Class JZA-2i5£. 
Bonlr . T^7 

G^gM?_A3Ji3_ 

CTOWRIGHT DEPOStn 



THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



GREEK GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GREEK GRAMMARS EXTANT. 



FOR THE 

USE OF -SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 

/ 

BY REV. PETER V BULLIOXS, D. D., 

LATE PEOFESSOB OF LANGUAGES IX THE ALBANY ACADEMY; AtTTHOB OF THE SEEIES 

OF GEAM3IAES, GEEEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAME 

PLAN; A GEEEK EEADEB, ETC. ETC. 

TWENTY-FIFTH EDITION. REVISED AND IMPROVED. 




PRATT, WOODFORD, AND COMPANY, 

NO. 4 CORTLANDT STREET. 

1853. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and 
fifty-three, hy Petek Bullions, in the Clerk's office of the District Court 
of the United States for the Northern District of New- York. 



PREFACE. 



This work has now been so long before the public, and is so 
well known, that a detailed account of it is unnecessary. It is 
sufficient to say, that the object intended to be accomplished was, 
to provide a comprehensive manual of Greek Grammar, adapted 
to the use of younger as well as of more advanced students in 
our schools and colleges. 

Time and experience have only strengthened the conviction, 
long entertained, that no system of Grammar will answer a good 
purpose, for those who pursue this study at an early age, which 
does not present the leading facts and principles in such a way 
as to be easily committed to memory, and so to be always ready 
for immediate application when necessary. This principle has 
been steadily kept in view in preparing the following work, as 
well as the others belonging to this series. The leading and fun- 
damental principles have been reduced to definitions and rules, 
brief, and easy to be committed to memory, and are rendered 
comprehensive by being printed in large type ; while, at the 
same time, copious illustrations of these principles, and of the ex- 
ceptions and varieties of usage under them, with every thing im- 
portant to aid the advanced student, have been inserted in their 
place in smaller type, in the form of Observations and Notes, 
all of which are numbered for the sake of easy reference. 

When the leading parts of Grammar are first actually com- 
mitted to memory, and then constantly applied in the inflection 
of words, and in analyzing their forms, they soon become so 
thoroughly understood and fixed in the memory as hardly ever 
to be effaced, and to be always ready afterwards to account for 
every form which words, in their numerous changes, assume, and 
to solve every difficulty caused by these changes almost without 
an effort of thought. A student, though young, if thus exercised 
but for one year or two, has an immense advantage, in the future 
prosecution of his studies, over those who have not laid the foun- 
dation of their success in a thorough course of drilling. 

In the preface to the first edition, a full statement was given 
of the principal sources from which the materials here collected 
were drawn, and which need not here be repeated. Suffice it to 



IV PREFACE. 

say, the author has not hesitated to avail himself of every assist- 
ance within his reach, and to gather from every quarter, espe- 
cially from the ample stores of German Philologists, whatever 
appeared suited to his design. The labor of condensing and 
arranging, and, to borrow a term from the printers' vocabulary, 
justifying the several parts with due regard to harmony and pro- 
portion, into one compact whole, has been very great. 

I would beg leave, in this place, to call the attention of stu- 
dents and of teachers, who have not yet examined the subject, to 
the method of analyzing and forming the tenses of the verb 
which is here exhibited. No part of Greek Grammar has hither- 
to proved so puzzling and harassing to the pupil as this. For 
want of understanding the few simple principles, on which the 
numerous changes in the form of the verb depend, they appear 
to him intricate, arbitrary, and incomprehensible, to such a de- 
gree as to render his prospect of fully mastering them almost 
hopeless. That this is owing, in a great measure, to the method 
of forming the different tenses by deriving one tense from 
another to which it has some real or fancied resemblance, ap- 
pears to me beyond a doubt. As there is no foundation in truth 
for this mode of formation, so .almost every writer, following 
imagination as his guide, has proposed a different theory upon 
the subject. One, for example, forms the perfect passive from its 
own future. Another, with equal ingenuity, forms the future 
from its own perfect, through the medium of the first aorist pas- 
sive ! Another supposes he has simplified the whole matter by 
deriving every tense in the passive voice from its corresponding 
tense in the active voice, by making the simple and natural 
change of -ipco into -cpd-fjcopai, -£oa into -x&i'j<jo[ica, -xpa into 
-cp&rjv, -|« into -fpr\v^ -(pa into -fxfiai, -ya into -yfiai, and -xa 
into -pai, sometimes into -6{iai. Another still, in order to arrive, 
for example, at the first aorist passive, starts with the present 
active, and, by a succession of stages, arrives at the end of his 
journey, thus, azQecpco, satQexpa, eaTgeya, eargafAfiat, taTQantat, 
iaiQacpd'qv ; and when he gets there, he finds he has missed 
his way after all, for the first aorist of the verb is not iazQaydtiv 
but iGZQtcp&rjv ; and to bring him thither, another rule has to be 
invented nearly as dark as the road he has already travelled ; 
viz., " Verbs which change e of the future into o of the perfect 
active, and into a of the perfect passive, take s again in the first 
aorist ; as, toTQanrai, £W(>t(jp#'j/j>." What can be more perplex- 
ing and arbitrary than such a process ? It is fortunate for the 
rising generation that such a system is beginning to pass away, 



PKEFACE. V 

and to Professor Theirsch, of Germany, must we regard ourselves 
as chiefly indebted for the deliverance. Throwing aside the 
complicated systems of rules and exceptions which such theories 
had rendered necessary, he directs to the more simple and philo- 
sophical method of observing and stating the fact, that the root 
or stem runs unchanged, or but slightly so, through the whole 
verb ; and that one part differs from another in form, only in the 
part prefixed and added to the stem, and that in all verbs these 
parts are nearly the same. Instead, therefore, of forming one 
tense from another by a tedious and complicated process, every 
tense is formed at once immediately from its root by simply an- 
nexing the proper tense-ending, and prefixing the augment in the 
tenses that require it. Thus, for the sake of comparison, instead 
of the laborious and clumsy process above ; in order to form the 
1 aor. passive of GZQtcpco, all that is necessary is to annex the 
aorist tense-ending -d-qv to the root GTQtcp, prefixing the aug- 
ment, and it is done r — you have iczQecpd-qv at once ; and so it is 
with every other tense. 

The whole system of forming the tenses from the root, accord- 
ing to this method, is given in a brief space (§ 93); and all its 
modifications, as applied to the different classes of mute, pure, 
and liquid verbs, occupy only about three pages. By forming 
the tenses in this way, the Greek verb will be found a simple, 
regular, and beautiful structure, as all that belongs to the lan- 
guage is. And I hesitate not again to say, after many years' 
further experience, and after repeated examinations of other the- 
ories, that in my opinion " this method, for beauty, simplicity, and 
philosophical accuracy, greatly surpasses every other system of 
analysis; and that a more minute, familiar, and certain know- 
ledge of the Greek verb can be obtained, with much more ease, 
and in a shorter time, by studying it in this way than in any 
other." 



REVISED EDITION. 

New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor- 
tunity thus offered has been embraced, to correct such errors and 
inaccuracies as had been observed, — to make such additions and 
improvements as were deemed important, to add to the value and 
completeness of the work, and to render it still more worthy of 
the public favor. In a few instances, the mode of expression has 
been slightly changed, partly to render it more accurate, and 
partly to make the Series of Grammars still more uniform. For 



VI PREFACE. 

this reason, also, a few changes have been made in the arrange- 
ment of the matter ; but none of these are of such a nature or 
extent as to alter the character of the book, or prevent its being 
used in the same class with the former editions. These changes 
are chiefly the following : The general rules for the accents have 
been added to § 5-1, and the special rules for each declension, 
and for verbs, have been transferred from § 209 to their respec- 
tive declensions, &c, in order to be studied in their place ; and 
the rules for contractions, in the first and second declensions, 
have been transferred to these declensions respectively ; so that 
all that belongs to each declension will be found in its proper 
place under that declension. The analysis of the terminations 
of verbs, formerly in the Appendix, has been added to § 91 ; and 
the table of contract verbs, also in the Appendix, has been placed 
after the Paradigm of the Verb, pp. 136, 137. The sections on 
Numerals have been placed before the sections on the Compari- 
son of Adjectives, in accordance with the " arrangement in the 
English and the Latin Grammar. And lastly, the section on 
the Analysis of Sentences has been enlarged, and transferred from 
the Appendix to its place immediately after the Syntax. By 
these changes of arrangement, the several articles affected by 
them have been rendered more compact and complete ; and the 
matter belonging to them, being brought together, is less scat- 
tered than before. As a consequence of this, however, the pages 
in this edition do not correspond to those in former editions ; and 
also the section numbers from § 18 to § 41 of the former edition, 
and from § 51 to § 59, have been changed, while the matter in 
each section remains the same as before. In order to obviate any 
difficulty from this cause in the way of reference, a list of these 
sections, indicating the change of number, is given on p. xii. 

Thus have the Grammars belonging to this series, viz., the 
Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language, the 
Principles of Latin Grammar, and the Principles of Greek Gram- 
mar, been thoroughly revised, and, it is hoped, greatly improved ; 
greater similarity and uniformity have been effected both in ex- 
pression and arrangement, — the references from one work to 
another, for explanation and comparison, have been greatly in- 
creased in number, and in all, a running series of numbers, from 
beginning to end, for the convenience of reference, has been in- 
troduced. No labor or expense has been spared to render this 
whole series of elementary books unique, practical, accurate, and 
comprehensive. Each work, though connected with the others 
as a series, is complete in itself, and being equally remote from 



PREFACE. Vll 

a meagre skeleton, or outline, on the one hand, and a diffuse, ex- 
tended treatise on the other, is convenient in size, pleasing to the 
eye, and carefully adapted to the purposes of instruction. 

The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging grate- 
fully the favor with which his works have been received by 
teachers and others, and begs leave to assure them, that while no 
change will hereafter be made in those now completed, no effort 
will be wanting to render those he may yet publish, worthy of 
their notice. 

New- York, July, 1853. 



HINTS RESPECTING THE METHOD OF STUDYING THIS 
GRAMMAR. 

Those who have had experience in teaching the Greek language, will 
need no instructions from me how to study this, or any other Grammar 
which they may think fit to use; but still a few hints as to the way in 
which it is intended to be used may not be useless to the young teacher, 
or to the student who may be under the necessity of prosecuting his 
studies without a teacher. 

It is by no means intended that the new beginner should study, and 
much less commit to memory, every thing in the book. It is presumed 
that he comes to the study of Greek with some knowledge of the Eng- 
lish and Latin Grammars, and he will therefore throughout meet with 
much with which he is already acquainted, and which will require no 
new labour. In general, definitions and rules printed in large type, to- 
gether with the paradigms of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs, are 
about all that should be attended to at first, but these should be com- 
mitted very accurately to memory, and repeated so often in daily re- 
visals, as to become easy and familiar. If this is not done, the student's 
progress will be slow and embarrassed at every step, which otherwise 
would be rapid, easy, and pleasant. By youth of ordinary capacity, 
this will generally be effected in the course of six or seven weeks. It 
is then time to begin to read easy sentences, simply with a view to fur- 
nish a praxis on the rules and paradigms previously committed. In this 
exercise, every word should be declined, and every rule belonging to its 
inflection should be repeated, till it can be done not only correctly and 
easily, but almost without an effort. Two or three lines a day will be 
sufficient at first — increasing the quantity no faster than the pupil is 
able thoroughly to analyze every word. Simultaneously with this, as a 
part of each recitation, the part of the Grammar already committed 
should be reviewed repeatedly, first, in shorter, and then in longer 
portions, till the pupil is able to run over the whole in a recitation of 
fifteen or twenty minutes. All this may be effected in the space of 
three or four months. Longer lessons will then be proper, and along 
with thisj the study of the Grammar, taking up the more important 
parts of what was omitted before, not to commit to memory, but to 
study them so as to become familiar with them, and be able to refer to 
them at once when they may be needed. By going over the Gram- 



Vlll PREFACE. 

mar two or three times, in this manner, in the course of a year, every 
part will become connected in the mind with the rules to which these 
paints belong, so as to be readily recalled by them. 

There are two or three points to which it is necessary for the pupil 
to pay special attention. First, The Rules of Euphony, § 6. To the eu- 
phony of their language the Greeks paid the greatest attention. In or- 
der to avoid the harsh sound which would be the result of certain con- 
sonants coming together, they often exchanged a consonant in certain 
situations for another of more pleasing sound; sometimes they changed 
their order, sometimes dropped one of them, or inserted another. To 
this is owing, in part, the apparent irregularity in the flection of nouns 
and verbs, which has led to form so many perplexing rules for cases and 
tenses. The rules of euphony extend, not to the flection of nouns only, 
but to the whole structure of the language — to the composition and 
derivation of words, — and even to the collocation of them in a sen- 
tence. Those principles are few, thoroughly systematized, and very 
easy to be comprehended. This part, and, as fundamental to it, the 
fourth section, should be thoroughly mastered before proceeding to the 
third declension, where these rules will be needed. 

Another thing requiring special attention, and of almost equal im- 
portance, is, the rules for contraction. These' should be studied in their 
place after each declension, or they may be omitted till the first re- 
visal. A perfect readiness in the rules of contraction renders a para- 
digm of contract verbs entirely unnecessary. Still, as some may wish 
to have such a paradigm, it is furnished in §100. 

The last thing to which I would invite special attention, is the mode 
of teaching the Greek verb, which, on account of its numerous changes, 
and these effected differently in different verbs by the rules of euphony, 
according to the consonants of which it consists, or which concur in the 
course of inflection, has been regarded as so intricate and difficult. First 
of all, it is necessary to ascertain, in every verb, the root, or stem, which, 
in certain cases, undergoes changes peculiar to itself. These, however, 
are few, and under a very few short and plain rules, §§ 82 — 85. On 
these the pupil should be drilled till he can, with perfect readiness and 
certainty, tell the root of any regular verb as soon as the verb is named ; 
and also its second and third forms, when they differ from the first. 
This may be the work of one or two days. To the root is prefixed the 
augment in certain tenses, the rules for which will be found in § S8, 
and require no special notice. The next step is to commit the tables of 
terminations, § 92, very accurately to memory, beginning at the top of 
each column and proceeding down the page ; this will be much more 
easily accomplished than to commit the paradigm of the verb, and will 
answer a better purpose. All that then remains is to learn the method 
of forming each tense by annexing the tense-endings, § 93, to the pro- 
per root, according to the rules for mute, pure, and liquid verbs in 
§§ 94, 96, 97. This is an important exercise, and should be persevered 
in, till the iitmost accuracy, ease, and readiness is attained. 

The Byntax of the Greek language is a highlj^important part of the 
subject, and should be diligent^ and carefully studied ; but this may be 
postponed to the second year, as the rules of syntax common to the 
Latin and Greek will be sufficient for the earlier stages. The subject of 
analysis and translation, at the end of Syntax, deserves special attention- 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Accents 5 

first declension . . .21 
second declension . . 26 
third declension . . 29 

verbs 9*7 

Accusative of 3d decl. ... 34 
construction of . 250 
governed by an in- 
transitive verb . 252 

Adjectives, of -52 

of the 1st and 2d 

decl 53 

of the 1st and 3d 

decl 55 

of two terminations 59 
•irregular .... 61 
comparison of . 6*7, 68 
by -low -vatoq 69 
comparison of irre- 
gular . . . . 70 
defective . . 70 
dialects of .71 
concord of, with a 

substantive . .206 
other words used as 206 
used adverbially . 268 
obs. on the con- 
cord of . . . 206 
pronouns, construc- 
tion and use of . 210 
words related, con- 
struction of . .221 
Adverbs, signification of . . 186 
formation and deri- 
vation of . . .188 
comparison of . . . 189 
construction of . . 267 
Adverbial particles (insepara- 
ble) 190 

Alphabet 1 

Anacolutha .'284: 

Analysis 294 



PAGE 

Apostrophe 8 

Apposition 205 

Article 51 

dialects of 52 

construction and use of 214 
as a demonstrative pro- 
noun . . . . . 52, 76 
as a relative and per- 
sonal pronoun 52, 78, 118 

Augment, of 106 

rules for 107 

place of, in compound 

words 109 

observations on . . 109 
Auxiliary verbs 95 

Csesural pause 312 

Case, of 19 

Characteristic of the verb, of . 99 
Circumstances, construction of 259 



of cause or origin . 


260 


of limitation . . 


261 


of cause, manner, 




and instrument . 


263 


of place .... 


264 


of time .... 


265 


of measure . . . 


265 


of price .... 


266 


of exclamation . . 


266 


Comparative deg., construc- 




tion and use of 


209 


Comparison of adjectives . 67, 68 


general rule for . 


68 


in -low and -taroq . 


69 


irregular. . . . 


70 


defective .... 


70 


dialects of . . . 


71 


government of. . 


235 


Conjunctions, of 


196 


construction of . 


292 


signif. and use of 


196 


Consonants, of 


4 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Contractions, of 24 

of the 1st decl. . 25 

of the 2d decl. . 28 

of the 3d decl. . 41 

general rules for 41 

exercises on . . 42 

special rules for . 43 
examples of . 44-47 

Dative pluraL 3d decl. of . . 36 
construction of . . . 241 
after substantives . . 241 
governed by adjectives 242 
by verbals in -rog and 

-rioq 243 

by verbs 244 

by impersonal verbs . 248 
Declension, general rules for . 20 

first 21 

second .... 25 
do. Attic form of 27 

third 29 

gen. of . ... 31 
do. of adj. . . 33 
accusative of . 34 
vocative of . . 35 
dative plural of 36 
dialects of . . 38 
genders of . . 39 

Deponent verbs 167 

Dialects of the 1st decl. ... 23 
of the 2d .... 27 

of the 3d 38 

of the article ... 52 
of comparison ... 71 
of the pronoun . . 81 
of the verb .... 144 

of EijuL 162 

Diuresis 9 

Diastole 9 

Digamma 8 

Diphthongs 2 

Enclitics 6 

Etymology 15 

Euphony, rules of .... 10 

Figures affecting syllables . 9 

Final letters of the active voice 111 
Final letters of the mid. and 

pass, voices Ill 

of verbs in in. . 150 



PAGE 

Gender, of 18 

Genders of the 3d decl. . . 39 

Genitive of do 31 

of adjectives of do. . 33 
obs. on construction 

of 228 

governed by substan- 
tives 229 

by adj. in, the 

neut. gender . 231 

by adjectives . 232 

by comp. degree 235 

by verbs . . .236 

Government, of 227 



Imperative mood, syntax of 


276 


Impersonal verbs .... 


168 


construction of 


248 


Indicative, construction of . 


274 


Infinitive, construction of . 


280 


as a verbal noun . 


281 


without a subject 


281 


with a subject 


283 


used absolutely . 


285 


Metre, of 


307 


Iambic 


. 309 


Trochaic .... 


. 309 


Anapaestic .... 


. 309 


Dactylic .... 


. 310 


Choriambic . . . 


. 310 


Antispastic . . . 


. 311 


Ionic a majore . . 


. 311 


Ionic a minore . . 


. 312 


Pseonic 


. 312 


Metres compound, of . . 


. 313 


tables of ... . 


. 314 


Mood vowels, of ... . 


. Ill 


Moods, subjunctive and opta 


- 


tive, construction of . . 


. 276 


Mutes 


4 



New present, formation of .170 

Negatives, of 269 

double . . . .270 

Nom. case, construction of . 223 
concord of 225 

Nouns, of 16 

accidents of . . . . 17 

person of 17 

gender of 18 

number of . . . . IS 



INDEX. 



XI 



PAGE 

Nouns, case of 19 

declension of ... 19 
irregular, of . . . * 48 
defective, of .... 50 
of peculiar significa- 
tion ...... 50 

Number, of 18 

Numbers, cardinal .... 63 

ordinal .... 64 

notation of ... 65 

table of .... 66 

Numerals, classes of .... 62 



Orthography 



Paradigm of the active voice . 130 
of the middle . .132 
of the passive . .134 
of contract verbs . 136 
of verbs in -fit, . .154 

Participles, of 96 

declension of ... 5*7 
the construction of . 286 
for the infinitive . .288 
with Xav&dvo), &c . 290 
with ripL, ylvofxau, &c. 290 
in the case absolute . 291 
Particles, conjunctive and ad- 
verbial 190, 196 

signification of . . 19*7 

Parts of speech 16 

indeclinable, of the 15 
Passive voice, construction of 

cases with 25*7 

Prepositions, of 191 

alphabetical list of 191 
construction of .272 
in compo- 
sition . 274 
Pronouns, personal .... 72 
possessive ... 74 
construction of 213 
in apposition . 205 
definite .... 74 
construction of 210 
reflexive . . . . 75 
reciprocal ... 76 
demonstrative . . 76 
construction of 210 
relative .... 77 
concord of . .218 
attraction of . 220 



PAGE 

Pronouns, relat., other words 

used as . 219 

in the sense of 

other words 220 

interrogative . . 78 

construction of 213 

indefinite .... 79 

construction of 212 

correlative ... 80 

dialects of ... 81 

Prosody 299 

Punctuation 14 

Root of nouns and adj. ... 13 
of the verb, of .... 99 
of finding and changing 99 
second of the .... 102 

third 103 

verbs wanting 2d and 3d 104 
of the tenses .... 105 

Sentences, simple and com- 
plex 203, 294 

Spiritus, of the 7 

Superlative degree, construc- 
tion and use of 209 

Syllables 5 

Syntax 203 

parts of 204 

general principles of . 204 
of the verb . . ... 274 

Table of vowel sounds ... 3 

Tense-root 105 

Tense-signs 105 

Tense-endings 105 

table of 117 

Tenses, of .90 

obs. on the use of . . 93 
of mute and pure verbs, 
formation of . . .117 
examples of . .119 
of liquid verbs, forma- 
tion of . . . . . 125 
formation, examples of 126 
of verbs in ^t, of . . 149 
formation of. .150 
of verbs formed from 

the primitive . 159, 160 

terminations of . . .111 

table of i . . .114 

of verbs in fit, . 149 



Xll 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Verbs, of 82 

different kinds of . . . 84 

inflection of 85 

auxiliary 95 

conjugation of .... 98 

analysis of 99 

root of 99 

characteristic of ... 99 

augment of 106 

termination of . . . .111 
mute, special rules for . 118 
pure, do. do. . 122 
liquid, do. do. .125 

contract, of 128 

paradigm of . .136 

dialects of 144 

of the 2d conjugation . 147 

Verbs in ^t, tenses of . 150, 160 

root of 149 

final letters 149 

combination of ... 150 
paradigm of .... 154 

obs. on 158 

irreg. and defective 160, 169 
inflection of . . .161 



PAGE 

Verbs, alphabetical list of . . 172 

deponent 167 

impersonal 168 

of peculiar signification 168 

concord of 224 

rules and obs. 225 
governing the genitive . 236 
dative . 244 
accus. . 250 
acc.&gen. 253 
acc.& dat. 254 
two accus. 255 

syntax of 274 

Voice, of 85 

active, table of ... 130 
obs. on ... . 138 

middle, of 86 

tenses of ... 87 

table of . . .132 

passive, table of . . .134 

middle and passive, 2d 

conj., obs. on . . . 158 

Vowels, of 2 

pronunciation of . . 3 
Words 15 



The following is a list of the Sections whose numbers have 
been altered in the present edition. The first column contains 
the number of the sections in former editions ; the second gives 
the number of the same sections in this edition. All the other 
sections are the same as in former editions. 



18 is now 


§20 


§30 is 


now § 33 


§51 is 


now § 54 


19 


21 


31 


39 


52 


55 


20 


23 


32 


40 


53 


56 


21 


24 


33 


41 


54 


57 


22 


25 


34 


18 


55 


58 


23 


26 


35 


19 


56 


59 


24 


27 


36 


22 


57 


51 


25 


28 


37 


34 


58 


52 


26 


29 


38 


35 


59 


53 


27 


30 


39 


36 


60 


60 


28 


31 


40 


37 


100 


99 


29 


32 


41 


38 


218 


100 



Llil^TrBES ©HE 


AUBWffiJBVJTATEOIfBJ 




1 ii Anc 


iom Greek MSS. 3c 


Editions 




-V' 


■ TQCJTCJ, 


tw, 


7"\ 


/av. 


era vrc: . 


%', 


at- 


/£,. <L, 


Mac, 


o#i 


o-U. 


4i 


a\ . 


1* 


>cctTa. 


(a/J). oa\, crOdi . 


S. 


aJ\^\, 


*c£f' 


K80CLJ\a,lOV, 


r\o, 


0~ )i O, 


<jv, 


ar 


^ 


UCLO , 


an. 


CT~. 


X* 


daw, 


ady 


us 0, 


cr-T 


a <r, 


cwrctilj 


avT&, 


fit, 


us v. 


s; 


<rr, 


cukyJ, 


a v Tp, 


Msjv. 


U£V- 


%' 


<ry., 


d 


yaq, 


F?> 


jusva, 


9,% 


1 

ca 1 , 


J,V, 


ysv, 


idu/, 


/*v v * 


% 


caJg. \ 


')(. 


y?> . 


>#L 


/icov, 


v 4 

r, r.j. 


Vt]V> 


■}f 


ygafietm 


"j- i- 


otoVy or. 


■rf pOl 


rye. 


■i 


Si, 


(y»- 


s. 


$:(s. 


TO 


4'- v 


s; 


8, 6~£ . 


OIK OV, 


®,i 


To ' 


'A* Jp 


Of a. 


rfot-, 


H X. 


t%t8. 


1 


1 (h°, 


h- 


aft .U. 


JCaq } 


rtv: 


rovs* 


St. 


©g»/ 


Jtaqa. 


T%, J, 


r ? . 


t 


s7> 


«tf 


JU€Q, 


K , 


TOO, 


SD,- 


Sivat, 


'iTTtr - 


Tvsq, 


TV cC 


rfr 


yx, 


8M, 


*t3V. C£f, 


crq, 


Jk?, 


TjGJV, 


S,fy. 


E/ , «AA, 


tSJfc^ 


firga. 


S. 


Z\ 


£i', IT . 


^V 


^t^T 


jtoo, 


I . 


VI , 


'6$n, am, 


ffc: N 


^t^ 3 


3UQ6), 


?//',-^4, 


v r. 


k a 8 ion. 


£*t, 


oa, 




i'X, 


szrs'V, 


&-> 


?«, 


e> ^0fi 


VX£0 , 


bffeij 


e?> 


QO, 


•WT7). 


VJTO, 


°pj>> 


eq> 


g^, 


(>CJ, 


■^L. 


M^ 


6ii, 


€(fT( , 


^ 


&a, 


&», 


M'? 


6t, 


8V 3 


^ 


<rav. 


of, 


rJ, 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. — Orthogkapht treats of letters, and the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

2. — A letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele- 
mentary sound of the human voice. The Greek alphabet con- 
sists of twenty-four letters, namely : 



FORM. 


FAME. 




POWEE. 




A a 


Alpha 


a 


in 


father 


\iT y f * 
M ( J 8 


Beta 


b 


in 


bee 


Gamma, 


9 


in 


go 


Delta 


d 


in 


did 


\%E « 


Epsilon 


e 


in 


met 


z I 


Zeta zz ( = 


= dz) 


in 


Nebuchadnezzar 


it n 


Ma 


ey 


in 


they 


o & 


Theta 


th 


in 


thick 


i i 


Iota 


i 


in 


pin 


vj/C x 


Kappa 


*, 


or < 


? hard, kin, care 


A I 


Lambda 


I 


in 


lay, eel 


M> 


Mu 


m 


in 


madam 


' TV v 


Nu 


n 


in 


nun 


s i 


Xi 


X 


in 


fox 


o 


Omikron 





in 


tyro, not 


77 7t 


Pi 


P 


in 


pea 


P Q 


Rho 


r 


in 


row 


2 ex, final g 


Sigma 


s 


in 


sun, us 


viT r 1 


Tau 


t 


in 


tea, not 


T v 


Upsilon 


u 


in 


brute 


(p 


Phi 


ph 


in 


philo 


XX 


Chi 


ch 


in 


buch (German) 


*p ' y 


Psi 


ps 


in 


lips 


Q co 


Omega 





in 


no, tone 



* The letter y before x, y, ■/, or £, is sounded like ng in sing . 
tli us, ayy c).oc, ayy.o'n', pronounced ang-elos, ang-Jcon. 

1 



2 VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. § 1, 2. 

The letters in the Greek alphabet are either Vowels or Con- 
sonants. 



3.— § 1. VOWELS. 

1. A vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound, and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are seven ; viz., 

Two short, s, o. 

Two long, 7], go. 

Three doubtful, a, l, v. 

2. A, i, v, are called doubtful, because they are sometimes 
short, and sometimes long. Thus, 

a in Tzari'iQ, is always short. 

a in Xaog, is always long. 

a in Jiang, may be either long or short. 

3. There are but five distinct vowel sounds in the Greek lan- 
guage, viz., a, e, i, o, v. The i], and co, are used to express the 
lengthened sound of s and o. The vowel sounds then may be 
thus expressed : 

Short, £, o, a, I, v. 
Long, V, oj, a, I, v. 



4,— § 2. DIPHTHONGS. 

1. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a diph- 
thong. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

Note 1. The first vowel of a diphthong in Greek, is called the pre- 
positive vowel ; and the second, the subjunctive vowel. 

2. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded. In Greek, the proper diphthongs are six; and are 
formed from a, e, o, with i or v subjoined : thus, 

From a are formed ca and av. 
From s are formed at and ev. 
From o are formed oi and ov. 

3. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded. The improper diphthongs in Greek are also 
six ; viz., ui, /,/, dm, commonly written re, ij, ep, in which the first 
yowl only is Bounded ; and vv, av, vi, in which the last vowel 
chiefly is sounded, slightly modified; however, by an imperfect 
sound of the first. Those three might very properly be classed 
as proper diphthongs. 



§3. 



PKONUNCIATION. 



Note 2. The iota {C) in a, r[, o), from its position under the preposi- 
tive vowel, is called iota subscript. But when this vowel is a capital, 
the v is written after it ; as, "A.idt\ = adr\ ; r o) I a o q> w I = tw aocpo). 

4. A vowel, preceded by another vowel, with which it does 
not form a diphthong, is said to be pure. Thus, a is pure in yia 
and (pikiu ; og is pure in Ttoleog, Qadiog, <fec. 



§3. THE PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPH- 
THONGS. 

5 — The ancient pronunciation of the Greek vowels and diphthongs 
cannot now be determined with certainty in all cases. The knowledge 
we have of it is derived chiefly from Greek words that appear in Latin, 
and Latin words that appear in Greek ; — from imitation of natural 
sounds, as the bleating of the sheep, or the barking of the dog; — from 
a play upon words, and other hints of a similar character. 

6 — If uniformity in the pronunciation of the Greek, is to be aimed 
at — and it is certainly desirable that it should — the Erasmian method, 
among all others now in use, seems entitled to preference as a standard, 
not only on account of its simplicity and perspicuity, but also as having 
the authority of the ancients, so far as this can be ascertained, decid- 
edly in its favor. It is, moreover, the pronunciation that generally 
prevails in Europe, and has been adopted in some of the most distin- 
guished schools in America. The whole system is exhibited in the fol- 
lowing 

7. — Table of Vowel and Dijihthongal Sounds. 



Short 


a, 


like a 


in Jehovah 


as 


[A.0V6CC 


Long 


a, 


like a 


in far 


as 


qjaoog 


Short 


e, 


like e 


in met 


as 


Long 


n> 


like ey 


in they 


as 


d-ijoog 


Short 


h 


like i 


in tin 


as 


\iiv 


Long 


h 


like i 


in machine 


as 


ohog 


Short 


o, 


like o 


in tyro, not 


as 


rovog 


Long 


OJ, 


like o 


in go, tone 


as 


ijco, cpcovij 


Short 


v, 


like u 


in brute 


as 


TV7TTCQ 


Long 


v, 


like u 


in tune 


as 


xvvog 




cu, 


like ay 


in aye 


as 


zvipcu 




av, 


like ou 


in our, thou 


as 


amog 




El, 


like i 


in ice 


as 


eig, cpiXei 




ev, 


like eu 


in feud 


as 


qjEvyco 




01, 


like oi 


in oil 


as 


oida 




ov, 


like ou 


in ragout 


as 


ovdeig 




rjv, 


like ew 


in few 


as 


?jV/6fA,)]V 




03V, 


like ov) 


in how 


as 


covzog 




VI, 


like ui 


in quick, or 


like th< 


3 English w 



4 CONSONANTS. § 4. 

8.— § 4. CONSONANTS. 

1. A consonant is a letter which represents an articulate 
sound, and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but 
always in connection with a vowel or diphthong. 

Consonants are divided into mutes, semi-vowels, and double 
consonants. 

2. The mutes are nine, and are divided into three classes, ac- 
cording to their strength ; viz. , 

Smooth, n, y., t. 
Middle, /?, /, o\ 
Aspirate, (jp, %, &. 

3. By strength is meant the force of voice, or of breathing re- 
quisite in pronouncing, which is different in each of the classes 
specified, — the smooth mutes requiring the least ; the aspirates, 
the greatest ; and the middle, a degree of force intermediate be- 
tween the other two. 

4. Each smooth mute has its own middle and its own aspi- 
rate ; and these three are called mutes of the same sound, or of 
the same order, because they are pronounced by the same organ ; 
thus, 

77-mutes, or labials, n, (3, op. 
K-mutes, or palatals, x, y, %. 
T-mutes, or dentals, r, d, xh 

Obs. In mutes of the same sound, one is frequently changed 
for another. 

5. The semi-vowels are five, X, fi, v, q, g. Of these X, p, r, q, 
are called liquids, because they readily unite with, or flow into, 
the sound of other consonants. 

6. The double consonants are three, t/.>, 5, £. They are formed 
from the three orders of mutes with g ; thus, 

*, p, <p, ) ( y, ) t ( ps. 

*' 7> Z> f ^th S makes ■{£,}■ equivalent to < x. 

*, 8, &, ) (£ ) ( z. 

*7. In the declension of nouns and verbs, when a tir-mute, or a 
x-mute, would be followed by g, the double consonant \p or £ is 
substituted for the two ; thus, instead of JJnapat or wUWco, must 
be written Aoa-tyi, 7r).t^co, <fec But a r-mute, corning before ?, 
must be rejected ; thus, for urvzcw must be written drvoco, &G. 
44-8. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 5 

8. In like manner a double consonant may be resolved into 
the mute from which it is formed, and g ; thus, 

ip may be resolved into ng, fig, or qjg. 

£ into xg, yg, or %g. 

£ into rg, dg, or -&g. 

This is done when, in the declension of nouns and verbs, it 

becomes necessary to separate the g from the -mute with which it 

is combined ; thus, lalXa\p, by dropping the g becomes laZkan ; 

xoQa^ becomes xooax ; and so of other combinations. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 

9. — A syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct vowel 
sounds. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissy liable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

10. — In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final 
syllable ; the one next the last is called the penult, and the sylla- 
ble preceding that, is called the antepenult. 

To syllables belong certain marks and characters : these are — 

1. ACCENTS. 

11. — The accents in Greek are three; viz., the 
acute ('), the grave ('), and the circumflex ("). 

12; — Accents are supposed to have been used to indicate the tone of 
the accented syllable — the acute being used to mark an elevation of 
tone, the grave a depression, and. the circumflex, the union of both. 

GENERAL RULES. 

13. — In diphthongs the accent stands always on the subjunctive 
vowel ; as, ttei&co, tovto ; but on the prepositive of the diph- 
thongs a, rj, op ; as, v Ai8rjg = adrjg. 

14. j — The acute accent may stand on any one of the three last 
syllables of a w T ord ; but on the antepenult, only when the final 
syllable is short. 

15. — The grave is understood on all syllables not accented with 
an acute or circumflex. The grave accent is used on the final 



6 SYLLABLES. § 5. 

syllable of a word when followed by another word with which it 
stands in connection ; as, avrog slsys ; but when the word stands 
alone, or not connected with words following it, the acute is used ; 
as, avrog, — rov avtov. 

16. — The circumflex can stand only on a long syllable, and 
that must be one of the two last ; and it can stand on the penult, 
only when the final syllable is short. 

11. — An accented penult, if long, and followed by a short sylla- 
ble, must have the circumflex ; but if the final syllable be long, 
the accent on the penult must be acute ; as, tovzo, rovto), ovrog, 
avzq. 

18 — Note. The diphthongs cu and ot final, syllables long only by 
position, and the Attic taq instead of oc, are considered short in accen- 
tuation ; but the optative terminations ot. and cu, and ot- in the adverb 
ol/.oo, are long. 

19 — In words declined by cases, except participles, the accentua- 
tion of the nominative can be ascertained only by consulting a good 
lexicon. That being ascertained, the accentuation of the oblique cases 
may be found by the rules of accent under each declension. These 
rules apply generally to adjectives and participles of the same declen- 
sion. 

ENCLITICS. 

20. — Certain words of one or two syllables, when used in dis- 
course, throw back their accent on the preceding word, if in con- 
nection with it, and stand themselves without an accent. Such 
words are called enclitics. • 

21. — The enclitics commonly in use are the following ; viz., 
1. The present indicative of the verbs el[U and qjqpt in all the 
numbers and persons except the second person singular. 2. 
The indefinite tig, ri, in all its cases and numbers. 3. The pro- 
nouns [iov, (xoi, [ii — oov, aoi, ai — ov, ol, s — [ii'v, vlv, and most 
of those beginning with oq). 4. The adverbs ncog, nlj, not, nov, 
nod l, nofttv, Tzors, not interrogative, and, 5. The particles, 
am, zt, rol, d'fjv yt, yJv or yJ, vvv or vv, ntQ, qcc, and Se insep- 
arable, as in ode. 

22. — When a word with an acute accent on the antepenult, or 
a circumflex on the penult, is followed by an enclitic, it takes an 
acute on the final syllable, as the accent of the enclitic ; as, eXeys 

[101,, dcOQOV 8GZIV, GGdflO, [IOV. 

23. — But if the preceding word have an acute accent on the 
penult, the enclitic of one syllable loses its accent, while the en- 
clitic of two syllables retains it ; as, Xoyog [iov, — Xoyog nvog, — 
Xoyog hzlv. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 7 

24. — When the preceding word has any accent on the final 
syllable, the enclitic following, whether of one or two syllables, 
loses its accent ; as, avijo rig, — (jpdeo as, — yaleTtov iouv, — yvv- 
ar/.av rivcov, &c. 

25. — When several enclitics occur in succession, the first 
having lost, or thrown back its accent on the preceding word, 
the second throws its accent always as an acute on the first, and 
the third on the second, &c, till the last only is without an ac- 
cent ; as, si' rig nvd cpqai \jloi naquvai. 

26. — The enclitic retains its accent when it stands alone, or at 
the beginning of a clause or sentence — when the, final vowel of 
the preceding word has been cut off by apostrophe — or when the 
enclitic word is emphatic. 

ACCENTS IN CONTRACTIONS. 

27. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables are converted 
into one, it is called a contraction. 

28. — If the first concurrent vowel has the acute accent, it is 
changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable ; as, (pi)Jco, 

29. — If the first concurrent vowel has not the acute accent, 
the contracted syllable has not the circumflex ; as, ys'vsog, ytvovg. 

2. SPIRITUS OR BREATHINGS. 

30. — The Spiritus, or breathings, are two ; the spiritus asper, 
or rough breathing, marked (' ) ; and the spiritus lenis, or soft 
breathing, marked ('). 

31. — The spiritus asper has the force of the Latin H; thus, 
(ilia is pronounced Harna. 

Note. Anciently H was the mark for the aspirate, in Greek, as it is 
in Latin ; thus, i/.arov was written hekaton. 

32. — The spiritus lenis only indicates that the spiritus asper 
is not to be used. These marks are used as follows : 

1st. A vowel or diphthong, beginning a word, has always a 
spiritus. In the diphthong, it is placed over the second vowel ; 
as, dfia, iyoD, evgt, ovzog ; but over the first in the diphthongs «, 

2d. Initial v has always the spiritus asper ; as, vno, pronounced 
hupo. 

3d. Initial q has always the spiritus asper ; as, q/jtcoq, pro- 
nounced rhetor ; q not initial, if single, has no spiritus ; if double, 



8 SYLLABLES. § 5. 

the first lias the spiritus lenis, and the second has the spiritus 
asper ; as, tzoqco, pronounced poro ; ttoqqco, pronounced porrho. 

3. THE ^OLIC DIGAMMA. 

33. — The JEolic dialect, the most ancient form of the Greek 

language, had no spiritus asper, and it is seldom used in the 

Ionic. The want of it, in the former, was compensated, in all 

words beginning with a vowel, by a species of aspirate, now 

Called THE ^EOLIC DIGAMMA. 

34. — This was originally a full and strong consonant having 
the sound of the Latin F or V. It was called digamma, because 
its form (f) was that of a double f. It is thought to have been 
used by the ancients before words beginning with a vowel, and 
between two vowels, which, by its disuse at a later period, came 
together without forming a diphthong ; thus, ohog, sao, tg, oi'g, 
alcov, aoovog, coov, and the like, were written or pronounced as 
if Written, FoTvog, Feag, Pig, oFtg, aircov, aFogvog, coFov, etc., 
from which the Latin vinum, ver, vis, ovis, cevum, avernus, ovum, 
&c, were evidently derived before the digamma disappeared. 
Between two vowels, it was at length softened down, and even 
with the iEolians passed into v. Thus we have avfjQ, avcog, for 
the common ai]o, t)c6g. This accounts for the form of some 
words in the Attic and common dialects, in which the digamma, 
softened into v, still remains, especially where followed by a con- 
sonant. Thus the ancient %£Fco passed into %evco, and lastly into 
%sco, which still retains in the future %svcm } the softened form 
of the ancient ^irato. So xlcuco, Attic y.ldco, has in the future 
y.lamco. In like manner vaeg, the plural of ravg, still retains in 
the dative vavai, the softened form of the ancient varoi. 

35. — 4. The Apostrophe (') is written over the place of a short 
vowel which has been cut off from the end of a word ; as, dlV 
iyco, for alia, iyco. This is done when the following word begins 
with a vowel, and in compounds, when the first part ends, and 
the last begins, with a vowel ; 43-3, 1st. Sometimes the diph- 
thongs are elided by the poets ; as, fiovlop'' iyco for fiovioucu 
iyco ; and sometimes, after a long syllable, the initial vowel is cut 
off from the following word ; as, co 'yafl-fi for co dyaOt. 

36. — Exc. Instead of the apostrophe, or cutting oft* the final 
vowel, the concurring vowels are sometimes contracted ; as, 
nnovoyov, for ttqo sgyov ; xclx, for not ix. 

37 — Note. The union, or contraction of Buch words, is indicated by 
the spiritus being placed over the vowel, at the place of junction, as in 
the preceding examples. 



§ 6. SYLLABLES. 9 

38. — 5. The Diastole is a comma inserted between the parts 
of a compound word, to distinguish it from another word consist- 
ing of the same letters ; as, to,te, and this, to distinguish it from 
tote, then ; o,ti, what, to distinguish it from ozi, because. Some- 
times they are written apart, without the comma; thus, to te, 

O T(. 

39. — 6. The Diceresis ("*) is placed over a vowel, to show 
that it does not form a diphthong with the vowel which pre- 
cedes it ; as, big, a sheep, nqavg, mild, pronounced o-is, pra-us. 

40. — 7. The figures affecting syllables are as follows : 
1st. Prosthesis is the prefixing of one or more letters to the 
beginning of a word; as, G[A.ixQog, for [uxoog; eemogi, for 

EtXOGl. 

2d. Paragoge is the adding of one or more letters to the end 
of a word ; as, qa&a, for qg ; toigj, for Toig. 

3d. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the 
body of a word ; as, eDm^e, for e1ci$e ; bnnoTEoog, for 

07Z0XEQ0g. 

4th. Syncope, is the taking away of one or more letters from 
the body of a word ; as, ?jl&ov, for ijlv&ov ; Evador, for 

EVQtJGCCfir^V. 

5th. Aphwresis is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the beginning of a word; as, gteqo7zi), for aGTEoon)]; 

boTi) for EOQTJJ. 
6th. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the end of a word ; as, da, for da^ia ; IIoGEidco, for IIo- 

GEidojva. 
*7th. Tmesis is a separating of the parts, in a compound word, 

by an intervening term ; as, vtteq Tiva f/Eiv, for vtzeq- 

E'/EIV TlVCi. 

8th ; Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables; 

as, ETtQa&ov, for EnaQ&ov ; eoqcvaov, for e8v.qx.ov ; y.dgTog, 

for xoaiog. 

41. — Obs. The Ionians, by a species of Metathesis, change the 

breathing in a word ; as, xi&cov, for %itojv ; iv&avza, for ivTau&a. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 

42. — In combining letters into words, the Greeks paid the 
strictest attention to Euphony, or agreeableness of sound. This 
principle, indeed, pervades the whole structure of the language. 
From a regard to this, they carefully avoided every concurrence 

1* 



1 } EUPHONY. § 6. 

of consonants not easily pronounced together. The means by 
which this is effected may be summed up in the following — 

43. — RULES OF EUPHONY. 

(It is of great importance for the student to be very familiar with 
the following rules, and expert in applying them, before he enters on 
the 3d declension, as they are then required in almost every step. To 
aid him in this, a table of exercises is subjoined, in which he should 
practise, till he can correct the orthography, and give the rule with the 
greatest ease and readiness.) 

1. Words ending in at, and verbs of the third 
person in s and c, add v to the termination before 
a vowel, or before a pause ; as, 

TLwnv EL7T8V h.eivoig, for naai fine ixstvoig; also the word 
ei'xoGi (twenty), and the adverbs tzeqvgi., navzunaai, vocyiy 
ttqog&e, 07zi6&£, y.s and vv. This was called by grammarians v 
icp&xvoTixov, because, by preventing the hiatus between two 
vowels, it, as it were, drew the second vowel to the first. Among 
the poets, it is sometimes added to these terminations before a 
consonant, when it is necessary to render a final syllable long ; 
and sometimes, by the Attic prose writers, to give energy to the 
tone. 

Sometimes g is added, on the same principle ; thus, ovioj be- 
comes ovzcog. Also the particle ov is changed into ovx before a 
vowel, and into ov% before an aspirated vowel. 

2. When two mutes of a different sound come 
together, they must be of the same strength ; i. e. 
they must be both smooth, or both middle, or both 
aspirate ; as, tTird, cc/SdtXov, a%{)og. 

If, by derivation or declension, two mutes of different strength 
would come together, the former must take the class of the latter ; 
thus, the terminations rog, 8/jr, &£tg, with yfjuqco, the co being 
omitted, form yqanrog, yqa^t^v, way&eig', and of two mutes 
already combined, one cannot be changed without a correspond- 
ing change in the other. Thus in S7ird and oxtco, if the t be 
changed into d, the n must be changed into /?, and the x into y ; 
as, Mia, tfidopog ; oxzco, oydoog. 

3. A smooth mute in the end of a word is 
changed into its own aspirate before an aspirated 
vowel. This is done, — 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 11 

1st. In the composition of words ; thus, from m (for ini) and 
rtfitQa, comes Iqit^qog. So from mrd, by apostrophe, 
87Z7, and r t fiSQa, comes sqid-r^sqog ; from vara, and evdco, 

2d. When words stand together in a sentence; thus, icp 7 
i\\uv, xad^ Tjpag, city 1 ov, &c, for mi r\yuv, xard rjfiag, dno 
ov. 

3d. When words are united by contraction ; thus, to lyidtiov 
united become ftoijiaziov ; to 8t8qov, &dt8qov, &c. 

Obs. 1. The middle mute 8 is never changed before an aspi- 
rated vowel ; as, oixad 1 iyJcj&ai ; and |5 and y, only before d, and 
kv in forming the perfect and the pluperfect active, 218, Obs. 2. 
— The x in ix is never aspirated. 

4. When two successive syllables would begin 
with an aspirate, the first is changed into its own 
smooth ; and the spiritus asper, into the spiritus 
lenis ; thus, 

IIe(pikj]xa, not cpecpiXyxa ; &Qih Gen. tqi^og, not d-qi^og ; so 
from the root &Qe%, the verb is tqsjcq, not &q8%ca ; from <#•(>£<£, 
rQs'tyw, not %)Q8(pco; from//, £^go, not f^w. (See below, 06s. 
3.) In like manner from {fay, the root of -framco (R. 2.), is de- 
rived rdcpog, &c. 

Exceptions. To this rule there are five excep- 
tions; viz., 

Exc. 1. Compound words generally ; as, oQn&od-fjqag, iqvcptj. 

Exc. 2. or i before d ; as, cpd&i, ^v^vai. 

Exc. 3. When one of the aspirates is joined with another 
consonant ; as, S-acpdeig, dnityd-dfov, nv&ia&ai. But the rule 
holds when q follows the first aspirate, as above in tq8%cq, not 

&Q8XC0. _ . 

Exc. 4. If the second aspirate has been occasioned by a spiri- 
tus asper following it ; as, 8&rj% 6 dvdQco7tog, for &d-i]x, by apo- 
cope for t&qxs ; 7i8(p8v%a for mcp8vy-a ; and so of others. 

Exc. 5. When the second aspirate belongs to the adverbial 
terminations &8V or fti ; as, 7zavTa%6&8v, Koqiv&o&i. 

Obs. 2. Of three aspirates beginning successive syllables, it is 
usual to change only the first ; as, zs&dyazai for fo&dqiazai. 
In some cases, however, the second also is changed ; as, ziza- 
cpa, zizqo^a, for ftsducpa, ^dqocpa. 

Obs. 3. When the first of two aspirates is the spiritus asper, 



12 EUPHONY. § 6. 

it is changed only before % ; thus, odsv, &&i, fya, &c, preserve 
the spiritus asper before the aspirates ^ and <}p ; but f'^co must be 
changed into s%cq. 

Obs. 4. When the second aspirate is lost by inflection or 
otherwise, the first is resumed ; thus, £%cq, fut. e^oj ; zqe^w, 
&Q8%w ; ZQt'qxo, d-Qsipoo ; and the derivatives &Qmz6g, d-gen- 
nxog, <fcc. 

06s. 5. The second of two aspirates is seldom changed. It 
is always done, however, in imperatives in -&i ; as, ti&sti, zvqi- 
&ijzi ; for zi&e&i, zvcp&Tj'&i. 

Obs. 6. A mute may be doubled, but if it be an aspirate, the 
first is changed into its own smooth ; as, Jtz&i'g, not Jl&dlg ; 
Bax%og, not Bd%%og ; MazS-aTog, not Madtfalog ; Zanyw, not 
£acpq)(6. 

5. Initial q is doubled when a short vowel is 
prefixed ; as, 

'PlTTZW, 8QQ17ZTOV \ OQQSTz/jgt fl'Om d and QS71C0 • TTEQIQQOOg, 

from ?rfi()t and qeco. 

44. 1. THE MUTES BEFORE 2. 

6. A jF-inute before a, unites with it and forms 
ijj ; as, Xtlnco, KsmOco, written Xslipco. 

7. A #-mute before <?, unites with it and forms 
§ ; as, Tjxo), rjxoco, written rjgco. 

Exc. But in never changes v. before 6 ; as inGtsXXm. 

8. A T-mute before a, is rejected ; thus, 

6c6[Aat(Ji, adaco, oqvi&gi 
written (jcopaoi acco oqvuji. 

45. II. THE MUTES BEFORE M. 

9. A ;r-mute before ju, is changed into ju ; thus, 

zizvn\im, zizQt^icu, ysyQcupfiai; 

written zs'zvfifiai, ztznififmi, ytyqa^jiai. 
Exc. But after a liquid, a ^-mute before ^ is rejected ; as, 
7Tt7ltfJ(A,ai, for 7t87t£[A7ZfJlCU : — ztdalfica, for ts&ahtfMU. 

10. A #-mute before ju is changed into y ; thus, 

TTBTlXsXLiat, pt@QE)[fl(U, 

written 7Tk7rleyfiai, ptpQEyiicu. 
Hence y before p, remains unchanged ; as, W.eyfaa. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 13 

11. A r-nmte before p, is changed into a ; thus, 

TjVVTfMU, ?jQ£ld[A,(U, 7Z87TH&HCU, 

written ijVVGficu, rjQEKJftai, nsneiGfJiai. 

Obs. 7. To these rules, there are some exceptions in substan- 
tive forms, as, ax[if], not dy\ii\ ; Tiotpog, not TtoGfiog. 

46. III. CHANGES OF THE LETTER N. 

12. N, before a ;r-mute, or yj, is changed into 
ft] thus, 

hvndvco, "kavftavco, ivcpvg, 8vipv%og, 
written hp7zdvcQ, Xafi^dvo), l^qivg, epipvyog. 

13. iV, before a #-mute, or £, is changed into y ; 
thus, 

evxsificu, cpvvydvco, zvv%dvco, TtldvZw, 
written syxetficu, qivyydvco, rvy^dvco, Tzldy^a. 

14. N, before a r-niute, remains unaltered ; as, 

ivtog, ovvdsco. 

15. N, before another liquid, is changed into 
the same ; thus, 

ivpevco, cvvlctfifidvco, ovvgd^ntco, 
written s t u^svco, Gvlla[i{jdvca, GVQQdmco. 

16. N, before a or £, is usually rejected ; thus, 

8aifjLOvai f Gvv^ev^tg, — written daipoGi, ovtsv^ig. 
Obs. 8. N is retained before g only in a few words ; as, 
TtQvvg, tlfiivg, ntyavcai. Before g followed by a vowel, v in gvv 
is changed into g ; thus, gvggsvcq, GVGGttia, for gvvgsvo), gvvgiziu. 
'Ev retains v before q, g, J. 

47. IV. OF THE LETTER 2. 

1Y. In the inflection of the passive voice, when 
a would stand between two consonants, it is re- 
jected; thus, 

XeleiTZ-G&cov, t&tQifi-G&ou, Xslsy-G&coGav. 
without g, XElei7t-dcov, zeTQijj-dai,, Xe).e'y-&(aGav. 
by rule 2, XsXeiq&cov, raTQicp&ai, TLelsx&coGav. 
And so from ijyyekad'tti, ?jyytldai ; from ntcpavGd'ov, niyav- 
x)w, or 7isq)UG&ov. 



14 



PUNCTUATION. 



§7. 



Obs. 9. But when the first consonant is a r-mute, it is re- 
jected, and a remains (Rule 8), thus : 

E6XEVad-(j{)'8 i 7Z87T£l\}-o0e. 

become iGX£vaG&£, 7TS7T£ia0s. 

18. When both v and a r-inute together, are 
cast out before 6, s preceding it is changed into 
si, o into ov, and a doubtful vowel is lengthened ; 
but t] and co remain unchanged ; thus, 

TvcpdsvToi becomes rvcp&em ; rvxpavtGi becomes zvxpdGi. ; 

67Z8v8(jco ontiaw ; ylyavtGi ytydGi ; 

XiovtGi XiovGi ; daixvvvTGi deixvvai. 

Obs. 10. In some instances, and perhaps always in the nomi- 
native, this alteration takes place when v only has been rejected ; 
thus, from kvg, taXavg, fiekavg, come eig, raXag, fuXdg. 

19. When two consonants meet, which are not 
easily pronounced together, the pronunciation is 
sometimes relieved by transposing them, or by in- 
serting a third consonant between them ; thus, 

87iaQ&ov by metathesis (40-8th) '{tzqci&ov. 
avegog, by syncope avQog, by inserting 8 (40-3d) dvdgog. 

48. — Table of words to be corrected according 
to the foregoing rules : 

(Let the pupil always give the rule for the correction.) 



sXias ov 


8dt]rf 6 


(n&flCU 


X817Z6G) 


Xfjfiaco 


cpaai 8X — 


cps'cpaxa 


avvnXi'AG} 


Gvvyovog 


inQay&qv 


eXeye ovg 


&8i} 8 ix a 


ivfiaivco 


iv%8'co 


ivBaXXto 


8?7Z8 


ayGsi 


6VVCp8Q(x} 


GVV^8(0 


TV71T0VTGI 


ncaal 


TlXixGCO 


8vipv%og 


8vX8l7TCO 


TVH&8VXGI 


£(Gl 


ccgjgcu 


ivy.Xiroj 


avvpevw 


7T8V\>GQ(.iai 


VOGCpi 


Ttaidaco 


XfXQW™ 


GVVQ80D 


XtOVTGl 


tvn&ca 


ccvvtgov 


£Y£IQ 


ovvhfipig 


U1TUVTGI 


■fraqjico 


X8X87T(iCU 


AdOig 


T8TV77G&CU 

ION. 


y.QV^TCO 




PUNCTUAT 





49. — The marks of punctuation in Greek are, the 
comma (,) ; the colon and semi-colon (•) ; the pe- 
riod (.) ; and mark of interrogation (,•). 



WOKDS. 15 



PAET II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

50. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their deri- 
vations. 

§ 8. WORDS. 

51. — Words are certain articulate sounds used 
by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 

Primitive or Derivative ; Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as, ncug, 
dyadog. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another word ; 
as, ncudeia, dya&orrjg ; from rtcug, dyaftog. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, fidllco. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more 
simple words ; as, ixfidlXco, from hi and fldllco. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case, person, &c, — in grammar, usually termed Acci- 
dents. 

Obs. 1. In every declinable word, there are at least two parts, 
the root or stem, and the termination. The root remains un- 
changed, except by euphony, in all the different forms which the 
word assumes. The termination is added to the root, and is 
varied, to produce these different forms. 

Obs. 2. The variation of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and par- 
ticiples, is called Declension ; that of verbs, Conjugation or Inflec- 
tion. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of ter- 
mination. 



16 PARTS OF SPEECH. — THE NOUN. §9, 10. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 

Speech. 



§ 9. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

52. — The Parts of Speech in the Greek lan- 
guage are eight ; viz., 

1. Noun or Substantive, Article, Adjective, 
Pronoun, Verb, declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, unde- 
clined. 

Note. Any part of speech used simply as a word, and spoken of, is 
regarded as a noun ; thus, *Eyo) is a dissyllable ; ttwc; is an adverb ; i. e. 
the word eyo'), the word 7Zok, written in Greek to eyo'), ro nwq. — Thus 
used it is indeclinable. 

Obs. 1. The participle, regarded by some as a distinct part of 
speech, properly belongs to, and forms a part of, the verb. 

Obs. 2. In Greek, the interjections are considered, by most 
Grammarians, as adverbs. 



§ 10. THE NOUN. 

53. — A Nouisr is the name of any person, place, 
or thing. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only; as, c 'Of-ir]Qog, *A&fjvcci) Homer, 
Athens. 

Among these may be included, 

1st. Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage, or 
family ; as, IlQiuftid-ng, the son of Priam. 

2d. Gentile, or Patriot, which denote one's country ; as, 
lAO-qvaiog, an Athenian. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, ccv/jq, a man ; olxog, 
a house ; fiifiXog, a booh. 



§11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 17 

54. — Under this class may be ranged, 

1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify 
many in the singular number ; as, laog, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities ; as, ayadoz^g, 
goodness. 

3d. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the 
signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; as, ttcci- 
dioVy a little boy ; from nuZg. 

4th. Amplijicative nouns, or those which denote an increase 
in the signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; 
as, xeqalcov, a person who has a large head ; from xecpuhf. 

Note. A proper noun is the name of an individual only, and is used 
to distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A 
common noun is the name of a class of objects, and is equally applicable 
to all the individuals contained in that class. 



§ 11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

55. — To Greek nouns belong Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. 

1. PEKSON. 

56. — Person, in grammar, is the distinction of 
nouns as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, 
the person or thing addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken of. Hence, 

57. — There are three persons, called the First, 
Second, and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker or 
writer ; as, 'Eyw IJavlog eyoaTpa, " I Paul have written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or 
thing addressed ; as, Maivrj, Ilavls, " Paul, thou art beside thy- 
self." 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, Uccvlog sept], "Paul said." 

Note. Person has nothing to do either with the form of a noun, or 
with its meaning ; but simply with the manner in which it is used. 
Hence, the same noun may at one time be in the first person; at 
another, in the second ; and at another, in the third, as in the preced- 
ing examples. 



18 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. §11. 

2. GENDER. 

58. — Gender means the distinction of nouns 
with regard to sex. There are three genders, 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Of some nouns, the gender is determined by their significa- 
tion ; — of others, by their termination. 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
female sex. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine nor feminine. Also to any term used simply as a 
word ; as, ib ncog, 52, Note. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and femi- 
nine. 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification, is 
usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be noticed 
under each declension. 

Obs. 1. In Greek lexicons and grammars, the gender is indi- 
cated by the article ; viz., 6 indicates the masculine, ?), the femi- 
nine, and to, the neuter ; as, 6 avfjQ, the man ; ?j yvv/j, the wo- 
man ; to £coov, the animal. 

3. NUMBER. 

59. — Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one or more than one. 

Greek nouns have three numbers, the Singular, 
Dual, and Plural. The Singular denotes one; 
the Plural more than one. 

The Dual denotes two, and is most commonly used in speak- 
ing of those tilings which are produced, or are usually spoken of, 
in pairs. 

Obs. 2. In the oldest- state of the Greek language, the dual is 
not used. It is not found in the ^Eolic dialect — in the New 
Testament — in the Septuagint, — nor in the Fathers. It is most 
common in the Attic dialect, in which, however, the plural is 
often used instead of it. 



§ 12. DECLENSION. 19 

4. CASE. 

60. — Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 

61. — Greek nouns have five cases; viz., the 
Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and 
Vocative. 

1st. The Nominative case, for the most part, denotes the 
name of an object simply, or as that of which something is 
affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of separation, origin, possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named as that to which 
something is added, or to or for which something is said or done. 

4th. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected 
or acted upon by something else, and also, as the object to which 
something tends or relates. 

5th. The Vocative is used when persons or things are ad- 
dressed. 

Obs. 3. There is no Ablative case in Greek, as in Latin. Its 
place is supplied by the genitive and dative. 

Obs. 4. All the cases except the nominative, are called ob- 
lique cases. 

§12. DECLENSION. 

62. — Declension is the mode of changing the 
terminations of nouns, adjectives, &c. 

63. — Words declined by cases, consist of two parts, — the Hoot 
and the Termination. 

64. — The Root is that part which remains unchanged by in- 
flection, except as required by the rules of euphony. It consists 
of all that precedes the termination in the genitive singular ; thus, 
Gen. np-yg, X6y-ov, Xaiinab-og. Roots, tip, loy, lafirtad. 

65. — The Termination is that part which, by its changes, 
indicates the different cases and numbers. 

66. — Nouns, — and also adjectives, pronouns, and participles, 
— are declined by annexing the terminations, or case-endings, to 
the root. Except the accusative in v, of the third declension, 
102. 



20 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



§13. 



67. — In Greek, there are three declensions, cor- 
responding to the first, second, and third, in Latin. 
They are distinguished as follows : 

The first declension lias the genitive in ag, or yg, from feminine 
nominatives ; or in ov from masculine nominatives in ag or ^g. 

The second has the genitive in ov, from og or ov. 

The third has the genitive in og whatever be the nominative. 
The difference between these declensions will be seen at one 

view in the following : 





68 


. — Table of Terminations. 


First Declension, 




Second. 


Third. 


Nom. a, rj, 


ag, 


ns> 


og, neut. ov, 


a, i, v, co, v, J, q, g, \p, 


Gen. ag, ijg, 


ov, 


ov, 


ov, 


og, 


Dat. a, y, 


«, 


% 


<P, 


i, 


Ace. av, r t v, 


av, 


1]V, 


ov, 


a, Exc. as 102, & 69-2, 


Voc. a, i], 


a, 


n- 


e, neut. ov. 
Dual. 


like nom. Exc. as 104. 


N. A. V. a, 






CO, 


s, 


G. D. aiv. 




- 


oiv. 

Plural. 


01V. 


Nom. at, 






oi, neut. a, 


eg, neut. «, 


Gen. cov, 






03V, 


COV, 


Dat. aig, 






oig, 


61, 


Ace. ag, 






ovg, neut. a, 


ag, neut. a, 


Voc. M. 






.. 


eg, neut. a. 


oi, a. 



§ 13. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
69. — GENERAL RULES. 

1. The vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is like the nomina- 
tive. 

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative alike ; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 



§ 14. FIEST DECLENSION. 21 

3. The dative singular ends always in i, either 
annexed or written under. 

4. The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
dual are alike ; so also the genitive and dative. 



§ 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 

70. — The First Declension has four termina- 
tions of the nominative singular; two feminine, 
rj, a\ and two masculine, tjq, ag. Of these, the 
principal termination is rj. 

ACCENTS. 

71. — Words in the first declension are accented 
according to the following — 

72. — SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The genitive plural, for the most part, has 
the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. The exceptions are the feminine of adjectives and parti- 
ciples in og, not accented on the last syllable ; and the words 
XQi'j6Tt]g, izeoiai, and acpvt], which have ^qyigtcov, ivecicov, acpvcov. 

2. In the other cases, so far as the general rules 
permit, the accent always remains on the same 
syllable as in the nominative. 

3. When the accent in the nominative singular 
is on the termination, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

QUANTITY. 

73. — Nouns in a with the genitive in rjg have a short, except 
in the nominative dual and accusative plural, which are always 
long. Nouns which have the genitive in ag, have a long. To 
this there are a few exceptions. 



22 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



§15,16. 



*74. — Paradigm of Nouns in t] : rip), honour. 
Dual. 



Sing. 

N. 77/*-//, 
G. TlfL-TJgj 
D. Tlfl-fj, 

A. ti\i-r)v, 



N. A. V. t^-cc, 
G. D. Tifi-aTv. 



Plural. 
N. Tifi-ai, 
G. tifi-ojv, 
D. tifi-aig, 
A. tifi-ag, 
V. Tip-ai. 



75. — § 15. SPECIAL RULES FOR FEMININE NOUNS. 
1. Nouns in a have the accusative singular 



m 



av. 



2. Nouns in a pure (4-4), and qu, retain a in 
all the cases of the singular. 

Obs. To these may be added a few words ending in da, -&a, 
and a, circumflex, contracted for da ; and a very few in la and 
fia. Such words have a always long ; as, <7->/2op;il«, Gen. <I>ilo[it)- 
Xag, <feo. 

76. — EXAMPLES. 



2. 



1. 

N. Mom- a, a muse. 
G. Mom-vg, 
D. Mom- 7], 
A. Mova-av, 
V. Mom-a. 

Note. In the dual and plural, all nouns of this declension are de- 
clined like n,^. 



N. qjili-a, friendship. 
G. qjili-ag, 
D. cpilt,-a, 
A. qjili-av, 
V. cpill-a. 



3. 
N. i)(jL8Q-a, a day. 
G. iifiSQ-ag, 

D. ?][A.EQ-a, 

A. r^tQ-av, 
Y. ?][j,£0-a. 



11.— §16. SPECIAL RULES FOR MASCULINE NOUNS. 

1. Nouns in ?;g and aq have the genitive in ov\ 
and lose £ in the vocative. 

Obs. 1. Some nouns in «£ have the genitive in ov or re ; as, 
Tzatoanloiag, gen. TiaroanXoiov, or naiqanXaia, a parricide. 
Some have oc only ; as, Ocofiag, gen. Ocofia, Thomas. 

2. Nouns in z->^ have « in the vocative ; those 
in Grr}q have either 77 or a ; as, 

JJoujTtig, voc. Ttoujrd ; Xmzi;g, voc. taftmj or Imru, 



§17. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



23 



Obs. 2. Nouns denoting a people or nation; as, IJiqarig, a 
Persian ; compounds in nijg ; derivatives from fietQai, ttoXoj, 
and TQifico ; also Xdyvqg, Mevair^vg, and IIvq cuffing, have the 
vocative in a. 

3. In the other cases, masculine nouns are de- 
clined like the feminine, to which their termina- 
tions correspond. 



l. 

Atrides. 
N. Jtzoeid-vg, 

G. ^ItQEld-OV, 

D. JlrQEid-i], 

A. AzQEld-tjV, 

V. AzQel8-r r 

The dual and plural of masculine nouns are the same as the 
dual and plural of r/p/. 

Obs. Since the termination rjg, belongs also to the third de- 
clension, it may be observed, that to the first pertain the nouns 
in idqg or u8r t g ; as, Oovy.ididfjg, JUxiftiudng ; — the names of na- 
tions ; as, Hvxeliwtrig ; — nouns in 7t]g, derived from verbs ; as, 
TToirjTijg from Ttoitco ; — compounds from ovovpai, I buy ; {.leToa, 
I measure; roifim, I rub, wear, train ; ncolm, I sell ; and from 
words of this declension ; e. g. "Olvftmonxng, from vUr\ ; ccq/8- 
dixyg, from dixy. 



78. — EXAMPLES. 




Singular. 




2. 3. 


4. 


Citizen. Youth. 


Pythagoras. 


noXiT-ijg, 
7To)Jt-ov, 

TZollZ-T], 

7tolir-7]Vj 
tzoXlt-u. 


veavi-ag, 

veavi-ov, 

vsavi-a, 

vsavi-av, 

veavi-a. 


IIv&ayoQ-ag, 

IIv&ayoQ-ov, 

IIv&ayoQ-a, 

JJv&ayoQ-av, 

Tlv&ccyoq-a. 



11. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



79. — Besides the regular terminations exhibited in the para- 
digms, many words are found in different cases declined accord- 
ing to some of the peculiar dialects. In the tables of termina- 
tions, A. denotes Attic, I. Ionic, D. Doric, JE. ^Eolic : but the 
distinctions are not strictly observed in every instance, — the same 
peculiarities sometimes occurring in two, and sometimes in three 
dialects. The following words are exhibited as examples, but it 
is not to be inferred that each part of them will actually be found 
in the Greek authors. 



24 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



§18. 



Norn. 
t i fi-i y D. a 

ft ova -a [j 




o~£«, I. yQvast], golden. 
see § 31. 



^ , _ - g , j_ — _7 AS 

For the genitive and dative in cpi or qnv, 



§18. CONTRACTIONS. 

80. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables 
are converted into one, it is called a Contraction. 
Of contractions there are two kinds : 

1. A contraction ivitJiout a change of vowels is 
called Synceresis ; as, rtlx^h by synseresis, rt-l/bc. 

2. A contraction with a change of vowels is 
called Crasis / as, yta y yrj\ — cp'i'ktz, cpiXtt\ — voov, 
vovv ; — oortov, dorovv. 

Obs. If the first of the concurrent vowels has an acute accent, 
it is changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable. If 
the first concurrent vowel has not an accent, the contracted sylla- 
ble has not the circumflex, 28, 29. 

3. In the rules for contractions generally, let it be remembered 
that 

the two short vowels, e, o, 

have their own long vowels, /;, co, 
and their own diphthongs, ti, ov. 
Note. A contraction is often made, but not nhva3 T 3. 



§19,20. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



25 



§19. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

81. — In the first declension, no contraction takes place unless 
the first of the concurrent vowels is f , o, or a short, and the nomi- 
native contracted is then declined regularly. 

RULES. 

1. Ea not after o is changed into r\ ; as, 

yia, earth, ytj, G. ytjg, D. yrj, <fec. like 7tp/. 
%QV6s'a, golden, %QV6ij, G. XQVGijg, D. %QV6r[, &c. 
Eqiiiag, Mercury, 'Eoprjg, G. Eopov, D. 'EQpy, &c. 

2. In (?£# and other concurrent vowels, strike 
out the first ; as, 

tzoQCpVQea, purple, Tiootyvoa, G. TToocpVQag, D. rtOQtyvqa y &c. 
anXow, simple, dnXij, G. a7rX?jg, &c. 

Jiftrpaot.) Minerva, Jid"qva, G. Jld-rjvag, D. Jtfrqva, &c, T5. 
Obs. s 

^TZslXsqg, Apelles, JtrTeXXijg, G. AtzeXXov, D. XtieXXti, &c. 



82.- 

GeXtjvr], the moon. 
ooq)i(JT)jg, a sophist. 
TZ&leia, a dove. 
Alvdag, JEneas. 
yecpvoa, a bridge. 
Xvaaa, frenzy. 
xidaQiGttjg, a harper. 
AvaS,ayooag, Anax- 
agoras. 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

yXwaca, the tongue, 
dyood, the forum. 
izyfyhvg, an artist. 
rfiovri, pleasure. 
ycovia, an angle. 
§ia, force, 
avna, a 



ayoonGTi'ig, a wrestler. 



siQijvq, peace. 
aocpia, wisdom. 
[AtXaivcc, black. 
rdXaiva, 
dixw, justice. 
fiovXtj, counsel. 
lia%aiQa, a sword, 
(poovijiiariagj high- 
minded. 



Note. The learner should decline some of the words in this table ac- 
cording to the different dialects : and, in like manner, in the second and 
third declension?, according to their dialects. 



20. SECOND DECLENSION. 



83. — The second declension has two termina- 
tions of the nominative singular ; og and or ; ov 
is always neuter, og never. 

2 



26 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§20. 



ACCENTS. 



84. — Words in the second declension are ac- 
cented according to the following — 



SPECIAL RULES. 



1. As far as the general rules permit (19, &c.) 
the accent remains on the same syllable in the ob- 
lique cases, as in the nominative. To this rule the 
genitive plural is not an exception, as in the first 
declension. 

Exc. 1. The Attic forms in cog and cov are accented as in the 
common form : i. e. the final long syllable permits the accent to 
remain on the antepenult. See 88, dvcoyscov. 

2. When the accent, in the nominative singular, 
is on the final syllable, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. 2. Except the genitive singular of nouns in cog ; as, vacog, 
gen. veco. 





85. EXAMPLES. 




1. Paradigm of the Masculine and Feminine Nouns in og 




o Xoyog, the speech. 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. loy-og, 
G. loy-ov, 
D. X6y-q>, 
A. loy-ov, 
V. loy-s. 


N. A. V. Uy-co, 
G. D. loy-oiv. 


N. loy-oi, 
G. loy-cor, 
D. loy-oig, 
A. Xoy-ovg, 
V. Xoy-oi. 



In the same manner also are declined nouns in ov, observing 
the second general rule (69-2) ; thus, 

2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns in ov ; [ietqov, a measure. 



Singular. 

N. fJLETQ-OV., 

G. [AE70-OV, 

D. [lEtQ-Cp, 

A. [AEZD-OV, 

V. UETQ-OV. 



Dual. 



N. A. V. flETQ-CO, 

G. D. utro-oiv. 



Plural. 

N. flETQ-Ct, 

G. [lizo-cov, 

D. fAATQ-Oig, 

A. [lETQ-a, 
V. {lETO-a. 



§21. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



86.— §21. DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

Singular. 
Nom. Gen. Ace. Voc. 

Xay-og, A. cog. -ov, A. co, -ov, A. cov, & co. -s, A. 6g & cog. 



I. & D. ow. 



Nom. 
Xay-ot, A. qj. 



Gen. 
-ofc, A. a)g, 
I. & D. 0«Tf. 



P^'at 7 . 

Ace. Voc. 

■of^, A. cog. -ol, A. cp. 

D. 034,', & 0£. 

vE. oig. 

87. — Neuter nouns in the Attic dialect have the same termi- 
nations with nouns in og', except that v is substituted for g. 

Thus it will appear that the Attic form, in which og is changed 
into cog, ov into cov, and oi into cp, is the principal variation in 
this declension. Let it be observed, however, that a, long, and ij, 
before og, are changed into e before cog ; as, Xaog, Attic Xscog. a 
short remains unchanged; as, ra-og, ra-cog, or it is contracted 
with the o into cog; as, dy/;oaog, dyijocog. For the genitive and 
dative in epi or cpiv, see § 31. 

88. EXAMPLES OF THE ATTIC DECLENSION OF NOUNS IN Og. 

Singular. 



tycog for Xayog. 
a hare. 


VEcog for mo?. ceyo^sco^ for ay 
a temple. a building 


N. Xaycog, 

G. Xayco, 

D. Xaycp, 

A. Xayco, or cov, 

V. Xaycog, or 6?. 


vecog, 

VECO, 

vsqj, 

veco, or VECOV, 
vEcog, or vadg. 

Dual. 


dvcoyEcov, 

dvcoyEco, 

dvcoyEop, 

dvcoyEcov, 

dvcoyEcov. 


N. A. V. A«^o5, 
G. D. ^a/cjw. 


VECO, 
VECpV. 

Plural. 


dvcoyEco, 
dveoysepv. 


N. V. Xayop, 
G. ActyeoV, 
D. Xaycpg, 
A. Xaycog. 


VECp, 
VECOV, 

VEcog, 
VEcog. 


dvcoyEco, 
dvcoyEcov, 
dvcoyEcpg, 
dvcoyEco. 



Obs. The Attics did not decline all nouns in og in this man- 
ner, but only a very few. The same forms occur also in the Ionic 



23 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§22. 



and Doric writers. After this form, the Attics often declined 
nouns which otherwise belong to the third declension ; as, Mirco, 
Ace. for Mivcoa, from Mivcog, G. Mivcoog ; ytXav, Ace. for je'Ico- 
za, from yshjog, yiXcozog. 



§ 22. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

89. — In the second declension contractions are 
seldom used, and never, unless the first of the con- 
current vowels is short. 



concurring are 



RULES. 

Rule I. Two short vowels 
changed into ov. 

Except se in the vocative singular, never contracted. 

Rule II. A short vowel before a diphthong, 
or before a vowel not short, is rejected. 

90. EXAMPLES. 





6 voog, contracted vovg, 


the mind. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


Rule 1 vo-og vovg 


N. A. V. 


N. 2 vo-oi 


VOL 


G. 


2 vo-ov vov 


2 vo-co vco 


G. 2 vo-cov 


rcov 


D. 


2 vo-(p vco 


G. D. 


D. 2 vo-otg 


ro7g 


A. 


1 vo-ov vovv 


2 vo-oiv volv 


A. 2 vo-ovg 


vovg 


V. 


1 vo-e vov 




V. 2 vo-oi 


VOL 




TO OOTtOVy 


contracted darovv, the hone. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


0078- OV OOZOVV 


N. A. V. 


N. ooze- a 


ooza 


a. 


ooze-ov bozov 


OOZS- CO OOZCO 


G. OOZE-COV 


OOZCOV 


D. 


OOZE-Cp OOZCp 


, G - D ; 


D. oozE-oig 


oozoig 


A. 


OOZE-OV OOZOVV 


OOZE-OIV oozoiv. 


A. 6oTE-a 


ooza 


V. 


OOZE-OV OOTOVV 






V. bozt-a 


ooza 



Decline and contract in the same maimer, nXoog, navigation; 
(>6og, a stream ; x v oog, doion ; adaXcpidsog, a nephew. 



23. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



29 



ayyz'kog, a messenger 
aETog, an eagle. 
w&log, a combat. 
a&Xov, a prize. 
apTtzXog, a vine. 
aoyvQog, silver. 



91. WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 

aoyvQiov, silver. 
tQyoVy work, 
[tijlov, an apple, 
vorog, the south wind, 
olxog, a house. 
Ttaidiovj a child. 



qoSoVf a rose 
aidijoog, iron. 
otQUTog, an army, 
cpogriov, a burden. 
%alxog, copper. 
XQveog, gold. 



§ 23. THIRD DECLENSION. 

92. — The third declension has seven termina- 
tions of the nominative singular, a, i, v, (o, — v> q, 
g : it has all genders, and increases the noun by 
one syllable in the oblique cases. 

Note. Nouns in £ and \p are considered as ending in g (8-6). 

93. — The root, seldom unchanged in the nomi- 
native, is always found in the genitive singular by 
omitting og (64). 

The oblique cases, for the most part, are formed 
by adding the terminations (68) to the root. 

ACCENTS. 

94. — Words in the third declension are accent- 
ed according to the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The accent, in the oblique cases, remains on 
the accented syllable of the nominative, as far as 
the general rules permit, 13 — 17. 

