor. — Bulwer. 108 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. The neuter pronoun its is formed after the analogy of adding s to form the possessive. It is from the An- glo-Saxon, hit, the neuter, singular form of he. In early English both hit and it are used in nominative and objective case relations. Its did not come into use until the end of the six- teenth century. Previous to that time his (possessive of hit) and her were used to express relations afterward expressed by its ; as, — 1. How far that little candle throws his beams. — Shakespeare. 2. The tree of life which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every mouth. — Bible. Masculine and feminine gender pronouns are some- times used to refer to inanimate things when such things are regarded as persons, for the sake of giving vividness in the expression of characteristics. Characteristics of beauty, delicacy, refinement, grace, and the like are regarded as womanly attributes ; hence the personal pronoun of the feminine gender ma\ be used to refer to any one of these attributes, and repre- sent it as a person of the female sex ; as, -— 1. The daisy's cheek is tipp'd with a blush, She is of such low degree. — Hood. 2. The moon pulled off her veil of light That hides her face by day from sight. — Butler. Characteristics of strength, ruggedness, power, and the like are regarded as manly attributes ; hence the personal pronoun of the masculine gender may be used to refer to any one of these attributes, and represent it as a person of the male sex ; as, — PRONOUNS. 109 1. The rising sun complies with our weak sight, First gilds the clouds, then shows his globe of light. — Waller. 2. A song to the oak, the brave old oak, Who hath ruled in the greenwood long; Here's health and renown to his broad green crown, And his fifty arms so strong. — Charley. The plural forms of the first personal pronoun are Number — frequently used to designate a single person as in the Special case of a speaker or writer representing many hearers Uses. or readers, especially in the case of editors of news- papers, or in the case of a sovereign representing all subjects ; as, — 1. We would first speak of the Puritans, the most remarkable body of men perhaps which the world has ever produced. — Macaulay. 2. We, Nicholas, Czar of all the Eussias, etc. The plural forms of the second and third personal pronouns are sometimes used without referring to any definite persons, but in referring to persons indefinitely ; as, — 1. It is necessary in music when you strike a discord to let down the ear by an intermediate note or two to accord again. — Emerson. 2. Labor, you know, is prayer. — Taylor. .3. Second thoughts, they say, are best. — Dryden. 4. They say best men are molded out of faults. — Shakespeare. Besides the general uses of the neuter pronoun, it, « . . oilier uses are found. Uses of I. It is used impersonally, i.e. not referring to any it. known or definite thing ; as, — 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1. Too like the lightning which doth cease to be Ere one can say "It lightens." — Shakespeare. 2. How dull and how unbearable a beast Is man, who yet would lord it o'er the rest. — Dryden, 3. Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it. — Irving. II. It is used in regular position of subject to antici- pate the real subject placed after the verb ; as, — 1. It is your balance at the banker's which gives you such importance in the city. — Curtis. 2. It needs a man to perceive a man. — Akott. 3. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse ■with superior minds. — Channimj. Verbs like meseems and methinlcs are in reality im- personal verbs with the indirect object objective me prefixed. Both verbs are equivalent in expression, viz., it seems to me. Idiomatic After analogy of nouns, personal pronouns in the Uses of the possessive case are used in nominative and objective Possessive case relations, and designate by their form the relation PrcTo °s °^ ^ ie P ossessor ' an( l by their use in the sentence the relation of the persons or things possessed. 1. The world is his who can see through its pretense. — Emerson. 2. Good-by, proud world, I'm going home; Thou art not my friend, and I'm not thine. — Id. 3. Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why. Theirs but to do and die. — Tennyson. Personal pronouns in the possessive ease used to express possessive relations without modifying nouns, with the preposition of, form idiomatic phrases similar PRONOUNS. Ill to those formed with of and the possessive case of nouns (see 114) ; as, — 1. Speak to these curious hearts of ours, And teach them to be still. — Alexander. 2. Now Heaven bless that sweet face of thine. — Shakespeare. 3. This earth of ours has been spinning about in space, the great philosophers tell us, some five hundred millions of years. — Motley. 4. In this broad earth of ours . . . nestles the seed, per- fection. — Whitman. Compound Personal and Neuter Pronouns. 128. The word, self, and its plural, selves, are added to some forms of the personal pronoun and form what are called compound personal pronouns. Singular. myself ) yourself ] himself herself Plural. ourselves ) yourselves ) themselves The singular, thyself, and ourself are sometimes used. 129. After the analogy of personal pronouns compound neuter pronouns are formed; as, — Singular. itself Plural. themselves 1. Mirth itself is too often but Melancholy in disguise. — ///////. 2. Thoughts unexpressed may sometimes fall back dead, But God himself can't kill them when they're said. — ( 'arleton. 3. Beauty itself is but the sensible image of the Infinite. — Bomcroft. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. The fearful unbelief is the unbelief in yourself. — Carlyle. 5. Himself is his only dungeon. — Milton. 6. Bells call others, but themselves enter not into the church. — Herbert. Note that each of the compound personal or neuter pronouns in the foregoing sentences (1), (2), and (3) is used to emphasize or give intensity to that for which the noun stands. Note that each of the compound personal or neuter pronouns in foregoing sentences (4), (5), (6) is used to emphasize or give intensity to that which is repre- sented by a pronoun itself or in connection with a pro- noun implied. Emphatic or Intensive Pkonoun. 130. A compound personal neuter pronoun, when used to emphasize or give intensity to that which is named by the noun, or that which is represented Pronoun, by the pronoun itself or in connection with a pro- noun implied, is called an emphatic or intensive pronoun. 1. Make yourself necessary to somebody. — Em rson. 2. Content thyself to be obscurely good. — Addison. 3. What a poet says proves itself to our minds. — Lowell. 4. Crimes generally punish themselves. — Goldsmith. Note that the compound personal and neuter pro- nouns in the foregoing sentences are used to refer to the same persons or things as the subjects of the verb. Intensive Eeflexive PRONOUNS. 113 Eeflexive Pkonouns. 131. A compound personal or neuter pronoun used to refer to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb of the sentence is called a Pronoun" reflexive pronoun. Name the intensive and reflexive pronouns in the following sentences : — 1. We judge ourselves by what we are capable of doing. — Longfellow. 2. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. — Emerson. 3. He who would keep himself to himself shoidd imi- tate the dumb animals and dumb water. — Lytton. 4. A dream itself is but the shadow. — Shakespeare. 5. I have some wounds upon me, and they smart to hear themselves remembered. — Id. 6. Men of age . . . content themselves with a medioc- rity of success. — Bacon. 7. At last they steal us from ourselves away. — Pope. 8. They who are pleased themselves must always please — Thomson. 9. Shake off this downy sleep, death's counterfeit, and look on death itself. — Shakespeare. 10. I have myself to respect, but to myself I am not amiable, but my friend is my amiableness personified. — Thoreau. 1 1. The first great work is that yourself may to yourself be true. — Roscommon. Name the personal, neuter, intensive, and reflexive pronouns in the following sentences, and parse each pronoun: — 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Our necessities never equal our wants. — Franklin. 2. Kindness itself is the best of all truths. — Hunt. 3. They say women and music should never be dated. — Goldsmith. 4. He loves his old, hereditary trees. — Cowley. 5. They always talk who never think. — Prior. 6. Such was the Lowell whom I and mine knew and loved. — Stephen. 7. Monuments themselves memorials make. — Crabbe. 8. Thou art an elm, my husband; I, a vino. — Shah spt are. 9. Yours is the greater treason, for yours is the treason of friendship. — Longfellow. 10. This life of ours is a wild seolian harp of many a joyous strain. — Id. 11. No really great man ever thought himself so. — Emerson. 12. I look xipon a library as a mental chemist's simp. — Holmes. 13. My meaning in saying he is a good man is to have you understand me that he is sufficient. — Shakespeare. 14. The path of nature is indeed a narrow one, and it is only the immortals that seek it. — Lowell. 15. We trust nature, our fellows, and even God himself because we are obliged to. — Holland. 