Exc. 1. But avrjQ, da/jQ, nat/jo, and gcqttjq, in the vocative, 
throw the accent back on the penult; as, av£Q, dueo, &c. See 
104, Exc. 

Exc. 2. When the genitive singular ends in cog instead of og 
(98-4), there is no change of accent, and the genitive plural is 
accented as the genitive singular ; as, nohg, rtolEcog, ttoIscov. 

2. Words of one syllable in the nominative sin- 
gular, accent the final syllable of the genitive and 



30 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§23. 



dative in all numbers ; and in these, the final sylla- 
ble long has the circumflex. So also yvvr], xvcov, 
and syncopated substantives in r]Q, 99-4. 

Exc. 3. Except d(ig, a torch ; dpcag, a slave ; ftc6g, a jackal ; 
%Qcig, xgarog, the head ; ovg, the ear; naXg, a child; cv/£, a 
moth ; Tgcag, a Trojan ; ycog, a burning ; q>oog, light ; which in 
the genitive plural, and in the genitive and dative dual, have the 
acute accent on the first syllable. 

Except also participles of one syllable ; as, 8ovg, dovrog, &c. ; 
and the dual and plural of nag, viz. : navtoiv, ndvtcov, nam. 

3. The vocative of nouns in avg, tvg, ovg, co, 
and cog, has the circumflex on the final syllable ; 
as, yoau, fiaGcXsu, &c. 

95. — Nouns in the third declension are declined 
as follows : 

1. Paradigm of Masculine and Feminine Nouns ; 6 &rjQ, the 
wild beast. 
Dual. 



Singular. 
N. &fo f 
G. fttjo-og, 

D. &11Q-1, 

A. dTiq-a, 

v. afe. 



N. A. V. fiiJQ-e, 
G. D. d-no-olv. 



Plural. 
N. &7jQ-eg, 
G. -&)jq-o5v, 
D. &rjQ-Gi, 
A. -&7jQ-ag y 
V. fffJQ-eg. 



Neuter nouns are declined in the same manner, 
observing the 2d general rule, 69-2. 



2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns ; fiijfia, a tribunal. 

Dual. Plural. 

N. ^ijjua-za, 
N. A. V. fifaa-TE, G. fiima 

D. n 
G. D. ftmid-toiv. 



Singular. 
N. firjpa, 
G. fitjiAa-tog, 
D. pfjpa-Ti, 
A. ptfiia, 
V. pTifia. 



row, 
D. ftiuia-ci, 44-8. 
A. fifoa-ta, 
V. fifjfia-ta. 



Note. In the declension of nouns which take roc, doq, or &oq, in the 
genitive, the Rule 44-8 must be particularly attended to in the dative 
plural. 



N. 


6 Tiaidv, 


a paean, 




tO fltll, 


honey, 




fifty 


a moth, 




6 rivq, 


fire, 




6 Sevocpav, 


Xenophon, 




to aoSfia, 


the body, 



§24, 25. THIRD DECLENSION. 31 

§ 24. FORMING THE GENITIVE. 
96. — GENERAL- RULES. 

1. If the noun does not end in g, add og, or 

toq to the nominative ; as, 

G. naiav-og Root naiav 

\iiXi-tog fisXiz 

/n}jv-6g fiijv 

7ZVQ-6g 7TVQ 

Eevotyav-rog Esvocpcovt 

ocofia-tog acofxat 

2. If the noun ends in q 3 reject g, and add og, 
rog, dog, or &og ; as, 

N. 6 ygcog, a hero, reject g yoco G. ljoco-og Root tjooj 
6 Xdftyg, a caldron, le^i] )J^rj-tog Xe^r t t 

?j ).a\mdg, a torch, \a\mct. Xci[i7za-8og lafiTzad 

6, fj oovig, a bird, oqvi oon-&og 6qvi& 

6 uva£, a rider, avax avax-tog dvay.t 

Tj XaiXaxp, a storm, XaiXan laiXan-og XaiXan 

Whether og, tog, 8og, or &og, is to be added, can be learned 
only by practice and consulting the dictionary. 

97. — Exception. But if the noun ends in og, 
insert s before it. All these are neuter ; as, 

N. tEi'/og, a wall, G. tsfy-e-og Root ter/s 

psoog, apart, [iso-E-og fisoe 

ooog, a mountain, oo-e-og oqe 



§25. THE PENULT. 

98. — If the final syllable of the nominative con- 
tain a long vowel or diphthong, it is commonly 
shortened in the root by the following — 

RULES. 

1. A diphthong casts away its subjunctive vow- 
el; as, 



32 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§25. 



N. 6 @a<Jilevg, the king, G. fiaGilz-wg, Root fiamls. 

6 fiovg, the ox, @o-6g, (jo. 

?) vuvg, the ship), ' Doric, va-bg, va. 

2. A long vowel is changed into its own short ; 



as, 



N. 7Z0t[J,TjV t 

Anrco, 
6 xavcov, 
6 dQcixav, 
t] aidoog, 


the shepherd, 
Latona, 


the rule, 
the dragon, 
modesty, 
having struck, 



Ttoifisv-og, 

Aqro-og, 

xavov-og, 

dgdy.ov-Tog, 

aldo-og, 

rervyo-Tog, 



Root, TTOtjlEV. 

Ar\TO. 

xavov. 

doaxovT. 

aldo. 

rezvopoz. 



3. t and z/, whether long or short, are changed 
into s ; as, 

N. r) dyvafiig, the power, G. dvvdfis-cog, Root, Swaps. 
to nay, the flock, Tzws-og, ncoE. 

THE GENITIVE IN COg. 

4. Nouns in ig and vg, when they change i and 
v into s, and likewise nouns in svg, take the Attic 
cog instead of og in the genitive ; as, 

N. 6 vo^Evg, the shepherd, G. vofxs-cog, Root, vofis. 

i) Tiohg, the city, nols-cog, note. 

6 Tiiiyyg, the elbow, m)%E-(Qg, ^IX*' 



99. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Neuters in i and v have the genitive in sog ; as, aciv> G. 
aaiEog. The Ionic and Doric writers retain t in the oblique 
cases of nouns in ig and t ; as, Tiohg, G. TioXiog, D. nbhi. But 
even in these, the dative is usually contracted into ei ; as, Tioht, 
tioXei. Also nouns in ig sometimes have the Attic ecov instead 
of sow, in the genitive and dative dual. 

2. All Greek words ending in g, which take v in the genitive, 
appear to have originally ended in vg, and the v at length was 
dropped for the sake of euphony; 46-16. But to maintain the 
former quantity of the nominative, the doubtful vowel was made 
long, and the short vowels were changed into their own diph- 
thongs ; thus, the original terminations avg, ivg, vvg, svg, ovg y 

were changed into ag, Ig, vg, Eig, ovg. 
But the oblique cases, regularly formed from the original nomi- 
native, remain unchanged ; as in the following examples : 



originally. 


Gen. 


Root. 


ylyavg, 

delcpivg, 

qioQxvvg, 

xzs'vg, 

68ovg, 


yiyav-zog, 

deXcpiv-og, 

cpOQxvv-og, 

xzev-og, 

68ov-zog, 


yiyavz. 
deXcpiv. 

CpOQXVV. 

xzev. 
b8ovz. 



§26. THIRD DECLENSION. 33 

Norn. 
yi'yag 
deXqjfg, 
cpoQxvg, 
xzsig, 
odovg, 

3. Instead of rejecting v before g in the nominative, sometimes 
the g was dropped and the v retained; and hence the double 
forms of the nominative which sometimes occur: as, dsXcpig or 
StXcpiv ; cpOQxvg or cpooxvv. 

4. Certain nouns in ztjq, having zsQog in the genitive, are con- 
tracted by syncope in the genitive and dative singular, and in the 
dative plural (106-R. 2), and throw the accent in the genitive 
and dative singular on the final syllable (94-2) ; as, 

rtartjQ, a father, nazloog, Ttazqbg. 

TZCCTtQl, TtCCZQl. 

(A.rjT?jQ, a mother, [iyzeoog, {njZQog. 
So also, dvtjQ, a man, avtQog, avdQog. (47-19.) 

Note. The nouns thus contracted are 7iart'jQ, a father ; ftTjTtjQ, a mo- 
ther ; &uyd.Tt]Q, a daughter ; yaarriQ, the belly ; J^/li^ttjo, Ceres ; and 
<xvr t q, a man. This last rejects e in all the cases and numbers except 
the vocative singular. 



§26. THE GENITIVE OF ADJECTIVES. 

100. — Adjectives of the third declension form the genitive by 
the same rules as substantives ; but some form it from the mas- 
culine, and others from the neuter gender; and the genitive 
formed from either gender, is also the genitive of the other. The 
gender from which the genitive is formed may be ascertained by 
the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in eg and ovc, form the genitive 
from the nominative masculine ; as, 

. fi.oy cccQig, 1 q q ^ of both, cpiXondtQidog, Root, <$XonazQi8. 
M. 8ijiovg, ) u u d , 8 u 8mo ^ 

N. OlTtOVV, ) 

2. Adjectives not in eg or ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative neuter ; as, 

2* 



31 THIRD DECLENSION. §27. 

Masc. Neut. Gen. of both. Root. 

TtQ)]v, te'qev, tender, TEQEv-og, teqev. 

dh]d-{jg, dln&Eg, true, dXi]{rt'-og, dfoj&s. 

[At'lag, [isXav. black, fit'Xav-og, fieiar. 

%aQmg, %uqIev, graceful, %aol£v-Tog, yaqiEvx. 

Obs. 1. This rule applies universally to participles of the third 
declension, and these have their genitive always in tog ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. Gen. of both. Root. 

crag, craVf atdv-iog, cravr. 

8idovg, didov, 8i86v-iog, didorr. 

rvncovj rvaov, tvTtov-tog, xvnovt. 

rvq)&Eig, rvqi&Ev, rvqi&Ev-zogy ivcp&Evr. 

For the declension of adjectives and participles, see §§ 46, 47. 



§ 27. THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

101. — The Accusative singular of masculine and 
feminine nouns commonly ends in a. But, 

102. — SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The genitive in og pure, from ig, vg, 
avg, and ovg, changes g of the nominative into v ; 
thus, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

oqiig, a serpent, ocpi-og, ocpiv, 0(p. 

fioTQvg, a bunch of grapes, fiorov-og, @6tqvv, @otqv. 

vavg, a ship, Doric, va-bg, vavv, va. 

fiovg, an ox, fio-6g, fiovv, fio. 

Likewise Xdag and %aQtg have v ; as, 

Norn. Gen. Ace. Root. 

Xdag, a stone, Xda-og, Xdav, Xaa. 

Xdqig, favour, ^doi-tog, /«(>/>', X a Q ir - 

Exc. But /llg, /Ji-6g, Jupiter, has Ala ; and Xdotg, the name 
of one of the Graces, has Xdoiza', and %qovg, the skin, has %ooa, 
seldom %qovv. 

Rule 2. Words in vg, -tog, and compounds of 
7ioug, afoot, have a or v ; as, 



§28. THIRD DECLENSION. 35 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

coxvg, coxs-og, oox«-«, or coxvv, coxs. 

dinovg, dmo-dog, di7to-du, or diTiovv, dinod. 

Eule 3. Words in ig and vg not accented on 
the last syllable, with the genitive in og not pure, 
have a or v\ as, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

SQig, SQi-dog, sgi-da, or iqiv, ioid. 

xogvg, xoQV-ftog, xoQV-d-a, or xoqvv, xoqv&. 
So also, xleig, xlei-dog, xlsT-da, or xXziv, xleid. 

Obs. Such words, in prose, have almost always v, seldom a ; 
but in poetry, commonly a, seldom v. 



§ 28. THE VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

103. — The vocative singular is for the most part 
like the nominative. But, 

104. — SPECIAL EULES. 

Rule 1. A short vowel in the genitive, from a 
long vowel of the nominative, remains short in the 
vocative ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. Root. 

{ifjtTjQ, a mother, prjrdQ-og, [lyreo, {i^ref). 

"Extcoq, Hector, "Exroo-og, 'Extoq, 'Extoq. 

Exc. But nouns accented on the last syllable, have the voca- 
tive long ; as, 7ioi\i)\v> Gen. noifiev-og, Voc. 7toi[iijV ; except Tta- 
rrjQ, avfjQ, and datjo, which have the vocative 7zaz£Q y ccvsq, and 
daso, with the accent thrown back. 

^noXlcov, noasidaiv, and ocotj^q, with the long vowel in the 
genitive, have the final vowel short in the vocative, and the ac- 
cent thrown back ; thus, UnoXkov, Tlooeibov, acoreQ. 

Rule 2. Nouns in eg, vg, and tvg, reject g in the 
vocative; as, 

ocpig, V. oqpt ; — fiorovg, V. $6tqv, — ^aailsvg, V. fiacilev. 
Likewise, TtaTg, yqavg, and ftovg ; Voc. TtaT, yqav, [iov. 



36 THIRD DECLENSION. §29. 

Rule 3. Feminines in cog and co make the voca- 
tive in oc ; as, 

aidoog, V. aldoT; 2Ja7tq)(Q, V. ZanyoT. 

Rule 4. Nouns in ag, -avrog (99-2), have the 
vocative in av ; those in sig, -tvrog have the voca- 
tive in sv ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. Root. 

Aiag, Ajax, Ai'av-tog, Aiav, Aiavr. 

JZifiosig, Simois, JEijiozv-rog, JZifioev, JEijioevt. 

Note. In proper names, however, the poets often reject v; as, AXa 
for AXctv. 

Obs. yvvr\ has yvvai in the vocative ; and ava%, in addressing 
the deity, has ava ; otherwise ava%. 

Rule 5. In adjectives, the vocative masculine 
is like the nominative neuter ; as, 

N. Masc. N. Neut. V. Masc. 

aXqfrfjg, a%?i&sg, aXij&e'g. 

ils/flA-wv, ilsijftov, zlfyfiov. 

diTTOVg, SlTtOVV, 8l7TOVV. 

fislag, {islav, fisXav. 

yaqUig, X a Qi sv > X a Q^ £v * a ^ so X a Q l£l ^' 

Note. This rule does not apply to participles. These follow the gen- 
eral rule; as, 1ST. & V. rv7tro)v, xvnxouaa, tutztov. 



§ 29. THE DATIVE PLURAL. 

105. — The dative plural is formed by adding ai 
to the root. Besides the changes required by the 
rules of Euphony (44-8), other changes are to be 
noticed under the following — 

106. — special rules. 

Rule 1. Nouns in tvg, avg, and ovg, insert v 
before oi in the dative plural ; as, 



§29. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



87 



N. 6 §a(Jilsvg f the king, G. {taaiXe-wg, D. PL ^aodsv-oi. 
?] qavg, the ship, va-6g, Doric. vav-Gi. 

r) §ovg, the cow, @o-6g, fiov-Gi. 

Exc. But Tiovg, afoot, Tto-dog, has noGi. 

Rule 2. Nouns in ttiq ? -tsqoq, after a syncope, 
have act (99-4) ; as, 

narriQ, G. narso-og, (7taTEQGi) by syncope, narqaGi. 
So avrjo, avzo-og, (uve'ogi) uvoqolgi. 

Exc. But yaari'iQ, G. yaatEQ-og, has sometimes yccGrtjoGi. 

107. — Examples of the preceding Rules, 

In the following examples, note the difference between them and 
the example &tiq, &ijQoq, 95-1, and give the rule for the difference. 









Singular. 






b, pasturer. 


?), cow. 


6, a divinity. 


6, lion. 


o, shepherd. 


N. 


vopevg 


fiovg 


daifj-cav 


Xecov 


7ioi\ir]V 


G. 


vo^s-cog 


§o-6g 


daipov-og 


Xiovt-og 


TtOljlEV-Og 


D. 


vo\ii-i 


po-i 


daifiov-i 


Xiovt-i 


7t0l\LEV-l 


A. 


vofis-a 


ftovv 


daipov-a 


1eovz-cc 


noi\iEv-a. 


V. 


VOflEV 


@ov 


daipov 
Dual. 


Xeov 


7101\L1\V 


.A.V. 


V0\HE-E 


§6-8 


daipov-s 


Xiovt-s 


TtOljlEV-E 


G.D. 


V0[IE-01V 


fio-oTv 


daifiov-oiv 
Plural. 


Xeovt-oiv 


7t0ljlEV-0lV 


N. 


VOfiE-Eg 


@6-Eg 


daifiov-sg 


Xiovz-eg 


7tOlflEV-Eg 


G. 


V0\lE-WV 


@0-CQV 


daifiov-cov 


Xeovz-cov 


TtOtflEV-COV 


D. 


VOflEV-OL 


fiov-oi 


daifio-Gi 


Xeov-gi 


7l0tflE-Gl 


A. 


vofis'-ag 


§6-ag 


dafaov-ag 


Xiovz-ag 


TZoijiEv-ag 


V. 


voiii-Eg 


§6-Eg 


daifiov-Eg 
Singular. 


Xsovz-sg 


noijiEv-Eg 


to 


, city. 


?/, sow. 


6, swift. 


r) y strife. 


6, father. 


N. 


Ttofag 


6vg 


coxvg 


sj)ig 


Tzazjjg 


G. 


7t6).E-cog 


Gv-6g 


coyJ-og 


EQid-og 


nazo-og 


D. 


7l6).E-'i 


gv-l 


coyJ-i 


EQld-l 


Ttarq-i 


A. 


Ttohv 


gvv 


mxs-a, -vv 


EQIV, EQlda 


natEQ-a 


V. 


noh, 


GV 


CQXV 


EQl 


TZaZEQ 



38 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



30. 



Dual. 



N.A.V. 


Tzols-a 


av-s 


00X8-8 


SQlS-S 


7Zat8Q-8 


G.D. 


TloXs-OlV 


GV-OIV 


GOXS'-OIV 

Plural. 


8QIO-OIV 


71CU8Q-01V 


N. 


Tzols-eg 


ov-eg 


COXt-Eg 


8Ql8-8g 


7zat8Q-8g 


G. 


ttoXe-cov 


gv-cov 


COM- COV 


8Qld-(DV 


TtaiEQ- OJV 


D. 


7ToXe-Gl 


GV-Gl 


COXE-Gl 


SQl-Gl 


naro-a-Gi 


A. 


noXs-ctg 


Gv-ag 


coxs-ag 


'ipio-ag 


7tat8Q-ag 


V. 


7z6Xe-8g 


Gv-eg 


coxt-eg 


8Qld-8g 


nars'Q-sg 



§ 30. DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

108. — From the variety of terminations in nouns of this de- 
clension, it is impossible to exhibit them in one concise table. 
But the general principles are — The nominative and vocative At- 
tic are alike, — The Attic genitive is in scog, instead of aog and 
log, — The Ionic has 1] in the penult, through the oblique eases, 
instead of £ and a ; and with the poets makes egi or 8ggi instead 
of Gi, in the dative plural. 









Singular. 








Nom. 




Gen. 


Dat. 


Ace. 


Voc. 


paavl-ivq. ) 




(L tjos.) ) 




-ia. ) 


-tv, A. ivq. 


M. fa \ 


-toq, - 


D. & [A. £o)q. y 


-u, I. tjt. 


fl.^a. 




paO-vq. ) 




[Mete.) ) 




-vv, ia. ) 


-v, A. vq. 


6<jP-M?. 


-lO<j, 


A. ioq. 


-u. 


-IV. 


-i, A. tq. 


vavq. 


-aoq, 


I. tjoq & fo')q. 


-ail. tjt. 


-avv, Lijvv, tja. 


-av, A. avq. 


al8-o')q. 


-ooq, 


JEt. oiq. 


-o'i. 


' ( I. ovv. 
-oa, j x? ~ 


-Oi, A. o')q. 




Plural. 


Nom. and Voc. 




Gen. 


Dat. 


Ace. 


( A. ijq. 
PaabX-iiq. < or rjq. 




-E0)V, I. TJO)V. 


( I. tiat. 

' { P. f/fCTO-t. 

r ( I. rival. 
' ( P. ?jiaav. 


-iaq, I. ijaq. 


( I ffc. 
v-aiq, I. rjiq. 




-aow, I. tjo)v. 


-avq, I. Tjaq. 






t 


\ I. taai. 




XiZ-/-ta. 






-tO)V. 


-eav, 


) P. haat,. 




-ta. 



Thus, Gen. %slXeog, of a lip, Dor. %eiXevg\ Voc. Masc. 3vg~ 
rvysg, Attic 8vGzv%?ig; as, dvGtv)[i]g jeqov, unfortunate old 
man ; Dat. pi. /c^fft, Ion. xeipsGGi, to hands ; Accus. yfyTca, La- 
tona, Ion. yitjrovv, Gen. uGteog, of a city, Attic aGtscog; Voc. 
aidoi, modesty Attic uidcog. 



§31, 32. THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

§ 31. THE PARAGOGIC <pi or cpiv. 

109. — Sometimes, and particularly in Epie poetry, the sylla- 
ble qii or qiv annexed to the word, is used for the genitive or da- 
tive, both singular and plural. It is annexed, in the 

First declension, by changing a or n into ncpi, e. g. xsopoth'j, 
xecpuXfjCpi ; (tici, fiit](pi, or fiincpiv. 

Second declension, by changing og or ov into oyi, e.g. GTQa- 
rog, GTQixzoqxv. 

Third declension, by changing og, genitive eog, into soqn; as, 
'6%og, o^eacpi ; Gn'i&og, a-iffd-eacpiv. 

110. — A few deviations from this mode of annexing the qpt oc- 
cur. This form of the genitive and dative appears to have had 
originally an adverbial signification like the endings -fri, d-ev, ds. 
To render it more definite, the preposition was often prefixed, as, 
7zaqa vuvyiv, near the ship, or ships ; and lastly, it was used 
for a case without a preposition, in the same manner as the or- 
dinary forms of the genitive and dative ; thus, nlaxog nTvocpw, 
the breadth of the fan, ayXa'fyyi 7ienoi&(ag, confiding in valour. 

111. — The termination &ev appears to be an appendage of a 
similar nature, but is found only in the genitive; as, s'J ovqavo- 
•&8V, from heaven. So ipsxrsv for iuov ; ot&ev for gov, &g. 



§ 32. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

112. — The Genders of substantives of the third declension, 
so far as determined by the termination, are as follows : 

113. — RULES. 

1. Nouns in evg, ccg -avrog, av, and vv, are al- 
ways masculine ; as, 

svg oftevg, 6 a clasp Gen. 6%£og 

ag -avrog uvdoiag, 6 a statue avdQiavrog 

av naidv, 6 a pwan TTcuavog 

vv yooxvv, 6 a harbour cpooxvvog 

2. Nouns in ccg -ccdog, rr\g -rr\rog, ccvg, co, and 

verbals in eg, are always feminine ; as, 



40 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§33. 



ag, -adog 


laiinag, r\ 


a torch 


Gen 


Xafmadog 


Tvg, -TrjTog 


xaxorqg, ?/ 


wickedness 




xaxorvrog 


avg 


vavg, r\ 


a ship 




vabg 


CO 

ig, verbal 


cpsida, fj 
(pvGig, ?j 


parsimony 
nature 




yeidoog 
tyvamg 


3. Nouns 


in a, i, v, 


ag -cctoq, 


og, and oq, are 


always neuter. 








a 


fitjfta, ro 


a tribunal 


Gen 


frjpccTog 


i 


fisXi, TO 


honey 




fislizog 


V 


TtCOV, TO 


a flock 




rtco'sog 


ag -atog 


%Qsag, to 


flesh 




xomrog 


og 


Teiyog, to 


a wall 




Tei-xeog 


OQ 


aOQ, TO 


a sword 




aooog 



Obs. 1. Nouns of other terminations are so varied in gender, 
that no general rule can be given respecting them. 

Obs. 2. Dialect frequently varies the gender in all the declen- 
sions. Thus, fiarog is masculine in Attic, otherwise feminine ; 
and so of others. 



114.— §33. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECED- 
ING RULES, FROM §§20-27. 



Decline the words in the following list ; accent them ; give the rule 
for the genitive and the accent, and for the other cases when they. vary 
from the example -d-fiQ. 

o 

7 



ytocov (ovt) 
(°) 



at]8<jjv 
dyxoov 
cu'iq 
ilmg 
eoig 
7/ xoovg 

TO XV (MZ 

b ut'iv 
to avxtog 
to ytvog 
?i dxrig 
o TTtvqg 



e) 
8) 



the old man. 
the nightingale, 
the elbow, 
the air (104-1). 
the hope, 
the strife, 
the helmet, 
the wave, 
the month, 
the flower, 
the race, 
the ray. 
the poor man. 



TO OQOg 

6 ogsvg 
cplo% 

7Tpa$ig 

%uov 
Ipdg 
niTvg 

U&VTIQ 

at$ 



the mountain. 

the mule. 

the flame. 

the goose. 

the action. 

the cough. 

the flesh. 

the snoiu. 
(vz) the thong. 

the pine. 

the seer. 
(y) the goat. 
(c) the haven. 



to 



to 

to 

(o) 



34, 35. THIRD DECLENSION. 41 



§ 34. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

115. — In the oblique cases in the third declen- 
sion, there is no contraction, unless the first of the 
concurrent vowels is either short, or a doubtful 
taken as short. 

In verbs and in some other contractions, the first of the con- 
current vowels is sometimes long. 



§ 35. GENERAL RULES. 

116. — The following Rules are universal, being applicable, not 
only to contractions of the third declension, but also to those of 
verbs, and of all cases in which concurrent vowels admit of con- 
traction, except such as fall 'under the rules for contractions in the 
1st and 2d declensions, 81 and 89. Concurrent vowels are con- 
tracted as follows : 

1. A short vowel with the same, is contracted 
into its own diphthong ; as, ss into tc ; oo into ov. 

Exc. 1. In the third declension, ss of the dual is contracted 
into 7]. 

II. A short vowel with the other short, is con- 
tracted into ov ; as, os or to into ov. 

III. A short vowel with «, is contracted into 
its own long vowel ; as, s a into r\ ; oa into co. 

Exc. 2. But sa pure into a. 

IV. A short vowel with i 9 is contracted by Sy~ 
nceresis • as, t'C into tt ; o't into oc. 

V. E before a long vowel or a diphthong, is re- 
jected. 

Exc. 3. But in verbs, sai is contracted into ?/. 

VI. 1. O with a long vowel, is contracted into 
co ; as, or] into co ; oco into co. 

2. O with a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
being rejected, is contracted by Sy nceresis / as, ooc 
into o£, &c. 



42 THIRD DECLENSION. §36. 

Exc. 4. But osig and oeiv, i being rejected, are contracted by 
Crasis into ovg and ovv. 

VII. 1. A with o, or ^ is contracted into co ; 
as, #o or ccco, into g?. 

2. A with a vowel, not o or g?, is contracted into 
a ; as, #* into a, &c. 

O65. 1. A before a diphthong is contracted with the preposi- 
tive vowel only, the subjunctive being rejected. 

Obs. 2. In contraction by crasis, i is never rejected, but is writ- 
ten under: except in osiv and 08ig, 119, Exc. 3. 

Obs. 3. Neuters in ag pure and gag, reject t in the oblique 
cases, and then contract the concurrent vowels. 

VIII. If the former of two vowels is i or v, or 
a long vowel, the latter is rejected; as, is contract- 
ed i ; vs , v ; rjs, r\. 

Note. 2doc and crooq, safe, when a contraction occurs, are contracted 
by the foregoing rules ; thus, adoc, aoiq, VII. 1. ; adov, fforv, VII. 1. ; ada, 
ad, VII. 2.; adovq, aox;, VII. 1.; aoaq, amq, III. 



§ 36. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES FOR 
CONTRACTIONS. 

117. — The following list comprises all the concurrent vowels 
that usually admit of contraction. Contract them and give the 
rules. 

1 aa 12 aoi 23 eoi, 34 oco 

2 es 13 aov 24 sov 35 oei 

3 u 14 ea 25 tjs 36 oij 

4 oo 15 8d, pure 26 ?ji 3 V oot 

5 as 16 si 27 ?/£t 38 oov 

6 «// 17 to 28 qai 39 va 

7 ca 18 era 29 ee 40 v« 

8 ao 19 £(j) 30 oa 41 w/, rare 

9 aco 20 £ca 31 of 42 aa 

10 au 21 m 32 o>/ 43 cor 

11 «// 22 ei] 33 of 



§37. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



43 



WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 

1 1 8. — In the following words, contract the concurrent 
the rule for each contraction, — change the accent where 
contraction, and give the reason for the change. 



/lf]fxoa&8vseg 
Ai]\io<5$£vEog 
XQt'sa (exc. 2) 

Aijiioaxfevioiv 

n\ido[iEv 

tifidovai 

yjQu'i 

fiozQveg 

XSQCCOIV 
[.IEQ801V 

Ttolesg 

XSQCCTOg 

'/.tgare 



116. Ofe.3 



Ayi\lo6$£vee 

8CLQ 

Ari\i06&£vu 

cpiXmg 

dqXooi 

tifidco 

zif-idei 

yjqag -atog 

fXSQEOg 

fitQea 
cpeidoog 

XEQUTOW 

yjqara 

y.EQaTcov 

jjdt's 



Aqxoog 

Ar^oodivEa 

Aqtoi 

drjXoco 

brjXoov 

Xdag 

rif^drj 

ocpisg 

TlflTjEV 
fJISQSl 

[IEQEWV 

qiEidoi 

rijid.ri 
d-rjXorj 
cdog 



vowels, — give 
required after 

\ieXitoev 

Arpba 

Hgay.Xt'tjg 

d/]X6t]T£ 

drjXoy 

TljJLUE 

rijiaEig 

oyu 

xtgaa 

[IEQES 

uoXei 

cpEidoa 

cpiXtoi 

rifidoi 

dqXooi 

ooag 



§37.— CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

119. — N. B. In the inflection of declinable words, the vowels 
that concur are the final vowel of the root, and the first vowel or 
diphthong of the termination. In the examples of contracts that 
follow, as well as in the table of contract verbs (258), the hyphen 
( - ) does not separate the termination from the root, but that part 
of the root not affected by contraction, from the rest of the word. 
By this means the concurrent vowels are brought together, and 
the change made by contraction, is rendered more obvious. 

120. — Concurrent vowels are not always con- 
tracted in the third declension, but only as direct- 
ed by the following — 

SPECIAL KULES. 

1. The accusative plural assumes 
tion of the nominative : thus. 



the contrac- 



ts . roiMQ-ssg, ) , N. ow-isg, ) » N. Sorg-vEg, , 

A.TQitjQ-eag r ) s /s A. ocp-iac, ) ' A. pozQ-vug, ) r v 



41 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



37. 



Exc. But sag pure is contracted into dg (116, Exc. 2); as, 
%osag, xoag. 

2. The genitive in sog, from rig, sg, og, or in 
oog, not from ovg, and also neuters in ag pure and 
(?#£, contract the concurrent vowels hi all cases. 

121. — Example of the Genitive in sog,from r]g. 

r t TQtrjQijg, the trireme. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. TQltJQ-7]g 


N. A. V. 


N. TQUjQ-EEg 


-«£ 


G. roirjo-Eog -ovg 


TQUJQ-88 -7] 


G. TQ17JQ-ECOV 


-cov 


D. TQUJO-El -El 


G. D. 


D. TQll'iQ-EGl 




A. TQUJQ-ECC -?] 


tQlt]Q-£OlV -OIV 


A. TQUjQ-Eag 


-«<? 


V. TQitiQ-eg 




V. TQlfjO-ESg 


-«;,* 


122. — Example of the Genitive 


in soQyfrom 


Off. 




to teTxog, the wall. 






Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. T£i%-og 


N. A. V. 


N. T£l'x-£CC 


-V 


G. Tei%-8og -ovg 


rei%-Ee -?] 


G. TElX'tCOV 


-cov 


D. rsi%-si -si 


G. D. 


D. TSIX-EGI 




A. ru^-og 


Tei%-eoiv -olv 


A. TEiy-sct 


-n 


V. Tui-og 




V. TEIX'SK 


•n 


123.-2%? C 


renitive in oog, n 
rj ?ixc6, the echo. 


otfrom ovg. 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. ?)x-c6 


N. A. V. 


N. ^f-oi 




G. ii%-6og -ovg 


jjX-co 


G. rjx-cov 




D. )]X-ol' -oi 


G. D. 


D. 7/x-ofc 




A. i)x-oa -co 


i)x-oTv 


A. ))x-ovg 




V. in-oi 




V. ?/£-o/ 




124.— Obs. 1. Noi 


jns in co and cog have 


the singular on 


iy,of 



the third declension. The dual and plural are of the second, 136 
-2 (4). Hence the contraction takes place only in the singular, 
as in the above example. The accusative in 6a contracted co, 
from the nominative in cog, has the circumflex according to rule 
(80 Obs.) ; as, aiooa contr. aloco. The same contraction from 
the nominative in co, has the acute; as in the example 123. 



§37. 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



45 



125. — Examples of 


Neuters in ag pure and nag. (116, Obs 


3.) 


zb y.oeag, the flesh. 




zb yJoag, the horn. 




Singular. 






Singular. 




N. A. y. y.os-ag 
G. y.oe-azog 
D. y.qs-azi 


-aog 
-a'i 


-cog 
-a 


N. A. y. yJq-ag 

G. yJq-azog -aog 
D. yJo-azi -at' 


-ag 
-a 


Dual. 






Dual. 




N. A. y . y.gs'-azs 
G. D. y.oe-dzow 


-as 
-doiv 


-a 
-cgv 


N. A. y. y.s'q-azs -as 
G. D. y.eo-dzoiv -doiv 


-a 

-cov 


Plural. 






Plural. 




N. A. y. xoe-aza 

G. XQE-aZCOV 

D. y.Qt-aai 


-aa 
-dcov 


-a 
-cor 


N. A. y. xsQ-aza -aa 
G. xeo-dzcov -dcov 
D. yjq-aoi 


-a 
-cov 



126. — 3. The genitive in sog or sag, not from qg, 
sg, og] and also the genitive in cog, contract only 
the dative singular and the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural. Those in svg contract also 
the nominative dual. 



127. — Examples of the Genitive inecog, not from ?]g, eg, or og. 
6 fiacriXevg, the king. 
Singular. 



N. fiaaiX-evg 

Gr. (laoil-scog, (98-4) 

D. £>ttOll-U -St 

A. fiaoil-s'a 
V. Baail-tv 



Dual. 

k a. y. 

fiaoiX-es -j] 

G. D. 
fiacnl-s'oiv 



Plural. 
N. fta6il-seg 
G. fiamX-ecov 
D. fiacnl-Ewi 
A. fiaoiX-tag 
y. Bacnl-e'sg 



-tig 



-tig 
-sig 



Exc. But nouns in svg after a vowel,, contract also the genitive 
and accusative singular, and the genitive plural ; thus, 

6 yosvg, the measure. 



Singular 




Dual. 


Plural. 


N. yo-svg 
G. yo-ecog 
D. yo-s'i 


-ag 

-81 


n. a. y. 

yo-ss -ii 
G. D. 


N. yo-esg -sig 
G. yo-icov -cov 

D. yOSVGl 


A. yo-sa 


-a 


yo-eoiv 


A. yo-eag -ag (11 6, exc. 2) 


y. yo-ev 






y. y o-s eg -eig 



46 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§37. 



In this way JleiQaievg has genitive Hei-qmi&q, Acc. Ileioaia ; 
and dyvievg, m the accusative plural, has ayvtdg contracted for 
IleiQcuscog, TTei^aisa, ayviiag; and so of others. 

/} nohg, the city. 



Singular. 




Dual. 


Plural. 




N. noX-ig 




N. A. V. 


N. noX-EEg 


-eig 


G. TioX-scog 




7l6X-EE 


G. 7l6X-EO)V 




D. nok-u -EL 




G. D. 


D. 77(U-£(7{(l>) 




A. noX-iv 




tcoX-eoiv 


A. noX-sag 


-Etg 


V. ndX-i 






V. Ttol-eeg 


-sig 


The Ionics always 


decline words in ig, genitive wg ; as, noXig, 


wg, like noqzig ; but 


they make the dative 


in ee. 




128. — Example of the Genitive in cog. 






6, r t TioQTig, the calf. 






Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




N. nooT-ig 




f N. A. V. 


N. noor-ieg 


-ig 


G. TZOQT-iOg 




710QZ-18 


G. 7TOQT-ICOV 




D. TtOQT-li -l 




v G. D. 


D. 7TOQT-161 




A. TZOQt-lV 




7Z0QZ-L01V 


A. nopr-iag 


-ig 


V. TlOQT-l 






V. TlOQT-lcg 


-ig 



Note. The words declined in this way, besides ^ropr*?, are 6 xic, tfAe 
wood-worm ; 6, r\ rlyqiz, the tiger ; 6 Ttoffiq, the husband ; ?] /Lirjvic, wrath ; 
7] toonuz, the keel; and the uncontracted ok, a sheep; — some proper 
names; as, Tptg; — and adjectives in >,<;, v, which have tog in the genitive. 
Other nouns in w,- not inserting a consonant are declined like nohc. 

129. — Exc. Adjectives in vg, neuter v, have the commou geni- 
tive (Bog), and do not contract set in the plural. 152. 

130. — 4. Nouns in vg vog, and ovg oog, contract 
only the nominative, accusative, and vocative plu- 
ral; as, 

6 ly&vg, the fish. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. 

1%&-V£ 

G. D. 
r%{r-voiv 



Singular. 
N. r^-vg 
G. i%b x -vog 
D. ird'-w 
A. i%{r-vv 
V. l^-v 

So 6 §ovg, the ox 



vg 



Plural. 
N. r/fr-utg 
G. r/fr-vcov 
D. W&-WH 
A. iy(r-vag -vg 
V. r/d--vtg -vg 

G. fioog, N. V. Plural, ^ofc, contr. j5ov£, 
A. " poag, " /Jowff. 



§37. THIRD DECLENSION. 47 

131. — 5. Comparatives in cov reject v in the ac- 
cusative singular, and in the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural, and then contract the concur- 
rent vowels ; as, 

fieXzicov, better. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

M. & F. M. & F. M. & F. 

N. A. V. 

@eXzi-0V8 

G. D. 
$tXzi-bvoiv 



N. fieXzi-cov 

G. fieXzi-ovog 

D. (isXzi-on 

A. fieXzi-ova, -oa, -w 

V. fielzi-ov 



N. fcXzi-oveg, -oeg, -ovg 

G. fieXzi-ovcov 

D. fieXzi-ooi 

A. fisXzt-ovag, -oag, -ovg 

V. fisXzL-oveg, -oeg -ovg 



N. A. Y. Plural, Neuter, fieXzi-ova, -oa, -co. 

132. — 6. The nominative contracted, is then de- 
clined regularly; as, 



WQ, 


spring, by contraction r t Q, 


G. ygog, 


D. TjQl, &G. 


Xaag, 


a stone, " lag, 


G. Xdog, 


D. Xai] &c. 



133. — Ohs. 2. When vowels concur in the oblique cases after 
the contraction of the nominative, they are moreover contracted 
in the usual way ; thus, 'Hoay.Xeqg, Hercules, is contracted into 
'HoayJJjg, and then declined and contracted as follows : 
N. 'HoaxX-yg, 

G. 'HoaxX-iog, contr. 'HoaxX-ovg, 

D. *Hoay.X-i'i, 'HqcmI-eT, 

A. *HoayX-£a, 'HoaxX-jj. 

V. 'HoaxX-sg. 

134. — 7. In adjectives, the masculine and femi- 
nine, in the oblique cases, assume the contraction 
of the neuter ; thus, 

[rttXiTObig, made of honey. 

Norn. fisXiz-osig fiaXiz-osGcsa fisXiz-oev 

contr. fieliz-ovg fieXiz-owaa peXiz-ovv 

Gen. fieXtz-ovvzog fieXiz-ovaG^g (jtsXiz-ovvzog, &c. 

Tijurjsig, honoured. 
Nom. zifi-Tj&g zi\i-rfi<56a ziji-ijev 

contr. zt[A,-rjg zifi-7j6CJa zifi-jjv 

Gen. zifi-tjvzog ziji-r'jGCjqg ztp-jjvzog, &c. 



48 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§ 38, 39. 



135.— §38. WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 
BE DECLINED AND CONTRACTED. 



TO 



(N. B. The following method of • practising on these exercises will 
direct the student in his preparation. E. g. evatftyq — Form the genitive • 
— give the ride ; — decline; — what cases contract the concurrent vowels? — 
give the rule ; — decline and contract, giving the rule for each contraction. 
This exercise should be continued till the student is perfectly ready and 
at ease in the whole process.) 

Evaefif'jg, pious. yoayevg, a painter. 

dfiEivcov, better. nsQixXsijg, Pericles. 

i%&vg, a fish. 

tzXeic 



atayvg, a spike of corn, 
aosicov, more excellent. 
vofisvg, a shepherd. 
qseidco, parsimony. 
ytjQag, old age. 
JiyiXXEvg, Achilles. 
VTT8Q(pv)]g, excellent. 
dXtjdeg, true. 
fivg, a mouse. 
{Atoog, a part. 
ttXewv, more. 



cov, more, 
darvy a city. 
Tjwg, the morning. 
fta&vg, deep. 
PeXtigov, better. 
ttei&cq, persuasion. 
rfiv, sweet. 
\7i6(jig, a husband, 
j'l'&og, custom. 
xt'oag, a horn. 



aid cog, modesty. 
TiEQag, a limit. 
TEi%og, a wall. 
dQvg, an oak. 
cfovsvg, a murderer, 
avcudfjg, impudent. 
ogog, a mountain. 
cpQuaig, diction. 
TTQtofivg, old. 
ivdeqg, indigent. 
dioxXsqg, Diodes. 
irtog, a word. 
doopEvg, a runner. 



136.— §39. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, and another 
in the plural ; as, 

(1.) di'cpQog, the chariot-seat; b jioyXog, the lever; 6 xal 
i] Tdotaoog, Tartarus; 6 ToapjXog, the neck; 6 dEGfiog, the 
decree ; 6 vcoTog, the back ; 6 EQEtfibg, the oar ; 6 tvyog, the 
yoke, are neuter in the plural; as, ra diqjQcc, &c. The three 
last have also neuter forms in the singular, as, rb vcozov, &c, but 
with a variation of meaning. 

(2.) '0 d£6[i6g, the bond ; b Xvyvog, the lamp ; b xir/.Xog, the 
circle; b (jujoog, the thigh; b ovzog, corn; b oraftjiog, the sta- 
tion; have both a masculine and neuter form in the plural ; as, 
ol dEGfiot', and id dsa^d, <fec. 

(3.) H xt'XEV&og, the way, has at xeXevitol and rd xtXsv&a. 

(4.) To atddiov, the stadium, has ol orddwi, and id arddia. 

(5.) rwt'j, a woman; bdog, a way ; noXtg, a city; %eiq, a 
hand, feminines, have rw yvvawE, rco bdco, rco ttoXie, and rco 
XEiQE, iii the nominative and accusative dual. 



§39. THIRD DECLENSION. 49 

2. Some have more than one declension ; thus, 

(1.) Some are of the 1st and 2d, as, i) orsydv-rj, and 6 Gzscpa- 
vog, a crown; — some, of the 1st and 3d, as, McJGtjg, -ov ; and 
Mcoaevg, -tcog, Moses. 2d and 3d, as, zb ddxovov, -ov, and zb 
ddxnv, -vog ; fidoTvoog, -ov, and pdozvo, -vqog, a witness. 

(2.) Some have more than one declension, in the oblique 
cases, from one form of the nominative ; thus, QdXtjg, gen. -ov 
1st, and -tjzog 3d, Tholes; Jlong, -ov 1st, and -sog and -qzog 
3d, Mars ; 6 and zb Gxbzog, darkness ; bypg, a chariot; eXeog, 
mercy ; zdqiyog, pickle; oGGog, an eye; have -ov the 2d, and 
-sog the 3d ; oaoog is used mostly in the dual, oggb &c. 3d, and 
G. and D. plural oggcov, oGGoig, 2d. 

(3.) Some have the forms of different declensions, in certain 
cases, though not regularly declined through all the cases ; thus, 
1st and 3d in the ace. sing. /J^oGOevng, ace. -rpr and -ea, De- 
mosthenes ; ^ooxodzyg, Socrates, &cc. JLcoxodzijv and -ea', dXxij, 
fortitude, gen. -t/q (1st), dat. -t (3d) ; vg^iv)], a battle, dat. vg\ii- 
vi] and VGfim (1st and 3d) ; dvoodnooov, a slave, 2d, dat. pi. dv- 
OQunbozGGi, 3d, Horn.; yiXtag b, laughter, G. ysXcozog, aco fsXco- 
za and ytXwv, after the Attic form of the 2d declension (88). 

(4.) Feminine nouns in go, and cog, of the third declension, 
have generally the form of the second as if from og, in the dual 
and plural, when their meaning is such as to admit of their being 
used in these numbers. 

3. Some, from one form of the nominative, have different 
forms in the oblique cases, in the same declension ; thus, ziyqig, 
a tiger, has -wg and -idog ; Qifug, Justice, has -(dog, -tzog, and 
-iGzog', XaQoov, Charon, has -covog and ovzog', ybvv, a knee, and 
8oqv, a spear, have -vog and -azog', XQcog, %Qcoz6g, and %oovg, 
XQobg, the skin, have two forms of the nominative, as well as of 
the oblique cases, both of the 3d. 

4. Some appear to form the oblique cases from obsolete nomi- 
natives; as, ?)7Zuq, a liver; i^iao, a day ; eidao, food ; cpgtan, 
a well ; Gzt'uo, fat; xdoijaq, a head; dXacpao, ointment; 6Y- 
Xecw, a bait ; bvnao, a benefit ; ov&ao, fatness ; vdco.q, water ; 
gxcoq, dirt ; ybvv, the knee ; ooqv, a spear, have the genitive in 
-azog, as if from nominatives in ag ; thus, tj7tazog, vdazog, ybva- 
zog. Ovg, an car, coxbg', ydXa, milk, ydXaxzog ; yvvj), a woman, 
yvvaixbg, voc. yvvai ; IfijGovg, gen. ov, dat. ov ; ace. ovv ; voc. ov. 

5. Some are indeclinable, i. e. have no change of termination 
in the different cases ; such as, 

(1.) Names of letters; as, zb dXcpa, zov dXcpa, &c. (2.) The 
cardinal numbers from mvie to exuzbv. (3.) Poetic nouns which 



50 THIRD DECLENSION. "§ 40, 41. 

have lost the last syllable by apocope ; as, xo da, for 6w ( ua. (4.) 
Foreign names which are not susceptible of Greek inflexions ; as, 
6 ^fioadp, rov Afioa&ii, &c. 



137.— §40. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have no plural; as, dtjQ,air; tivq, fire; elector, 
oil ; yijj earth ; aidcog, shame ; alg, salt. 

2. Some have no singular; as, dlqura, victuals; Xfttivai, 
Athens; oveioara, dreams ; and the names of festivals; as, Tla- 
va&ijvaia, Panathenwa. 

3. Some occur in one case only, and are called monoptots ; 
as, oo zdv, O friend, oj nonoi, O gods ; to oqislog, the advan- 
tage. 

4. Some have only two cases (diptots ) ; as, nom. tig, ace. liv, 
a lion; nom. Zevg, voc. Ztv, Jupiter ; to ovao, the vision; nom. 
and ace. 

5. Some have only three (trip>tots) ; as, nom. fidozvg, a wit- 
ness, ace. \idqrvv, dat. plur. (idoxvoi. 

6. The Poets sometimes by apocope (40-6th) cut off the final 
letter or syllable from a word ; as, y.dgn for y.do?jvov, a head. 
Such words are then indeclinable (136-5). 



§ 41. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION. 

138. — Some nouns have peculiar significations, according to 
their terminations ; as, 

1. Masculine Patronymics, (53-1, 1st) commonly in 8ijg or 
car ; as, Tlijlsvg, Peleus, IJslEidtjg, Pelides, or the son of Pele- 
us ; Koovog, S&turn, Kqovicov or Koovidqg, the son of Saturn. 

2. Feminine Patronymics, commonly in tag and ig, irtj and 
icavj] ; as, Aijrmdg and ylytcotg, from A^tco, Latona ; JfdotjaTtrn 
from JldQrjGTog ; Nrioivi] from NijQtvg ; Jt^Qioimvij from J4v.qi- 
aiog, &c. 

3. Gentile Nouns, (53-1, 2d) commonly in ijg, og, or evg, 
masculine ; and a, ag, or ig, feminine ; as, Xndqtr], Sparta, 
Hnaqtidtr l g, a Spartan; ^afiaQHa, Samaria, ^a^dqeizig, a 
woman of Samaria. But many of these are declined as regular 
adjectives. 



§42. 



THE ARTICLE. 



51 



4. Diminutives, (53-2, 3d) commonly in la, iov, iGxog, or Xog ; 
as, 7taxf t Q, a father, TtaTQidiov, a little father (a term of endear- 
ment) ; Ttaig, a boy or girl, naioiov, a little boy or girl, nai- 
diGxi], a young daughter ; eoag, love, iocozvlog, a little lover. 

5. AmpUficatives, (53-2, 4th) commonly in fia, or aw; as, 
olxog, a house, oixt]{ia, a large building ; fi-QaGvg, bold, &QaGcov, 
a bully. 

6. Verbal Nouns. From the first root of the verb (209-4), 
are formed three nouns of different terminations and signification, 
indicating respectively the thing done, the doing, and the doer ; 
as follows, 



Verb. 


1 Root. 


Ter. 


Derivative. 




7T0lE(O 


7ZOIS 
TtOlE 


-[ICC 

-<sig 


noiri\ia 
TtouiGig 




a poem 

the art of poetry 




71018 


-trig 


Ttoirin'ig 




a poet 


TlQaGGlx) 


Tzoay 
nqay 


-fia 
-Gig 


Ttoay\ia 
nqahg, 44-7 


a deed 

action or doing 




TTQCCy 


-tnq 
or -trig 


TiqavariQ 
TZQaxri'ig, 


(,, 


-2 a doer 



§42. THE ARTICLE. 

139. — The article is an adjective word of three 
genders, and irregular in the nominative singular. 
In the oblique cases, the masculine and the neuter 
gender are of the second declension ; the feminine 
is of the first. It wants the vocative, and is thus 
declined : 



Singular. 



Dual. 



Plural. 



K 6 


V 


TO 




N. A. 


N". 


01 


at 


Ta 


G. iov 


tlqg 


TOV 


700 


TO, TO) 


G. 


T<X)V 


tqSv 


TWV 


D. TCO 


zrj 


TCp 




G. D. 


D. 


ToTg 


Taig 


Toig 


A. TOV 


t{\v 


TO 


TOIV 


TOIV TOIV 


A. 


Tovg 


tag 


to. 



140.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The Greeks spoke definitely, by placing the article before 
the substantive; indefinitely, by omitting it or prefixing the pro- 
noun Tig', as, 6 av&QcoTtog, the man ; av&ocoTtog, a man ; or Tig 
avxTQCOTTog, any man. 



52 THE ADJECTIVE. §43, 44. 

' ' 2. In grammar and lexicography, the article is used techni- 
cally, to distinguish the gender of nouns (58, Obs, 1). 

3. The enclitic ds annexed to the article through all its cases, 
gives it the force of the pronoun " this ; " as, ods, ifis, rooa, this, 
he, she, it ; Gen. rovds, rfjads, rovde, &c. In Homer and the 
other old Epic writers, the article itself is, with few exceptions, 
used in this sense. 

4. The article 6, ?/, to, is sometimes used as a relative. (See 
186-2.) 

141. — Note. The article 6, tj, to, being commonly placed before a 
noun, is by some grammarians called the prepositive article, to distin- 
guish it from the relative pronoun oq, r\, o, which, from being generally 
placed after the noun to which it refers, they call the postpositive arti- 
cle. 



142.— §43. DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE. 

Singular. 



M. and K 






Fern. 


N. o ro 




7 L 


D. a 


G. rov A. I. P. rolo D. 


Tea, rev 


P. ri(o zijg 


D. rag 


I). TO) I. zicp 




T '] 


D. ra 


A. rov to 


Plural. 


Ti'jV 


D. rdv 


M. and^N. 




Fern. 




N. oi D. rol neut. rd 




at D. rat 




G. rmv I. rscov 




rav D. zav 


M. rdcop 


D. zciig D. & I. rolai I. 


rloim 


raTg D. & I. 


raioij T{jGi 


P. roiSeoi and Toide'cai 








A. rovg D. rog rcog 




rag 





§ 44. THE ADJECTIVE. 

143. — An adjective is a word used to qualify a 
substantive; as, ccya&og dvr^ a good man; 
/.iia rj/Lispa, one day. 

A noun is " qualified' 1 '' by an adjective, when the object named 
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things 
of the same name. 



45. 



FIKST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



53 



1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and 
case ; and in most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives in Greek, as well as Latin, indicate the gender, 
number, and case, by the termination ; as, y.aX-bg masc, xal-rj 
fern., y.aX-ov neuter, &c. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, while 
in time and signification, they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termina- 
tion in the nominative, and consequently have three terminations. 
Some have one form common to the masculine and feminine, and 
are adjectives of two terminations ; and some are adjectives of 
one termination, which is common to the masculine and feminine ; 
such want the neuter. 

5. In adjectives of three terminations, the feminine is always 
of the first declension. In all adjectives, the masculine is always 
of the second or third ; and the declension of the neuter, is always 
the same with that of the masculine. 



§ 45. REGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND 
SECOND DECLENSIONS. 

144. — 1. Adjectives of the first and second de- 
clensions have the masculine always in og, the 
feminine always in r\ or «, and the neuter always 
in ov; thus, 

aaXog, beautiful. 



Singular. 
N. y.al-og -i] -6v 
G. y.aX-ov -r t g -ov 
D. xaX-ctj -fj -cp 
A. y.aX-ov -rjv -ov 
V. y.aX-8 -r\ -ov 



Dual. 

N. A. V. 
yal-co -a, -co 

G. D. 
xaX-oiv -ciiv -oiv 



Plural. 
N. xaX-oi -ai -d 
G. y.aX-cov -cor -cor 
D. y.aX-oig -aig -olg 
A. xaX-ovg -dg -d 
V. xal-oi -ai -d 



Thus decline dya&og, good ; xaxog, bad; epilog, friendly ; 
\iaXayog, soft; Xevxog, white; dtjXog, manifest; analog, tender ; 
teonvog, pleasant. 

145. — 2. But og pure, and Qog, have a in the 
feminine ; as, 



54 



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



§45. 





Singular. 






Singular. 




N. 


Qudi-og -a 


-ov 


N. 


(pavEQ-6g 


r 

a 


ov 


G. 


qciOi-ov -ag 


-ov 


G. 


cpavEQ-ov 


ag 


ov 


D. 


Qadi-cp -a 


-co 


D. 


cpaveg-cp 


a 


cp 


A. 


qu8i-ov -av 


-ov 


A. 


cpavEQ-ov 


av 


ov 


V. 


Qadi-s -a 


-ov 


V. 


cpavEQ-s 


a 


ov 



The dual and plural terminations are the same as in xalog. 
But the rules for the accents in the masculine and neuter (84), 
and in the feminine (72), must be carefully observed. 

146. — Exc. The terminations oog, and sometimes sog, espe- 
cially in adjectives denoting matter and colour, retain n ; as, 
oydoog, the eighth, oydorj ; bloog, pernicious, oXo/j ; yqvGEog, gold- 
en, %qvo~£T] ; yoivMsog, purple, cpoivr/Jq. Except where q stands 
before the vowel; as, ad~qoog, frequent, d&Qoa', dgyvQEog, silver, 
aqyvQEa. 

147. — 3. The Attics often decline adjectives in 
oq, especially derivatives and compounds, by the 
common gender, without the feminine termina- 
tion ; thus, 

a&dvarog, dd-dvarog, d&dvatov, immortal. 





Singular. 




Dual. 


Plural. 






N. 


d&dvar-og -og 


-ov 


N. A. V. 


N. d&dvar-oi 


-01 


-a 


G. 


adavdx-ov -ov 


-ov 


ddavdt-co -co -co 


G. dxtavdr-cov 


-cov 


-cov 


D. 


ddavdr-cp -cp 


-cp 


G. D. 


D. dfravdz-oig 


-oig 


-oig 


A. 


ad civ at- ov -ov 


-ov 


dd-avdz-oiv -oiv -oiv 


A. d&avdt-ovg 


-ovg 


-a 


V. 


d&dvar-s -e 


-ov 




V. d&dvar-oi 


-01 


-a 



Adjectives of the common gender are often expressed thus : 

6, ?] dd-dvarog, to d&dvaxov. 
xov, zi\g^ tov d&avdroVi &c. 

In the same manner decline — 



M. &F. 


N. 




ndncpikog 
adixog 


TtdfUflloV 

adixov 


from ndv and epilog 
from or/.tj 


ovnaviog 
ofiOQog 


ovQaviov 

OflOQOV 


from ovoavog 

from 6(j.6g and oqog 



Note.^ Though this form of declension is most used by the Attic 
writers, it is not confined to them. Instances of it occur in Homer. 



§46. 



FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 



55 



§46. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND THIRD 
DECLENSIONS. 



148. — The masculine and neuter of all adjec- 


tives not ending in 


og, are of the third declension. 


The regular terminations of these are — 


M. 


F. 


N. 


1. ag 


aiva 


av 


2. ug 


saocc 


sv 


3. vg 


sea 


V 


Adjectives, so far as they are of the third declension, are ac- 


cented the same as nouns, according to the rules, 94. 


149. — 1. Example 


of an Adjective in ag, aiva, 


av 


/ jusXag, black, 

Singular. 




N. fisl-ag 


[itX-aiva 


fiiX-av 


G. [isl-avog 


fieX-aiv?]g 


[isX-avog 


D. fisl-an 


fieX-aivy 


\iiX-avi 


A. (xsl-ava 


fisX-aivav 
fisX-aiva 


liiX-av 


V. fisl-av 


[xt'X-av 




Dual. 




N. A. V. (is'X-ave 


(jleX-ccivcx, 


liiX-ave 


G. D. iiek-avoiv 


[isX-awaiv 

Plural, 


\jleX-6lvow 


N. V. fisX-aveg 


tiiX-aivai 


lis'X-avct 


G. [leX-dvcov 


[4,eX-cuvo5v 


[ieX-cwusv 
fiEX-aci, 46-16. 


D. [AsX-aci 


[iEX-aivaig 


A. [isX-arag 


fisX-atvag 


fieX-ava 


150. — 2. Example 


of an Adjective in seg, saaa, 


ev; 


%aoisig, comely. 




Singular. 




N. %aQi-Eig 


%aQi-£G6a 


Xagi-Ev 


G. xctQi-evxog 


XaQiEGaqg 


Xaql-Evrog, 100-2. 


D. laqi-avti 


^dQi-Ecari 


%ClQL-EVtl 


A. ^aQi-Evia 


%CLQl-EG6aV 


"/CtQl-EV 


V. %a,Qi-Ev 


%aQi-EG6a 


%aQl-EV 



56 



FIEST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 
Dual. 



§46. 



N. A. V. yClQl-8VZ8 yaQl-8GGCi y(LQl-8rZ8 

G. D. yaqi-EVZOiv yaQi-8GGaiv yaqi-tvtoiv 

Plural. 

N. V. yaQi-evzeg yagi-EGGcu yaqi-Evza 

G. yaQi-svtcov yaQi-8GG<ov yaoi-tvrcov 

D. yagl-EiGi yciQi-tGGaig yaQi-sm, 47-18. 

A. yaQi-evzag yaQi-sGGag yaQi-Eiza 

151. — Obs. According to Buttmann, adjectives in Eig (but not 
participles) have egi and not sun, in the dative plural. Prof. An- 
thon adopts the same termination. When so used it must be re- 
garded as an exception to the general rule, § 6, 18. 

152. — 3. Example of an Adjective in vg, sia, v ; 
7jdugy siveet. 









Sing 


ular. 






N. 


rjd-vg 


r t 8-Eia 


?)8-v 




G. 


?)8-t'og 


?]8-8i'ag 


rfi-iog 




D. 


qS-si, contr. 


■81 rfi-Eia 


1)8-81, contr. g» 




A. 


?]d-vv, or -8a, 


102-2. jfi-eiav 


)j8-v 




V. 


?jO-V 


tjS-eTcc 

Dual. 


?]8-v 


N. A. 


V. 


j)8-e'e 


jj8-8ia 


>)8-8'e 


G. 


D. 


j)8-s'oiv 


rfi-Eicav 
Plural. 


7j8-80lV 


N. 


V. 


rj8-8Eg, contr. 


Eig ?j8-8iai 


ijS-sa, not contr. 




G. 


y8-soav 


?j8-8lG0V 


?)8-t'cj)> 




D. 


jj8-86l 


i;8-8icug 


7)8-8 G l 




A. 


?j8-8'ag, contr 


. Eig ?j8-Eiag 


i)8-8cc, not contr. 


After the same manner decline — 








1. 




ylvx- 


3. 
vg -8Ui -v 


raX-ag 


-cava 


-av 


>'<!««- 


vg -8ia -v 






2. 




(JltQ- 


jg -sea -v 


flEllTO-Eig -EGGCC 


-EV 


fia&- 


vg -8iu -v 


rtfiij-Eig 


-EGGCi 


-8V 


o&vg 


-8UC -V 



§47. 



DECLENSION OE PAETICIPLES. 



57 



§ 47. DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 

153. —Participles are declined like adjectives of three termi- 
nations: those of the middle and passive in og, are inflected 
throughout like xakbg, 144. Of others, the feminine always fol- 
lows the terminations of the first declension, and the masculine 
and neuter, those of the third, the genitive being always formed 
as directed, 100, Obs. 1. The terminations of these are as fol- 
lows : 



Gen. 





M. 


F. 


N. 


1. 


-cov 


-ovaa 


~ov 


2. 


-(OV 


-ovaa 


-6v 


3. 
4. 


-ag 
-(6g 


-aaa 
-via 


-av 

-6g 


5. 

6. 

7. 


-eig 
-ovg 

-vg 


-elaa 
-ova a 
-vaa 


-8V 

-6v 
-vv 




Of these the 2d. 


,3d, 



M. 


F. 


N. 


-ovtog 


-ovaijg 


-ovtog, <fec. 


-ovtog 


-ovayg 


-ovtog, &c. 


-avtog 


-daijg 


-avzog, &c. 


-btog 


-vlag 


-ozog, &c. 


-tvtog 


-daijg 


-svtog, &c. 


-ovtog 


-ovatjg 


-ovtog, &c. 


-vvtog 


-vaijg 


-vvtog, &c. 



2d, 3d, and 4th are declined as examples ; thus, 



154.- 



1. TVTTcov, having struck. 

Singular. 



N. tvn-COV 

G. tvn-ovzog 
D. tvn-ovti 
A. tvn-ovta 

V. ZV7l-(OV 



N. A. 


V. 


tV7Z-OVZS 


G. 


D. 


tVTt-OVtOiV 




N. 


tvn-ovtsg 




G. 


tvn-ovtcov 




D. 


tvn-ovai 




A. 


tvn-ovtag 




V. 


tvn-ovzeg 



tvn-ovaa 

tvn-ovarjg 

tvn-ovay 

tvn-ovaav 

tvn-ovaa 

Dual. 

tvn-ovaa 
tvn-ovaaiv 

Plural. 

tvn-ovaai 

tvn-ovaoov 

tvn-ovaaig 

tvn-ovaag 

tvn-ovaai 



(2 Aor. Act.) 



tV7t-0V 

tvn-bvtog 
tvn-ovti 

tV7Z-0V 
tVTl-OV 



tVn-OVtS 

tvn-ovtoiv 



tvn-ovta 
tvn-6vto3v 
tvn-ovai, 47- 
tvn-bvta 

tvn-ovta 



18 



In this manner are declined all participles which have v before 
tog in the genitive ; also the adjectives ixcov and dixcov. When 
the accent of the nominative is on the penult, it remains there, 
except as required by the general rules (15 — 19). 

3* 



58 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TEEMIKATIONS. 

2. Tvipag, having struck. (1 Aor. Act.) 

Singular. 



47. 



Mr. 


tvipag 


tvipaa-a 


rvxpav 


G. 


rvxpavt-og 


zvyjuG-qg 


rv\pavT-og 


D. 


iv\pavr-i 


rvxpda-r} 


rv\pavr-i 


A. 


rv\pavz-a 


vvipaa-av 


tvxpav 


V. 


tvipag 


zvipaa-a 
Dual. 


tvipav 


N. A. V. 


zvxpavt-s 


rv^dc-a 


rvifjavr-e 


G. D. 


rvxpdvz-ovv 


rvxpda-aiv 
Plural. 


rvxpdvz-oiv 


N. 


rvipavr-eg 


7V\pGC6-(U 


zvipavt-a 


G. 


tvipdvt-cov 


rv\paa-cov 


rv\pdvx-cov 


D. 


rv\pa-Gi 


rvxpda-aig 


TV\pU-Ol 


A. 


tvxpavz-ag 


ivipdc-ag 


Tvxpavz-a 


V. 


tv^pavt-eg 


rv^paa-ai 


tvxpavr-a 



In like manner decline the adjective nag, ndaa, ndv, all. 

155. — 3. T6TV(p-6?g, having struck. (Perf. Act.) 

Singular. 



N. V. TSTvcp-cog 


-via 


-6g 


G. rervcp-oTog 


-viag 


-oxog 


D. rsrvqj-OTi 


-via 


-on 


A. T8TVCp-6za 


-vlav 
Dual. 


-6g 


N. A. V. rervcp-ors 


-via 


-0T8 


G. D. rszvcp-oroiv 


-viaiv 
Plural. 


-OTOIV 


N. V. TEZVCp-OTEg 


-viai 


-bra 


G. T8TVq)-OT(OV 


-vicov 


-dzcov 


D. TETVCp-061 


-viaig 


-oat, 44-8. 


A. 7E7vcp-6rag 


-viag 


-ota 



156. — The participle in cog, after a Syncope (26^), has the 
nominative and vocative cog, coaa, cog ; G. corog, cootjg, cozog, &c. 



§48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 59 



§ 48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 

157. — Many adjectives of the third declension have but one 
form for the masculine and feminine, and are therefore said to be 
declined according to the common gender. They are declined 
throughout like nouns of the third declension, of the same termi- 
nation. The regular terminations of these are cov, tjv, qg, ig, vg, 
and ovg (viz. compounds of novg) ; and they form the neuter ac- 
cording to the following — 

158. — RULES. 

1. Adjectives of the common gender in cov, r\v, 
qg, form the neuter by changing the long vowel 
into its own short one ; thus, 

M. and F. N. 

N. owcpocov c&tyQOv prudent, G. acoqjQOv-og 

jST. aoQ^v aoQW male, G. ccqqev -og 

N. alri&fjg dXq&sg true, G. dlq&s -og 

So also some in coo ; as, 
N. [A,sycd?jT(QQ [ieydX,ijtoQ ; G. fieyaXijroQ-og 

Note. But TSQtp, tender, usually has the feminine riqeiva, 
neuter teqsp. 

2. Adjectives of the common gender in eg and 
vg, form the neuter by rejecting g ; as, 

M. and F. N. 

N. evxagig ev^aqi G. ev^dqi-rog 

N. udcwQvg adaxgv G. dddxov-og 

3. Compounds of novg, a foot, have the neuter 
in ovv ; others in ovg have the neuter in ov ; as, 

M. and F. K 

K dmovg, diTtovv, G. 8i7zod-og, 100-1. 

povodovg, fiopodov, povod-ovzog. 

Note. It is probable that novq was originally nooq ; whence di7tooq, 
N. Sinoovy contracted Mnovq, Slnovv; and that the declension was after- 
wards changed from the 2d to the 3d, as was done also in yeAo;?, and 
towq, from the ancient yilaoq, and fyctot;. 



60 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 



§48. 



159. — Examples of adjectives of the common 
gender. 
1. 6,7] o cocpQcov, prudent. 

Singular. 

N. 6CQCpQ-(x)V 



-cnv 

-ovog 

-ovi 

-ova 

-ov 



G. oojqiQ-ovog 

D. GCQCpQ-OVl 

A. ocoq)Q-ova 

V. GG)(j)Q-OV 

Dual. 
K A. V. 

GCOCpQ-OVE -OVS 

G. D. 

GCOCpQ-OVOlV -OVOIV 

Plural. 

Gcocpo-oveg -oveg 

(jCOCfQ-OVCOV 
GCOqjQ-OGl 

ococpQ-ovag 
Gcoqo-ovsg 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



-ovoav 

-061 

-ovag 
-oveg 



-ov 
-ovog 

-OVl 

-ov 
-ov 



-ovs 

-OVOIV 

-ova 
-ovoov 

-061 

-ova 
-ova 



evxocQig, acceptable. 

Singular. 
svyao-ig -ig 
svydo-izog -izog 
EvyaQ-iri -izi 
evydq-vza -iza 
Evyaq-iv -iv 
svyaq-i -i 
Dual. 
N. A. V. 
svydo-irs -its 

G. D. 
evyag-izoiv -izoiv 
Plural. 
N. svydo-izsg -izsg -ita 
G. Evyao-izcov -izoov -izcov 
D. svydg-iGi -ici -igi 
A. Ev%do-iTag -izag -iza 
V. Evyd.Q-izsg -izsg -iza 



-i 

-izog 

-izi 

-i, or 

-i 

-i 



-ITS 



■now 



-?jg 
-s'og 

-81 

-ea 
-eg 



2. 6, r) d%r}&r]Q, true. 

Singular. 
N. dl?]d'-?]g 
G. akrft-sog 
D. ahjd-ei 
A. dlrft-ea 
V. dkrft-eg 

Dual. 
N, A. V. 
dhft-es -es 

G. D. 
dl?]&-e'oiv -eoiv 
Plural. 
N. alqd'-e'eg -ess 
G. dlyd-e'cov 
D. akyd'-eGi 
A. ahj&-iag 
V. dhft-eeg 



-eg 
-e'og 
-e'i 
-eg 

r 

-eg 



-&£ 



■eoiv 



-ewv 
-hi 
-eag 
-eeg 



-ea 
-e'cov 

-EGl 

-ea 
-ea 



4. 



ccSccxgug, 



tearless 

Singular. 
udw/.Q-vg 



N. 
G. 

D. 

A. ddaxQ-vv 

V. dday.Q-v 



aow/.Q-vog 
adaxo-vi 



-vg 

-vog 

-vi 

-vv 

-v 



-V 

-vog 
-vi 
-v 
-v 



Dual. 
N. A. V. 

dddy.n-vs -vs 

dday.Q-voii' -voiv 

Plural. 

N. dddxp-veg -vsg 

G. dday.o-vcor -vcov 

D. dddy.n-vGi -vgi 

A. dddxQ-vag -vag 

V. dddy.Q-veg -veg 



•va 
-vcor 

-VGl 

-va 
-va 



§49. 



ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 



61 



Note. In these examples, aX?]&qq and ada/.gvq are declined without 
contracting. The pupil may contract the concurrent vowels (120-2, and 
130) ; and make the necessary changes in the accents. 



§ 49. IRREGULAE ADJECTIVES. 

160. — Every adjective not ending in some of 
the regular terminations already mentioned, is ir- 
regular, — wants the neuter gender, — and is de- 
clined like a noun of the third declension ; thus, 



K 6, 
G. zov, 



tj aQftaz, 

rrjg aqnayog, &c. 

Obs. 1. The poets sometimes use the genitive and dative of 
such adjectives in the neuter. Sometimes the neuter is supplied 
by a derivative form in ov ; thus, dqnayxiY.ov is used as the neu- 
ter of aQ7ta% ; p.ay.riY.ov, as the neuter of fiXa$, &c. 

Exc. 1. Sxcop and dtxcov (by syncope axoov), are declined with 
three genders, like participles (154—1) ; thus, 

N". E'/.-CQV 

G. kx-ovzog, 



sx-ov, 

ex-6vrog, &c. 



sx-owsa, 

EX-OVGljg, 

Exc. 2. Miyag, great ; and noXvg, many, are irregular in the 
nominative and accusative singular. The other cases are regu- 
larly formed from the ancient nominatives peydkog and noXXog, 
of the second declension ; thus, 



M. 

N. fiEyag 
G. [i&ydlov 
D. fieydXcp 
A. fityav 



N. A. V. fieydlm, [isydXa, (isydXaj. \ tzoXXco, aoXXd, tzoXXcq, etc. 
through the dual and plural, as in y.aXog, 144. 

Note. Homer and other poets inflect 7to).vq regularly, Gen. noUoc, 
Dat. noXii, &c. It was afterwards changed, in those cases in which it 
would not be distinguished from the same cases of nohq, a city. 



Singular. 




Singular. 




F. 


N. 


M. F. 


K 


(zeydXq 

\iEydXi\g 

[teydXij 

HEytd.ijv 


\iiya 
[lEydXov 
[izydXcp 
psya 


noXvg TzoXXij 
noXXov TtoXX^g 
tzoXXo) TtoXXfj 
noXvv TzoXXfjv 


TtoXv 

tzoXXov 

TTOXXOJ 
TtoXv 


Dual. 




Dual. 





62 



NUMERALS. 



§50,51. 

Obs. 2. Some substantives in ag and ng, inflected in the first 
declension, are called by grammarians, adjectives; as, v^Qiazyg, 
an insolent man ; tQavpazi'ag, a wounded man ; but they are 
really independent of any other substantives in construction. The 
same observation may be applied to several other words, called 
adjectives of one termination. 



50. ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 



xax-6g, --q, -ov, bad. 

rul-ag, -cuva, -av, miserable, 

fiao-vg, -eTa, -v, heavy. 

teq-tjv, -qv, -ev, tender. 

EVGsft-jg, -?jg, -eg, pious. 

^eItl-cov, -av, ov, better. 

ij,fx?j-Eig, -eaaa, -ev, honoured, 

adix-og, -og, -ov, unjust. 

a$i-og, -a, -ov, luorthy. 

Qpiko7iarQ-ig, -ig, -i, patriotic. 
7toXv7Z-ovg,-ovg,-ovv , many-footed. 

6, rj [idxao, happy. 

@a&-vg, -sTa, -v, deep. 

[tei^-cQv, -cov, -ovj greater. 



Wi~ m S> f -saca, -ev, 
yopEQ-og, -a, -ov, 
aya-fr-og, -i), -ov, 

6, Tj fJLUXQOyELQ, 

za%-vg, -Eia, -v, 
xai)J-eov, -cov, -ov, 

cpil-og, -v, -ov, 

flVlJ^l-COV, -COV, -ov, 
adfj-?jg, -tjg, -eg, 
6, rj cpvyag, 
yXvx-vg, -eicc, -v 
Q(idi-og, -a, -ov, 
ococpo-cov, -cov, ov, 



sonorous, 
formidable, 
good. 

long-handed, 
swift, 
more beauti- 

ful. 

friendly. 

mindful. 

unconquered 

an exile. 



easy. 



§51. NUMERALS. 

m 161. — Numeral adjectives are those which sig- 
nify number. In Greek they are divided into 
two classes, Cardinal and Ordinal 

1. The Cardinal express numbers simply, or 
how many ; as, one, two, three, <fcc. 

2. The Ordinal denote which one of a number ; 
as, first, second, third, &c. 

Distributives have no separate form in Greek. The meaning 
of these is ^ expressed by the cardinal numbers, sometimes com- 
pounded with <svv\ as, avvdvo, avvroEig, &c. ; 6mm, terni ; — and 
sometimes preceded by xazd, dvci, &c 



§ 51. NUMERALS. 63 

162. 1. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

1. Elg, one, has the singular number only, and 
is thus declined : 

N". Eig pia ev 

G. svog fiidg svog 

D. svi fiia svi 

A. era \iiwv ev 

In like manner decline the two compounds, 

ovo-Eig, ovds-fiia, ovd-sv, plur. ovd-tveg, -spiai, -iva, 
firjd-eig, [iqds-pia, [irjd-EV, " firid-EVEg, -splat, -(vet. 

Obs. 1. From eig, one, is formed the adjective EZEQog, either, 
one, other ; and from ovdsig, [iqdeig, are formed ovdszEQog, [ivdi- 
ZEoog, neither. 

Obs. 2. Eig is sometimes used for the ordinal Ttgcozog, as in 
Matth. 28. 1 ; Mark 16. 2. This is usually considered a Hebra- 
ism, but it is sometimes used by the Greeks also ; Herod, iv. 161, 
Thucyd. iv. 115. Also in Latin, Cic. Sen. 5 : " Uno et octogessi- 
mo anno." 

2. Jvojy two, is properly dual ; it is alike in all 
genders, and is defective in the plural ; thus, 

Dual. Plural. 
N. A. dvco N. A. 



G. ovoiv, Attic SveTv G. dvcov 

D. dvoiv D. 8vGi(y) 

Obs. 3. Avo, two, is indeclinable ; i. e. it is the same in all 
genders and numbers ; apcpco, both, is declined like dvco, in the 
dual. . 

3. To tig, three, and reaaaosg, four, are plural 
only, and are thus declined : 



TQEig, three. 
N. rgsTg ZQEig zqioc 

G. ZQICQV ZQICOV ZQICOV 

D. zqig'i zqigi zqigi 
A. ZQEig ZQEig ZQia 



TEGGctQEg (zEZZctQsg), four. 

NT. ZEGGCCQEg ZEGGCCQEg tEGGaoa 

G. ZEGGO.QCOV ZEGGUQCOV ZEGGCtQCOV 

D. ZEGGCiQGl ZEGGCiQGl ZEGGCiQGl 

A. ZEGGCiQCig ZEGGCCQCtg ZEGGCtQCi 



4. The Cardinal numbers from ttsvts, five, to 
txarov, a Jumdred^ are indeclinable. 



6-4 



GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



§52. 



5. After txarov, the larger numbers are regu- 
lar plural adjectives of the first and second declen- 



sions; as 



M. 


F. 


N. 




diaxoGioi 


diaxoGiai 


diaxoGia 


two hundred 


toiaxoGioi 

yjhoi 

diG%ihoi 

{JLVQIOI 
diGfiVQIOl 


roiaxoGicu 

yikicti 

8kj%i1ku 

fivQim 

diafivQiai 


roiaxoGia 
%ilia 
oiGylha 
[ivQia 

dlG[M>Qltt 


three hundred 
a thousand 
two thousand 
ten thousand 
twenty thousand 


Obs. 4. 


In the composition 


of numbers, either the smaller pre- 



cedes, and the two are joined by xai; or the greater precedes, in 
which case the xai is generally omitted; thus, stevte xai eixogi, 
or eixogi tzevte, twenty-five ; niyciixog xai EixoGtog, or EixoGtbg 
7ts[i7tTog, twenty-fifth. When three numbers are reckoned to- 
gether, the greatest comes first, and so on in succession, with the 
conjunction xai; as, vr\Eg ixazbv xai eixogi xal sTtzd, a hundred 
and twenty-seven ships. 

Obs. 5. Instead of the numbers compounded with eight or 
nine, more frequent use is made of the circumlocution ivog (or 
fiiag) dsovtog, &c. ; thus, rijsg fiiag deovGai ei'xoGi, hoenty ships 
wanting one, i. e. nineteen shiiis ; hsa dvcov ds'ovra eixogi, twenty 
years wanting hvo, i. e. eighteen years. 



163. §52. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

The ordinal numbers are formed from the cardinal. All un- 
der twenty, except second, seventh, and eigh th, end in tog ; from 
twenty upwards, all end in oGtbg, and, in their inflection, are re- 
gular adjectives of the first and second declensions ; thus, 

TtQCQZOg TTQCQTt] TTQGyTOV first 

{jlQOtEQOg TTQOZEQa TTQOtEQOV first of tllC two) 

deviEQog devzeQa Sevteqov second 

tokog tQiri] tqizov, &c. third 

Obs. 1. in order to express half, or fractional numbers in 
money, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words compound- 
ed of ?][it, half, and the name of the weight, &c. (fircc, ofiolog, 
tuhirrov), having the adjective termination or, lor, (dor, append- 
ed to it, and placed before the ordinal number, of which the half 



§53. GREEK NOTATION" OF NUMBERS. 65 

is taken ; as, zqizov fyizdlarzov, 2| talents; i. e. the first a talent, 
the second a talent, the third a half talent, and so of others. In 
like manner the Latin sestertius, 2|- asses by syncope from semis- 
tertius ; the first an as, the second an as, the third a half as {ter- 
tius semis). 