16. Even the sun veils himself in his own rays to blind the gaze of the too curious starer. — Alcott. 17. You have no business with consequences. You are to tell the truth. — Johnson. 18. Would you hurt a woman worst? Aim at her affections. — Wallace. 19. We know through conscience that we must answer for what we are and for what we do to a power outside of us. — Cook. 20. Would 3'ou know how firsl he met her? She was cutting bread and butter. — Thackeray. PRONOUNS. 115 21. I would rather make my name than inherit it. — Id. 22. Obedience completes itself in understanding. — Brooks. 23. If you read a poet's masterpieces, you know them. If you have read everything which he has written, you know him. — Id. 24. It is mind after all which does the work of the world. — Channing. 25. The thunder, Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage, Perhaps hath spent his shafts. — Milton. 26. Or if Nature feeble were, Heaven itself would stoop to her. — Id. 27. The king himself has followed her — ■ When she has walked before. — Goldsmith. 28. It is noble to seek truth, and it is beautiful to find it. — Smith. 29. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. — Perry. 30. Poetry is a jealous mistress ; she demands life, wor- ship, tact, the devotion of our highest faculties. — Stedman. 31. Write it on your hearts that every day is the best day of the year. — Emerson. 32. They that govern make the least noise. — Selden. 33. Ye little stars ! hide your diminished rays. — Pope. 34. Methinks, with his heavy heart and weary brain, Time should himself be glad to die. — Hawthorne. 35. What would the rose with all her pride be worth Were there no sun to call her brightness forth ? — Moore. B. DEMONSTUATIVE PRONOUN. Note that this, that, these, those, in the following sen- tences are pronouns, and are used to point out or direct attention to the objects to wliieh they refer. 1. This is no tit, place for you and me. This is a place they are bound to watch. — Stevenson. Demonstra tive 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Those who have known grief seldom seem sad. — Beaconsfield. 3. They had few books, but these were of the best. — Lowell 4. We work, and that is godlike. — Holland. 132. A pronoun that is used to direct attention to that which it represents is called a demonstra- Prononn. tive pronoun. Demonstrative is from the Latin demonstratus — pointed out or shown. The demonstrative pronouns are this, plural these, and that, plural those. This is used to direct attention to a person or thing near at hand or near in thought. That is used to direct attention to a person or thing more remote in position or in thought. This refers to the nearer antecedent in the sentence ; that to the antecedent more remote ; as : — 1. Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, Those call it pleasure; and contentment, these. — Pope. 2. Farewell, my friends ; farewell, my foes ; My peace with these, my love with those. — Bums. Demonstrative pronouns are used alone, or are used with their antecedents with the force of adjectives. Name each demonstrative pronoun in the Eollowing sentences ; tell whether it is used alone or with its antecedent, and explain whether it expresses a near or a remote relation : — 1. That life is long which answers life's great end. — Young. PRONOUNS. 117 2. These are no more his moods than are those of re- ligion and philosophy. — Emerson. 3. In this fool's paradise he drank delight. — Crabbe. 4. These little things are great to a little man. — Goldsmith. 5. To-morrow is that lamp upon the marsh which a traveler never reaches. — Tupper. 6. This is my birthday, and a happier one was never mine. — Longfellow. 7. By those who look close to the ground dirt will be seen. — Johnson. 8. This is a reading and a thinking age. — Phillips. 9. That is the bitterest of all — to wear the yoke of our own wrongdoing. — Eliot. 10. Has not God borne with you these many years ? — Ballou. 11. Those families, you know, are our upper crust. — Cooper. 12. The power of perception is that which we call under- standing. — Locke. C. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Simple Indefinite Pkonouns. Note that the words in full-faced t}-pe in the fol- lowing sentences are pronouns, for they are used to refer to persons or things without naming them. 1. All would live long, but none would be old. — Johnson. 2. Each shall give us a grain of gold after the washing. — Eiui -rstni. 3. Blessed be agriculture ! if one does not have too much of it. — Warner. 4. I would help others out of a fellow-feeling. — Drydi n. 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Note that these pronouns arc used to refer to any or to no specific person or thing, or to an indefinite quan- tity or number of persons or things. Indefinite 133 - A pronoun that is used to refer to any or Pronoun, to no specific person or thing, or to an indefinite quantity or number of persons or things, is called an indefinite pronoun. Indefinite is from the Latin indefinitus — not ex- plicit, vague. 134. Some indefinite pronouns are used with their antecedents with the force of adjectives, and for that reason they are sometimes called adjective pronouns. The indefinite pronouns are more numerous than all the other pronouns, but the actual number of indefinite pronouns is a matter of opinion, for the dividing line between indefinite pronouns and substantive adjectives and nouns is not so clearly defined as to be generally accepted. The following are the more generally accepted in- definite pronouns : — One is from the old numeral, an, and as an indefinite pronoun is especially used for the word man (German, man), which is found in early English. It. takes tin- place of a third personal pronoun with indeterminate gender. As a pronoun it is inflected in both numbers, and with the force of an adjective is used with nouns in the singular number ; as, — 1. One must be poor to know the luxury of giving. — Eliot. One. PRONOUNS. 119 2. Long pains are light ones ; cruel ones are brief. — Saxe. 3. To sit for one's portrait is like being present at one's own creation. — Smith. 4. One on God's side is a majority. — Phillips. The tendency among careful writers is to use the possessive one's instead of his when used to express the idea of indeterminate gender. Other (the different one), another (one other), either Other, (one out of two), neither (not one out of two), can be Another, used in a technical sense only in referring to one of two „ lt r: er ' .,. , J , , , s , Neither. persons or things, or to one ot two classes of persons or things. Other means one separated from all others. Another means one added to the others. Either offers a choice of one or the other. Neither denies a choice of one or the other. 135. Either and neither are sometimes called alternative pronouns. In its substantive use other is declined in both num- bers and with the force of an adjective is used with nouns in the singular or in the plural number ; as, — 1. Avoid witticisms at the expense of others. — Mann. 2. The way to find truth is by others' mistakes. — Selden. 3. I was born to other things. — Tennyson. Another, either, neither, are declined in the singular number, and with force of adjectives are used with nouns in t he singular ; as, — 1. Another's sword had laid him low. — Campbell. '_'. Either's heart did ache a little while with thought of the old daj s. — Morris. 120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. The pastor was made to take his seat before the altar with two sacristans, one on either side. — Irving. 4. Love made them not . . . where either party is not true nor kind. - AU. £& (every one of) is used both with a substantive and with an adjective force. As a substantive, refer- ring to persons, all is used in the plural. When referring to things it is used in the singular number. With an adjective force all is used with nouns in the singular or plural number ; as, — 1. All are not taken. — Browning. 2. What though the field is lost, all is not lost. — Milton. 3. All haste implies weakness. — Mavdonald. 4. All things work together for good to them that love God. — Tlie Bible. Each Each (one and like*) is used both as a substantive Every, and with the force of an adjective. Ever)/ (all and each) has no longer a substantive use, but retains its pronoun significance when used with the force of an adjective. Each in its substantive use is used in the singular. Each and every with the force of adjectives are used with singular nouns. 136. Each and every are sometimes called dis- tributive pronouns because they are used to refer to the different members or individuals that make up a class. Each is used in referring to a class made up of two or more individuals or members. Every is used in referring to a class made up of three or more individuals or members. PRONOUXS. 121 Each represents the individual members as making up a class. Every represents the class as made up of individual members. 1. Each is strong relying on his own, and each is betrayed when he seeks in himself the courage of others. — Emerson. 2. And each heart is whispering, "Home, home at last." — Hood. 3. Every wish is a prayer with God. — Mrs. Browning. None (not one) is used as a substantive in the None. singular and in the plural number. The adjective force of none is expressed by no, a shortened form of none. 1. Where none are beaux 'tis vain to be a belle. — Lyttleton. 2. None but the brave deserves the fair. — Dryden. 3. No day is without its innocent hope. — Buskin. Some (certain number or quantity of) is used as a Some. substantive and with an adjective force. As a sub- stantive it is used only in the plural, and with an adjec- tive force it is used with nouns in the singular or in the plural number ; as, — 1. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. — Shakespeare. 2. Some people are more nice than wise. — Cowper. Any (single one or class of) is used as a substantive Any. and with the force of an adjective. In its substantive use any is generally in the plural number, and with the force of an adjective it is used with singular or plural nouns. 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1. I have not seen you lately at any of the places I visit. — Steele. 2. Has any old fellow got mixed with the boys ? — Holmes. Aught, Aught (ever a thing), naught (never a thing), are Naught, used only as substantives in the singular number ; as, — 1. Unfaith in aught is want of faith in all. — Tennyson. 2. You could do naught that was not pure and loving. — Eliot. Such. Certain. Several. Such (so like) is used as a substantive, and with the force of an adjective. As a substantive such is gener- ally in the plural number, but with the force of an adjective is used with singular or with plural nouns. 1. Some there be that shadows kiss, Such have but a shadow's bliss. — Shakespeare. 2. These enemies over the seas and over the mountain are such men as we. — Emerson. 3. Such a nature, tickled with good success, disdains the shadow which he treads on at noon. — Shakespeare. Certain (the especial and separate ones) as a substan- tive is used in the plural number, and with the force of an adjective is used with singular or with plural nouns. 1. The Count of Oifuentes followed, with certain chivalry of Seville. — Irving. 2. There is a certain majesty in pleasure. — JSouth. »f the Several (separate ones) as a substantive is used in the plural, and with the force of an adjective is used with singular and plural nouns. 1. Several of them neither rose from any conspicuous family nor left any behind them. — Addison. PRONOUNS. 123 2. Each several ship a victory did win. — Dryden. 3. At Paris I drove to several hotels and could not get admission. — Sidney Smith. 137. Note that the words in full-faced type in the following sentences have certain pronoun char- acteristics. These words are frequently classed as indefinite or adjective pronouns. 1. And both were young, and one was beautiful. — Byron. 2. Common sense is instinct, and enough of it is genius. — Shaw. 3. Much may be said on both sides. — Addison. 4. Few, few shall part Avhere many meet. — Campbell. 5. That only is happiness which we think to be so. — Richardson. 6. What ye know, the same do I know. — Bible. Compound Indefinite Pronouns. 138. Compound indefinite pronouns are formed as follows : — Indefinite Pronouns. 1. By adding one to the simple indefinites, an?/, each, every, either, neither, no, some; as, any one, every one, each one, etc. 2. By affixing- thing or body to some, any, every, no; as, somebody, something, anybody, anything, etc. One another and each other are also compound indefi- nite pronouns. 1. No one can disgrace us but ourselves. — Holland. 2. Each one is the entire emblem of human Life. — Emerson. 3. Enthusiasts soon understand each other. — Irving. Compound 1:24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. He who praises everybody praises nobody. — Joint si m. 5. Every failure will teach a man something if he will learn. — Dickens. 6. Nothing is rarer than a word in its right meaning. — Whipple. 7. Everything is sweetened by risk. — Smith. The word else is used with compound indefinite pro- nouns to form an indefinite pronoun expression. This expression is regarded as a unit. 1. Variety is nothing else but a continued novelty. — South. 2. I do not know a better cure for sorrow than to pity somebody else. — Shaw. 3. I knew it was my own doings, and no one else's, but I was too miserable to repent. — Stevenson. 4. Then everybody wanted some of somebody else's. — Ruskin. Note in sentences (3) and (4) that the possessive end- ing is affixed at the end of the unit expression. To parse an indefinite pronoun is to tell its kind, its number, its gender, its case, and whether it is used as a substantive or with the force of an adjective. Parse the indefinite pronouns in the following sen- tences : — 1. Men take each other's measure when they meet for the first time. — Emerson. 2. Fear Him, and you have nothing else to fear. — Fordyce. 3. Certain winds make men's temper bad. — Eliot. 4. Every crime destroys more Edens than our own. — Hawthorne, PRONOUNS. 125 5. Selfishness at the expense of others' happiness is demonism. — Beecher. 6. Each mind has its own method. — Emerson. 7. In a certain sense all men are historians. — Carlyle. 8. Fortune, men say, doth give too much to many, But she never gave enough to any. — Harrington. 9. One must be a wise reader to quote wisely and well. — Alcott. 10. It is not trouble to doctor sick folks, but to doctor healthy ones is troublesome. — Shaw. 11. Life and religion are one, or neither is anything. I will not say neither is going to be anything. — Macdonald. 12. Pain pays the income of each precious thing. — Shakespeare. 13. Nothing is so good as it seems beforehand. — Eliot. 14. For we cannot know each other's secret. — Emerson. 15. All that I am my mother made me. — Adams. 16. Example is the school of mankind, and they will learn at no other. — Burke. 17. All types of all classes march through all fable. — Thackeray. 18. One should never think of death; one should think of life. — Beaconsfield. 19. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. — Pope. 20. A good wit will make use of anything. — Shakespeare. 21. Everything in this world depends upon will. — Beaconsfield. 22. Nothing is great but the exhaustless wealth of Na- ture. — Emerson. D. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Direct Question. Name the pronouns in the following sentences that are used in asking questions : — 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Who was Stonewall Jackson ? 2. What was the dying order of Captain Lawrence? 3. Which is the larger planet, Venus or the earth '.' Inter- 139. A pronoun used in asking questions is Pronoun ca ^ ec ^ an interrogative pronoun. The interrogative pronouns are who, what (an early neuter, singular form of who), winch (who + like, or what + like), and are declined as follows : — What? Singular. ]'l.i i; \T_ NOM. POSS. OHJ. NUM. POflS. OBJ, who whose whom who whose Avliom what which what which which which Whether (which one of two) was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, but now is used only inter- rogatively in noun classes, and commonly is followed by or not. Who? 140. Note that vJio in the following typical sentences is used in referring to persons, and that the answers expected to such questions arc names of persons, or pronouns referring to persons. 1. Who taught the bee with winds and rain to strive To bring her burden to a certain hive '.' — Prior. 2 Who can cloy the hungry edge of appetite ? — 'Shdkespt are. 141. Note that what in the following typical sentences is used in referring to things, and that the answers expected to**such questions are the names of things, or pronouns, or pronouns refer- ring to things. PRONOUNS. 127 1. 'What is opportunity to the man who can't use it ? — Eliot. 2. "What can money do to console a man with a head- ache ? — Macdonald. 142. Note that ivJiich in the following typical which? sentences is used either in referring to persons or things, and that the answer expected to such ques- tions is a definite choice out of the two or more known persons or things. 1. "Which of you shall we say doth love us most ? — Shakespeare. 2. Which is the more pleasurable, — the fears that re- ligion excites, that is, the fear of doing wrong, or the fears of vice, that is, the fear of being found out ? — Haydon. 1. The interrogative pronoun who is a gender pro- Notes. noun, and is used in any case in the singular or plural number. 2. The interrogative pronoun lohat is a neuter pro- noun, and when used as a substantive is found in the nominative or objective case of the singular number. 3. The interrogative pronoun which is either a gen- der or a neuter pronoun, and in substantive use is found in the nominative or the objective case in the singular or plural number. 4. The interrogative pronouns which and what may be used with nouns with the force of adjectives. Note from the following typical sentences that the interrogative pronoun, which, when used with a noun, has the same notion of asking for ;i definite choice. 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best? — Lowell. 2. Which debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich or the debt to the poor? — Emerson. Note from the following sentences that the inter- rogative pronoun ivhat may be used with nouns that are names of persons or things, and in the singular or in the plural number. 1. What loneliness is more lonely than distrust? — Eliot. 