From this must be distinguished the use of the same com- 
pounds in the plural, preceded by the cardinal number which, in 
that case, mean simply so many half talents ; thus, Tola i\\hjl- 
rdlavza, not 2-| talents, but three half talents, or one and a half. 

Obs. 2. From the ordinal numbers are formed numerals in 
awg, expressing "on what day ;" as, dsvzeoaiog, on the second 
day ; roizaiog, on the third day, &c. 



§53. THE GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 

164. — The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet in three 
different ways, to denote numbers. 

1. To express a small series of numbers, each letter was reck- 
oned according to its order in the alphabet; as, «, 1, /9, 2, e, 5, 
to, 24. In this manner the books of Homer's Iliad and Odys- 
sey are distinguished. The technical syllable HNT {nvz), will 
assist the memory in using this kind of notation ; for if the alpha- 
bet be divided into four equal parts, y will be the first letter of 
the second part, that is 1 ; v, of the third, or 13; and ? of the 
fourth, or 19. 

2. The capital letters were used, in denoting larger series of 
numbers, thus; I, 1, 17 for Ttsvre, 5, A for dtxa, 10, H for Ha- 
xarov, 100, X for lilioi, 1000, and M for {ivqioi, 10,000. A 
large 17 round any of these characters, except /, denoted five 
times as much as that character represented; as, |j|, 50 ; \m\ 
for 50,000. 

3. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, the 
Greeks divided the alphabet into three parts ; but, as there are 
only 24 letters, they used g', called Imcrjiiov, for 6 ; Q, called 
xoTiTza, for 90 ; and <7ft, called oafjim, for 900. In using this 
kind of notation, the memory will be assisted by the technical 
syllable AlP\ that is, A', denotes 1 ; 1\ 10 ; and P', 100. It 
is to be observed, also, that all the numbers under 1000, are de- 
noted by letters with a small mark like an accent, over them ; 
and that a similar mark placed under any letter, denotes that it 
represents so many thousands. 



$Q 



GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



53. 





165. — TABLE OF NUMERALS. 




Cardinal. 


Ordinal. 


1 


a' 


T 


nqortoq 


2 





8vo 


dtvxfooq 


3 


V 


XQUq 


xqlxoq 


4 


6 


reacraQfq 


xixaoxoq 


5 


£ 


Tiivxa 


7l£fJb7tXOq 


6 


5 


f£ 


kxrog 


1 


C 


£71X(X 


tpdofioq 


8 


n 


OXXUi 


bydooq 


9 


&' 


£VV£CL 


Evvaxoq 


10 


b 


detta 


OExaxoq 


11 


vet 


evdexix 


kvSixaxoq 


12 


>& 


dttidsxob 


do)6ixaxoq 


13 


vy 


XQiGY.alStxa 


VQiGxabdixaroq 


14 


mT 


TlGGaQlGY.ClldlY.a 


XfGGaouxoudixaxoq 


15 


va' 


7t£VX£xaiS£xa 


7l£VX£xai8kxaxoq 


16 


*?' 


kxxuldaxa, m 


kxxabdexaxoq 


IV 


<£' 


enxaxalSfxa 


knxaxa.b8iy.axoq 


18 


vrj' 


6xxo)xald(xa 


by.xoixab8ty.axoq 


19 


ld ', 


ivvtaxaldexa 


£W£ay.ab8ixaxoq 


20 


X 


ii/.oGv 


fixoGtoq 


21 


xd 


£1X0 Gb dq 


ilxoaxbq 7roo>xoq 


30 


k' 


xouxxovxa 


XQbaxOGXOq 


40 


(4 


xaGGaqaxovxa 


XfGGaqaxooxoq 


50 


V 


7t£Vxrjxovx<x 


7tfVX7]XOGXOq 


60 


V 


ftt]y.ovra 


£%7jXOGx6q 


70 


o 


£^dour i xovta 


k/38ojnrjxoGx6q 


80 


7l' 


oydorjy.ovTci 


bydorjxoGtoq 


90 


5' 


ivvtvrjxovTa 


ivvivrjxoGXoq 


100 


q[ 


zy.axov 


kxaxoGxbq 


200 


g 


di>axoGLOv 


dbaxoGbOGtoq 


300 


<t 


XQbaxOGbOb 


rqvaxoGiOGToq 


400 


V 


reGGaQaxoGiOo 


X£GGaqa/.OGlOGx6q 


500 


<p' 


mvraxoGiov 


7T£vray.oGbOGr6q 


600 


X 


£b,aXQGlOl 


it,axoGbOGx6q 


700 


i// 


inxaxoGiov 


knxaxoGbOGxbq 


800 


Hi 


oxxaxoGbOb 


bxxaxoGbOGXoq 


900 


C775 


ivveaxoGoot, 


ivvfaxoGbOGToq 


1,000 


a i 


ylkbOb 


ybhoGroq 


2,000 


A 


SiGyD.iov 


6bGyv).vOGx6q 


3,000 


V, 


xqiGylXiOb 


XQbGybhoGxoq 


4,000 


d\ 


xtxqaxoGylhob 


XtXqaY.bGybhoGXOq 


5,000 


f t 


navxaxiGylXioi 


TtivjaxiGyiXioGToq 


6,000 


e / 


ttaxioyiXbOb 


Itay.iGyUiOGtoq 


7,000 


C, 


knxaxbGyihob 


£7lT<XY.lGyihl0GT0q 


8,000 


V t 


hySoxiGyihob 


bySoxiGybhoGToq 


9,000 


&, 


ivviaxbGylhoi 


ivvicty.LGyi/.iOGroq 


10,000 


b f 


flVQvOb 


fll'QbOGXOq 


20,000 


x t 


dcGjLU'QiOi 


8bG,UVQbOGXOq 


50,000 


V t 


nivxaxiGi-ivqiOb 


7i£vraxbGuvoboax6(i 


100,000 


(>, 


3tXttXbG,ltV(}bOb 


dfXCtY.lG/d'QbOGXOq 



Thus the number 1853 is a / eo v y 



§54. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 

166. — From the cardinal numbers are formed — 

1st. The Numeral adverbs; as, dig, twice, from dvo; roi'g, 
thrice, from rqelg ; and from the others, by adding the termina- 
tion y.ig, d'/.ig, or tdxig, as, TeGGaody.ig, i^dxtg, ixwzovzdxig, four 
times, six times, a hundred times. 

2d. Multiple numbers in nXoog, contracted nlovg ; as, dt- 
nXoog, two-fold; zoinXoog, three-fold ; TstganXoog, four-fold. 

3d. Proportionals in nXdaiog ; as, zoinXdmog, three times as 
much ; lExoanXdaiog, four times as much. 

4th. Substantives in dg, ddog, which express the name of the 
several numbers ; as, fiovdg, Gen. -ddog, the number one, unity ; 
Svdg, the number two ; dtxdg, the number ten ; sixdg, the num- 
ber twenty ; rgiaxag, the number thirty, &c. 

Note. The substantive numerals are commonly employed to express 
the higher numbers ; thus, Sh.a ftvQtddiq, 100,000 ; e/.arbv /uvyoddtq, a 
million. Sometimes the smaller numbers, added to the larger, are 
likewise expressed by substantives ; thus, 517,610, nivTtjv.ovTa fivQid- 
dzq y.ai /.no., -/ihddtq re enrd v.al nqoq k/.arovrdd^q i§ /.at dfxdq. 

5th. The Distributives, answering to the question, in how 
many parts ? are formed in ya ; as, dr/a, ZQiya, r&oaya, ntv- 
taya ; in two parts, in three parts, &c, and connected with 
these are such adverbs as, tqi/tj, trebly, zqi%ov, in three places, &c. 

Obs. When other parts of speech are compounded with nu- 
merals, the first four assume the following forms, viz. : fiovo-, one ; 
di-, two ; tQi-, three ; zetqcc-, four ; as, fiovoxEocog, dixeowg, 
tQiTiovg, TETQUTtovg, one-homed, two-horned, three-footed, four- 
footed. 



§ 54. COMPARISON" OF ADJECTIVES. 

167. Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

168. The Positive expresses a quality simply ; the Compara- 
tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in 
another, or, than in several taken together ; and the Superlative, 
in the highest or lowest degree compared with several taken sep- 
arately ; thus, " gold is heavier than silver ; it is the most pre- 
cious of metals." Hence, those adjectives only can be compared 
whose signification admits the distinction of more or less. 



68 



COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



55. 



The superlative in Greek, as in Latin and English, often ex- 
presses only a very high degree of the quality, without implying 
comparison, and may be called the superlative of eminence. 



§55. GENERAL RULE. 

169. — The comparative degree is formed by 
adding tzqoq to the positive ; and the superlative, 
by adding tcctoq ; thus, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

[idxag iiaxao-ieoog fiaxdo-zazog 

tvvovg evvova-TSQog evvova-tazog 

xaxovovg xaxovovc-TSoog xaxovova-zazog 

dnloog-cLTilovg dnlovc-zEQog dnlova-zazog 

170. — SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in tig reject i\ as, 

%aomg %aQih-Z£Qog yaqisG-zazog 

2. Adjectives in og reject g; and also, after a 



short syllable, change o into co ; thus, 



ogdog 

dixcuog 

Ttovrigbg 

■fravfiaoTog 

dtjlog 



OQ&o-zsoog 

oiy.aw-z£Qog 

TZOvrioo-tEoog 

d-avfiaczo-zeoog 

drjX6-T£Qog 



ogdo-zazog 

dr/.uio-zazog 

Ttovijoo-zazog 

ftavyLaozb-zaxog 

dqlo-zazog 



og after a short syllable : 

oocpog 60(pc6-Z£oog aocpco-zuzog 

xevog y.Evco-zeoog xsvco-zatog 

cpofteobg cpo@£Q(6-Z£Qog yopenca-zazog 

quvEQog cpavEQco-zegog yav£Qc6-zazog 

%ak£7iog yal£7Zc6-Z£Qog %al£7Zc6-zazog 

Obs. The change of o into oo is made, to prevent the concur- 
rence of four short syllables. Hence o, after a doubtful vowel 
considered long, remains unchanged ; but if considered short, the o 
is changed into co ; thus, evzlpog has ivzi(i6z£oog, and ioyvoog lias 
i(j%vc>6z£Qog ; because i and v are considered long ; but (iyoiog has 
dyQ((6z£Qog, and (xarog, ixavcozEQog, &c, because the i and a arc 
considered short. 



§ 56. COMPAKISON BY mv AND tazog. 69 

3. Adjectives in ccg, r\g, and vg, add to the neu- 
ter gender; as, 

psXag ftikawa fjitXav; paXdv-ztQog, &c. 

tv6£$)]g evGefirjg ewsfieg', evas^sa-tsQog, &c. 

EVQvg evgeia svqv] evQV-zeQog, &c. 

4. Adjectives in cov and r\v add to the nomina- 
tive plural masculine ; as, 

acfQoov IS". P. aopQOveg dcpQove'a-ZPQog, &c. 

zt'grjv " zsos'veg ZEQZvta-ZcQog, &c. 

Exc. But 7ZS7TQ3V makes n£7Taiz£Qog, &c, and mW, — mozzqog, 
mozazog. 



§ 56. COMPARISON BY tW AND wr-roff. 

1Y1. — Some adjectives are compared by lav 
and ^jto^ ; viz., 

1. Some in gog, derived from substantives. 
These form the comparative and superlative, not 
from the adjective, but from the substantive ; 
thus, 

ix&Qog, inimical, from vjftog, enmity, sjfdiW, f/fiiGZog. 

or/.zQog, compassionate j oixzog, compassion, or/aiow, or/aiazog. 
at6%Qog, base, aloyog, baseness, alaylmv, ai'a^tazog. 

paxQog, long, fiqy.og, length, [A/qxicov, [iqxiGzog. 

Also y.aXog, beautiful, has y.aXXicov, xaXXiazog, as if from xdX- 
Xog, beauty. 

2. Some in vg are compared both ways ; as, 

ftud'vg, deep, fiaxtvzeQog, $a\Yvzazog. 

and fia&icov, ftddiozog. 

In like manner compare @Qadvg, slow; zayvg, swift ; Ttayvg, 
thick ; yXvxvg, sweet ; coxvg, quick; &c. 

3. QccSiog, easy, has qaiav, qaiovog ; or, with i 
subscribed, yaav, qdavog. 

Note. Some of these, and of others compared in this way, are occa- 
sionally found compared by rzyoq and raroq. Ta/vq also has a com- 
parative Q-ao~<so)v, Att. B-arxmv. The comparatives in iov are declined 
like ffo'xpQon; 159-1. 



70 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 57, 58. 



172. — § 57. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are irregular in their 
comparison; viz., 

< d[isiv(av dya&cozazog 

dgeicov doiGzog from Jtoyg, Mars 

peXrioov fitlnoroc from fiovXofiai, I wish 

dya&og, good J x Q 8 f a(J(av uodziGzog from xoazvg, brave 

^ Xmtmv Xqxszog from Xw, for ftsXco, I wish 

( yiozazog \ 

cpEQTEoog < ytQiGTog l from cpsocQ, I bear 

( (DEOZIGZOG ) 



xaxog, bad 



Cp8QTl6T0g 

xaxioav xdxiGzog 

%EIQ(QV %ElQlGZOg 

[is'yag, great [a,ei£cov \iiyiGZog 

TtoXvg, many ttXeicov nXEiGZog 

iXaxvg, small iXdaacw IXd^iGZog 

fwtQog, little iJggojv, or fisioor, or fnxgoZEQog ; {iixoozazog 



§ 58. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 

173. — Some adjectives in the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, have no positive, but are formed from— 







1. nouns; as, 




fiaGiXEvg 


a king 


ficiGlXEVZEQOg 


fiuGiXEvzazog 


xs'odog 


gain 


XEodlCQV 


yJodiGzog 


0Eog 


God 


■d-ECOZEQOg 




xXinzrjg 


a thief 




vXETtziGzazog 


xvdog 


glory 


xvoixav 


xvdiGZog 


XV03V 


a dog 


XVVZEQOg 




7zX?j}tTj]g 


a striker 




nXrf/.ziGzazog 


nozqg 


a drinker 




TToziGzazog 


Qiyog 


cold, rigor 


Qiyiojv 


QiyiGzog 


CpCOQ 


a thief 




qjcoQzazog 




2 


. pronoun ; as, 




avzog 


self 




avzozazog 




3. 


participle ; as, 




i^Qcofisvog 


strong 


> 80 Q CO/HEV8GZEQ g 


FQfaliEVEGZUZOg 



§59. 



DIALECTS OF COMPAKISON. 



71 



4. adverbs; as, 



avco 

aopao 

lyyvg 
ggca 

>r 
£6(0 

07T16CO 

TTSQaV 

7ZOQQCO 

fZQCot 

vxpi 



up 

immediately 

near 

out 

down 

in 

bach 

beyond 

far 

early 

highly 



avco-teoog 

acpdo-reoog 

iyyv-zeoog 

iyy-i(av 

i^co-TEQog 

xarw-rsoog 

£6CQ-TSQ0g 
OTUGCQ-TEQOg 
TtEQai-TEQOg 
TtOQQCQ-TEQOg 

nomai-TEQog 



5. prepositions: as, 



Ttqo before TZgo-rsoog Ttgo-zarog 



whence 
whence 



-rarog 

-rarog 

-larog 

-rarog 

-rarog 

-rarog 

-rarog 

-rarog 

-razog 

-rarog 

vxpiarog 



7iQcorog 



174. — Some comparatives and superlatives are again com- 
pared ; as, 



Xcoicov, better 

(A.E103V, less 

Qiiav, easier 

xallicor, more beautiful 

%eqeicqv, ) 

XEIQCOV, \ 

%EiQi6zog, worst 
y.vdiorog, most glorious 
iXaywrog, least 
Tzoarog, first 



worse 



Xco't/TEQog 
fiEiorEQog 
rb QaorsQOv 
rb xaXhwrEQOv 
j rb %£Q£ior£QOv 
\ and %£iQor£QOv 
r\ xEtQiarortQij 
y.vdicrarog 
iXa^iarorEQog 
TtQwriarog 



1*75. — Some words ending in qg, of the first declension, are 
compared; thus (see 160, Obs. 2), 

v^Qtort;g, an insolent man vfioicro-rEoog vfioitfro-rarog 
7iX£ovtxrqg, an avaricious man TzlsonxriG-rarog 



17G.— §59. DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 

1. The Attics compare many adjectives in og, ?]g, and J, by 
-icrEoog -lorarog, -airsgog -airarog, and -Ecrsoog -mrarog\ as, 



72 



THE PRONOUN. 



60. 



Idlog, loquacious 
epilog, friendly 
by Syncope, 
emovdeuog, diligent 
ay&ovog, not envying 
TtuXaiog, old 
ysQUiog, an old man 
aortal, rapacious 
TzlEOvt'xTTjg, avaricious 
ipEvdijg, false 



lafa'a-TSQog 

qiilca-TEQog 

cpil-TSQog 

67tovdai86-z€Qog 

acp{rov86~-T8Qog 

nalal-tEQog 

ySQCLl-ZEQOg 



aQ7Tayi(j-7EQog 

7TlE0VEXri(7-ZEQ0g 

\pEvdia-tEQog 

2. Dialects of particular comparatives 
for XQE166G3V, I. and D. -AQE66COV, better ; 
dat. %£Qq'h ace. XEQrja, nom. plur. %EQijEg ; 
paGGojv, greater ; with others which may 
in reading. 



-ratog 

-zazog 

-tatog and qiliarog 

-zazog 

-razog 

-razog 

-ratog 

-tatog 

-tatog 

-ratog 

and superlatives, are, 
%eiqojv, P. j£«(>«tW, I. 
— liEi£,wv, I. [itXcov, D. 
be learned by practice 



§ 60. THE PRONOUN. 

177. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

178. — Pronouns may be divided into Personal, 
Possessive, Definite, Reflexive, Reciprocal, De- 
monstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. 
Of these the Personal only are substantives ; the 
rest are adjectives. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

179. — The Substantive or Personal Pronouns 
are tyd), 1, of the first person ; ov, thou, of the sec- 
ond ; and ov, of himself, of herself, of itself, of the 
third (56) ; they have the same accidents as nouns 
(55) ; are of all genders ; and, in construction, 
take the gender and number of the noun for 
which they stand. They are thus declined : 



60. 



THE PRONOUN. 



73 



tyco, I. 

Singular. 
N. iyco 

G. i[j,ov or \iov 
D. ifioi or \ioi 
A. i 'fit or fit 



ay, thou. 



First Person, M. or F. 

Dual. Plural. 

N. tjfieig 

G. ?](iow 

D. ijiuv 

A. itfiag 

Second Person, M. or F. 



N. A. vm or vco 
G. D. vmv or vow 



IN T 



Singular. 
V. av 

G. 60V 
D. 601 
A. (T£ 



Dual. 



N. A. V. trqpcot or c>g)oa 
G. D. (rgpcoeV or 6Cpa)v 



ov, of himself, of herself, of itself 
M., F., or N. 

Dual. 



Singular 

G. ov 
D.ol 

A. £ 



N. A. 6(peos, erg) ca 
G. D. 6cpmv 



Plural. 
~N. V. veers' 
G.vfiojv 

d. iy*m> 

A. v^as 1 
Third Person, 



Plural. 
N. crgoa^, Neut. (rqpe'a 
G. crg>a>y 

D. 6Cpl6l 

A. (jg)a?, Neut. cg)£a 



180. — OBSERVATIONS. 



1. The monosyllable forms [iov, fiol, pe, are always enclitic, 
21— 2 3, and have their accent thrown back on the preceding word. 
They are never governed by a preposition. 

2. In the dual, the forms vco and cqpco are sometimes written 
vo) and 6q>cp. 

3. The third personal pronoun, like sui in Latin, wants the 
nominative singular, and is commonly used by the Attic prose 
writers in a reflexive sense; i. e. it refers to the subject of the pro- 
position in which it stands ; or of the foregoing, if the second be 
sufficiently connected with it. Thus used, it is translated of him- 
self of herself of itself &c. In Homer and Herodotus, and the 
Attic poets, it is more frequently used as the pronoun of the third 
person, for the nominative of which they use the relative og ; as, 
og tq»], he said. This pronoun, however, is but little in use, the 
definite avzog, 182, and the reflexive savzov, 183, being used in- 
stead of it. The nominative (not now in use) appears to have 
been anciently i, from which was derived the Latin is. A neu- 
ter form of the nominative and accusative plural, 6Cpe'a, occurs in 
Herodotus. 

4 



74 POSSESSIVE AND DEFINITE PRONOUNS. § 61, 62. 

§ 61. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

181. — The Possessive Pkonouns denote pos- 
session, and are derived from the substantive pro- 
nouns. 

1. In signification, they correspond to the genitive of their 
primitives, for which they may be considered as a substitute ; 
thus, 6 adeXybg s^ov, the brother of me, and 6 ipbg ddel^pog, my 
brother, are synonymous expressions. 

2. In/om, they are regular adjectives of the first and second 
declensions, and are declined like v,aX6g, 144. They are derived 
as follows : 



your, i. e. of you two 



From ifis 


comes 


ifiog 


~i 


-6v 


my 


68 

s 




cog 

tr 

og 


-n 


GOV 

(■/ 
-OV 


thy 
his 


vm 




vcoitEQ-og 


-a 


-OV 


our, i 


cgpo5i' 




GtyCQireg-og 


-a 


-OV 


your, 


?jfjiEig 




?1{IE7€0-Og 


-a 


-OV 


our 


vfxeig 




VflETEQ-Og 


-a 


-OV 


your 


ocpelg 




OQpETEQ-Og 


-a 


-OV 


their 




Doric 


oqi-og 


-h 


-OV 





Obs. To this class also belong tjfiEdanog, one of our country ; 
viizdanog, one of your country. But nodanog; of what coun- 
try ? more properly belongs to the interrogative, — and dXXoda- 
Tiog, one of another country, to the indefinite pronouns. 



§ 62. IIT. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

182. — The Definite Pronoun ccvtoq is used to 
give a closer or more definite signification of a per- 



son or thing. 



This pronoun has three different significations. 

1. In the nominative it adds the force of the English self to 
the word to which it belongs ; as, tyoo avrog, I myself; av av- 
rog, thou thyself; avtog, he himself : so also, in the oblique 
cases, when it begins a clause ; as, avrbv icogaxa, I have seen the 
person himself 

2. In the oblique cases, after another word in the same clause, 



§63. 



REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 



75 



it is used for the third personal pronoun, and signifies him, her, 
it, them ; as, ov% scoqaxag avzov, thou hast not seen him. 

3. With the article before it, it signifies the same ; as, 6 av- 
rbg av&Qconog, the same man. 

Obs. In the last sense when the article ends with a vowel, it 
often combines with the pronoun, forming one word ; thus, zav- 
zov, for zov avtov ; zavzij, for z rj avtrj ; zavza, for za avzd, <fcc. 
When thus combined, the neuter ends in or as well as o. The 
combined zavzfj and zavza ^must be carefully distinguished from 
zavzy and zavta, parts of ovzog, 185. The former has the Spiri- 
tus lenis (') over the v, the latter has not. 

4. The definite pronoun avzdg is thus declined. 



Singular. 


Dual. 




Plural. 




. avz-og -i] -6 


N. A. 


K 


avz-oi -al 


-a 




> t r r 


G. 


5 ~ ~ 




. avz-ov -ijg -ov 


avz-co -a -co 


avz-cov -cov 


-COV 


. avz-co -y -dp 


G. D. 


D. 


avz-oig -alg 


-oig 


» ~ ~ ~ 


A. 


3 / r 


/ 


.. avz-ov -i\v -6 


avt-oiv -aiv -oiv 


avz-ovg -ag 


-a 


In the same manner are declined : 








aXkog akin alio 

<•/ <7 <r 

og r\ o 




another 






who, which 




ixsivog i 


'MSIV1J 8XSIVO 




that 





§ 63. IV. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

183. — Reflexive Pronouns are such as relate 
to the subject of the proposition in which they 
stand. 

1. The Reflexive pronouns are formed from the accusative 
singular of the personal pronouns, with the oblique cases of avtog. 
They are ipavzov, of myself; aeavzov, of thyself ; savzov, of 
himself; and are thus declined. 

Singular. Plural. 



G. 


savt-ov 


-ijg 


-ov 


G. savz-cov 


-cov 


-cov 


D. 


tavt-cp 


-XI 


-Cp 


D. savz-oig 


-aig 


-oig 


A. 


iavt-6v 


-rjv 


-6 


A. savz-ovg 


-ag 


r 

-a 



2. In the same manner are declined ipavzov and aeavzov, 
without the neuter gender, but, in the singular number only. In 



76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 64, 65. 

the dual and plural, the parts of the compound are used sepa- 
rately; as, ijiimv avzav, of ourselves. 

3. Homer never uses the compound form even in the singu- 
lar ; but, ifis avzov ; Gt avzov, &c. 

4. The contracted forms oavzov and avzov, &c, are often 
used for oeavzov and savzov. 

5. Sometimes in the singular, and often in the plural, savzov 
is used by the Attics in the first and second, as well as in the 
third person. They are all sometimes used as reciprocals, 184 ; 
and, in some grammars, they are so denominated. 

6. In these compounds, instead of av, the Ionics have cov, and 
retain 8 before it ; thus, ipscavzov, oecovzov, &c, for ifiavtov, &c. 



§ 64. V. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 

184. — The Reciprocal Pronoun indicates a mu- 
tual relation between different persons, expressed 
in English by the phrase one another. 

This pronoun is formed from dXlog, wants the singular, and 
is thus declined : 

Dual. Plural. 

G. all>';l-oiv -cuv -oiv 



D. ciXh'jl-oiv -cuv -oiv 
A. akh'jX-co -a -co 

The Dual is seldom used. 



G. dlh)).-(ov -wv -cov 
D. alh'jl-otg -aig -oig 
A. dlXr { X-ovg -ag -a 



§ 65. VI. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

185. — The Demonstrative Pronouns are such 
as point out with precision a person or thing al- 
ready known. They are, 

ovzog avzri rovzo ) .-,. , 7 7 ,, ., 

<** <■/* ' ^ y this, the latter, the one. 

ixstvog ixsivn sxeivo that, the former, the other. 

1. "Ode, ?jde, zode, this, is simply the article 6, r t , to, rendered 
emphatic by the enclitic ds annexed through all its cases, 140-3. 
'Exetvog is declined like avzog, 182-4. 



§66. 



EELATIVE PRONOUN. 



77 



Ovtog, like the article, takes the initial t in 


the oblique cases, 


and is thus declined : 








Singular. 




N. V. ovtog 


avtrj 


zovro 


G. tovtov 


ravrrig 


tovtov 


D. tovtcp 


ravrri 


tovtcp 


A. rovzov 


Tccvtqv 
Dual. 


tovto 


N. A. V. tovtco 


tavta 


tOVTOO 


G. D. tovtoiv 


tavtatv 
Plural. 


tOVtOlV 


N. V. OVtOl 


Ctt>7«« 


tavta 


G. tOVtOOV 


TOVTMV 


tovtov 


D. tovtoig 


tavtaig 


tovtoig 


A. tovtovg 


tavtag 


tavta 


Obs. The correlatives toaovtog, toiovtog, 


and trfkixovtog, 


have either ov or o in the 


i nominative and accusative singular 



neuter; thus, 



toaavtrj 



toaovtov, or toaovto 



N. toaovtog 

G. tOGOVtOV, &C. 

2. Among the Attics, the demonstratives were rendered em- 
phatic by adding i to the termination ; as, ovtoci, tovtovi, tov- 
tm, &c. But when the final vowel is a, or o, or £, it is dropped, 
and i put in its place ; thus, ode, tovto, tavta, with the emphatic 
i are written odi, tovti, tavti When ye or de follows the de- 
monstrative, the i is placed after it, e. g. tovto ye with t becomes 
tovtoyi This suffix always draws the accent to itself. A sim- 
ilar emphasis is expressed in Latin by annexing the syllables met, 
te, pte, ce; as, egomet, tute, meapte, hicce (Lat. Gr. 118-4; 121, 
Obs. 4 ; 123-3). The i added by the Attic and Ionian writers to 
the Dative Plural, however, is not emphatic but merely euphonic. 

3. The emphatic i is annexed also to the compounds of ovtog, 
and a few of the correlatives ; such as toaovtog, toiovtog, rqh- 
xovzog, tooog, &c, making toaovtoai, &c. 



§66. VII. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

186. — The Kelative Pronoun is one that re- 
lates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or 
pronoun going before it, called the antecedent. 



78 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 



§67. 



1. The relative og, ?;, o, who, which, that, is declined like av- 
tdg (182-4). It is rendered emphatic by adding the enclitic 
syllable naq ; as, oaneq, ?jneQ, otzsq, 403-20. 

2. The Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic tragedians, in- 
stead of og, use the article 6, ?), to, as a relative. 

3. Instead of og, the compound pronoun oatig is used as a 
relative after nag, or any word in the singular expressing an 
indefinite number ; and 6(X0t,.after the same words in the plural ; 
as, nag oatig, every one who ; ndvtsg oaoi, all who. 



§67. VIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

187. — The Interrogative Pronoun is used in 
asking a question ; as, rig iiioLr}6s ; Who did it t 

1. The interrogative tig, ti ; who? which? what? has the 
acute accent on the first syllable, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. tig j tig, ti, 
G. tivog, tivog, tivog 
D. tin, tivi, tin, 
A. tiva, tiva, ti. 



N. tivsg, tiveg, tiva, 
G. tivcov, tivcov, tivcov, 
D. tiai, tiai, tiai, 
A. tivag, tivag, tiva. 



N. A. 
tivs, tivE, tive, 

G.D. 
tivoiv, tivoiv, tivoiv. 

In the same manner decline otig, ovtig, and \ii\tig. 

Obs. Instead of the genitive and dative tivog, tivi, we often 
find a secondary form, tov, to) ; 

2. The interrogative tig has its responsive oatig, which is thus 
used : tig inoiqas ; who did it ? ovx olda oatig Inoiijae, I know 
not who did it. The responsive oatig is declined as follows, and, 
as will be perceived, disregards the usual rules of accentuation : 

Singular. 



N. 


oatig 


?}ug 


0,tl 


G. 
D. 
A. 


ovtivog 

COtlVl 

ovtiva 


ijativog 

rpivi 

ijvtiva 

Dual. 


ovtivog 

CptlVl 
0,tl 


N. A. 


cotive. 


ativs 


cotivs 


G.D. 


oivnvoiv 


a'tvtivoiv 


oivtivovv 



aizivsg 
covzivov 


aziva 
wvzivcav 


alarm 


olcziai 


aazivag 


aziva 



§ 68. INDEFINITE PKONOUNS. 79 

Plural. 

N. oiziveg 

G. wvzivow 

D. olaziai 

A. ovazivag 

3. Instead of oazig, Homer uses ozig, declined like tig as 
above, and instead of the genitive and dative ovzivog, o)zm, we 
find the secondary forms ozov and ozop ( Obs. above). 

4. There appears to have been, among the ancient Greeks, an- 
other interrogative pronoun, nog, n?j, no, and its responsive bnbg, 
bnr\, bno, which have become obsolete, except in two cases, now 
used adverbially ; viz. nov, where ? ny, in what way ? and hence 
the responsives bnov and bnij. From these are formed the inter- 
rogative nozeoog, -a, -ov, which of the two ? and its responsive 
bnbzeoog, -a, -ov, which of the two ; with several other adverbs 
and adjectives still in use ; each interrogative having always its 
own responsive, — the one being the correlative of the other ; as, 

INTERROGATTVES. RESPONSIVES. 

Adj. nolog, of what kind? bnoiog, of what land. 

noaog, of what number ? bnoaog, of what number. 

nrjlixog, of ivhat age ? bnylixog, of what age. 

nbzioog, which of the two ? bnozeoog, which of the two. 

Adv. nag, how ? oncag, how, &c. ; thus, 

Tlrikiv.og iczi ; of what age is he ? ov* olda bntjXixog, I know 
not of what age. In the same manner the responsives are used 
without an interrogation preceding ; as, inEld&szo bnoiog qv, 
" he forgets of what kind he was" To these also may be added 
nodunog, of what country ? 



§ 68. IX. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

188. The Indefinite Peonouns are such as de- 
note persons or things indefinitely. They are, 



zig 


zig 


Zl 


some one. 


SsTvot 


deivu 


8eTva 


some one, such a one. 


allog 


ally 


alio 


another. 


tZEQOg 


tztoa 


EZEQQl 


other, a different one, another. 



80 



CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



§69. 



To which may be added the following negatives ; viz., 



no one. 



ovug ovrtg ovri 

ovdeig ovde^iia ovdtv 

[tfjTig fifjtig fijjti 

fitjdsig [tydefiia iirfiiv j 

1. The indefinite rig has the grave accent on the last syllable, 
to distinguish it from rig interrogative, which has the acute ac- 
cent on the first ; the former is enclitic (21), the latter is not. 

2. The indefinite 8uva, some one, of all genders, and always 
with the article prefixed, is declined like a noun of the third de- 
clension; thus, 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. dsiva 


K.A. 


1ST. dtTveg 


G. deivog 


deTvjs 


G. deivcov 


D. dein 


^ G. D. 


D. 


A. dsiva 


delvoiv 


A. deTvag 



Auva is sometimes indeclinable ; as, G. rov deTva, D. ?<x> 
SeTva. JlXXog is declined like avzog, 182-4 ; ezeoog, like cpavs- 
oog, 145. 

Obs. 1. All words used interrogatively are also used indefi- 
nitely, but generally with the accent changed ; thus, 

INTERROGATIVES. INDEFINITES. 

noaog ; how great? how many? Ttocog, of a certain size or num- 
ber. 
nolog ; of what hind ? noiog, of a certain kind, such, 

rznh'xog ; how old ? how large ? TTtjh'xog, of a certain size or age. 



189.— §69. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

1. Besides the interrogatives and responsives (187-4), the 
Greek language has likewise special correlative pronouns, each 
pair of which has a mutual relation. The latter of the two is 
expressed in English by as. 

zooog ooog (Lat. tantus, quantus), so great, as. 

roiog oiog (Lat. talis, qualis), such, as. 

TflXixog ifluxog of the same age, as ; of the same size, as. 

2. When the correlation is more expressly designated, express- 
ing just as great as, exactly as great as, the former pronoun 



§70. 



DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUN. 



81 



(zoGog, zoiog, z?]h'xog) has ds or ovzog attached to it, and the 
latter has on (from onr{) prefixed ; as, 

zogogSs ) t / zoioods 

zooovzog 



) t , zoioods ) t «. znhxoode ) < * , 

J- onooog ~ y onoiog \ ~ \ onrikixog 

j zoiovzog ) zqMxovzog j ' 



190.— §70. DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 
'Eya, I. 





Ionic. 


Doric. 


iEoLIC. 


Poetic. 


s. 


K 


ejw> iywvq. 
iyo')ya, iyo'wya. 


syo), eyo)v. 
B. io), io)ya. 


*ym. 




G. lf,Ul0, £fl£0. 


l/xev. 


B. i/xovq. 


i/xi&iv. 




£/.l£»9-fV. 










D. 


Ifxiv. 


EflOl', B. &/A.V. 




D. 


N.A. 


a/xt, ct/ifif. 






P. 


N. tjuEiq. 


<x,ufq, dfiutq. 




af.tfiiq. 




Gr. rjixiow. 










auo))>, af.iEO)V. 


ajLif,io)v, a/t/tEdW. 


r]/un,o)V. 




D. 


a t uiv, a/.uv. 


cc/.t^fc, apt [xiv, 

CtjUfllGoV. 


rifilv. 




A. tjfiiaq. 






t ~ ir 




a t u aq, a,u t, a t u f,i i . 


a/x/.iaq, a/x/xeaq. 


?jfA,ivaq, aixf.il 






2v f Thou. 




S. 


N.y. 


tv, rvvt], rvya. 


Tovvrj. 






G. a no, Geo, ai&iv. 


riv, Tivq, Ttovq. 


Giv, ai&iv 


Gtlo&tv 




D. 


TO I, TIV, Tiiv. 


Tivr\. 






A. 


T£, TV. 


TIV, TUV. 




D. 


K A. V. 


yfie, v/ifie. 






P. 


K V. iifiifq. 


Vfitq, d/u/iiiq. 




v/x/xf, Vfifiiq. 




G. vjuio)V. 


VfiCiv. 


Vf.lU0)V, V/U/UE0)V. 


v[AiU)v. 




I). 










V/UV, VfllV. 


V/X(ll>, VfXfllV, 










vf-ifjiiaw. 






A. v/Asaq. 


v/xaq, v/xi, v/xfxi. 


v/x/xaq, v/x/xiaq. 


VfAtZaq. 




( 


Jv, of Himself , &c. 




S. 


G. f*o, oto, Eftb, 

£0, £#-£V. 

L>. lot. 


IV. 


k'Q-iv, yi&iv. 


uo&ev. 
lot. 




A. /Liiv. 


VlV. 


/ulv, vlv. 


te, Gq>i. 


D. 


N". A. <r<]p£f. 


o~<po)f, o~qio'). 






P. 


N. aq>hq. 
G. acpeo)v. 


Gq>£q. 




GcptTiq. 
Gqitlow. 




T>. G([jLv, aqil. 




ao<pu. 


q>iv. 




A. aqiiaq. 


Gcpi, IjJE. 


Gyiq, a,Gq>t. 
fxlv, vlv. 


Gqitlaq. 
Gq>£. 



4* 



82 THE VERB. §71. 

Obs. 1. fiiv and viv are used for the accusative in all genders 
and numbers ; so also is eg)/, among the poets, i. e. for avz-ov, 
-r t v, -6, and avt-ovg, -dg, -a. 

Obs. 2. The adjective pronouns are inflected in the different 
dialects according to the models of the first and second declen- 
sions. Other peculiarities may be learned by practice ; as, for 
fyt'zeoog, -a, -ov, our ; D. a\iog, -a, -ov ; for vpszeoog, D. vpog ; 
for Gcptzsoog, D. G(pog ; for ovnvog, A. orov, D. ozev, I. ozeo, P. 
ozzsco ; for (pirn, A. ozco, I. bz&co ; for aziva, A. arret, D. ccggci ; 
for tivog and tivog, A. ro£>, I. tio, D. zev ; for tin and rw/, A. 
too, I. r«p ; for tivcov, I. t*W ; for tioi, I. tsotGi ; for tw«, A. 
«tt«, D. (Wet ; for cog, gi\, gov, thy, D. teog, ted, tsov ; for og, 
i\, ov, I. 8og, si], eov, his, &c. : this form occurs only in the singu- 
lar number. 



§■71. THE VERB. 

191. — A Veeb is a word used to express the 
act, being, or state of its subject. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive* 

2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by 
one person or thing to another. In Greek, it has 
three forms, Active, Middle, and Passive, 195. 

* These two classes comprehend all the verbs \n any language. 
According to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which 
denote transitive action ; i. e. action done by one person or thing to 
another, or which passes over, as the word signifies, from the actor to 
an object acted upon ; as, "Caesar conquered Gaul," or "Gaul was con- 
quered by Caesar." Intransitive verbs, on the other hand, include all 
those which have nothing transitive in their meaning — nothing passing 
over from one person or thing to another, and consequently no relation 
to any thing beyond their subject which they represent in a certain 
state or condition, and nothing more. — Instead of the terms active and 
neuter formerly used to denote these two classes of verbs, the terms 
Transitive and Intransitive are here preferred, as being more expressive 
and appropriate, and in order to relieve the term "active" from the 
ambiguity created by using it, both as the designation of a class of 
verbs, and also, as the name of a particular form of the verb called the 
active voice. To the latter of these only, it is now applied in this work. 



§ 71. THE VERB. 83 

3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a 
state of being, or action confined to the actor. It 
is commonly without the passive form. 195, Obs. 2. 

192. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the verb, in simple propositions, is, to affirm. 
That of which it affirms is called its subject, which, if a noun or 
pronoun, is in the nominative ; but when the verb is in the infi- 
nitive, its subject is in the accusative. 

2. The verbs that express being simply, in Greek, are three, 
slfUf yivofiai, and viiao%(o, signifying in general to be. The state 
of being expressed by intransitive verbs, may be a state of rest ; 
as, evdw, I sleep ; or of motion ; as, y vavg nlhi, the ship sails ; 
or of action ; as, TQtjco f I run. 

3. Transitive and Intransitive verbs may always be distin- 
guished thus : a transitive verb always requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, quia oe, I love thee ; the intransitive verb 
does not, but the sense is complete without such an object ; as, 
?)pai, I sit ; tq8%<x), I run. 

4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Greek, are translated 
by verbs considered transitive in English ; as, avddvta, I please ; 
VTiaxova, I obey ; aTZEi&co, I disobey ; ipTtodi^co, I hinder ; 
£voy}J(o, I trouble ; &c. In strict language, however, these and 
similar verbs denote rather a state than an act, and may be ren- 
dered by the verb to be and an adjective word ; as, I am pleasing, 
obedient, disobedient, &c. 

5. Many verbs are used, sometimes in a transitive, and some- 
times in an intransitive sense ; as, (p&ivco, tr. / destroy, intr. I 
sink, or decay ; OQiiaa, tr. i~ stir up ; intr. / rush. This change 
from a transitive to an intransitive sense, however, is generally 
indicated by a change from the active to the middle form of the 
verb ; as, (paiva, active tr. / sheiv ; cpaivofJiai, mid. / shew my- 
self, i. e. intr. I appear. (See 195, Note) 

6. Verbs usually intransitive become transitive, when a word 
of similar signification with the verb itself is introduced as its ob- 
ject ; as, rqii^iiev rbv ay diva, let us run the race. 

*7. "When a writer wishes to direct the attention, not so much to a 
particular act, as to the employment or state of a person or thing, the 
object of the act, not being important, is omitted ; and the verb, though 
transitive, assumes the character of an intransitive. Thus, when we 
say, " The boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the present state 
or employment of the subject "boy," and the verb has obviously an 



84 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. § 72. 

intransitive sense : still an objeet is implied. But when we say, "The 
boy reads Homer," the attention is directed to the object "Homer," as 
well as to the act, and the verb has its proper transitive sense. 



§ 12. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

193. Though the division of verbs into Transitive and In- 
transitive, comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet, from 
something peculiar in their form or signification, they are charac- 
terized by different names expressive of this peculiarity. The 
most common of these are the following, viz. : Regular, Irregu- 
lar, Deponent, Defective, Redundant, Impersonal, Desiderative, 
Frequentative, and Inceptive. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which all the 
parts are formed from the Root or stem, accord- 
ing to certain rules. §§ 93-97, and 106, 107. 

2. Irregular, or Anomalous Verbs, differ in 
some of their parts from the regular forms. §§112, 
116, 117. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a middle and pas- 
sive form, have either an active or middle signifi- 
cation. § 113. 

4. Defective Verbs are those in which some 
of the parts are wanting. 

5. Redundant Verbs have more than one 
form of the same part. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the 
third person singular. § 114. 

7. Desideratives denote desire, or intention 
of doing. §115, 1. 

8. Frequentatives express repeated action. 
§ 115, 2. 

9. Inceptives mark the beginning or continued 
increase of an action. § 115, 3. 



§ 73, 74. INFLECTION OF VEEBS. — VOICE. 85 

§ 73. INFLECTION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

194. — To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices in Greek are three, Active, Mid- 
dle, and Passive. 

2. The Moods are five ; the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses, or distinctions of time in Greek, 
are seven, the Present, the Imperfect, the Future, 
the Aorist, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and, in the 
passive voice, the Paulo-post-future, or Future- 
perfect. 

4. The Numbers are three; Singular, Dual, 
and Plural. 

5. The Peesons are three ; First, Second, and 
Third. 

6. The Conjugations, or forms of inflection, 
are two ; viz., the First, of verbs in co ; and the 
Second, of verbs in fie. 

Obs. Some verbs appear in both forms ; as, dei'/.vvco and beiy.vv- 
(M, I show. Some verbs are partly of the first conjugation, and 
partly of the second ; thus, ftuivG), I go, of the first ; 2d Aorist, 
sfiqv, I went, from ^r^i of the second ; yiyvaaxco, I knoiv ; 2d 
Aor. eyvcov, I knew, from yvoopi of the second. Such verbs as 
these, however, though regular in each form, are generally reckon- 
ed among the irregular verbs. 



§ 74. VOICE. 

195. — Voice is a particular form of the verb 
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing- 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb, in Greek, has three voices, 
Active. Middle, and Passive. 



SQ voice. § 74. 

Obs. 1. In all voices the act expressed by the transitive verb is 
the same, and in all, except sometimes the middle, is equally tran- 
sitive; but in each, the act is differently related to the subject of 
the verb, as follows : 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on some object ; as, tvtvtco as, 
I strike you. 

2. The Middle Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on itself, or in some way for it- 
self; as, TVTiTOfAai, I strike myself ; a/3XaiijdjLir]v 
tov TTodcc, I hurt my foot / covrjadjurjv ltctzov, I 
bought me a horse. 

3. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon ; as, tvtcto/licu, I am 
struck; 6 novo, eftXacptfrj, the foot — his foot — my 
foot — was hurt. 

Obs. 2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, do not admit a 
distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the ac- 
tive voice, frequently in that of the middle or passive ; but, what- 
ever be their form, their signification is always the same; as, 
&vtjisx<D or fhnpntojica, I die. 

Obs. 3. The Middle voice, in Greek, is so called, because it 
has a middle signification between the active and the passive, im- 
plying neither action nor passion simply, but a union, in some 
degree, of both. Middle verbs may be divided into Five Classes, 
as follows : 

1st. In middle verbs of the first class, the action of the verb is 
reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence verbs of 
this class are exactly equivalent to the active voice joined with the 
accusative of the reflexive pronoun; as, lovco, I zoash another; 
lovofiou, I zoash myself; the same as lovco s[iavt6v. 

2d. In middle verbs of the second class, the agent is also the 
remote object of the verb, dr he with respect to whom the act 
takes place ; so that middle verbs of this class are equivalent to 
the active voice with the dative of the reflexive pronoun (ipoancp, 
aeavzcp, savico); as, cuquv, to take up (any thing), sc. for another, 
in order to transfer it to another ; aioua&ca, to take up, sc. in 
order to keep it for one's self to transfer it to one's self. Hence 
verbs of this class carry with them the idea of a thing's being 
done/or one's self. 



§74. voice. 87 

3d. Middle verbs of the third class express an action performed 
at the command of, or with regard to, the subject, and is expressed 
in English by to cause. In other words, this class may be said to 
signify, to cause any thing to be done ; as, ygaqm, I write ; yoa- 
qiopcu, I cause to be written ; I cause the name, as of an accused 
person, to be taken down in writing by the magistrate before whom 
the process is carried, or simply, I accuse. 

4th. The fourth class of middle verbs, includes those which 
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as, amvoeGxrai, to make 
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to 
make a league ; dialvsod'ai, to dissolve along with another, to 
dissolve by mutual agreement. To this class belong verbs signi- 
fying " to contract," " to quarrel," " to contend," &c. 

5th. The fifth class comprehends middle verbs of the first 
class, when followed by an accusative, or some other case ; in 
other words, it embraces all those middle verbs which denote an 
action reflected back on the agent himself, and which are, at the 
same time, followed by an accusative, or other case, which that 
action farther regards ; as, dvafivdcdui zi, to recall any thing to 
one's own recollection. 

Note. From the reflected nature of this voice, many verbs, which 
are transitive in the active voice, may be rendered by an intransitive 
verb in the middle voice ; as, axi).).o), I send (viz. another) ; o~tOJ.oi.iai, 
I send myself, i. e. I go ; ogylZo), I provoke another ; ooyltojuai,, I provoke 
myself, i. e. lam angry ; 7iel&o), I persuade another; TTci&o/na^ I per- 
suade myself, i. e. I yield, or obey. In many instances, however, the re- 
lation to self is not so clearly distinguishable. This is particularly the 
case with the later writers, as Plutarch, Herodian, &c. In the writings 
of the ancients, Herodotus, Xenophon, and others, the distinction between 
the active and the middle voice is much more strictly observed. 

Obs. 4. The future middle has often an active, and sometimes, 
especially among the poets, a passive sense. 

Obs. 5. The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, 
and the future-perfect middle, are the same as in the passive, or, 
more strictly, they are the passive forms in a middle sense. When 
the middle aorists are unusual or wanting, their place is supplied 
by the passive aorists in a middle sense. Sometimes, when the 
middle aorist is used in the ordinary sense, the passive also is used 
as a middle, but in a peculiar sense ; as, middle OTeiXaaxrai, to 
array one's self; passive GzaXyvai, to travel. 

Obs. 6. The 2 Perfect, and 2 Pluperfect Active (called by the 
ancient grammarians the perfect and pluperfect middle) are of rare 
occurrence, and, when used, are completely of an active significa- 
tion. In a few instances, it is true, they incline to an intransitive 



88 moods. § 75. 

and reflexive sense ; as, ninoida, I have 'persuaded myself, i. e. 
/ am confident. But still it is certain that, in all cases in which 
a verb can have a middle sense, that sense is expressed, in these 
tenses, only by the perfect and pluperfect passive in their middle 
sense. 



§ 15. MOODS. 

196. — Mood is the mode or manner of express- 
ing the signification of the verb. 

197. The moods, in Greek, are five, namely ; 
the Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, 
and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative Mood asserts the action or 
state expressed by the verb simply as a fact ; as, 
gjiXzcQ, Hove ; yqacpu, lie tvrites. 

Obs. 1. The indicative, in Greek, being used in dependent, as 
well as in independent clauses, resembles the English indicative, 
and is often used where the subjunctive would be used in Latin ; 
as, yiyvooGXEig Tig Ian ; do you know who he is ? Latin, An scis 
qui sit ? 

2. The Subjunctive and Optative Moods re- 
present the action or state expressed by the verb, 
not as a fact, but only as a conception of the mind 
still contingent and dependent: that is, they do 
not represent a thing as what does, or did, or cer- 
tainly will exist, but as what may, or can, or 
might exist. 

The Subjunctive represents this contingency 
and dependence as present / — the Optative, as 
past 

Obs. 2. The subjunctive and optative moods involve a com- 
plex idea including — 1st and chiefly, the general idea of liberty 
or power, expressed by the English words, may, can, might, &c, 
from which the secondary ideas of contingency and futurity are 
derived; and 2d, the modification of this idea by the meaning of 



§ 75. moods. 89 

the verb common to all the moods ; thus, He may, or can, ex- 
pressed in Greek by the subjunctive form, represents the person 
he in possession of the general attribute of liberty or power. Com- 
bine with this the meaning of the verb, and then we have the 
general attribute expressed by the subjunctive form, restricted to 
the particular action or state expressed by the verb ; as, he may 
write ; he can walk ; he may be loved. 

Obs. 3. The future indicative is often used in a subjunctive, 
and also in an imperative sense ; and hence, in the futures, there 
is neither subjunctive nor imperative mood. See Syntax, 699-5 
and 705. 

Obs. 4. The contingency of an action conceived of as past, is 
not absolute, but relative to the knowledge of the speaker ; thus, 
in the expression, yeyodqjri, he may have written, the act, if done, 
is past, but of the fact, the speaker is uncertain. 

3. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, ygdcps, write thou; it a, 
let him go. 

Obs. 5. In the past tenses the Imperative expresses urgency 
of command, expedition, or completion of action ; as, Troiqoov, 
have done. In the perfect, moreover, the idea of permanent and 
completed action is implied ; as, ifxfieph'jG&cD, let him have been 
cast, i. e. let him be cast speedily, and effectually, and continue so ; 
7] &voa xexXsig&cq, let the door be shut, and kept so. 

Rem. The future indicative, the subjunctive, and the infinitive, 
are sometimes used imperatively. See Syntax of these moods. 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number; as, ygdcpsw, to 
write / ytyQCKptvac, to have written / yqdcpbO&cu, 
to he written. 

Obs. 6. Besides the common use of the infinitive, as in Latin, 
it is completely a verbal noun, of the neuter gender, 714. 

Obs. 7. Hence the Greek infinitive supplies the place of those 
verbal nouns called gerunds and supines, in Latin, 717, 718. 

Obs. 8. The infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated as 
the indicative, § 175. 

Obs. 9. The imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indica- 
tive. 



90 THE TENSES. § 76. 

§ 76. THE TENSES. 

198. — Tenses are certain forms of the Verb 
which serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

The Tenses in Greek are seven, — the Present, 
the Imperfect, the Future, the Aorist, the Per- 
fect, the Pluperfect, and, in the Passive, the Fu- 
ture-perfect or Paulo-post-future. 

Rem. In some verbs, the perfect and pluperfect active, the aorists in 
all the voices, and the future in the passive voice, have two different 
forms, usually distinguished as first and second, but of the same signifi- 
cation. The second future has no existence in the active and middle 
voices ; that which was so called by the ancient grammarians, is only 
an Attic form of the first §101, 4 (1). 

I. The Present tense expresses what is going 
on at the present time; as, ygdcpco, I ivrite, I am 
writing. 

Obs. 1. The present tense is used, to express general truths ; 
as, £,6)cc tq£%bi, animals run. In historical narration it is used 
with great effect for a preterite tense. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event as passing, and still unfinished, at a certain 
past time ; as, tyqayov, I was writing (when he 
came). 

Rem. This tense corresponds in meaning and use to the past 
progressive in English, and tlie imperfect in Latin. 

Obs. 2. From its expressing the continuance of an action, this 
tense is frequently used to express what was customary, or con- 
tinued from time to time; as, 6 i7rnox.6{iog tov mnov ETQifis, 
y.al ixrtvi^e ndaag ype'oag, the groom kept rubbing and cur- 
rying the horse every day. 

Obs. 3. For the same reason it is used instead of the aorist, 
to express a past action, without reference to any specified time. 
When the action is continued, and not momentary, and when 
actions of both kinds are mingled in a narration, the continued 
action is often expressed by the imperfect, and the momentary by 
the aorist; as, i^t'doafis xcu xaftvldxrEi, He ran forth 
(the aorist,) and continued barking at them (the imperfect). 
Tovg (tsv ovv Ttelraarag fdt^avTO ol pdflpaQOt, xcu efidftov- 



§ 76. THE TENSES. 91 

to' ETTEitf iyyvg yaav, ol bnkvtai Etoanovro, y.ai ol TreXraGTai 
evdvg z'lnovxo. The barbarians received (aorist) the peltastce,* 
and fought (imperf.) with them. But when the heavy-armed 
soldiers were near, they turned (aorist), and the jpeltastaz imme- 
diately pursued them (imperf.). 

Obs. 4. When the action represented by the imperfect as be- 
gun and continuing in past time, does not succeed, or fails to be 
completed, it expresses only the beginning of an action, or the 
attempt to accomplish it; as, Klsagyog 8s tovg aTQuncozag 
i^id^szo is'vcu, Clearchus attempted to force the soldiers 
to go. 

III. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, yqaipco, I shall or will 
iv rite. 

Rem. The future tense corresponds to the simple future in 
Latin and English ; and, in the passive voice, has two forms called 
the first and second. 

Obs. 5. Other varieties of future time are expressed by means 
of auxiliary verbs. See 199-1. 

IV. The Aorist represents an action or event 
simply as past; as, tyqaxpa, I wrote. 

Rem. This tense, in all the voices, has two forms, called the 
first and second. It corresponds in meaning to the past tense in 
English, and the perfect indefinite in Latin. When the time to 
which the imperfect and pluperfect refer, is manifest from the 
context, the aorist is often used instead of them. 

Obs. 6. From the indefinite nature of this tense, it is used by 
the Greeks to express what is usually or always true ; and is ren- 
dered by the English expressions, ' usually] ' to be wont] ' to 
use ;' as, Tug rmv cpavXav ovvrj&eiag.oXiyog yqovog ditXvas, A 
short time commonly dissolves the confederacies of the wicked. 
JZoMQCtTng i8i8a<;s tovg iiccdijrag aiiia&i, Socrates was wont 
to teach his disciples without any charge. In this signification, 
however, it differs from the imperfect (Obs. 2), inasmuch as the 
aorist denotes what is always customary; the imperfect, what 
was customary during a specified period of time. 

Obs. 1. As the aorist does not, like the imperfect, express con- 
tinuance, it is often used to express momentary action, and that 
in the same construction in which the imperfect is used to ex- 
press continued action (Obs. 3). 



92 THE TENSES. §76. 

N. B. Though in the paradigm of the verb the full form of both the 
t first and second aorist is usually given, it must be observed that when 
the first aorist is in use, the second is usually wanting, and vice versa. 
In a very few words only, are both forms to be found, and even in these, 
the two forms for the most part belong to different dialects, ages, or 
styles. 

Y. The Peefect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at the present time, or in a 
period of time of which the present forms a part ; 
as, y'tyqacpa, I have written. 

Rem. In some verbs, this tense, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Perfect and Second-perfect. It corresponds in 
meaning and use to the present-perfect in English, and the per- 
fect definite in Latin. 

Obs. 8. This tense implies that at or in the present time, the 
act expressed by the verb is completed, but does not indicate at 
what point or period of time prior to the present it was completed. 
Thus, yeygacpa zr t v imtjToXijv, I have written the letter, does not 
say when the letter was written, but only that it is now written. 
Hence it is, that this tense connects the action, either in its com- 
pletion, or, in its continuance as a completed act, with the present 
time ; thus, yeyafiqxa, in Greek, means not only, I have been 
married (without saying when the event took place), but that the 
married state still continues, i. e. / am married. Hence the per- 
fect is generally used to denote a lasting or permanent state or an 
action finished in itself, and therefore often occurs in Greek, 
where, in English, we use the present; as, afiyipefinxag, thou 
protectest (i. e. thou hast protected and still continuest to protect). 
The continued force of the perfect accompanies it through all the 
moods; as, unov r)\v &vquv xsxletad'ai, they gave directions 
for the door to be shut, and to be kept so ; 6 fitv h]$zr t g ovzog ig 
top HvQicplsysirovia £(i@s{il?]G'Q'CQ, Let this robber be cast into 
the Pyriphlegethon, and continue there. 

Obs. 9. In several verbs, the perfect tense is always used to 
denote only the finished action, whose effect is permanent, and 
therefore, in English, is translated by the present of some other 
verb, which expresses the consequence of the action expressed by 
the Greek verb. Thus, xaleco, I name, perfect passive x t'x A ?/ - 
(jlcu, I have been named, and continue to be so, but commonly 
rendered, / am named, or my name is. So also, from xrdofiai, 
I acquire for myself, xtxrij^ini, I possess (i. e. I have acquired, 
and the acquisition continues mine) ; [ivdofxai, I call to my re- 
collection ; 'fi s [i v i\ fi at , I remember. 



§ 77. THE TENSES. 93 

VI. The Pluperfect represents an action as 
completed at or before a certain past time; as, 
iytyqacpbtv, Iliad written (some time ago). 

Rem. This tense, like the perfect, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Pluperfect and Second-pluperfect. In both, its 
meaning is the same, and corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin 
and English. 

Obs. 10. The pluperfect bears the same relation to the per- 
fect, that the imperfect does to the present ; and hence whenever 
the perfect is rendered by the present ( Obs. 9), the pluperfect 
will of course be rendered as the imperfect ; as, dedoixa, I fear, 
iSedoixsiv, I feared. 

VII. The Future-Perfect, or Paulo-post-Future, as it is 
sometimes called by grammarians, is, both in form and significa- 
tion, compounded of the perfect and future, and denotes, 

1. The continuance of an action, or state, in itself, or conse- 
quences ; as, ?j Ttohieia zelscog yey.ocpiastai, The city will con- 
tinue to be completely organized ; yeyQaipszai, He shall con- 
tinue enrolled. In thus expressing continuance, it agrees in sig- 
nification with the perfect, and hence, 

2. It is the natural future of those perfects which have ac- 
quired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ( Obs. 9) ; 
as, XsXemtcu, he has been, and continues left, i. e. he remains ; 
Paulo-post-F. XeXeixperai, he will remain; yJxrnpcu, I have 
acquired and continue to retain, i. e. / possess ; Paulo-post-future 
y.EXT?j6 0{jLai, I shall possess. 

3. It is frequently used to intimate that a thing will be done 
speedily ; as, (pod& y.al TtsTTQa^stai, speak and it shall be done 
immediately. 



199. — §77. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 

TENSES. 

1. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and Fu- 
ture; and in each of these divisions an action may be represented 
either as incomplete and continuing, or as completed at the time 
spoken of; thus, 



94 THE TENSES. §77. 

p j Action continuing; as, ygdcpco, I write or am writing : 

' I Action completed ; as, ytygaya, I have written. 

p j Action continuing ; as, syQacpov, I was writing. 

\ Action completed ; as, syeygatyEbv, I had written. 

( Action continuing ; as, ygaxpa, I shall write. 

Future. < Action completed ; as, yeyodycog hofiai, I shall 

( have written. 

Of these six divisions of time, it will be observed, that all ex- 
cept the last are expressed by distinct forms or tenses of the verb ; 
and this last is also expressed by a distinct form in the passive 
voice, called the Paulo-post-future. It may also be noticed that 
in each of these three divisions of time, by means of an auxiliary 
verb and the infinitive, an action may be represented as on the 
point of beginning ; thus, 

Present. [it'llco ygatyeiv, I am about to write. 

Past. b^ieIXov youtyeiv, I was about to write. 

Future. [islXtjGw yqaqeiv, I shall be about to write. 

2. Besides these, the Greek has the advantage of a separate 
tense under the division of past time, to intimate simply that the 
action is past without reference to any particular point of time at 
which it took place, and hence is denominated the Aorist, i. e. inde- 
finite. This tense is rendered into English by the past tense, and 
into Latin, by the imperfect and perfect tenses in an indefinite 
sense. 

3. The tenses, divided as above into three classes, in respect 
of time, are farther, with regard to their termination and use, 
divided into two classes or series, which may be denominated the 
Chief or Primary, and Secondary tenses ; thus, 

Chief or Primary. Secondary. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Perfect. Pluperfect. 

Future. 1 Aorist. 

Future-passive. 2 Aorist. 

The chief tenses are employed in the direct address, to express 
actions as present or future. The secondary are used in the reci- 
tal of these actions as past ; and hence are sometimes denomi- 
nated the Historical Tenses. 

4. In the English expression of the moods and tenses, <fcc, great 
precision cannot be expected. Their signification often varies accord- 
ing to the conjunctions and particles with which they are joined, and 
hence, a corresponding variety of translation becomes necessary. In 
consequence, also, of the number of independent forms being greater in 



§ 78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 95 

the Greek verb than in the English, it is necessary to express certain 
tenses and moods, in the former, by a circumlocution in the latter ; and 
sometimes, in order to give the precise idea of the Greek tense, a to- 
tally different construction must be adopted in the English sentence by 
which it is translated ; thus, having no imperative in the past tense 
in English, the full force of the imperative forms, in the past tenses in 
Greek, must either be lost in the translation, or preserved at the 
expense, often, of a clumsy circumlocution. (197, Obs. 5.) In like 
manner, if we were required to give a strict translation to an aorist 
participle, according to the idiom of our language, we must use, not a 
participle, but a tense of the verb ; thus, rovro Tto^aaq anrjX&fv, is 
commonly rendered, having done this, he departed; when, in fact, it 
should be, when he did this, he departed. The ordinary rendering of the 
moods and tenses is the same in Greek as in Latin. This, as well as 
peculiarities of usage, is fully illustrated, §§7o, 16. 



§78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

200 — Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is frequently made 
use of, by means of the auxiliary verbs dvai, y.vqttv, vnaqyiiv , h'/a-v, 
(fee, in connection with a participle or infinitive, partly to supply defi- 
cient, or to avoid inharmonious forms ; partly to strengthen the signi- 
fication ; and partly to express, with more minuteness and precision, 
the time and manner of action or state expressed by the verb ; thus, 

1. The subjunctive and optative in the perfect passive, are generally 
formed with dvai and the perfect participle ; the independent forms 
being rarely used. The same construction is sometimes used in the 
active voice. 

2. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an event, fieX- 
?.o>, &L).o), and £&£?.o), with the infinitive, are used ; as, o,xv ftUMu: ).£- 
yew, whatever you are about to say. 

3. Continuance, or a permanent state, combined with the various 
circumstances of commencement, simple existence, priority, energy, or 
accident, is expressed by yivouav, n/xi, vTtdo/o), y.vqo), e/o), rvy/dvo), 
with a participle ; as, iytvtro dv&qoynoq d7ttaraXu£voc, there was a man 
sent. 

4. The completion of an event is expressed by tlftl, with a past par- 
ticiple. With such a participle, ilul in the past tense, is equivalent to 
the pluperfect, but is much more emphatical ; as, roue; avaoffiavraq rtji; 
tcoUmi; t}v dio')taq, he was after driving the informers from the city. 
In like manner, taouai, in the future, with a past participle, expresses 
the future-perfect in the indicative ; the subjunctive and optative of 
which is supplied from the aorists and perfect ; as, Tunoirnxivov torai, 
it shall have been done, or it shall be done quickly. 

5. Anticipated performance is expressed by ySdvo) or nqoq.0a.vo), 
with a participle ; as, SvvriQtvrcn, <pO-<xaao xl dqdaavxa; ^ na&ilv, they 
conspire to do something to avoid suffering. 

6. Secrecy, so as to escape not only the knowledge of others, but 
even a person's own consciousness, is expressed by Xav&dvo), with a 



96 PARTICIPLES. § 79. 

participle ; as, y d).a&ov rtvsq t.twdo'avtiq dyyiV.ovq, some persons enter- 
tained angels unawares. 

7. A variety of other circumstances are expressed by joining appro- 
priate adjectives and participles, with iljul; as, qxxvtQbq tjv &vo)v, he 
sacrificed openly. 

8. Strong and earnest desire is expressed by the imperfect or second 
aorist of oytD.o), agreeing with its subject, and commonly followed bv 
the infinitive ; the particle tlrs is sometimes joined with it, and some- 
times not ; as, Mt] oqxXov viy.av, I wish that I had not conquered. AlQr 
oq>t).ov fielvai,, Would to God I had stayed. 

9. Imperious duty or necessity is expressed by verbal adjectives in 
tioq (202), either agreeing with their substantives, or, what is more 
usual, having their agents in the dative, and governing their objects as 
the verbs do from which they are derived; as, 6 dya&bq fiovoq rt/i /; - 
rioq, the good man alone must be honoured. 

10. In some cases, there appears to be a pleonasm in the use of cer- 
tain auxiliaries, where there is really none ; for by analyzing the 
expressions, we shall find every word having its own distinct force ; 
thus, i/.MV ilvat, inuladouivoq, is incorrectly translated, forgetting will- 
ingly. The full force of the words may be expressed in English thus : 
willing to be after forgetting — according to the ancient Celtic idiom. 
(See No. 4 ; also Construction of the Participle, § 177-IV.) 



§ 19. PARTICIPLES. 

201. — Participles are parts of tlie verb, and, 
without affirmation, express its meaning considered 
as a quality or condition of an object ; as, 

i/l&e @ Is 7i co v, he came seeing. 

6 rag y.drco&ev zitipu clvtov, standing below he praised him. 

Participles are varied like adjectives, by gender, number, and 
case, to agree with substantives in these accidents. If the idea 
of time be separated from the participle, it becomes an adjective. 

Every tense in Greek, except the imperfect and pluperfect, has 
its participle, — a circumstance which gives the language a decid- 
ed advantage over the Latin, which has no present participle pas- 
sive, nor past participle active. 



§ 80. VERBAL OR PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES IN zog 
AND riog. 

202. — The Greeks have verbal adjectives, which, both in signi- 
fication and use, resemble participles. They are formed by adding 
the syllables tog and rtog to the first root of the verb ; thus, 



§ 80. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 97 

Root. Verbal Adj. 

Xsyco, I say ley tog ley.tog, said, 

yodcpco, I write yqay tog yqantdg, written, 

cptfo'co, I love quia tsog cpilrpsog, to be loved. 

Those derived from liquid verbs add tog and tsog to the sec- 
ond root ; as, 
tslvco, I extend, 2d R. tav- tsog, tatsog, to be extended. 

Note. In those derived from pure verbs, the vowel preceding the ter- 
mination is sometimes lengthened, sometimes not ; thus, from yikioj, the 
adjective is q>i).r\xioc, ; but from aioio), aiQiroq. 

Obs. 1. The verbal adjectives in tog have commonly a pas- 
sive signification, and either correspond to the Latin perfect par- 
ticiple passive ; as, Ttoiijtog, /actus, made ; yytbg, aggestus ; atgs- 
ntog, flexus ; or, they convey the idea of ability and capacity, 
expressed by the Latin adjectives in His ; thus, 6oat6g y visibilis, 
visible; ay.ovotog, audible, &c. Frequently, however, they have 
an active signification; as, xalv7itog, concealing ; fis^TZtog, blam- 
ing, &c. 

Obs. 2. Those in tsog correspond to the Latin future partici- 
ple in dus, and convey the idea of duty, necessity, or obligation ; 
as, tyilrpsog, amandus, who ought to be loved ; TTots'og, bibendus, 
" which ought to be drunk." 

Obs. 3. The verbal te'ov, in the neuter (among the Attics 
more commonly tea in the plural), corresponds to the Latin ge- 
rund ; thus, Ttotsov (Attic notsa) soti, bibendum est ; TtoXs^ivtsa 
sat i, bellandum est. 

Note. For the construction of these adjectives, see Syntax, § 14*7, 
Rules L and II. 

203. — ACCENTS OF THE VERB. 

In verbs, the accent is placed as far from the 
end of the word as the quantity of the final sylla- 
ble will permit (22 & 24). 

204. — EXCEPTIONS AND VARIETIES. 

1. Monosyllables, if long, are circumflected ; as, w, elg, qifjg, 
pjj, for %. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic, unless followed by a 
long syllable, is circumflected — 

1st. In the active, and the middle voice in the future of liquid 
verbs ; as, 07TsqoS, ansosTg, gtzsqeiv, GTiegovfiai, &c, be- 
cause contracted for 67Zeqs'co, &g. 
5 



98 CONJUGATION. § 81. 

2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists ; and 
in the subjunctive present of verbs in [u ; as, rvcpft-coj 
-fjg, rj — tVTtco, rvTzyg, &c. — ti&cq, ziftcopcu. 

3. The third person of the optative in oi and ai has the acute 
accent on the penult; as, tsrvcpoi, dgsaai, except in the futures, 
No. 2— 1st. 

4. The imperatives, il&t, dm, svqv, ids', lafia, have the accent 
on the final syllable ; but the imperative, 2 aor. middle, 2d person 
singular, circumflects the final syllable ; as, tvtzov — except yivov, 
rgaTiov, hzyxov. 

5. The infinitive of the 2 aorist active circumflects the final 
syllable ; as, tvnuv. 

The infinitive of the 1st aorist active, 2d aorist middle, both 
aorists passive, all the perfects, and the infinitives of the active 
voice in the 2d conjugation, have the circumflex on the long pe- 
nult, and the acute on the short. 

6. The participles of the 2d aorist active, of the present active 
of verbs in fit, and all ending in cog or eig, have the acute accent 
on the final syllable ; as, rvncov, lazdg, didovg, zervcpcog, rvcp&ei'g. 

The participles of the perfect passive, have the acute accent on 
the penult ; as, tetvfi[A.svog. 

*1. El\ii and Cfy^l have the acute accent on the final syllable 
in the indicative (except the 2d sing.) ; thus, iati, qp//o~/, &c. 



§81. CONJUGATION. 

205. — The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several voices, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, according to 
a certain order. 

206. — Of regular verbs, in Greek, there are two 
conjugations ; viz., the first, of verbs in co ; and the 
second, of verbs in jui. 

207. — 'Verbs of the first conjugation, in the ac- 
tive voice, end in co, and in the middle and pas- 



§82. THE EOOT. 99 

ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN CO. 

208. — Verbs of the first conjugation consist of 
the following parts ; viz., 

1. The root or stem, which is unchanged, except 
as modified by the rules of euphony ; and, 

2. Those parts which, by their changes, distin- 
guish the voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and per- 
sons. These parts are the tense-sign, the augment, 
and the terminations. 



82. THE ROOT. 



209. — 1. The Root is that part of the verb 
* which remains unchanged throughout, except as 
required by the rules of euphony, and serves as 
the basis of all the other parts. 

2. The final letter of the root marks the char- 
acter of the verb, and is therefore called the char- 
acteristic / it is either a vowel, or a mute, or a 
liquid. 

When the characteristic is a vowel the verb is 
called puTe; — when a mute, the verb is called 
mute; — and when a liquid, the verb is called 
liquid, 

3. In regular verbs, the characteristic is the 
letter next the termination in the present indica- 
tive ; as, y, in %k yco ; tt, in tqstvco ; s, in cpiXsco. 

Exc. But if of two consonants the last is r or 
a liquid, the first is the characteristic ; as, tt, in 
tv tit co and juccqtvtco ; ju, in ts/uvco. 



FINDING THE ROOT. 



4. Rule. Strike off from the present indicative 
all that follows the characteristic ; what remains 



100 ' THE ROOT. § 82. 

is the root / thus, Xsy-a, tsqu-cd, /uccqtz-tco, tsju- 
vco ; roots Key, TtQjv, /uaQTz, tsju. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

210. — Obs. 1. The letter z is frequently added to the root be- 
fore the termination in the present and imperfect, apparently to 
strengthen the sound, as in zvnza. The characteristic, if a mid- 
dle or aspirate mute, coming before this r, is of course changed 
into its own smooth (43-2) ; thus, ftaq) before zco becomes flan, 
and the verb, §a7izco. Hence, in order to find the root, the char- 
acteristic changed by euphony must be restored as in the follow- 
ing words : 









Charac. 


Root. 


filaTTZCO 


by euphony 


for ftlaftzoo 





j&a/S 


XQV7ZZCQ 


a 


XQVpZCO 


i 


XQvft 


xaXvTZza) 


a 


xalvfizo) 





xalvfi 


CLTZZCO 


u 


acpzco 


cp 


dcp 


fianzco 


u 


fidcpzoi) 


cp 


fiacp 


&0.7ZZCO 


u 


ftdcpzco 


cp 


-&acp 


Gxanzon 


it 


GXUtyZCQ 


CP 


axccy 


dQVTtZCO 


u 


dgvcpzco 


cp 


dgvcp 


Q17ZZCQ 


u 


QltyZCQ 


cp 


Qicp 


QanzcQ 


it 


QCLCpZOH 


cp 


Qacp 



Also 6\ivyw and ipv%co have their roots G{ivy and ipvy. 
Note. The preceding list contains all the words to which this obser- 
vation is applicable. 

SECONDARY FORMS. 

211. — Obs. 2. Many verbs have a Secondary form in the pre- 
sent and imperfect, which has come into general use, while the 
original form or theme, has become obsolete, § 116. The root 
of the theme nevertheless remains the proper root of the verb 
in the other tenses, and will be found in the future by striking off 
oco. If the letter next preceding be a consonant, it is the charac- 
teristic of the verb. If it be a long vowel, either that or its cor- 
responding short vowel is the characteristic. But if it be a short 
or doubtful vowel, the characteristic is either that vowel itself, or 
a r-mute, which has been rejected before o~co for the sake of sound, 
44-8. This observation applies in the following cases ; viz., 

1st. Verbs in o*o"ca (rrco) or £oo, are secondary forms, derived 
from primary, whose characteristic is a x-mute (commonly y) 



§82. 



THE BOOT. 



101 



when the future ends in £<x> ; or a r-mute (commonly 8) when 
the future ends in o~a>. The characteristic being substituted for 
gg (rr), or f, gives the supposed primary form. Thus, 

Char. Primary form. 
y TiQwyco 



Secondary form. 


Future. 


7TQUGGCO (tTOo) 


TTQagco 


-Aqat,(o 


XQd<~(D 


7zld(JccQ (zrw) 


nldaco 


q>QaC,(o 


(pQClGCO 


aQ7id£co 


j aQ7ZCC%(0 
\ aQ7tCL6CO 



XQayco 
nlddco 



Root. 
nqay 
xgay 
nXad 



aQTtayco 
aQTtddco 



aqnay 
dquab 



Exc. The following are the verbs of this class which have not y or 
S for their characteristic ; viz., ftqaao), oQvaao), <p(ji<r<JO), xoqvggo), and 
XlaffOfiav, which have their roots respectively (2r t x, oqv/, (pqw, xo^v&, 
fax, making the primary forms prjxo), ogv/w, q>qUb), xoqv&o), and Uro/nat,. 

2d. Most verbs in o*xa> are secondary forms from pure verbs 
in co (§ 116, I and II). The primary forms will appear by drop- 
ping gx ; thus, yijQCtGitco, primary form yrjQaco, Root, yjjga. 

3d. Many verbs, irregular in the present and imperfect, are 
secondary forms from obsolete verbs which furnish the roots for 
the other tenses. See §§116 and 117. In nearly all such verbs, 
the first root will be found by taking gco or Gonial from the future 
as found in the Lexicons; thus, 

Secondary form. Future. 

XapfidvcQ h'j\pO[/,ai 

Xavbdvco h'jGG} 

7tVV&dvO[A(U 7l8V60(l(U 

ftaivo) fit'iGopcu 

Rem. In reducing secondary into primary forms in this manner, the 
vowel before ao) and aofiav in the future, made long by § 96, R. 1, must 
be shortened; and the r-mute, rejected by § 94, R. 2, must be restored, 
to give the proper form of the root ; as, (Zalvoi and Xav&dvo), above. In 
all mute verbs, the proper characteristics concealed by combining with 
ao), &q. will always be seen in the 2 aorist, or 2 perfect. Thus in lav- 
&avo), the 2 aor. is %Xa&ov, showing the characteristic to be &, and 1 root, 
consequently, Xt]&. Hence 

TO FIND THE ROOT IN SECONDARY FORMS. 

212. — Rule. From the future indicative active 
or middle as found in the Lexicons, strike off aco 
or oofxat ; what remains is the root, either in its 
simple form, or modified by the rules of euphony ; 
thus, 



Root. 


Primary form. 


MP 


Xyfico 


ty& 


Xrjdw 


TZSVd" 


7t£V&<Q 


pa 


fidoo 



102 



THE SECOND ROOT. 



§83. 



Secondary form. Future. 

tzqclggcq TTQa^co elide 

agd^co %Qci%G3 

tt1u66(o nldcca 

(jpod^co cpoddco 

yrjQaaxcQ yriqdaco 

lafifidvco Xy\p60{iou 

lavddvco Xtjcjcq 

TtVV&aVOllCLl TTEWOflCU 

fiawco prfGopcu 

213. — 3. Many verbs change the form of the root in the se- 
cond tenses, i. e. in the second future passive, and second aorist ; 
and in the second perfect, and second pluperfect active. These 
forms, for the sake of distinction, are called the second and the 
third root — the root of the/>me?U being the first root. 





Root. 


(Too leaves 

(700 
(700 


no ay, 44-7 

'AQCLy, 44—7 

Tzlud, 44-8 


aco 


cpgad, 44-8 


(700 

6opai 

(700 
60[A,CU 


PJQU 

lr[^ 44-6 
hft, 44-8 
nevd-, 44-8 


cofiai 


§a 



§ 83. THE SECOND ROOT. 

214. — The second root is always formed from 
the first, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. A long vowel in the first root is changed in- 
to a in the second ; thus, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

aijTtcOf cqit can 

tgcoyco, to coy rqay 

2. In diphthongs, a is retained and e is reject- 



ed 



; as, 

Verb. 