2. What planter will attempt to yoke A sapling with a falling oak ? — Swift. 3. But what books in the circulating library circulate ? — Lowell. Note from the following sentences that interrogative sentences are sometimes used as object clauses : — 1. Ask what is good of God above ; Ask of the great sun what is light ; Ask sin of what may be forgiven ; Ask what is happiness of heaven. — Bailey. 2. God asks no man whether he will accept life. — BeecJier. 3. We know what master laid thy keel, What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. — LongfeUow. Indirect Question. 143. An interrogative sentence used as a noun clause is called an indirect question. 144. Note from the following that voKat may be used to introduce an exclamatory expression, or a sentence having an exclamatory force, or an ex- clamatory word. 1. G Amos Cottle ! Phoebus! What a name ! — Byron. 2. What a strange thing is man ! — Id. PROXOUXS. 129 3. Oh, what a dawn of day ! — Browning. 4. What, ho! Chamberlain ! — Shakespeare. 5. What ! Are the ladies of your land so tall ? — Tennyson. 145. To parse an interrogative pronoun is to tell its kind, how it is used, what it expresses, its gender if any, its number, and its case. Parse interrogative pronouns in the following sen- tences : — 1. And what is so rare as a day in June ? — Lowell. 2. Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight ? Who blushes at the name ? — Ingram. 3. What mortal knows his preexistent state ? — Pope. 4. But which is it to be ? Fight or make friends ? — Stevenson. 5. "Whose taste, for instance, is truer and finer than Claude Lorraine's ? — Carlyle. 6. What is the dawn without the view? — Landor. 7. Who upon earth could live were all judged justly ? — Byron. 8. What good hast thou done with thy life ? — Wordsworth. 9. Which is more fair, The star of morning or the evening star ? Lo)l(ff('UoH\ 10. What honest man would not rather be the sufferer than the defrauder? — Richardson. 11. What can daunt us, what can turn us, Led to death by such as he ? — Kingsley. 12. Who ran to catch me when I fell, And would some pretty story tell, Or kiss the place to make it well? M\ mother. — Jane Taylor. 130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. E. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Name the pronouns in the following sentences : — 1. He makes no friend who never made a foe. — Thomson. 2. I dislike an eye that never twinkles. — Loiigfellow. 3. They had one son who had grown up to he the staff and pride of their age. — Irving. 4. He early acquired the magic of method, which of itself works wonders. — Id. 5. Learn to be good readers, which is perhaps a more dif- ficult thing than you imagine. — Cartyle. 6. The evil that men do lives after them ; The good is oft interred with their bones. — Shakespeare. Note that the pronouns who, which, and that in the foregoing sentences are used to introduce sentences and connect them with an antecedent. Eelative 146 - ^ pronoun that is used to connect the son- Pronoun, tence which it introduces to the antecedent to which it refers is called a relative pronoun. Relative is from the Latin relativus — referring or indicating a relation. 147. Note from the foregoing sentences that the antecedent of a relative pronoun may be a word, an expression, or a sentence. Note that in (1) and (2) of foregoing sentences the relative pronouns are used to introduce sentences that define or restrict the meaning of their antecedents. Restrictive 148 - A relative pronoun used to introduce a sen- Eelative tence that defines or restricts the meaning of its antecedent is called a restrictive relative pronoun. PRONOUNS. 131 Restrictive is from the Latin restrictus — limited. Note that in foregoing sentences (3), (4), (5), (6) the relative pronouns are used to introduce sentences that state additional facts about their antecedents. 149. A relative pronoun used to introduce a sentence that states an additional fact about its antecedent is called a coordinate or supplementary relative pronoun. Supplementary is from the Latin supplementum — something added to. Note that the sentences introduced by restrictive relative pronouns are adjective clauses, and are used with their antecedents to designate more definitely the objects for which the antecedents stand. For example, in relative sentence (1), what he is meant ? And in relative sentence (2) what kind of eye is disliked ? In sentence (6) what evil ? 150. 1 A sentence introduced by a supplementary relative pronoun is always in meaning the equiva- lent of a sentence coordinate with the sentence of its antecedent. Hence the supplementary relative pronoun will always be equal to a conjunction + a personal or neuter pronoun. For example, in sentence (3), who = and Ju>, and in sentences (4) and (5), which = and it. Name each of the relative pronouns in the following sentences, tell its antecedent, and state whether it is ;> restrictive <>r a supplementary relative pronoun. i See Notes tor Teachers, 8. Supple- mentary Eelative Pronouns. 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. I worked with patience, which seems almost power. — Browning. 2. The man that loves and laughs must sure do well. I'njir. 3. You who have any to love you, cling to them and thank God. — Thackeray. 4. No person who is not a great sculptor or painter can be an architect. — Buskin. 5. Duty is a power which rises with us in the morning and goes to rest with us at night. — Gladstone. 6. He that sleeps feels not the toothache. — Shakespeare. 7. He lives who dies to win a lasting name. — Drummond. 8. Man is born with a profusion of gifts that are never used. — Brooks. 9. In life there are meetings which seem like fate. — Meredith. 151. The relative pronouns are ivho, which, that, what, and sometimes but and as. That, what, but, and as are not declined. Who and which are declined as follows : — Singular. Plural. NOM. poss. OBJ. NOM. poss. on.i. who whose whom who whose whom which whose which which whose which Who. 1. He is a free man whom the truth makes free. — Dryden. 2. And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. — Goldsmith. 3. No man is born into the world whose work is not born with him. — Lowell. Note from the foregoing typical sentences that who is used in referring to persons. PRONOUNS. 133 Who is sometimes used in referring to animals or tilings personified ; as, — 1. Invite the rook who, high amid the boughs, In early spring his airy city builds. — TJwmson. 2. Italia ! Italia ! thou who hast the fatal gift of beauty. — Byron. 152. Note from the following typical sentences that which is used in referring to things. 153. Note from sentence (3) that ivhich may be -which used with its antecedent, having the force of an adjective. 1. Gratitude is the fairest blossom which springs from the soul. — Ballon. 2. There is a stream whose course is hidden. — Emerson. 3. The taking of which bark I verily believe was the ruin of every mother's son of us. — Kingsley. 4. Life is a bubble which any breath may dissolve. — Greeley. Which was formerly used in referring to persons ; as, — Our Father which art in heaven, etc. Which with a preposition has as an equivalent ex- pression the word where + the corresponding preposi- tion affixed; as, — in which = wherein ; by which = whereby ; to ivhich = whereto ; with which = wherewith. 154. Note in the following typical sentences that the relative pronoun that is used in referring to persons, animals, or things. That. 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR That. 1. All are not merry that dance lightly. — Herbert. 2. The fur that warms a monarch warmed a bear. — Pope. 3. The mail recover'd of the bite, The dog it was that died. — Goldsmith. 4. And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all. — Holmes. That is the oldest of the relative pronouns and originally was a demonstrative pronoun. Because that may be used both in referring to per- sons and things, it is sometimes preferred to who or which when the relative has two or more antecedents representing both persons and things. That is also used for the sake of euphony in taking the place of who or which when their use in consecutive clauses would sound unpleasant. 155. Tliat is the general and in most cases the preferable restrictive relative pronoun. 156. In the following cases who and which are now usually regarded as the preferable relative pronouns, even in restrictive relative sentences. I. When the antecedent is a personal pronoun ; as, — 1. He laughs at scars who never felt a wound. — SJutkespt are. 2. They never fail who die in a great cause. — Byron. 3. He only who gave life has a power over it. — Richardson. II. When the antecedent is a demonstrative pro- noun ; as, — PRONOUNS. 135 1. You will always find those who think they know your duty better than you know it — Emerson. 2. There is no weariness like that which arises from doubting. — /South. III. When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun referring to persons ; as, — 1. The real man is one who always finds excuses for others, but never excuses himself. — Beecher. 2. Our chief want in life is somebody who shall make us do what we can. — Emerson. IV. When the antecedent is a gender noun which has a pronoun used with it ; as, — 1. Every person is near to you whom you can bless. — Channing. 2. All men who have sense and feeling are being con- tinually helped. — Buskin. V. When the relative pronoun is used as the object of a preposition. That is never used as a subsequent after a preposition. That as the subsequent of a preposition has the preposi- tion at the end of the relative clause ; as, — I saw the man that you refer to. Form sentences with that as subsequent of the prepo- sitions, through, under, between, and the awkwardness of the construction will be evident. That is sometimes used with the prepositions, hi/, for, to, of, but in other cases the relative pronoun which is used ; as, 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Style is the gossamer on which the seeds of truth float through the world. — Bancroft. 2. We have reached the mountain from which all these drift boulders were detached. — Emerson. VI. When the relative pronoun is in juxtaposition to the demonstrative conjunction, that ; as. — So true it is that Nature has caprices which art cannot imitate. — Macaulay. VII. When the relative pronoun is separated from its verb, and 1 lias an isolated position in the sentence ; as, — 1. I mean the man who, when the distant poor need help, denies them nothing but his name. — Cowper. 2. The law is a gun which, if it misses a pigeon, kills a crow. — Lytton. 157. Note that what in the following typical sentences has not an antecedent expressed. What. l. The head best leaves to the heart what the heart alone divines. — Alcott. 2. What men call accident is God's part. — Bailey. What is the neuter singular form of who, and when used alone is always in the neuter singular. 158. As the form and use of what arc always definitely known, the antecedent of what can readily be inferred, and for that reason is gen- erally omitted. Antecedent 159. The antecedent of what when formerly it What. was expressed was Unit, and very rarely a neuter pronoun in the singular ; as, — PRONOUNS. 137 1. That what he wills he does. — Shakespeare. 2. That what cannot be repaired is not to be regretted. — Johnson. 3. That what is extremely proper in one company is highly improper in another. — Chesterfield. 4. That what will come, and must come, shall come well. — Arnold. 5. I fear nothing what can be said against me. — Shakespeare. 160. When the antecedent of what is expressed for the sake of emphasis, it takes the unusual, hence the emphatic, position of following the rela- tive pronoun ; as, — 1. "What fates impose, that men mnst needs abide. — Shakespeare. 2. "What a man does, that he has. — Emerson. 3. What the light of your mind . . . pronounces incred- ible, that in God's name leave uncredited. — Carlyle. It is sometimes maintained that what is a compound relative pronoun either inform or in use. 161. What cannot be a compound relative pro- What noun in form, as it is a neuter singular form of not e( l ual t0 That ivho, the early interrogative pronoun, just as that which. with the same neuter singular ending, t, is a neu- ter singular form of the early demonstrative form. Moreover, which, the other element of the so-called equivalent, is itself a compound word made up of who + an early form of like, which ending is also seen in the words each, such, and much. 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Nor can that which be regarded as the grammatical or logical equivalent of what, but rather the equivalent of what + its antecedent expressed or implied. 162. Note that but in the following typical sen- tences is used as a relative pronoun after a nega- tive in the clause of its antecedent. But. 1. There is not a single heart but has its moments of longing. — Beecher. 2. There is no heroic poem in the world but is at bottom a biography, the life of a man. — Garlyle. 3. There's not a string attuned to mirth But has its chord in melancholy. — Hood. 163. Note that as in the following typical sen- tences is used as a relative pronoun after such words as such, so, as, in connection with its ante- cedent. As. 1. Never put much confidence in such as put no confi- dence in others. — Hare. 2. Life, believe, is not a dream so dark as sages say. — Bronte". 3. A cottage will hold as much happiness as would stock a palace. — Hamilton. Antecedent 164. Note from the following typical sentences Omitted, that the antecedent of who may be omitted, when if expressed it would be a personal pronoun. 1. Who broods over the past loses courage for the future. — Lanier. 2. Who loves a garden loves a greenhouse too. — Cotoper. 3. Whose house is of glass must not throw stones at another. — Herbert. PRONOUNS. 139 165. Note from the following sentences that the Relative relative pronoun may be omitted in condensed Omitted, constructions when it can readily be inferred from the context. 1. Complaint is the largest tribute heaven receives. — Swift. 2. Every duty we omit obscures some truth we should have known. — Ruskin. 3. All I have seen teaches me to trust the Creator for all I have not seen. — Emerson. 166. To the relative pronouns ivho, which, and indefinite what, are affixed the endings ever and soever, and Relative thus are formed what are called compound relative pronouns, or indefinite relative pronouns. These pronouns are equivalent to a relative pronoun with an indefinite pronoun antecedent ; as, — whoever = any one who. whosoever = any such a one who. whichever = any one which or anything which. The indefinite relative pronouns formed with the end- ing ever are more generally used than those ending in soever. 167. Whoso is sometimes used as an indefinite relative pronoun. 168. Whosoever is declined as follows : — Singular. Plural. \<>M. poss. OBJ. NOM. POSS. OBJ. who whose- whom- who- whose- whom- soever soever soever soever soever soever No other indefinite relative pronouns are declined. 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 169. All relative indefinite pronouns excepting ivhose, whoever, and whosoever may be used with a noun having the force of adjectives. 170. Note from the following typical sentences that the antecedent of an indefinite relative pro- noun is not expressed, and that the antecedent implied or embodied in the pronoun does not refer to definite persons or things, but to persons or things in a general or an indefinite way. 1. Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. — Chesterfield. 2. "Whoso lives for humanity must be content to lose himself. — Frothingham. 3. Whatever day Makes man a slave, takes half its worth away. — Pope. 4. Whatsoever kind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son. — Buskin. 5. "Whatsoever is worthy of their love is worthy of their anger. — Denham. 171. A relative pronoun has the same gender, number, and person as its antecedent. 172. To parse a relative pronoun is to answer the following questions : — 1. What kind of relative pronoun is it ? 2. What is its antecedent ? 3. For what does the antecedent stand ? 4. In what respect docs it agree with its antecedent '! 5. What is its construction in the sentence ? PRONOUNS. 141 Parse who in the sentence, " He who gives joy finds 1. Who is a restrictive relative pronoun used instead of that, because the antecedent is a personal pronoun. (See 156, I.) 2. The antecedent is the word he. 3. The antecedent he is used to refer to a person. 4. Who agrees in gender, number, and person with he. 5. Who is the subject nominative of the verb give. Parse the relative pronouns in the following sen- tences : — 1. Goodness is the only investment that never fails. — Thoreau. 2. A verse may find him who a sermon flies. — Herbert. 3. There are occasions on which all apology is rudeness. — Johnson. 4. We have always pretensions to fame which, in our hearts, we know to be disputable. — Id. 5. He only is exempt from failure who makes no effort. — Whately. 6. Admiration is a youthful fancy which scarcely ever survives to maturer years. — Shaw. 7. And eyes disclosed what eyes alone could tell. — Dwight. 8. Who listens once will listen twice. — Byron. 9. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair. — Longfellow. 10. Whatever makes men good Christians makes them good citizens. — Webster. 11. We may learn by practice such things upon earth ;is shall be of use to us in heaven. — E. 11. Chopin. 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Parse the personal, indefinite, demonstrative, inter- rogative, and relative pronouns in the following sen- tences : — 1. Tell me the tales that to me were so dear. — Bailey. 2. Nature designed us to be of good cheer. — Jen-old. 3. A wise man will find us to be rogues by our faces. — Swift 4. Show me a thoroughly contented man, and 1 will show you a useless one. — /Shakespeare. 5. The God who gave us life, gave us liberty at the same time. — Jefferson. 6. Something is lost in accuracy, but much is gained in effect. — Macaulay. 7. For what is glory but the blaze of fame ? — Mil/on. 8. There is nothing like fun, is there ? I haven't any myself, but I do like it in others. — Haliburton. 9. The glories of the possible are ours. — Taylor. 10. What is mind ? No matter. What is matter ? Never mind. What is the soul ? It is immaterial. — Hood. 11. It is no merit of mine that he loves me. — Eliot. 12. Obedience completes itself in understanding. — Brooks. 