1st R. 2d R. 



cpcuvco, 
xccica, 



cpcuv 



cpuv 



Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

XsiTZCQ, XsiTt ll7l 

cfsvyco, cpsvy opvy 

Exc. But liquid syllables change si into a, poly- 
syllables into s ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

Diss. tsivco, reiv rav 

Polysyl. ayuQco, dyeio dytQ 



§ 84. THE THIRD ROOT. 103 

3. In dissyllables not pure, € before or after a 
liquid, is changed into a ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. Verb. IstR. 2d R. 

T8[A,VCO, 1E\JL TCCfl GTs'XXcO, GtsX GZCcX 

dsQXCD, SSQX dctQX TzXeXCOj TtXsX TtXoLK 

Exc. But s remains unchanged after X, in Xsyo, fiXerta, cpttyco. 

4. Pure verbs in dco and Sco reject the a and & 
(216, Exc. 1) ; as, 

Verb. . IstR. 2d R. 

fjtvxdco pvxa [ivx 

azvys'co arvys Gzvy 



§ 84. THE THIRD ROOT. 

215. — The third root is always formed from the 
second, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. s, of the second root, is changed into o in 
the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

XeycQj Xsy ley Xoy 

ayeiQCOy aysiQ ay£Q ayoQ 

2. a, of the second root, from s or ac in the 
first, is changed into o in the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

TiXexco, TtXsx nlout tzXox 

G7TEIQCO, G7TEIQ GTtCCQ G7ZOQ 

zeivco, zeiv zccv zov 

ztfivcoy ze\jl za\i ZO\L 

3. i 9 of the second root, from si of the first, is 
changed into oc ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

Xeltko, Xsitz Xin Xom 



104 THE THIRD ROOT. §85. 

4. a, of the second root, from rj or at of the 
first, is changed into r\ in the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 



(37/7700, 


07]7Z 


can 


61]7T 


cpaivco, 


qjaiv 


cpav 


(pqv 


ikewise Calico, 


&al 


&al 


<& n x 


yXd^cOy 


vlay 


-/lay 


xhjy 



§ 85. VERBS WHICH WANT THE SECOND AND THIRD 
ROOTS. 

216. — Many verbs want the second tenses, and consequently 
the second and third roots. (198, Obs. 1, N. B.) These are as 
follows : 

Kule 1. Pure verbs want the second root. 

Exc. 1. The following primitives are excepted : yodca, cnda, 
\ivy.do\iCLi) yqd'toj, dovrtsco, xrvnico, Qi.ydco, tzvtvzcq, orvysco, toqsco, 
hjxew, &oq8co, (jtEQtco, 6X8co, daico, xaica, and a few others. 
Axovg) has the third root dxo, but no second. 

Exc. 2. A few dissyllables in too and vco have the second and 
the third root the same as the first. 

Note 1. Several of these are reckoned with anomalous verbs, § 117. 
Some verbs derive their second and third roots from obsolete presents ; 
snch as, aiQeo) and many verbs in dvo) and avopai, for which see the 
same section. 

Kule 2. Derivatives in svco, dt^co, i£co, alvco > 
vvco, want the second root. 

Note 2. Primitives, in these terminations, usually have the second 
root. 

Obs. 1. Several verbs which have no second root, and conse- 
quently no second aorist in the first conjugation, derive the sec- 
ond aorist active and middle from forms in the second conjuga- 
tion ; thus, dvco, 2 a. sdvv, from ATMI\ fiaivco, 2 a. e§i]v, from 
BHMI; yiyvcoGxcQ, 2 a. iyvcov, from rJVQMI, derived from 
yvoco. 

Obs. 2. Many verbs not included under the above rules never 
use the second tenses ; others have them only in the passive 
voice ; others again are used in these tenses only by certain writ- 



§86. THE TENSE-EOOT. 105 

ers. — In such a variety of usage, it is proper to assume that all 
verbs not included in the above classes form the second and third 
roots according to the rules in §§ 83, 84. 



§ 86. THE TENSE-ROOT. 

217. — The Tense-Koot is that part which re- 
mains unchanged in all parts of the same tense. It 
consists of all that precedes the termination, ex- 
cept the augment. 

Obs. 1. In some of the tenses, certain letters are inserted be- 
tween the verb-root and terminations. These are called signs of 
the tenses to which they belong, because they serve to distinguish 
these tenses from others. 

The Tense-Signs added to the verb-root, form the tense-root 
in these tenses ; and, prefixed to the terminations, they form the 
tense-endings, 232-2. Hence, in the tenses which have no sign, 
the verb-root alone is the tense-root, and the termination alone is 
the tense-ending ; as, 'i-lm-ov. ( Obs. 4.) 

218. — The tense-signs, together with the tenses to which they 
belong, are exhibited in the following — 

TABLE OF TENSE-SIGNS. 

1. In mute and pure verbs, the tense-signs are as follows : 

Act. 
Future, -a- 

1 Aorist, -6- 

2 Future, — 
Perf. and Pluperf., - - or -x- 

2. In liquid verbs, the tense-signs are as follows : 
Future, -e- 

1 Aorist, — 

2 Future, — — -rja- 
Perf. and Pluperf., -x- — — 

Obs. 2. If the characteristic be a tf-mute or a x-mute, the 
sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is the spiritus asper ('), 
which, combining with the mute before it (43-3), changes it or 
$ into <jp ; x or y into /. But when the characteristic is <jp or #, 
the spiritus asper disappears. 

5* 



Mid. 


Pass. 


-a- 




— 


-716- 


as follows : 




-£- 


-dria- 



106 



THE AUGMENT. 



§87. 



Obs. 3. If the characteristic is a vowel, or a r-mute, or a li- 
quid, the sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is x. 

Obs. 4. In all the tenses, except those in the preceding table, 
i. e. in the second aorist through all the voices, — the second per- 
fect and second pluperfect active, and the perfect and pluperfect 
passive, — and also, in liquid verbs, the first aorist active and mid- 
dle, the tense-root and the verb-root are always the same. So 
also in the present and imperfect in all voices. 

Exc. But irregular verbs, and those which fall under the Ex- 
ceptions and Observations, § 82, have the tense-root in the present 
and imperfect different from the verb-root ; though, like other 
verbs, it consists of all that precedes the termination in the present 
indicative. Thus, for example, in nodosa, the tense-root in the 
present and imperfect is nqdaa, while the verb-root is ngdy. In 
XafifidvcQ, the tense-root of the present and imperfect is Xccfifidv, 
while the verb-root is 1/jfi ; and so of others. 

219. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 



[In the following list 
the kind of verbs — form 
give the rule for each.] 

rimroo, I strike. 
Xsyco, I say. 
%aiQG), I rejoice. 

67I81QW, I SOW. 

TQt'cpw, I nourish, 
ayco, I lead. 
xqu£(o, I cry aloud. 
pallw, I cast. 
7Tei&(n, I persuade. 
alvsco, I praise. 
dfxei^a), I change. 
dooco, I plow. 
fiteTTG), I see. 



of vei 
the 



tell the characteristic, the root, and 
and the third root (if in use), and 



XeiTtco, I leave. 
TQCoyco, I eat. 
tiXshco, I fold, 
oqsilco, I owe. 
[A,dQ7iz(o, I seize. 

7TQU()6CO, I do. 

qod^G), I say. 
cpawco, I show. 
doTid^co, I plunder 
iyEiQCO, I aivake. 
x)vco, I sacrifice. 
"Aulsco, I call, 
w-ioco, / shave. 



dsidco, I fear. 
diddoxco, I learn. 
TQtTZa, I turn, 
piairco, I pollute. 
7Te'{i7ZG3, I send, 
rtfiw, I assign, 
furco, I remain. 
7Z01803, I make. 
ort'M.co, I send. 
lA8iQco, I divide. 
a8LQd£co, I try. 
ocurco, I sprinkle. 
ttq/i&co, I burn. 



220. 



87. II THE AUGMENT. 



1. The augment is a prefix joined to the root in 
the preterite tenses. 

2. There are two kinds of augments, the temporal and sylla- 
bic. 



§88. THE AUGMENT. 107 

3. The temporal augment is used when the root begins with 
a vowel or diphthong, and lengthens the initial vowel. 

4. The syllabic augment is used when the verb begins with a 
consonant, and prefixes a syllable to the root. 

AUGMENTED TENSES. 

5. The imperfect and aorists have the augment 
in the indicative only. The perfect, pluperfect, 
and paulo-post-future, retain it through all the 
moods. 

6. The present and future have no augment. 



221.— §88. RULES FOR THE AUGMENT. 

1. If the verb begins with a consonant, the aug- 
ment s is prefixed ; as, tvtztcq, zrvmov ; qltitcq, 

8QQ17TTOV, 43~5. 

2. The perfect reduplicates the initial consonant 
before s ; as, tvtvtcq, perfect rkrvcpa. 

Exc. 1. The aspirate reduplicates its own 
smooth ; as, -&av/nd£cD, perf. rsfravficcxcc ; cpaivco, 
perf. Tiscpayxa, 43-4. 

Exc. 2. Verbs beginning with q, yv, <p&, or a 
before or after a consonant, do not reduplicate : 
thus, 
q QiTZtco SQQiya 6V t,aco etyy.a 

yv yvoco eyvcoxcc en 67tevdco hnevxa 

q>& yd ico styd-ixa ot atQsepco targocpa 

na \pev8to etyevxa 

Obs. 1. Sometimes also verbs beginning with y.t, and Ttt, do 
not reduplicate ; as, 

xr Htuvto hiayxa xti%co mtmo. 

717 7ZT08CO STZTO^Ha 

And sometimes, though rarely, those beginning with yl, @X. 



108 THE AUGMENT. §88. 

3. When the perfect reduplicates the initial 
consonant, the pluperfect receives a new augment ; 

as, 

tvnzco ts'tvcpa srsrvcpsiv 

Otherwise not ; as, qitztco SQQicpa SQQicpsiv 

4. If the verb begins with a, s, o ; or with av, 
at, oc, the initial vowel is changed into its own 
long, and i of the diphthong is subscribed; as, 



dvvco 


r\vvov 


av%dvco 


rjv^avov 


sXm^co 
hndt,co 


conat,ov 


aittco 

OlXl^CO 


ijtsov 

COXl^OV 



Exc. 1. 25 is often changed into its own diph- 
thong; as, 

£%co I have uypv 

The verbs which change s into si are the following: sdco, 

S^Ofiai, S&l^CO, sXlGGCO, sXxCO, iXxs'cO, iXxVCO, sXs'cO, sXcO, STZOflCU, 

STZco (this verb retains the augment through all the moods), sgdco, 
igeco, SQ7Tco, EQTZv^cQ, sqvco, scTzyxco, sandco, s%co, and SCO, 20. 

Exc. 2. If the verb begins with so, the s is un- 
changed and the o augmented ; as, ioora^cv, 
£cgotcc£ov. 

So also some 2d pluperf. active ; viz., from the 2d perf. soXna, 
pluperf. scoXnsiv ; — soixa, scpxsiv, — soqya, scoqysiv. 

Exc. 3. Hco, I bloio ; am, I hear ; dij&saaco^ I am unused ; 
dqdi£o[iai, I loathe ; retain the initial vowel unchanged ; as also 
some verbs derived from olxog, ohog, olcovog, and oia% ; as, olvi^co, 
I smell of wine, oi'n^ov ; and also the 2d perfect active when the 
root begins with 01 ; as, oida, plup. oideiv. 

5. If the initial vowel is not a, t, o ; or av, at, 
ot, it is not augmented : but t and v short are 
made long ; as, 



l 


ixofiat, 


'iXO^V 


si slxd^co tixa&v 


V 


^^Ql^CO 


'vfiQf^OV 


SV SVQ16XC0 EVQIGXOV 


n 


iipco 


r\ysov 


ov omd^co ovra^ov 


CO 


co&co 


co&ov 


See Exceptions, 224-4, 5. 



§ 89, 90. THE AUGMENT. 109 



222.— § 89. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. When the verb is compounded with a pre- 
position, the augment comes between the preposi- 
tion and the verb ; as, nqoc-cptqco, 7TQog-8-cptQov. 

Obs. 1. The prepositions drop their final vowel before the aug- 
ment s ; as, a7iotyaiv(o, antqicuvov ; Karafiaklco, xaTt'fiaXXov : — 
But, 

Obs. 2. 7Teqi before s remains unchanged ; tzqo usually com- 
bines with it by contraction; thus, iZQOE'fitjv becomes ttqov^v. 
116,11. 

Obs. 3. When v, in the prepositions avv and iv, is changed 
into another consonant, by the rules of euphony, 46-15, it is re- 
covered when separated from that consonant, by the augment s ; 
thus, GvMJyco, avveleyov ; avyyoaopco, ovvsyoatyov ; ipfis'vcoj ivs- 

[IEVOV. 

2. Verbs compounded with dvg or sv, take the augment after 
the particle, when the simple verb begins with a, e, o, or with 
av, ai, oi ; as, dvaaoeGTsco, dvarjoeazsov ; evoqxsg), evojqxeov. 

3. But if the simple verb begin with any other vowel or con- 
sonant, dvg is augmented, and sv remains unchanged ; as, dvarv- 
%£oj, idvGTv%Eov, dEdvGzv%r]xa ; evtv^e'co, Evtv'/rjaa. 

4. Other compounds generally take the augment at the be- 
ginning. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

223. — The exceptions from these rules are but few, and will be 
best learned by practice. Some writers augment certain com- 
pound verbs in the beginning, and others in the middle ; while 
other verbs are sometimes augmented in both ; as, imata/tai, I 
understand, Tjmotdfjiqv ; avoo&6(Q, I erect, ?)vcqq&oov ; xa&Evdco, 
I sleep, xa&rjvdov or ixd&Evdov ; EvoylEco, I disturb, tjvc6%Xeov. 



224.— § 90. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 

1. In the early Greek poets, the use of the augment is very 
fluctuating, the same word sometimes occurring with the aug- 
ment and sometimes without it ; as, e^e'^eqe and exqjeqe, he car- 



110 THE AUGMENT. § 90. 

ried out ; slaps and Xdfis, he took ; iqysv and dysv, he brought ; 
I8s8sy.ro, 8s8sxro, and 8sxto, he had received. 

Obs. 1. From the antiquity of the Ionic, this has been usually 
considered a peculiarity of that dialect ; but it occurs frequently 
in the Attic writers, particularly in choruses ; as, av&tj for zov&rj, 
he was driven ; ysysvrjto for iysysvqro, it had been ; dvdXcoxa for 
dvyXcoxa, I have spent. 

2. In Horner and Hesiod, aorists often receive the reduplica- 
tion, which remains through all the moods; thus, xsxdfico for 
y.dfico, I shall have laboured ; XsXdftsG&ai for Xdfisa&ui, to have 
received. 

3. In all dialects, verbs beginning with X and \i frequently 
take si or si as the augment of the perf. ; as, siXrjcpa for XsXqcpa, I 
have taken ; sifiaQtai for iisfiaqzai, it has been decreed. 

4. The Attics often change the simple augment s into ?], and 
augment the initial vowels of verbs beginning with si and sv ; as, 
?)8vvdiAf]v for i8vvdf.i}]v, I was able; ijxa^ov for si'xa^ov, I assimi- 
lated; rjV%6[i?]v for ev%6[A?jv, I prayed ; r(8sw for siSsiv, I knew. 

5. In verbs beginning with a, s, 0, or with av, ai, 01, the At- 
tics sometimes prefix s instead of the usual augment ; i. e. they 
use the syllabic instead of the temporal augment ; as, sa<~a for 
i£a ; sdXcoxa for ?jXcoxa. Sometimes they use both ; as, oodco, 
I see, swoaovj soooaxa. 

ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 

6. "When the verb begins with a, s, or 0, followed by a con- 
sonant, the first two letters are sometimes repeated before the or- 
dinary augment. This is called the Attic Reduplication ; thus, 



dyslqco 

ifis'co 

"y 
OL,CQ 


I assemble 
I vomit 
I smell 


yysgxa 

ijfxsxa 

c68a 


Attice, dy-riysQxa 
ifi'jjfjisxa 
o8-co8a 


OQV66CO 


I dig 


coQvxa 


bo-CQQvya 



Obs. 2. The pluperfect sometimes takes anew augment on the 
initial vowel of the reduplication; thus, dx-ijxoa, ?)x-j]x6siv. 

Obs. 3. This form of the verb frequently changes a long vowel 
or diphthong into a short or doubtful vowel in the third syllable ; 
thus, dXijliya for yXsiya, and dX/jXififiai for jjXsififiaif from aXsiqico', 
dxi\xoa for i'jxoa, from dxovco. 

7. Mule. The simple augment is confined to the indicative 
mood ; the reduplication remains in all the moods. 



§91. 



TERMINATIONS. 



Ill 



225.— §91. III. THE TERMINATIONS. 

1. The terminations are parts of the verb added immediately 
to the tense-root, and which, by their changes, serve to distinguish 
the voices, moods, numbers, and persons. These are different in 
the two conjugations. 

2. The terminations in the first conjugation consist of two 
parts — the mood-vowel, and final letters. 

The mood-vowel distinguishes the mood and connects the final 
letters with the tense-root. The final letters distinguish the voices, 
numbers, and persons. 

3. The mood-vowel is the first letter of the termination, and in 
the indicative, is always short or doubtful except in the 1st and 
2d pluperfect, which has always si — in the subjunctive, it is al- 
ways long — in the optative, always a diphthong. 

4. The final letters are of two classes, — Primary and Second- 
ary ; the former are used in the indicative mood in the primary 
tenses, and the latter, in the secondary (199-3). Also, the jwi- 
mary final letters are always used in the subjunctive mood, and 
the secondary in the optative. 

226. TABLE OF FINAL LETTERS. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 



Primary. 
1. 2. 

Sing, o ig 

Dual. — tov 
Plural, fisv 7& 



3. 
i 

tov 

VT61 



Secondary. 

1. 2. 

Sing, v, fu } — , g 
Dual. — rov 

Plural, msv re, 



znv 

V, 6CCV, SV 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 



Primary. 
1. 2. 

Sing, [ion 6oli 
Dual, fisd-ov odov 
Plural, [is&a o&e 



3. 
tai 

6&OV 
VZOLI J 



Secondary. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing. {zt]v oo to 

Dual, jie&ov 6"&ov o&nv 

Plural, [is&a o&s vzo 

5. The mood-vowels and final letters combined form the ter- 
mination in the indicative, subjunctive, and optative moods through 
the whole verb, except in the perfect and pluperfect, middle and 
passive, which, having no mood-vowels, annex the final letters im- 
mediately to the root. 

The following table shows the mood-vowels and final letters, 
both separate and combined. 



112 



TERMINATIONS. 



§91. 



227. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary. 
Present and Future. 
Mood-vowels and final letters separate. The same combined. 



Sing. 


0-0 


s-ig s-i 


CO 


sig 


81 


Dual. 


— 


s-rov s-rov 


— 


SrOV 


8XOV 


Plural. 


0-\l8V 


8-ZS O-VTCl 


0\18V 


8t8 


ovai(v) 






First and Second Perfect. 






Sing. 


a- 


a-g 8- 


a 


ag 


e 


Dual. 


— 


a-rov a-rov 


— 


VJIOV 


arov 


Plural. 


a-fiev 


a-ts a-vrcu 


a\isv 


are 


act 






Secondary. 










Imperfect and Second Aorist. 






Sing. 


o-v 


s-g s- 


ov 


e$ 


jr) 


Dual. 


— 


8-TOV 8-Z7JV 


— 


8T0V 


srrjv 


Plural. 


0-[A8V 


S-XS 0-V 


0\i8V 


8X8 


ov 






First Aorist. 






Sing. 


a- 


a-g s- 


a 


ag 


s 


Dual. 


— 


a-rov d-T7]V 


— 


arov 


drqv 


Plural. 


a-[A8V 


a-rs a-v 


a\isv 


ate 


av 






First and Second Pluperfect. 






Sing. 


ei-v 


8i- g 8i- 


81V 


sig 


81 


Dual. 


— 


81-tOV 81-T7JV 


— 


8VZOV 


8lt7]V 


Plural. 


81-flSV 


ei-rs si-aav 


8l\JL8V 


sirs 


siaav 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses. 






Sing. 


(0-0 


q-ig r\-i 


CO 


vs 


V 


Dual. 


— 


7]-rov rj-rov 





TJTOV 


7]70V 


Plural. 


CO-flSV 


ij-rs co-vrai 


COflSV 


ijze 


coat, 






OPTATIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses except the First Aorist. 




Sing. 


oe-ftt 


oi-g oi- 


Oljll 


org 


01 


Dual. 


— 


ol-tov oi-rr\v 


— 


OITOV 


oirqv 


Plural. 


oi-pev 


01-78 01-8V 


OljlSV 


01X8 


018V 



The First Aorist Optative has cu instead of ot for its mood-vowels. 

6. In this table the indicative mood-vowel o, and the subjunc- 
tive co, combining with the final letter -o makes co ; and with 
-vial they make ovai and coat ; § 6, Rules 8, 16, and 18. 



§91. 




TEKMINATIONS. 




113 






228. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 








INDICATIVE MOOD. 










Primary. 










Present and Futures. 






Mood-vowels and final letters separate. 


The same combined. 


Sing. 


o-[i.ai 


e-gui E-zai 


Ofiai 


nii) 


Ezai 


Dual. 


6-[l£&OV 


E-G&OV E-G&OV 


OfAEd-OV 


EG&OV 


EG&OV 


Plural. 


o-ps&a 


E-G&E o-vzai 


6tiE&a 


EG&E 


ovzai 






Secondary. 








Imperfect and Second Aorist Middle. 




Sing. 


6-{l7]V 


E-GO E-ZO 


0[A1]V 


ov(1) 


8ZO 


Dual. 


o-fis&ov 


E-G&OV E-G&1JV 


OfXEd-OV 


EG&OV 


EG&TjV 


Plural. 


o-fis&a 


E-G&E 0-VZO 


6fA,E&a 


EGdE 


OVZO 






First Aorist Middle. 






Sing. 


d-[l7]V 


a-GO a-ro 


a^yv 


(ZGO 


azo 


Dual. 


d-pe&ov 


a-G&ov d-G&r^v 


d\LE$QV 

dfiE&a 


CCG&OV 


aG&rjv 


Plural. 


d-ps&a 


cc-g&e a-vzo 


CtG&S 


avzo 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 










All the Tenses. 






Sing. 


co-fiai 


Ij-GCtl rj-zcu 


copai 


vO) 


qzai 


Dual. 


co-psd-ov 


1J-G&OV rj-G&OV 


(6flE&OV 


7]G&OV 


IJGd-OV 


Plural. 


ca-ps&a 


q-G&E oa-vzai 


afzsd'a 


rjG&E 


covzai 






OPTATIVE MOOD. 








Present and Futures, also 2d Aorist Middle. 




Sing. 


oi-fiijv 


Ol-GO Ol-ZO 


OlfATJV 


010 (1) 


OIZO 


Dual. 


01-{1£&0V 


Ol-G&OV oi-Gxfrp 


OlflE&OV 


OIG&OV 


OlG&rjV 


Plural. 


oi-fiE&a 


Ol-G&E Ol-VZO 


oifie&a 


OIG&S 


owzo 



The First Aorist Optative has cu instead of ov for its mood-vowels. 

1. In the second person singular, sgcu, in combining, elides g, 
leaving ecu, and then contracts the concurrent vowels into rj (116, 
Exc. 3). So also 7]Gai becomes qui, and then rj (116, R. viii). 
So ego becomes so, contracted ov ( 1 1 6, R. ii) ; aGo becomes ao, 
contracted co (116, R. vii. 1) ; and oigo, eliding g, becomes oio, 
without contraction. 

8. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have no 
mood-vowels, but annex the final letters (which in this case are 
the terminations) immediately to the root, 2*70-10. Also, the 
first and second aorists, in the indicative, as a termination prefix 
rj, and, in the optative, eiy[, to the secondary final letters of the 
active voice, as will be seen in the table, 231. 

9. The final letters and mood-vowels of the imperative, infini- 
tive, and participles, will be seen combined in the following tables. 



114 



TABLES OF TEKMINATIONS. 



§92. 



§ 92. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 
229. — I. ACTIVE voice. 











INDICATIVE. 












Primary Tenses. 






Pres. 


and Fut. 


1st and 2d Perfect. 




s. 


-03 


-sig 


-81 


-a -ag -s 




D. 




-8T0V 


-810V 


-CCTOV -VJIOV 




P. 


-0[A,£V 


-ST8 


-ova 


-a\i8v -ars -aoi 










Secondary Tenses. 




Imp erf. 


and 2d Aor. 


1st and 2d Pluperfect. 


1st Aor. 


s. 


-OV 


-sg 


-8 


-ElV -Eig -El 


-a -ag -s 


D. 




-8Z0V 


-ixijv 


-EltOV -ElTrjV 


-atov -drtjv 


P. 


-0(A,8V 


-8ZS 


-ov 


-81118V -sirs -siaav 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


-a\isv -ars -av 


S. 
D. 
P. 


-CO 
-COflSV 


-rpov 

-?]T8 


-XI 
-qrov 

-C061 


The same as first 
column. 

OPTATIVE. 


The same as first 
column. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


-01 fit 
-Ol\l8V 


-oig 
-oitov 

-0LT8 


-01 

-0LT7JV 

-OlSV 


The same as first 
column. 

IMPERATIVE. 


•aifu -aig -ai 

-airov -ainjv 
-aijisv -airs -aisv 


S. 


y 


-8 


-8TC0 




-ov -at co 


D. 




-8Z0V 


-EZCOV 


The same as first 


-atov -drcov 


P. 




-8Z8 


-ETCOGCiV 


column. 


-ars -drcQcrav, 






or 


-bvrcov 


INFINITIVE. 


or -dvrcov 






-81V 




-Evai 

PARTICIPLES. 


-ai 


N. 


-cov 


-ova a 


-ov 


I -cog -via -6g 


-ag -aaa -av 


G. 


-ovrog 


-ovaijg 


, &G. 


\ -orog -viag -orog 


-avrog -darjg -avrog 



Obs. In this table, the terminations in the first column belong to the 
present, imperfect indicative, future, and 2d aorist ; all those in the 
2d, to the first and second perfect and pluperfect ; and all those in the 
3d, to the 1st aorist. 



92. 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



115 



230. — II. MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 



Primary Tenses. 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

Pres. and Fut. 

S. -Ofiat -rj -EXai 

T>. -ofis&ov -eg&ov -eg&ov 

P. -ops&a -EG-ds -ovrai 



Secondary Tenses. 
Imperfect and 2d Aorist. 
S. -oprjv -ov -szo -dprjv 

D. -OfAE&OV -EG&OV -tC&tjV -d[A£&OV 

P. -OfASd-a -EG&E -ovto -dfiE&a 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



S. -cofxai -y -ijiai 

D. -co^e&ov -tjad-ov -qcdov 
P. -o^s&a -?]6&e -wvtat 



1st Aorist. 

-co -aro 

-ccodov -dG$y\v 

-aa&E -avto 



The same as first column. 



OPTATIVE 

S. -ol\ir^v -oio -oiro 

D. -Oljlsd'OV -OIG&OV -01G&7JV 

P. -oip£&a -oig&e -oivro 



-aiptjv -aio -aito 

■ai[A,E&ov -aiG&ov -aiGd-^v 
■al\iEd-(jL -aiG&s -aivzo 









IMPERATIVE. 






s. 

D. 
P. 




-ov 

-EG&OV 
-EG&E 


-e'g&cq 
-zg&cov 

-EG&COGaV 




-at 

-CLG&OV 
-CCG&S 


-dG&CQ 
■dG'&CQV 

-daftcoGuv 






-EG&dl 


INFINITIVE. 

1 


-aa&ai 




G. 


-ofisvog 

-0\iEVOV 


-OflEVT] 


PARTK 

-byiEvov 
-o\iivov 


3IPLES. 

-d\isvog 
-a\iivov 


-a\i(vri 
-afiEP)]g 


-dftEVOV 

-a\iEvov 



Obs. In this table of the middle voice, the terminations of the 
perfect and pluperfect are omitted, being the same throughout 
as those of the perfect and pluperfect passive on the next page. 



116 TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 

231. — III. PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary Tenses. 

PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 

Perfect. 
S. -fiat -ecu -tai 

D. -flE&OV -g&ov . -aftov 

P. -fie&a. -g&e -vtai 



§92. 



Pluperfect. 
S. -(irjv -go 

D. -[18&OV -G&OV 

P. -fie&a -G&s 



Secondary Tenses. 

1st and 2d Aorists. 
-rjv -rjg -y 

-rjrov -?'jzt]v 



-to 

-G&ljV 
-VZO 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 



S. -fievog co 

D. -flEVCO 

P. -fXEVOl CO^IEV 



vs 

1\XOV 
7JZE 



V 


-CO 


•is 


7JTOV 
-3 




-TJTOV 


COGl 


-COfAEV 


-tjte 



OPTATIVE. 



S. -fitvog e'itjv siyg 
D. -psvco Eirjrov 

P. -\ievoi Eir^iEV Eirjxe 



slrjtqv 
eiijGCtv 



-ElYlV 



-EirjfJlEV 



S. 
D. 
P. 



M. 

N. -fitvog 

G. -\IEV0V 



IMPERATIVE. 
-GO -G&CO 

-G&OV -G&COV 
-G&E -G&COGCX.V 



-G&ai 

F. 

-\i(vr\ 
-\ihvi]g 



INFINITIVE. 



PARTICIPLES. 



-flEVOV 
flEVOV 



M. 

-Eig 
-Evzog 



-ELTjg 

-Elt/ZOP 

-ElTjTS 

-ti&l 

-tjrov 
-7]te 

-jjvcti 
F. 

-EtGCt 
-ElGtjg 



-v 

-tjtov 

-COGl 



-Ell] 

-Eu]rrjv 
-EiTjGav 



-TJtCO 
-t'jtCOV 

-7]rcoGav 



-EV 
-EVTOg 



For the terminations of the present, imperfect, 1st, 2d, and 3d 
futures of the passive voice, see the terminations in the first column 
01 the table on the preceding page. 



§ 93. FORMATION OF TENSES. 117 

232.— § 93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN MUTE 
AND PURE VERBS. 

1. Each tense consists of its proper root, and 
tense-ending, together with the augment prefixed 
in the augmented tenses. 

Obs. 1. The 2 future passive and 2 aorist add the tense-end- 
ings to the second root, the 2 perfect and 2 pluperfect active, to 
the third root, and all others to the first. 

Exc. Tqstzgj, TQs'cpco, and argtqxa, in the perfect and pluper- 
fect passive, have the second root, tyevyco and xev&cq, in the 2 
perfect active, have sometimes the first, instead of the third root. 
Il8fA7T03, x1s7Ztgj, zq87Tcq, leyco, and tgtcpco, in the perfect and plu- 
perfect active, change e of the first root into o. 

2. The tense-endings consist of the tense-signs (218) and ter- 
minations united ; and when there is no tense-sign, the termina- 
tion alone is also the tense- ending, as exhibited in the following 
table. 

TABLE OF TENSE-ENDINGS. 

Tense. Active. Middle. Passive. 

1 Future, -d-co (Hq. -s-co) -6-opcu (liq. -s-opai) -&?j-co[iai 

2 Future, -/jo-opou 

1 Aorist, -a-a (liq. -a) -a-afA,i]v (liq. -a[A.rjv) -ft-rjv 

2 Aorist, -ov -Sfirjv -i\v 
Perfect, -'A-a, or --a, 235, R.l. -pai -pai 
Pluperf. -x-siv, or - -eiv -firjv -^j> 

2 Perfect, -a 

2 Pluperf. -eiv 

Fut.-Perf. or Paulo-post-future -a-opai -o-o\im 

233. — GENERAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The imperfect is formed from the pre- 
sent by prefixing the augment and changing co 
into ov, and o^iai into 6ur]v ; as, tvtttoj, ^tvtvtov, 

TVTVTOfAOCl, 8TVHTO/Ur]V. 

Rule 2. All tenses except the present and im- 
perfect, add the tense-endings to the proper root 
(232, Ohs. 1), and prefix the augment in the pre- 
terite tenses, as follows : 



118 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



§94. 



234. — SPECIAL RULES FOR EACH TENSE. 

1. Active Voice. 
Future. Add oa to the 1st root, 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -a a to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ov to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -x« or -a to the 1st root, 

235, R. 1. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-xeiv or -elv to the 1st root. 
2 Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -a to the 3d root. 
2 Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 
-sir to the 3d root. 

2. Middle Voice. 
Future. Add -aoficu to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -GcifA,i]v to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ofxr^v to the 2d root. 
The Perfect and Pluperfect are the same as in the Passive Voice. 
Fut. Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -copcu to the 1st root. 

3. Passive Voice. 

1 Future. Add -ftrjGOficu to the 1st root. 

2 Future. Add -//cro^ca to the 2d root, 

1 Aorist, Prefix the augment, and add S~tjv to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -t\v to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -\nai to the 1st root. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-\wp> to the 1st root. 
Fut. Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -oopai to the 1st root. 



235.— § 94. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 

Rule 1. When the characteristic is a ^-mute or 
a #-rnute, the perfect active is formed by adding 
- c -cc, and the pluperfect by adding --stv\ all 
others add -xa, -xuv (218, Obs. 2, 3) ; thus, 

l£i7ico Root XeiTt- perf. Xs-l£i7Z--a combined le'Xeiya 

pluperf. iXe-XeiTt- -eiv iXeXeicpsiv 

Ttlexo) Root nXex- perf. nt-Tilex'-a mnX^a 



pluperf. tru-nXr/.- 



eiv 



inmh'/uv 



§ 95. FORMATION OF TENSES. 119 

Kule 2. When the characteristic is a T-inute, 
it is rejected before a consonant in the active and 
the middle voice, and changed into a in the pas- 
sive; thus, 

Active, 7Z81&CO, Root Tteid-- Fut. tzsi-gco perf. Timei-xa 
Middle, Fut. nsi-GOftai 1 Aor. Imi-Gapjv 

Passive, 1 fut. 7isiG-&)JGO(mi 1 Aor. InuG-^r^v perf. 7i87i8iG-\iai 

Exc. The r-mute is rejected in the passive also, when it conies 
before g (44-8) ; as, ninenacu for tzSttsi&gou, or after a liquid ; 
as, TZEqd'-co, 1 future passive 7ZSQ~&fjGO{icu, perfect ni-neq-fiai. 
Also, a 7r-niute, after a liquid, is rejected before pai ; as, T8Q7Z-co, 
perfect passive zi-zeQ-fiou. 

Obs. nev&co, gsvco, rsvya), and yjm (239-2), have v instead 
of ev before a consonant in the passive ; as, 7tv6-&r { G0{icu, gvg-&iig- 
0(acu (240, R. 2), &c. ; (pevya) has either v or ev ; as, neqyuy-fiou-, 
or Tzeysvy-pai. 



236.— §95. METHOD OF FORMING THE TENSES. 
1. Tito, I honour. 

This verb, requiring no insertion or change of letters for the 
sake of euphony, affords the simplest example for showing the 
formation of tenses. A second and third root (zi), and the 
tenses formed from them, are here assumed, though they do not 
exist in the verb, to show the manner in which these tenses are 
formed. 

Active. Middle. Passive. 



Pres. 


Tl-CO 


ti-0[A,ai 


ri-ofiai 


Imp. 


8-Tl-OV 


8-tl-6fl7]V 


8-Zl-6[MjV 


Fut. 


ri-G-o) 


ti-G-ofjiai 


Tl^&fJG-Ofiai 


2 Fut. 






n-yG-opai 


1 Aor. 


8-n-G-a 


8-Tl-G-dflt]V 


8-tl-&-J]V 


2 Aor. 


8-Tl-OV 


i-ti-ofiyv 


l-ri-riv 


Perf. 


T8-ri-x.-a 


%8-tl-yiOLl 


rt-ri-pai 


Pluperf. 


8-T8-tl-X-8lV 


8-t8-Tl-{M]V 


i-T8-ri-[ji7]v 


2 Perf. 


re'-ri-a 






2 Pluperf. 


8-78-TI-8W 






P. P. Fut. 




T£-tl-G-OfJiai 


rs-ri-G-o[Aui 



120 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



§95. 



The following examples fall under 235, Rule 1. They are 
exhibited with the parts divided, and then combined, to show the 
effect of the rules of euphony, § 6, in combining the parts. It 
will be a profitable exercise for the pupil to apply these rules for 
every change. 

2. The characteristic a 7F-mute. 

XeiTtoOj I leave. 
Roots, 1. Xeiti-, 2. XiTt-y 3. Xout-. 





ACTIVE VOICE. 






Parts divided. 


Parts combined, 


Pres. 


Xei7T-(Q 


XE17ZO) 


Imperf. 


e-Xeitt-ov 


eXewov 


Fut. 


Xei7T-a-co 


Xsixpoi) 


1 Aor. 


e-Xem-G-a 


iXsixpa 
iXmov 


2 Aor. 


e-Xitz-ov 


Perf. 


X£-XwTt--a 


XeXEicpa 


Pluperf. 


e-Xe-Xeitz--eiv 


eXeXei^eiv 


2 Perf. 


Xs-XoiTT-a 


XsXotJia 


2 Pluperf. 


i-Xs-Xom-Eiv 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


eXeXoltzeiv 


Pres. 


X817Z-0[ACU 


XEi7zo\ian. 


Imperf. 


i-Xsi7Z-6[M]V 


iXEl7TO[A7]V 


Fut. 


Xei7T-6-0[A,CU 


XEiii'Ofxat 


1 Aor. 


i-Xsi,7t-6-dfA,1]V 


£XEl\p(X[M]V 


2 Aor. 


i-Xi7Z-6[tr]v 


iXmofArjv 


Perf. 


Xi-Xzm-ticu 


XeXeijiiacu 


Pluperf. 


i-XE-XEl7T-fl7]V 


iXEXElflflTjV 


P. P. Fut. 


XE-Xtln-a-Ofiai 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


XEXEi\po{iai 


Pres. 


X8l7Z-0[l(U 


XELTZOflCU 


Imperf. 


i-Xei7i-6fA,?]v 


eXe17i6{IT]V 


Fut. 


XeM-&}j(j-o[i(u 


Xsiq)&fj<jo[i(u 


2 Fut. 


Xm-r t o-oii(u 


Xmijoofiai 


1 Aor. 


i-XeLJT-^-rjv 


eXei^Oijv 


2 Aor. 


l-Xin-riv 


eXi7Z}]v 


Perf. 


Xt-XeiTT-fiai 


XaXEififiai 


Pluperf. 


E-XE-XElTt-fll^V 


£XeXei'[1{J;11V 


P. P. Fut. 


Xe-Xe17Z-CO[ICU 


XtXEiipofiai 



§95. 



FOKMATION OF TENSES. 



121 



3. The characteristic a ^-mute. 

rtltxcQ, I fold. 
Roots, 1. ttXex-, 2. Ttlax-y 3. nXox-. 





ACTIVE VOICE. 






Parts divided. 


Parts combined 


Pres. 


TZXeX-CQ 


itXe'xg) 


Imperf. 


e-ttXex-ov 


etzXexov 


Put 


ttXex-g-g) 


tzXe^co 


1 Aor. 


8-7tlex-0-a 


87zle<za 


2 Aor. 


'i-TlkoM-QV 


InXaxov 


Perf. 


ite'-ttXex- -a 


Ttsjrlsxa 


Pluperf. 


i-nE-nX&x- -£W 


iTzeake'xeiv 


2 Perf. 


ni-nXox-a 


mnXoxa 


2 Pluperf. 


i-7te-7tl6x-etv , 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


E7t£7tX6xElV 


Pres. 


TiXm-ofjiai 


7lXtXO[A,at 


Imperf. 


E-7TX£X-6fA,1]V 


E7tXex6^)]v 


Put 


tiXex-g-o\ivli 


TzXt^Ofxac 


1 Aor. 


i-7iXax-o-d[A,t]v 


lnX8S,a\ii]v 


2 Aor. 


E-nXax-6pjv 


£7zXax6[jir]v 


Perf. 


7ii-nXEx-\iai 


<nmXzy\iai 


Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut 


£-7TE-7l)Jx-(A,r]V 

TTE-TzXtX-G-OftGU 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


IntnXtyiiriv 

7T£7zXe£(){MU 


Pres. 


nX(x-o\iai 


tiXexo\i(u 


Imperf. 


i-ftls%-6[MjV 


inXtxofJLqv 


Fut. 


7llEX-&t]G-0[lCU 


7tXz*jft)i<50liia 


2 Fut. 


7Tlax-?'](y-0[A,(u 


7lXaX)]GO[A0U 


1 Aor. 


i-7r)Jx-&-?jv 


iTzXe'x&qv 


2 Aor. 


E-nXax-ijv 


inXdxqv 


Perf. 


fts-nXex-fiou 


TZSTzXeypcu 


Pluperf. 


l-7iE-7tXEX-\iryv 


E7te7rXtyiA,rjv 


P. P. Fut. 


viE-7r)Jx-<7-0(tcu 


n£7iX£%onai 



122 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



96. 



This verb 
noi&, and its 
Rule 2. 

Pres. 
Imp. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 



4. The characteristic a r-mute. 

Tiai&co, I persuade. 

has the first root nei-0; the second m&, the third 
characteristic being a r-mute, it comes under 235, 



Active. 
aetd-co 
e-tieiQ-ov 
Ttei-6-co 

E-7Z81-G-0. 

E-711&-0V 

7Tt'-7zei-y.-a 

i-7Z8-7ZEi-y.-eiv 

7tt'-7toi&-a 

E-7lE-7t0ld-ElV 



Middle. 

i-7ZEl'&-6[4,t]V 

i-md~-ofitjv 

7lE-7ltl<3-\iai 

k-nz-7td(5-\iriv 



Passive. 

TtEld-OflCU 

m&-}j(J-OlAGU 
i-7Z8t6-&-T]V 

E-ni#-rp> 

7l£-7l£lG-(MU 
E-7T8-7ZEl(J-f^iJV 



7lE-7lEl-G-0\lU.l 7Z£-7l£l.-G-0[l(U 



§96. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 

237. — N. B. In the rules for the Moods and Tenses of verbs, 
let it be remembered, that — 

The three short vowels, a e o 
have their own long, 77 r\ co 

and their own diphthongs, at ei 01 

238. — Rule 1. Verbs in dco, sco, and 6co, change 
the short vowel into its own long before a conso- 
nant; as, 

(pilt'coj Root qnXs, fut. cpih'joo), perf. nE(pib;y.a, &c. 
239. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1 . dco after s or c, retains a ; and Xdco and qdco 
after a vowel ; as, sdco, sdoco ; xontdco, xom- 
do co ; ytXaco, ytXdaco. 

Likewise dissyllables in dco which do not pass into /; ( mt; as, video, 
xldaco. But those which pass into r^u have r\, except yOdco. 



§ 96. FORMATION OF TENSES. 123 

The following also retain a; viz. dy.Qodofzai, nsxdco, dapdco, 
ytQSfida}, and vcpdco ; diqjdco lias a or rj. 

2. Ten in t'co retain £ ; viz. dxsco, dXsw, dgxew, k'(a, ifttca, VEWt'co, 

£«», oXtW, ZSXS(0, 7Q8CD. 

Likewise those which form new presents in vvvco, vvvyn, and gxco ; 

as, ivvvco and svvvfii from I go, OQ&Txm from a^sco ; retain e. 
Sixteen in t'co have £ or ij ; viz. aldtofiai, aive'co, dxeopai, dXcps'co, 

d%&£Ofia(, dew, y.aXeco, xydew, xooe'co, fxayevfiat, 6£ew (o£co), 

no&ew, 7tovsa, gteqeco, cpoQsco, (pgoveoo ; besides a few others 

seldom used ; as, xoztco, {sXeoj, /oqsod. 
Six in £co have sv ; viz. nvew, nXsca, %8(o, oeco, I flow ; S-ea, I 

run; and reco, I swim; but (jta, I speak ; &8co, I place ; 

and veo3, I spin, have rj. 

3. In primitive verbs, oca retains ; such as, dgoco, [som, idoco, 

Ojttoco, ovoco. Likewise those which form others in vvoj and 
gxco, have ; but those which pass into co[u, have co ; except 
didcofu, which has in the 1 fut. and 1 aor. passive ; as, oo&i]- 
aofAat, idoQijv. 

4. The anomalous verbs xcaco and y.Xaico change ai into av ; as, 

y.afco, fut. xavGco ; xXaico, xXamco. 

5. Alqew, evQtco, and cr/£co (for %»), retain £ before & only ; 

as, aiQi t 6w, aioE&ffiopcu, aiQsdijr, aigr^iai, &c. 

240. — Rule 2. Pure verbs which have s, or a 
doubtful vowel, or a diphthong before a conso- 
nant, in the active and the middle voice, insert a 
before a consonant in the passive ; as, 

Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. Perf. Pass. 

dXe-co 7jXs-y.cc aXsa-d-ijaofAaL ip.sa-d-^v ?jXsg-[icu 

yeXd-co yeyeXa-xa yeXao-d^iiao^iai, 8ysXd<j-d}jv yeyeXaa-pai. 

7TQI-CO 7TS7lQl-Xa 7IQL6-{)')j(30[A,(U i7lQlG-d'f]V 7TS7TQlG-flCU 

dvv-co ?jvv-xa dvvo-&f l ooiiai i)vvG-&t]v ijWG-jAai 

Tzai-oo 7i87zai-xa rtcua-'&ijGOiA.ai 8naiG-Q'i]v 7i8ncfA<5-\ioLi 

y.Xaioj xtxXav-xa xlav6-fi'f i 60[icu ixXav(j-&rjv X8xXav<j-[A,ai 
So also verbs in sico, evoj, oloj, and ovco. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

241. — To this rule there are many exceptions ; as, 

1. Five which have £ before a consonant do not insert a ; viz. 

CllV8(0, av%8(0, 8[A,8C0, 8Q8CO, oAfiCO. 

2. Eight which have a ; viz. dxQodoficu, dtdopat, idopat, y.o- 

ndoj, oquco, ntiQaoiim, neqdoa, qjcogdco. 



124 LIQUID VERBS. § 97. 

3. One which has i ; viz. zico. 

4. JSleven which have v ; viz. dozvco, @qvqj, dvco, &vco, iSqvm, 

"AGMVCD, XCOXVCO, XvCO, [AljVVGJ, QVCO, ZQVG). 

5. Seven which have sv ; viz. dsvco, vavco, veco (vsvggj), 7ivt.(o 

(ttvevgco), qeco (qevgco), atvco, %eg3 (%swco). Also many verbs 

in evoj, derived from nouns ; as, fiaGiltixo. 
G. One which has ov ; viz. lovco, as, lovd/jGopai, &c. 
7. Fourteen verbs sometimes insert g before a consonant in the 

passive voice, and sometimes not; viz. dovco, Soda, uco, 

iXdco, xaico, xeodw, y.vdoo, 'aoqeoj, [ivdco, fiijovca, ovoco, navco, 

%vavoj, ipda. 

242. — Rule 3. Verbs in 6co, forming verbs in 
pi, insert a before a consonant in the passive voice ; 
as, yvoj/LU, yvcoO&rjOo/Liai, &c. 

Except gtq(6pvv{u from gtqocOj and dt8cofii from doco, which 
have GZQcod-fjGOjjicu, dodtjGopcu, &c. 

FORMING THE TENSES OF PURE VERBS. 

243. — The following example shows the method of forming 
the tenses in pure verbs. With few exceptions, having no second 
root (216), they have no 2d future, or 2d aorist; and in the ac- 
tive voice, no 2d perfect, or 2d pluperfect. 

Active. Middle. Passive. 

Pres. rifia-co n^d-ofica rifid-opai 

Imperf. i-zipa-ov i-zijia-o^v i-zifta-Ofi^v 

Fut. TllAtj-G-G) Tl/Jtij-G-OpOU 7l[Arj-\)tjG-0(lCU 

1 Aor. i-Tt'fDj-G-a i-zi^-G-d^)]v l-rijii)-{1-)jv 

Perf. ts-t((i.v-n-a Te-rf[i)j-fj,ai TE-rifiJi-fjiai 

Pluperf. i-T8-Tt t uij-x-uv l-ZE-zi\ir r iii^v i-ze-zifi/j-^v 

P. P. Fut. T8-ztfif]-G-0[iai ze-Tifiy-G-oficu 



97. LIQUID VERBS. 



244. — Liquid verbs differ from mute and pure 
verbs in forming some of the tenses, as will ap- 
pear by the following — 



§97. LIQUID VERBS. 125 . 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The future active and middle shortens the 
root, if it contains a diphthong, by rejecting the 
last of the two vowels; and instead of aco and 
60/ucu, adds sco and soficu, contracted co and ov- 
[iou ; as, 

Verb. R. Fut. Act. Fut. Mid. 

Iisvm [isv fiev-ea contr. ij,sv-<x), \i8v-8o\xai contr. fxev-ovfiai 

zsivoi ruv tev-sca tev-co, 18v~80\l(u rev-ovpca 

qjaivcQ (patv yav-sco qiav-m, (pav-eopai <$av-ov\ua 

2. The first aorist active and middle lengthens 
the short root of the future by changing s into 
ec, and lengthening the doubtful vowels ; and in- 
stead of da and 6cc[iriv, adds a and dfirjv ; as, 

Verb. Fut. 1 Aor. Act. 1 Aor. Mid 

[ISVCO (Z8V-S03 8-IA81V-0. i-[l8W-d[M]V 

T81VG) T8V-8G} 8-Z8lV-a 8-1 81V -0.^7 JV 

cpaivco ycw-sco 8-qjdv-cx. i-cpccv-d[A?iv 

Rem. The Attics often change a into tj ; as, 'ityrjva, iq)7]vdfA,t]v. 

3. The perfect and pluperfect active, and all the 
the passive voice, except the present and imper- 
fect, add the tense-endings to the second root ; as, 

Verb. 2. R. Perf. Act, 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. P. Perf. P. 

G7T8LQCQ, GTldQ, S-GTZCIQ-Xa, GTtClQ-dlJGOfJLai, i-G7iaQ-d'r]Vj 8-G7TCtQ-(lUl 

qjcuvco, cpuv, Tzs-qjay-xa, cpav-tf/jGopai, i-cpdv-frijv, n8-<$ct.\i-\i0Li 

Exc. Verbs in /uco form the perfect and pluper- 
fect active and the 1 future, 1 aorist, perfect, and 
pluperfect passive, from the first root by interpos- 
ing 7] before the tense-endings ; as, 

Verb. 1 R. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. 

vspco V8iji vs-v8fi-?]-xa v8\i-r\-ftriG0\Lai i-i>8fi-?j-d'j]V J <fcc. 

So also, fidlXco and [livco. 



126 TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. § 97. 

Note. The tenses which interpose t; are, probably formed regularly 
from obsolete forms in ew ; thus, NEMESl, vi^ao), vivif.ir\v.a, &c. ; 
but while these tenses, formed in this way, have remained, the others 
have given place to the liquid forms now in use. See 250. 

4. Dissyllables in dvco, ivco, vvco, reject v before 
a consonant ; as, 

Z8ivco, zav-, zi-za-xa, ra-d-ijcopat, i-zd-ftijv, ts-ra-ficu t &c. 

KQIVCO, XQIV; XS-XQl-XCt, XDl-dyGOftCU, i-XQl-&t]V, 'Ae-XQl-fACCl. 
S-VVCO, Q-W-y Z8-&V-XCL, ZV-&?]GO[A,CU, 8-ZV-&1JV, TS-dv-fMU. 

But xzewco and nXvvco sometimes retain v, sometimes not. 

245. — Obs. Verbs in alvco and vvco commonly drop v before 
the termination beginning with [i, and insert g in its stead ; as, 
cpaivco, nXvvco, perf. pass. 7it'q)a(j[icu, 7Z87iXvofiai. — They are in- 
flected thus : 

Singular, TTtcpaa-^cu rtiyav-Gai mcpav-zai 

Dual, 7zecf)U6-fi8&ov mcpuv-&ov (54-1 V) 7iecpav-&ov 
Plural, 7Z8CfdG-[A,e&a TT^cpav-ds 7Z8cpciG-{isvoi 8igi(v) 

Note. Liquid verbs want the paulo-post-future tense. 

FORMING THE TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. 

246. — The following examples show the method of forming the 
tenses of liquid verbs, according to the preceding rules. 

247. — ZzeXXco, I send. 
1 R. gzsX. 2 R. GzaX. 3 R. gzoX. 

Active. Middle. Passive. 

Pres. gzM-co Gis'XX-oficu GZ8XX-0[iai 

Imperf. s-areXX-ov £-gz8XX-6[i?jv s-GzsXX-ofitjv 

Fut. OZ8X-8-CO, CO GTsX-i-Opai, OVflttl 8-GZCtX-&tjG-0[lCU 

2 Fut. GzaX-?/G-of(ca 

1 Aor. 8-GzstX-a i-GZ8tX-dfi^v 8-GzdX-&-tjv 

2 Aor. 8-gzuX-ov i-GzaX-ofiqv i-GzdX-?jv 
Perf. 8-GzaX-x-a i-GzaX-^iai 8-GzaX-ficu 
Pluperf. i-GzdX-x-8iv i-GzdX-nyv i-GzdX-fiqv 

2 Perf. 8-GzoX-a 

2 Pluperf. i-Gz6X-8tv - 



§97. 



TENSES OF LIQUID VEEBS. 



127 



Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 

Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 


248.- 

1 R. qiaw. 

Active. 
yaw-co 
8-cpaiv-ov 
cpav-s'-o), a 


—<I>aivco, I show. 

2 R. cpar. 3 R 

Middle. 
cpaiv-ofiai 
i-cpaiv-ofiTjv 
cpav-8-opai, 


<$r\v. 

Passive. 
qiaiv-ouai 
i-cpaiv-o^tjv 
ovycai Qpav-^rja-ofiai 


8-qidv-a 

8-qjdv-ov 

m-yay-y.-a 

i-TZE-ydy-x-Eiv 

7Z8-(p7{V-a 
£-7T8-(pfjV-8lV 

249.- 

1 R. TSIV. 

Active. 

T81V-CO 
8-T81V-OV 
TEV-s'-GJ, 65 


8-q)dv-d(ir t v 
8-(pdv-d\ir\v 
ni-qsa<5-\iai 

8-7l8-tyd6-\irjV 


i-qjdv-&-7]v 
i-qidv-rjv 
ns'-qiaG-pai 

£-7Z£-CpdG-[ir{V 






-Tsivco, I stretch. 
2 R. rav. 3 R. rov. 

Middle. Passive. 

TSW-0[iai T8lV-0[A,ai 
i-TSlV-OfJLTJV i-T8lV-6fJ,r]V 

revs'-opai, ov\iai %a-&rfi-o\iai 


8-Z81V-CC 

'i-xav-ov 
ri-ta-y-a 
i-78-zd-y-siv 
ti-tov-a 

8-T8-TOV-81V 


i-T8lV-d[M]V 

i-rav-Sfiqv 
ri-ra-\iai 
i-rs-zd-^v 


i-rdd~-i]v 
i-zdv-qv 
ZE-za-pai 
i-rs-vd-pTjv 











250. — Nifico, I distribute (244, Note). 
1 R. V8\i. 2 R. va\i. 3 R. vofi. 



Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 


Active. 

Vt'fl-CO 
8-V£[A,-OV 
V8fl-8-03, CO 


Middle. 
v8\i-o\iai 

8-V8fX-6(A,T]V 
V8(l-8-0[iat, 


Passive. 
vEfi-ofiai 

E-VSfi-OfflV 

ovpai v8fi-r]-&{;6-0fiat 
vafi-ijG-Ofiai 

W8[l-r]-d'-7]V 

i-vd(t-7]v 
ve-vEp-q-fiai 

i-V8-V8fA,-Jj-fA,7]V 


8-V8lfl-a 
8-vdfi-OV 

VE-v8\L-r\-y.-u. 

1-^8-^811-1]- "/.-81V 

v8-vo\i-a 

£-V8-vb\l-8W 


8-v8i\i-d\irp> 

£-VafA.-6flt]V 

v8-v8\i-r i -\iai 

E-V8-V8fl-7j-fl7]V 











128 CONTRACTED VERBS. 



§98. CONTRACTED VERBS. 

251. — Verbs in -aco, -soo, and -oco, contract the concurrent 
vowels in the present and imperfect in all the voices, according 
to the general rules of contraction, 116. See paradigm, § 100. 

All the concurrences of vowels to be found in these verbs, are 
the following ; viz. 



1. 


Verbs in 
contr. 


-do3, -doo, 
-co, 


-as, 
-a, 


-ao, 
-co, 


-a, 


-U£l, 


-ay, 
-a, 


-aot, 

-03, 


-aov, 

-CO; 


= 8 


2. 


Verbs in 


-£03, -£00, 


-SS, 


-£0j 


-£}], 


-sst, 


-*'lb 


-sot, 


-£OV, 


= 8 




contr. 


-03, 


-£(,, 


-ov, 


1? 


-El, 


"!' 


-ol, 


-ov. 




3. 


Verbs in 


-003, -003, 


-OS, 


-00, 


-oij, 


-OSt, 


-6y> 


-001, 


-onv, 


= 8 




contr. 


-CO, 


-ov, 


-ov, 


-co, 


-01, 


-Ol, 


-Ol, 


-ov. 





Obs. 1. Of the above concurrent vowels (No. 2), dissyllables 
in £03 contract only ss and ssi ; thus, nXss , nXsstv, tiXssts, &c, are 
usually contracted nXsi, tzXsiv, nXslts, &c, but ttXe'oj, nXsopsv, 
&c, are never contracted. Exc. Aso3, to bind, commonly con- 
tracts all. 

Obs. 2. Four verbs in dco contract as into ?/, and asi into y. 
These are t,dco, 7isivdo3, 8i\pdco, and /quo fiat. ; thus, 

Indie. £dstg, t,dsi, t,astov, 's%asg, stas, &c. Inf. tdstv. 
contr. lyg, ly, tfitov, s^g, sty, " %rp>, &c. 

And so of the others. 

252. DORIC AND IONIC FORMS. 

Obs. 3. The Dorics, who in other cases use a for ij, in verbs 
make use of i\, without i subscript, instead of all contractions of 
a£i and ssi ; as, oofjv for oqciv ; xGcjpijv for y.ocjf-isTv. Also, as 
was usually contracted by them into y ; as, toXfijjts for toXfidsts. 

The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in «co, into s ; as, 

bom, bot'opsv, for bqdeo, oodo[isv ; %Q£Stai for yodszat. 

253. HOMERIC FORM. 

Obs. 4. The Epic writers, on account of the metre, often insert 
the kindred long or short vowel before the contracted vowel ; as, 

bodstv, contr. boar, Poet, bodav ; bodco, contr. oqoo, Poet. oqoco. 
Participle fern, jjfiuovaa, contr. y^coaa, Poet. yficocooa, &c. 

This, from the frequency of its occurrence in Homer, is some- 
times called the Homeric form. 



§98. EXPLANATION OF TABLE. 129 

Note. — By a little attention to practice, and applying the rules 
(116) to the preceding contractions, a paradigm of contract verbs is 
unnecessary; still a table of contract verbs is inserted in its place, 258, 
8 100. 



254.— EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. 

1. The tense-root in the subjunctive (being the same as in the indica- 
tive, but without the augment), is to be prefixed to the " terminations" 
in the optative, imperative, infinitive, and participles. 

2. Whenever the accent (') falls on the termination, it is marked in 
the following table in its proper place. When it does not fall on the 
termination, its place will be the third syllable from the end of the 
word, if the last syllable be short, or the diphthong av, which is con- 
sidered short. But if the last syllable be long, the accent will be on 
the syllable next the last ; as, rirvq>a, rtrvqio), &c. 

3. In the perfect and pluperfect passive, the characteristic it in all 
the moods is put with the termination, to show the changes it undergoes 
by the laws of euphony, when combined with the initial consonant of 
the termination. In combining the root in these moods with the termi- 
nation, Rules 2, and 6, and 11 of § 6, must be observed. See also § 101, 
10. But if the tables of terminations, § 92, and the method of forming 
the tenses, § 93, are perfectly committed to memory, and rendered fa- 
miliar to the pupil by thorough drilling, it will hardly ever be neces- 
sary to take him into this table at all. 

4. The numbers 1, 2, 3, &c, to be found in the following table, refer 
to the same numbers, § 101. 

N. B. By inspection of the table, it will be seen that the termina- 
tions of the subjunctive mood are the same in all the tenses, and those 
of the optative and imperative are nearly the same in all, except in the 
1 aorist. Attention to this will greatly lessen the labour of committing 
the verb to memory. 



6* 



130 



TABLE OF THE VERB 



§99. 



255. I. TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 







INDICATIVE. 








SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Tense-root. Terminations 




T-root. 


Terminations. 






1. 


2. 


3. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


Pres. 


S. 


rvirr -co, 


-eis, 


-«» 


rvirr 


-&>. 


-?7S. 


"P» 




i>. 




-erov, 


-erov, 






-TYTOV, 


-7JTOJ>, 




P. 


-Ofiev, 


-6T€, 


-ovcri. 




-cofxev, 


-tyre, 


-W(Tt. 


Imp. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


%-TVTTT -ov, 

-OfX,€V, 


•es, 

-€TOV, 

-ere, 


-£TT)V, 

-ov. 










Fut. 


S. 


Tllty -CO, 


-€LS, 


-«, 4 


rfy- 










D. 




-erov, 


-erov, 




Wanting. 






P. 


-OfX€V, 


-6T6, 


-overt. 










1 Aor. 


S. 


e-rv\p -a, 


-as, 


-€, 4 


ri\p 


-co, 


-77S, 


*?» 




D. 




-arov, 


-aTTjV, 






-TJTOI', 


-r\rov, 




P. 


-a/j.ev, 


-are, 


-av. 




-cofxev, 


-7JT6, 


-cocri. 


2 Aor. 


S. 


6-TK7T -OP, 


-es, 


-e, 


TV1T 


-co, 


-r\s, 


-V' 




D. 




-GTOV, 


-errjv, 






-rjrov, 


-r\rov, 




P. 


-0/J.ev, 


-ere, 


-ov. 




-co/Jiev, 


-rjre, 


"cocri. 


Perf. 


S. 


r4-rvcp -a, 


-as, 


-€, 


re-rvcp 


-co, 


-r)s> 


'V' 




JD. 




-arov, 


-arov, 






-WTOV, 


-TJTOV, 




P. 


-a.fx.ev, 


-are, 


-acri. 




-cojxev, 


-7JT€, 


-cocri. 


Plup. 


S. 
D. 
P. 


i-T€-TV(j> -€IV, 

-eifizv, 


-eis, 

-eirov, 

-etre. 


-ei, 

-eirrjv, 

-eicrav. 










2 Perf. S. 


ri-rvir -a, 


-as, 


-e, 


re-rvir 


-co, 


-!?y, 


-v> 




D. 




-arov, 


-aToi/, 






-rjrov, 


-f]TOV, 




P. 


-afxev, 


-are, 


-atn. 




-ccy.ev, 


-r)re, 


-cocri. 


2 Plup 


. S. 
D. 
P. 


i-rc-rvir -av, 

•ei/xev, 


•eis, 

-ZITOV, 

-eiT€, 


-eirrjv, 
-eicrav. 











§99. 



IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



131 



TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


INF. 




PARTICIPLES. 


Te 


•imitations. 


Terminations. 


Term. 




Terminations. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


2. 3. 






M. 


F. 


N. 


-OlfJU, 


-OIS, 1 


-01 


-e, -It w, 




N. 


-U)V, 


-ova a, 


-ov, 




-OITOV, 


-oIt7)V, 


-eTOV, -ZTGOV, 


-civ," 


G. 


-OVTOS, 


-OVO-7JS, 


-OVTOS, 


-oitiev, 


-one, 


-oiev. 


-€Te, -eTwcrav? 




D. 


-OVTl, 


-OVffT], 


-OVTl, &C. 


-Olfll, 


-ois, 


-01, 






N. 


-av, 


-ovara, 


'OV, 




-OITOU, 


-OlTTjV, 


Wanting. 


-eiv- 


G. 


-OVTOS, 


-ovcrvs, 


-OVTOS, 


-oijxev, 


-one, 


-oiev- 






L>. 


-OVTl, 


-ovarj, 


-OVTl, &C. 


-atpi, 


-ais, 


-at, 


-OV, -d-TO), 




N. 


-as, 


-aaa, 


-av, 




-airov, 


-aiT7)V, 


•CLTOV, -O.TCOV, 


-at. 


G. 


•avTos, 


-do"f]s, 


-avTos, 


-aifiev, 


-aire, 


•aiev. 


-are, -aTwaav. 





D. 


-avTi, 


-dat], 


-avTi,&>c. 


-Olfll, 


-ois, 


-01, 


-€, -6TO), 


N. 


-&v, 


-ovffa, 


-6v, 




-OITOV, 


-OlTT\V, 


-€TOV, -ZTtoV, 


-eiv, 


G. 


-OVTOS, 


-ovarjs, 


-OVTOS, 


-oifiev, 


-04T6, 


-oiev. 


-6T6, -eTWffav. 




D. 


-6vti, 


-oio-rj, 


-OVTl, &C. 


-OlfJLl, 


-ois, 


-01, 


-6, -4t(i), 




N. 


-&s, 


-via, 


-6s, ' 




-OITOV, 


-OIT7JV, 


-€TOV, -eTCOV, 


-evai. 


G. 


-OTOS, 


-vias, 


-6tos, 


-OlfXSV, 


-OlT€, 


-oiev. 


-ere, -eTaaav. 




D. 


-6ti, 


-via, 


•6ti,&cc. 


'Olfll, 


-ois, 


-01, 


-€, -eT(»), 




N 


-<*)S, 


-v?a, 


-6s, 




-OITOV, 


-01T7]V, 


-(TOV, -STUV, 


-evai. 


G. 


-OTOS, 


-vias, 


-6tos, 


-01/j.ev, 


-OtT6, 


-oiev. 


-eT€, -eTwaav. 




D. 


-OTl, 


-via, 


-6ti. 















132 



TABLE OF THE VEEB 



256. II. TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

Pres. S. TU7TT -o/xat, -y, & -ercu, 
D. -6p.ebov, -ea&ov, -eabov, 
P. -6(ie&a, -etrfre, -ovrat. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
T-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

TI/7TT -wfiai, -y, 8 -yrai, 
-a>/j.e&ov, -yo~&ov, -ycr&ov, 
-c6fj.e&a, -7)o~&e, -wvrui. 


Imp. S. i-TVTTT -6/J.TJV, -Of, 8 -6TO, 

D. -ofJ-eSov, -ecr&ov, -eoSyv, 
P. -6fJL€&a, -eff&s, -ovro. 




Fut. S. Ttfy -o/iiai, -p, 8 -erect, 
D. -6jj.eSrov, -eo-&ov, -eoSov, 
P. -ofie&a, -ea&e, -ovrcu. 


rirp- 

Wanting. 


1 Aor. S. e-rtn// -d/xyv, -«, 8 -aTo, 

D. -dfie^ov, -aoSov, -da&yv, 
P. -cfyie&a, -aa-fre, -avTO. 


tu^/ -oofxai, -y, s -yrai, 
Sfxebov, -7}0~bov,- , no-&ov, 
-w/xe&a, -Tjo-fre, -coj/tgu. 


2 Aor. S. 6-TU7T -6fAT)V, -OU, 8 -6TO, 

D. -S/nefrov, -eo~&ov, -eoSyv, 
P. -6/J.e&a, -ec&e, -ovro. 


TW7T -copal, -y, s -yrai, 
-oofxe&ov, -ncrSrov, -ya^ov, 
-ofyie&a, -Tja&e, -uvrcu. 


Perf. S. t€-tu -fAfxai, -i//cu, -irrai, 10 
D. -fifxe&ov, -<p£tov, -(pSov, 
P. -/x/Ae&a, -<p&e, -{xjxevoi elai. 

10(5) 


re-Tv/ifxevos &, ys, fi, n 

-fx/.ievca , -f\rov, i\rov, 

-p.jj.Evoi S>fxev, fire, Sxri. 


Plup. S. i-Te-TV-/J.fJ.7]V, -$0, -7TTO, 

D. ■■/J.iAe&oi>,-<pdov,-(p&7]v, 

P. -fJL[Ae&a, -0&e, -/xfieuoL tfaav. 

10(5) 




P.P.F.S. T6-TVl|/ -ofxai, -y, -€Tat, 

D. -6fx&ov, -eoSov,-ecrSov, 
P. -6/xeSra, -ea&e, -ovrat. 


re-rvty- 

Wanting. 



99. 



IN THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



133 



TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

-Oi/XT)V, -010? -OITO, 

-oi/xe&ov, -oio~&ov,-oio-&7iv, 
-oifxe&a, -otcrfre, -oivto. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 

1. 2. 

-ov, 8 -ecrbto, 
-eoftov, -eoSav, 
-eo-3-e, -eoSuaav. 


INF. 

Term. 

-ea&ai. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 

M. F. N. 

N. -6/xevos, -fi, -ov, 
G. -ofxevov, -rjs, -ov, 
D.-o/xevq>, -77, -a>. 










-oi/XTJV, -oio, 8 -OITO, 

-oi/xz&ov, -oiaSov, -oio'^nv, 
-oifxe&a, -oicr&e, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-ecr&ai. 


N. -6/xevos, -7], -ov, 
G. -o/xivov, -7]S, -ov, 
D. -ofAzycp, -v, -cp. 


-aifxrjv, -ato, 8 -aiTO, 
-aifxe&ov, -cuo~&ov,-a.icr&7)v, 
-ai(j.€&a, -cuo~&e, -cuvto. 


-at, -doSo, 
-acrdrov, -do-&(t)V, 
-ao-&e, -dcr&wcrav. 


-aa-frai. 


N. -d/xevos, -7], -ov, 
G. -u/xevov, -rjs, -ov, 
D. -a/xevcp, -V, -<£>. 


-0LfX7]V, -010 £ -OITO, 

-oi/xeSov, -oio m &ov,-olo~&riv, 
-oi/x&a, -oicr&e, -oivto. 


-ov, 8 -eV&w, 
-eaSrov, -eoScov, 
-ecr&e, -ea&coaav. 


-ecrSrai. 


N. -Sfxevos, -7j, -ov, 
G. -o/xevov, -7]s,-ov, 
D.-o/xevcp, -7i, -p. 


-jxfxevos eii)v, 6177s, efoj, 11 

-/x/xevce , eirjTov, sItjttiv, 

-filxevoL^fiev, e:7jT6, €?7]ffav. 


-ipo, -<p&ca, 
-(b&ov, -cpSav, 
-cp&e, -(p&axrav. 


-&&CU. 


N.-p.fj.evos,-7i, -ov, 
G. -/x/xevov, -7}s, -ov, 
D.-fXfx4vca, -77, -(p. 










-oljxr]v, -0L0 8 -OITO, 
-oifxebov, -oioSov,-olcrfrr)v, 
-oiixe&a, -oiaSe, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-ecr&cu. 


N. -6fxevos, -7], -ov, 
G. -o/xevov, -77?, -ov, 
D. -o/xevcp, -77, -ct>. 



134 



TABLE OF THE VEKB 



257. III. TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

Pres. S. TU7TT -ofxai, -n, 8 -erai, 
D. -6iie&ov,-so-&ov,-€<T&oi', 
P. -ofie&a, -ecr&e, -ovtui. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
T-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

TVTTT-UfJLai, -v , 8 -tjtcm, 

-u>fie&oi>, -ncr&ov, -nv&ov, 


Imp. S. 6-TU7TT -6fi7]V, -OV,% -GTO, 

D. -6/jLe&ov, -eo-frov, -ea&nv, 
P. -cfyzed-a, -ecr&e, -ovto. 




1 Fut. S.Tv<p&r}cr-o/j.ai, -p, 8 -ercu, 

D. -6[Ae&OV,-€ff&0J' > -€<TS0V, 

P. -ojJLt&a, -eo~&e, -oyTcu. 


Wanting. 


2 Fut. S. TVTT7}<r -ojj.a.1, -rj? -erat, 

D. -6/n€&ov, -ecr&ov,-ecr&ou, 
P. -6/j.€&a, -eofte, -oj/tcu. 


Wanting. 


1 Aor. S. 4-TV(p& -7}V, -T]S, -7], 

D. -TJTOU, -7)T7]V, 

P. -Jj/iei/, -7jT6, -naav. 


Tixpfr-w, -ns, -v, 

-nrou, -t]Tov, 
-w/j.€V, -nre, -«<n. 


2 Aor. S. e-Twr -tjj/, -77s, -tj, 

D. -TjTov, -Tjrrjy, 
P. -T][iev, -7}T€, -Tjtrav. 


TVTT -CO, -77S, -]7, 

-TjTOV, -T)TOV, 

-cujuej/, -'JjTe, -<wcn. 


Perf. S. re-Ty -fx/j-ai, -tyou, -tttcu, 10 

D. -fJLfX6&0V,-(p&0V,-<p&0V, 

P. -/jLfie&a, -cpSe, -fifievoielffi. 

10(5) 


T6-TU- /AfMSVOS &, f]S, 7/, 11 

-fx/j.4uoiS>/J.eu, %re, dScn. 


Plup. S.i-re-rv-/xfji.7jv, -\pat, -ttto, 
D. -fxfxeSrou,-(p^ov, -(p&yv, 
P. -fi/xe^a, ->p&e, -fifxivoi 9jaav. 

10(5) 




P. P. F. S. re-Tity -ojxa.1, -t?, 8 -6tc», 
D. -t) 1 uefroj/,-ecr&oj', -ecr&oi/, 
P. -6{x&a, -ecrfre, -oj/tch. 


T6-TIMJ'- 

Wanting. 



§99. 



IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



135 



TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

oifj.7]V, -oio, 8 -oiro, 
-oifx^ov, -okt&ov, -oiafrrjv, 
-oi/j.e&a, -oio~&e, -oivtq. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2. 3. 

-ov, -4cr&co, 
-eo-&ov,-4cr&cov, 
•ea&e, -4cr&cocrav. 


1 INF. 

Term. 

-scr&ai. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
M. F. N. 
N.-ofxsvos, -7], -ov, 

G.-Ofx4vOV, -7)S, -OV, 

D.-Ofievco, -7j, -co. 










-oi/jl7]v, -oio, 8 -oiro, 
-oifj.&ov, -oia&ov, -oicr&TjV, 
-oifie&a, -oicrde, -oivro. 


Wanting. 


-ecr&cu. 


N .-6/j.evos, -7], -ov, 
G.-o/xevov, -7)s, -ov, 
D.-o/xeva), -rj, -co. 


-OlflTjV, -oio, 8 -oiro, 
-oipe&ov, -oiaStov, -oio-&7)v, 
-oin&a, -oia&e, -oivto. 


Wanting. 


-ecrfraj. 


N.-6/uL€V0S, -7], -OV, 

G.-o/xevov, -7]s, -ov, 

D.-0[J.4vCp, -77, -CO. 


-617??', -d7]S, -€177, 

-617JT0V, -ei71T7]U, 

-el^/jLcv, -eiTjTe, -eiwo'av. 


■7]Tl, -7)TC0, 
-7)T0V, -7]TCCV, 

-7JT6, -7)Tw<rav. 


-7} vou. 


N.-eis, -6?cro, -4v, 

G.-4vT0S, -ei-CT7)S,-4vTOS, 

D.-eVu, -eiarv, -4vti. 


-€17)V, -ei7js, -€t7J, 

-eiriTov, -eiTjTTjv, 
•eiTifxev, -eirjTe, -eiTjcav. 


-7)&l, -7JTOJ, 
-7]T0V, -7]TC0V, 
-7JT6, -7\T(i)ffaV- 


-7JVCU. 


N.-eis, -eicra, -4v, 
G.-ej/ros, -eicr7is,-4vTos, 
D.-4vti, -ticry, -4vri. 


-ll(j.4vos c?7)v, zXt)S, efT?, 11 

-/JLfXeVU , S%7\T0V, etTJTTJJ', 

-fj./x4voi zX7}jJ.zv,ti7)Tz, e"i7)0~av. 


-tyo, -<pS(>), 
-cp&ov, -cp&tov, 
-(p&e, -cp&cocrav. 


-cpSat. 


N .-fXfj.4vos, -77, -ov, 

G.-fXfx4vOV, -7]S, -OV, 

D.-jxjx4vco, -77, -CO. 










-oilo)v, -oio, -oiro, 
-oi/x^ov, -oicr&ov, -oioSyv, 
•oi/uLe&a, -otofte, -oivro. 


Wanting. 


-ecr&at. 


N .-6/J.evos, -77, -ov, 

G.-OLL4VOV, -7]S, -Ov, 
D.-0{X.4vCp, -77, -Cf). 



136 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



100. 





258.— § 


100. CONTRACT VEKBS.- 


—Active. 




Present. 




ti{i- 


9 


ll- 


8rjl- 




S. 


do) 


-0) 


£W 


-0) 


00) 


-0) 




D. 


anq 
do, 


-pq 
-a 


Eivq 
iiv 


-liq 
-ll 


oevq 

Oil 


-oiq 
-ol 


Ind. 




aerov 


-arov 


eixov 


-eixov 


oixov 


-ovxov 






aexov 


-axov 


eixov 


-eixov 


oirov 


-ovxov 




R 


ao,aiv 
dire 


-oyitv 
-dxe 


EOfllV 

sire 


-OVfAlV 

-elxe 


oofiev 
oere 


-OVfllV 

-ovxe 






aonffv 


-0)O~V 


miter i 


-OVffV 


OOVGv 


-ovo~v 




S. 


do) 


-0) 


ECO 


-0) 


OOJ 


-0) 




J) 


ayq 
dn\ 


-aq 
-a 


eyq 


- n q 




-Oiq 
-Ot 


Subj. 


P. 


dtjTOV 
dtjTOV 

do)fiiv 

dtjxe 

do)0~v 


-arov 

~0)fllV 

-axe 

-0)CTV 


etjxov 
irjxov 

£0)fllV 
EO) CfV 


-ijxov 
-Jjxov 

-0)/iilV 
-0)GV 


6t\xov 

6)jTOV 

6v>,uiv 
oo) a v 


-onov 
-onov 

-0)UIV 
-0)0~V 




s. 


doifiv 

dovq 

dov 


~0)fXV 

-0>q 

-0) 


iovfiov 

iovq 

iov 


-olf.il 

-otq 
-ot 


ooif.iv 

oovq 

oov 


-oliiv 

-otq 

•ol 


Opt. 




aovxov 


-onov 


eovxov 


-OtTOV 


oovxov 


-ovxov 




P. 


aoixr\v 
doifitv 

do tit 


-ojxrjv 
-oifiiv 
-one 


eoixrjv 
iovfiiv 
iovxe 


-oixtjv 
■oTjuiv 
-oixe 


OOlXtjV 
OOlfllV 

6 ovxe 


-OlTtjV 
-OlfllV 

-oixe 






aoviv 


-0)fV 


EOVIV 


-onv 


oovev 


-OllV 




S. 


ae 


-a 


n 


-iv 


oe 


-ov 






aexo) 


-aro) 


iexo) 


-eixo) 


OEXO) 


-OI'TOJ 


Imp. 


D. 


aixov 


-arov 


eixov 


-urov 


OIXOV 


-ovxov 




aerow 


-aro)v 


IEX0)V 


-nxo)v 


OEXO)V 


-0VT0)V 




P. 


aexe 


-axi 


Eire 


-l IT l 


oixe 


-Ol'Tl 






aexoHjav -axo)0~av 


l£T0)O~aV 


-itT<))ffav 


OETOXSaV 


-OVX0)0~CtV 


Inf. 




diw 


-dv 


El IV 


-l IV 


Off)' 


-ovv 


Part. 