13. Talent is that which is in a man's power. Genius is that in whose power a man is. — Lou-ell. 14. Who loves not more the night of June Than cold December's gloomy noon? — Scott 15. Brutus was Caesar's friend, and you were mine. — Longfellow. 16. Life is a succession of lessons, which muet be lived to be understood. — Emerson. 17. There is no vice so simple, but assumes Some mark of virtue on his outward parts. — Shakespeare. 18. Take in the ideas of the day ; drain off those of yes- terday. — Lytton. PRONOUNS. 143 19. Nothing can bring yon peace but yourself. — Emerson. 20. They have no other doctor but sun and the fresh air, and that such an one as never sends them to the apothe- cary. — South. 21. There is nothing certain in man's life but this, that he must lose it. — Meredith. 22. Those are generally good at flattery who are good for nothing else. — South. 23. But whoso is heroic will always find crises to try the edge. — Emerson. 24. All join to guard what each desires to gain. — Pope, 25. He was the first man of the time in which he grew. — Choate. 26. Friends, if we be honest with ourselves, we shall be honest with each other. — Macdonald. 27. It is what we give up, not what we lay up, that adds to our lasting store. — Ballon. 28. Talking over the things which you have read with your companions fixes them on the mind. — Watts. 29. Those who bring sunshine to the lives of others can- not keep it from themselves. — Barrie. 30. To persevere in one's duty, and be silent, is the best answer to calumny. — Washington. 31. I have no other but a woman's reason ; I think him so because I think him so. — Shakespeare. 32. About everything he wrote there was a certain nat- ural grace and decorum. — Macaulay. 33. There were none of the Grogrians but could sing a song, or of the Marjorams but could tell a story. — Goldsmith. 34. I hate the man who builds his name On ruins of another's fame. — Qay. 35. Each man is a hero and an oracle to somebody, and to that person whatever he says has an enhanced value. — Eim rson. 144 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 36. To Truth's house there is a single door, which is ex- perience. — Taylor. 37. We must have an intellectual quality in all property and in all action, or they are naught. — Emerson. 38. Inner sunshine warms not only the heart of the owner, but all who come in contact with it. — Fields. 39. Our affections are our life. We live by these. They supply our warmth. — Charming. 40. A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. — Irving. 41. Lepidus flatters both, of both is flattered, but he neither loves, nor either cares for him. — Shakespeare. 42. I feel like one who treads alone Some banquet hall deserted, Whose lights are fled, whose garlands dead, And all but he departed. — Moore. 43. How happy could I be with either, Were t'other dear charmer away ! But while ye thus tease me together, To neither a word will I say. — Gay. 44. There is no time so miserable but a man may be true. — Shakespeare. F. SUMMARY OF DEFIXITIOXS. Summary A pronoun is a reference word used to represent of Definitions. some person or thing. An antecedent is a noun or an equivalent to which a pronoun may refer for defmiteness of meaning. Person is that property of pronouns which is used to designate the relation of a person as speaking, spoken to, or spoken about. PRONOUNS. 145 A personal pronoun is a pronoun which by its form distinguishes the relation of person. A neuter pronoun is a pronoun that does not dis- tinguish the property of gender, and has a neuter noun as its antecedent. A compound personal pronoun is a personal pro- noun compounded with the word self. A compound neuter pronoun is a neuter pronoun compounded with the word self. An emphatic or intensive pronoun is a compound personal or neuter pronoun used to emphasize that which is named by a noun, or that which is repre- sented by the pronoun itself or in connection with a pronoun implied. A reflexive pronoun is a compound personal or neuter pronoun used to refer to the same person or thing designated by the subject of the verb of the sentence. A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that directs attention to that which it is used to represent. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun used to refer to any or to no specific person or thing, or to an indefinite quantity or number of persons or tilings. A compound indefinite pronoun is an indefinite pronoun compounded with the word thing or body, or with another indefinite pronoun. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a question. 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. An indirect sentence is an interrogative sentence used as a noun clause. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to connect the sentence which it introduces to the antecedent to which it refers. A restrictive relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a sentence that defines or restricts the meaning of its antecedent. A supplementary relative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to introduce a sentence that states an additional fact about its antecedent. An indefinite relative pronoun is a relative pro- noun compounded with the endings so, ever, and soeuer. OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. I. Classes. 1. Personal and neuter. 1. Simple. 2. Compound. a. Intensive or Emphatic. b. Reflexive. 2. Demonstrative. 3. Indefinite. 1. Simple. 2. Compound. 4. Interrogative. 5. Relative. 1. Simple. 2. Indefinite or compound. PRONOUNS. 147 II. Gender — same as Nouns. (See page 63 et seq.) III. Number — same as Nouns. (See page 70 et seq.) IV. Case — same as Nouns. (See page 77 et seq.) See also Outline Classification of Nouns, page 101. 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. III. ADJECTIVES. A. CLASSES. Adjectives 173- ^ n a djective is a word used with a noun to designate more definitely that for which the noun stands. (See 46.) 174. An adjective may be used also with pro- nouns or constructions used as equivalents of nouns. An adjective may occupy different positions in the sentence with reference to its noun. 1. Speech is great, but silence is greater. — Carlyle. 2. Joy is the best of wine. — Eliot. 3. An infatuated man is not only foolish but wild. — Crabbt . Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in the foregoing sentences follows the copulative verb with which it is joined to form the predicate, and refers to the subject noun with which it is used. Predicate 175. Such adjectives are called predicate adjec- Adjectives. t i ves# (See 49.) 1. A loving heart is the truest wisdom. — Dickons. 2. Fine manners are the mantle of fair mi m Is. — Alcott. 3. The smallest act of charity shall stand us in great stead. — Atterbury, ADJECTIVES. 149 Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in the foregoing sentences precedes the noun with which it is used. 176. Such adjectives are called attributive adjec- ... ., . tives. Adjectives. 1. This power of woman, natural to her, never sleeps until modesty is gone. — Addison. 2. A female friend, amiable, clever, and devoted, is a pos- session more valuable than parks and palaces. — Beaconsfield. 3. He has an intellectual vision, clear, wide, piercing, methodical. — Carlyle. Note that each of the adjectives in full-faced type in the foregoing sentences directly follows the noun with which it is used. 177. Such adjectives are called appositive adjec- Appositive tives. Adjectives Name the predicate, the attributive, and the apposi- tive adjectives in the following sentences : — 1. Her voice was ever soft, Gentle and low, an excellent thing in woman. — Shakespeare. 2. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. — Waller. 3. The fir trees dark and high ; I used to think their slender tops Were close against the sky. — Hood. 4. Flavia, most tender of her own good name, Is rather careless of her sister's fame. — ( 'ovoper. 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Humor, warm and all-embracing as the sunshine, bathes its objects in a genial and abiding light. — Whipple. (Review pages 22, 23, 24.) Descriptive 178 - Aii adjective used to describe or tell the Adjective, kind or quality of that for which the noun stands is called a descriptive adjective. Descriptive is from the Latin desrriptivus — having the quality of describing ; as, — 1. The crimson moon . . . foretells the harvest near. — Tliurlow. 2. A proud heart and a lofty mountain are never power- ful. — Eliot. 3. These little things are great to little men. — Ooldam ith. Quantitive 179. An adjective used to designate how many Adjective, there are or how much is contained in that for which the noun stands is called an adjective of quantity or a quantitive adjective. Quantitive is from the Latin quantitivus — how man v. 1. A countryman between two lawyers is like a fish between two cats. — Franklin. 2. The rugged cliff has a thousand faces in a thousand hours. — Emerson. 3. A little snow tumbled about becomes a mountain. — Shakespeare. Demonstra- 18 °- An adjective used to direct attention to tive that for which the noun stands is called a demon- Adjective. strative ad je C tiye. ADJECTIVES. 151 1. Sweet Emma Moreland of yonder town, Met me walking in yonder way. — Tennyson. 2. Yon gray lines that fret the clouds are messengers of day. — Shakesjieare. 3. This was the opinion and practice of the latter Cato. — Swift. 4. It is a maxim that those to whom everybody allows the second place have an undoubted title to the first. — Id. Note that the demonstrative adjectives in fall-faced type in the following sentences are used to designate the numerical order of that which is named by the noun. 1. Our poetry in the eighteenth century was prose; our prose in the seventeenth, poetry. — Hare. 2. The first step to greatness is to be honest. — Johnson. 181. Such demonstrative adjectives are some- Ordinal times called ordinal numeral adjectives. Numeral Adjective, Ordinal is from the Latin ordo — an order. 182. Numeral adjectives of quantity are some- Cai-dirial times called cardinal numeral adjectives. Numeral Cardinal is from the Latin cardinalis — chief or principal. Note that the demonstrative adjectives in the fol- lowing sentences are used to point out any one of a group or class of persons or things, or a particular individual group or class of persons or things. 1. A miser grows rich by seeming poor. — Shenstone. 2. Generosity is the flower of justice. — Hawthorne. Adjective. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Article. Indefinite Articles. Definite Articles. An or A. 3. A man of pleasure is a man of pains. — Young. 4. The second sober thought of the people is seldom wrong. — Van Buren. 183. Such demonstrative adjectives are called articles. 184. The article that is used to point out any one of a group or class of persons or things is called the indefinite article. 185. The article that is used to point out a particular group or class of persons or things is called the definite article. 186. The indefinite article an with its shortened form a is from cine, an early form of one. It is used to point out any one person from a class of persons or any one thing from a class of things. As the indefinite article is singular in its meaning, it cannot be used with a noun in the plural num- ber, and as it designates one from a class, it cannot be used with a noun that is the name of a class. Explain why an article cannot be used in the plans indicated in the following 1 sentences : — 1. We saw a strange kind of bird. 2. Woman is the equal of man. 3. Idlers always have some sort of excuse. 4. The letter will bring some such answer. 5. Lincoln was not that type of hero. Note the following expressions. It lias sometimes been maintained that the indefinite article is used with ADJECTIVES. 153 a noun in the plural number. Note that in each of those cases the indefinite article has its original mean- ing of one, and is used to point out the following adjec- tive as a numerical group, and both together are used with the following noun. A hundred men. A thousand years. A million dollars. 187. Note from the following examples that an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. An enemy, an heir, an owl, an hour, an ocean, an honest man, an umbrella. 188. Note from the following examples that a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound. A country, a horse, a map, a hen, a youth, a unit, a useful book, a European, a yew tree, a university, a wonder, many a one. Some writers use an before words beginning with h and not accented on the first syllable; as, an hypothesis, an hysterical laugh, an historical essay, an hygrometer. 189. The definite article, the, is an old masculine The. demonstrative form, the neuter singular form of which was that, and it still retains its demonstra- tive use in pointing out definitely that for which the noun stands. The is used with its substantive word to point out as known, definite, or importanl an individual person or thing, or group of persons 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. or things, or a class of persons or things ; as, the boy; the Alps; the diamond; the Irish; the Smiths; the good; the Ohio ; the United States; the mineral kingdom ; Gladstone, the statesman ; Webster, the orator. Observe how articles are used in the following com- pound constructions : — 1. In his own household he was the prophet, priest, and king. 2. Caesar was a general, statesman, and historian. 3. The sovereign wore a black and white robe. 4. We saw the old and famous castle. 190. Note from the foregoing sentences that an article which is used with two or more nouns des- ignating the same person or thing is placed only before the first noun, and when used with a noun having two or more adjectives, the article is placed before only the first adjective. Construct or select eight additional sentences illus- trating the foregoing rule. 191. Note from the following typical expressions that the article precedes the general adjective used with the same noun. An earnest man, the whole company, a beautiful scene, the final review, a glorious sunrise, a majestic mountain. Such words as all, both, man//, such, what, or adjec- tives modified by the adverbs, as how, tuu, and sv. may ADJECTIVES. 155 precede the article ; as, all the soldiers, both the boys, many a mail, such an hour, what a day, as good an idea, how great a trial, too wise a man, so good a precept. 192. Note from the following sentences that an article which is used with two or more nouns re- ferring to different persons or things is placed before each noun, and when the noun is not ex- pressed the article is placed before each adjective that represents the noun implied. 1. The general, the colonel, and the captain were in consultation. 2. We saw a lion, a tiger, and a man in the same cage. 3. He had in his yard the brown, the green, the yellow, and the purple quartz. 4. The master drove a black and white horse. Construct or select eight additional sentences illus- trating the foregoing case. Note. — In the foregoing cases, when the article is regularly omitted, it may be used for the sake of em- phasis, and when the article is regularly used in con- structions regarded as a unit ; as, — 1. He will be a better and a wiser man. 2. He was the orator and the statesman of his age. 3. He handed him the pen and the ink. 4. The boy and the girl have gone to school. 5. A horse and a wagon stood at the door. Explain the presence and absence of articles in the connected constructions in the following sentences: — 1. The firmest and noblest ground on which people can live is truth. — Emerson. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. The edges and corners of the box were carved with most wonderful skill. — Hawthorne. 3. Mountains have a grand, stupid, lovable tranquillity. — Holmes. 4. The hammer and the anvil are the two hemispheres of every true reformer's character. — Holland. 5. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinions. — Lotrell. 6. The sleeping ocean lay like a wavy and glittering mirror. — Cooper. 7. The winds and the waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators. — Gibbon. 8. The leafy, blossoming present time springs from the whole past. — CarlyU. 9. Ought a gentleman to be a loyal son, a true husband, an honest father ? — Thackeray. 10. Of these pamphlets, the longest, the bitterest, and the ablest was commonly attributed to Ferguson. — Macanlay. 11. A large, bare forehead gives a woman a masculine and defying look. — Hunt. B. COMPARISON. Note that the different degrees of sweetness denoted by the following adjectives are designated by different forms of the adjective. Sweet, sweeter, sweetest. These different forms are called comparative forms of the adjective. Some adjectives of quantity are also used to express comparison. Comparison. 193 - The property of adjectives that designates the degrees of quality or characteristic of that for which the noun stands is called comparison. ADJECTIVES. 157 Comparison is from the French conxparaison — the act of comparing. 194. The different forms used to indicate the different steps in comparison, are called degrees of comparison. Degree is from the French degre — a step. Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the fol- lowing sentences is the simplest form of the adjective. 1. The wise man is but a clever infant. — Carh/le. 2. A small unkindness is a great offense. — More. 3. A narrow mind begets obstinacy. — Dryden. Note that this simple form of the adjective is the basis of other forms. 195. The simplest form of the adjective and the Positive form used as the basis of comparison is called the Degree, positive degree. Positive is from the Latin positivus — absolute. Note that in the positive degree a certain degree of quality or characteristic is assumed to be possessed. Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the fol- lowing sentences is used to designate a quality or char- acteristic as one degree higher or lower than that- designated by the positive degree. 1. Character is higher than intellect. — Enn rson. 2. No man is wiser for his learning. — Selden. 3. The higher a man is in grace, the lower he will be in his own esteem. — Spurgeon. 158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Comparative 196. The form of the adjective that is used to Degree, designate a quality or a characteristic as one degree higher or lower than that designated by the posi- tive degree is called the comparative degree. Comparative is from the Latin comparativus — not absolute, relative. Note that each adjective in full-faced type in the following sentences is used to designate a quality or a characteristic in the degree highest or lowest from that designated by the positive degree. 