M. 
R 


do)i> 
dovcrcc 


-0)V 

-Mffa 


£0)V 

iovaa 


-0)1' 
-OVffd 


OWJ> 

oovaa 


-0)V 

-ovcra 




N. 


dov 


-0)V 


EOV 


-ovv 


oov 


-ovv 



Imperf. 


llljl- 


ECpll- 


idijl- 




S. 


aov -o)v 


19V 


-ovv 


oov 


-ovv 






aeq -aq 


liq 


-evq 


oeq 


-ovq 






ae -a 


ie 


-ev 


oe 


-ov 




D. 












Ind. 




ccexov -ctxov 


EIXOV 


-eixov 


OIXOV 


-ovxov 






cttxqv -axtjv 


l£Xt]V 


-eixr t v 


OEXtjV 


-OVXtjV 




P. 


ao/iiv -o)fiev 


iofiev 


-OVfllV 


OOfllV 


-ovfiev 






aixi -axe 


ien 


-eixe 


oixe 


ovxe 






aov -o)v 


eov 


-ovv 


OOV 


-Ol'V 



100. 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



137 



CONTRACT VERBS.— Middle and Passive. 



n\i- 


q>il- 


dql- 


dotxat, 


-o),uat, 


EOfiao 


-ov/nat, 


ooi-tat, 


-OVflCU 


at[ 


-a 


£ ?3 


"li 


°Jl 


-01 


aerat, 


-arat, 


aarat, 


-air at, 


oarat, 


-ovrat, 


ao/tta&ov 


-o'),uaOov 


ao,ua&ov 


-OV/iia&OV 


OOfia&OV 


-ov/.ta&ov 


daa&ov 


-da&ov 


iaa&ov 


-ala&ov 


oaa&ov 


-ova&ov 


daa&OV 


-da&ov 


iaa&ov 


-ala&ov 


oaa&ov 


-ova&ov 


aoua&at, 


-0)JU£&CC 


aojua&a 


-ovfxa&a 


oo/.ia&a 


-ov/ut&a 


daa&a 


-da&a 


iaa&a 


-aXa&a 


oaa&a 


-ova&a 


aovrat, 


-o)vrat, 


aovrav 


-ovvrai 


oovrai 


-ovrat, 


do) ft at, 


-0)/Ll Ulr 


to)uau 


-o"),u at, 


6o) /Liat, 


-oJ,u at, 


wr\ 


-a 


*n 


-v 


°3 


-01 


ayrat, 


-ax at, 


erjrat, 


-tjrao 


07]xav 


-o)rav 


ao')/ta&ov 


-0)JU,a&OV 


ao')fia&OV 


-o'),aa&ov 


00)11 a&OV 


-o)f.ie&ov 


dtjG&OV 


-da&ov 


iqa&ov 


-tja&ov 


6r t a&ov 


-o")a&ov 


d^aOov 


-dad-ov 


irja&ov 


-r^a&ov 


6fja&ov 


-wa&ov 


ao')/na&a 


-o')/tia&a 


ao')fia&a 


-o')fta&a 


oo')fieOa 


-o')ti e&a 


dr t a&a 


-da&a 


hjada 


-Tja&a 


otja&a 


-ola&a 


ao)vrat, 


-o)vrai 


ao)vrav 


-on'tat, 


oo)vrat, 


-on>xav 


aOlfUjV 


-0>fl }]V 


tOlflTfV 


-oi/irp) 


oolftnjv 


-oijitrjv 


aot,o 


-0)0 


iovo 


-010 


OOiO 


-oto 


aoixo 


-0)TO 


tot,ro 


-oiro 


OOtTO 


-oiro 


aoi,ua&ov 


-Wfjua&ov 


aoljlia&OV 


-ol/ua&ov 


ooljua&ov 


-oiua&ov 


dova&ov 


-iija&ov 


iot,a&ov 


-ola&ov 


OQlG&OV 


-ola&ov 


aoia&t]V 


-waO-fjv 


aoia&tjv 


-oia&i]v 


ooia&r t v 


-ola&rjv 


aoifia&a 


-oif.uB'a, 


aoljua&a 


-ol/tia&a 


ooi,uaSa 


-outa&a, 


dooa&a 


-ola&a 


iova&a 


-oia&a 


ooia&a 


-ola&a 


aouvro 


-0)VTO 


toivro 


-olvxo 


oot-vro 


-oivro 


dov 


-O) 


tov 


-ov 


oou 


-ov 


alaOo) 


-dado) 


aia&o) 


-aia&o) 


oia&o) 


-ova&o) 


daa&OV 


-da&ov 


iaa&ov 


-ala&ov 


oaa&ov 


-ova&ov 


aia&o)v 


-dado)v 


aia&o)v 


-ala&o)v 


ota do) v 


-ova&o)v 


daa&a 


-da&a 


iaa&a 


-ala&a 


oaaOa 


-ova&a 


aia&oiaav 


-daOoiaav 


aia&o)aav 


-aia&o)aav 


oia&o)aav -ova&o)aav 


daa&at, 


-da&at, 


iaa&at, 


-aia&av 


oaa&at, 


-ova&ao 


ao^iavog 


-oytavoq 


aouavoq 


-ov/tiavoq 


oofiavoq 


-ovftavoq 


ao/.i£vrj 


-0),U£V)j 


ao/nevrj 


-ovfievt] 


oo/iiev)] 


-ov/Atvr} 


ao,uavov 


-0)fiaVOV 


eouevov 


-ovjuavov 


oofiavov 


-ovfjuavov 



irifi- 


icptl- 


idljl- 


ao/*^ 


-o'myv 


aouyv 


-OVfltjV 


oof.ir\v 


-0V/.17JV 


aov 


-O) 


aov 


-ov 


oov 


-ov 


aaro 


-aro 


aaro 


-atro 


oaro 


-ovro 


ao,ua&ov 


-o'wa&ov 


aona&oi 


-OV/li&OV 


ooii a Oov 


-ov^a&ov 


daa&ov 


-da&ov 


iaa&ov 


-ala&ov 


oaa&ov 


-ova&ov 


aia&rjv 


-da&ijv 


tia&tjv 


-aia&tjv 


oiaOtjv 


-ova&rjv 


aoi'.t&a 


-o'),u a &a 


a6fia&a 


-ov,ua&a 


oo/ta&a 


-ovtiz&a- 


dta&a 


-da&a 


tta&a 


-ata&a 


oaa&a 


-ova&a 


aovro 


■0)VTO 


iovto 


-ovrro 


OOJ'TO 


-ovvro 



138 OBSERVATIONS ON §101. 



§ 101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 

259. — The following observations are designed to point out 
more particularly, certain changes in the terminations of these 
parts which frequently occur, and which, without explanation, 
might perplex and retard the student in his progress. Further 
information respecting these and other changes will be found in 
the table of dialects which follows. See 2*74. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

260. OPTATIVE. 

1. In the optative mood, instead of the usual terminations -oifii, 
-oig, -oi, &c. the Attic dialect has the following : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

-otyv, -oiqg, -oi'r] ; -olrirov, -oif t zrjV', -oiqfiev, -oirjze, -oiqGCtv. 

This form is also used by Ionic and Doric writers. 
In the optative of the 1 aor. active, instead of the common 
termination -aifii, -cug, -a/, &c. the ^Eolic has as follows: 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

-siK, -stag, sis ; -eiarov, -el<xti]v ; -eiapev, -eiaze, -siav. 

The Attics, as well as the Ionians and Dorians, use this form 
in the 2d and 3d persons singular, and in the 3d person plural. 

261 . — IMPERATIVE. 

2. In the 3d person plural of the imperative, in Attic writers, 
the termination ovrcov is more common than trcoaav ; thus, in 
the present, rvntovttov for rvntitcoaav. For other varieties, see 
Table of Dialects, 274. This form is also met with in Doric 
writers. 

262. — INFINITIVE. 

3. The infinitive, in the ancient dialects, ended in t'fievai. It 
was changed, in the Ionic, into Efiev ; and afterwards, the fi being 
rejected, was contracted by the Attics into eiv. 

263. IMPERFECT AND AORISTS. 

4. The JSolians and Dorians use a peculiar form of the im- 
perfect, and first and second aorists, which is made by adding the 
syllable xov, to the usual form of the 2d person singular, and then 
inflecting them like the imperfect; thus, instead of itvnz-ov, -eg, 



§ 101. THE THREE VOIGES. 139 

-£, &e. ; it makes ezvtizegx-ov, -eg, -s, &c. ; in the 1 aor. izvipaGx- 
ov, -Eg, -e, &c, and in the 2d aor. Izvuegx-ov, -eg, -e, &c. Hence 
the same tenses in the middle voice, and the imperfect, in the 
passive, make Ezv7iZE,Gx-b\ii]v, -ov, -ezo, 3d plural ovzn. 

Obs. 1. But before the endings -y.ov, -y.Eg, -xs, &c. in con- 
tracted verbs, diphthongs reject the subjunctive vowel, and in 
verbs in fit, the long vowels are changed into their own short ones ; 
as, 2 sing, liroieig, inoiEGy.ov ; izi&qg, eti&egxov, &c. 

Obs. 2 . This form is used only in the indicative mood ; it usu- 
ally rejects the augment, and is scarcely to be found, except in 
the singular number and 3d person plural. It is used only to ex- 
press repeated action. 

2(54. FUTURE, ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. 

The Future in the dialects has the following varieties : 

(1.) The Attics often reject a from ugco, egcq, igco, ogco, con- 
tracting the remaining vowels when that can be done ; as, Hogco, 
I will drive, reject o, iXoua, contracted ska ; so ildo&g, iXaeig, 
contracted l/.ag, &c. In like manner we have xalco for xuXegco, 
I will call ; oixzica for oixzigco, I will pity ; and in the middle 
voice, b\iov\iai for b.\ioGo\iai. 

(2.) Attic Futures in m are inflected like contract verbs in 
eco (251, or 258), thus, -m, -mg, -est; -ieizov, &c. 

(3.) 2 is sometimes elided from the future active and middle 
of pure verbs, especially among the poets, even when gco is pre- 
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong ; as, present yjco, future '/ev- 

(700, Or %EVCd. 

(4.) For eft), the Doric termination is |oo ; as, yEldtco for 
yEluaco. 

(5.) Verbs in fico, vm, have the future Ionic in e'co uncontract- 
ed (see 273-1); as, vEfit'co for ve^ico ; [ieve'cq for [aevcq. 

(6.) Verbs in qco, in Homer, commonly insert <? ; as, oqgco 
for oqco, I will excite; sometimes also verbs in ?„oo ; as, e).gco 
from D.co ; xekgcq from y.tllco. 

(7.) The Attic and Ionic termination, particularly of liquid 
verbs, is often ?jgco ; as, fiaXh'jGco for fialco, I will cast; yaiQf^Gco 
for yuQQo, I will rejoice. 

In mutes, zvnzijGCx) is used for zvxpco, I will strike. 

265. PERFECT INDICATIVE. 

5. a. Some verbs sutler a syncope in the perfect; thus, 
xaksca I call y.ah'jGco xExdh t y.a xexXipca 

In like manner dsdt'iiqxa dt'd[it]y.a 

xexci[iip<ct x8X{M]xa, &c. 



140 OBSERVATIONS ON § 101. 

b. Some perfects in ijxa, from verbs in dco, strike out x before 
a, and (except in the participles) change t] into a ; thus, 

from fidco fteftqxa fitfiaa 

from zldco rsrXqxa zlzXaa, &c. 

c. Of the vowels thus brought together, the latter is sometimes 
rejected; as, 

pEfiijxapsv fiefidafiev by syncope fitfiafisv 

t£th)x£vai zEzXaEvai by syncope zlzXavai 

In other verbs, the Attics sometimes change e into o ; thus, 

ZQE71CQ I tU?'n ZQEXpCO ZEZQOCfa 

d. A similar change has taken place in the Ionic-Doric Xe- 
Xoy^a, from (Xijico), Xdyyco {Xay%dvco), analogous to Xr^co, Xdfifico, 
Xapfidvco. Thus also TiEnoG^E is found for 7i£naG%8. 

266. PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE, &C. 

6. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect are sometimes 
made by a periphrasis of the perfect participle and the verb d/u, 
I am ; thus, subjunctive zEzvcpcog co, ijg, y ; zEtvcpozE r t zov, <fcc. ; 
optative zezvcpcog e'i'ijv, siyg, siy. And sometimes the indicative ; 
as, zszvcpcbg tao^ai, I shall have struck. 

267. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

7. The participles sometimes change ?/ into a, and sometimes 
not. 

In either case, by a syncope of the former vowel, ycog and acog 
are changed into cog, which remains also in the neuter ; and the 
feminine, which otherwise ends in via, becomes coaa, and, in the 
oblique cases of the masculine and neuter, co is retained ; thus, 

Uncontracted. Contracted. 



pE^jxcog 


@s pa-cog 


-via 


-Off 


/fc/3-CO<? 


-cog a 


-c6g G. 


-cozog 


TE&vqxcog 


TE&vtj-cog 


-via 


-6g 


TE&v-cog 


-cog a 


-cog 


-cozog 


EGztjxcog 


sail]- cog 


-via 


-6g 


( 








OT, 






' 


- EGZ-cog 


-cog a 


-cog 


-cozog 


EGzaxcog 


EGza-cog 


-via 


-6g\ 











a. The Ionics and Attics insert e before cog ; thus, EGZ-Ecog, 
-tcoGa, -Ecog, G. -Ecozog. But in the poets, the ordinary termina- 
tions frequently remain after the contraction; as, mzt-cog, -via, 
-6g, G. EGZE-uzog, &c. 

b. The perfects in which these changes most frequently occur 
arc zfahpia, re&vqxa, p'J{hjxa, taryxa ; and in these the regular 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 141 

form is more common in the singular, and the contracted form, 
in the dual and plural. 

MIDDLE AXD PASSIVE. 
268. — 2d person singular. 

8. The 2d person singular of the present indicative originally 
ended in egui. Id the Ionic dialect, the g being rejected, it be- 
came ecu, by diaeresis ea'i', and was afterwards contracted into r t 
(116, R. III.) ; sometimes by the Attics into ei ; and in the same 
manner, in other moods and tenses. In the subjunctive ?]Gca be- 
came 7]ca, and then rj. Id the imperative, the indicative imperfect, 
and 2 Aorist, ego became eo, contracted ov ; and in the 1 aorist 
middle aao became ao, contracted co. In like manner, in the 2d 
person singular of the optative, oigo became oio, and, being inca- 
pable of further change by contraction, remains in this form. 

269. IMPERATIVE, 3D PERSON PLURAL. 

9. Id the 3d persoD plural of the imperative, the Ionic, Doric, 
and especially the Attic writers, use the termination cov instead 
of 03Gav ; thus, zvTtTtG&cov for rvTzzsG-dcoGav. See Table of Dia- 
lects, 274. 

270. PEREECT AXD PLUPERFECT PASSIVE. 

10. The terminations of the perfect and pluperfect passive, 
cannot be correctly represented in any paradigm of a mute verb, 
because the termination, combining with the final mute of the 
root, undergoes various changes, according to the laws of eu- 
phony (§ 6), which causes an apparent, but not a real variety in 
the terminations of these tenses. For the terminations alone, see 
231. 

(1.) The terminations preceded by a jr-mute, as in the para- 
digm, according to the laws which regulate the combination of 
consonants, combine with it as there exhibited ; viz. 

S. zt-TV/ifuu, 45-9 TtTvWai, 44-6 zizvmai 

D. ZETi>[.i[A8&ov " zhvcp&ov ZSTVty&OV, 43-2, 47-1 7 

P. Tezvi-iped-a " zhvy&e zhxvh\l(voi sigi 

(2.) Preceded by a jc-mute, they combine as follows : 

S. XsXaypai XtXe^ai, 4cA-1 lelsy.rai, 43-2 

D.ltU/fit&or W.s'x&ov Ulex&ov, 43-2, 41~H 

P. ).bXty{.ie&a Xeleyde htltypevoi eigi 

(3.) A r-inute before a consonant in the passive voice, is 



142 OBSERVATIONS ON § 101. 

changed into a, and combines with the terminations of the per- 
fect and pluperfect without change, except where the termination 
begins with o, in which case the T-mute before it is rejected 
(47, 17. Obs. 9) ; thus, nd&o) for example in the perfect indica- 
tive passive is inflected as follows : 

S. TzeTzeiGfiat, 46-11 nmuacu, 44-8 7i87Z8i6zca 

D. 71871816 (IS&OV 7Z871816&QV 7IS7Z816&0V, 44-8 

P. 7Z87Z8lGll8&a 7187Z816&8 7T87181GIA8VOI 8161 

(4.) Liquid verbs whose characteristic is X or q, in the perfect 
passive, add the terminations to the root without change, except 
that those beginning with 6&, drop the 6 (47-17). Those whose 
characteristic is \i insert i] before the terminations (§ 97, 3, Exc). 
Of those whose characteristic is v dissyllables in &vco, (vco, vrco 
reject v (244-4), and then annex the terminations without change. 
But when v is retained it is changed sometimes into [i — more 
commonly into 6 before the terminations beginning with p, and 
is rejected before those beginning with a&. Before the other ter- 
minations it remains unchanged ; thus, qiaivto in the perfect indi- 
cative passive is inflected as follows : 

S. TTsyafificu, or 7i8Cpa6ficu 7t8(pav6cu TTscpavzca 

D. Tisqjd^us&op 7Z8($a6ii8d-ov 7Z8cpa6(yov TterfaG&ov 

P. 7T8q}dfA t U80a, 7T8q)a,6fA8d-a 7I8q)a6d , S 7T8Cpa6H8l'0l 8161 

Note. Before the terminations beginning with g&, v sometimes re- 
mains, and a is rejected; as, TzeyavOnv niqavOs &c. for nicpaaQov, tte- 

(o.) In all mute and liquid verbs, except some dissyllables in 
8ivco, ij'oj, vpai (244-4), as the terminations vzca in the third per- 
son plural of the perfect, and vzo of the pluperfect, cannot coa- 
lesce with the root, the circumlocution of the perfect participle 
with 8i6i and lj6av, are substituted ; thus, zszvfifik'voi (at) 8t6i for 
zhvnvzM ; iffyekpsvoi (at) 8i6i, for yyysXvtai. — But in pure verbs, 
this circumlocution is unnecessary, as the terminations vzeu and 
vzo readily unite with the characteristic vowel of the root preced- 
ing ; as, z8Zi[x}]vzca, from zijxdco ; 87i8cpiXijrzo from cfifo'oj. To 
these are to be added those liquid verbs which drop v before the 
terminations of the perfect; as, zizavuu from z8uco ; y.ty.Qwzca 
from xqivoj, &c. (244-4). 

271. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE OF PERFECT PASSIVE. 

11. The subjunctive and optative being distinguished from the 
indicative only by the mood-vowels, and there being no mood- 
vowels in the 'term inalion ot % the perfect passive, it is necessary. 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 143 

for the sake of distinction, to adopt the circumlocution of the 
perfect participle with the subjunctive and optative of eifii, as in 
the table of terminations 231, or in the paradigm of the verb 257. 

But if the termination in the perfect and pluperfect passive is 
preceded by a vowel, the circumlocution in the subjunctive and 
optative moods, as exhibited in the paradigm, becomes unneces- 
sary ; and these moods are formed as in observations 3 and 4, 
following. 

Obs. 3. In the Subjunctive, the vowel preceding the termina- 
tion is dropped, and the terminations of the present subjunctive 
annexed; thus, perfect 7iEcpiX?j-[Aai, subjunctive 7teq)iX(oucu, -v, 
-ijtou, &c. ; perfect xsxQtfjiai', subjunctive xexQ-cofiait -#> -rpai. 

Exc. But verbs in 6a>, frequently retain to, as a mood-vowel, 
through all the numbers and persons ; as, dedyXoopai, -&£, -wzai, 
&c. 

Obs. 4. The Optative adds the terminations iiijv, o (viz. from 
ao), to, to the characteristic of the tense, with i interposed after «, 
and subscribed with v or go ; thus, 

Xi-XQl-flTJV XtXQl-0 y.EXQl-TO, &C 

XsXv-firjv XsXv-o XsXv-zo, &c. 

ixrai-fiijv sxzai-o exzai-zo, &c. 

TZEcpihj-pqv TzecpiXrj-o 7T8q)iXrj-zo, &g. 

Stdrjlcp-iArjv ded^Xop-o dedi'jXco-zo, &c. 

In a few instances, the subjunctive copca is made cofi^v in the 
optative, and the go retained throughout ; thus, (ispyquai has the 
subjunctive ps'iAvcafiaij and the optative fxefirco^v, [it'^voio, //g- 

[AVGJZO, &C. 

Note. Both in the subjunctive and optative, however, these forms 
are but seldom used, the circumlocution being generally preferred. 

272. IONIC AND DORIC FORMS. 

12. In the Ionic and Doric dialects, v before -rat and -zo, in 
terminations of these tenses in the 3d person plural, is changed 
into a, so that vzai becomes aim ; and vzo, azo ; thus, XeXvvzai 
becomes XeXvazai ; XsXvvzo, XeXvazo, <fcc. 

Obs. 5. A sT-mute or a x-mute before azai and azo, for vzai 
and vzo, is changed into its own aspirate ; as, rezvcp-azai, XeXty- 
azcu, for zezvn-vzai, XeXey-vzai, &c. 

Obs. 6. As the circumlocution zezvfxfxevoi elal is used to avoid 
the cacophony of the regular termination, zszvcpvzai (10. (5) 
above), this being removed by the change of v into «, the circum- 
locution in the indicative, of all such verbs, becomes unnecessary. 



144 - DIALECTS OF VERBS IN co AND (U. § 102. 

Thus, zezvpifitvoi elm, is changed into rezvyazcu ; XsXsyfidvoi siai, 
into Xels%a7ai, &c. 

Obs. 7. If a (changed from a 7-mute, 235, R. 2,) precedes the 
termination, it is changed into d or & before azai and azo ; thus, 
oxtvd^co, perfect passive iaxsvaapai ; 3d person plural Ionic 
ioxevudazai ; ttXi'j&gj, perfect passive ninhjafiai, 3d person plu- 
ral TTertEXfj&arai for nsTzXijafisvoi. eioi. 

Obs. 8. In pure verbs, y or h before \iai is usually changed 
into £ before the Ionic azai and azo ; thus, TTEqjtl-rjvrcu and -jpzo 
are usually changed into m-tyil-mrai and -eazo. In like manner, 
« before azai and aro is changed into s, to avoid the duplication 
of the a ; thus, avanfaavzai, from «ya?r£TC£oo, becomes avam-zi- 
azca. 

Obs. 9. In like manner, v before the termination ro, seldom 
before zai y in the indicative and optative of the other tenses, bat 
never in the subjunctive, is changed into a ; thus, for zvtzzoivzo 
we have zvnzoiazo ; for ysvoivzo, ysroiazo, &c. So also in verbs 
in (m; as, zideazai for zi&evzai ; iGzeuzcu for lazavzai. In these 
forms, a and o before ^ are usually changed into s ; as, efiovltazo 
for ZftovXovzo, &c. 



273.— §102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN co and pi. 

1. A principal difficulty in learning Greek, arises from the va- 
riety of terminations in verbs, according to the different dialects. 
These can hardly be reduced to any general principles ; but a 
pretty clear idea of them may be formed from the following table. 
It must be observed, however, that many of the same terminations 
occur in all the dialects, although that one only is mentioned in 
which they are most usual. Besides the final syllables, of which 
this table chiefly consists, the Ionians used to insert a vowel be- 
fore the last syllable, which the poets often changed into a diph- 
thong; as, Subj. 2 aor. active or passive zvnu, I. zvtziw, P. zv- 
tiei'co. So cpvy-eiVj I. (pvy-mv ; fio-cocr, I. £>o-ocoo7. ; 6o-ag t I. 6q- 
aag. But as this does not affect the inflexion of the final sylla- 
ble, it is not noticed in the table. § 98, Obs. 4. 

2. These moods and .tenses of the middle and the passive 
voice, which agree in termination with the active, and are not 
here specified, are subject to similar changes, in the different dia- 
lects, with those having the same terminations in the active voice. 
The same is true respecting the terminations of verbs in [u ; so 



§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN co AND [u. 145 

that this table is general, applying to the terminations here spe- 
cified, whether they belong to verbs in co or [xc. The dual is 
omitted in the table, as it but seldom occurs. For other changes 
by dialect, see § 101 throughout. 

A Table exhibiting the most usual Dialects of the terminations 
of Greek Verbs. 

274.— I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -rjfiij M. -SfAfxi ; D. -sipi and (if from dec) -apt ; 

as, Ti-&-8(i(ii for -r^i ; Igz-ol\ii for i6z-r/[M. 
-eiv, I. -w, D. A. -r\ ; as, ixe'/^v-y for -siv. 

-oi[M, A. -oirjv, D. -cp?]v ; as, cpil-oiqv for -oT{ii. 

-cpfu, A. -cprjv ; as, zifi-cptjv for -cp[M. 

-oiqv, A. -cpijv ; as, did-cp-qv for did-oiqv ; and so 

on through all the persons. 

2 Pers. -sig, D. -sg, M. -yg ; as, dfisly-eg for -eig. 

-ag, -i]g, A. -aa&a, -rjG&a; as, ecp-ycj&a for -qg; oid- 

acj&a, contr. o/c#a, for oidag. 
-aig, JSi. A. -stag ; as, tvip-ttag for -#t£. 

-«£, A. D. -ij?? ; as, q)Oiz-rjg for -«£. 

3 Pers. -si i ^ m " • D * ~ £ ' ^ "^ ' as ' ™nz-i] for -£«. 

' ( plup. A. -?/, I. -88 ; as, izvcp-?] for -««. 

-a/., ^E. A. -£t£ ; as, zv\p-8i8 for -at. 

-r/, I. -??(n ; as, zvnz-r^i for -77. 

-«, -«, D. -J, -J ; as, 6(>-?7 for -«. 

-o"t, D. -zi ; as, zldy-zi for -ere. 



1 Pers. -jUf^, D. -fisg ; as, zvnzo-\i8g for -/*£j> ; zv\p-oi>- 

fisg or -£iY<t££ for -o/xe^ ; cpil-8V(i8g for 
-ov\i8v ; dtf.-ovfieg for -ovfisv. 
-?j[A,8v, A. -jW£^ ; as, zvcp&Ei-fxsv for zvydsi-ypsv. 

2 Pers. -?/7£, A. -r£ ; as, zvcpd'8(-Z8 for zvq>-&8i-7]Z8. 

3 Pers. -tjf, D. -m ; as, cpdijx-avzi for -cetft ; s%-covzi 

for -oocrt ; Xt'y-ovzi for Isy-ovcn ; reXfit/m 
for -overt; cpd-ovvti for -oi;o"t ; zid-Evzi 
or -77m for -ftix* ; did-covzi, for -ot>(7t. 

7 



146 DIALECTS OF VERBS IN go AND fit. §102. 

3 Pers. ^ B. into v ; as, zs'zvcp-av for -aai. 

-dai, -vgi, -em, I. -eaai, -vaoi, -mm ; as, deixv-vam for 
-i5(T( ; zi&s'am for -£r<7f. 

-own, I. -cvae ; 4 aGli D. _ ^ ; a s, did-oaai for 

-overt ; cpiXs'-oim for -ovov,. 

" oy > B. -oday ; as, ia%d£-o<jav for -o*>. 

-fiffa?, -^ff«y, -o<7cw, -wcra^, P. -m>, -av, -ov, -av ; as, t tit- 
er for -saav\ ed-ov for -ocra* ; fyy-ew 
for -aaav. 

eiaav, - A. I. -screw ; as, Bih]cp-mav for -£fcra*\ 

-?/xao% -ax«(7t, JE. A. -5xsi ; as, ts&v-am for -^acr*. 

-ca£*, ^E. A. -««y ; as, zvxp-eiav for -aw?. 

!• 2. 3. 3. 3. 

-uzaxrav, -szcoaav, -eizcomxv, -ozcomxv, -ovzcoaav, A. 

into 

1. 2. 3. 

-avzcov, -ovzgjv, -ovvzojv; as, zv\p-dvzcav 
for -dzaaav ; hy-ovzeov for -szcoaav ; 
fam-ovvzeov for -eizcoaav. 
-dov, contr. -aw, ) ^ T , 

-io*, contr. -ow, [ ^' L ~ £w 5 as, ?jya7t-evv for -o3V. 

INFINITIVE. 

-£w, -£m«, I. -s^ey, A. D. -epsvou, -svv, M. -sv, -?>; 

as, iX&s'pevcu for -£w ; apsly-ev for -a* ; 

zi&-s[XEv and -e'fiEvai for -£*>««. 
-a«, A. D. -£^£mt ; as, zvyj-s\usvai for -««. 

-a^ A.p.-dpevcu, -ijv, M. -rjv, -yg, -cug; as, 

ifjv for ^. (§ 98. 06s. 2.) 
A. D. -Sfisvai, E. -£w, -c5>, iE. -ofc, -ow ; 

as, Qiy-cov for -ovy. 



-ow, 



PARTICIPLES. 



-ovaa. 



D. -oro-a, -ewff« ; as, ^ar-£w« for tyz-owa. 
-ag, -aca, -av, D. -a/, ? , -« /(7 «, -aiv ; as, efy-«« ff for -ag, 

&c. 
-^-w ? , )-wa,-<fe, A. -ofc, -c5<j«, -ofc; a s, «W-ooV for 
-w»ft j -^kw S , §101. 7. I. -eras. 

-«?, ^E. -oji; ; as, zezvcp-cov, G. -o*70?, for -o^, 

-oro?. 



-ax 



§ 103. SECOND CONJUGATION. H7 

II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

FINITE MOODS. 
SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -opou, f. D. -ovfiai ; as, tvxfj-ovfiai for -opai. 

-ovpm, D. -ev\loli ; as, \ia$-Ev\iai for -ovfxai. 

-[i?]Vj D. -\iav ; as, hvmo-\ioLV for -^t^. 

2 Pers. -i], A. -s(,, I. inclic. -ecu, subj. -7/at ; as, @ovI-ei 

for -?/, &c. 
-ov, I. -«o, D. -£z; ; as, [td%-sv for -ot>. 

-co, I. -olo ; as, iXva-ao for -co. 



1 Pers. -Ed a, D. -£(7#a ; as, ixop-EGd-a for -£#«. 

3 Pers. -vrou, -evoi eigl, I. -area or -Eatai ; as, yJazcu for xEivrai ; 
EtQV-atca for -u^ca ; lEli%-atai for -j^£- 
*>ot 6fcr4 (§101. 12.) 
-^ro, -eVot ^ow, I. -aro or -evjzo ; as, TtEV&oi-aro for 
-owzo ; lyEv-Earo for -o^ro ; ictdX-ato 
for -pEvoi 7jaav i (§ 101. 12.) 
-rjGv.v, J&. -ev ; as, dvvrftEt-Ev for -?/(Ta^ ; Etvcpfi-Ev 

for -Tjaav. 
-oooav, A. I. D. -aw ; as, Ae^acT^-ocw for -coaav. 

INFINITIVE. 

-i/^ca, D. -rjfiEvai, J&. -tjfiEv ; as, lsiq)&-ijp£v for 

PARTICIPLES. 

-ovpEvog, D. yE. -EVfisvog ; as, cpil-svfiEvog for -ou- 

|U.£2>0£. 



§103. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

275. — Verbs of the second conjugation end in 
^, and are formed from pure verbs of the first, 
as follows : 

1. co is changed into [u, and the short vowel 



148 SECOND CONJUGATION. § 103. 

before it is changed into its own long, or the 
doubtful vowel lengthened ; thus, 

From ofiico is formed <Jp)j{ii I extinguish 

yvoco yvco^ii I know 

cpdco qirjfiL I say 

xlvco yXvyci I hear 

2. Eegular verbs in do?, soj, oco, reduplicate the 
initial consonant with c in the present and imper- 
fect; thus, 

From oeco is formed M-orjfjii I bind 

■&sco tl-^r^ii I place 

boco didcofii I give 

But nUco makes nifinXijiii I fill, 47-19 

3. Verbs beginning with a vowel, prefix i y 
which is called the improper reduplication ; thus, 

From sco is formed i'-nfii I go 
sco L-i][u I send 

Obs. 1. Also verbs beginning with at or nr prefix i with the 
aspirate ; thus, 

From cjrdco is formed i-Gttjfu 
mctco i-Ttxr^jLi 

4. The reduplication is not used in verbs in v^u, 
nor in those whose radical primitive has more 
than two syllables ; thus, 

From vlvco comes xlvfu I hear 
lodco iarnu I know 

oveco ovnfu I assert 

Likewise some other verbs ; as, 

cpdco cfijfii I say, &c. (No. 1.) 

Obs. 2. Some verbs which begin with a vowel repeat the first 
syllable, after the manner^ of the Attic reduplication (224-6) ; 
thus, atypi and dldlqfM ; a^fJa and oatdp^iu 

Obs. 3. Some pure verbs add vvv to the root before fu, and 
some mute and liquid verbs add w in order to pass into (.u ; as, 
Gxsddco R. Gxeda Gxedd-vw-[U 

OEixco Setx omx-w-iu 

«V W dg JtP-NT-MI, aQ-rv-nai 



§ 104, 105. THE TERMINATION. 149 

5. Verbs in pi have only three tenses of that 
form ; viz. the Present, the Imperfect, and the 2 
Aorist. The other tenses are taken from the 
primitive in co, and are of the first conjugation, 
296. Verbs in vpi want the second aorist, and 
also the subjunctive and optative. When those 
moods are needed, they are borrowed from forms 
of the first conjugation in va. 

Obs. 4. Several verbs form only the 2d aorist according to this 
conjugation, 216, Obs. 1; in such cases, verbs in vco have the 
2d aorist in vv ; as, 

^aivco from fidco Root fta 2d aor. sBtjv 

yiyvcaazco yvoco yvo syvcov 

dvco dv sdvv 

Obs. 5. Many verbs of this conjugation are deponent, having 
only the passive form, while their signification is active ; such are 
dvvufiai, I can ; xsTpcu, I lie ; difypai, I seek ; oiopai, I think. 



276.— § 104. THE ROOT AND AUGMENT. 

1. The Root of verbs in (u has but one form, and is the same 
with the first root of the verb from which it is derived ; thus, 
hrrifii from otdco, R. era ; zifrq[ii from #£oo, R. &s, &c. 

2. Iri Verbs that reduplicate (275-2), the reduplication is pre- 
fixed to the root in the present and imperfect only. 

3. The imperfect and 2d aorist are augmented in the same 
manner as in verbs of the first conjugation. 



277.— § 105. THE TERMINATION, OR FINAL LETTERS. 

1. In the first conjugation, the terminations consist of two 
parts, the mood-vowels, and final letters, 225-2. In the second, 
the mood-vowels are wanting, and their place supplied by the 
last letter of the root, which sufficiently distinguishes the moods 
by the changes which it undergoes in combining with the final 
letters. 



150 



FOEMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 



106. 



2. The Final letters in all verbs belonging to this conjugation, 
are the same. They are divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary. The primary belong to the present indicative only ; 
the secondary to the indicative of the imperfect and 2 aorist, and 
to the optative in all the tenses. They are joined immediately 
to the root, and, so far as they can be separated from it, are as 
follows : 

278. — I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Primary Tenses. 
Sing. -\ii -g -6i 

Dual. -tov -rov 

Plur. -per -re -vtoi 



-\iev 



Secondary Tenses. 

-9 

-rov 

-re 



-TY\V 

-car 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



Imperative. 

— -&i 

— -rov 

— -Z6 



-TCO 
-T03V 

-rco6av 



Infinitive. 
-vai 
Participles. 
1ST. -vrg -vroa -v G. -vrog, &c. 

279. — II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Secondary Tenses. 
-to 
-a&nv 



Primary Tenses. 
Sing. -\mi -aai -rat 
Dual, -fis&ov -c&ov -c&ov 
Plur. -fis&a -o&s -vrai 



-m v 

-fie&ov 



-60 

-6&OV 

-6&E 



Imperative. 

Sing. . -60 -6-Q-a) 

Dual. 1 -6&ov -6&WV 

Plur. -6&E -6&m6av 



Infinitive. 

Participles. 
N. -pevog -fisvn -\ievov 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

280. — In the present and imperfect, through 
all the moods, prefix the reduplication, in verbs 
that reduplicate, and then — 



§ 106. FOKMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 151 

1. For the Indicative, 

. 281. — Rule. Change the short vowel of the root 
into its own long (237) in the singular of the 
present and imperfect, and in all the numbers of 
the 2 aorist, and then add the final letters, 277-2 ; 
thus, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. 2d AORIST. 



S. latij-ni -g -6i 
D. lata. — -zov -zov 
P. icza-fisv -zs -61 



16Z7]-V -g — 

i6za — -zov -triv 
i6ta-(isv -zs -6av 



z6Tr[-v -g — 

S6ZTJ -ZOV -zr\v 

S6Z7]-flSV -ZS -6aV 

Exc. 1. In the 2 aorist, zid'j]fxt, didcofM, and fyfM, have the long 
vowel in the singular only. 



2. For the Subjunctive. 

282. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into the subjunctive terminations, a, rjg, fj, 
&c., 229 ; thus, 

i6tt]fii } R. 6ta- Subj. Pres. i6Z-a, -rjg, -?/; -tjzov, -tjzov, &c. 
2 Aor. 6Z-u>, -jjg, -§; -r t zov, -ijzov, &c. 

Obs. These terminations, in the suhjunctive, combine with the reg- 
ular subjunctive terminations (229) the final vowel of the root, forming 
a sort of mixed vowel or diphthong, and consequently they always 
have the. circumflex accent, as here. 

Exc. 2. But verbs in cofii retain co through all the persons and 
numbers; as, 

didcofxi from doco, R. do, Subj. Pres. did-a, -q>g, -op ; -azov, &c. 

2 Aor. d-co, -egg, -6) ; -aizov, <fec. 

3. For the Optative. 

283. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into its own diphthong, and add the second- 
ary final letters with r\ prefixed ; thus, 

Pres. i6zai-7]v -rjg -r\, &c. zi&ei-rjv -ijg -ij, &c. 8i8oi-?]v, &c. 
2 Aor. 6zai-7]V -qg -27, &c. •Qsi-ijv -ijg -rj, &c. doi-?]v, &c. 



152 FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. § 107. 

4. For the Imperative. 

284. — Rule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root ; but in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 

Present, iGzaSi, -zco, -zov, -zcov, -re, -zmgccv. 

2 Aorist, GZ?j -#J, -ZCO, -ZOV, &G. 

Exc. 3. In the 2 aorist, ti&ij[m, didm/ii; and i?][u, retain the 
short vowel, and add g instead of &l in the 2d person singular ; as, 
&£-g, -*& ; -gov, -zcov, &g. ; do-g, -zco ; -zov, -zcov, &g. So also 
GTttjfM, cpQjjfu, and Gyj\\ii, ^ ^ ne P resen t, have GTtig, cpQeg, G%eg. 

5. For the Infinitive. 

285. — Rule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root, and in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 
Present, iGzd-vai, 2 aor. Gztj-vcu. 

Exc. 4. In the 2 aorist, zid)]\ii and iijfu change the short 
vowel of the root into e«, and didcojM changes it into ov ; as, 
&£i-vai d-vai dov-vai 

6. For the Participles. 

286. — Rule. Add the final letters to the root, 
and then combine by the rules of euphony, § 6, 
18 ; thus, 

iGzd-vzg, -vzgcl, -v, combined hz-dg, -ma, -dv. 

zi&wzg, -vzGa, -v, ti&-eig, -elgci, -ev. 

dido^zg, -vTGa, -v, did-ovg, -owa, -6v. 

deixvv-vzg, -vzGa, -v, oeiy.v-vg, -vGa, -vv. 



§107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
MIDDLE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

287. — Prefix the reduplication in the present 
and imperfect in verbs that reduplicate (275-2), as 
in the active voice ; and then, in all the tenses, — 



§ 107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 158 

1. For the Indicative, Imperative, Infinitive, and 
Participles. 

288. — Kule. Annex the final letters (279) to 
the root ; as, 

Indicative, iGTa-fxai, -Geo, -rat, &c. Imp. fotd-pijv, -go, -to, &c. 

Imperative, Igtu-gco, -g&co, -a&ov, -g&oov, &c. 

Infinitive, lora-ad'ai. 

Participles, fctd-fxevog, -\ikvri, -fievov. 

2. For tlie Subjunctive. 

289. — Kule. Change the last letter of the root 
into the subjunctive terminations, afiai, jj, tjtcci, 
&c, 230, and 282, Obs. ; as, 

ustJjfii, R. oza- Subj. Pres. vGt-fopai, -rj, -r t rai, &c. 

2 Aor. GT-oZfiai, -f[, -TJrai, &c. 

Exc. Verbs in mpi retain co through all the numbers and per- 
sons, as in the active voice, 282, Exc. 2 ; as, 

didw(xi, R. do- Subj. Pres. did-mpiai, -o), -ootai, &c. 

2 Aor. 8-65[A,ai, -o), -wtai, &c. 

3. For the Optative. 

290. — Rule. Change the last letter of the root 
into its own diphthong, and add the secondary 
final letters ; as, 

tstijfu, R. era- Opt. Pres. .tVrca-^j', -go, -to, &g. 

2 Aor. gtul-^v, -go, -to, &c. 

Obs. 2! is usually rejected in the 2d person singular ; mak- 
ing— 

iGtai-fJirjv, -o, -to, &c. GTal-fJLrjv, -o, -to, &c, 295-8. 

291. — N. B. As the root of verbs in fit ends in a, e, o, or v, 
these vowels, combining -with the final letters, cause the appear- 
ance of four different forms of termination, and for this reason 
four paradigms have usually been given, though there is in fact 
only one. The following tables will show, that, in whatever vowel 
the root ends, still there is but one form of inflection. 

7* 



154 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN m. 



§108. 



Singular. 

IGZV "J 

deixvv j 



§ 108. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML* 

292. — ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 281. 

Dual. p] ura L 



IGZ 

rid- 



-co -rjg -rj 
-co -cog -co 




iGza j 

dsixvv J 
Subjunctive, 282. 
-ijzov -tjzov 
-cozov -cozov 
Optative, 283. 

-TjZOV -1JTYIV 

Imperative, 284. 



-fJlSV -78 
(•VZGl 1 ) 



IGTCIGI 

ri&em 

didovoi 
deUvvoi 



-COflSV -JjZS -COGl 
-CO t UEV -COTS -COGl 

-TjfAEV* -1JZE -1-jGCCV 



-re -rcoGav 5 

Participles, 286. 



iGZ-ag 
zift-Eig 
did-ovg 
deixv-vg 

IMPERFECT TENSE, 294-6 (2). 

Indicative, 281. 



-CtGCL 
-ElGCt 
-OVGCL 
-VGCi 



-av 
-ev 

-6v 
-vv 



IGZt} 

Izidtj 
ib'i'dco 
ideixvv 



S — 



-zov -zrrv 



-fiev -zs -guv 7 



iGza 

hide 

idido 

ideixvv 

The other moods in the imperfect are wanting. 
Note. The numbers 1, 2, 3, Ac, refer to the same lumbers in § 109. 



* For the accents, see 254-2. 



t 43, Obs. 5. 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN fit. 



155 



Singular. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
SECOND AORIST. 

Indicative Mood, 281. 
Dual. 



Plural. 



aazv ) 
t'dco ) 


-G — 


eazfj j 
e8o ) 


-zvv 


-\18V -ZS 


-aav 7 








Subjunctive, 282. 




at ) 

* j Z 

8 -c5 


~fjg -fi 




-TJZOV -TJZOV 


-oo^ev -rjzs 


-W6i. 


~qjg -co 




-&ZOV -C0ZOV 


-OJftEV -03Z8 


-<X>Gl 








Optative, 283. 




czai ) 












&81 V -nv 
8ol ) 


-vq -n 




-7]ZOV -?]Z1]V 


-7][IW -qze 


-ijaav 








Imperative, 284. 




6Zl]-dl 3 ) 

&e -g [■ 


TO) 




-zov -rav 


-Z8 


-zcocav 


86 -g ) 












Infinitive, 


285. 


Participles, 286. 




8ov ) 


•vat 




azug 
d-aig 
8ovg 


ozaoa 
8ov6a 


ozdv 

&8V 

8ov 



Note 1. The numbers 1, 2, 3, &c, refer to the same numbers in 
§109. 

Note 2. For the accents in these tables, as in the tables of the first 
conjugation, see 254-2. 



156 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN m. 



108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
293. — MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



tara 

ti&s [ 

dido r-PM-GM-tai 

deixw ) 



lar ) ~ „ m 

rid' \ ~ (o ^ ai -y ~ 7 l tai 

did -copai -cp -wzai 



[is&ov -g&ov -g&ov 

Subjunctive, 289. 



-ps&a -ode -vtai 



-ape&ov -ycd-ov, <fec. 

-ojped-ov -wad-ov, &c. 

Optative, 290. 



-cope&a -tjg&s -avzat 
-cSfie&a -oqg&e -anal 



iGtai 

Ti-d-ei [• -finv -o (go 8 ) -to 

didoi 



iGza \ 
rifts [ 

dido r™ -**" 

delxvv ) 

Infinitive, 288. 



[iz&ov -adov -G^V 

Imperative, 288. 

-6&OV -O&COV 



-fisd-a -a&s -vro 



-o&e -G&coaav 



Participles, 288. 



iota 
ri&s 



-G&ai 



deixvv 



icta \ 

rv&s ( 

dido r-P evo S 'V*vri -pevov 

dsixvv J 



iota \ 

iri&e ( . 

idido r-M*-™ -ro 

ideixrv J 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative, 288. 
-[is&ov -a&ov -G&qv 



-pE&Ci -G&6 -VTO 



The other moods of the imperfect are wanting. 

Note. The numbers 8, 9, refer to the same numbers in § 109. 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN pi. 



157 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
MIDDLE VOICE. 
SECOND AORIST. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



iGta 



ido 



-\ir\v -ao -to 



y -oofxai -rj 



-ijtai 
-officii -cp -at ai 



-psd'ov -g&ov -a&riv 
Subjunctive, 289. 

-CO(A,8&OV -iJG&OVj &C. 
-COfXSd-OV -G)6d-OV, &C. 



-[is&cc -6&S, -vto 



-CQfis&a -7(6&e -mvtai 
-0Q[A8x}a -&6&e -covtai 



6TCU 

ftei J- -{Mjv -o (go 8 ) -to 

dot 



Gta 

•&S \- -GO 9 -6&C0 

do 



Optative, 290. 

-psdov -G&OV -Gd-IJV 

Imperative, 288. 

-G&OV -6&(0V 



-[IS&Gi -G&8 -vto 



-G&8 -6&C06av 



Infinitive, 288. 

GtOi 

&8 \ -G&CU 

do 



Participles, 288. 



td ) 



Gta 

-&E ^ -\18V0$ -flEVrj -\18V0V 

do 



The present and imperfect passive are like the present 
and imperfect middle. The second aorist passive is want- 
ing. 

Note. For the other tenses of verbs in fit,, see §§ 110, 111, and for 
the dialects, § 102. 



158 OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN fU. §109. 

§ 109. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN fu. 

294. — ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. The final letters of the 3d person plural are properly vzai ; 
and these, combining with the preceding vowel according to the 
rules of euphony (47-18), become aai, eici, ova, va, ma. 

2. In the optative, 7] is often dropped before the final letters 
of the plural, making — 

-ai^sv, -airs, -oliev ; -ei\iev, -size, -ei8v ; -oijiev, -oite, -oisv ; 
instead of — 

-ai)]fAEr, -aujZE, -aiijaav ; -EirjfjiEv, &c. 

3. idiijfu has sometimes iazy for foza&i in the imperative ; 
and in compounds, at a is commonly used for atrfii ; thus, ava- 
ata for avaazqdi ; nag data for naoctatrfti, &c. 

4. So also rid-tifu, didoa/ju, and (qfu, have sometimes ti&Ei, 
didov, hi, for ri&sn, dido&i, is&i ; but these are properly con- 
tracted forms of the primitive verb with the reduplication, used 
in the Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, zids'co, imperative ti&EE, 
contracted zi&ei. 

5. As in verbs in co (261), so also in those in pi, evzwv is used 
for Ezcoaav in the imperative 3d person plural. 

6. The primitive in co, with the reduplication, is sometimes 
used instead of the form in \ii in the present and imperfect ; thus, 

(1.) Present. 

zilhw, -EEig, -hi, contr. -co, -sig, -ei, for ti&iftu, -ijg, -rfii, &c. 
lazuco, -dsig, -dsi, " -co, -ag, -a, " larrjfju, -t]g, -ijai, &c. 

through all the moods. 

(2.) Imperfect. 

Etld-Eov, -EEg, -ee, contr. -ovv, -Eig, -ei, for izi&qv, -Tjg, -q, &c. 

7. The terminations -aaav, -saav, &c, in the 3d person plu- 
ral, are frequently shortened by syncope ; as, tazav for tazaaav ; 
ezi&ev for szid-£(jav ; sfiav for 'iftijaav. 

295. — MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

8. In the 2d person singular of the imperfect indicative, mid- 
dle, and passive, cr is often rejected, and the concurring vowels 
contracted ; thus, lazco for lazaao ; ziftov for zc&ego, &c. So in 
the present indicative, sometimes iaz\] for tazaaai. Also in the 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 159 

2d person singular of the optative, a is rejected, but the vowels, 
being incapable of contraction, remain unchanged. 

9. The same contraction takes place in the imperative ; but 
in the 2d aorist &iao is contracted into fi-ov only in compounds ; 
as, 7Tapd&ov, imod-ov, &c. 



§110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 

296. — Verbs in [u have only three tenses of that form; viz. 
the present, imperfect, and 2d aorist. All the other tenses are 
formed from the first root of the primitive, as in the first conjuga- 
tion (232-2), and are inflected as the same tenses in verbs in co ; 
as, 

Ti&tfiu, from {reco, has fut. &rjGco, dijaofiai, &c. 

dldwfM, from doco, has fut. Scogco, dcoGopat, &c. 

uJtqjUt from Gzdco, has fut. GzrjGco, 1 aor. SGznGcc, &o. 

297. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Future. Some verbs occasionally retain the reduplication ; 
as, didcoGco from didcopi ; and verbs from derivatives in vvco and 
vvvco form the future from their primitives ; thus, deixvyfu from 
deixvvcQ, has the future dsi^co from dsixco. . 

2. First Aorist. Ti'&rjfii, di'Scopi, and itjfAi, have y.a and y.dpjv 
instead of Ga and Gafirjv in the 1st aorist indicative ; as, 1 aor. 
edijxa, idy/.dfMiv ; edcoy.a, idcQy.dfA.TjV, &c. In these verbs, the 
other moods of this tense are wanting. 

3. Perfect and Pluperfect Active. Verbs in \ii from see com- 
monly have ft before y.a of the perfect ; those from dec have r\ or 
a ; as, zid'rjfii from -tJt'co, perf. zd&sata ; Igzi]\xi from Gzdco, perf. 
8GZT]xa, or BGzay.a. In these tenses, Igzi]\ii aspirates the augment, 
and, except in the singular of the indicative, has a syncopated 
form which resembles the present ; thus, first person plural eGztj- 
xcifiev, by syncope, hzafiev, &c. infinitive iGzrjyJvai, by syncope 
sGzdvai ; participle, as 267. 

Obs. The perfect active of Igz^ii has a present signification ; 
thus, eGztjy.a, I stand, pluperfect iazfaeiv, I stood. In the pre- 
sent, imperfect, future, 1 aorist, active, it signifies to place, to 
cause to stand. In the passive throughout, to be placed. The 2 
aorist middle is not in use. 

4. Passive voice. The short vowel of the root remains short 
before a consonant in the passive voice ; as, diScopi, future passive 



160 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Ill, 112. 



do-&fj60[A,(U, 1 aorist ido-dyv, perfect St'do-pai, &c. But si before 
na in the perfect active returns before pai, in the perfect passive ; 
as, perfect active rsdsi-xa, future passive rs-d/ f ;ao[xa(, (43-4), per- 
fect passive zsdsL-fiai. 

5. Tenses wanting. Verbs in \ii want the second and third 
roots, and consequently the tenses derived from them ; viz. the 
second future passive, the 2d perfect and 2d pluperfect active, 
and the 2d aorist passive. 



298.— §111. TABLE EXHIBITING ALL THE TENSES OF 
VERBS IN ML 





ACTIVE. 




MIDDLE. 


PASSIVE. 


Present. 


larqfu 




IGZCtflCU 


htaficu 


Irnperf. 


tcrryr 




IGtdfinV 


iatafirjv 


Fut. 


(377/(7 GO 




attjaofzai 


GTadfjGOftOU 


1 Aor. 


sGTtjGa 




£G7r]Gdfl7]V 


iGrd&qv 


2 Aor. 


SGZ7JV 




iGzd\ii]v 




Perf. 


tataxa or 


-?]>ca 




eatafiai 


Pluperf. 


sGzdxEiv or dardaeiv 




SGzdfJ,?]V 


Fut. perf. 








sgti';$0[a,gu 



299. — Verbs in 
iijlii from eco I send 
2 ' !■ gBsco I extinguish 

GptVVVfM ) r J 

tpvyvvyci fyvyco, I join 

did/]{u dew I bind 

mtn\ii Ttzdco I fly 

oinjfii oveco I help 

ojivviii 6 [to co I swear 



MI to be conjugated. 

mptzXyiu, from nXtxo I fill 

hence 7ih'j{tco 
ollvfjii oXecq I destroy 

vixnfu vwdoj, I conquer 

q)7][A,i yaw I say 

yXv\ii y.lvco I hear 

Qcovvvfu qoco I strengthen 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN ML 

300. — The irregular and defective verbs in {ii are usually- 
reckoned nine ; viz. sifxi, I am ; eljii and typh 1 9° > ttjiju, I send ; 
Eifiaif I clothe myself ; eigci, I did set; i^tai, I sit;' xeipcu, I lie 
down; (fqpi, I say; and olda, I know. The parts in use are as 
follows : 



§112. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



161 





301.— 


I. EljLil y I am. 






ACTIVE VOICE. 






PRESENT TENSE. 






Indicative. 


S. slfii 
D. 

P. 86\18V 




eft? or £^ 

£(7?6V 


S. c? 
D. 

P. GU^Sy 




Subjunctive. 

7]T0V 
7]tS 


S. £^ 

D. 

P. tiqfjiev 




Optative. 
8i7jg 
eiTjrov 
sfyre 


Imp 

S. £(70 


erative. 

fcWfi) 




Infinitive. 

SIVCU 


D. earo? 
P. «(7Te 












IMPERFECT TENSE. 


S. 7\V 

D. 

P. 7]\18V 




Indicative. 

7 

rjg 

7J10V 
7]%£ 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 


S. rjfitjv 

D. 7HJL8&OV 

P. 7]\i8&a 






7/(70 
tjG'd'OV 



8611 

86Z0V 

8161 



V 

7JT0V 
M61 



£17] 
8l/jtt]V 

8irj6av 



Participles. 
M. wv 

F. 0V6Ct 

F. ov 



7] or 7\V 



7]17]V 
7]6aV 



rjTO 
r { 6&r]v 

7 J jVTO 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Indie. 86opai, Opt. 86oifit]v, Inf. sasad-ai, Part. 860fi8vog, regular. 



162 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112. 



302.— THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF dpi. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 

Indicative. 



1. 

Sing, tljul, D. ijii/ul, 

-^E. rij.ii. 
Plur. ifffiev, d/A,iq, 

P. e/ifV, dfxiv. 



Sing. 0), I. £0), P. £M». 

Plur. o^i/fv, D. oV^'* 

P. no)/.uv, iiojuev. 



Sing, ftiyr, I. EOt/tfr. 
Plur. ntjftiv, I, eifiev. 



Sing. 
Plur. 



2. 
sfe, or ft, I. ht,c, P. & t, 

eggI. 
£(7 re, P. £T£. 



Subjunctive. 

f[Q, I. £7]?, P. «MJ(J. 

5 
7\XE. 



Optative. 

£W/^, I. E0t,q. 
efyra. 

Imperative. 

ego, P. eggo, A. «rth 

£(TT£. 



fcrrt, D. ivri, ivi. 

dq't, D. Ivri, -5C. tvxi, 
cVvtv, P. tacfv, I'aGGt. 



f[, I. el], eXy, rfii, ei\gv, 
_ P. uyGt,. 

MGl, I. EW0Y. 



ft'?/, I. KOI. 
iXtjaav, I. A. iliv. 



egto). 

h'aroxrav, A egtmv, 
P. io vro)v. 



Infinitive. 
ftvat, I. Z/itv, ri/Liiv, D. i'lxtvai, rj^iv, rj/ttq, d/ieq, M. E^tivai, P. tf.ii.uv. 

Participle. 

Fem^oiVa, I. £oro-a, D.INeut. or, I. 16 v, JE. 
i vact L io Tact, eaaaa, tv. 
-^E. tlffa, tao~(x. j 



M. aw, I. io')V, M. ttq. 



Sing, ^v, I. fa, |a, P. 87* 
fl-qv, rirjv, h'ov, tjov 

EGXOV. 

Du. 

Plur. ij/iev, T>. ■q/uiq, P. Bjiitv. 



IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

tjq, I. cfcj, e'fic, P. 7/fc-, 
i-aq, EGxiq, M. tjG- 
a, ena&a. 

tjTOV, JE. EGTOV, P. 
ETOV, fjGTOV. 

tiTf, I. fare. 



?j, ovjjv, I. D. | f , | ? , 

P. EG/.f. 

»/ryr, A. %0-Ttjv, P. 

?/(Tar, P. eaav, EGGav, 
egy.ov. 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 163 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

Plur. | rjvro, I. i'aro, tiaro. 

FUTURE. 

Indicative. 



zairao, by syncope 
taxciL, D. iazirai, 
itTffiirai, P. eWtrca. 

ecorrat, D. iaovvx<xi. 



Sing, eoo/licu, D. laov/.iav,\ Ear\, A. eitre^ I. screen,, 
icrivficu, P. %a(TOf.iao. | EGcnai, D. e<tij, eV- 
cij, P. eW-jj. 
Plur. ia6u£8ci,JE. Ecrofiicr&a.' egeg&i. 
Infin. EGta&ai, P. eaaia&cu. Particip. iaofttvoq, iaaoiicvoc. 

303.— II. E?/^, -Z^. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

Indie. Eifu EigorsI siei i'zov i'zov '/per its tatovteun 

Subj. i'a i'rjg i'rj h\zov i'tjzov icofiev lifts i'cocu 

Opt. ioi[u i'oig i'oi i'oizov loiTTjv ioijiev i'oizs i'oisv 

Imper. i&i izco i'zov i'zcov i'zs izcocjav 

Infin. Uvai Part, low ioi>6a lov,Gen.i6vzog lovarjg, &c. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

Sing, \eiv or fta fjSig or ijEicj&a rjsi 

Dual. fjEizov oyjizov ysizrjv or yzr^v 

Plur. ijEifiEV or \\juev ^eize or {jze rjscjav, Ion. ?J/b"«^ 

Middle Voice.— 'Z^e^ to hasten. 

Indicative. 
Present, "-quae -effat -srae ~2[ie&ov, &c. 

Imperf. i-eptjv -ego -ezo -z'pE&ov, &c. 

Obs. 1. The Attics, and sometimes the Ionians, use the present 
of slfii, in the indicative, infinitive, and participles, in a future 
sense, " I will go" 

Obs. 2. The ancient grammarians have another form of the 
imperfect ; viz. eJv, sig, si — 'i'zov, vttjv — i'fisv, i'ze, i'oav ; — and of 
the second aorist, i'ov, i'sg, Te, &c. ; but, except the third persons 
ie, i'zjjv, arid iaav, peculiar to epic writers, no such forms are 
found. 



164: IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §112. 

304.— III. "I Wh to -send, from ( 'EQ. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

iqpi iyg irjai i'ezov Iezov Ie\lev ieze laai, or IeTgi 



Iridic. 

Subj. tm ijjg ijj lifiov lijtov IcofiEv lyzs icogi 

Opt, hlrjv isiyg, &c. 

Imper. — tsi (ie-&i) Utm iezov itzcov ieze UtmGOLV 

Infm. Uvai Participles, leig ieTogc lev Gen. livrog, &c. 



IMPERFECT. 

issg iee) 9 < , 9 „ „ 

Contr. low hig Iei f l£Tor lET ^ v l£ ^ p lEZS l8(Jav 



Indie, ieov 



FUTURE. 

Indie, yo-co -Eig -ei -ezov, &c. 

1 AORIST. 

Indie. ?)x-a -ag -e -azov, &c. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie. ?pta ?)xag ?)xe eczov Eizyv eJjiev eize Eiaai> 

Subj. co rjg fj, &c. 

Opt. EUJV EUjg Ely ElZOV ElZ?jV ElflEV EtZE ElEV 

Imper. Kg ezco ezov ezcov eze ezcoguv 

Infin. Etvai Participles, eig eigci ev Gen. htog, <fec. 
Perf. tix-a -ag, &c. Pluperf. eix-eiv -Eig, &c. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 

Indie. lEfjiai iegcci hzai iEfjiE&ov, &g. 

Subj. lco{iai trj Itjtcu ic6{ie&ov, &c. 

Opt. loi/xyv, &c. Imper. iego or iov. Infin. leo&ai. Part. tEfiEvog, &c. 

Indicative. 
Imperf. liftqp iego, &c. Fut. yGOfiai, &c. 1 Aor. %xd[iip>, &q. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie, stfiyy ejgo eJzo e^eOov eIg&ov EiGdyv E^iE&a, &c. 

Subj. cofA-ai i] f t Tctt, &c. 

Opt. oifiyv oio oizo, &c. rarely Ei\iyv eIo, &c. 

Imper. ov tGdco, &c. Infin. egOoli. Part. fyiEvog -r\ -ov 

Perf. Indie. sJuai eigch, <fec. Infin. eTgO<u. 
Pluperf. Indie. Etfiyv e'igo, &c. 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Future. Indie, sd-fcopai. 1 Aon. Indie, uiftp. Part, i&stg. 

305. — IV. Eljuctt, I clothe myself. 

This verb comes from sco, to go into, to be sent, or, put into. — 
Middle, to put one's self into, to clothe one's self ; and it is the 
same in the present middle, and present and perfect passive ; thus, 

PRES. MID., AND PRES. AND PERF. PASS. 

Indie. S. si-pou, -aai, -rat and -oral. — 3d PI. eivrca. Part, eipevog. 

FIRST AORIST. 

Indie, eta (sgg, sets) -d t unv, -co, -azo, &c. Part, saodpsvog. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Indie, eifiriv, eiao and aaao, ehzo, eeato, eiaro, and iato. 3d PI. ehto. 

306. — V. Eta a, did set, did place. 

Ehsa (from ea 9 to put), a defective trans, verb, to lay a foun- 
dation i to erect (a building), has the following forms, viz. : 
Act. 1 aor. elaa, <kc. Mid. etadfi^v, &c. 

The diphthong si is properly the augmented root e, which, 
however, is retained in all the moods. The future sfooficu is sel- 
dom used. The defective parts are supplied from idova). 

307.— VI. r Hfuu, I sit. 

l H\iai is properly a perf. passive, with a present intrans. signi- 
fication, from the same lira, to put, to place, or to set ; thus, Perf. 
/ have been placed or set, and remain so ; i. e. / sit. It wants the 
subjunctive and optative except in the compound xaJhflicu, which 
has y.d&wfiai, xw&oi'iirjV, &c. and is more common than i]\iai. 

PRESENT. 

Indie. i)-[icu -oat -rat \-[isd-ov -a&ov -ad-ov l-fie&a -a&e -vrai 

Imper. ?/ — -ao -cr#oo| -od-ov -6&cov\ — -c&e -odcoaav 

Inf. fj6&ai Part, ijfxevog -n -ov 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie, jj-pyv -ao -ro \-ped-ov -o&ov -a&^v \-fieda -efts -vto 

Obs. 3. For rjvtai the Ionians use zazcu, and the Poets eiarcu ; 
and for -rjvzo in like manner tato and eiaro. So also for y.dftqvzai 
and xdiyi]VTO the Ionic forms are xartaiui and xarsato, 272. 



166 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112. 



PRESENT. 




Dual. Plural. 


-psdov -adov -a&ov 

-6&0V -0&G3V 


-[AE&a -a&s -vtcu 

-C&8 -G&OJGaP 



308. — VII. KbZjLiai, Hie down. 

This verb may be regularly derived from xssa, for ew by pros- 
thesis of xs; xesoa becomes y.tr]\ii in the 2 conjugation, and in the 
middle, xtsfiai., by contraction, xsificu. It has the Ionic forms, 
yJarai and iyJaro for ysivxai and exeivto, 2*12. 



Singular. 
Indie. xsX-\iai -aai -tea 
Imp. y,si — -go -O'd'co 
Inf. y,ti&&cu 
Part, xeifisvog -r\ -ov 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie. iyu-\ii]v -ao -to \-{isd-ov -o&ov -a&rjv\-(isd-a -ads -vzo 

FUTURE. 

Indie. XEiG-opcu -y -sreu, &c. regular. 

309.— VIII. &ri[il, I say. 

(piffli, except yyg, in the 2d person singular of the present in- 
dicative active, is like lorrjfM. It appears to have had an ancient 
form ?jfxt, whence, probably, we have the forms of the imperfect, 
?jv, 7jg, ?/, frequently used in familiar language with #' iyco 
o'' og] as, ))v o' syco, "said I ;" ?j 6" og, " said he" The i: 



and 
infini- 



tive (favcu is always used in the sense of the past time ; as, cpavcu 
tov ^coy.odzq, " that Socrates has said" When the present in- 
finitive is required, it is supplied by Xiysiv. 

310.— IX. QlSa, Ihnow. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 



PRESENT. 




Singular. Dual. 


Plural. 


Ind. oloa o7a&a* olds (v) 
Subj. sldb) sldrjg sl8rj, &c. 
Opt. sldsirjv stdsiTjg sldsit], &c. 

Imp. /'(Jth (6TCQ 

Inf. slbsvai Pa 


i'atov i'otov 

IGIOV lOTGiV 

rt. sldcog -via 


icpsv tars iadai 

— tars tGTcoaav 
-6g 



* Oidaq, with the paragogic &a, oidctcr&a, by syncope ola&a. 
Attic form o«7#ac. 



Old 



§ 113. DEPONENT VERBS. 167 

IMPERFECT. 

Sing, ijdeiv ydeig (xideiG&a, Att. ydvaxra) fidei, Att. yd\] 

Dual. ydeixop jjdtitwv 

Plur. < i '" j- ydeize (or yore) qdsiaav (or fjaav) 

Future eiGopai, more rarely sld/fton, I shall know, experience. 

Verbal adj. neuter Igzeov. 

The aorists and perfect are supplied from yiyvcooxco. 

Obs. 4. Oidcc is strictly a 2d perfect from sioco, I see; perfect 
/ have seen, or perceived, i. e. I know. In this sense it is used as 
a present only, and its pluperfect as an imperfect, as above. For 
i<7{i8v, the Ionians have i'dpev ; and for etddvca, the Epic writers 
have idjievaif and ffyeep. 

Matthise and the older grammarians derive the above forms, begin- 
ning with 1, by syncope from an assumed verb lat^xi, of which in the 
Doric dialect the forms Xaa/,iv, icryq, Xaaxv, and the part. Xaaq, are ex- 
tant. On the other hand, Buttmann, Kiihner, and others, think these 
forms all belong to olda, or iido) — that io~/uev, according to the ordinary 
method of derivation, is formed from the Ionic tdfitv (§ 6, 11), which 
manifestly belongs to tXdo), and not to Xar\iii\ while Xarov, igt?, are, by 
a similar analogy, from Xdrov, Xdre, from the same, by dropping the 
mood- vowel ; and that the imperative termination, -O-v, is substituted 
for the ordinary termination, as is usually done when the mood-vowel 
is omitted, as in y.i/.Qa/do, avor/Qt,, &c. This is probably the true ori- 
gin of these forms. (See Buttmann's Gr. § 109, III.) It is certain, how- 
ever, that, so far as usage is concerned, the above mixed paradigm of 
olda, is the only correct one. 

For a catalogue of irregular and defective verbs, see § 117. 



311.— §113. DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs are those which under a 
middle and passive form have either an active or 
middle signification. 

2. The perfect of deponent verbs has sometimes also a passive 
sense. 

3. Some of these verbs have also a passive form of the first 
future and first aorist, always used in a passive sense. 

4. The Tenses of deponent verbs are : the present, imperfect, 
perfect, pluperfect, and paulo-post-future of the passive form ; 
\he future and first aorist of the middle form; and the first fu- 



168 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



§ 114, 115. 



ture and first aorist in the passive form, and with a passive 
sense. A few have a second aorist middle. They are usually 
conjugated by giving the present, future middle, and perfect pas- 
sive ; thus, dtjopat, ds^opcu, dtdeyfiai. 

312. SYNOPSIS OF DEPONENT VERES. 



Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Imper. 


Infin. ! Part. 


Pres. 


diy-Ofiou, 


8iy-i))fxai> 


-Ol/LCTJV 


-ov 


-ta&ai 


-OfliVOQ 


* mp ; 


idey-o^v 












Perf. 


Sidiy-fiat, 


dcdey-/nivoq o) 


-UEVOq £l)]V 


-(TO 


-G&at, 


-juivoq 


Plup. 


ididiy-fnjv 












Fut, It 


dit,-Q[A,ai 


wanting 


-Ot,jil1]V 


wanting 


-taQ-ai 


-o/iivoq 


1 Aor. M. 


iSet-d,u7]V 


di^-m/jLOU 


-ai/LirjV 


-at, 


-ao~&cu 


-a/tiivoq 


1 Fut. P. 


d^/d-rja-Of-iav 


wanting 


-oif-it]V 


wanting 


-iG&at, 


-otitroq 


1 Aor. P. 


id/ifr-Tjv 


ds/fr-D) 


-titjv 


-7JT0 


-tjvai, 


-*k 


P. P. Fut. 


dede^-o/uav 


wanting 


-Ol,Ut]V 


wanting 


-c(jQ(XL 


-OfifVOq 



Note. In this table, the imperative and infinitive of the perfect 
didiy-ao and dLdty-a&at, are changed by euphony into 6tdt%o and Sidtx- 
&cu, 8 6. 1. 17. 



§114. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

313. — Many verbs are occasionally taken impersonally ; as, 

aosoxat, it pleases ; aoxeT, it suffices ; ovficpsQEij it is profitable, &c. 

The following are those which are chiefly taken impersonally : 

1. 71Q87Z81, it is becoming ; £7TQE7is, it was becoming ; 7iQ£7iEiv, 
to be becoming ; to noinov, that ivhich is becoming ; pi. ru 7ZQt- 
novra. 

2. fielsi, it concerns ; epsls, fielijaei, fiEfiiXtjxe and fUfiyle. 

3. doxei, it appears; idoxei (from doxe'eo); k'do$s (from 
ooxoo) ; tic doxovvra. 

4. det, it behoves ; tdsi, detjGEi, dew, to deov, ra diovta. 

5. %or n it is necessary ; &%Qip>, XQ'i G£l > XQV vai > an( ^ XQH V \ ™ 
XQtwv, contracted for xq^ov. Subj. yQJi- 



314.— § 115. DESIDERATIVE, FREQUENTATIVE, AND 
INCEPTIVE VERBS. 

1. Desiderative Verbs are those which denote a desire or 
intention of doing. They are commonly formed by adding (Jtfco 
to the first root of the primitive ; as, 



§ 116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 169 

yeldco, I laugh; 1 R. yela- yelaaeicj, I desire to laugh. 
7Zolsp8(Q, I make war; " nolens- TiolEfivGEico, I desire war. 

Another form of desideratives is that in «co or idco, properly from 
substantives ; as, from ftdvarog, death ; ftavazdco, I long for 
death ; oTQUTiffog, a general ; GToainyidco, I wish to be a general. 
Also from verbs, by first forming substantives from them ; as, 

(hvHG&ai, to buy ; (avqTijg,) cov^ndca, I wish to bug. 
xlaio), I iveep ; (xlavoig,) xlavGidco, lam disposed to weep. 

2. Frequent atives are those which signify repeated action. 
These commonly end in £oo ; as, qinrd^eiv (from QiTiteiv), to 
throw from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this wag 
and that, to be restless; (jtevd&iv (from artvEiv), to sigh much 
and deeply ; so, from afaeiv, to demand ; aiti&iv, to beg ; 
eqtzw, to creep ; 8Q7iv^siv, to creep sloivly. 

3. Inceptives are those which express the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action. These commonly end in axon ; as, 
yevEidcxa), to begin to have a beard ; rjfidcMOJ, to grow to man- 
hood (the same as yeveid^oo and tjftdco) ; in part transitive ; as, 
[is&vGxm, to intoxicate ; from [ie&vw, I am intoxicated. 



§ 116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

315 — In many of the Greek verbs, a variety of forms appears, and 
also an apparent irregularity in the formation of different tenses. This 
is occasioned partly by the adoption of new forms of the present and 
imperfect tenses, which are used either jointly with their primitives, 
if they are still in use ; or in their stead, if they have become obsolete, 
while the other tenses continue as regularly formed from the primitive 
verb ; and partly by the use of tenses taken from synonymous verbs of 
a different theme, in the place of those which have become nearly or 
entirely obsolete ; and thus, as it were, out of the fragments of two or 
more verbs, whose other parts have disappeared, is formed a new whole. 
The parts of this whole, being all that remain in use of their respec- 
tive roots, considered by themselves are really defective verbs. And 
some of these, though regularly formed from their own themes, yet not 
being formed from the present to which they are attached, but from 
some other verb related to it in form or signification, the whole verb is 
not improperly termed anomalous or irregular. This appellation, then, 
properly belongs to all those verbs whose present, future, and perfect, 
do not follow the common analogy of conjugation. A few examples 
will illustrate these remarks ; thus, dim, to go tinder, has di'nm, Sv/ib, 
and Svoy.o), all different forms of the present ; but the tenses of the first 
root are regula7*ly formed from the primitive dim, and the second aorist 

8 



170 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§116. 



tSvVj from the form in fit. Again, nda/o), I suffer, has the future 7t<x- 
■8-tiao), and perfect mTid&ijy.a, from the obsolete present, na&io) ; the 
2d aorist ena&ov, 2 perfect ninrj&a, from the obsolete nq&oi; and the 
future middle ndaofxai (§6. 18), and 2 perfect active ninovda, from 
the obsolete niv&o). In this latter example, nda/o), the only preseut 
in use, with its imperfect t7iao~/ov, is a defective verb, having no other 
tenses from that root ; in like manner, the other parts from their re- 
spective themes are so many defective verbs : but, taken together, and 
as attached to nda/a), a theme from which they are not formed, accord- 
ing to the common analogy of conjugation, they form what is called 
an anomalous or irregular verb. 

In most irregular verbs, the irregularity is caused by the adop- 
tion of a new present and imperfect, formed by certain changes 
on the root of the verb in these tenses, while the other tenses con- 
tinue to be formed regularly from the primitive root or theme. 
Thus from AH' BQ* is formed the new present Xafifidvai, im- 
perfect ildpfiapov, while the future h]\pco, and all the tenses 
following it, are formed regularly from the root AHB. 

316. — In this way new presents are formed from old roots as 
follows : 

I. By the addition of certain letters to the root ; thus, 



Theme. 

OOXCO 
TICO 

dyco 

ECO 

ildco 

8Q8CO 

ytjQaco 



Hoot 
box 

Tl 

ay 

§ 

ila 

yijQa 



let. add. 



VV 

vvv 

vv 

£IP 
<JX 



makes 



Vew Pres. 


Fut. 


8 0X8- CO 


do^co 


TIP- CO 

ayvv-co 

8PVV-CO 

ilavp-co 


riaco 
dtco 
eaco 
ildaco 


8Q881V-CO 

yt]Qdcjy.-co 


8QIJ6CO 

yqqdoco 



II. Of roots that end with a vowel, some drop it before the 
added letters ; some change o into go, s into ij, and others change 
s or o into /■ ; thus, 



TJieme. 


Hoot. 12 


changed. 


let. add 


New Pres. 


Fut. 


1 Ctf4,aQT8CO 


dflC£QZ8 


dfiaQT 


av 


dfiaQidp-co 


dfiaQT/jGCO 


2 tQids'ca 


i()i8e 


8Qld 


aiv 


8Qidai'p-co 


8QldfjO~CO 


3 £ooo 


to 


¥, 


vvv 


l,covvv-co 


^cooco 


4 dldtco 


aide 


d!8)j 


OX 


dld/jGX-co 


dldi'joco 


5 8VQ8CO 


EVQS 


8VQI 


OX 


£VQ(OX-CO 


EVQIjOCO 

dlcooco 


6 XAO'Sl 


dlo 


dfo 


ax 


dliox-co 


1 fitoco 


§10 


§ico 


ox 


ftlCOOX-CO 


filCOGCO 



Primitive themes, now obsolete, are printed in capitals. 



§116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

III. Of roots that end with a x-mute or a r-mute, the final 
mute is sometimes dropped before the added letters ; thus, 



Theme. 


Root. R, 


changed. 


let. add. 


New Pres. 


Fut. 


1 nodyo) 


no ay 


7i q a 


66 


71QU66-G) 


nodzco 


2 wddco 


ifiad 


l[ia 


66 


l(lU66-CO 


i[xa6co 


3 y.odyco 


y.oay 


y.oa 


K 


y.Qa£-o) 


y.od£co 


4 qoddco 


yoad 


Cfoa 


i 


(fod^-co 


CfQa6CQ 


5 &v>jy.(0 


tivrp 


&vn 


6'A 


■&Vt'j6y.-CQ 


\)vtj%CO 



IV. Some form a new present from the second root changed 
before the added letters by inserting v, which before a ^-mute 
becomes \i ; thus, 

Theme. 2 Root. 2 R. changed, let. add. New Pres. Fut. 

1 h'ftoy Xa& Xav& av . lav&dv-co )Jj6co 

2 h'jfico ).a$ \a\i§ av Xa^dv-co h'jipco 

V. By Syncope or contraction ; as, 

New Pres. 

daXaco by syncope -&alco Fut. {rah'fico 

r/aioco " v ErPQ 2 Aor. M. ijyoofirjv 

ocft/.zco by double syncope ocflco Fut. oyeXfeco 

VI. By Reduplication, viz. of the initial syllable ; — of the ini- 
tial consonant with i ; — and of i commonly called the improper 
reduplication ; as, 

Theme. New Pres. Fut. 

ay a by Red. of initial syllable dydyco d£co 

oaco " " cons, with i didaoj d/j6co 

nlaco " " " m\inlaoy, 47-19 nhpto 

6tdco by improper Red. hidco 6tr t 6co 

VII. By Metathesis or transposition of letters, which, however, 
rarely occurs ; as, 

Theme. Root. New Pres. Fut. 

dagxco Saox by Metathesis ooay. doax-co 8aQ<~co 

VIII. By Aphceresis, or cutting off the initial letters ; as, 

i&alco by Aphseresis becomes &aXco 
agaco " " qsgj 

IX. In several, two or more of these modes of variation com- 
bine to form the new present ; thus, 

1 By VI and II, yvoco becomes ytyvco6y.co, fut. yvco6co. 

2 By VI and I, dodco becomes oidod6y.oj, fut. ^«crw. 



172 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

3 By VI and III, dcc/co becomes diddcxco, fut. diddZco. 

4 By VI, fievo) becomes fii^evco, and by V, [iipva, fut. fiaveco. 

5 By VI, ztxco becomes zizexco, by V, ti'txcq, and by VII, zixrco, 

fut. Te£oo. 

6 By I, 'U(o becomes Ixdvco, by V, tWoo, by I, htvico, \v.vio\iai, fut. 

t£co. 

7 By VIII, (j^£co becomes ^g'oa, by VII, 8%co, fut. both fjoa and 



317. — §117. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR 
AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

EXPLANATION. 

In the following Table, the words in capitals are the roots from which 
certain tenses are formed, but which are themselves either entirely ob- 
solete, or are merely supposed, in order to derive from them by analo- 
gy the forms in use. 

When there is but one root, or one form of the root, the numbers 
1, 2, 3, are omitted, as in ayo) ; — s. s. means same signification. 

The capital R after a tense indicates that the verb is conjugated re- 
gularly from the tense after which it is placed. 



y Ado), to injure ; (R. aa.) pres. pass, ddxai, 1 a. act. daaa, contr. daa, 1 
a. pass, ada&rjv, mid. aao-dfiijv. Horn. 

"Ayapai, to admire ; a passive form from dyt],ui,, Th. dydi», (R. dya,) ; 
pr. and imp. like Xara^iai, ; dyd'Qoja at,, s. s. — fut. dyd- 
aojiiat,, R. 

'Ayvvo), ayvvfxv, to break; from ayo), (R. ay,) i d^o), &c, R. 1 a. ect^ce, 2 
a. p. idyrjv, 2 perf. taya, with a passive signification. It 
commonly takes the syllabic augment, probably owing to 
its having anciently had the digamma as the initial letter ; 
thus, pres. Fdyo), 1 a. ¥fa$a, and then iccta ; cfec. 

'Ayo), to lead ; (R. ay,) f. ato), (fee. R. It has a reduplication in the 2 a. 
ijyayov, perf. rj/a, and with the reduplication, dyt';o/a, 
(poetic dyvo), dyivo).) 1 a. t]'S,a, atav, dtaaOat,. 

Afio). See avddvo). 

'Atigo), epic and poetic lengthened for al'oo). Regular. 

'Ai'^o). See avtdvo). 

v Ar\ia, to blow ; (fr. do), R. a,) retains ?/ throughout ; as, drjvat,, pass. 
diktat,; except the participle dug, aivroq: the passive form 
has an active sense. 

Atom, to take; (1 R. aiQe, 2. IX, from EAJ1,) f. alorjffw, or -ioo), <fec. 
R. Attic fut. |A<5, 2 aor. ilXov, mid. dXdftijv, Alexandrian 
form for nXofirjv (239-5). Sometimes with an Attic redu- 
plication in the perfect; as, di>alotj/.a, uQaigijfKU. 






§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 



Al'go), to raise; (R. do, from APS1,) f. ex^p. r;gy.a, 1 a. ^a, <fcc, R. 
Alad-avouou, to perceive ; (1 R. alo-fre, 2 alo~&,) f. m. aia8r t aofiai, } &c. 

R. from AIZ9E'0MAI,$ 116, II 2 aor. yff&o.uTjv. 
'A/.a/iZo), to trouble ; (1 R. aza/f and a/, 2 ce^O f. cc/.a/tjao), &c. R. 2 a, 

with redup. rj/.a/ov ; pres. Mid. d/o,uai, ; perf. pass, ax.^- 

yj(.iai, to be afflicted, to grieve. 
AlSaivo), tr. to make to grow ; (R. d/.daiv,) f. aldavw, &c. R. imp. ^'AJa- 

vov from "AAA SI. 
l4).dr;ay.o). intr. fo grow; (R. aA#f,) f. dlS^aoi, &c. R. from'AAAE'Sl. 
Atecivo), aHouau, to shun; (R. aAa>, fromL4^£F'J2,) 1 a, j>f/Ui/ffa, 1 a. 

m. tjhvdu^v and ?i?.eaurjv, by elision of o - for -tjhvadfjirjv. 
Att^o), to avert ; (R. d/.fte and «-?.£/.,) f. a/f ttjao), &c. from *AAE£E SI ; 

1 aor. m. dk$dut]V, &o. from ' AAEIC SI. 2 a. poet. qJuaX- 

y.ov by redupl. and syncope for rjk/.ov. 
AhvSio), tr. to ?*oW ; (R. dhvdt, and ccA/,, from 'AAI'Sl) f. dXlao), &c. R. 

1 a. p. part, dlwdtid-tiq ; p. p. part, dhvdr^ivov. Mid. 
sense, £o wander, to roam. 

Atia/.o), to take; (R. d).o,) f. cUcaow, cfcc. R. from 'AAO'Sl, 2 |wr. 
kd/Mv, or ^/ojv, from "AASIM I. This verb has a passive 
signification in the aorists and perfect active. 

'AJUralvo), to be wanting, to sin; (1 R. dhre } 2 dhx } ) f. dfarfoo), <fec. R. 

2 a. rjhxov. 

"A/./.ouat, to leap ; (R. ctA fromAASl,) f. aAo?,aat, 2 a. r[).6nr\v, R. 
"A/.ia/.o), d).vo-/.dvo), to avoid ; (R. dlv/.,) fut. cc/i''|co, <fcc. R. from 14/4 F'- 

KSl, s. s. as a/ew. 
*A?.qicilvo) } (d?.qdvo), dJ.yccio),) to gain; (1 R. d/.ye, 2 aAgp,) fut. aAqtijiroi, 

&e. R. from 'AA<I>E'S1. 2 a, jf/.qiov. 
c A/.iaordvo), to err ; (1 R. duayre, 2 a/ia^)T,) f. dfiaqxTjao), <fcc. R. 2 a. 

ij/ioQTov, from AMAPTESL ^ 
y Auptiay.oi, to miscarry ; (R. d/ufiXo,) fut. d^^).o')ao), <fec. R. from a^t- 

^A/uni/o), and duTao~/vioucu. See i#w. 

AiiTt/.ay.Lay.o), to miss, to err ; (1 R. «/t7rAax.f, 2 a,«7rAax,) f. a,«7rAax7j(roj, 
<fcc. R. 2 a. rjjxTtlay.ov. 

Aptqu^wvfi*. See tvvv/xv. 

3 Avaytvo')(Txo). See jaroicr/co). 

'AvaXiaxw, to read. See d).lo~y.o). 

Avddvo), to please ; (1 R. afo, 2 a#, 3 at?,) fut. aJ^o-w, <fcc. R. from 
a()E(r), 2 a. tadov for ^ Jov, 2 perf. £ct(5a, with the syllabic 
augment, s. s. as r t Soi. 

3 Avotyvvo),dvoiyvv/Lu,dvnlyo) 3 (ctrocand oYyo),) to open; (R. oiy,) f. dvoi%o), 
p. dvior/a, <fcc. R. often with both temporal and syllabic 
augment ; as, imp. dv&wyov, 2 perf. dvmya, &c. 

Avo'yyo), to order; (R. dvo)y and dvo)ye,) f. dvo)to), &c. R. or, avo)yyo~o), 
<fcc. R. from dvo)yio); hence, pres. imperative, dvur/&i, 
dvo'fX&o), &Q. by svncope for avo'tytj&i,, dvoyytro), &c. as if 
from 'ANJITHMJ, 2 perf. jjviaya. 

Anavqdo), to takeaway ; (from duo and "A Y PS1, R. ai 1 ^) imperf. R. 
a7TT]vqaov, contr. a7Tr]VQ0)v, 1 aor. dnrivoa, m. dnr t v(iduriv, 
from dnavQoi. From this verb, or more probably from 
'AIIOY'PJl, (the obsolete Th. of aTroi^tCw, to dispossess,) 
comes 1 aor. inf. dnovqat,, part. &7Zovqcu;, and aTroi^a^tJ- 
rog, used by Homer, Pindar, and Hesiod, in the sense of 



174 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §117. 

"to rob;" "to plunder;" "to encroach on the limits or 

property of another." 
Anf/fravotAou. See ix&dvoficu. 
AnoXXvfii. See oXXv/nt. 
'AquqIgym, from "AFJi., to Jit, or adapt; (R. dg,) fut. a^w and aoao) 

(§ 101, 4, (6.)), p. I'iQ/.a, &e. R. 2 perf. Ijoaga and aotjoa, 

with the Attic reduplication from r t ga. 
AgiGxo), to please ; (R. o££,) fut. dgeGo), ijotxa, <fcc. R. from agio). 
Au^o), and ai'ijaVw, tr. to increase ; (R. auif,) fut. avirjGo), <fec. R. from 

AYSES1; likewise, at'io;, af^aw, tfec. from 'AESEJL 

Mid. intr. to increase. 
"Ax&o/xav, to be indignant ; (R. dyOe,) fut. ax&ijao/nav, or -iaojuav, <fcc. 

R. from a/freofiat. 
*Ao). This verb has four significations in its different parts ; viz., 1. 

oio), to blow; imp. dov, commonly dtj/xu. — 2. ao;, fo sleep ; 

1 aor. ao"a, and aiaa. — 3. aw, fo satisfy ; f. clffoj, 1 aor. 

a<ra, pres. pass, orat and darca*, inf. act. d^ivat. Horn. 

contr. for diuevai,, for common form aW.— 4. «w, to in- 
jure ; see aaoj. 



B. 

Baivoy, fidaxo), /2t/9a«, fo go; (R. /9a,) fut. prjGo/.iou, p. pf(3r t xa, <fec. R. 
from BASl ; 2 aor. £/9^r, from BHMI ; imperat. /?^cH, in 
compounds shortened, as, xardfta. N. B. This verb has 
also the causative signification, to cause to go ; the future 
/S^(7o), and 1 aorist active efirjaa, have exclusively this sig- 
nification. 

BdXXo), to throw ; (1 R. p<xX, and pake, 2 ftcd, 3 in compounds fioX,) fut. 
/9aAw (Poet. (iaXXr t Goi), ^pdXrj/.a, <fec. R. as if from BA- 
AE 'SI ; hence, by syncope, BAE SI. Hence the synco- 
pated forms efiXqv, eftXrjro, fi/JjO&ai,, for ifidXyv, epdXfjro, 
fa(2a,Xr]Gd-at,, <fcc. Epic perf. pass, fii/26/.quai,, as if from 
BOAE'Sl. 

Bccardto), to carry ; (R. fiaGTad, pass, fictGray, 211,) f. /Saardao), 1 a. p. 
ifiaGrdx&ijv. 

Bm'io/.o), to live ; (R. ftio,) fut. ftwao), <fcc. R. from /?t6w ; 2 aor. ifiiow, 
from /9tw,«t (all in use). 

BXaaxdvo), to bud; (1 R. p/.aari; 2 ftXaGT,) f. pXaor/jGia, as if from 
BAA2TESI, 2 a. h'fiXaGrov. 

B?mgxo), to go ; (R. ^oA, as if from MO'ASl,) 2 a, t,uoXov, f. m. uoXov- 
fiat,, pei'f /(£,«/9Ao;y.a (40-3d) for /nifiXoy/.a, as if from /</6w 
(by metath. 40-8th for ,«6Aoj), whence /9/6o) and fiXwo/.o). 

Bodo), to cry out ; (R. /5oa,) f. /9o^ffw, <fec. R. The Ionics contract o>/ 
into o;, making fio')ao/.iai for flo^Go/uca* ; 1 a. £/?w<ra for 
i^o^aa. 1 a. p. inserts <r, ifio'wdtjv. 

Bog-ao), tr. to feed ; (R. fioGxt,) f. poGY.t'jGot, tfec. R. from poG/.io). 

BovXofiai>, to will ; (1 R. /5oi>Af, 2 /Soc^,) f. ftovX/iGOfiav, <fcc. R. from 
BOYAEJl; 1 a. p. ifiovXq&tjv, and with double augment 
flPovXij&ijv; hence also 2 perf. fiifiovXa. 

B(jo>gy.u), fii.ft()o')Gxo), to cat ; (R. /9(>o,) fut. fJgo'>Go) } <fec. R. from /9^om ; 
2 aor. sfigow, as if from ftgonu. 



§ 117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 



rauio), to marry ; (R. ya/xt, and ya/x,) fut. ya/AtjGo), and yafxto), yafio), 
f. m. yafiiaof-iat,, <fcc. R. 1 aor. iyd/xTjGa, K T. ; and eyrifia, 
as if from rA'MJl, or rH'MJL 

rhro, in Homer, he took ; probably iEol. for thro ; jy being put for F, 
and v for ^ as in the Dor. yv&e for ^.#£ ; thus, fihro 
would become yivtro, and by syncope, yivxo. — Also yivxo 
2 a. m. of ylvofiav by procope and syncope for iyivixo. 

r^&to), to rejoice ; (1 R. ytjde, 3 yi]Q-,) f. yrj&yGo), 2 perf. yiyr t &a, hav- 
ing the signification of the present. 

rrjadcrxo), to grow old ; (R. yrjQa, and y?]0,) f. yrjodao), &c. R. from 
yrjodo) ; 1 aor. eyqoa, from FH'PJl ; yr\odvav, pres. inf. 
from yrjorifiv. 

rlyvofiav, ylvofiav, to become ; (1 R. yfvf, 2 yjv, 3 yov,) fut. yivr\GOfxab, 
&q. R. from FENEtt, 2 perf. ye'yova. N. B. Allied to 
this verb is 

rdvofiav, to be bom ; (R. yiw,) used in the present and imperfect ; the 
first aor. iycbvdfxrjv is used actively, to beget, to bear ; hence, 
ol yiwdftivot, parents ; r^ ytbvauivTj, a mother. 

riyvd)G/.o), yivd)G/.o), to know ; (R. yvo,) fut. yvo')GO), p. tyvor/.a, 1 fut. 
yvwG&r[GOfiai, p. p. eyvo)Gfi.ab, R. from FNO 'II ; 2 aor. 
eyvo)v, from yvoifib, sub. yvd), opt. yvolfjv, imper. yvo)>9b, 
inf. yrwvat, part, yvovc. 



Aaio), to learn ; (1 R. dae, 2 da, 3 da,) fut. datjGo)', &c. R. from AAESl, 
by epenth. from <5aoj ; whence p. didaa (§ 101, 5), 2 aor. 
p. iddrjv, or act. from ddtjfib, from tfaco comes dda/.o)', and, 
by reduplication, tf«)a(xy.«, to teach. 

Aaio), to divide, to feast, to entertain ; (R. dab, and Sad,) f. daiGo), more 
frequently <5aerw, p. didaxa, <fec. R. from AA'ZSl. 

Aaio), to burn; (1 R. dab, 2 tfa, 3 (fy,) second perfect didtja, regular 
through all its moods. 

Adxvo), to bite ; (1 R. drjx, 2 da/.,) fut. dtjtofxab, <fec. R. from AHKSl ; 
2 aor. £(5a/.ov. 

Aao&dvo), to sleep ; (1 R. (5a£#f, 2 daq&,) fut. dao&rjGOfiab, &c. R. from 
AAPOE'Sl ; 2 aor. edaodov, poetic sdya&ov. 

Jtldto, to fear ; (1 R. &«?, 2 dbd, 3 (W, also 2 db, 3 &, from //J'/2,) fut. 
dilao), p. dctJ? tact, or didooxa, 2 perf. didobda ; also from 
Al SI, 2 aor. e<3Yov, 2 perf. Jedta (poetice dtidbcc), pi. tffdia- 
^fv, by syncope didbfitv, <fec. and imper. didbQb, with a 
present sense, to fear ; the middle diouab, with its deriva- 
tives dtdiaxofiab, dibiaaofxab, <fec. have an active significa- 
tion, "fo frighten." 

Jibxvvo), dtUvvfu, to show; (R. &mj,) £ <f«S«, <fcc. R. from AEl'KSl; 
Ionic AE'KSl, hence dtSo), a)>$cc, didiy/.tab, <fcc. 

Jiofiab, to need; (R. &f, from AEEOMAJ,) fut. d^aofiab, &c. R. In 
the active voice it is used impersonally ; as, dil, dttjGH, 
<fcc. See Impersonal Verbs, § 114. 



176 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Am, to bind ; (R. di,) f. dycro), (fee. R. 3 fat. pass. didr { ao[.icu, seldom 

dt&rjGotxai,. 
Aiddav.o), to teach ; (R. dv$a/, and Si^Saa/.t,) f. dida£w (and di§aa/.r t oo)), 

Sidldaya, (fee. R. § 116, IX. 3. 
Aidqaaxo), to escape ; (R. §q<x,) fut. doaao), (fee. (R. from d^aw, a regular 

verb in use) ; 2 aor. idgtjv (from APHMI), for which also 

idodv, aq, a, (fee. Subj. dgo), aq, a, (fee., Opt. doaLrjV, Imp. 

dgd&t,, Inf. d^avat, pt. d^ac;. N. B. This verb is used in 

composition only. 
Ao/.m, to think ; (R. do*?, and doz,) f. do$o), (fee. R. from AO'KJl ; — also 

fut. doY.i'iao), (fee. R. but less in use than the other forms. 
Avvapat,, I can ; (R. dvva,) like t'crra^at, f. dwrjcro/iiou, (fee. R. from 

AYNAOMAI; 1 aor. pass, idvvda&fjv and idvvtj&r/v. 
Avo), dvvo), tr. £o enclose, intr. £o (/o m£o ; (R. du,) fut. dvao), did'v/.a, (fee. 

R. ; 2 aor. Uvv, from AY MI. 



'Eyiigo), tr. £o wl-e ; (1 R. iyuq, 2 eyf^, 3 iyog,) R. Mid. intr. to awake ; 
2 a. 'tjYQOfitjv, by syncope for tiyeooju-qv, 2 p. a. cj^yo^a, 
reduplication anomalous. 

"Edo), ea&o), and ia&lo), to eat ; (1 R. edf, 2 Id, 3 cd, also 2 R. giay, from 
(pdyo),) fut. idiffo), p. pass. cd^dfoyjat for ijdtafiat, ; 1 aor. 
pass. 7jSia&t]v from Mew ; f. m. Wo^cu and Ido fytat ; 2 perf. 
-//da, Attice I'dv/da, p. a. ?/doxa (by change of vowel for 
7/df/.a), Attic £d//do>ca, 2 aor. act. %q>a.yov, from qciyo) ; 
(edo^at is rather the present used in the sense of the fu- 
ture.) 

'E&iloi, Mko), &iXi<a, I wish ; (R. i&tfc, and &e).f,) fut. idthjao), and 
■8-ih'jGO), rt&iXrjua, R. 

"E&io, I am wont ; only with Epic writers ; 2 perf. iiw&a, Ionic to) Oct, 
M in the same signification. Plup. ilw&uv, I loas wont. 

ElASl, to see ; (1 R. fid, ftdf, 2 td, 3 <ud,) an old verb, which, in the 
active voice, has only the 2 aor. tidov and idov, used as a 
substitute for the aorist of ogocv), to see — a verb which 
has only the present oocuo, the imperfect wqaov, Ionic 
tiooiv, Attic mgow, and the perfect moa/.a, perf. pass. 
to')()ti/ucu; the other parts being made up from onToiucu, 
and iido), as here. In the middle and passive, el'do) has 
the present udo,ucti>, the imperfect ilSou^v, 1 aor. tladu^v 
(hi<sd[,iijv), like the Latin videri, meaning to be seen, to 
seem, to appear, to resemble. EldofUjv, or idofiyv, the 2 aor. 
mid. is also used in an active sense, particularly by the 
Attics, in the imperative idoi"', idia&e, as an interjection, 
see, lo, behold. 

Of this verb the 2d perfect otda, strictly / have seen, 
perceived, or comprehended, is never used as a perfect, but 
only as a present, meaning / know, having the pluperfect 
ydiov, as an imperfect I knciv, and the future m. ho-o,uou, 
rarely tidtiao), I shall know, or experience. The other 
parts, viz. the aorists and perf. are supplied from ytyvoj- 
a/.o). — For the parts of olSa, see § ll 2, IX. 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 



EJKJl, I resemble, I seem ; (1 R. dr., 2 IK,Z oix,) is used only in the 
2 perf. oi/.a, Ionic zov/.a, Attic d/.a, employed as a present 
in the sense of I am like, I seem, I resemble. Inf. d/.ivat,, 
part, dxo')q, -t'ta, -6q. Hence the adverb d/.otoiq. From 
this verb comes da-z.o) and iffxo), to compare. 

EiXo) and dXXo), to roll up, press together, more commonly dXiw or tlXeo) ; 
(R. d)., dXe, or f IXi,) fut. -rjao), (fee. 1 aor. inf. eXaau, Ulacu, 
part. sXaaq, perf. pass. bzX/xoli, 1 aor. p. idlrjv, inf. cU^ctt, 
or a).rjf.t,ivau, part, dXeiq, all of which have sometimes the 
spiritus asper, and sometimes the spiritus lenis. 

Eif.il, lam; (R. I,) from "£J2; fut. mid. eaoficu, imperfect riv. See 301. 
But 

££/«, / go, comes from V IS1 ; f. m. daofiai, p. da, Attice rfia. See 

* 303 - 
Einil, or ETISI, to say ; used only in the aorists ; 1 aor. dna, 2 unov, 

1 aor. mid. dndu^v. The initial *l- is retained through 

all the moods. Compounds used by the poets are iveno), 

ivianoi, ivlano). The other parts are supplied from ego), 

which see. 
Etqyo), to shut out ; (R. dpy,) f. np'So), (fee. R. perf. pass. 3 pi. Upyaxm, 

Epic for dpyuivoi, dai, 272-12. But dpyvvfic, f. dpt,o), 

means to shut in. 
'EXavvo), to drive ; (R. eka,) fut. tXdao), p. rjlar.a, (fee. R. from eXdo), also 

in use. The Attic future is Dm, iXaq, iXa, (fee. for iXdao), 

iXdauq, (fee. 
"EXxo), and eXxi'm, to draw ; (R. iX/. and eXxv,) f. tX'S,o) and eXuvato, 1 aor. 

ft'Aira, <fec. R. 
'Evo&o), to shake, to agitate ; (R. ivod-,) 2 perf. ^jvoO-a, Att. svrjvod-a ; used 

chiefly in compounds ; as, nap-'<vi]voQiv, dv-ijvod-iv, (fee. 
"Evvvfit, to clothe ; (R. I,) fut. to~o> ; p. pass, dfiat,, and also zapou, from 

"£/2 ; afitpievvvfjib has Attice dfupio) for duqu^iao) ; dju<pt,d£o) 

and dfcfio-AO) are rare forms of the same word. 
"Eno). See dito). 
"Eno), to be actively employed ; (1 R. i;T, 2 <r7r,) 2 aor. tarcov and £C7ro- 

/tiyv, as if from 2 HE 11. Mid. tTtouau, to follow, fut. etyo- 

^cet. See t/oj ; to be found chiefly in compounds. 
"EPril, and eo£w. See Qst^ot. See also in dpyo). 
^EqiSalvo), to contend ; (R. e(w?f,) fut. Ipudrjao), (fee. from ^EPIJESl, per 

epenth. from 'EPl'JSl ; hence £pIl,o), s. s. ; fut. ipitro), 

(fee. regular. 
"Epouat*. See eiow. 

"Edoo), to go aivay ; (R. £j3$f,) f- i{jorjo~o), (fee. R. from ' EPPE'Sl. 
'EovO-alvo), to make red; (R. ipvfrt, and ipev9;) fut. ipv&rjo-o), (fee. (R. 

from 'EPYOEJl), and also %aW, as if from 'EPEY'QSL 
v Epyoficu, to go ; (1 R. IA«>0-, 2 eAi»#, 3 tXvQ-,) fut. iXdxrofiat, 2 perf. 

rjXv&a, Attice i/.ij/.vOa, from 'EAEY'&Jl; whencealso 2 

aor. act. rf/.O-ov, by s} T ncope for "HAYOOIV. For tjX&ov, 

eX&dv, the Doric writers have fjvQ-ov, iv&iiv. In some 

tenses ft/« is more in use than zp/ofiat. 
"EPJ1, by metathesis ^io), and by epenth. igica ; also fl'(M0, by ep. dpioy, 

from one or other of which the tenses in use are regularly 

formed; (1 R. io, §f, and tot, 2. ip,) thus, frome^w, 1 aor. 

m. ^pduTjv, from $?«, fut. Qijao), and 1 aor. p. i^&rjv, 
8* 



178 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

and iqUdyvj from %' w , fat. itfffot, p. ;^ xa , p. pass. eX- 
Qt],ua h fut, e^w, 2 a. m. faofiijv; and probably from aWw, 
comes the fut. tloijao^ai. 
"Eoo^ai, in the sense of to ask, occurs chiefly as an aorist to iooncua 

>f oj , /° ^W> sub J* ^«/*«*> imp- &oS, alsof. ioioopa*. 
AaQ-io), to eat ; used in the pres. and imp. for Mm. See euw 
Evdo), to sleep; (R. *£&,) fut. ew^ffw, <fec. R. from EYJE'Jl, augments 
the initial vowel, thus, yvdov; so in compounds, y.a&m>- 

00 V, &C. ' 

EvqIo-xo), to find; (1 R, f {,ot, 2 evo,) f. «', ? ^ ffw , <fcc. R. from EYPE'SLby 
epenth. from EY'PJl; whence a form of the 1 aor m 
tvyd,uijv. This verb has * before -Vqaopcu and -fl-^v • as' 
fi'(j£0-rjv; 239-5. ' ' 

'£/^aro^« t and amx^dvo M ct h I am hated; (R, i x &e,) fut. i X Maon<u, 
perf. p. nx&iifiai,, R. from i x 8£oficu, from l/^w, poetic 
and used only in the present. 

%o>, to have; (1 R. fr, and a Xh 2 a X) ) fut. £ w (with the aspirate), or 
cr/fjao), p. £(T//yx«, &c. R. from 2XEJI, also tr/^w, 2 aor. 
eoyov, subj. ff/w, opt. ff/ot^v, imp. a/^, inf. o-/hj'. This 
verb has another form of the present and imperf I'ayo) 
and layov, in the sense of to hold, which has the future 
<rM<To>, (fee. ; so also a X i, 9o), eayeOov. In the compounds 
observe the following varieties; viz. &v£ X w (for which 
also avaa X tOo)), m the middle has a double augment in the 
imperf and 2 aor. %vt> X 6iu V v, ijvt<r X 6fiijv: dnniyu, to en- 
close, has f. a,ucp£io), 2 aor. i^nicyov ; mid. aunfyoficu, or 
an7r«r X veo f icu, to xoear ; fut. dpp&ytcu, 2 aor. Jjum(T X 6uiiv ' 

-i7 t vntff X vtoftcu y to promise, fut, vnoawaoucu, <feci R. 

^w, to coo* ; (R. tv'f ,) tut. eV'^ffw), (fee. Reg. from 'EVE'Jl 

E<1, to place ; (R. I,) Defective, 1 a. ■&«, f m . f ? ff o,m*, ! *.' m . „ Wa 

The derivatives from this root are, 1. faou, I sit (perf. for 

fifiat), 307 ; 2. &,o^ect, to ser: ofouw (whence t'Cw and y.aOL 

*' i)'™* £VVI '1 U > t0 cl <>the; and, 4. i W to send, ijao), 
sixa, R, 304. * ' 

Z. 

Zdoj, to live; JR. fa,) f. m. ^oo,«« t ; 2 aor. £,>, as if from ZH3/7 
lor the contractions of this verb, see 251 Obs 2 To 
supply the defective parts of this verb, tenses are bor- 
rowed from fit-oio. 

Ztvyvim and %hm",tojoin; (JR. fay, 2 . fry,) f. u^ w , <fec. R. from 
ZEY 1 SI, 2 a. p. t^vytjv. 

Zo)vvvo>, ttmg* to gird; (R. Co,) f. CoW, <fec. R. from &«. perf. pass 
tL.oiO'fxao. l l 

H. 

"HSo>, to sweeten to please ; (R. fa) f. £ ffw , &c . R. s . s . as ^^ 
T winch see. 

/fyou, to aft ; see"EJ>, and 307. 

JV, by aph*resis for w /, I say ; likewise f V , £ for r W ^ See 



§ 117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 

0. 

0£Xo). See i&ikm. 

Orjtpo), to be amazed; (1 R. &ij(p, 2 -9-atp, S #ijq>), used only in the 2 aor. 
eraqiov, and 2 perf. xid-rina, in which the second aspirate 
is changed instead of the first, contrary to 43-4. 

Qqydvb), to sharpen; (R, &rjy,) f. &q$o), (fee. R. from &?]yo), s. s. 

Gtyydvo), to touch ; (R. -&t,y,) f. -di^o), (fee. R. from &iyo) ; 2 aor. e&^yov. 

Ov/ja/.o), to die; (1 R. #i>aand &uv, 2 &av,) f. m. &avov/xcu; p. xe&vtjy.a, 
and by syncope, xe&vaa, whence the common forms, xiQ-- 
va/Liev, Ti&vaGw, xt&vdvao, <fec. (265-5, b, c) ; from QA'NIl 
comes f. m. &avov,icat,, and 2 aor. a. e&avov. From the p. 
a. xiO-vrjy.a, comes a new present te&ynjitw, f. ti{forf£ai. 
Parts also occur as if from a form in f,u ; thus, xi&vaQ-u, 
rt&vairjv, as if from xidv7jfxi. 

Qoqvvo), d-oovvfii, &Qb)GM>, to leap, or spring ; (R. #oo, from QO'PSl,) 
f. m. &ooov,uai>, Ion. tfooeo/iiai,, 2 aor. edogov. 



'IJPY'NSl, tSqvfib, from tj^i'o;, Reg. tr. to se£, or place ; (R. t<fyu and 
wqvv,) f. Idovao), <fec. R. 1 aor. p. ttyvv&ijv. 

'Itdvo), t'Cw, fo se£; (R. t£a, and tJ,) fut. l^r/ao), (fee. R. from tCctw ; and 
«toj, (fee. R. from t'Cw. In like manner xa&^dvo), r.a&ito), 
(fee. See"ESl. 

"Irjf.it,. to go ; pres. m. Xifiai. See 303. 

"Itj/ii,, to send ; (R. I,) f. ^Vw, p. ff/.a, 1 aor. r)y.a, from." ESI. 304. 

'Ir.dvo), Ixviofiat,, to come ; (R. I-/.,) from exa>, s. s. R. whence they hare 
f. m. itouav, perf. pass, lyfxai, 2 aor. i/.o/ttjv. 

'D.dav.Ofiou, to propitiate ; (R. tAa,) f. D.daofiav, (fee. R. from tAaw; whence 
"IAHMI, intr. to 6e propitious, of which some parts occur 
in Homer. 

u j7tra,uat>. See nixo/AOu. 

"Iatjut,, to know ; m. iva/uai,, used in the singular number by Doric wri- 
ters only. See tXdo). 

"Jc/w. See e/o). 

K- 

Ku&i^ofxat,, to sit; (y.axd and t^ofiao, R. ed,) fut. za^f Sovficu, 1 aor. p. 

Knuav. See 308. 

Ki/.o/uat,, to order; (R. x*Af,) f. y.^lrjaoiiao, (fee. R. from y.tttojaat,. 

KiQuvvlm, Kiqavvvfib, to mix; (R. *?£«,) fut. y.zodo~o), (fee. Reg. from 

y.f^aoj. Sometimes y.i/.Qd/.a, by syncope for xi/.toavia., in 

the perf. active. So also in the perf. p. y.h.oaixau and Ion. 

Y.h.QT[tiat,. Sometimes it inserts a before -^ffo/iat, in 1 f. 

pa~s., sometimes not. Hence also y.vovdo), from which 

kIqvtj/io, s. s. imper. y.iqvrj for y.iQvct&o. 
Kijdto, tr. to make anxious ; (1 R. xijde, 3 y.tjd,) f. x^Voj, 2 p. yjy.rj&a, 

with a present intransitive sense, to be anxious. Whence 

the Homeric future y.fy.adtjao/uai'. 



180 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Ktodalvo), to make gain ; (R. y.tQdavv, and y.igda,) f. xtgdavo) and xeg- 

dtjGO) ; perf. y.entQdtjy.a, or -«/.«. 
Kv/dvo), to overtake; (1 R. y.iyi, 2 y.t/,) f. yiiyrjao), (fee. R. from y.iyiw\ 2 

aor. cV.t/ov, and from KI'XHMI, i/.iyrjv. 
Kiyorjfxv, to lend; (R. yqa,) fut. yq^ao), (fee. R. from yqdoi. 
Kim, to go ; not used in pres. indie, but in the other moods and imperf. 

ind., and is accented like the 2 aor. 
KXa^o), to cry aloud; (1 R. /J.ayy, 2 y.X.ay, 3 xXtjy,) f. y.XdylM, (fee. R. 

from yJ.dyyo) ; 2 perf. xiaA^ya, as if from xA^tw. 2 a. ex- 

Aayor. 
KXvo), to hear ; (R. xAw,) Reg. except the imperative pres. xlv&t, as if 

from KA YMI, as well as xXve, reg. 
Koqivvvo), y.0Qevvvju,v, to satisfy ; (R. xo^f,) f. xo^Ecrwand y.oQr t ao), (fee. R. 

from xo^e'oj ; p. p. xfxo^f o~i.i ou. Koqem, reg. £o siceep, is a 

different verb. 
Kqd^o), to cry ; (R. x^a/,) f. y.Qato), (fee. R. except the imperative per- 
fect y.i/.Qaydv, 2 a. t/.qayov. 
Kq^/xavvvM, KQifidvvvfjiv, and y.QTj/j.vijpi; to hang ; (R. xotfia,) f. y.qtf,idao), 

Ac. R. from KPEMA'll. Attic f. x^>^o"5, Sq, a, &c 264, 

(1). Perf. p. y.qiixafiat, without the augment. 
Krtivoj, to kill ; (1 R. urew, 2 y.rav, 3 xtov,) fut. xrfvw, (fee. R. ; 2 aor. 

exrowor, and ezrrjv from KTHMI. 
KvUvdo), to roll ; (R. xuAt,) fut. y.vXiaox, (fee. R. from xvXIm, s. s. 
Kvvio), to kiss; (R. xwf, and xu,) fut. xvvrjao), (fee. R. ; also xiWw, (fee. R. 

from xuw. 



Aayydvo), to receive by lot ; (1 R, ;.^/, 2 lay, 3 Aoj'/,) f. />;ioj, (fee. R. from 
AH'Xll. 2 aor. eXayov, perf. XeXoyyoc. § 101, 5. 

Aapfidvo), to take ; (1 R. A?//?, 2 Aoc/9, 3 At//?,) f. m! Xqipo/iou, p. uXr t qa. 
<fec. R. from AH'Bll. Ionic perf. XtXdprjy.a; likewise f. 
Xd/x\pof.iav, (fee. R. as if from AA'MBll. Also of the same 
signification, — 

Ad^ofim, /ce£i>,«afr, dep. Ionic and Doric forms for JLa/ifidva*. 

Aav&dvoi, to be hid; (1 R. A*j£, 2 ;.«#, 3 Afytf-,) f. A^ffw, (fee. R. from 
Xtjfro); in the middle voice, — 

Aav&dvof.iat,, sometimes XijOo/nav, to forget; f. Xjaoficu, (fee. from the 
same. 

Aovo), to wash ; (R. A,ou,) in the Attic dialect generally omits by syn- 
cope the short vowel after ov; thus, eXov, eXoitfiw, Xov/ucu, 
Xova&ai,, (fee. for eXovi, iX.ovo/nev, Xouofictt, Xoi'tod-cu, &a 

Aovio), in some of its tenses occurs in Homer. 

Ao>, to will ; found only in the sing. Aw, A%, Afj, plur. Aw>*?, A5Vr*, Doric 
as if from A All, contracted like C«w, 251, 0/as. 2. 



M. 

MavQ-dvo), to learn ; (1 R. juaOt, 2 /«a#,) fut. fia&yaofiou, p. ,uf 1 ud&ny.a y 

(fee. R. from MAQEll; 2 aor. tnaO-or. 
Mdyouav, to fight ; (1 R. /,«/*, 2 /<a/,) fut. /ia/?/<ro/iat and fiayiaoutu, 

(fee. R. from MAXEOMAL 



§ 117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 181 

Mao), an old form from which arise the three following defective verbs ; 
viz. 

1. Perf. /uijiiaa, to strive ; with a present signification. 

2. Pres. m. /udouai,, contr. /toi/tai,, to desire, to seek. 

3. Fut. and 1 aor. m. /xdcrofiau, i/xacrdfitjv also from (.laio/xav, to 

seek. 
Mh&va/M, to intoxicate ; (R. fit&v,) f. [xe&vaox, <fec. from fii&voi, s. s. 
JSWm, to care for ; (1 R. [iz).t, 2 /xi)., 3 juij).,) i fistfao), from MEAE'Sl. 

2 aor. £/A,i).ov, perf. jni/,itjXa. In the active voice it is used 

mostly in the third person impersonally, ju&.et,, e/n?.f, <fec. 

§114,2. 
MW.o), to be about to be; (R. /ut/.?.t,) f. fAi).).rjo~o), <fec. R. from /.ul.Uo). 
Mtjy.do/i.at, to bleat ; (1 R. /.ty-tad, 2 /tax, 3 firjy.,) f. jur t y.dcrojuau, &c. R. 

(firjy.dto), s. s.) 2 aor. sfiaxov, 2 perf /ne^y.a, from MH'KSl. 
JSliyvvo), julyvvfit, f,iio~yo), to mix ; (R. fit,*/,) f. fiti-oi, <fec. R. from filyo), 2 

aor. ijuiyrjv from MITHMI. 
MifJLvr\ay.b), to remember ; (R. /ira,) fut. juvrjao), &c. R. from fivdo). 
Mooyvvo), /.loqyvvfn, to wipe off; (R. ^o^y,) f. /uoq^o), &c. from MO'Pril. 
Mv/.douav, to bellow ; R. Doric forms, 2 a. I'/tuxov, 2 p. /xi^vy.a, as if 

from MY'KJl. 



Nctio), intrans. to dwell ; (R. va,) f. vdffo), &e. R. from rctoj, trans, to cause 

to dwell. 
JVito), to wash; (R. vu7t,) f. vixpo), &c. R. from vitzto), s. s. 
TVos'w, to think; reg. is contracted and accented by the Ionics like 

fiodo) ; thus, f. vwglo, 1 a. %vo)0~a, tvivono, &c. 



O. 

Oto), to smell ; (R. bd, and osf,) f. 6V«, R. also o£t'(rw and &jo~o), p. 
Ws7/za, &c. R. from'OZJB'ii, 2 perf. o^a, with the Attic 
reduplication bdoid'a, with a present sense. 

Or/vio), oXyvvui, to open; (R. ot/,) f. oi'^w, <fcc. R. from ol'yox See dvoiyo). 

Oida. See «#<», and 310. 

Oidaivoj, olddvo), oldio/.o), to swell; (R. oldt,) f. oio^ao), &c. R. from 
qtJc'w, Th. s. s. 

OXof-iav, and ol/xav, to think ; (R. otf,) f. olrjaouav, &c. R. from oUof.tat; 
imperf. o)6/nf]V ; otw, with the diphthong resolved, is re- 
tained in some dialects. 

Oi/ojucu, to go ; (R. ot/f,) f. ol-/r t ao/.iav, p. or/j^iai, R. as if from OIXE'O- 
MAJ. 

'O/.ocr&alvo), blujfrdvo), to glide ; (1 R. bhcOt, 2 bhaO;) f. bha&i]0'o), &c. 
R. from bhaOiM, s. s. ; 2 aor. o'iha&ov. 

'Ox/.uw, o).Iv/lu, to destroy ; (1 R. oAf, 2 o/, 3 o/,) f. 6/f'o-f/), <fec. R, from 
OAE'Jl ; Att. fut. a. o/w, m. b).oT;uai,, 2 aor. odoutjv, p. wAa, 
Attice bloda. Other forms are oXAw, bliy.o), oXeffmt. 

'0/tvvot, opcvvfiir, to swear ; (1 R. b/xo, 2 bit, from "OMJl,) f. buoao), &c. 
R. from 'OMO'Sl, commonly with the reduplication in the 
perfect; f. m. b.uovficu from "OM/2. 



182 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

'Ofiogyviw, ouoQyvvfib, to wipe off ; (R. duooy,) f. 6/<6(>£w, (fee. R. s. s. as, 

/noQyvvo), which see. 
"OvTj[.it<, 6vLvt]f.ii>, to help ; (R. ova,) f. ovrjao), (fee R. from 'ONA'Jl. 2 a. 

fbvq/ifjv. 
'Oqf.ialvoi, to rush ; (R. oo/na,) f. oq/jlvgo), (fee. R. from oq/uolo), s. s. 
'Oqvvo), oqvvjui,, to excite ; (R. 6o,) f. b^xro;, (§ 101. 4. (6.) ) from "0-PJ2 ; f. 

oqo) from o^w, 2 perf. 6'^o^a ; hence a new present, o£(xco, 

s. s. and also 6qo')qo). 
'Oo'cpQcdvof.icti', to smell ; (R. oGyqaw and oGcpoa,) fut. oocfigavovficu, R. 

and hatforiaofxai,, (fee. R. from "O^fpPE'OMAJ, by epenth. 

from oQ-q>qo/ucu, from which MGqqoju^v; hence also oaqiodo), 

and baqiQaopcu, s. s. 
Ovxdo), oirraCw, ovxdaxo), OY'THMI, to hit, to wound ; (R. ovra,) fut. 

ovrdao) and ovxqGo), (fee. R. from ovxdo), infin. ovxd/btivav, 

Horn, for ovxdvau. 
'Oqtlho, o<plo), oqihcrxdvo), to owe ; viz. money, punishment, i. e. fo 6e 

guilty ; (1 R. bqiuXi and oqpAf, 2 6q>eX,) f. bquXijGo) and 

b(p).riGo), <fec. R. from bqniXto) and oqXto) ; 2 aor. w^f Aov, 

used only in the expression of a wish ; thus, *!'#•' &q>tXov, 

that I, titf wquhq, that thou, (fee. 
oqihaxdvo), to forfeit ; (1 R. oy^.f, 2 6qpA,) f. bqiXtjGo), p. oxphjy.a, 2 aor. 
aipXov. 

n. 

fJalo), to strike ; (R. ttcu, and Ttcut,) f. naiaoi and ttcutjgo) ; the remain- 
ing tenses are from the root ?rat. 

nda/oi, to suffer ; (1 R. mvQ-, seldom naQ-t, 2 7ra#, 3 novQ-,) fut. m. 
TZtiffo/Mu, § 6, 18 ; 2 perf. ninovQ-a; both from J1ENQJI ; 
2 aor. Unad-ov, also fut. na&iJGo), (fee. R. from IJAQE'Sl. 

IJaxiofiav, to taste, to eat ; (R. yra, from JJA'Jl,) 1 aor. ina.adfii]v, p. p. 
7T£7ra(T^at. 

TUggo), to digest ; (R. 7Tf7T,) f. nhftoi, <fec. R. from ninxo), s. s. 

ILtxavvvo), mxdvvvfjn, to expand ; (R. ;t£T«,) f. 7rfTcto"«, R. from rnxdo), 
exc. p. p. ninxa^ai, which is from the syncopated form 
nrdo). Other forms are rnxvaw and Ttlxvrj/xi, s. s. 

Hixofiai, nixa t uai, nixdonai, to fly ; (R. nexa,) f. TCtr^aouat, (fee. R. 
from nixdo(.iav ; 2 aor. etcxtjv from inr^fib ; also p. p. 7Tf- 
noxrifiav from n ox do n at,) by syncope tTTixoiitjv becomes 
inxonr t v } and so of other tenses. 

TItcpvov. See g>Evo). 

ritjaao), nrjyvvo), nryvv^u, to fasten ; (1 R. ^rt/^, 2 7Tay, 3 Tr;/;',) f. 777/ito, 
(fee. R. from IJUTJI) 2 perf. ntnqya, 2 a. pass. indyrp'. 

Jlvlvdo), 7rttv?jiut>, to approach ; same signification as rnXd^o), from 
which the other tenses are taken. 

TlmnXdvoi and ni^nXri^i,, to fill ; (R. ]1AA, whence nlftnXiifttf) i nXr r 
ao), (fee. R. from TlAA'Sl = TzXij&w. When, in composi- 
tion, ju comes before the initial n in this word, it is omit- 
ted before nX ; as, ifMijtXrjfii ; so also in 

U'm7tor\^i, to burn ; (R. noa,) f. npt'jGo), (fee. R. from JJPA'Jl = n(jt,0<i>- 

Jlivo), to drink ; (R. no and m,) iut. 7io>Go), (fee. R. from IlO'Sl ; 2 aor. 
e7nov from tt/w, Th. ; imperat. commonly 711^, sometimes 
n'a ; fut. m. nio/uat, probably the present used in the fix- 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 



ture sense ; or by elision of <r for 7iLaof.iat,; movpcu is 

also found. From this theme also comes 
YImLgy.m, to cause to drink ; (R. nt,,) f. niao), &a. R. from nio). 
Ihit^da/.o), to sell ; (R. 7iQ<x, from JIPA'Jl.) The forms in use are ni- 

nQti/.a, ninqtifiai, inqdQ-riv, 7i£7tQaao[A(xv. The future 

and aorist active are wanting. 
JJinro), Attic and poetic nlrvo), to fall ; (1 R. ntr and nro), 2 m a, 

from IJE2EJI,) f. niao), 1 a. emaa, from the ancient 

JlE'TJl; and 7rr«<r«, p. nircTory.a, from JlTO'Jl; 2 aor. 

'intaov, f. m. maov^av, as if from IIE2EJI. 
nXdto), to lead astray ; (1 R. nXctyy, 2 nXay,) f. 7rAay|«, &c. R. from 

nXdyyo) ; 2 aor. ETrAayov. 
ID.ijaao), to strike ; (1 R. Tr^/y/, 2 TrA^y for nXay,) f. n)J\\u), <fcc. R. exc. 

2 aor. p. inXtjytjv ; compounds regular throughout. 
IJPTAMAJ, to buy ; of which there is in use only 2 aor. inQid/uqv, as 

an aorist to uviouai. 
JJvvd-dvofA,av, to learn by inquiry ; (1 R. nzvQ-, 2 nvd;) f. TZiwofxcu, &e. 

R. from poetic mvQ-o^ai, ; 2 aor. m. i7iv&6jii7]v, perf. pass. 

P. 

'Pe'Cw, tydo),"EPrSl, to do ; (1 R. £*;/ and igy, 3 o^y from 2 '^PP,) fut. 

^e|o> and eq1~o), &c. R. 2 perf. eogya. 
r P£o), to flow ; (R. $ev and Qi'f,) f. yevao) and yvrjao), p. iqqvqxa, <fec. R. 

from £i/ew, 2 aor. pass, bq^vijv. 
'PijfVWi, qqyw/u, tr. to break ; (1 R. y/yy, 2 £ay, 3 yo>/, irreg.) f. ffim, 

<fec. R. from ^qaau) (i. e. PHTJl), s. s. 2 perf. e^wj/a, 

with intrans. signification, I am torn in pieces. 2 a. pass. 

i^qdytjv. 
r Po)vvvo), Qwvvvfii, to strengthen ; (R. $o,) f. §w(7«, <fec. R. from 'PO'Sl. 



2. 

2fiivvim, aftivvvjui,, to extinguish ; (R. a fie,) f. afiiao), <fec. R. from <x,3ew ; 

also p. Efffiqxa, 2 a. i'afitjv, intr. fo #o owi ; from 2BHMI. 
Sevo), to move, impel ; reg. except that, like verbs beginning with q, 

it commonly doubles <x after the augment, and, in the 

1 aor., omits <r, the tense-sign ; thus, 1 aor. taatva, mid. 

iaamdfxriv, perf. pass, eaavficu, 235, Obs. 
Sy.tdavvvo), <T/.tddvvuf.u, axi,dvdo), ffy.idvrj/tu, to scatter ; (R. o~/.i da,) fut. 

a/.tddao), Attic axtSo), &c. R. from G/.iddo) ; p. p. iay.i- 

dafffiai>. 
2xiXXo). to dry up ; (R. o~/.t X and axaXe ,) f. gxOm, R. also ay.aXrjo'o), p. 

EffxXtjxa (by syncope for iaxdXijxct), 1 aor. 'iaxrjXct., 2 aor. 

foxjbpr, from SKAHMI. 
2udo), fffivj(i s <fcc 251, 06s. 2, fo wjoe; (R. oy/a and ff/wy/,) f. G/urjo-o), 

&c. 1 aor. p. io-jutf/d-riv, from a/ui]/o), s. 6. 
SnivSoi, to make a libation ; (R. <X7rfr#,) f. andao), <fec. R. § 6, 18. 
2rootvvvo), aToofovv/iu, to spread ; (R. crro^f,) f. aroqiao), &c. R. from 

ZTOPEJl; also, 



184 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

^rqwvvim, atQMvvvfxv, to spread ; (R. gxqo,) f. gxqwgo), <fec. R. from 
ZTPO'tt, by metathesis and syncope from 2TOPESL. 

Sytlv. See e/co. 

Smtfii, to save ; (R. go>S or go),) f. go')Go), <fec. R. exc. 1 aor. pass. £oo')9-rjv 
instead of iao'w&qv and iaao^&rjV, from the older form 
craoo). 

T. 

TaXdo), to bear ; (R. xla,) f. xXtjgo), <fcc. reg. from the syncopated form 

xXdo), s. s. ; 2 aor. exhyv, from xXrjfiv. 
Ttfxvoi, to cut ; (1 R. xtp, also r^a and Xfirjy, 2 t«/(, 3 to/*,) fut. xe/uo), 

reg. also f. XfitjGo) and T^z/i-w, from x/udo> and r/urjyo) ; 2 

aor. ETctfiov and txfxavov, — sometimes ext/iov. 
TioGopai, intr. to dry ; 2 aor. inf. pass. Tioijvai, and TfoayjAivat,, as if 

from ixioGr^v. 
Termor and extx/uov, a defective 2 aorist used in Homer, £o ?n^ w^A, 

£o j?«.<i. 
TUxo), to bear ; (1 R. t*k, 2 ft*, 3 to*,) f. t£-w, <fec. R. from TE'KSl ; 

2 aor. erfxov, 2 perf. xixo/.a. 
Tlvo), twvvo), tlvvvfxv, to expiate ; (R. xi> } ) f. xigw, <fee. R. from rio), to 

honour. 
TYtoccw, Xitqaivoy, xixori/iv, to bore ; (R. tocc,) f. xqSjgo), Ac. R. from 

Toactf. 
TrtQwGY.w, to wound ; (R. too,) f. tocoo"«, <fcc. R. from tooo;. 
Tot/w, £o nm ; (1 R. #Of/ and tfoa.u, 2 tfoa//.,) f. dqito), p. dtdoduy/.a, 

244, -E^c. <fec. R. from JPA'MJl ; 2 aor. Moc^ov, f. to. 

d^a/tor'/toa. 
Tfjv/o), to consume ; (R. xovyo,) 1 aor. £toi'/ojo"«, (fee. 
Tvyxdvo), to be, to obtain; (1 R. ti>/£ and th>/, 2 tj</,) f. xv/r'jGo), <fec. 

R. from TYXE'Sl ; 2 aor. exvyov, fut. m. t* vto/nat from 

xiv/o). — -Vote. This verb must be carefully distinguished 

from the regular kindred verb xivyo), to prepare ; fut. 

xtv'£o), <fec. R. 

Y. 

'YTtiO'/viouav, to promise ; (from vno and g/eco,) f. v7toGyr,Gonai, <fec. R. 
from c YU02XE0MAI. See *> . 



<l>dyo^av, pres. m. £o ea£ ; (R. g<ay,) also the future for tpayov/icu, in the 
K T. and later writers by the same anomaly as edojuat 
and niofiav ; 2 aor. ecpayov. The rest of the tenses are 
formed from eg&Lo). See tJw. 

*I>dGM). See pw/ii. 

<I>lvo), to kill ; (1 R. <jp*r, 2 qpav,) 2 aor. niyvov and tmqvor, by redupl. 
and syncope for eqxxvov ; part, niqvm', accented on the 
penult, p. p. niqictficu,, 3 f. p. 7Ttq<rjo~o,iiat,. Hence gdvo<,-, 
from 3d root q>ov. 



§117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 185 



fpiqio, to bear ; used in the pres. and imperf.^l R. oi, ivex, and iviyx, 

2 ivtyy., 3 ho/,) f. oiao) (from OUl), p.'HNEXA, &e. R. 

from 'ENE'KSL ; also 1 f. pass, oia&riao^av ; 1 aor. act. 

TJveyv.a for rjvtyta, from 'EJVETKJl, Attice commonly 

?jvicy.a, &c. ; 2 aor. r\vt y/.ov, from the same ; 2 perf. r,voyu 

from'ElVE'XSl. 
<I>ij,ul, to say ; (R. q>a,) f. qn^ao) ; 2 aor. ecp^v. See 309. 
f l>&civo), to come before, to anticipate ; (R. y&a,) f. q>&do~o) or yfrtjao), 

(fee. R. from (pQA'Jl, 2 aor. ey&ijv from qi&rj/ul. 
<P&lvo), to corrupt, to fall ; (R. (p^,) f. qi&iao), &c. R. from qidlo), s. s. ; 

other forms are fpdia&o), q>&t,vio), and y&i.vv&o), used in 

the pres. and imperf. 
fpQayvvo), qiqayvv/xu, to enclose ; (R. <pqay,) f. <p£a£a)j <tc. R. from 0PA'- 

rSl, same as qiqdaao), s. s. 
tPv^w, to flee, to put to flight ; (R. gu'/,) f. gwfw, <fcc. R. Other kindred 

forms are yvyw and tpevyo), R. and it has the derivatives 

(pv'Qao) and qtv&jftir. 
fproo), to mix, to knead ; (R. qwq and qivqa,) f. quiqdao), Ion. qivQtjaoi ; old 

fut. qjvqao) ; 1 a. eV^ca; p. p. niyvQfxai, and mqivqauav. 
<Pvo), to beget ; (R. gn>,) f. qivao), 1 aor. ecpvaa. But the perf. niyvy.a, 

and 2 aor. eitpw, have a passive or intransitive significa- 
tion, £o &<? begotten, to be, to become. 



X. 

Xul,o), yavSdvo), to recede, to stand open, to contain ; (R. yaS,) fut. ydcro), 
&c. R. from XA' ' ASl (s. s. with KA'ZJl, whence yJy.ao-f.iai> 
or y.iy.ad fiai) ; 2 aor. eyatiov and y.e'xadov, 2 perf. y.iyada ; 
derivatives and varieties of forms are numerous. 

Xalvo), ydffy.o), yaa/.d^o), to gape or yawn ; (R. yaw,) f. yavo), &c. R. 
from yalvo), a derivative from XASl ; from which also 
y.a^o; and ydZoi ; which see above. 

Xaloo), to rejoice; (1 R. yaiq, later yavqt, 2 yaq, B yt]Q,) f. yavqi^ffo), 
&c. R. ; 2 a. p. iydqr^v, perf. y.cydqyjuau and y.iyaQfiav. 

Xavddvo), £o grasp ; (1 R. /ard, ^wd, 2 /ad, 3 yavd,) f. m. ytlaofxai, 
§6, 18 ; 2 aor. 'dyadov, 2 perf. y.iyavda. 

Xdo~y.o). See yaivw. 

Xioi, to pour out ; (R. ;m>,) f. ytvao), <fec. R. 1 aor. eyivaa and E/f« (by 
elision for tytvaa) ; hence imperative /eov, /f cctoj, <fec. 
infinitive /tea ; also f. ;/£a>, /* T'4, yn, mid. yiofiav. 

Xqdo). This verb has five different forms, with as many different sig- 
nifications ; root of all, yqa. 

1. yqdco, to give an oracular response ; regular. 

2. y-lyorifiv, to lend ; like tcrr //,«&. 

3. %Qf], it is necessary ; partly like verbs in fit (see Impers. 

' Verbs, §114). 

4. yqdouai, to use; in the contracted tenses takes r\ for a, 

' 251, Obs. 2. 

5. dnoyoi], it suffices ; pi. dnoyq^aw, inf. a7ro/^^v, cfcc. 
Xqo)vvvo), yqd)vvvuv, to colour ; (R. yqo,) f. yqwaw, &c R. p. pass. *e- 

yqoWfiai,. 



186 SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. §118.119. 

Xo)vvvo), xdiVWfiv, to heap, to dam ; (R. /o,) f. /ojcoj, <fec. R. from %6o), 
s. s. perf. pass, Y.k%o)o~[\ai. 



SI. 

3 J20io), to push ; (R. o)& and &&*,) lias the syllabic augment, through- 
out ; thus, imp. io'/Oovv, f. «ffw and w^ow, regular from 
both ; 1 f. p. wo-frrjo-ofiai,. 



§118. INDECLINABLE WORDS OR PARTICLES. 

318. — The Indeclinable parts of speech, sometimes denominat- 
ed Particles, are those which suffer no change of form by inflec- 
tion. They are the Adverb (which includes the Interjection), 
the Preposition, and the Conjunction. 

THE ADVERB. 

319. — Ail Adverb is a word joined to a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 
denote some circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signification, Deri- 
vation, and Comparison. 



§119.— THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

320. — In respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged in 
Greek as they are in Latin and other languages, under the fol- 
lowing heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place ; comprehending those which signify, 

1st. Rest in a place. These generally end in &i, m, ov, ?/, oi, 
% ov > Wl \ as > uyQO&i, in the field. 

2d. Motion from a place. These generally end in &ev or &e 
as, aygo&ev, from the field. 

3d. Motion to a place. These generally end in ds, ge, £e ; as, 
dyoovde, to the field. 324-6. 

4th. Motion through or by a place. These are generally femi- 
nine adjectives in the dative singular, having odaj under- 
stood ; as, alhj, by another way. 



§119. 



SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 



187 



2. Adverbs of Time ; as, w, now ; rots, then ; nott, some- 
times, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity; ndaov, how much; nolv, much; 
okiyovj a little, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quality ; these end in cog ; sometimes in a and 
v (which are properly datives of the first declension) ; also in 
n, i, si, 8ov, 8qv, on, and J. 

5. Adverbs of Manner ; (viz. of action or condition,) including 
those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, 
forbidding, interrogation, doubt, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Relation ; or such as express circumstances of 
comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c. 

1. Adverbs of Exclamation; in other languages usually de- 
nominated Interjections. (See 321, Obs. 2.) 



321, 



•OBSERVATIONS. 



Obs. 1. Some adverbs have such an affinity, that, beginning 
with a vowel, they are indefinites ; with tz, interrogatives ; 
with r, redditives, or responsives, as follows : 



INDEFINITE. 

e a j which way. 
V? ° *!' ( by what means, 
ore, onoTt, rjvi/.a, when. 

o&iv, oTto&iv, whence, 
ov, or oQ-v, where. 
oaov, how much, 
olov, after what 'manner, 
boduq, how often. 



INTERROGATIVE. 

- j which way? 
'' I by what means ? 
Ttore, Ttrjvi/.a, when? 

n:6friv, whence? 
7iov, or 7t6&t, where? 
noaov, how much? [ner ? 
no Xov, after what nian- 
noady.ic, how often ? 



REDDITITE. 

TJ[(h or j this way, or 
TavTij, ( by this means. 
TOTc, Trjvi/.a, rtjvt- 

y.avra, then, 
ro&ev, thence. 
rodv, there. 
togov, so much. [ner. 
roTov, after that man- 
roadxic, so often. 



Obs. 2. Under adverbs in Greek are classed those particles of 
exclamation which express some sudden emotion of the mind, and 
are, in the grammars of most other languages, denominated In- 
terjections. The most common of these are the following, which 
express — 

Rejoicing ; as, Iov, ico. Condemning ; as, oo, qpev. 

Grieving ; as, lov, co, and co. Admiring ; as, co, fia{iai, nanai. 

Laughing ; as, a, a. Deriding; as, iov, co, o. 
Bewailing ; as, at, hi, Ico, ororoT. Calling ; as, co. 

Wishing ; as, ei, ei'&s. Unjoining silence ; as, i], r t . 

Rejecting ; as, anaye. Threatening ; as, ovai. 

Praising; as, eta, evye. Raging; as, svoT. 



188 FORMATION OF ADVERBS. § 120. 



§120. THE FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF 
ADVERBS. 

322. — A few adverbs in Greek are primitives ; as, vvv, now ; 
^a\iai, on the ground ; %tJeg, yesterday. 

But the greater part are derivatives, and are of two classes. 

323. — I. The first class of derivatives consists of such words as 
are not strictly speaking adverbs, but are so denominated from 
being sometimes used in an adverbial sense, either by virtue of 
their signification, or by ellipsis for an adverbial phrase ; of these 
the following are examples : 

1. The accusative of neuter adjectives ; as, nocorov, to tiqco- 

rov ; nocoza, ra nqcora, first ; ra pdliora, chiefiy ; 6£v, 
sharply. 

2. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, 
Gen. 6fiov, together ; from 6fiog, united. 

ovdapov, never ; from ovdctfiog, no one. 
Dat. xvxXop, around (i. e. in a circle) ; from y.vxlog, a circle. 

rdyei, swiftly, with swiftness ; from rd%og, swiftness. 
Ace. cigpjv and doydg (sup. Kara), from the beginning ; 
from clqii'i, the beginning. 

dixnv, as, like ; from dixn, manner. 

3. Verbs are sometimes used as adverbs ; thus, 
The imperative ; as, aye, i'&i, i'de, &c. 

The 2d aorist active; as, ocpalov, coqeXov ; from dcpeiXco. 
The present optative of dpi; viz. step. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added — 

1st. Nouns compounded with prepositions ; as, ix7to8c6r, 

out of the way. 
2d. Prepositions united together ; as, naow, abroad. 
3d. Prepositions joined with adverbs ; as, en at a, then. 

324. — II. The second class of derivatives consists of such 
words as have undergone a change of form, and are used only in 
an adverbial sense. These are so numerous and varied in form 
and derivation, that a perfect classification cannot be given. The 
following, as being the most important, may be noticed ; viz. 

1. Adverbs in cog, express a circumstance of quality or man- 
ner, and are for the most part formed from adjectives by chang- 
ing og of the nominative or genitive into cog; as, cpilcog from qpt- 
Xog ; dcocpQovcog from ecoyqeov, gen. ccocpoorog. 



§ 121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 189 

2. Adverbs in t, or et, express a circumstance of manner, and 
are generally formed from nouns ; as, avaifiei, without bloodshed ; 
avTO%8iQi, with one's own hand. 

3. Adverbs in zi and rei are formed from the verbal adjec- 
tives in xdg and rtog ; thus, ovo\iolgzi, by name ; uvidgcoTi, with- 
out sweating. So also those in dqv (the characteristic of the 
verb being changed, when necessary, according to the laws of 
Euphony, § 6, 2) ; thus, from fiatog is formed (Iddrjv, by steps 
(from f«w) ; from Gvlhj7zrog, Gvih'jfidtjv, collectively ; from 
XQVTzrog, y.Qv^d^v, secretly, &c. Sometimes the termination ddqv 
is added ; as, GTrooddrjv, scattered. 

4. Adverbs in igzl come from verbs in l^ca, derived from 
nouns signifying a nation, party, or class, and signify after the 
manner, language, &c. of such nation, &c. ; as, 'ED.TjVigzi, after 
the manner of the Greeks ; avOQanodiaii, after the manner of 
men. 

5. Adverbs in oov and rfiov are for the most part derived 
from nouns, and relate chiefly to external form and character ; 
as, dyehjdov, in herds ; fiozovdov, resembling grains. 

Note. If derived from verbal adjectives, they agree in signification 
with those in dqv ; as, avaq.a.vdov, openly. 

6. Adverbs denoting certain relations of place, are formed by 
the addition of certain syllables to the words from which they 
are derived ; viz. In a place is denoted by the terminations xfr, 
<jt, ov, 7], oi, yov, and A fi] ; from a place, by -dsv or &e ; and to a 
place, by de, gb, and £e. 

325. — Exc. Adverbs of place, derived from prepositions, ex- 
press the relations of in a place and to a place by the termina- 
tion w ; thus, 

In a place. To a place. From a place. 

arm, above, avco, upwards. avco{rsv,from above (from dvd). 

xdza, below, y.dzco, downwards. xdtcQ&ev, from below ( " y.ard). 



326.— §121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives compared by regog and 
tatog, are compared by changing og of these terminations into 
cog ; as, 

Goqimg Goycoreocog Gocpcozdtcog from cocpog 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives, compared by icov and 



190 INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. § 122. 

laxog, commonly take the neuter singular of the comparative, 
and the neuter plural of the superlative for their comparative and 
superlative ; thus, 

aiayocog diayiov aiG'/iGta from ala'/Qog 

Note 1. This mode of comparison is also used, though more rarely, 
for those derived from adjectives compared by rtoo<; and raro<; ; as, 

aotfb)^ aoqidniQov aotpdnaxa 

Note 2. The accusative neuter of adjectives, both singular and plu- 
ral, is sometimes used adverbially in all the degrees. To the superla- 
tive degree, the article is frequently prefixed ; as, to nltlarov (sup. 
nard). 

3. Adverbs in oo, formed from prepositions, are compared by 
adding T8Q(o and zdzco ; as, avco, dvcoze'ooo, dvcozdzco. So also 
prepositions in the sense of adverbs ; as, dno, dawTa'aco. 

Note. Some other adverbs imitate this mode of comparison; as, 
iyyvq, iyyvriqo), iyyvrdro); yet as often otherwise; thus, comparative 
iyyvriQov, and eyyvov, superlative tyyiaxa. 



§ 122. INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 

327. — Certain particles, never used by themselves, but pre- 
fixed to words by composition, affect the signification of the 
words with which they are compounded, as follows : 

1. The particle d (which becomes dv before a vowel) has 
three different significations : 

1st. It marks privation (from dvsv, without) ; as, dvvSQog, 

ivithout water. 
2d. It denotes increase (from dyav, much) ; as, d^vXog, 

much wooded. 
3d. It denotes union (from dpa, together) ; as, dloyog, a 

consort. 

2. J^qi, BQt, fiov, @qT, dd, fa, Id, ti, and sometimes vl\ and vd 9 
increase the signification ; as, d/jlog, manifest ; doidnlog, very 
manifest. <fcc. 

3. Ni) and vi generally express privation or negation; as, 
vtjTzwg, an infant, from Vi] and tTzco, I speak ; but 

Exc. Ni'j sometimes increases the signification ; as, vfyvzog, 
that flows in a full streamy from vtj and %va). 

4. Avg expresses difficulty, trouble, or misfortune; as, dva- 
psvfjg, malevolent ; dvazvyfco, I am unhappy. 



§ 124. PREPOSITIONS. 191 

Note. The contrary of dvq is iv (which is also found by itself). It 
signifies well or with facility ; as, tv/iiirfq, benevolent; ivrvyia), I am 
happy. 



§123. THE PREPOSITIONS. 

328. — A Preposition is a word which shows 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence. 

1. The primary use of prepositions seems to have been, to in- 
dicate the relation of one thing to another in respect of place. 
From this, by a natural and easy analogy, they are used to ex- 
press similar relations in respect of time. 

2. From their primary and more common use, to express 
certain relations of place and time, they are also used by analogy 
and figure, to express various other connections and relations 
among objects, in all of which, however, the primary and original 
use of the word may easily be traced. 

3. All prepositions ending with a vowel, except dficpi, Ttsgi, 
and 7tqo, reject the final vowel when compounded with, or stand- 
ing before, a word beginning with a vowel ; dfxqii generally re- 
tains i, but there are many exceptions. It is always rejected be- 
fore the augment e. TIqo before e sometimes combines with it 
by contraction; thus, nqo 'iqyov becomes Tzoovoyov. 222, Obs. 2. 

4. There are eighteen prepositions, properly so called, in the 
Greek language ; of these 

Four govern the Genitive only, viz. Ami, dno, iv, or f£, nqo. 
Two govern the Dative only, 'Ev, gvv. 

Two govern the Accusative only, Elg or ig, and dvd. 
Four govern the Gen. and Ace. did, y.ard, [xerd, vniq. 
Six govern the Gen., Dat., & Ace. Ji\i^i, nsqi, ini, nana, 

nobg, and vno. 



329.— § 124. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
1. jinqi, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; round, round about, on both sides. 

Wrrn the Genitive ; round, round about ; at the same time proceed- 
ing or originating from; of or concerning, upon, in addition to, for the 
sake of, for the love of. 



192 PREPOSITIONS. § 124. 

With the Dative; round, with the idea of rest and continuance ; of 
or concerning, among, after or near, upon, for, i. e. in defence of; for, i. e. 
on account of; with. 

With the Accusative ; round, with the idea of tendency or approxi- 
mation to ; near, of, concerning, or belonging to. See also § 3 34, 13. 

In Composition ; about, round about. 

2. Jiva, the Accusative. In poetry, sometimes the Dative. 

Primary Signification; motion upwards, from below to above, op- 
posed to y.axd. 

With the Accusative; over, up along, through, during, among, with, 
in ; in computation, up ; viz. from a point below. 

With the Dative ; upon, on, in, with the idea of elevation and rest. 

In Composition ; motion upwards, repetition, increase, back again. 

3. jivti, the Genitive. 

Primart Meaning; in front of, in a state of rest; set over against, 
i. e. by way of exchange, comparison, equivalence, or preference. Hence, 

With the Genitive ; for, i. e. equivalent ; before, in preference ; in- 
stead of against, equal to, for, in consideration of; upon. 

In Composition; equality, substitution, reciprocity, comparison, op- 
position. 

4. Anb, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification; removal from, viz. from contact with; oppo- 
site of TCQOq. 

With the Genitive ; from, on, after (from the time of), against, by 
means of, with, upon, of, i. e. proceeding from ; on account of, for, of 
i. e. belonging to; e. g. ol ano, those belonging to, viz. the Council, Ple- 
beians, Stoics, &c. 

In Composition; departure, separation, negation, privation, augmen- 
tation. 

5. /Iia, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; through, motion through. 

With the Genitive ; 1. place, through ; 2. time, through, through- 
out, during ; with regard to the space or time passed through, at, in ; 
with numerals, every; as, dm nivrt, every five ; 3. cause, by means of 
with, viz. as an instrument. 

With the Accusative; by, by means of during ; as the end, occasion, 
or cause ; for, on account of e. g. navra <$*'. avrov iyivfro, all things were 
made by him ; navra dv avxbv iyivtrn, all things were made for him. 

In Composition ; separation, division, arrangement, passage through, 
reciprocation, opposition, or competition, perseverance. 

6. Elg or ig, the Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; to, into ; motion from without to within; the 
opposite of ix. 

With the Accusative; to, into, toward, against, among, before, con- 
cerning, in respect of in, till, until, for ; with numerals, about, up to. 



§ 124. PREPOSITIONS. 193 

It forms distributives; as, ilq zva, one by one ; it is used adverbially, 
tlq anai, once ; ilq dlq, twice. 

In Composition ; into. 

Note. When dq or iq stands before a genitive, an accusative is un- 
derstood. 

V. '£k (before a vowel 3 E%), the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; from, out, out of, motion from within to 
without ; opposite of eiq. 

"With the Genitive it denotes motion from, causation, change of state, 
rendered of, i. e. made of; of, viz. the number ; out of, by, with, accord- 
ing to, since. 

In Composition ; out of, it denotes division or separation, pre-emi- 
nence, completion or success, intensity. 

8. 'Ev, the Dative. 

Primary Signification; in, with the idea of rest and being con- 
tained within. 

With the Dative ; within, during, among, before, in the power of by, 
viz. by means of; in the case of, with, into. 

In Composition ; in or among. 

9. 3 Em, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; on or upon, with motion or rest. 

With the Genitive ; on, upon, at, in, or near ; during, through, under, 
in the time of; after, with, by. 

With the Dative ; upon, i. e. close and continuing upon, in the power 
of, i. e. resting upon ; on condition, during, besides, i. e. in addition to ; 
for, i. e. in order to ; after, toith, against, along, among, at, by, over ; 
viz. in authority. 

With the Accusative ; on or upon, with the idea of tendency or ap- 
proach towards ; to, towards, under, so as to be dependent upon ; in, 
over, during, against; viz. motion towards with hostile intent. 

In Composition ; addition, increase, reciprocity, succession. 

10. Kara, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; direction from above to below, down along 
(parallel); down to, upon, or at (perpendicular); down through (trans- 
verse) ; opposite of avd. 

With the Genitive ; down from, viz. originating or proceeding down 
from, directed down by; along, on, through, downwards; under, upon, 
at, as a mark; before, respecting, by, viz. in swearing; against, among. 

With the Accusative ; down (not from, but) parallel to, down along, 
or to ; through, according to, in respect of; in, on, by, near to, at, op- 
posite, or before, during. Adverbially, y.ara /lil/.qov, by degrees. 

In Composition ; down, opposition, intensity. 

11. l\hzu, the Genitive, Dative (with the Poets), or the Accusa- 
tive. 

Primary Signification ; with, together with, not as a part of, or one 
with ; expressing a connection less close than avv. 

9 



194 PREPOSITIONS. § 124. 

"With the Genitive ; with, together with, by means of, viz. as con- 
nected with and depending upon ; according to, and, i. e. in conjunction 
with, as an agent, or object; with, i. e. against; with, i. e. for, on the side 
of; among. 

With the Accusative ; after, i. e. following close or near to, in re- 
spect to space or time ; next to, next after, to, towards, for, or after, with 
a view to bring ; between, in, among. 

With the Dative ; by the poets only, in, with, among. 

In Composition; participation, change, reciprocity. 

12. Uaqa, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification, by the side of; it denotes motion from, close 
to, or towards an object, according to the case with which it is joined. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. from beside ; of, proceeding from ; 
by, with, near, from among, above, or in comparison with. 

With the Dative ; at, with, near, among, with the idea of continu- 
ance. 

With the Accusative; to, beyond, beside, towards, i. e. to the side of; 
through along, against, in comparison with. 

In Composition ; it retains its general meaning ; also defect. 

13. IIeqi, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; round, round about, nearly the same with 
autpi, but in a sense less close: ajucpl means on both sides; Tifqi, on all 
sides. 

Wrm the Genitive ; round, round about, with the idea of origin 
or cause ; about, i. e. of, or concerning ; with, for, viz. in defence of ; 
above or before, denoting pre-eminence or superiority. 

With the Dative ; round, round about, with rest or continuance ; 
for, i. e. concerning, on account of; from. 

With the Accusative ; round, or about, with tendency or approach 
to ; concerning or towards, about, i. e. near to, advancing towards ; about, 
i. e. with regard to ; in, of against. 

In Composition ; round about, also denoting increase, abundance. 

14. 77(00, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; before, in respect of place or time, but with- 
out the idea of opposition or comparison which belongs to dvri. 

With the Genitive; before, in the presence of; at the command of 
through, denoting cause or origin; for, in defence of; for, for the ad- 
vantage of; before, denoting preference. 

In Composition; before; with verbs of motion, forth, forward. 

15. IlQog, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; transition or passage, the relative direction 
beina; indicated by the case. 

With the Genitive; from, i. e. transition from; from, by, denoting 
the agent; belonging to or the property of ; of, proceeding from; on 
the side of: by, in oaths and supplications; before, to, so as to be pro- 
tected by. 



§ 124. PKEPOSITIONS. 195 

"With the Dative ; close to, near, and continuing ; besides, in addition 
to, before, occupied or busy with. 

With the Accusative ; to or towards, against, according to, in conse- 
quence of, on account of, with, in comparison of. 

In Composition ; motion to, addition, against, close to. 

16. £vv, the Dative. 

Pbimary Signification ; with, closely connected with another, so as 
in some sense to form one with it ; see ucTu. 

With the Dative ; with, together with, according to, besides, with the 
assistance of, at, during, to, on the side of 

In Composition ; concurrence in action, association, combination, col- 
lection, completion or fulfilment, collision, intensity. 

17. c T7zsq, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; over or above, viz. in respect of place, and 
hence figuratively, over, in respect of power, authority, protection. 

With the Genitive ; above, in a state of rest ; over, in a state of mo- 
tion ; for, i. e. in defence of ; for, viz. in the place of ; for, on account 
of; by, for the sake of, of, concerning, in order to. 

With the Accusative ; over beyond, above or beyond, above, i. e. more 
than ; against. 

In Composition ; it retains its primary signification, also sometimes 
it augments. 

1 8. 'TttSj the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification; lender, modified by its case. 

With the Genitive; place: from below, from under, out of; fig. 
under, generally with the idea of protection, subjection, or the object of 
influence proceeding from ; also, by, with, i. e. under the direction of; 
by means of, for, i. e. under the influence of. 

With the Dative ; simply under, completely under and continuing ; 

With the Accusative ; under, viz. moving and proceeding under or 
coming up to the under part of a thing ; to, behind, about, on the eve of. 

I\ Composition; it retains its primary signification. Sometimes it 
denotes diminution, privacy, beginning. 

330. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The preposition, as its name imports, usually stands before the 
word which it governs. When it comes after it, as it sometimes does, 
this is indicated by the change of the accent from the last syllable to 
the first. 

2. In composition, with a word beginning with a vowel, and gen- 
erally when standing before such a word, the final vowel of the prepo- 
sition is dropped, and, if the next preceding letter be a consonant, it is 
subject to the changes required by the laws of euphony ; thus, an.6 
ictvrov must be written ay iavrov. Thyi, however, never drops its 
final vowel, and in never changes its final letter except before a vowel, 
when it is changed into It. 



196 CONJUNCTIONS. § 125. 

3. The preposition alone, with the accent thrown back to the first 
syllable, is sometimes used for certain compounds, of which it forms a 
part; thus, evo is used for tvton, it is lawful ; niou for mo'iiari,, it is 
superfluous ; oiva for avao~rtj9-i>, arise; 7101,0a for Tt&QiGTt,, he is present. 



§125. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

331. — A Conjunction is a word winch con- 
nects words or sentences. 

332. — Conjunctions, according to their different meanings, 
are divided into different classes, of which the following may be 
noticed; viz. 

1. Connective ; as, xai, rs, and ; in poetry, ?)8s', i8s f ?)^sv, and ; 

xal 8s, also, &c. 

2. Disjunctive ; as, ?j, ipoi ; in poetry, ys ; and sometimes ijyovv, 

t]7T0v, or. 

3. Concessive; as, y.av, xainsQ, el xai, although. 

4. Adversative ; as, alia, 8s, azaq, but ; ys, at least ; \isv, uX- 

Xa \isv, but, truly, indeed ; \isvroi, yet, &c. 

5. Causal, . . . which assign a reason for something previously 

said; as,ydg,for; ha, on, oTtojg, ocpga, that ; cag, 
roWf, that, so that; ovvsxa (in poetry), because ; 
sin eg, since indeed ; insi, since, after that. 

6. Conclusive, or such as are used in drawing a conclusion, or 

inference from something previously said ; as, 
aga, ovv, therefore ; 816, 8(07Tsq, wherefore ; 8)\, 
then, truly ; toivvv, vv or vvv, therefore ; roiya- 
qovv (emphatic), wherefore ; ovxovv, not there- 
fore. 

1. Conditional ; as, si, av, lav, yv, in poetry, as' or v.iv, at, ai'xs, 
if; t'i7ZEQ, if indeed. 

8. Expletive ; as, ys, tzs'q, toi, gd, {^sv, vv, nov, nco, ag, &c. 

ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 

The following remarks on the signification and use of certain 
adverbial and conjunctive particles, will be useful for reference. 
For more ample information on this subject, the advanced stu- 
dent is referred to the work of Hoogeveen on the Greek Par- 
ticles, an abridged translation of which has been published by 
the Kev. John Seager, B. A. 



§ 125. CONJUNCTIONS. 197 



333. JlAAA. 

1. AXXd is adversative, and commonly answers to the English but. 
It is sometimes nsed elliptically, to indicate confidence or readiness, and 
may be rendered 'well, then;' therefore. Thus, dXX* iv Xa&v, on, 'ita, 
rov&' ovToiq, Well, then, know that this will be so, i. e. ova oy.vtjao), dXX\ 
&c. I will not be unwilling, but, on the contrary, know that this will be so. 