1. The greatest firmness and the greatest mercy. — Longfellow. 2. The best hearts are the bravest. — Sterne. 3. The deepest rivers make least din. — Sterling. Superlative 197 - The form of the adjective that is used to Degree, designate a quality or a characteristic in the degree highest or lowest from that designated by tin- positive degree is called the superlative degree. Superlative is from the Latin superlativns — supreme or highest. Note that the comparative and superlative degrees are degrees relative to the positive degree, and conse- quently relative to each other. Note that the comparative degree is used when two persons or things are compared, and the superlative degree is used when more than two things are compared. Inflectional Note the inflection of the following adjectives in the Form. different degrees of comparison : — ADJECTIVES. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE cold cold-er cold-est warm warm-er warm-est stout stout-er stout-est fat fatt-er fatt-est sad sadd-er sadd-est wise wise-r wise-st fine fine-r fine-st holy liolie-r liolie-st merry merrie-r merrie-st 159 Note that tlie foregoing adjectives in the positive degree are generally words of one syllable. Note that the comparative degree is formed by affixing er or r to the positive degree, and the superla- tive degree is formed by affixing est or st to the positive degree. Note that when the positive degree ends in a con- sonant the er and est affixes are used. Note that when the positive degree ends in a vowel the affixes r and st are used. Note that in adjectives ending in a consonant pre- ceded by a short vowel, the final consonant is doubled before adding er and est. Note that final y is changed to ie before adding the affixes r and st. (See Sect. 95, I., Note 1.) Eegular, 198. Note that the following adjectives have an i rre g U iar. irregular form of comparison: — POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. , bad 1. -j ill worse worst (evil 1G0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 2. far (farther X further ( farthest ( furthest o j good ' I well better best 4. hind hinder ( hindmost ( hindermost 5. late ( later t latest ( latter I last 6 ( many ( much more most 7 (near ' (nigh ( nearer ( nigher ( nearest - nighest ( next 8. old ( older ( oldest ( elder ( eldest 9. little ( less least 199. Note that the following adjectives have no form for the positive degree : — COMPARATIVE. inner nether outer utter upper under SUPERLATIVE. inner innermost nethermost I < >utinost ( outermost J utmost ( uttermost ( upmost < uppermost undermost Note that lesser is a double comparative form, and hindermost, innermost, nethermost, outermost, uttermost, ADJECTIVES. 161 uppermost, form the superlative by affixing most to the comparative form. 200. Note that the following adjectives have only a comparative form: — After, over, rather. Some adjectives and nouns ending in most are super- lative in force, but do not distinguish any positive or comparative degree ; as, — Hithermost, northernmost, eastmost, endmost, and topmost. 201. Note from the following sentences that Adverbial, adjectives may have variations of degrees ex- pressed as equivalents to inflectional comparison by using the adverb more before the positive degree of the adjective to form a comparative, and most before the positive to form the superla- tive degree. 1. Joy is more divine than sorrow, for joy is bread and sorrow is medicine. — Beecher. 2. The most enthusiastic man in a cause is rarely chosen as a leader. — Helps. This is sometimes called comparison by adverbs or adverbial mode of comparison. There is no established rule that can be laid down for the use of the inflectional or the adverbial mode of comparison, but the tendency is in the direction of using the inflectional comparison with adjectives of one syllable, and the adverbial mode of comparison with words of two or more syllables. With adjectives of 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. two syllables the use of the mode of comparison La largely determined by euphony. 202. Note from the following sentences that when two connected forms of comparison are used in the same sentence, the inflected form precedes the adverbial form of comparison. 1. The highest and most lofty trees have the most reason to dread the thunder. — Rollin. 2. The deepest and most passionate love is that which survives the death of esteem. — Ouida. 3. The purest and most thoughtful minds are those which love culor the most. — Buskin. 203. Note from the following sentences that hss with the positive degree of an adjective may form a comparative degree, and least with the positive degree may form the .superlative degree of com- parison. This is sometimes called the descending scale of comparison. 1. Men are less forgiving than women. — Richardson. 2. Mammon led them on ; Mammon, the least erective spirit that fell From heaven. — Mi It mi. Note from the following sentences that the adverbs, too and very, with the positive degree of an adjective may be used to express an implied comparison in an absolute sense, that is, without any comparison with the rest of a class. 1. They live too long who happiness outlive. — Dryden. 2. Men are never very wise in the exercise of a new- power. — Charming. ADJECTIVES. 163 In early English the comparative and superlative degrees of the adjective were sometimes used in an absolute sense, the comparative degree being equal to too with the positive, and the superlative degree in the sense of very with the positive. This superlative use is still retained in some expressions in the language ; as, — ■ My dearest mother, etc. The meaning of some adjectives is such as to make relative comparison impossible ; as, — eternal, indefinite, first, -weekly, etc. It must, however, be remembered in connection with the limitation of the comparison of many adjectives that words have a general and a technical meaning, and in common speech and writing the general rather than the technical meaning is employed and understood. Many adjectives that could not be compared from the standpoint of their technical meaning are in commonly accepted usage comparable from the standpoint of their general meaning. Note the general and the technical meaning of such words as, — round, black, empty, perfect, extreme, chief, etc. Name the adjectives in the following sentences, tell to what class each one belongs, and compare all that are found in the comparative or superlative degrees : — 1. The beams of joy are made belter by reflection. — FuUer. 2. It is easier to suppress the first desire than to satisfy all that follow it. — Franklin. 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3. The greatest happiness comes from the greatest activity. — Bovee. 4. That man lives twice that lives the first life well. — Herrick. 5. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct, — Beaconsfield. 6. The highest rate of interest that we pay is on bor- rowed trouble. — Slvaw. 7. Patience is the chiefest fruit of study. — Selden. 8. A poor spirit is poorer than a poor purse. — Swift. 9. A smile is ever more bright and beautiful with a tear upon it. — Landor. 10. Fiction is most powerful when it contains most truth. — Hull* i ml. 11. The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the forces of the crown. — Chatham. 12. The greatest truths are the simplest. — Ballon. 13. Common sense is the genius of our age. — Lord Thurlow. 14. The true and strong and sound mind is the mind that can embrace equally great things and small. — Johnson. 15. With reference to this habit of reading, I make bold to tell you that it is your pass to the greatest, the purest, and the most perfect pleasure that God has prepared for his creatures. — Trollope. 16. A rushing, roaring sound was heard along the ocean, whose surface was first dimpled, next ruffled, and finally covered with a sheet of clear, white, and spotless foam. — Coojh r. 17. He most lives Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. — Bailey. 18. Much rain wears the marble. — Shakespeare. 19. Necessity never made a good bargain. — Franklin. ADJECTIVES. 165 C. SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS. An adjective is a word used with a noun to des- ignate more definitely that for which the noun stands. A predicate adjective is an adjective used with a copulative verb to form the predicate. An attributive adjective is an adjective that pre- cedes the noun with which it is used. An appositive adjective is an adjective that immediately follows the noun with which it is used. A descriptive adjective is an adjective that is used to describe the kind or quality of that for which the noun stands. A quantitive adjective is an adjective that is used to distinguish how many there are, or how much is contained in that for which the noun stands. A demonstrative adjective is an adjective that is used to direct attention to that for which the noun stands. An article is a demonstrative adjective that is used to point out any one of a group or class of persons or things, or point out a particular indi- vidual group or class of persons or things. The indefinite article is the article that is used