2. AXXd ydo. Thus combined ydq introduces a reason for the op- 
position expressed by dXXd ; as, dXXd ydy Kqiovxa Xevaao), navaoi rovq 
THxQiGTMxaq, Xoyovq, But / will stop the present discourse, for I see Creon 
coming. Sometimes, however, the reference is more latent, and a clause 
is to be supplied from what precedes ; thus, Plato, dXXd ydq iv ciSov 
Siy.^v SwGo^ev, where there must be supplied from the preceding sen- 
tence, ov/. aQrifxiov dnaXXd%ouev, But we shall not escape unpunished, for 
we shall render satisfaction in Hades. Sometimes the reference is to a 
succeeding clause, and sometimes to some general remark which the 
connection and sense of the passage will readily suggest, such as, But 
this is not surprising, for ; But this is not impossible, for ; <fec. 

3. AXXd ye restricts with emphasis that which is general to some- 
thing more special ; as, dXX' ovy. dv dyqoi/Mq ye, oXo/^au, XoidoQ-rjatbav. 
But at least they would not, I think, revile us in a rude manner. 

4. AXX' ovv ye. When these particles are combined, they usually 
intimate that along with the opposition expressed by dXXd, a conse- 
quence of what has preceded is also expressed; thus, dXX' ovv rovtov 
ye xbv xqovov rjxxov dydjjq e'co/ioct. Yet I will for this reason now at 
least be less disagreeable. 

5. ^AXXd joined with ovSk strengthens the negative ; as, aXX' ov6e 
7iei(ido~0[A.ab, Nay, I will not even try. In such sentences ov uovov ov may 
be supplied, equivalent to, I will not only not do it, but I will not even 
try. 

6. *AXXd is strengthened by adding to/; as, uXX' ydv xov, ijv avXot; 
naor^, Why, that is a pleasant thing enough, if, &o. 

334.—JIIV (Poet. KE or KEN). 

v Av (Poetice y.e or xiv) according to Professor Dunbar, is derived from 
do), the same as ido), to give, grant, or allow ; and that the primary 
meaning of the particle thus derived is granted or allowed, which can be 
readily traced in all the variety of expression in which it is employed. 
This particle is used — 

1. In the sense of idv, if, of which, in this sense, it is probably only 
an abbreviated form. Thus used, it expresses a condition, and may be- 
gin a sentence ; as, dv &ebq d-iXr\, if [granted) God will. In all its other 
applications dv can stand only after other words in its clause. 

2. It is used with indefinites, adding to them the force of the Latin 
-eunque, -soever ; as, oaxiq dv, whoever, or whosoever. 

3. It is used most generally to limit the verb to which it belongs, 
and partly or entirely takes from that verb its direct affirmative power. 

With the indicative imperfect, pluperfect, and aorists, it is rendered 
by should, would ; should have, woidd have, &c. § 170, 4, and Obs. 1 ; 
and also to express ability, and rendered by could or could have. It is 
sometimes joined to the future, and seems to soften the decisiveness of 



198 CONJUNCTIONS. § 125. 

the statement ; as, 6 6e xav -/.t/olMatTat, ov y.w IvMficu, and he will per- 
haps be angry to whom I go. It is but very seldom found with the in- 
dicative present ; a few instances, however, have been produced from 
Aristophanes and Plutus. 

With the subjunctive it is never joined, unless accompanied with cer- 
tain other words, such as oq, baoq, oanq, oTtoxtooq, ov, ottov, iva, &c. 
<fcc. except when used in the sense of lav as above, 334-1. 

It is used with the optative of all the tenses except the future, as in 
§ 172, Obs. 6, II. 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th. 

With the infinitive and participles it gives a contingent significa- 
tion (commonly in the future), which may be resolved by changing the 
verb or participle into the optative with av ; as, oiovtav avaixdyjG&ai, 
dv, they think that they could retrieve themselves ; ralla o~io)7to), no'/.X dv 
t/oiv dntZv, I omit the rest, though I have much to say. 

4. It is used in positive statements with different moods, to give an 
expression of hesitation and modesty to the assertion ; as, dtq dv not, 
doxfi, as it seems (would seem) to me ; ov% civ olda, I (should) hardly 
know. 

5. "Av is frequently repeated, either on account of its standing at a 
great distance from the verb, or, to give emphasis to the condition sug- 
gested by it ; ardq civ Xtyov/nb av, having stationed myself 

/ would say ; nou; dh y civ KaXiaq Xiyot,q av ; how can you, how 

can you say, <fcc. ? v 

6. It is sometimes used, to intimate that the verb in the preceding 
clause is to be repeated; as, ei drj tw croqxj'jTtooq (pa'irjv ilvai, rovxo) av 
(sc. (palr]v hivai aoipMn^oq), if I thought to be more wise in any thing, it 

WOULD BE IN THIS. 

335.—APA—APA. 

1. "Aoa, denoting inference or conclusion, always stands after some 
word in its clause ; its proper signification is "of course," "in the na- 
ture of things" and is commonly rendered therefore, consequently ; it is 
used in the successive steps of a train of reasoning ; as, " If there are 
altars there are also gods ;" dXld jutjv elai {3o)[.ioi ualv doa y.ai &ioi, 
But there certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too. It is used 
in making a transition to what follows in the order of time or events, or 
in the progress of thought. With tl or idv it expresses conjecture ; as, 
zi doa dvvovrat,, if indeed (i. e. in the course of things) they can. Some- 
times it serves for an emphatic asseveration as if founded on an infer- 
ence. 

2. The adverb doa is different from this, and is always placed first 
in a clause or sentence. It is merely an interrogative particle like the 
Latin num or utrum ; as, doa /.axd8t]lov o fiovXo,uat, liynv ; Is, then, 
what I wish to say evident ? When a negative answer is expected it 
has generally the particle /t^ annexed. The Latin nonne is expressed 
by ay ov, and sometimes by doa alone. 

336.— rA'p. 

1. rdo,for, always follows other words like the Latin cnim, which 
it resembles in signification, and for which at the beginning of a sen- 
tence xal yaQ, like the Latin etenim, is often used. Its use is to assign 
a reason for what is said. Very often, however, that of which it assigns 






§ 125. CONJUNCTIONS. 199 

the cause is merely implied or hinted at, and must be supplied, to show 
the force of ydq. It will frequently be found to refer to such expres- 
sions understood; as, Yes. No, no wonder, I believe, I cannot, &c, as, 
for example, in the answer so common in Plato, %axt,yaQ ovxw, Yes, or 
certainly, for so it is. Thus, Homer, Od. 10. 501, SI Kioy.rj, xlq ydo 
xavxr\v 6S6v -qytfiovtiHTtb; Oh Circe, (I cannot go thither,) fob, who will 
guide me on this way ? From this interrogative use it came sometimes 
to be used, merely to strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quis- 
nam. 

2. In such expressions as v.al yuQ, dlld ydq, the former particle in- 
dicates the omission of something of which ydo assigns a cause ; thus, 
y.al ydo strictly translated means, and (no wonder, ) for ; and (it is na- 
tural,) for ; and the like. For the rendering of alia ydo, see alia, 
333-2. 

337.—/^. 

r i (enclitic) is a pai*ticle of limitation, and signifies at least, certainly, 
however, indeed, and is used to single out an individual object from a 
number; as, ii /atj olov /zigoq ye, if not the whole at least a part ; eyo) 
ye, I indeed, I at least. In most combinations it can be rendered into 
English only by giving greater emphasis to the word with which it is 
connected. 

338.— JE\ 

The particle Si, but, is used both to distinguish and oppose, and 
always stands after one or more words in a clause. It often serves, 
however, merely to mark transition from one proposition to another ; 
and, in general, every proposition which has no other conjunction at 
its commencement, takes this Si, whether really opposed to the prece- 
ding or not. When so used, it may be rendered by and, for, or any 
other word which the nature of the connection may require ; or it may 
often remain untranslated. Its principal use, however, is in connection 
with fxiv, which see. 

339.— AH'. 

Ar\, a particle of affirmation, signifies truly, really, without doubt. 
It is used in affirmative answers ; as, Sljlov Srj, it is certainly manifest. 
It is used ironically, especially after &q ; and after relative and compar- 
ative words it is usually emphatical. With nov joined to it {Sr\no\)), it 
signifies certainly, viz., and sometimes, perhaps. It differs from fjaqv and 
yi, also affirmative words, in this, that 8r t strongly asserts a thing as 
already established: (.irjv goes on to press the assertion without relax- 
ing as to what has preceded ; while yi asserts with limitation, yielding 
as to the past, or other things, but insisting upon this. 

2. Jrj, from r t Stj, as an adverb, signifies now ; joined with vvv, this 
very moment ; as, vvv V}St] fxa/tjxiov, we must fight this very moment. 
With verbs in the preterite, it denotes just now. As a conjunction, it is 
used, 1. In exhorting; as, liye Srj, come now, read; 2. In questions, it 
indicates the earnestness of the speaker, and his desire of an immediate 
answer; as, xd nola Sr; xavxa ; what now are these? 3. In expressing 
admiration when joined with Ttoxe ; as, xi Sr t 7toxe xovxow, why now 



200 CONJUNCTIONS. § 125. 

these ; 4. In commencing a subject ; as, *SlSe Stj oy.o7ioj,uev avro, now let 
us consider it in this way ; 5. In marking the successive stages of thought 
as they rise one above another. In each of these, it signifies now truly, 
until at the last it signifies finally. 

340.— KAT and Ttf. 

Kal and re have the same significations in reference to each other 
as the Latin et and que. Both connect single ideas, and the entire parts 
of a sentence. With the older poets, re is more common than in the 
Attic prose writers, and it is commonly put not merely once betAveen 
the connected parts, but joined to each of them; as, nar^o olvS^mv re 
■d-tiav re, the father of both gods and men. When re precedes y.al in sep- 
arate clauses, the former signifies not only ; the latter, but also ; re y.al, 
and also, connect more closely than simple y.al', xal — y.ai, both — and; 
as well — as; aXXux; re xal, especially, i. e. (both in other respects) and 
also, particularly also. 

341.— MA' and NH'. 

Ma and vt\ are particles of obtestation, and always govern the ac- 
cusative of the object; vt\ is always affirmative; (ia, when alone, is 
negative, but is nevertheless attached both to affirmative and negative 
obtestations ; as, val (ia J la, and ov (xa Ala. 

342.-M.ElN and /IE!. 

Miv and Si are two particles referring to each other ; they are used 
to distinguish, and at the same time to connect, the different clauses of 
a sentence together. Thus used, (dv is generally placed in the first 
clause of a sentence, and Si in each of the succeeding ones. Hence, 
whenever we find (iiv in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with Si. Sometimes, however, 
after (dv the expected Si does not actually follow ; i. e. when the op- 
position is so clear that Si is not necessary to point it out, or when 
some other word, such as aXXd, ardo, &c, supplies its place. In like 
manner Si is often used without being preceded by /.dv, referring to 
something conceived in the mind but not expressed ; or, without such 
reference, it is used, simply to connect the parts of a sentence less 
closely than by (dv — Si, or other conjunctions. In opposition they are 
commonly rendered indeed — but. See Si. 

The distributive use of (.dv and Si with the article, relative pronoun, 
&c. will be noticed §§ 133, 3, & 134, 19. 

343.— OtN and OfKOTN. 

1. Ovv, wherefore, is used, 1. In drawing an ultimate conclusion 
in the view of all that has been said before ; in this it differs from doa, 
which is used in successive steps in the process of reasoning. 2. It com- 
mences a chapter or paragraph, with some reference to what has pre- 
ceded. 3. It continues or resumes a subject, after a digression. 4. It 
introduces a transition to some new subject; and lastly, it has an affirm- 
ative force, particularly in replies; as, ylyverai ovv oi'Twg, it is certainly 
so ; hence the compounds, 



§125. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 201 



2. Ovxovv and uwv, for ur t ovv. The former is properly a negative 
inference ; as, "it is not therefore ; " though sometimes it loses itsnega- 
tive character, and denotes "therefore ;" now is used interrogatively, 
iC is it not therefore ?" 

su.—nEP. 

TIiq (enclitic) is nearly allied to yi, and is used to express the idea 
with more emphasis than it would have without it. This is indicated 
in English merely by a greater emphasis of the word, or by the words 
very, ever, and the like. Joined with a participle, it is commonly ren- 
dered although, how much so ever ; with a relative, it adds the force of 
the Latin cunque, or the English ever ; thus, anto, qxuecunque, whatever, 
0G7Ttq, quicrunque, whoever, <fcc. ; as, anto /.iyei,, whatever he does say; 
aya&oq tciq zoiv, excellent though thou art ; fato el/ev,just as he was. 

345.— not. 

1. JJov is a particle interrogative, of place, and signifies 1. where? 
2. whither? As an enclitic it signifies motion to a place ; as, arrzido) 
nor, I am hastening to some place, somewhither, and also indicates place 
indefinitely, anywhere ; hence it is joined with adverbs of place ; as, lv.il 
di nor, somewhere there-abouts. 

2. From the indefiniteness of its signification arises its conjectural 
use, to express a thing with a degree of uncertainty and cantion, ex- 
pressed in English by probably, perhaps, if I mistake not, <fcc, and hence 
is used in eliciting and asking consent ; as, o~ivot,o~&d nov /.at ai to? on, 
d:c. You yourself, as icellasl, know, if I mistake not, or doubtless, that, 
<fcc, where an affirmative reply is evidently expected. Hence also its 
use as a diminutive, to qualify what might otherwise seem too positive 
or peremptory. Thus used it may be rendered by pretty nearly, in my 
opinion, perhaps, <fce. This particle, though often used, is never redun- 
dant; or dr t nov, for example, is, no indeed, as I think ; not truly, in my 
opinion. 

346.— n&z. 

1. This particle with the circumflex is interrogative and signifies 
how ? as. tt<~>; ol'/. «;to? icrrl tovtov : how can he but be worthy of this ? 
Joined with yo\(j they constitute an emphatic negative, 7iHk, ydo nou]G«) ; 
for how shall I do it? i. e. I will not do it at all. So also y.ai noiq 
GuoTto); I cannot be silent ; literally, and how am I to be silent? 

2. As an enclitic 7rojt; signifies some how, in some degree, &e. as, aJJuaq 
7to)q, in some other way ; o)de timz, somehow thus ; tfce. 

347.— QZ. 

This particle is extensively employed, and with a great variety of 
usage; as, 1. It is used for h-ct, to denote a purpose ; as, ox; StiJ-WfifV, 
in order that we may shew ; 2. for art with the meaning of that; as, 
iiyovrfq (')-: exiZvoq, Ac., saying that he, &c ; 3. More commonly it signi- 
fies as, expressing similitude; as, or; dovloq, as a slave; "He taught 
them — uq ttoialav t/o)v, as one having authority." 4. With the acute 
accent, and not before an enclitic, nor after a word on which it depends, 

9* 



202 CONJUNCTIONS. § 125. 

it has the sense of oj'twc, thus ; as, wq ilnwv, having spoken thus. 5. In 
exclamations it has the sense of how ; as, wq <7f i.ia/.a,Q LZ,o,uiv, how happy 
we deem you ! hence its use with the optative in the sense of the Latin 
utinam ; as, w? pu ocpt A' "Exto)q y.Tiivai, : Would that Hector had slain 
me ! literally, how Hector ought to have slain me ! 6. Before superlative 
adjectives and adverbs, like oru, it strengthens the meaning ; as, o')q t«- 
'/uara, as quickly as possible. Allied to this, is its power as a strength- 
ening particle, with the positive degree, in such expressions ; as, o>q 
aktjO-oiq, truly, really. *7. It is used for the purpose of limiting proposi- 
tions with the infinitive; as, w? dniiv, so to speak ; «? sludffcu, as far 
as one may conjecture ; and also in the same sense it is used before 
whole clauses and propositions ; as, w? inl to no).v, for the most part ; 
6>q 7Tobq to ueyt&oq xTjq Ttoltioq, in proportion to the size of the city s 8. 
As a particle of time, it signifies when, sometimes while ; as, o)q dk ?j).0-f, 
but when he came. 9. "With numerals it signifies about ; as, w? xoia rj 
xixxaoa axddva, about three or four stadia. 10. With particles in the 
genitive absolute, and also in the dative or accusative, it is rendered as, 
since, because, inasmuch as, as if; and the participle is then rendered by 
the indicative ; as, o)q ravtijq xtjq yMQaq i/i'Qo)xdx)]q ovaijq, because this 
place was the most secure. 11. It is often put by the Attics for the pre- 
position tlq, TtQoq, or i/ti ; as, ojc; t/ui, towards me ; o>q xbv paavtta, to 
the king. 

j^W° For the negative particles ov and jut}, with their combinations 
and compounds, see § 166. 

348. — Obs. Though it is, in many cases, difficult to give a distinct 
translation of some of the Greek particles, or even always to feel their 
force, yet they ought never to be regarded as mere expletives. In all 
languages there are particles which are often employed chiefly "for the 
sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sounding fulness, 
yet never without their own peculiar sense ; aud though it is often dif- 
ficult to define what that sense is, yet every one feels that the expres- 
sion is incomplete without them. So it is also in the Greek language. 
The full and original meaning of many of those particles has become 
partially lost, and they now give to the discourse only a slight colour- 
ing which we cannot properly feel except after long acquaintance and 
practice. For a more full elucidation of the force and use of these par- 
ticles, we refer the reader to the elaborate work of Hoogeveen on the 
Greek Particles. 



126. SYNTAX. 203 



PART III. 



§ 126. SYNTAX. 

349. — Syntax is that part of grammar which, 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

350. — A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

351. — A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
but not making complete sense ; as, In truth, in a word. 

352. — Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

353. — A Simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; 
as, Life is short. 

354. — A Compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences connected together ; as, Life, lohich is short, should 
be well employed. 

355. — Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject 
and the predicate. 

356. — The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It 
is either in the nominative case before a finite verb, or in the 
nominative or accusative before the infinitive. 

357. — The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 
It consists of two parts, the attribute and copula. A verb which 
includes both, is called an attributive verb ; as, " John reads." A 
verb which only connects the attribute expressed by another word, 
with the subject, is called a copulative verb ; as, " John is reading." 

358. — Both subject and predicate may be attended by other 
words called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify their 
meaning ; as, " Too eager a pursuit of wealth often ends in pov- 
erty and misery? 

359. — When a compound sentence is so framed that the mean- 
ing is suspended till the whole is finished, it is called a period. 



204 PARTS OF SYNTAX. § 127, 128. 



360.— §127. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative, 
or subject expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, 
must have a substantive expressed or understood with which it 
agrees. 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which 
it refers, and with which it agrees. 

4. Every subject nominative has its own verb expressed or 
understood. 

5. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) has its 
own subject or nominative expressed or understood. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word expressed 
or understood in the sentence of which it forms a part ; or it is 
used, without government, to express certain circumstances ; as 
follows : 

1) The genitive is governed by a noun, a verb, & preposition, 
or an adverb ; or it is placed as the case absolute with the parti- 
ciple. 

- 2) The dative is governed by adjectives, verbs, and preposi- 
tions. It also expresses the cause, manner, or instrument. 

3) The accusative is governed by a transitive active verb or 
preposition. 

4) The vocative either stands alone, or is governed by an 
interjection. 

5) The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an adjective, or 
adverbial particle. 



§ 128.— PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

361. — The parts of Syntax are commonly reck- 
oned two, Concoed and Goveenment. 

362. — Concoed is the agreement of one word 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

363. — Goveenment is that power which one 
word has in determining the mood, tense, or case 
of another word. 



§ 129. SUBSTANTIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVE. 205 

I. CONCOKD. 

364. — Concord is fourfold, viz. : 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative" with its antecedent. 

4. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject. 



§129. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

365. — Rule I. Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing agree in case / as, 

IlavXog anoaroXog, Paul, an apostle. 

2JcoxQdz)]g 6 cfiXoooyog, Socrates, the philosopher. 
Qecp XQizy, To God, the judge. 

366 — Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition. The 
second substantive is added to express some attribute, description, or 
appellative belonging to the first, and must always be in the same 
member of the sentence ; i. e. they must be both in the subject, or 
both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another, though 
denoting the same thing, is not in apposition with it. See 436. 

367. — Obs. 1. One of the substantives is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, Aozvayrig 6 Kva^aQOV (sup. vlog), Astyages, the son 
of Oyaxares. 

368. — Obs. 2. The possessive pronoun in any case being equi- 
valent in signification to the genitive of the substantive pronoun 
from which it is derived, requires a substantive in apposition 
with it to be put in the genitive ; as, Aul)\q ifibg i]v y,vvihni- 
dog, He was the brother-in-law of me, a shameless woman. 
See 399-17. 

369. — Obs. 3. On the same principle, possessive adjectives 
formed from proper names, being equivalent to the genitive of 
their primitives, have a noun in apposition in the genitive ; as, 
NsatOQtrj naoa vrfc Tlvlijyevtog fiuoilrjog, Near the ship 
of Nestor a king bom at Pylos ; Adijvaiog <x»>, noXecog 
Tijg pEyiGTTjg, Being a citizen of Athens, a very large city. See 
399-18. 



206 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 130, 131. 

370. — Obs. 4. Sometimes the latter of two substantives sig- 
nifying the same thing, is put in the genitive ; as, Ilohg Ji&n- 
vav (for Ad-Jjvai), The city of Athens. 



§130. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

371. — Rule II. An adjective agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case ; as, 

yorjavbg avyjo, a good man. 

xalij yvvij, a beautiful woman. 

aya&ov XQi^a, a good thing. 

372 — This Rule applies to the article, adjective, adjective pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

373. — Obs. 1. Other words are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and consequently fall under this rule ; viz. 

1st. A substantive which limits the signification of a more 
general term ; as, 'EkXag q)oovtj, the Greek language. 

2d. Adverbs placed between the article and its substantive ; 
as, 6 fisTa^v %onog, the intervening space. 

374. — Obs. 2. The place of the adjective is sometimes sup- 
plied by a substantive with a preposition ; as, fjdopq fist a dofyg 
(for tvdo^og), exalted pleasure : — sometimes, by a substantive gov- 
erning the other in the genitive ; as, fia&og yrjg, depth of earth, 
i. e. deep earth ; 7) TteQiaaeTa ztjg %doizog, abundance of grace, 
i. e. abundant grace. For the adverbial adjective, see 662. 



§ 131. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONCORD OF THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

375. — Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural. If all the substantives be 
of the same gender, the adjective will be of that gender. If of 
different genders, the adjective takes the masculine rather than 
the feminine, and the feminine rather than the neuter. But if 
the substantives signify things without life, the adjective is com- 
monly put in the neuter gender. Not unfrequently, however, the 
adjective agrees with one of the substantives and is understood 



§ 131. CONCOKD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 207 

to the rest; as, alei ydg zoi iqig ze cpiXy, tzoXe^olze [Mx.%aiz£ ; 
contention to thee is always delightful, and wars and battles. 

376. — Obs. 2. When the substantive to which the adjective 
belongs may be easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, and the 
adjective, assuming" its gender, number, and case, is used as a 
substantive ; as, 6 Jifrrpaiog, the Athenian ; ol dixaioi, the right- 
eous. 

377. — Obs. 3. Adjectives in iv.og are used in the neuter gen- 
der with the article, and without a substantive in tw r o different 
senses. 1. In the singular they express generally a whole ; as, 
zo i7T7tix6v f the cavalry ; zo ttoXizmov, the citizens. 2. In the 
plural they signify any circumstance which can be determined 
by the context; as, zd Tocoixd, the Trojan war; zd 'EXXjjnxd, 
the Grecian history. 

378. — Obs. 4. The adjective, especially when used as a predi- 
cate, without a substantive, is often put in the neuter gender, 
yoTjua, nqdy\ia, t,coov, &c. being understood ; as, // 7iazq}g 
qjlXzazov (scil. XQW a ) §Q(>zoTg, their country is (a thing) very 
dear to men ; yaXsTtov to tzoieiv, to do is hard. 

379. — Obs. 5. Two adjectives are frequently joined together, 
one of which, by expressing negatively the sense of the other, 
renders it more emphatic ; as, yvcozd x' ovx dyvcozd pot, literally, 
known and not unknown (i. e. well known), to me. 

380. — 06s. 6. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter 
singular or plural, with or without an article, for adverbs ; as, 
tzqcozov, in the first place ; to nqtizov, at first ; zee fidXiaza, 
chiefly ; xQvepaTa, secretly, <fcc. 

381. — Obs. 7. In any gender or number, adjectives are some- 
times used in the sense of adverbs, to express a circumstance of 
time, place, order, manner; as, ettsgov dyynGzTvoi, they fell 
near each other; dcpixEzo 8 evz eq aio g—z q iz alo g , he came 
on the second — third day, 662. So in Latin, qui creatur an- 
nuus. Cses. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

382. — Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender 
or number from the substantive with which it is connected, tacitly 
referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to some other 
word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, 

xoqiov xaXXiGzct, a most beautiful girl. 

co dya&s tyvyf\, brave soul. 

XrjGz/jQiov nvQ imqiEQOvzag, a band of thieves bringing fire. 



208 CONCOKD OF THE ADJECTIVE. §131. 

383. — Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular may have an 
adjective in the plural, and in the gender of the individuals which 
form the collection; as, ^ovXrj ifivyjav ei%ev — ovx uyvovvzsg, 
the council kept peaceable — not being- ignorant. 

So in Latin, maxima pars — in flumen acti sunt. Lat. Gr. 279. 

384. — Exc. 3. In the dual number, the Attic writers some- 
times join a masculine adjective with a feminine noun; as, rovtco 
too rjfiSQa, these two days. 

385. — Exc. 4. An adjective masculine, in the superlative de- 
gree, is sometimes joined to a feminine noun, to increase the force 
of the superlative ; as, at xoqcci [tsXavrazoi, very black pu- 
pils. Also, a masculine adjective is joined with a feminine noun, 
when the plural is used for the singular, and when a chorus of 
women speak of themselves ; thus, Medea says of herself, y.al yuq 
TjdixTjiiiivoi Giyyaofie&a, xoeiGaovav vixco/ievoi, though in- 
jured I will be silent, yielding to superior powers. 

386. — Exc. 5. An adjective in the masculine gender may be 
joined with a noun denoting a female, if the attention is drawn 
to the idea of a person without regard to the sex. 

387. — Exc. 6. A substantive dual may have an adjective plu- 
ral ; and vice versa, a substantive plural, when two is denoted, 
may have an adjective dual ; as, cpiXag 7Teq\ X e ^Q s fidXojfiEv, let 
us embrace ; dvo ^da^ata iyofisvoj aXXrjXeov, two successive 
chasms ; lit. two chasms adjoining each other. 

388. — Exc. 7. The adjectives f/.aazog, dXXog, in the singular, 
are put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects ex- 
pressed by them are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, 

oids ixaazog £di%ovro de'xa, they each received ten. 
?]Q(Qzociv 8s dXXog aXXo, they asked some one thing 

and some another. 

So in Latin, Quisque pro se queruntur. Li v. Lat. Gr. 281. 

389. — Exc. 8. Plural adjectives sometimes agree with their 
substantives in gender and number, and govern them in the gen- 
itive case ; as, 

ol naXaiol tojv TioinTojVj the ancient poets. 

So also among the Attic writers in the singular ; as, 

diarotficov top noXXov tov %qovov, spending much time. 

390. — Exc. 9. Instead of agreeing with its substantive, the 
adjective is sometimes put in the neuter gender, and the substan- 
tive following it in the genitive (461); as, sig togovtov roXfiqg 



§ 132. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 209 

(for zoaavz7]v Tolpujv), to such a pitch of boldness. The abstract 
noun is sometimes used instead of the adjective ; as, fta&og yr t g, 
depth of earth, instead of fia&eTa ytj, deep earth. 374. 

391. — Exc. 10. Proper names in the singular, are sometimes 
accompanied by the adjectives itq&iog, nag, and others in the 
neuter plural, as predicates or in apposition ; as, Adfincov, Alyi- 
vqzt'cov t a nowta, Lampon, the chief of the JEginetai ; n ar- 
ia drj ?jv toIgi JBafivlcovi'oim Zconvoog, Zopyrus was indeed 
every thing to the Babylonians. 

392. — Exc. 11. Demonstrative pronouns in the neuter singu- 
lar, may refer to nouns of any gender which do not express a 
person ; and in the neuter plural, to persons as well as things, 
and to the singular as well as to the plural ; as, negl avdoiag, 
em noGco ar avrov [drdqiag) de^aio GTeoeG&ai', concerning 
manly fortitude, for how much would you consent to be de- 
prived of it ? loig elg tavta i^apiaqravovGi, who offend against 
these, scil. zovg naidag y.ai rag yvvatxag, wives and children. 

So also with the adjectives nluov, 7ileT(o, fielov, &c; as, 
luniag \ikv a%ei ov [xsTov di6{ivoi(ov, he will bring not less 
than twenty thousand horse ; lit. he will bring horsemen not 
fewer than twenty thousand. 



393.— § 132. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

1. The comparative is used when two objects or classes of 
objects are compared ; the superlative, when more than two are 
compared. 

2. The positive is sometimes used in a comparative sense, and 
is followed by the infinitive ; as, bllyoi avpfiaXeiv, too few to 
fight. 

3. When one quality is compared with another in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing these qualities are both put in 
the comparative degree connected by ?/; as, TrXovaicoregog rj 
GocpwzzQog, more rich than wise. So in Latin, decentior quam 
sublimior fuit. Tacit. Lat. Gr. 474. 

4. The comparative is sometimes made by joining [lulXov 
with the positive ; and, for the sake of emphasis, sometimes with 
the comparative ; as, pallor olfticoTeoog, more happy. 

5. The superlative is often used to express a very high degree 
of a quality in an object, but without comparing it with any 



210 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 133. 

other ; as, av^Q qxlorijiotarog, a very ambitious man ; TtQijyfia 
£vt;{}s(jTazov, a very foolish thing. 168. 

6. The superlative is often strengthened in signification by 
adding certain adverbial words and particles; such as, nolhh, 
ftuxQcp, nokv, [ictMGTa, 7T/MGTOV, o/«, cat,', O7zcog, on, y, (fee. ; as, 
Tiollq) dG&svsGTarov, much the weakest ; o% aoiGiog, eminently 
the best ; ag xupGta, as quickly as possible ; oxi ttXeigxov yoo- 
vov, as long time as possible. Also by the numeral elg ; as, eig 
apijQ fitlxiGxog, a man of all others the best. 

For the construction of the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, as it respects government, see 472 and 482. 



§133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

394. — Special Rule. Adjective pronouns agree 
with, their substantives in gender, number, and 
case. 

395. — The Definite, ccvrog. 

For the import and use of the Definite pronoun avxog, see 
§ 62. In construction it is often similar to the demonstratives, 
396-5. 

1. When used as a personal pronoun, avxog takes the gender 
and number of the noun for which it stands, and the case which 
the noun would have in its place. Sometimes, however, like the 
adjective (382), it takes the gender and number of a synony- 
mous substantive, or of one that expresses the meaning of that for 
which it stands; as, ixadyjxevGaxs rzdvxa xa, i&vij ^anxiXovxeg 
avxovg, " teach all nations baptizing them," where avzovg is 
put for av&Q<x>7Zovg, which expresses the meaning of e&rn. 

Note. This observation applies to all adjective pronouns used with- 
out, and instead of, the substantives, to which they refer. 

396 . — Demonstratives. 

2. The Demonstratives are used without a substantive, only 
when they refer to a noun, or pronoun, or substantive clause in 
the proposition going before, or in that coming immediately after. 

3. When two persons or things are spoken of, ovxog, this, re- 
fers to the latter; ixeTvog, that, to the former. In the same 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 211 

manner are sometimes used 6 fie'v, og fie'v, referring to the for- 
mer, and 6 8e, og ds, referring^ to the latter ; sometimes vice verm. 

4. The demonstratives ovzog and o8s are generally distin- 
guished thus ; ovzog refers to what immediately precedes, ode to 
what immediately follows ; as, ravza dy.ovoag, having heard 
these things ; eleye rdde, he announced as follows. 

5. The demonstrative words are frequently used in a kind of 
opposition with a noun, or pronoun, or part of a sentence in the 
same proposition. This is done, 1. for the sake of emphasis, or, 
at the beginning of a sentence, to call the attention more particu- 
larly to what is to be said; as, ti 8 ey.eiva epeopev, rag nevmg 
is xcu SQCQzfjGEig, what shall I say as to these things question 
and interrogation? Long, zl noz zozlv avzo, r\ dpezi)', what 
is virtue ? In such cases the pronoun is commonly in the neu- 
ter gender. 2. If the parts of a sentence immediately related, 
are separated by intervening clauses, the pronoun, being intro- 
duced in the last part, in apposition with the distant word in the 
first, brings them as it were together ; as, alia &eovg ye zovg 
del ovzag y.ai .... zovzovg cpofiovpevoi pjze doefieg itrfiev 
7toujG)]ze, " but the gods ivho are eternal, and whose power and 
inspection extend over all things, and who preserve the harmony 
and order of the universe free from decay or defect, the great- 
ness and beauty of which is inexplicable — fearing these, do 
nothing wicked? 

6. When that with which the demonstrative stands in appo- 
sition is a sentence, or part of a sentence, it is put in the neuter 
gender, and is often connected with it by ozi or cog ; as, all' 
oide zovzo, ozi zavza fiev iaziv anavza zd %ooQia yel\ieva iv 
[xeocp, but he knows this tuell, that all these places are openly be- 
fore them. 

The sentence is sometimes so arranged that the clause with 
ozi stands first; as, ozi £' etye nzeqa, zovz^ i'ouev, but we knew 
this, that he had wings. This construction, so common in Greek, 
is seldom if ever used in Latin. 

7. Ovzog, with y.al before it, is used in the latter clause of a 
sentence, in an adverbial or conjunctive sense, to call the atten- 
tion more particularly to the circumstance which it introduces, 
and may be rendered " and that" " and truly" _ "indeed" " al- 
though" &c, as the sense may require ; as, ovzoi yaq \iovvoi 
'Icavcov ovx dyovai JinazovQia, y.al ovzoi v.azd cpovov zivd 
O'/JjilHV, for these alone of the lonians do not celebrate the Apa- 
touria, and that under pretext of a certain m,urder ; lit. and 
these (do so) under pretext, &c. rvvaiv.bg y.al zavzijg vexQag, 



■■i 



212 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. §133. 

si' Tig fafysi zovvofia, nityoixs, if any one mentions the name of a 
zooman, although (i. e. and that woman being) dead, he shud- 
ders. 

But when the pronoun is less definite, not referring to any- 
particular substantive in the preceding clause, but to something 
expressed in it, it is put in the neuter plural, and may generally 
be rendered " especially" " although" &c. ; as, JEv dt poi BoxsTg 
ov tzqoos'xsiv iov vovv Tovzoig, "A a i tavta ooajbg m>, but you do 
not seem to me to give your attention to these things, although 
being wise. Expressions of this kind are doubtless elliptical, 
Ttoieig or some such word being understood, and may be ren- 
dered " and these things you do." Indeed, it is sometimes ex- 
pressed ; thus, in Dem. pro Phor., after reproaching Apollodorus 
with his dissolute conduct, he adds, %al zavta yvvaixa tyav 
TtoieTg, and these things you do, having a wife ; which, with- 
out notsig, might be rendered " though having a wife." 

Yet sometimes these words seem to have no dependence on 
any part of the sentence, but are thrown in to call the attention 
to a special circumstance. 

8. The demonstrative pronoun is often joined with adverbs of 
time and place, to define these circumstances with greater empha- 
sis or precision ; as, ra vvv tads, just now ; rovz ixei, at that 
very time. 

9. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used instead of 
the personal pronouns lyco and ov, and, in speaking, when thus 
used, were probably accompanied with action, so as clearly to 
point out the person intended. When used instead of the 2d 
person, they most commonly express contempt. The expression 
ovrog eifii is equivalent to the Latin en ad sum } Lo ! here am I. 

397. — The Indefinite rig. 

10. The indefinite rig, 188, added to a substantive, commonly 
answers to the English words a, an, a certain one, any one, &c ; 
as, tig uvtjo, a man, any man, some man. — Sometimes with a 

noun it is used collectively ; as, -&qc6o'A(ov rig xaza xvpa 

1%0-vg, many a fish bounding through the wave. — Sometimes 
distributively ; as, xal 1 1 g oixivv avuTTlaadoxrco, and let every 
one build his own house. 

11. With adjectives of quality, quantity, and magnitude, es- 
pecially when they stand without a substantive expressed, or in 
the predicate, it serves to temper the expression by asserting the 
existence of the quality in a less positive and unlimited manner, 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 213 

such as may be expressed by the English words somewhat, in 
some degree, rathe?- ; as, dvafiazog zig, somewhat difficult to be 
passed ; dva/xa&^g Tig, rather hard to learn. With numerals 
it means nearly, about, &c. ; as, 8r/.a twig, about ten. So also 
with adverbs ; as, a^edov, nearly ; 6%e86v zi, pretty nearly ; 
nokv, much ; nokv zi, considerably ; ovdtv, nothing ; ov8tv zt, 
scarcely any thing. 

12. Without an additional adjective, zig has the sense of emi- 
nent, distinguished ; as, ev%ezai zig elvai, he boasts himself to 

be SOME GREAT ONE. 

13. In the neuter gender, it is also sometimes nearly redun- 
dant, being introduced apparently for the sake of sound. In such 
cases it is to be considered in the accusative governed by xazd, 
and seems to strengthen the expression ; as, ovzs zi \idvzig icov, 
not being at all a prophet ; [tz'ya zi xal xr£67ZS(jiov ztyvovQyij^ia, 
a work of art evidently great and divine. 

398. — -The Interrogative rig. 

14. The interrogative zig, zi, is used in asking a direct ques- 
tion ; as, zig lnou]oe. ; avho did it ? Though sometimes used in 
the indirect interrogation, oozig is more common ; as, {ravfxd^co 
zig (or more frequently oazig) £7Toit](j£, I wonder who did it. 
Sometimes it is accompanied by the article 6 zig, who ; to zi, 
what. "Oozig is always used interrogatively when a person to 
whom an interrogation is put, repeats it before answering it ; as, 
av d' el zig dvdQCov ; oazig eljju 1 iyco ; Mszcor, who are you ? who 
am I? Meton. 

15. In the predicate, zi, with mi following it, is sometimes ac- 
companied by the subject of iozi in the plural ; as, d-avpd^w zi 
tioz i(jzi zavza, I ivonder what these things are. 

1G. The interrogative zig is often used independently of other 
words in the sentence, being governed by xazd, or some such 
word understood, and may be rendered in what ? as to what ? 
&c. ; as, ztiv z i aocpav Imozqiioveg ; in what sort of wisdom 
are they expert ? Sometimes it is used for did zi, or noog zi, 
what ? why ? on what account ? ln\ zi, for what purpose ? nag 
zi, how ? So, zi 8s, but what ? 

399. — Possessive Pronouns. 

17. The possessive pronoun is in signification equivalent to 
the genitive pf the pronoun from which it is derived, and while, 
like the adjective, it agrees with its substantive in gender, liura- 



214 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

ber, and case, yet other words at the same time often regard it as 
the genitive of the personal pronoun. Hence the following modes 
of expression, rb gov fibvov dojQtjpa, equivalent to rb gov \ibvov, 
&c, the gift of thee alone. Aovv\iEvog natQog rs fitya yJJog 
ijd 1 Efibv avzov, where ejiov agrees with yJJog in the accusative, 
and yet, as if it were the genitive of the substantive pronoun, it 
is coupled with TzcczQog in the genitive, and followed by avzov. 
So also vcoizeqov fajog avzav, our own bed ; toe vpETEoa avztiv, 
your own property ; <i)p> g<$ezeqciv avzcjv (sell, ycooav), their own 
country. 

The 'same construction is common in Latin ; as, " meo, ipsius 
culpa" " Cum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis." 
" Beneficio meo et populi Romania Lat. Gr. 256 and 283. 

18. The same observation extends to possessive adjectives; 
as, ei os pe oel ■yvvaixeiag ti UQEzy)g ooai vvv ev %riQEia egov- 
zai, [A-vtjG&ijVca, If I must also say something concerning the vir- 
tue of those women, who are from this time to live in widow- 
hood ; where yvvaiy.Etag, is equivalent to the genitive tcov yvvai- 
x6)v, to which ogcli refers. 

19. The possessive pronouns are employed only when an em- 
phasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pronouns are 
used in their stead ; as, narijQ i)[a,6)v, our father, literally, the 
father of us. But tzcizijq ijiiEZEQog means our own father. 

20. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objectively; 
as, Gog Tto&og, not " thy regret ," but " regret for thee ;" zapa 
vov&ET iiiictt a, not " the lessons which 1 give" but " the lessons 
which thou givest me. This use of the possessive corresponds to 
the passive sense of the genitive, 452. 

21. The possessive pronoun is sometimes put in the neuter 
gender with the article, for the personal ; as, zb v/xezeqov for 
vpEig ; zdfA.d for lyco ; to e/uov for ifis. Also without the article 
after a preposition ; as, ev >)fLETE'oov (scil. Scopazi), for ev ))ficoi>, in 
our house. 



§134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 

400. — Special Rule. The article agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case. 

401. — Exc. 1. In gender. The masculine article is often put 
with a feminine noun in the dual number (384) ; as, zoj yvrcuxE', 
the two women. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 215 

402. — Exc. 2. In number. The article may be put in the 
plural, when it refers to two or more nouns in the singular {Si 5) ; 
as, at jLtirpain te xal "Hqi], Minerva and Juno. 

403. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns used indefinitely are commonly without the article. 
In general, the article is prefixed to all nouns not used indefinitely. 
Nouns are made definite by a limiting word, phrase, or clause ; 
by previous mention, by general notoriety or distinction, by pecu- 
liarity of state or relation, or by emphasis or contrast. 

2. The article is prefixed to nouns when they designate a 
class or species ; as, 6 av&QCQ7z6g iazi -frvntog, man is mortal. 

3. It is prefixed to abstract nouns when personified, or with 
a reference to something expressed or understood ; as, H v. ay. la 
vnolaftovoa sine,- Vice interrupting said ; z ?j v a X tj d s i a v neol 
zovrcov, the truth concerning these things. 

4. When one noun is predicated of another, the subject of the 
proposition is generally found with the article, and the predicate 
tvithout it ; as, clay.bg lyivetf y xoqtj, the maiden became a 
wine-skin. 

5. The article is prefixed to nouns to mark emphasis or dis- 
tinction; as, 6 7z6Xsfi,og ovy. arev y.irdvvcov, ?/ ds eiQrjv?] axurdv- 
vog, war is not without dangers, but peace is free from danger ; 
(here the opposition between 6 7z6l£ t uog and ?) eioijvn renders both 
words emphatic, which is marked by the article prefixed ;) 6 
rtotqTyg, the Poet, scil. Homer, 

6. Proper names, when first mentioned, are without the arti- 
cle ; on renewed mention, they generally have it. But the arti- 
cle is never prefixed to a proper name followed by an appellative 
with the article ; as, Kvqog 6 fiuailevg, Cyrus the king. 

1. The article is generally placed before appellatives, and all 
words and phrases which are placed after a substantive for the 
purpose of definition or description ; such as a substantive in ap- 
position, an adjective, a participle, an adverb, a preposition with 
its case ; as, ^co-AQarijg 6 cpiloaocpog, Socrates, the philosopher ; 
ol vb\ioi ol ao%aioi, the ancient laws, &c. 

8. Before a participle, the article is to be translated as the re- 
lative, and the participle as the indicative mood of its own tense ; 
as, slal ol Xt'yovieg, there are (those) who say. But, 

9. A participle between the article and its noun is to be re- 
garded as an adjective, and rendered accordingly ; as, ol vtzclq- 
yovztg vofioij the existing laws. So also, other words and phrases 
between the article and its noun, like an adjective, qualify the 



216 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

noun, and frequently have a participle understood ; as, ?/ nqbg 
raXdzag f^a^rj ; scil. yEvo\i(vi], the battle against the Gauls. 

10. An adverb with the article prefixed is used sometimes as 
a noun, sometimes as an adjective ; as, ol steXag, those near, i. e. 
the neighbours ; ?j dvco noXig, the upper city, 378. 

11. Adjectives, participles, adverbs, adverbial particles and 
phrases, used in the sense of nouns, have the article prefixed ; as, 
ol &v?]7oi, mortals ; ol xoXaxEvovTEg, flatterers ; ?) avQiov (scil. 
tjIieqo), the morrow ; to ti, the substance ; to noibv, the quality ; 
to 71060V, the quantity ; to cog, the manner in which, &c. 

12. The article without a substantive, before d{icpL or wept with 
their case, denotes something peculiar to, or distinguishing the 
person, place, or thing expressed by the noun ; as, ol tzeqi di'ioar, 
those devoted to the chase, i. e. " hunters ; " to tzeqi Ad{i\paxov, 
the affair at Lampsacus ; to. dficpi tcoXe\iov, what belongs to war ; 
sometimes it is a mere circumlocution for the noun itse]f ; as, to, 
tzeqI t)\v dfiagTiav, for ij k\ia.QTia. 

13. Ol tteqi, and ol dftcpi, with a proper name, have the fol- 
lowing peculiarities of meaning; viz. 1. the person himself ; as, 
ol dfiqA Ugiafiov xal Ildv&oov, Priam and Panthous ; 2. the 

followers of the person named ; as, ol neol Aq^idafiov, the com- 
panions of Archidamus ; 3. the person named, and his compan- 
ions and followers ; as, ol dpcpl IlEiaiaTQazov, Pisistratus and 
his troops. 

14. The neuter article in any case prefixed to the infinitive 
mood (§ 173, I.), gives it the sense and construction of the Latin 
gerund, or a verbal noun ; as, tov CfiXoaocpEiP to 'QtytEvv, inquir- 
ing is the business of philosophy ; to xaXcog Xtysiv, the speaking 
well. 

15. In the neuter gender, and in any case which the con- 
struction requires, the article is placed, 1. Before entire propo- 
sitions or quotations in a sentence construed as nouns ; as, Ezi 
ds tovtcov tqlti] tiiacpOQu, to, cog ixaata. tovtcov ili\iii<solito dv 
Tig, Moreover there is in these a third difference, viz. the manner 
in which one should imitate each of these objects : ex dt tovtcov 
bo&cog av e%oi to " iqyov 5 1 ovdev ovEtdog," but according to 
these views, the sentiment iL labour is no dishonour " ivould be 
correct. 2. Before single words quoted or designated in a sen- 
tence; as, to o"' v\iEig ozav Emco, ztjv nbXiv Xt'yco, when I say 
you, / mean the state ; to Xt'yco, the word Xt'yco. But in nouns, 
the article is commonly in the gender of the noun ; as, to ovofxa 
6 "A'ioijg, the name Hades. 

16. The article is often prefixed to possessive, demonstrative, 



§134. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 



217 



distributive, and other pronouns, for the 
or more precise definition ; thus, ipbg 
mine ; but 6 ipbg vlog, is my son. The 
nification effected by the article may be 



sake of greater emphasis 
vlog y is merely a son of 
following change of sig- 
noticed : 



allot 


others, 


ol allot 


the others, the rest. 


alii] 


other, 


y dlln 'Elldg 


the rest of Greece. 


nolloi 


many, 


ot nolloi 


the multitude. 


nlstovg 


more, 


ol nlstovg 


the most. 


avzog 


himself, 


6 avzog 


the same. 


ndvzsg 


all, 


ot ndvzsg 


{after numerals) in all. 


bliyot 


few, 


oi bliyot 


the few, the Oligarchs. 



17. When the article is used with ovzog or ixstvog, the pro- 
noun must stand before the article, or after the substantive : as, 
ovrog o avijo, or o avijQ ovzog, this same man. 

18. The article is frequently used alone, having its substantive 
understood. This is the case when the substantive to which the 
article refers, being apparent from the connection or sense of the 
passage, can be easily supplied. The neuter article is often thus 
used with the genitive of another noun, %QW a ^ ^Qdy\ia, &c, 
being understood : — 1. In the singular, to intimate what a person 
has done, is wont to do, or has befallen him ; as, y.at rot doxai 
jiot z b zov 'IfivxsTov innov nsnov&s'vat, and I seem to be in the 
same situation with the horse of Ibycus. 2. In the plural, to 
denote every thing that concerns, arises from, or belongs to, that 
which the substantive expresses ; as, zd (piXcov tf ovds'v, the as- 
sistance of friends is nothing; dsi tysqsiv id zav &mv, we 
must bear the visitation of the gods. In the singular or plural, 
it is often merely a periphrasis for the substantive ; as, to or zd 
z?jg boytjg, for i) boyi] ; and an adjective, &c. put with such a 
periphrasis takes the gender and number of the substantive, and 
the case of the article; as, zd zcov dtaxovoov — noiovpsvot, the 
messengers — considering. 

19. The article combined with (isv and ds, has in some de- 
gree the force of a pronoun, and is used in a distributive sense, — 
the article with fisp standing in the first member of the sentence, 
and with ds in the parts that follow; as, zbv psr^ iztfia, zbv d' 
ov, this one, he honoured, that*one not ; ol psv ixvfisvov, ol 
o*' sntvov, old' iyvf-ivd^ovzo, some played at dice, some drank, 
some exercised themselves. When governed by a preposition, 
pe'v and ds are placed immediately after the preposition ; thus, 
iv [tsv zoig — iv ds zotg. 

20. In the Ionic and some other writers, especially Homer 

10 



218 EELATIVE PRONOUN. § 135. 

and Herodotus, the article 6, y, to, is very frequently used as a 
relative, and sometimes as a personal pronoun ; as, Jiyiklka 
yevyo) xbv Iduv aloxvvofiai, I Jlee from Achilles whom / am 
ashamed to see ; to fiev fokftanTO, it (the child) was buried. 
186-2. 



§135. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

404. — Eule III. The relative agrees with its 
antecedent in gender, number, and person • as, 

•/} yvvij ijv s'l'dofxev, the "woman whom we saw. 

6 ccvjjq og ?jl&e, the man who came. 

ra xQ?jfiara a ei%e, the things which he had. 

405. — 1. The antecedent is the substantive, or something 
equivalent to a substantive (421), in a preceding clause to which 
the relative refers. Sometimes, however, as in Latin, the relative 
and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

406. — 2. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
the antecedent, but with the same word expressed or understood 
after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, it agrees in 
gender, number, and case, as well as person ; thus, 6 Innog ov 
(i7i7iov) e7%£ f the horse which (horse) he had. Hence, in connect- 
ing the antecedent and relative clauses, the following variety of 
usage occurs ; viz., 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly ex- 
pressed in the antecedent clause, and not with the rela- 
tive ; as, ovzog ion 6 avt/Q ov eideg, this is the max 
whom you saw. 
2d. It is often not expressed in the antecedent clause, and 
expressed with the relative ; as, ovzog ion ov eldsg av- 
8qa. 
3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is ex- 
pressed in both ; as, ovtog ion 6 a v ?jq ov zideg av8 qu. 
4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is 
no danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative 
refers is understood in both clauses ; as, ov y&e'foi ixiave, 
bv ij&slei iiocooe, whom he ivould lie slew, whom he would 
he saved alive. All this variety is common in Latin as 
well as in Greek. (Lat. Gr. 280.) 



§ 135. EELATIVE PEONOUN. 219 

407. — 3. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding- 
word ; as, oixia r\ vfiszs'oa oi ye XQtja&e, &c, your house who 
use, &c, where oi refers to the personal pronoun implied in vps- 
ztqa (399-17). 

408. — 4. When the relative comes after two words of differ- 
ent persons, it agrees with the first or second person rather than 
the third ; as, eifii d' iyoj ftaailevg og zipm pat. 

409. — 5. When the relative is placed between two substan- 
tives of different genders, it sometimes agrees in gender with the 
latter; as, to aazqov i)v bvo\id'C > ovaiv ^4iya, the constellation 
which they call the Goat. 

410. — 6. HJxc. The relative sometimes takes tlie 
gender and number, not of the antecedent noun, 
but of some one synonymous with it, or implied 
in it ; as, 

1st. ftavovzmv zixvav ovg Jldgaazog %yaye, their children 
having died, whom Adrastus led. In this sentence, ovg 
refers to naldcov, as synonymous with ztv.vcov. 

2d. ndvzcov dv&gojncov og xs aev dvzi eh&rj, of every 
man, who shall come against you ; where og in the sin- 
gular^ referring to a plural antecedent, shows that the 
men are spoken of in the relative clause individually. 

3d. vTieq andar^g 'EXldoog cov nazigag ezzeive, for all 
Greece, whose fathers she slew ; where cav refers to the 
meaning of 'EXXddog in this sentence ; i. e. the men of 
Greece. 

4th. -QrjOavQOTZOibg dvijg ovg dy xcu STzaiveT zb 7tX?jd , og, A 
man increasing in wealth, whom even the multitude ap- 
plaud. Here, though the antecedent dv)\g is singular, 
the relative ovg is plural, because it refers not to an indi- 
vidual man, but to the class or kind of men spoken of. 

411. — 7. Instead of og the compound pronoun oazig is used 
as a relative after nag, ovdeig, or any word in the singular ex- 
pressing an indefinite number, and oaoi after the same words in 
the plural ; as, nag oazig, every one who ; ndvzeg oaoi, all who ; 
and if the indefinite is not expressed in the antecedent clause, 
the use of the relative shows that it is understood, and is to be 
expressed in the translation ; as, zdg n6leig oaai, all the cities 
which. Sometimes it is used simply for og. 

412. — 8. If no nominative come between the relative and 
the verb, the relative will be the nominative to the verb. 



220 RELATIVE PRONOUN". § 135. 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the 
relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, 
or the preposition going before, usually governs. But, 

Attraction of the Relative. 

413. — 9. Mxc. I. The relative is often attracted 
into the case of its antecedent ; as, 

Examples. 1. gvv rtug vclvgIv alg (for dg) el%e, with the 
ships which he had. 2. \iETaGyETco tijg ?)dov?jg ?)g (for i)v) 
edcoxa v\iiv, let him share the pleasure which I gave you. 3. 
\ie\wri\ievog cov engage (for tcov ngcty\i<xTcov a engage, 406-4th), 
being mindful of what he did. 4. dnolavco cov e%co aya&cov, 
I enjoy what goods I have (406 r 2d). 

Note 1. The rule of attraction seems to have its foundation alto- 
gether iu euphony ; and hence, generally, attractions will be found only 
where they improve the euphony of a sentence. 

Note 2. This construction is sometimes, though very seldom, imi- 
tated in Latin ; as, Circiter sexcentas ejus generis cujus supra demonstra- 
vimus, naves invenit. Cms. See Lat. Gr. 298. 

414. — 10. JSxc. II. The antecedent is sometimes 
attracted into the case of the relative ; as, 

J^tllov 8' ov rev oida rsvav xXvtcc Tev^ea 8vco, I know not 
any other person whose renowned armour I could put on. Here 
aklov is attracted by the relative rsv (for tov, 142, used for ov, 
186-2), from the accusative into the genitive. Lat. Gr. 299. 

On this principle are to be construed such sentences as the 
following: ovdsva xlvdvvov ovtiv 3 ov% vne\ieivav, for ovdeig 
i\v xivdvvog bvTiva, there was no danger which they did not 
undergo; ovdsva scpaoav ovtiv' ov daxgvovTa anoGTgz- 
cpsa-d'cu, for ovdeig i\v ovtiv ecpaaav ov daxgvovTa, &c. there was 
no one who, they said, did not return weeping • Tivag tovgcY 
bgco <zevovg, for nveg eialv ovtoi ol %evoi ovg bgco ; who arc 
these strangers whom I see ? 

415. — 11. The relative plural, and in all its cases with egti 
before it, is used for, or rather is the original form of, the adjec- 
tive evioi, -ca, -a, some (egti beino; sometimes written evi) ; as, 
xai eat i oi (i.e. evioi) STvy%avov xrcoQaxcov, and some hit 
breastplates; anb tcov nolecov egtiv cov (i.e. in cor), from 
some cities. 

In this construction sort' is found with bang, both singular 
and plural ; as, e gti bang, some one ; egti olnveg, some. 



§ 136. EELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. 221 

416. — 12. In certain cases, it is used adverbially, some other 
word being understood ; thus, ov, where ; 77, where, as far as, 
hovj, in what manner ; and sometimes thus used, it is preceded 
by iazi, the two words being used as an adverb ; as, 'iaxiv ov or 
sv&a, sometimes, in some places, in many places. 



417.— §136. THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS 
oiog, oaog, fjh'xog, &c. 

1. The relative adjectives olog, oaog, ?)Xixog, like the relative 
pronoun, always refer to a kindred word before them expressed 
or understood, implying a comparison of equality similar to talis 
qualis, tantus quantus, in Latin (Lat. Gr. 300) ; as, 

roiog or roiovzog — olog, such — as. 
roaog or zoaovzog — oaog, so many — as. 
znXixog — ijXUog, of such an age or size — as. 

2. The antecedent and relative adjectives both refer to the 
same substantive, with which they agree in gender and number, 
while each takes the case required by the construction of the 
clause in which it stands : thus, Dem. Olynth. I, " As for the 
rest they are thieves and flatterers, and zoiovz ovg av&oco- 
novg olovg \i&§va&£vzag ooy&a&ai zoiavza ola iy<a vvv 
oxvoi bvo\iaaa.i, such men as, when intoxicated, to dance such 
dances as / dare not name. 

3. The antecedent word is most commonly understood, and 
the relative is translated with some variety according to the con- 
nection in which it stands. The most of the cases in which, e. g. 
olog is used for zoiovrog olog, may be reduced to three ; viz. 1st, 
when it stands before a substantive ; 2d, before an adjective ; 3d, 
before a verb. 

4. First. Before a substantive, olog elegantly takes the case 
in which its antecedent roiovzog would be, if expressed, and 
changes the substantive before which it stands into the same 
case by attraction; thus, ovx k'ativ dvdgl oico ^coxqutsi 
ipEvdea&ai, to lie is not befitting such a man as Socrates is, for 
oi'x eaziv avdol zoiovrco olog ^ooxodTTjg 'iaiiv ipsvdeadcu. Again, 
yaqiQo\iEvov oicp aol uvoqi, gratifying such a man as thou 
art, for avooi toiovto) olog av (elg). 

In some instances the noun after olog is not attracted into the 



222 RELATED ADJECTIVE WOEDS. §136. 

same case with it; as, tcov (toiovtcov) olcovnEQ avtbg ovtcov, 
they being such as he. 

When the substantive to which oiog refers is obvious from 
the connection, it is frequently omitted, as in the preceding ex- 
ample. 

5. Sometimes oiog, with the clause in which it occurs, is ap- 
parently unconnected with the sentence. In such cases the con- 
nection is to be formed by supplying cog or on ; as, ifiaxdoi&v 
trjv fMjtEoa (oti) olcov tsxvcov ixvQ7]aSy they blessed the mother 
(because) she gave birth to (lit. became possessed of) such children. 

Of a similar nature are the Homeric expressions oi dyooEvsig 
— of iooyag, i. e. on ol\ &c. because you say-— because you 
do such things. 

6. The construction is the same when olog y or the substantive 
to which it belongs, is in the nominative, or is governed by a 
preposition ; as, aXij&sg dyovtag Tie'v&og (on toiovtog) oiog 
avtovg 6 ftvvvog disyvyev, being truly grieved because such a 
thunnt fish as this escaped them. Lucian : UniCovrzg ndyyv 
anoltecvai sg oia xaxa rjxov, i. e. cog Eg toiavta oia xaxa, 
expecting total destruction since they were come into such cala- 
mities as these. In this way that difficult sentence in Thucy- 
dides is explained, xal fiovn (scil. ^&rjvaicov nohg) owe rop tioIe- 
fiicp inzk&ovn ayavdxtrjGiv fysi, vcp olcov xuxona&u, i. e. cog 
vnb toiovtcov olcov TjfisTg, and we are now the only state 
which does not excite indignation in an invading enemy, because 
(or since) they suffer from such a brave people as we are. 

In all constructions of this kind, the idea will be readily per- 
ceived by considering oiog as put for on or cog toiovtog. See 
numerous examples in L. Bos. Ellipses, Gr. 271. Vigerus, Ch. 3. 
§8,9. 

7. Second. Before an adjective, it may be resolved by supply- 
ing the infinitive eIvui', as, ei fisv ydo tig dvtjg iv avtoig sari 
oiog EfiTTEiQog nol&iiovy if any one among them is skilful in 
war, Dem. O. 2. for toiovtog oiog elvai E(i7TEiQog, is such as to be 
skilful, &c. ; oiog aoiarog, the best, for toiovtog oiog slvai doia- 
tog, such as to be the best, &c. 

8. Oiog is frequently, however, joined with an adjective in the 
form of an exclamation or interrogation, apparently without re- 
ference to the usual antecedent ; as, oiog jxsyag, oiog xulenog, 
how great ! how difficult ! Thus Lysias, oiog [isyag xul dsivbg 
xivdvvog ?)ycovi6\)tj, how great and terrible danger was risked 
(scil. for the liberty of Greece). If this and similar sentences, 
however, are thrown into the assertive form, they readily admit 



§ 127. CONSTRUCTION OF NOMINATIVE CASE. 223 

of the same resolution as the others ; thus, danger such as to be 
great and terrible was risked. 

9. Third. Joined with the verb ei(d expressed or understood, 
and followed by an infinitive, it signifies " I am of such a kind 
as, or such as ;" and, according to the connection in which it 
stands, may mean " I am able" " i~ am wont" " / am ready, or 
willing" — zoiovtog bejng always understood as an antecedent 
wordj thus, ov yaQ i\v oiog ano navzog xzoftuvai (i.e. zoiov- 
zog oiog), for he was not (such) as to make gain from every 
thing ; i. e. he was not willing (or inclined) to do every thing for 
the sake of gain. 

10. The abbreviated expressions oiog elpi, and oiog z eifii, are 
very common, and usually, but not always, observe this distinc- 
tion ; viz., that the former signifies " / am wont," the latter, " / 
am able, I can" and is equivalent to dvvapai ; as, oiog z e tfi i 
zovzo Ttoieiv, I can do this. — In the neuter, it is used imperson- 
ally ; as, oidv zs iazi, it is possible. 

11. Sometimes the verb siju is also omitted; as, ?} dvvaizo 
av.ovuv iy. zov /£?/ oiovzs {elvai), or whether he could hear 

FROM NOT BEING ABLE TO HEAR FORMERLY. 

12. In the same manner roTog or zoiovtog stands related to 
oiog following it, expressed or understood ; as, ovx civ 6{Ail?'i6ai(u 
zoiovzoo (scil. oiog avzog ian), I would have no intercourse with 
such A man (scil. as he is). 

13. The neuters olov and oia, either alone or combined with 
various particle's, and used in a conjunctive or adverbial sense, 
are, no doubt, elliptical expressions similar to those noticed above, 
though it may be difficult to resolve many of them in a satisfac- 
tory manner. The ordinary meaning of these words will be 
found in the Lexicons. 

418 — Note. The observations which have been made on the con- 
struction of the related adjectives xoloq or xoaovxoq — oioq, are applica- 
ble, almost without exception, to xoaoq or roaovxoq — oaoq ; observing 
that the former relates to the quality of objects, the latter to their 
number or quantity. The same also may be said of zqUxoq — fjXixoq, of 
such an age or size. 



§137. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

419. — The nominative case is used — 

1st. To express the subject of a proposition. 
2d. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive (365), or predicated of it (436, 438). 



224 VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. § 138. 

3d. In exclamations ; as, co dvazdXaiva iyoo ! wretched 
me ! 

4th. Absolutely, or without dependence on any word in the 
sentence ( / 7'72) ; as, noXXi\ ydo ?/ czoazia ovaa, ov 
naorjg iatai 7toX8cog vnodi^cca&ai (avz?'jv),for the army 
being numerous, it will not be in the power of the whole 
state to accommodate them, Or without a participle, by 
pleonasm before an affirmation; as, 6 Mojvatjg ovx oi- 
dafxev zi yiyov8v avzcp, this Moses, we know not what 
has become of him. 



§ 138. A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 

420. — Rule IY. A verb agrees with its nomi- 
native in number and person ; as, 

iya yodq)co, I write, 

vfieig zvttzszs, ye strike, 

ocp&alfiod XdfjiTiezoVy his eyes shine. 

421 — Rem. The subject of a finite verb, if a noun or pronoun, or 
adjective used as a noun, is put in the nominative. The subject may 
also be an infinitive mood (719), or part of a sentence ; and to all these 
this rule applies. 

422. — Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and of the second 
person is generally omitted, being obvious from the termination 
of the verb ; also of the third person, when it may be readily 
supplied from the context ; as, Xsyovai, they say. 

423. — Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted, when the verb ex- 
presses an action usually performed by that subject ; as, GaXm- 
£si, the trumpeter sounds ; ixtjov^e, the herald proclaimed ; or 
when it expresses an operation of nature ; as, vsi, it rains ; ftoov- 
t«, it thunders. 

424. — Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as 
without a nominative ; still they will generally be found to bear 
a relation to some circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, 
or infinitive mood, similar to that between a verb and its nomi- 
native ; as, 8%8gzl iioi am-tvcu, it is lawful for me to depart, i. e. 
to depart is lawful for me ; %qi} G8 ttoiew, it behoves you to do 
it, i. e. to do it behoves you. Lat. Gr. 307. 

Note. — On the other hand, the subject or nominative is some- 
times expressed, and the verb — usually some part of the verb 
thai — is omitted ; as, "EXXijv iyco, I (am) a Greek. 



§ 139. VEKB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 225 

§ 139. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Agreement in number. 

425. — Rule 1. A neuter plural commonly has 
a verb in the singular ; as, 

£c5« rqt%£i, animals run. 

426. — Obs. 1. This construction is more common with the 
Attic than with the Ionic and Doric writers^ But with all, there 
are many exceptions, especially when the neuter plural signifies 
persons or animals ; as, roadds tdvtj icTodrEvov, so many na- 
tions went to ivar. Homer joins a singular and a plural verb 
with the same nominative. Odyss. \i. 43. So Xen. Mem. 
daroa avkynvav a y\\iiv rag woag rijg vv/abg ipyavi^Ei, 
the stars shone forth, which shew to us the hours of the 
night. 

427. — Obs. 2. Sometimes, also, masculine and feminine nouns 
in the dual and plural have a verb in the singular; as, ova 
iarlv oinvsg dnEyovzai, there are none who abstain; 
ay e it a i opcpal (xeXegjv, the voice of melody sounds. 

428. — Kule 2. Two or more substantives sin- 
gular, taken together, have a verb in the plural ; 
taken separately, the verb must be in the singu- 
lar ; as, 

Too-ether, aldojg 8s xal (pofiog k'ftqiv- Shame and fear are na- 
roi eigi av&Q amp, tural to man. 

Separately, ool ydo e8ojxe vmqv Zevg For Jupiter and Apollo 
y.al JItjoIIojv, gave you the victory. 

429. — Obs. 3. To both parts of this rule, however, and espe- 
cially to the first, there are not a few exceptions ; for it often 
happens that when two or more nouns have a common verb, it 
agrees with one of them, and most commonly the one next it. 
Also, if the two nouns are of similar signification, they are in 
construction considered as one, and the verb follows in the sin- 
gular ; as, Zoi 8 Inl rolpdrco y.aodiri y.al Ov^iog, let your 
heart and soul dare. 

430. — Obs. 4. A substantive in the singular, connected with 
other words as the subject of a verb, conveying the idea of plu^ 
rality, has the verb in the plural ; as, 'Pta iraoalafiovaa xal 

10* 



226 VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. § 139. 

rovg Koovfiavrag tikqitzoXovgiv, Rhea, having taken with her also 
the Corybantes, wandered about So in Latin; as, Juba cum 
.Labieno capti in potestatem Ccesaris venissent. Lat. Gr. 314. 

431. — Kule 3. A noun of multitude expressing 
many as one ivhole has a verb in the singular ; as 
e£ezo Xaog, the people sat down. 

432.— But when it expresses many as individu- 
als, the verb must be plural; as, 

tjQojznaav avzov to nXTftog, the multitude ashed him. 

433.— Obs. 5. To both parts of this rule there are also ex- 
ceptions, and in some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb 
be m the singular or plural ; sometimes both are joined with the 
same nominative ; as, i£ero Xaog, igyrv&ycav ds xaMdoag, 
the people sat down and kept their seats. 

434.— Rule 4. A dual nominative may have a 
plural verb ; as, 

a/upa tXeyov, both spake ; and a plural nominative, limited to 
two, may have a verb in the dual. 

II. Agreement in Person. 

435.— Rule 5. When two or more nominatives are of differ- 
ent persons, the verb takes the first person rather than the sec- 
ond, and the second rather than the third ; as, fo& xal ob ei'no- 
per, you and I spoke. 

To this rule there are many exceptions. 

III. The Nominative after the Verb. 
436.— Rule 6. Any verb may have the same 
case after it as before it when both words refer to 
the same thing ; as, 

Vfisig hxl to (pug rov xoo-pov, Ye are the light of the world. 

^A 3 Ji~f 6m ^ The n u °™™ tive before is «>e object, the nominative after 
thepredzcate-the verb is the copula, and is either a substantive or intran- 
sitive verb, or a passive verb of naming-from its use ca lied copulative. 

438.— Obs. 6. This rule applies to the infinitive, whatever bo 
tne case of its subject ; also to participles, 738 and 752. 



§ 140. GOVERNMENT. 227 

439. — Obs. 7. When the predicate is an adjective or a parti- 
ciple, without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb, by R. II : — Except as noticed, 3*78. 

440. — Obs. 8. In this construction, the verb usually agrees 
with the subject ; sometimes, however, it agrees with the predi- 
cate ; as, tjaav ds (jzadioi oxzco to ^lEzai^iMOv avzdcav, the space 
between them was eight stadia. So also when the copula is a 
participle ; as, he usually let go, zovg yJyiaza l^TjiiaQzr^ozag — 
[isyLGTrjV dt ovaav (for ovzag) fildfinv Tzolecog, the greatest 
offenders being (or who are) the greatest injury to the state. 



§ 140. II. GOVERNMENT. 

441. — Government is the power which one word has over 
another depending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain 
case, mood, or tense. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 
442. — The construction of the oblique cases depends in gen- 
eral upon the following principles ; viz. 

1. The Genitive expresses that from which any thing pro- 
ceeds, originates, or begins ; or to which it belongs, as expressed 
by the English words of, from, in regard of, in respect of, &c. 
viz. as cause or origin. 

2. The Dative is the case of acquisition, and denotes that to 
vjhich any thing is added, or to or for which it is done ; hence 
the end or remote object to which any action tends. It is also 
used to express the cause, instrument, or means, by which a thing 
is done, in which sense it usually depends on a preposition ex- 
pressed or understood. 

3. The Accusative expresses the immediate object on which the 
action or influence of a transitive active verb terminates ; or of 
motion or tendency to, expressed by a preposition. 

4. The action of a verb may be considered in reference either, 
1. to its immediate object, i.e. to that on which its action is im- 
mediately exerted, and which is always governed in the accusa- 
tive; as, didovai ifxavzov, to give myself; or, 2. to a remote ob- 
ject (i. e. to one which is not acted upon by the verb, but is 
merely that to which the action is related in the manner ex- 
pressed by the case), and is put in the genitive, or dative, or ac- 
cusative, either after the accusative with a transitive active verb, 
or without an accusative after an intransitive verb ; as, anallaz- 



228 THE GENITIVE. § 141. 

tsiv tiva vogov, to free one from disease ; didovai ifiavrbv ty\ 
noXu, to give myself to the state ; qjeideo^ai rwv ioicpow, to spare 
the kids ; ^o?]{reiv ry Ttazoidi, to aid (i. e. to render assistance to) 
my country. 



§141. THE GENITIVE. 

443. — The Genitive is in extensive use in the Greek lan- 
guage, being used in many cases in which the ablative is used 
in Latin. Its primary, as well as its general and leading idea, is 
that of separation or abstraction, going forth from, or out of ori- 
gin, cause. So that the meaning of the words of out of from, 
is implied in the case itself. 

The numerous and diversified uses of this case are reduced by Mat- 
thise to the following heads : 

444 — I. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other 
words in the genitive, when the latter class limits, and shews in what 
respect the meaning of the former is to he taken. When used for this 
purpose, they may usually be rendered by such phrases as "with re- 
spect to," " in respect of ;" thus, 

1. With verbs; as, tag ttoSmv dyov, as fast as they could run, lit. 
as they had themselves with respect to their feet; y.alwq %ynv uid-rjq, 
to have one's self well with respect to intoxication; oydkltad at ilnl- 
doq, to be deceived with respect to hope ; nareaya t?jq xiqxxkijq, I am 
broken with respect to my head, i. e. i" have broken my head. 

2. With adjectives ; avyyvo')uo)v ro)v av&Q o)7zivo)v a./A.aQr?]jLioi- 
ro)v, forgiving with respect to human errors; tyyvq rrjq noli ox:, 
near with respect to the city ; yrj nXtla, xay.wv, a land full of (i.e. 
with respect to) evils; fitlfav TzarQoq, greater than (i. e. with re- 
spect to) his father. 

3. With all words which represent a situation or operation of the 
mind, which is directed to an object, hut without affecting it; such as 
verbs signifying fo remember, to forget, to neglect, &c. ; and adjectives sig- 
nifying experienced, ignorant, desirous, &a. 

4. With all words which indicate fulness, defect, emptiness, and the 
like. Under this head fall adjectives signifying full, rich, empty, de- 
prived of, &c. : and adverbs denoting abundance, want, sufficiency, &c. 

5. To this principle must be referred the construction of the geni- 
tive with the comparative degree, 482 ; with all words denoting superi- 
ority, inferiority, and where a comparison is made with respect to the 
value of a thing ; as, atooq tovtov, worthy of this, i. e. equal in value 
with respect to this ; or where the idea of difference is involved. 

6. When that loith respect to which a thing is done may also be con- 
sidered the cause of its being done, the word expressing it is often put 
in the genitive, and may be rendered "on account of;" as, qOornv 
nvi ffoq> laq,to envy one on account of wisdom. Hence it is used with 
verbs signifying to accuse, or criminate, to pray, to begin, &c. ; and also, 
without another word, in exclamations. 



§ 142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 229 

445 — II. The genitive in Greek is used to express the relation of 
a whole to its parts; i. e. it is put partitively. Hence it is put with 
verbs of all kinds, even with those that govern the accusative, when the 
action does not refer to the whole, but to a part ; as, hur^aou, y.geoiv, 
to roast some of the flesh ; iyd) olSa ro)V e/loo)v «XbXttot5v f 1 know 
some of those of my age. Hence, also, it is put with verbs which sig- 
nify to share, to participate, &c. 

On this principle is founded, the construction of the genitive of the 
part affected, after verbs signifying to take, to seize, to touch, &c. Hence, 
also, it is put with the superlative degree, to express the class of which 
that one, or those marked by the superlative, form a part. 

446 — HL The genitive is used to mark the origin, or cause from 
which any thing proceeds ; and hence, the person or thing to which - 
any thing belongs, whether it be a property, or quality, habit, duty, &c. 
Hence, also, verbs govern the genitive, which express feelings and op- 
erations of the mind, which are the result of external impressions, or 
when they denote motions and actions in bodies which are the effects of 
the operation of other bodies. Thus, verbs which express the sensa- 
tions of hearing, tasting, touching, <fec. as well as those which signify to 
admire, to care for, to desire, <fcc. are followed by the genitive of the ob- 
ject heard, tasted, touched, admired, or cared for, because it is viewed 
as the source, origin, or cause, of these sensations and operations. 
Hence, also, the common rules, that "verbs denoting possession, prop- 
erty, or duty, <fec. govern the genitive ; " that " the material of which 
any thing is made is put in the genitive ; " and that " one substantive 
governs another in the genitive." 

447 — IV. The genitive is also governed by certain prepositions, 
and by verbs compounded with prepositions ; that is to say, when the 
prepositions may be separated from the verb and placed before the 
genitive without altering the sense. 

448 — V. The genitive is used to determine place and time in an- 
swer to the question "where?" "when?" <fec. Hence the adverbs oi% 
nov, onov, where, which are, in fact, old genitives, and refer to part of 
place or time in general. 

To the general principles contained in these five heads, may be re- 
ferred all the cases which occur under all the following rules for the 
genitive. 



§ 142. I. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTAN- 
TIVES. 

449. — Rule V. One substantive governs an- 
other in the genitive, when the latter substantive 
limits the signification of the former ; as, 

6 -&£<x)v 7iax?iQj the father of gods. 

ava% uvSqwv, king of men. 



230 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. §142. 

450 — This rule is founded on the general principle mentioned 44-4 
and 446. In the examples above, the general term naxriQ is restricted 
by the word diwv governed by it. It is not any father, nor the father 
of men, but of gods : so avat, not any king, but, the king of men. 

"When a noun is restricted by another of the same signification, it is 
put in the same case by Rule I. (365). 

451. — Obs. 1. The noun governing the genitive is frequently 
understood (36*7); viz. 1. after the article such words as vlog, 
litjTtjQ, ftvydrno, &c. ; as, MiXxidong 6 Kipcovog (sup. vlog), 
Miltiades, the son of Cimon ; ik rjjg zvyrjg (sup. dcoofyaTa), 
the gifts of fortune. 2. Ofaog or dapa after a preposition; as, 
' ig narqog (sup. dcopa), to the house of her father ; dg adov 
(dopov), to Hades; iv adov (8opcp), in Hades. 3. After the 
verbs dpi, yi'vopai, vndq^i &c. See 491 and 446. 

452. — Obs. 2. When the noun in the genitive signifies a per- 
son, it may often be taken in an active or passive sense ; thus, t) 
yvojaig zov -&eov, the knowledge of God. In this sentence, God 
may be either the subject or the object of the knowledge spoken 
of, i. e. the phrase may denote our knowledge of God, or his 
knowledge of us ; no&og vlov, generally (not the regret of thy 
son, viz. which he has, but) regret for thy son ; dvoohg svpsvsia 
roiovde, good will towards such a man. Lat. Gr. 334. 

453. — This passive sense of the genitive is more common 
when the governing noun is derived from a verb which usually 
governs the dative, and when the one substantive is in one sense 
the cause, and in another the object, of that which is expressed 
by the other substantive; as, vsqt£qg>v dcoofyaza, offerings 
(not o/j but) to the dead; evypara IlalXddog, prayers to 
Pallas; -q roSv niaraiscov miGrqaiua, the march against 
the Plat^eans. 

454. — Nouns thus derived, however, are more frequently fol- 
lowed by the dative ; as, % Movgbgov oocig dv& qojtzoigi, the 
gift of the Muses to men ; sometimes by the preposition sig with 
the accusative; as, dewv sig dv&oojTiovg doGig, 518. 

455. — Obs. 3. Many substantives derived from words which 
govern the genitive, are often followed by a genitive governed by 
the force of the primitive contained in the derivative ; thus, iXev- 
deoog novov (466), free from labour ; hence, tXevdeoia novov, 
freedom from labour; xqcltuv qdovoov (511), to be superior to 
pleasures ; iyxoazeia rjdovar, mastery over or moderation, in 
pleasures ; dxpazeia ijoovwv, subjection to or want of moderation 
in pleasures ; £mxovon[A,a rtjg %iovog, protection against the snow. 



§142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 231 

456. — Obs. 4. Sometimes the genitive after a substantive is 
governed not so properly by the substantive as by a preposition 
understood. These generally express the material of which a 
thing is made, or the author or source from which it proceeds 
(617) ; as, ozzcpavog (i$) avd-i^icov, a crown of flowers ; %a).xov 
avaXfia (scil. lx), a helmet of brass ; nivd-og [0.710) daifiovcov, 
grief sent from the gods ; {yep) °Hpag dXateiai, wanderings caused 
by Juno. 

Note. In this way, perhaps, the examples, Obs. 3 (455), may be re- 
solved ; as, ifov&eQtct ano novov. 

457. — Obs. 5. A noun in the genitive, after another of the 
same kind, denotes either the highest pre-eminence, or the lowest 
inferiority ; as, fiaodEi ftaodJmv, to the king of kings ; dovXog 
dovXcov, a slave of slaves. 

458. — Obs. 6. A number of substantives followed by the gen- 
itive of a noun, or by a possessive adjective formed from it, are 
often put, by a kind of circumlocution, for the noun itself. The 
chief of these are, fiia, i'g, [levog, strength ; xtjg, the heart ; 
yofiog, fear ; nelpag, zslog, relevzrj, the end ; dt[iag, a body ; 
xapa, xdor/vov, y.ecpahj, the head, &c. ; as, ftia Kddiopog, for 
Kucttcop, Castor ; fity 'Hpaxlvei)], for 'HpayJSjg, Hercules ; ttXog 
ftavdrov, for &dvatog, death ; 'loxdat^g xdqa, for 'Ioxdavn. 

459. — Obs. 7. Sometimes one substantive governs two differ- 
ent genitives in different relations ; as, V7tsdvv£ rcov 'Icovcov tijv 
ijysfiovi'rjv tov npog Aapziov n o 1 s p o v , he assumed the leading 
of the IonIANS in the war against Darius ; rcov oixsicov 
TtQOTrqXaxiGsig toy yi] q cog, insults of relations to old age. 

460. — Obs. 8. The Attics use a noun in the genitive, preceded 
by a neuter article, for the noun itself; as, to ryg iv*fr\g for /) 
iv%)], fortune ; td rcov fiapfiuQcov (for ol ftdpftaqoi) dmard 
ion, the barbarians are not to be trusted. 



461. — Kule VI. An adjective or article in the 
neuter gender, without a substantive, governs the 
genitive ; as, 

to no)Xov rrjg orQantjg, the greatest part of the army, 
rd zrjg Tv%rjg, the gifts of fortune. 

462. — Obs. 9. The adjective in the neuter gender is either it- 
self considered as a substantive (390), or as having a substantive 
understood, which is properly the governing word. 



232 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

463. — Rule VII. A substantive added to ano- 
ther, to express a quality or circumstance belong- 
ing to it, is put in the genitive ; as, 

avi]Q fisydlng doEztjg, a man of great virtue. 

464. — 06s. 10. The substantive in the genitive has commonly 
an adjective with it, as in the example above, but sometimes not ; 
as, TtoXepog ovx otzXcqv alia da7tdvng,a war, not of wea- 
pons, but of money. But, 

465. — Obs. 11. The substantive expressing- the quality or cir- 
cumstance of another, is more commonly put in the accusative 
governed by aard or did expressed or understood ; as, dvyo 
anovdaiog rov TQ07tov, a man of ingenuous disposition. 



§ 143. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

466. — Kule VIII. Verbal adjectives, and such 
as signify an affection or operation of the mind, 
govern the genitive ; as, 

dv&oconav brjlrnicav, liurtful to men. 

'ifjiTteiQog ^ovcjixtjg, skilled in music. 

467 — Rem. The principle on which this rule is founded is con- 
tained in 444-1. 1, 2. But others suppose that the foundation of the 
principle, as well as of the rule, is to be sought in the ellipsis of a pre- 
position, such as 7HqI, which is sometimes expressed ; as, niQi row 
re/vow i7iiGxr]pu))V) skilled in the arts. However plausible this supposi- 
tion may be, it militates strongly against it that we have the same 
rule in Latin in which there is no preposition that governs the geni- 
tive. The stronger probability is, that the rule in both lang\iages is 
to be referred to the same general principle already mentioned. 

468. — tinder this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives denoting action or capacity, which are derived 
from verbs, or corresponding to them, especially those in tog, 
mog, and rjgtog. 

2. Many adjectives compounded with a privative (327-1, 1st) ; 
as, d&MTog xal dv/jaoog aTzavrcov, without seeing or hearing of 
any thing. 

3. Participles used in an adjective sense, especially among 



§ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 233 

the poets ; as, m($vy\ilvog ae'&lav, free from troubles ; olavojv 
eidcog, skilled in augury. 

Note. These, however, are often followed by the accusative ; as, 
i Idwq a&e/LuorLa, skilled in wickedness. 

4. Adjectives expressing a state or operation of mind ; as, de- 
sire, aversion, care, knowledge, ignorance, memory, forgetfulness, 
profusion, parsimony, and the like. 

5. Adjectives derived from, or of a similar signification with 
verbs which govern the genitive ; as, imxovoog ^pvyovg, oxozov, 
x. z. X. serviceable against cold, darkness, &c. 



469. — Rule IX. Adjectives signifying plenty 
or want, <fcc., govern the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

[isazbg xroQvfiov, full of confusion. 

8o>]f/,og avdQoSv, destitute of men. 

470. — Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives of fulness, plenty, and want; value, dignity, 
worth, and the contrary. 

2. Adjectives expressive of power, eminence, superiority, and 
their opposites ; also, of participation, diversity, separation, 'pecu- 
liarity, or property, and the like. 

3. Adjectives followed by the genitive of the cause ; as, a&hbg 
Ttjg zv'/ijg, miserable on account of fortune. 

471. — Note. Adjectives of plenty and want sometimes govern the 
dative ; as, acpvewi; fiyXovq, abounding in fruits. 



472. — Rule X. Partitives, and words placed 
partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interroga- 
tives, indefinites, and some numerals, govern the 
genitive plural ; as, 

1. zwv uv&Qomcov ol fisv o~ocpoi, of the men some were wise, 

ol d' ov, others not. 

2. ol Ttalaiol rav 7Toijj76)v, the ancient poets. 

3. sv zoov 'TzXoicov, one of the ships. 

4. ngodTog ^fl-qvaiav, the first of the Athenians. 

5. 6 vsooTSQog zoSv adslqjcov, the younger of the brothers. 

6. s%d-i6Tog fiaGiitcov, most hated of kings. 



234 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

473. — Rem. For the principle of this rule, see 445. It has also 
been supposed that the genitive under this rule is properly governed 
by ex or dno. The same remark made 46*7 is also applicable here, and 
for the same reason; viz. that the same rule holds in Latin, which has 
no preposition governing the genitive. 

474. — Obs. 1. All words are denominated partitives which 
express a part of any number or class of objects, the whole being 
expressed by the noun following it in the genitive. 

475. — Obs. 2. The genitive after the partitive is sometimes 
governed by the preposition ix or ef ; as, «| anaocov r\ xaXliari], 
the most beautiful of all : — and sometimes, instead of the geni- 
tive, there is found a preposition with another case ; as, aaXXiarij 
iv taig yvvaiki, fairest among women ; so in Latin, justissimus 
in Teucris. Lat. Gr. 360. 

476. — Obs. 3. Instead of the genitive, the case of the partitive 
is sometimes used; as, rovg qiiXovg rovg plv an(y.ruv£, 

SOME OF HIS FRIENDS he slew. 

477. — Obs. 4. The partitives rig and slg are sometimes 
omitted; as, cpegco aoi Grolqv rear xaXXiurojv (sc. \iictv), I 
bring you a very excellent robe; r t &els rav fievovrcov uvea 
(sc. slg), he desired to be one of those who remained. On this 
principle is explained such phrases as iarl rwv ala%Q(ov (sc. slg), 
for iarl ataxQog, he is base (literally u one of the base "). 

478. — Obs. 5. Partitives agree in gender with the substantives 
which follow in the genitive. When two substantives follow in 
the genitive, the partitives, &c. commonly agree with the former, 
but sometimes with the latter. 

479. — Obs. 6. Collective nouns are governed by partitives in 
the genitive singular. 

480. — Obs. *l. Adjectives in the positive form, but conveying 
a superlative sense, on the principle of this rule govern the geni- 
tive plural ; as, e£o%og navrcov, the most excellent of all ; diet 
Qsacov, goddess of goddesses (i. e. supreme goddess) ; diet yvvoti- 
xtiiv, most excellent of women. /lai\ibvi£ dvdQOJV, Good sir. Also 
nouns compounded with a in a privative sense ; as, a%aXxog ctcm- 
dcov, unarmed with brazen shields. 

481. — Obs. 8. On a similar principle an adjective in the geni- 
tive plural sometimes accompanies substantives of all kinds, in 
order to mark the class to which the person or thing mentioned 
belongs; as, roo%bg rcav xeQCtpeixav, a wheel of the class 
of the earthen, i. e. an earthen wheel ; ne'Xexvg roov vavnyyi- 
nojv f an axe of those belonging to ship-builders, i. e. a ship- 
builders axe. 



§ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 235 

482. — Kule XI. The comparative degree, with- 
out a conjunction, governs the genitive ; as, 

j'lvxicov {xihtog, sweeter than honey, 

xgsiaacav oixtiQfiov q&ovog, envy is stronger than pity. 

483. — Bern. The principle of this rule is stated 444-5. There is 
not the same objection to the usual explanation of this rule, by supply- 
ing the preposition kqo or av.rl, that is stated 467. Yet the analogy of 
the cases already referred to are opposed to- this explanation, and seem 
to render it more proper to refer to the general principle above stated. 
At the same time it must be noticed, that after the comparative degree 
the genitive is sometimes governed by one of these prepositions ex- 
pressed; as, oiaw 7] xvQavvlq ttqo eksv&iQ Itjc; ?}v a a zr a error f - 
qov, to whom tyranny was mobe agreeable than liberty ; but this will 
not decide in favour of explaining the construction under this rule by 
supplying the preposition, any more than it did in the other, 475. 

484. — Obs. 9. The conjunction //, than, after the comparative 
is usually followed by the same case that precedes it ; as, In 
dvdqag Ttolv d^eivovag ?j JExv&ag, against men much braver 
than the Scythians. Sometimes, however, it is followed by the 
nominative, if elfii, or another word, can be supplied ; as, roig 
vscotsgoig ?} iyco, to those younger than I am. 

485. — Obs. 10. After the comparative, ^ is sometimes followed 
by an infinitive with or without cog or mats ; as, xaxd fxai^co ?} 
wars dvaxlaiEiv, evils too great to excite my tears ; voa)]\ia 
H&iQov r\ cpsoeiv, affliction too great to bear. 

486. — Obs. 11. The comparative without ?j (than) is followed 
by the genitive according to the rule ; as, qimva. ylvxeocozeoa 
[Ashx/joco, a voice sweeter than honey-comb. 

487. — Obs. 12. The genitives tovrov and ov, governed by a 
comparative, are often followed by an explanation with // ; as, 
ovk iati rovds natal xdlliov ysqag, ?} itatoog ia&iov xdya&ov 
necpvxtvai, there is no greater honour to children than this (viz. 
than), to be descended from a brave and virtuous father. 

488. — Obs. 13. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence 
being equivalent to a noun (714), is sometimes governed in the 
genitive by a comparative ; as, to <yvld<zai x dyad a tov 
Kznada&ai ia.lzna>rzQOv sazi, to preserve property is 

MORE DIFFICULT THAN TO GAIN IT. 

489 # — Q 0St 14. Words which imply a comparison, govern the 
genitive on the same principle; these are 

1st. Such words as express difference ; as, neqiaaog, davreoog, 
varsQog] also, didcpooog, heqog y dXkog, dXloTog, dXlo- 
TQiog. 



236 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

2d. Multiplicative numbers ; as, diTtXaGiog, zqmXaGiog ; as, 
oinXaGiov deT dxovsiv zov Xeyeiv, one should hear 

TWICE AS MUCH AS HE SPEAKS. 

490. — Obs. 15. The superlative is sometimes used for the com- 
parative, and is then subject to the same rules; as, (with the con- 
junction) XcpGzov ?} zb (frXsyqag Trediov, better than the plain of 
Phlegra ; (without the conjunction) gslo 8' ovzig dvijq fiaxdq- 
zazog, no man is happier than you. 



§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

491. — Rule XII. The person or thing to which 
any thing belongs, is put in the genitive after eipl, 
yivo/acu, v7iccq%g) ; as, 

sgzl zov fiaGiXscog, it belongs to the king, 

eivai iavzov, to be his own (master), 

zov xaXoog 7toXefisTv to id's- alacrity is necessary to fight 
Xsiv £gzi, well ; i. e. belongs to it. 

492 — Rem. For the principle of this rule, see 446. Consistently 
with this, in constructions of this kind, a substantive may be considered 
as understood, which is the governing word. Lat. Gr. 365. 

493. — Obs. 1. Yet here also we have the genitive governed 
directly by a preposition expressed, indicating that from which 
the quality, &c. proceeds ; as, ova eon nqbg aoXscog, it is not 
proper for the state ; lit. it is not a thing proceeding- from the 
state. On this principle are to be explained such sentences as 
the following ; ovx dyafiai torn dvoqbg dqiGzeog, I do not 
approve this in a prince; i. e. nqbg dvdqog, &c.from a prince ; 
zovzo 87zcuvdS JiynGiXdov, I commend this in Agesilaus ; zov- 
zo [is'fiyovzcu \idXiGza i/pav, this they blame chiefly in us. 



494. — Rule XIII. Verbs expressing the opera- 
tion of the senses, govern the genitive ; as, 

xXvd~i fiEv, hear me. 

fii] fiov anzov, touch me not. 

495. — Exc. 1. Verbs of seeing govern the accusative; as, 
0eov oxpovzai) they shall see God. 



§ 144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 237 

496. — jEJxc. 2. In the Attic dialect, all verbs of sense govern 
the accusative ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the other 
dialects ; as, foovaa cpcovijv, I heard a voice ; anlay^va znaaav- 
to, they tasted the entrails. 

497. — Obs. 2. The principle on which verbs under this rule, 
and some of those that follow, govern the genitive, is, that the 
word in the genitive, following the verb, expresses that which is 
viewed as the origin or cause, in some way or other, of the sensa- 
tion, or of the act or state expressed by the verb, 446. 

498. — Rem. If, after verbs which usually govern the genitive, the 
genitive is governed by a preposition interposed, the preposition gener- 
ally corresponds to the idea of origin or cause, &c. expressed by the 
genitive (as, ano, 7Zqoc, and the like) ; and thus, instead of militating 
against the principles stated above, it adds its own force to that of the 
genitive, giving emphasis and distinction to the sentence. But to sup- 
pose from this, that when the genitive follows a verb, it is always gov- 
erned by a substantive or preposition understood, besides being wholly 
unnecessary on the principles already stated, serves only to destroy 
the original and characteristic simplicity of the language, and to render 
its construction perplexed and intricate. 



499. — Rule XIV. Verbs signifying an opera- 
tion of the mind, govern the genitive ; as, 

\)av{id£co gov, I admire you. 

aptXetg tmv qjiloov, you neglect your friends. 

500 — Rem. Verbs which come under this rule govern the genitive 
on the pinnciples stated, 444-3 and 446. Examples occur also in Latin ; 
see Lat. Gr. 369. It applies generally to verbs which signify 

1. To pity, to spare, to care for, or neglect ; as, smiuelsTcjxrar,, 
tyoovriQmv, aXeyi^etv, apsleiv, okiyoqelv. 

2. To remember or forget ; as, (AvaG&cu, \ivn\iovzmw, lavxrd- 
vecj&cu, &c. with their compounds. But these frequently 
govern the accusative. 

3. To consider, to reflect, to perceive, or understand ; these 
also govern the accusative. 

4. To admire, to aim at, to desire or to loathe, to revere or to 
despise. 

501. — Obs. 3. Many of these verbs used transitively (i.e. 
signifying to cause the operation of mind they express), govern 
the accusative of the person with the genitive of the object ; as, 
vft£{ivtjaev i naroog, he put him in mind of his father ; eyevaag 
fit Evdcufioviag, you have caused me to taste of happiness. Verbs 



238 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

thus used are sometimes denominated causative or incentive verbs, 
and hence the — 

502. — Rule. Causative verbs govern the accu- 
sative of the person with the genitive of the thing. 



503. — Kule XV. Transitive verbs govern the 
genitive when they refer to a part only, and not 
to the whole of the object ; as, 

ems rov voarog, he drank of the water. 

504. — This construction depends on the principle stated, 445, or we 
may consider the expression elliptical, and supply some such word as 
piqoq, a part, or il, some, as the direct object of the verb, and that which 
governs the genitive according to Rules V. and VI. 

505. — To this rule belong more especially such verbs as sig- 
nify, 

1. To share, participate, or impart, which, with the genitive 
of the thing, frequently govern the dative of the person to 
whom it is imparted ; as, per ad idea pi rep adelfpcp rav 
XQijpaTCQV, I share the property with my brother. 

2. To receive, obtain, or enjoy ; as, npyg Ha^s, he gained 
honour ; iav Xd^wfiev cxol?]g, if we yet leisure. 

3. Verbs signifying to take, to seize, and their contraries ; to 
touch, or to cany, especially in the middle voice, with the 
accusative of the ivhole, govern the genitive of the part af- 
fected ; ildfiovzo ri\g £oovi]g rov 'Ooovrijv, they seized 

Orontes by the girdle. 
506. — Exc. Some verbs, such as lafifidvopar, fieze^w, 'aXijqo- 
vofieco, layxdva, rvyydvco, sometimes govern the accusative of 
the thing'; xlnoovopeco with the accusative of the thing, governs 
also the genitive of the person from whom it is received ; as, 
ixh]QOv6p)]G8 rov narobg rd xrij/tara, he inherited his posses- 
sions from his father ; sometimes it governs the genitive of both. 



507. — Rule XVI. Verbs of plenty or want, fill- 
ing or depriving, separation or distance, govern 
the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

tvnoQzT XQjjfidrcQVj he abounds in riches. 

XQV60V vrjfjGao&co vija, let him fill his ship with gold. 

StiG&ai XQ/jfidrcov, to be in want of money. 



§ 144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 239 

508. — Under this rule there may be comprehended verbs 
which express the general idea of separation, or which signify — 

1. To beg or entreat ; as, deofiai gov, I beg of you. 

2. To bereave or deprive ; as, gzeqe'gj, dnoGZEQEca. 

3. To deliver, loose, or set free ; as, iXEvdsoocQ, Xvco, dnaX- 
Xdaaoo. 

4. To escape ; as, ixcpEvyco, aXwxco. 

5. To keep off, to hinder, or prevent, to desist ; as, xcoXvco, 
ioriTsvo), Eyca (soil, tivcc zi.vog), Ei'oyofiai, &c. 

6. To differ from, to be distant, to abstain ; as, diE'/oo, 
dnkyja, diaXXdzzco, diacfEQG), uMEyoixai. But some verbs 
of differing govern also the dative ; as, diaqjEQCo goi, I 
differ from you. 

t l. To separate, repel, or drive away; as, '^oqi^co, diooiZco, 
df/,vv<x), d'/Eioco, dicoxcQ, <fcc. 

8. To make way for, or retire from, to resign ; as, ec/.co, 

V7Z0/GJQECO, VTtdyCQ, 6Vy%CQQ£CQ. 

9. To err, to cause to err ; v7io7t).avdofiai, d7tozvy%dvo[A,ai, 
duaozdvco, TzXavdco. 

10. To cease, to cause to cease ; as, 7iavco, 7tavofiai, dr^w, &c. 

11. To deceive, frustrate, or disappoint ; as, ipEvdofiai, 7Zzaico, 
oyuXXouui, &c. 

• 509. — Obs. 5. Many of these are transitive; and with the 
genitive of the remote object, govern the accusative of the direct 
object ; thus, under No. 3, as zovd' eXev&eqoj yovov, I clear you 
of this murder ; dtyaiQEi6&ai, to deprive, sometimes governs the 
accusative and genitive, sometimes two accusatives, and some- 
times the accusative and dative. 

510. — Obs. 6. The genitive after these verbs, whether transi- 
tive or intransitive, is sometimes governed by a preposition inter- 
vening, the effect of which is, to give emphasis to the expression ; 
as, iXEvd-EQcaoag ttpf 'EXXdda dno Mrfiav, having liberated Greece 
from the Medes, 498. 



511. — Kule XVTI. Verbs of ruling, presiding 
over, excelling, and the contrary, govern the geni- 
tive (444-5) ; as, 

noXXojv tttvwv do'/Eiv, to rule over many nations. 

zojv 7tQayudzcov imazuzErv, to have the superintendence of affairs. 



240 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

512. — The verbs which come under this rule are those which 
signify, 

1. To rule; as, ao%co, xoaivfo, deG7z6£co, bvvaatEvoa, i%ov- 
cid^co, av&evtsco, xaraxvoiEixn. 

2. To reign ; as, vvoavvEvw, ^aadevco, dvdtyaco. 

3. To lead ; as, Tjyt'oficu, ijyEfiovEvca, 6Zqvlxi])4(x). 

4. To preside over ; as, imGTatbw. 

5. To survive, or to be over ; as, tieqieijii. 

6. To surpass, or excel ; as, ttqqozevco, vnEoftaivcOj 7T£Qi@ullco, 
diacpEQco, 7iEQiyivo\ia.i. 

7. To begin, i. e. to be first, to lead the way ; as, aQ%o[*ou ; so 
ao%co, v7taQX(o, xaxdo%Gi. 

8. The contrary are such as signify to be ruled, led, presided 
over, &c. ; to obey, to be inferior to, to be overcome. 

513. — Obs. 7. Some verbs govern the genitive by the force 
of a noun implied in them ; thus, xvqolvvevew is equivalent to 
tvoavvog sivai', and'hence ezvqolvveve Koqiv&ov, he was king of 
Corinth, is equivalent to tvoavvog i]v Koqiv&ov. 

514. — Obs. 8. Many verbs under this rule sometimes o-overn 
the dative ; as, avaGGco, ar^iaivco, xqcczecq, ?jyso[AUi, yysfiovEvoo, 
do^co : and sometimes the accusative. 



515. — Rule XVIII. Verbs of buying, selling, 
estimating, and the like, govern the genitive of 
\hs price (648) ; as, 

G<w)]<jd[A,i]v rovro nivtE doaxpoov, I bought this for five 

DRACHMAE. 

tcov Ttovtov TtcalovGiv i\\uv 7zdvta tdyd&a ol •&eoi, the 
gods sell every good thing to us for labour. 

d^iovtai dialog ripijg, he is thought worthy of double 
honour. 

516. — Mem. The genitive in this construction is properly 
governed by dvxi understood, sometimes expressed. The price 
is sometimes put in the dative with the preposition im, and some- 
times in the accusative with the preposition itqog. 649. 

N. B. — For the construction of the genitive with the accusa- 
tive, see § 151 ; also, for the genitive governed by adverbs, see 
§164, 165; by 2)repositions, § 168, and as used to express cer- 
tain circumstances, § 156, 157, and from § 160 to § 163. 



§ 145, 146. DATIVE AFTEE SUBSTANTIVES. 241 



§145. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

5 1 7. — The dative has, in general, two significations : 

1. It is used to express the remote object to which any quality or 
action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to which it refers. 
This tendency is usually expressed in English by the words to or for. 
As thus used, it corresponds to the dative in Latin, and is subject to 
nearly the same rules. 

Rem. To this general character of the dative may be referred a use 
of this case common in the best Greek writers, when the dative of the 
person to whom the thing spoken of may, in some way or other, be in- 
teresting, is thrown in, without any dependence for its construction 
on any word in the sentence, and when the sentence as regards syntax 
is complete without it. In such cases the dative is said to be redundant. 
But though it is so in respect of construction, it is not so in respect of 
effect, as it imparts a touch of feeling and sentiment easily felt, but not 
so easy to express in a translation. Thus, r\ /xr t rrjQ i<x ae noitlv o,tv av 
povlfi, iv avr fi /j,ay.a.Qvq rfi (Plat. Lys.), thy mother permits thee to do 
whatever thou p'leasest, in order that thou mayest be happy (to hee). The 
avrr[ is added with reference to the feelings of the mother. The datives 
Hoi and o~oL are very often used in this way. Thus, Oedip. Tyr. 2. tlvaq 
7toQ- td'Qccq rdade pov &od^ere; where //ot intimates the mournful in- 
terest the good king felt in the scene before him. In Xen. Cyr. Cyrus 
addressing his mother, says, olual o~oi> i/.t'ivovq — v^aei^v &c. I have no 
doubt that I will easily surpass these; where Got intimates the delight- 
ful interest an affectionate mother might be supposed to feel in the 
event anticipated. So in Latin, Quo tantum iimi dexter abis, Virg. 
^Eneid V. 162. Lat. Gr. 377-3. 

2. It is used to express that with which any thing is connected as an 
accompaniment, cause, instrument, manner, means, or end. This connec- 
tion is usually expressed in English by such words as with, by, from, in, 
for, or on account of. Used in this way, it corresponds to the ablative 
in Latin, both in meaning and construction. 



§ 146. THE DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 

518. — Eule XIX. Substantives derived from 
verbs which govern the dative, sometimes govern 
the dative also ; as, 

?] tov dsov domg vfxiVj the gift of God to you. 

i] iv to) TZolifAq) roig cpiloig fioij- the assistance of (i. e. rendered 

&ua, to) friends in war. 

ig avnloylav roig %v[i[idxoig, for the contradiction of your 

allies : — 
Because di'dojfxi, §07]Oeco, and avnXtyai, govern the dative. 



242 DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. §147. 

519. — Obs. 1. The dative often follows a substantive in the 
sense of the genitive, for which construction, with examples, see 
533. 

520. — Obs. 2. The dative sometimes depends on an adjective 
and substantive joined together, but chiefly on account of the 
adjective ; as, xleivov tfdlog Tzazoi, illustrious offspring to the 
father. 

521. — Obs. 3. The dative sometimes follows a substantive, 
not, however, as implying possession, but where the idea of adap- 
tation or design is implied ; as, %eQolv Tzorog, labour for the 
hands ; i. e. adapted for, designed for, suited to. 

522. — Obs. 4. The dative is also put with substantives to ex- 
press the idea of companionship, being governed probably by 
ovv or biiolwg understood ; as, (ov) vnevdvvog et zoig alloig, 
you are responsible, as well as (or equally witK) the rest. 



§ 147. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

523. — Rule XX. Adjectives signifying profit 
or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the da- 
tive ; as, 

btpthfjLog zfj nolu, profitable to the state. 

bfAOtog 7c5 tzcczqi, like his father. 

524. — The dative after such adjectives, expresses the object to 
which the quality expressed by the adjective refers ; and hence, 
all adjectives in which such a reference is involved, are followed 
by the dative of the object to which they relate. In this class, 
besides those mentioned in the rule, may be reckoned, 
1st. Adjectives signifying usefulness, friendliness, equality , suita- 
bleness, resemblance, ease, fitness, agreement, and the like, 
with their contraries. Hence, 6 avzog, the same, and some- 
times tig, one, and zoiovzog, such, are followed by the da- 
tive ; as, za avza (zavza) szdax<x> ooi, I suffer the same 
things with you— (so in Latin, Invitum qui servat, idem 
facit occtdenti. Hor. He who 'preserves a man against his 
will, acts the same part with the man who kills him) ; 
og spot [A,iag iytvsz' In fjinztgog, who ivas of the 
same (of one) mother with me ; Xoyovg zqi — zoiovzovg 
Xt'yw, to speak such words as he would. 



§ 147. DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 243 

Exc. Adjectives signifying likeness, equality, &c. are sometimes fol- 
lowed by the object of comparison, not in the dative, but in the same 
case with the adjective, and connected with it by_ the conjunction xai ; 
as, ovxoq ye _6 ).6yoq £uot,ye doy.zl dv b/AOvoq ilvav y.al tiq or igoq 
(instead of tlvav tw nooxiooj), this argument would seem to me at least 
to be like the former. So also the nominative is used after the adverbs 
6,uolo)q, iffo)c, y.axa xavxd; as, ov% 6fiolo)Q 7li7lovr^y.aGi xal "0 jutj q oq, 
they have not done like Homer ; y.axa tana ovxoq yxqat y.al y.i,&a- 
qa,he sounded just as a harp. These constructions are probably to be 
resolved thus : ovxoq ye 6 ).6yoq y.al nooxtQoq doxii, <fcc. ; ovxoq y.al 
y.i&dqa rjxi ' 1 ) < ^ e * 

2d. Adjectives compounded with uw, opov, and fiEzd, signifying 
with ; as, ovvrgoqiog, ouooog, fiezaiziog rivi, &c. ; — yet 
sometimes these govern the genitive. 
3d. Some adjectives derived from verbs which govern the da- 
tive, govern the dative also ; as, d'/.olov&og, dy.olovOr^zr/.og, 
diddoyog. 
525. — Obs. 1. There are many adjectives which govern either 
the genitive or dative ; as, opoiog, like ; io~og, equal ; 6[u6vv{iog, 
of the same name ; opoTzdzoiog, of the same father ; ofioprjrQiog, 
of the same mother ; avvTQoq,og, educated together ; Gw/jflys, 
familiar ; ioooQonog, of the same force ; xoivog, common ; 
Tzlovoiog, d(fp£iog, rich ; evizooog, abundant ; ivde/jg,poor ; tvo- 
yog, vTiodiy.og, vTtwdwog, exposed, obnoxious ; or/.eiog, familiar ; 
ojiiog, to be sold ; dovXog, a slave ; ilEv&toog, free ; as, ofioiog 
zov naxQog, or tcp natol, like his father ; opcovvfxog tov Tiatobg, 
or icp Ttatgij of the same narne.witli his father. 

526.— Obs. 2. It has been observed (202, Obs. 1), that the ver- 
bal adjectives in tog and vs'og have a passive signification corres- 
ponding nearly to the Latin verbals in bilis and dus. Their con- 
struction, when thus used, is also similar ; and hence the following 



527. — Special Rule I. Verbals in rog and 
raog, signifying passively, govern the dative of the 
doer ; as, 

tovto ov orpov lorl pot, this is not fit to be spoken by me. 
rj nohg ojqebjTtu aol son, the city ought to be served by thee. 

528. — Rem. The dative, however, in this construction, when 
it is general in its nature, is commonly omitted ; as, zippta iariv 
jj dotzij, virtue must be honoured (viz. ftfjuv, by us). 

529. — Obs. 3. Verbals in log, not signifying passively, govern 
the case of their own verbs ; as, ei tm ificp rdvSo) [itpnTog tiui, 



244 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

if I blame my husband. Soph. Trach. ; aipavozbg ey%ovg 9 not 
having touched the sword. 202, Obs. 1. 



530. — Special Rule II. The neuter verbal in 
tsov, in the sense of the Latin gerund, with the 
dative of the doer, governs also the case of the 
verb from which it is derived ; as, 

zavta TtULVta noirfciov {ioi, all these things must I do. 
toig (isv vn aq%ov6i vopoig xqtjgteov, xaivovg dn er/Sj fit] 
d-arsov, we should use the present laws, and not rashly enact 

NEW ONES. 

531. — Obs. 4. The doer is sometimes put in the accusative, in 
which case the necessity involved in the verbal is much weaker 
than in the ordinary construction ; as, ov dovlevteov tovg vovv 
£%ovzag toig xaxoog cpgovovm, the prudent ought not to obey 
the unwise ; iniGxm'iiov ta fjilv avtov, ta ds yvvaixa (for 
avtco, yvvcuxi), some things are to be looked to by him, some by 
his wife. Both are united by Plato, Rep. 5, ovxovv xcu tjfiw 
VEV6T80V — IXniQovtag. 



§148. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

532. — Rule XXL The verbs ei[u> ylvo/Ltcu, 
and vttcc^co, signifying to be, or to belong to, are 
followed by the dative of the possessor ; as, 

eat i pot XQijiACiza, possessions are {belong) to me, i. e. I have pos- 
sessions. 

TiXXcp ncudeg ijaav xaXoi xuya&oi, good children were to Tellus, 
i. e. Tellus had good children. 

533. — Obs. 1. On the principle of this rule may be explained 
the numerous instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the 
dative signifying possession is used with another substantive appa- 
rently for the genitive. Thus, Te'llcn ol Ttaideg is equivalent to 
Te'Xlov ol Ttaldsg, the children of Tellus ; but the principle of 
construction is different. In the latter expression, the genitive is 
Immediately governed by the other substantive, ol TtaidEg, by 
Rule V., and signifies the children proceeding from, and belong- 



§ 148. DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 245 

ing to, Tellus. In the former, the dative is not governed by the 
substantive, but depends on some part of the substantive-verb 
understood ; thus, Ttlho ol naldeg (ol ovzeg), Tello filii (qui 
sunt), the children which are to (belonging, or added to) Tellus ; 
or, without a periphrasis, " the children of Tellus." In this man- 
ner may be resolved all such expressions as ocas ds ol, his two 
eyes ; bvyaxr^q rt oi, her daughter ; tod Jlvdoaifion 6 raopog, the 
sepulchre of Andrcemon, &c. Lat. Gr. 380, 381. 

534. — Rem. 1. This mode of expression -with the dative is so nearly 
synonymous -with the more common construction with the genitive, 
that it appears often to have been a matter of indifference which of 
them was used ; so much so, that a sentence sometimes begins with 
the one construction and ends with the other; thus, tj/juZv ds xarixXd- 
a&rj (f>L).ov tjtoq dtiauvrotv q> &6yyov re (taovv ; literally, the heart to 
rs dreading his growling voice was broken down. In this sentence 8u- 
advrorv refers to rj^ilv as if it were rj^oiv in the genitive. In the follow- 
ing sentence the order is reversed: rt/q d* auToi* lino qiUov ?/rop aij- 
/xccTu dvayvovafi, her heart was moved when she recognized the to- 
kens. Here dvayvovari in the dative, refers to rijq in the genitive, as 
if it had been r^. 

535 — Item. 2. In other instances in which the dative follows a sub- 
stantive apparently for the genitive, the idea of tendency towards or of 
acquisition or addition, expressed in English by the preposition to or 
for, is generally apparent ; as, narol touo)q6v yovov, an avenger of 
your fathers mtcrder ; plainly an avenger of murder to or for your fa- 
ther. Indeed, the idea of possession, one of the meanings of the geni- 
tive, and of acquisition, the proper idea expressed by the dative, are 
so nearly allied as to render the use of the one case for the other not 
unnatural. 

536. — Obs. 2. When of two nouns in the dative, the one ex- 
presses a part of or something belonging to, the other, the latter 
may be rendered as the genitive, and the construction explained 
as in Obs. 1 (533) ; yet it may be often better to consider them 
in apposition, both depending on the same governing word — the 
one term being added to limit or define more precisely the more 
general idea contained in the other ; thus, in the sentence, ovx 
Jiya\i(\ivovi rjvdavs &vpo), the dative Aya\ii\ivovi may be 
considered as regularly governed by ?]v8ave (548-1), and -dvfim 
added in apposition, more particularly defining the part affected ; 
as, he did not please Agamemnon ; viz. his mind (his feelings). 
This construction is imitated in Latin (Lat. Gr. 371). So also 
the following examples : 

y.o6(A.ov ov oq>iv ^7iacev Ztvg ytvei, an ornament which Jupi- 
ter gave to them, viz. their race. 
{laozvQtH de poi trj yvcopr}, (the oracle) bears witness for me, 

i. e. FOR MY OPINION. 



246 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

537. — In the following sentence, instead of the second dative, 
we have the accusative with x«ra; viz., yds 8s poi ■a ax a -&v- 
fjibv clqigtv cpaivszo ftovXrj, but this counsel seemed best to me in 
respect of my feelings ; i. e. this counsel pleased me most. 

538. — Rem. 3. The correctness of this view of the construction is 
also rendered more probable from the fact, that the same apparent tau- 
tology is used when the word to be limited or defined is connected with 
words which govern the accusative ; as, xl S£ a a g> q £ v a q ixexo nh&oq ; 
what grief has invaded your mind? Where, instead of saying that a£ is 
the accusative used for the genitive gov according to one mode of reso- 
lution, or that q>q£vaq is governed by xard understood according to 
another, it appears better to consider o~£ as the general direct object, 
and (pQevctq as in apposition, defining more precisely the part affected 
as in the above examples ; thus, " what grief has come upon you : viz. 
your mind." So in other instances ; as, 

TqoJaq Ss rqo/uoq v7ti]h)&e yvta e jt a a x o v , trembling came upon 

the Trojans, every one in their limbs. 
xbv ye liri bax£a S-vpoq aytjvoio, the noble soul left Mm; viz. 

his body. 
BQWibv rd/Livs v£ovq ooTttjaaq, he cut the wild fig tree, its 

YOUNG BOUGHS. 

539. — 06s. 3. The dative of some participles and adjectives 
is joined with the dative after the third person of ei(it or yivoiicuj 
for the verb itself ; these are such as fiovlofievog, qdofisvog, a%- 
xropsvog, TTQOods^ofierog, axcov, aGfievog, &c. ; as, si' goi fiovlo- 
fitvcp egxi, for si iiovXrj, if you are willing ; ovds avtcjj axovxi ijv, 
nor was he unwilling ; rjdofisvoiGiv r^iiv ot loyoi ysyovaoi, we 
were pleased with your discourse. This construction has been 
imitated in Latin ; thus, Tacit. Agr. 1 8, quibus bellum volentibus 
erat, "who were inclined for war." So Sallust, Jug. 100, uti 
militibus labos volentibus esset, " that the labour might be agree- 
able to the soldiers." See Lat. Gr. 396, Note. 

540. — Obs. 4. Somewhat similar to this is the construction of 
the dative with the participle or adjective, expressive of some 
feeling or emotion, after verbs signifying to come ; as, 

a<j[is'vr} d' fyol tjX&e, he came to me delighted (scil. with his 
coming) ; i. e. / am delighted that he is come. 

notiovvxi TtQOvqjdvng, thou comest to me earnestly wishing it, 
i. e. / earnestly wished that thou wouldst come. 

541. — Obs. 5. To this rule also belongs the construction of 
such phrases as xi z\io\ xai goi (scil. koivov egzi) ; what have 
I to do with thee? (literally, what common thing is there to me 
and you?) xi nliov egtIv ifioi ; what advantage have I from 
it ? what good is it to me ? 



§ 148. DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 247 

542. — Rule XXII. All verbs govern the dative 
of the object to which their action is directed; as, 

sv^ovto fteoTg, they prayed to the gods. 

ava$7Jneiv tivi, to look up to any one. 

Ji&iivi^ *ifioag avsG'/pv, they lifted up their hands to Minerva. 

543. — Rem. 4. This rule maybe considered as general, applying to 
all eases in which a verb expressing action is followed by the dative, 
the action not being exerted upon, but simply directed to the object 
expressed in the dative. Hence, if the verb is transitive, it will govern 
also its immediate object in the accusative (584); if intransitive, it will 
be followed by the dative only. More particularly to this rule belong 

544. — I. Verbs expressing action, compounded with im, 
TtQog, eig, ava, &c. These prepositions serve to mark more pre- 
cisely the direction of the action, or state of action, to an object ; 
as, efosQxead'ai zin, to come to one. 

545. — Obs. 6. These verbs sometimes govern the accusative 
by the force of the preposition with which they are compounded ; 
as, 87t8GtQdz8vas Tiohv, he waged war against the city, 693. 

545. — Obs. V. Hence the dative in this construction generally 
is equivalent to the preposition eig, Ttoog, im, &c. with the accu- 
sative. Further, to this rule belong 

547. — II. Verbs which signify — 

1. To profit or hurt ; to please or displease ; to reverence or 
to yield ; — to shew ; to seem ; to appear. 

2. To favour or assist ; and the contrary, to pray to, or en- 
treat. 

3. To command, exhort, or address ; to obey or disobey ; to 
serve or resist. 

4. To fit or accommodate ; to use and resemble. 

5. To give to, or to trust ; to approach, to meet or to follow. 

6. To reproach with, to censure, to reprimand or rebuke, to be 
angry with. 

548. — Exc. dm or ds'opcu, Task, governs the genitive; lla- 
coficu and liraveva, always the accusative. 

549.— Obs. 8. Many of these verbs sometimes govern the da- 
tive, and sometimes the accusative, according as their action is 
viewed by the writer as directed to, or exerted upon, the object. 
In the former case they are viewed as intransitive verbs ; in the 
latter, as transitive. 



248 DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 149. 

550. — Rule XXIII. Verbs implying connec- 
tion or companionship, govern the dative ; as, 

OfiiXsTv tin, to associate with any one. 

551. — In this construction, the dative is considered as corres- 
ponding to the ablative in Latin (517-2). To this rule belong 

1. Verbs compounded with avr, b^iov, fisrd (with) ; as, ov^v 
tin, to live with any one. 

2. Verbs after which 6vv, b\iov, \ivza, may be supplied con- 
sistently with the sense, such as those which signify 

(1.) To follow {with), to converse, to mix, to be reconciled, 

to dwell (ivith). 
(2.) To contend, or strive with, or against, &c. 

552. — Obs. 9. Verbs signifying "to contend," &c. in one 
point of view may come under the principle referred to 543, and 
hence are sometimes followed by an accusative with noog ; but 
then they signify more properly " to attack." 

553. — Obs. 10. If a dative of the manner or instrument (627) 
follows the verb [iiyvvfM, to mix, instead of the dative of the per- 
son associated with, the genitive is used, governed by the word 
in the dative; as, Maia Aihg iv cpilornri [iiyeiGa, Maia 

BEING EMBRACED BY JUPITER. 

554. — Note. To the principle of this rule may be referred the con- 
struction of the dative, expressing repetition or succession ; as, d villa 
■9-vilXri, storm upon storm ; allov 3* av allot 7tQoo~idoi,q, "you might see 
one and then another " (scil. rushing to the regions of Pluto). 

For the dative, construed with the passive voice, see 604. 



§149. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

555. — Rule XXIV. Impersonal verbs govern 
the dative ; as, 

e&Gti [jioi, it is lawful for me, 

sdo^s avzcp, it seemed proper to him (i. e. he determined). 

556. — Obs. 1. Special Rule. Atl, hXKuitbi, diet- 

CptQtl, fltTtOTL, /LLtXsi, €vSs%€TCCl, and 7lQOC)1]X£C 9 



§ 149. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. 249 

with, their compounds, govern the dative of a per- 
son with the genitive of a thing ; as, 

dsT nolXcov coi, you have need of much. 

\iSTScri \ioi rovrov, I take part in that. 

tl ds ttqogtJxsi sfAol Kogivdicov ; what are the Corinthians to me? 

For the principle of this rule, as it respects the genitive, see 
505-1. 

557. — Rem. 1. The dative of the person is frequently omitted. 

558. — Rem. 2. The nominative, agreeing with the impersonal, 
is frequently used instead of the genitive ; as, diacpsosi ri aoi 
vovto, or tovrov ; how does this concern you ? 

559. — Exc. I. J si and ;£(>?? frequently take the 
accusative of the person with the genitive of the 
thing; as, 

ov ydg gcov pe 8si dscrmcj^dzcov, for I do not want your oracles, 
ovds zi as %of] ravzyg dcpQoavvijg^ you have no need of this folly. 

560. — Obs. 2. From analogy, the derivative substantives xqsco, 
XQEicQ, XQSia, are often construed with the accusative and geni- 
tive ; as, ifis ds %qsco yiyvsrai aizijg, I have need of it ; tig %QEia 
a spov ; what need have you of me ? 

561. — Exc. II. xQri, TtQSKBi, and del, it behovetli, 
govern the accusative with the infinitive ; as, 

%Q*1 (W&g) TToiqouGxrai tijv sigrjvqv, we ought to make peace, 
oocpcozsoovg yuo ost fioozcov shai ftt'ovg, It behoves those who are 
wiser than men to be gods. 

562. — Obs. 3. The dative is used in certain phrases in which 
it appears to depend on an impersonal or some other verb under- 
stood ; viz., 

1st. After cog to show that a proposition is affirmed, not as 
generally true, but only with respect to a certain person ; as, 
paxQCtv cog ysgovti TtQovazdlrjg boor, you have travelled a 
long way for an old man ; scil. cog cpaivEtai ysgovti, long, 
as it appears to an old man. 
871E17ZSQ si ysvvcdog cog io6vri,but since thou art noble in 
appearance ; i. e. cog eixucou iazl idovri, as a person 
having seen you may suppose. 
2d. To express the opinion or judgment of a person with or 
without cog: as, a iyco riunaa rolg cpgovovaiv sv, I have 

11* 



250 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 150. 

done honour to you according to the judgment of the wise ; 
i. e. cog doxei roig, &c. as it appears to those who are wise. 
Hence the common phrase, cog ipoi, or cog y ipoi (scil. 8oxei), 
according to my judgment. 

For the dative governed by adverbs, see 655 and 664. 



§150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

563. — The accusative in Greek, as in other languages, is used 
to express the immediate object of a transitive active verb, that 
on which its action is exerted, and which is affected by it ; as, 
hctpftavco %i\v acJTtida, I take the shield. When used to ex- 
press the remote object of a verb, or after verbs properly intran- 
sitive, it is governed by a preposition understood. 

564. — Rule XXV. A transitive verb, in the 
active or middle voice, governs the accusative ; as, 

yvco&i oeavtov, know thyself. 

jJQ7ia£ov ttjv jzofov, they plundered the city, 

aya&bv avdoa npag, thou honourest a good man. 

565. — Obs. 1. Several verbs in Greek are used in a transitive 
sense, and have an accusative as their immediate object, which 
in Latin are considered as intransitive, and followed by some 
other case. They are chiefly the following ; viz., 

1st. ttsi&co ; as, tzei&eiv nvd, to persuade any one. 

2d. v@qi£cq ; as, vftoi&iv Tivci, to insult any one ; sometimes 
Ei'g Tiva. 

3d. adixscd ; as, adixeTv nva, to injure, or do injustice to any one. 

4th. Several verbs which signify to assist, to profit, to injure ; as, 
cocpelsco, ovtjfii, eveq^eteco, §la7zrco, and with these verbs the 
adverbs more, very, are expressed by the accusative neuter 
of the adjectives tiXei'cov, fiEyag, viz. nltov, \iiya. 

5th. The verbs clfisiftopcu, avTUfAEt'fiofA,a(, TipcooEopai ; as, clfiEi- 
fiEG'&ai ziva, to remunerate any one ; zijicoQEiG&cd nva. 

566 — Note 1. Some of these verbs govern other eases, but then 
they generally convey a different idea ; thus, w q> * I e tv rwa, to assist 
any one ; w <p i A f tv twu, to be useful to any one. 

567. — Obs. 2. Many verbs are followed by an accusative, not 
of the object on which the action is exerted, but to which it has 



§150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 251 

an immediate reference. Verbs thus used are properly intransi- 
tive, and the accusative is governed by the force of a preposition 
in composition with the verb, or understood after it. These are 
such as the following ; viz., 

1st. TiQOG'AvvtG) ; as, tzqocjxvveTv viva, to bow the knee to any one, 
to adore. 

2d. doovopooeoj ; as, doovcpogsTv ziva, to be a spearsman to any 
one. So also, 

3d. imzQ07zeveiv, to be a tutor or guardian. 

4th. Xav&dvEiv, to escape the notice of, or to remain unknown to. 

oth. w&aveiv, to come before, prevent, or anticipate. 

6 th. EmltiTiaiv, to be wanting to, or to fail. 

7th. dnodidodGXEiv, to run away from. 

8th. a7T0fidy8odai, to ward off ; 6 t uvvvai or imoQXEiv nvd, to 
swear by any one. 

9th. To these may be added, intransitive verbs expressing some 
emotion or feeling ; as, to be ashamed of, or afraid of, any 
one ; to compassionate any one, &c. &c, which are followed 
by the accusative of the object ; thus, aldovvzai tovg doyov- 
rag, they respected the rulers ; — rig dv rdds yrftifiEiEv ; who 
would rejoice at these things ? — dXysiv n, to be grieved at 
any thing ; — ftaQQUv ri, to take courage with respect to any 
thing. The accusative in such cases may be governed by a 
preposition understood ; as, im, tzeqi, y.ard ; or by the par- 
ticiple of a transitive active verb, to be supplied ; as, oqcqv, 
dxovcov, &c. seeing, hearing. 

568 — Note 2. Instead of the accusative, many of these verbs are 
often followed by a genitive or dative, according to the rules for these 
cases. 

569. — Ob>s. 3. Special Rule. The infinitive 
mpod or part of a sentence is often used as the 
object of a transitive verb instead of the accusa- 
tive ; as, 

Jtyco ndvrag EioyEQEiv, I say that you should all con- 
tribute. 
dEi^drco cog ov'A dln&ij Xt'yco, let him shoio that I do not 

SPEAK THE TRUTH. 

570. — Note. The infinitive is also used instead of the genitive and 
dative after verbs governing these cases. 714. 

571. — Obs. 4. In constructions of this kind, the object of the 
verb is frequently expressed twice. First, in a noun or pronoun 



252 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 150. 

in the case required by the verb, and Secondly, in a dependent 
clause ; as, avdQco7tovg ze oida oia Titnov&aoi vq) Eomzag, 1 
know men what things they have suffered from love ; "jcovug qo- 
fisecu p) iiEtapaXXoioi, you fear the lonians lest they revolt ; clq 
i/xov [As'fivrjG&e bnoTa. etiquggov ; do you remember me what things 
I did ? This construction is especially common with the demon- 
strative pronoun in a sort of apposition with the clause which is 
the object of the verb, 396-5, 6 : it is also sometimes used in 
Latin (see Lat. Gr. 445, Obs. 2) ; but the English idiom requires 
these and similar sentences to be rendered as follows : " / know 
what things men have suffered from love " — " You fear that the 
lonians will revolt" — "Do you remember what things I did ?" 

572. — Obs. 5. The accusative is often governed by a transi- 
tive verb or participle understood ; as, ge dt; — qrjg 8edQay.tr ca 
za.de (sc. eqcozoj), but thee, (I ask) dost thou confess thou didst 
these things ? 6 &e zi\v nooyvoioa (sc. e%cov), the man with (hav- 
ing) the purple robe. 

573. — Obs. 6. In this way, the words ovo^ia, vipog, nli-flog, 
evqog, and others, are frequently construed in the accusative ; as, 
iTZTtoOQOiiog Gzadtov zb nlazog (sc. e%cQv), a race course {hav- 
ing) THE BREADTH of a Stadium. 

574. — Obs. 1. In like manner the accusative, apparently in 
apposition with an entire proposition, or placed in the beginning 
of a sentence, to express the leading idea, may be considered as 
depending on some preposition or verb understood ; as, 'Eh'r);v 
xzdr<x)[A.£v MeveIeco Ivnrp mxouv, let us slay Helen (sc. sig, in 
order to ; or, noiovvzEg, causing) bitter grief to Menelaus ; prpi- 
ga de — a\p izco (i. e. ttsqi, or y.aza, {inzEQa), as to your mother — 
let her return. 

575. — Obs. 8. Special Rule. An intransitive 
verb used transitively, governs the accusative ; as, 

tio1e{ielv tt61e(xov, to wage war. 

This is done — 
1st. When the accusative is a substantive of a similar significa- 
tion with the word that governs it ; as, fjj fitov ?jdi<szov y he 
lives a very agreeable life. 

Note. To this principle of construction may be referred such phra- 
ses as qiQovnv /.liya (scil. (f>q6vt}ua), to be proud ; a&dvara fiev yyovu, 
(sc. qi^ovf'j/iiara), think as bccomcth an immortal. 

2d. When they only signify to cause that state or feeling which 
they express as intransitivea ; as, rj^er xei'qcc, he caused the 



§151. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 253 

hand to move forward, i. e. he stretched out the hand ; al 
atffou o tov a i ydXa y.al fish, the fountains caused milk 
and honey to flow ; i. e. the fountains fiowed with milk and 
honey. So Virgil : 

" Et durae quercus sudabunt roscida mella." 

576. — Obs. 9. A passive verb used in an active sense governs 
the accusative, 195, Obs. 5, and 612 ; as, rjQvnvzai nooeiav, they 
refused a passage. 



§151. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
GENITIVE. 

577. — Many transitive active verbs, together with the accusa- 
tive of the direct object, govern also another word to which the 
action has an indirect or remote reference, in the genitive, dative, 
or accusative, as the nature of that reference may require. 

578. — Rule XXVI. Verbs of accusing, con- 
demning, acquitting, and the like, govern the ac- 
cusative of the person with the genitive of the 
crime ; as, 

duaxopai ge OEiXiag, I accuse you of cowardice. 

anolvcQ 68 zr\g alziag, I acquit you of this blame. 

579. — The genitive after verbs of accusing, is often governed 
by a preposition or some other word interposed, by which the ex- 
pression is rendered more emphatic ; as, 

iyodifjazo (pt) zovzcov avzwv he accused me of these same 

evExa, things. 

dicoxco 08 7Z8o\ ftavdzov, I accuse thee of a capital 

crime. 
q>£vysiv In alzia qjovov, to be accused of murder. 

580. — O65. 1. Verbs of accusing, &c. are such as im'^sifit, 
yodcpopou, diay.oj, iTZcuzidoficu, to accuse or criminate ; cpEvya, 
to be accused, or to defend ; aigsco, to gain one's suit ; ala^i, to 
lose one's suit ; dixat.w, to judge ; Xayydvco, to commence a suit ; 
inika\i$dvo\i(a and dvziXapftdvoftai, to blame, &c. U7tolv(o, us\i- 
j][Ai, a.7Z0\p7]cpi(s0[A,ai, &c. to acquit. 

581. — Obs. 2. Verbs of this signification compounded with 
y.azd take the person in the genitive, and the crime or punish- 



254 ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. §152. 

ment in the accusative ; as, xatTiyoQOWi gov gtolgiv, they charge 
sedition against you. Sometimes the crime or punishment is 
also in the genitive ; as, xatayivcooxco gov ftavdrov or -Q-avdrov : 
but the punishment, seldom, except the word davdiov, and the 
crime, only after xctTijyoQsco ; as, naoavbyoxiv avtov xartjyoQeTv. 

582. — Obs. 3. Verbs of accusing sometimes govern the dative; 
as, iyxcdoS ooi 7ZQoadociav f I accuse thee of treason. 



583. — Rule XXVII. Verbs of hearing, enquir- 
ing, learning, &c. govern the genitive of the per- 
son with the accusative of the thing ; as, 

ijaovae rov dyytXov ravza, he heard these things from the 

messenger. 
nvv&dvm&ai tl nvog, to hear any thing from any one. 

The genitive here is probably governed by ano or ix. 



§152. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
DATIVE. 

584. — A transitive active verb governs the accusative and 
dative when, together with the immediate object of the action, it 
is followed by the person or thing in relation to which it was ex- 
erted. The more common constructions of this Mnd are com- 
prehended under the following rule ; viz., 

585. — Eule XXVIII. Verbs of comparing, 
giving, declaring, promising, and taking away, 
govern the accusative and dative ; as, 

vniGyryzoiiai o~oi dsxa rdlavta, I promise you ten talents. 
Xovyov djAvvcu toig dXXoig, to avert the plague from others. 

586. — Obs. 1. After verbs of promising, declaring, and the 
like, the promise or declaration, forming part of a sentence, and 
sometimes a number of sentences, often stands as the accusative 
with the dative of the person ; as, 

^Xt^avdoog dn(oT8ik8 roTg "ElhjGi &sbv avtov ipqyiaaa- 

&ai, Alexander ordered the Greeks to vote him a god. 
ei7i8 pot ri avrcp XQV^Vf ie ^ me what you would do 

WITH HIM. 



§ 153. VEEBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 255 

587. — Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the person, the accusa- 
tive with noog is often used, and sometimes without it? 

588. — Obs. 3. In all constructions under this rule, both in Latin 
and Greek, the verb, together with the accusative after it, is to be re- 
garded as expressing the amount of what is done to the remote object 
in the dative. Thus in the expression narras fabulam surdo, the words 
narras fabulam express the whole amount of what is done (surdo) to the 
deaf man. "With verbs of taking away, the English idiom requires the 
dative to be rendered by from ; as, eripuit mihi gladium, " he forced the 
sword away from me." On this account, some have supposed that the 
dative in such expressions in Latin is governed by some such word as 
existentem understood ; and others, to obviate the difficulty, have given 
the Greek an ablative. All this perplexity arises evidently from over- 
looking the principle of the construction. While the Enghsh idiom ex- 
presses that from which a thing is taken away, the Latin and Greek, 
with no less elegance, on the general principle of the rule, express in 
the dative, that to which the act of taking away is done. Thus in the 
above expression, the words eripuit gladium together, express what is 
done (mihi) to me. So also Terence : Seni animam extinguerem ipsi ; — 
adolescenti oculos eriperem, "to the old man, I would put out the 
breath ; — to the young man, I would put out the eyes." In Greek, Qi- 
fit,o~Ti> 6iy.ro dinaq, to Themistis, he took away the cup ; i. e. taking away 
the cup was what he did to Themistis ; according to the English idiom, 
he took away the cup from Themistis. [See Hunter's Notes on Liv. B. I. 
Chap. I. line 2. ^Eneae Antenorique, <fec] 

589. — Obs. 4. Verbs of giving, govern the genitive and da- 
tive when their direct object is in the genitive, according to Rule 
XV. ; as, fist ad id co {al aoi roov xqjjiautgw, I share the property 
with you. 



§ 153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

590. — Many verbs are followed by the accusative not only of 
the immediate, but also of the remote object ; hence, 

591. — Kule XXIX. Verbs of ashing and teach- 
ing, clothing, concealing, depriving ; speaking or 
doing well or ill to, and some others, govern two 
accusatives, the one of a person, the other of a 
thing ; as, 

Orjfiuiovg XL ) W ara Xl tr l aav i ^ey sought money from the 

Thebans. 
didaaxovai rovg naidag acocpQO- they teach their youths pro- 

cvvvv, bity. 

ti Tzotj'iGoo avtov ; ivhat shall I do to him ? 



256 VERBS GOVERNING- TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 153. 

592. — Obs. 1. The immediate object of verbs which signify 
" to do" m " to speak" is the action done or the word spoken ; 
the remote object is the person or thing to which it is done or 
spoken; thus, 

tcoieiv dya-&d (scil. soya) ziva, to do good to any one. 

Xtyeiv xaxd (sc. ETtn) ziva, to speak evil of any one. 

593. — Instead of these adjectives with verbs of this significa- 
tion, the adverbs ev and xaxwg are frequently joined ; thus, y.a- 
xwg noisiv zivd, to do a person evil ; ev Xtysiv zivd, to speak well 
of a person. Sometimes these words are in composition with the 
verb; as, svloysTv, xaxoloyeiv, EVEqyEZElv, xaxovgyew — in which 
the accusative becomes the direct object, and is governed by the 
compound transitive verb; as, xaxovQyEiv zivd, to maltreat a 
person. This corresponds to the English mode of expression, to 
maltreat a person, to eulogize a person. 

594. — On the same principle several verbs, such as loidoos'o- 
fiai, Xv\iaivo\iai, &c. which are usually followed by a dative, fre- 
quently take an accusative; as, oXnv z\v noXiv XvficuvEo&ai, 
to abuse the whole city. 

595. — Obs. 2. When a verb admits of either of the words 
that follow it, as its immediate object, they are both put in the 
accusative ; thus, ivdvsiv nvd zov xizcova, to clothe a person with 
a tunic, and, to put a tunic on a person, convey the same idea. 

596. — Obs. 3. A transitive verb, besides the accusative of the 
immediate object, may be followed by the accusative of a noun 
of similar signification with itself; as, ov Zevg cpilu navzoujv 
cpiloznza, whom Jupiter loves with great affection ; ivimjae zovg 
fiuofidoovg z)\v Iv Maoa&avi fid%nv, he conquered the barbarians 
in the battle of Marathon ; w gun guv ndvzag zovg ozoazicozag 
zovg fjieyiazovg ooxovg, they bound all the soldiers with the 
greatest oaths. 

597. — Obs. 4. When tzoieTg&cu, with a noun derived from a 
transitive verb, is used as a circumlocution for the verb itself, it 
will of course be followed by two accusatives ; thus, ttoieig&cci 
z?]v (id&qo'iv for fiav&dvEiv ; V7z6fxvyaiv noiEiadca for vnoiivav ; 
noiEiad-ai zi\v dQ7tayr t v for dond^Eiv, as, 6'aevij xcu dvdod7Toda 
aonay\v noir\Gd\iEvog, plundering the furniture and slaves ; sc. 
making plunder of &c. 

598. — Obs. 5. Verbs which signify to call, or name, choose, 
reckon, make, constitute, and the like, besides the accusative of the 
object, take also the accusative of the name, office, character, &c. 



§ 154. CASES CONSTKUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. 257 

ascribed to it; as, (jTQarqybv avtbv dnio8iS,Ev, he appointed 
him general. In this construction the verb efoai is frequently 
interposed ; thus, 6oq>i6T?iv ovofid&vai rbv dvdoa, or rbv dvdoa. 
thai, they call the man a philosopher, 743-2d. 

599. — Obs. 6. The accusative neuter of pronouns and adjec- 
tives is often admitted in this construction, as well as with verbs 
which govern the genitive or dative, when the accusative of the 
substantive could not be used ; as, 

zovro lie qdixtjGE, he injured me in this. 

tt %QU>iiai avxeij ; for what may I use it ? 

600. — Obs. 7. Instead of the second accusative, many verbs 
under this rule frequently take the genitive or dative ; and, on 
the other hand, some verbs which are usually followed by an ac- 
cusative with the genitive or dative, sometimes take the double 
accusative ; thus, og dq noXka xdx dvd-Q(Q7toiGi (for dv&Qcortovg) 
icooyei, who verily inflicted many evils on men ; dnooTEQEiv tivoc 
id %Q?][iaTa, and r<x>v XQvpdtcQv, to deprive a person of his goods. 

601. — Obs. 8. The second accusative is often to be explained 
by a preposition after such verbs as TZQOxaXs'co, dvayxd'£co, u.no- 
XQivofxai, and verbs which signify to divide, as, diatom, 8d£co, 
&c. ; as, 7iQ0xuleTad-ai tiva (sg) aaovdag, to invite a person to 
a treaty; Kvgog to GzodxEvpa xartveifiE (elg) dcoosxa fJtSQrj, 
Cyrus divided the army into twelve parts. 

602. — Note. With verbs of dividing, the whole which is divided is 
sometimes put in the genitive, and the word (xiqoq, /xoiqa, &c, referred 
to the verb ; as, do')dey,a TIeqgwv q>v).al du^Qrivrau, the tribes of the Per- 
sians were divided into twelve, for, the Persians were divided into twelve 
tribes ; /aolgaq du ilhv {£ y.al Innrnv y.al b7thr<j)v, literally, he divided 
the parts of cavalry and infantry into six ; i. e. he divided the cavalry 
and infantry into six parts. This construction is imitated in Latin, Cic. 
de Orat. Deinde eorum generum quasi gucedam membra dispertiat, for ea 
genera quasi in quwdam membra, &g. 



§ 154. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES WITH THE PASSIVE 
VOICE. 

603. — The passive voice is usually followed by a genitive of 
the doer, governed by the prepositions vno, ix, nana, noog, and 
consequently, the government of the case falls under the rules for 
prepositions ; as, p/ vixoj vnb tov xuxou, be not overcome of evil. 
Sometimes, though very seldom, it follows the preposition in the 
dative ; as, vnb cwtQanuig dioixtiGOai, to be governed by viceroys. 



258 CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. § 154. 

But instead of this, and equivalent to it, the dative without a pre- 
position is common ; hence the two following rules ; viz., 



604. — Rule XXX. Passive verbs frequently 
govern the dative of the doer ; as, 

ingdrtEro avroig ra zijg no- the affairs of the city were con- 

Xewg, ducted by them, 

nsnoinrai poi, it has been done by me. 

605. — Note. This construction most commonly takes place with the 
perfect passive, and the dative is equivalent to the genitive with vno, 
which is in common use; as also tcqoc, and sometimes na.qd, ex. or i$, 
and cbro. On the same principle, the verbal adjectives in to'c; and riot;, 
having a passive signification, govern the dative of the doer, 528. 



606. — Rule XXXI. When a verb in the active 
voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains 
the latter case ; as, 

xazi]yoQSO[j,ai xXonijg, I am accused of theft 

ido&t] fioi naaa s^ovcia, all power is given to me. 

fiovGtyJjv fisv vno Aa\inqov being taught music by Lam- 

nuidev&eig, prus. 

607. — Obs. 1. Any passive verb may be followed by an ac- 
cusative of similar signification with itself, on the principle laid 
down 596 ; as, rvntetai nXtjyag noXXdg, he is struck with many 
bloivs. 

608. — Obs. 2. When a verb in the active voice governs the 
accusative with the dative of a person, the passive frequently re- 
tains the former case, the latter being used as the subject of the 
verb. Thus, the same idea may be expressed in three different 
ways; viz., 

1st. With the active voice ; as, 6 dijpog iniazevas Avxovgycp r\v 
irig noising smjieXeiaVy the people committed the care of the 
city to Lycurgus. 
2d. By the passive voice with the latter case ; as, /Ivyovoyo? 
ini.G7Ev&n vno xov dfaov ij rijg noXscog inifieXtia, the man- 
agement of the city ivas entrusted to Lycurgus. 
3d. By the passive voice with the former case, according to the 
Obs. ; as, AvxovQyog z)\v rtjg noXecog inifitXtiav vno rov 
dfj[A,ov IniGTEvd'i], Lycurgus was entrusted with the manage- 
ment of the city by the people. 



§ 155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 259 

The following are examples of this construction : ol imrsTpap- 
[Ae'poi ttjv cpvlay./jv, those entrusted with the watch ; for oig rj cpv- 
laxrj inithqanto : rrjv tf ix %eiqgjv aQTid^ofxai, she is torn from 
my hands ; for ?j (? ix %£iqgjv donaCzruLi. 

609. — Hence, also, such phrases as the following : Jfidioneg 
TTaodaXmg ivrjfifitvoi, the Ethiopians girded ivith panthers' skins ; 
XsiTtsi dt'/.toj' £yy£yoa[A{i8V}jv ^vv&/-fi-aza, he leaves a tablet inscri- 
bed with writings ; because in the active voice it would have 
been Ivanxuv Al&ionaoi 7tao8a)Jag — iyyoucpeiv %w&fj(iaza 8t).- 
rcp. The accusative, in almost all such cases, may be explained 
by supplying y.atd. This construction is not used in Latin, ex- 
cept in a few instances, which are manifest Graecisms ; e. g., in- 
scripti nomina regum fores, " flowers inscribed with the names 
of kings." Lat, Gr. 525. 

610. — Note. This construction, used in Latin only as a Graecism, is 
common in English with such verbs as, to ask, teach, offer, promise, 
pay, tell, allow, deny, and the like ; as, He allowed me great liberty ; 
passively, great liberty was allowed me, or, I was allowed great liberty. 
So, "They were offered (to) me," or, "I was offered them." See Ana- 
lytical and Practical English Grammar, 812, 813. Crombie's Etymolo- 
gy, P- 2?0. 

611. — Obs. 3. On the same principle the part affected (505-3), 
is often put in the accusative after the passive voice ; thus, instead 
of to Toavpcc ixov imdeiTai, my wound is bound up, the genitive 
is changed into the nominative to the verb, and the nominative 
or part affected into the accusative ; thus, (iya) imdaofiai, r 6 
Touv[ia L I am bound up as to my wouxd ; noofir^evg ixei- 
qsto to ?j7zao, literally, Prometheus was torn out as to his 
liver ; i. e. his liver was torn out. See also 622. 

612. — Obs. 4. When the passive is used in a middle sense 
(195, Obs. 5), it becomes deponent, and may be followed by an 
accusative in the same manner as the active voice ; as, naotoy.tv- 
aofJLtvoi Tidvra e7z).sov, having provided every thing, they sailed ; 
riQvijvTai TTOQSiav, they refused a passage, 576. 



§155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

613. — Words and phrases are often thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some cir- 
cumstance connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and 
which do not depend for their case on any word in. the sentence 



260 EEMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. § 156. 

to which they belong, but on a preposition, or adverb, or other 
word understood ; as, 

i^ekavvsi Gtad-fiovg Svo Eig 'Iaaovg, xal ivrav&a sfAEivEv rifil- 
qug ZQEig, he advanced two days' journey to Issus, and 
remained there three days. 

fiEydXrj Gizovdrj Ttdvza ETtQaziEio, every thing was done with 

GREAT HASTE. 

Under the general name of circumstances may be included 
words which indicate, 1. The remote cause or origin, § 156 ; 2. 
A particular qualification or direction of a general expression, 
§ 157 ; 3. Cause, manner, or instrument, § 158 ; 4. Place, § 159 ; 
5. Time, §160; 6. Measure, § 161 ; 1. Price, §162; 8. Excla- 
mation, § 163. 



§156. I. THE REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. 

614. — Rule XXXII. The cause, source, or ori- 
gin, and the part affected, are put in the genitive ; 

as, 

fA.axd.Qiog vr t g tv'/rjg, happy from his fortune. 

cpiXti avzov ttjQ aQETtjg, he loves him on account of his virtue. 

ivxov XQatEiv cot cor, to take a wolf by the ears. 

615. — Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive, the accusative is often 
used, governed by xard, did, &c. understood. 

616. — Obs. 2. The circumstance of cause expressed by the 
genitive, differs from that expressed by the dative ; the genitive 
expresses the remote or moving cause — the dative, the immediate 
or effective cause. 

617. — Obs. 3. The material of wdiich a thing is made is ex- 
pressed in the genitive ; as, 6%Ediai dicp&EQCov, rafts made of 
skins. See 456. 

618 — Note. The genitive of the material is considered by some 
grammarians as depending on ix or ccno understood ; and an argument 
in favour of this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of ex or ano 
being sometimes expressed. In all such passages, the preposition seems 
to contain a more direct reference to the material than could be done 
by the common construction, especially if a passive participle be like- 
wise used ; as, td^a l£ uddfiavroq 7if7ioi.Tif.iiv)], a scat made of adamant. 
Sometimes the dative is used for the genitive, when the 'material of 



§157. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 261 

which any thing is made may be considered also as the means by which 
it is made ; as, at /xev yao x&Qaacrcri' xixivywzai, oX $' ikiq> ccv xi>, 
some were made of hoe> t , some of ivory. 



§157. H. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

619. — A particular qualification of a general expression, made 
in English by the phrase " in respect of" il with regard to," is 
expressed by the genitive and dative ; or, more briefly, as fol- 
lows : 

620. — Eule XXXIII. Respect wlierein is ex- 
pressed by the genitive, sometimes in the dative, 
444. 

I. In the Genitive ; as, 

iyyvzaza avzdp iifu yivovg, I am very near him in respect of kin. 

daavg dtvdocov, thick ivith trees. 

Tikrfiioi ulh'jlwv, near (in respect of) each other. 

621. — The genitive is used : 

1. After syeIj in the sense of to be (se habere), with such adverbs 
as so, ag, oncog, Ttcog, ovzcog, xaloyg, &c. ; as, 7zaidsiag ovzcog 
sysi, he is so in inspect of learning ; y.aloog s%eiv f^txr^g, to be 
pretty drunk ; foco is used in the same way ; as, Tellog zov 
fiiov ev fawv, Tellus being ivell advanced in {respect of) life. 

2. After other verbs ; as, inu-fuaftai uotjog, to be in haste with 
respect to the battle. 

3. After adjectives ; as, dnaig uqqs'vcov naldcov, childless with 
respect to sons ; i. e. without male offspring. 

4. With adverbs ; as, tzqocjcq doEZijg dv?jxeiv, to carry it far ivith 
respect to virtue. 

5. With substantives ; as, dyyeh'a zijg Xwv, the relation con- 
cerning Chios. 

6. With entire propositions; as, el nazqog vt'fiei ziv oxqav zov 
y.alcog ttquooelv doxeiv, if he possesses any care of his 
father, in respect or his appearing to prosper. 

622. — Obs. 1. Respect wherein is also put in the accusative 
governed by xazd understood ; viz., when the idea expressed by 
a verb or adjective is to be more accurately determined by an 
additional circumstance ; as, zov ddxzvlov dXyco, I am pained 



262 CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. § 157. 

in my finger; %eqei(ov ov depag, ovds qjot'vag, inferior nei- 
ther in body nor mind ; Ttodag gtavq JdyjXXevg, Achilles swift 

OF FOOT. 

623. — Note 1. This is the construction so often imitated by the Latin 
poets ; thus, Os humerosque deo similis. Lat. Gr. 538. 

624. — Note 2. The accusative in this construction is in signification 
adverbial, and hence is frequently used as an adverb ; thus, doy^v, above 
all, originally ; xd/oq, quickly ; xiloq, finally ; xr\v nqwxr\v, at first, &c, 
nard being understood. So also such expressions as to havxiov, on the 
contrary ; xo liyoixzvov, according to the proverb, &c. 

II. In the Dative. 

625. — This case is used in a sense nearly similar, 
to express that with respect to which a thing is 
affirmed to be or take place. This usage, in Greek, 
may be illustrated by the following examples : 

1. a^iog i\v xravaxov rrj noXei, he was worthy of death, with 
respect to the state ; i. e. he was guilty of a capital crime 
against the state. 

2. y,oli d)j [isdiev yalETtoXo yoloio Trjlefiaxop, and now they 
laid aside their grievous anger against (with respect to) Tele- 
machus ; so tycoyE lidoo^iai JtyiXXiji \le$e\iev ybXov, I will 
pray him to lay aside his anger against Achilles. 

3. to fitv e£co\)ev dnTOfisvcp cmpa ovx ayav -deofibv i)v, the 
surface of the body was not very hot when one touched it 
(lit. with respect to one touching it). 

4. 'E7Zi8a[j.v6g ioti nbXig iv de^ia egtzXeovti tbv 'Joviov xoX- 
Ttov, Epidamnus is a city on the right hand as you enter 
(with respect to one entering) the Ionian bay. 

5. dvcodexdrn 8e oi ?)wg xEtpe'vqj, the twelfth day since he lay 
(to him lying). 

6. 'HqcixXei fiev 8tj oaa avzol Alyvntiol qiaai thai eteci ig 
J^fiaaiv, the Egyptians themselves tell how many years passed 
from Hercules (or since tlie death of Hercules) to Amasis. 

1. Tiprjv aovvpevoi MsveXdcp, looking for the advantage (or 

pleasure) of Menelaus. 
8. oQxnGafievoi, Q-eolgi, dancing in honour of the gods. 

626. — Rem. Respect tvherein is also sometimes expressed in 
the dative governed by iv understood ; as, 

ttogI rayvg, swift of foot. 



§ 158. CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 263 

§ 158. III. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 

627. — Rule XXXIV. The cause, manner, and 
instrument, are put in the dative ; as, 

yoficp E7iQaTtov, I did it from fear. 

iyevero tcpds zq> TQoncp, it happened in this manner. 

Tratdaasiv (tdfidco, to strike with a stick. 

628. — Obs. 1. The cause or motive may be considered as in- 
ternal or external. The internal cause represents the act as pro- 
ceeding from some particular state or disposition of the subject, 
or quality residing in it, and contains the answer to the question 
from what? or whence? and consequently may generally be ren- 
dered from : evvoia y avdco, I speak from good-will. The 
external cause represents the action as caused by something with- 
out the agent, and may generally be rendered " for," " on ac- 
count of," sometimes " according to," "in consequence of;" as, 
"iq{]liaoiv maiqo\iEvog, elated with, or in consequence of riches ; 
Aeovzivtov xaTOixiGei, for (i. e. in order to) the re-establishment of 
the Leontines, the motive being derived from the end ; &avpid£cQ 
rrj uttoxIeicjei pov tcov ttvXcov, I am astonished at the shutting 
up of my gates. 

629. — Obs. 2. In this construction the dative expresses the 
nearer or immediate cause, the more remote being usually ex- 
pressed by the genitive, or by did with the accusative (615) ; as, 
do&EVEia Gcopdrcov dice r?jv (juodsiav v7ie%coqovv, they (the 
Lacedemonians) gave way, from the weakness of their bodies in- 
duced BY WANT OF PROVISIONS. 

630. — Obs. 3. The dative of the cause is probably governed 
by the preposition dftqji, tteqi, or Ini understood. Sometimes 
they are expressed ; but whether with or without a preposition, 
the whole expression is adverbial in its nature ; and hence, disre- 
garding its case, a neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes put 
in the same construction with it, in the accusative ; as, ei nvog 
{AEya ?/v to aco/ACC q>v6si, r\ ZQOtyrj, ?j dftcpotSQa, if the body of 
a person was large naturally, or by nourishment, or both. 

631. — Obs. 4. The dative of the manner is governed by iv 
or avv understood, and may be considered as adverbial. Hence, 
perhaps, verbs of punishing are followed by the punishment in 
the dative; as, "Qniiiovv riva d-avdtoi, cpvyfj, &c. to punish any 
one with death, with banishment, &c. 



■■ 



264 CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. § 159. 

632. — Obs. 5. The dative of the instrument or mean may be 
a person ; as, roig naQOvaiv itsfyit.Bv, he built the wall by 

MEANS OF THOSE WHO WERE PRESENT. It is also put with Sub- 

stantives ; as, xivrjang zcp ccofiaii, motions made with the 

BODY. 

633. — Note. Hence the construction of xQrjcr&av with the dative; 
that which we use being considered as an instrument. On the same 
principle, the dative is put after other verbs which imply the idea of 
using; Tiy.juaiQta&at, rolq 7Zqog&iv M/AoXoyrj^ivovt;, to infer from what was 
granted ; i. e. to use as proof s the things formerly granted. 

634. — Obs. 6. Instead of the dative, the prepositions iv, U7t6, 
did, ovv, with their cases, are sometimes used. 



§ 159. IV. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

635. — The oircumstances of place respect motion to, or from, 
or through, a place, and motion or rest in a place ; in all of 
which the Greek writers generally use a proper name with a 
preposition ; thus, i£ Jldqvcov, from Athens ; elg Bquzavviav, to 
Britain ; iv Thikty, in Pylos ; dia zJjg Ttolecag, through the city. 
But, 

636.— Kule XXXV. The place where, without 
a preposition, is expressed in the genitive or da- 
tive; as, 

Jlgyeog, at Argos ; MaQU&oovi, at Marathon. 

637. — Obs. 1. In this construction the genitive may be gov- 
erned by inl or moi\ and the dative by iv understood. The 
preposition is also often understood before common nouns de- 
noting place ; as, 'iq^ead'ov xlioujv, they two come to the tent. 

638. — Obs. 2. The genitive after slg, to a place, or iv, in a 
place, is governed by a substantive understood ; as, tig adov (sc. 
d()fA,ov), to Hades ; iv slqyzog (sc. ttoIei), at Argos, 451. 

639. — Obs. 3. The terminations {ri and 07, added to a noun, 
denote at a place ; as, ayooxri, in the country ; QtjfirjGi, at 
Thebes ; — 8s and <je, to a place ; as, ^{r^vaade, to Athens ; y.h- 
mnvde, to the tent ; — {tev and xre, from a place ; as, xXiGiq&e'P 
avttlero 'iyypg, he took a spear from the tent, 324. 



§ 160, 161. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 265 



§160. V. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

640. — Rule XXXVI. Time when is put in the 
dative ; time lioio long, in the accusative ; thus, 

whex ; as, tjfit'oa tqii:r d , on the third day. 
how loxg ; as, rgsTg olovg fiijpag aaQSfmvsv, he remained 
three whole months. 

641. — Obs. 1. When the reference is to a fixed time at which 
a thing took place, the dative is used as in the rule ; but if the 
idea of duration is implied, it is put in the accusative ; as, rag 
tjfiSQag y.al tag vvv.rag, by day and by night ; sometimes in the 
genitive ; as, izaxcoos fib] 'Uoay.bjeitj roctp noon'ocar irsav, Her- 
cules distressed us informer years. 

642. — 055. 2. Time how long, may respect the time during 
which, since which, or after which, some event took place. The 
first is put in the accusative, as above ; the second is more com- 
monly expressed in the genitive ; as, n o 1 ). o v avrovg ovy i(6ga- 
xa yqovov, I have not seen them for a long time ; the third, 
generally in the dative ; as, ov itoXkatg i^itQaig varsoov, not ma- 
ny days after. But sometimes in the genitive, when protracted 
and indefinite ; as, ixsuss ovx acpixrstrai irav [avqicov, he 
comes not thither in tex thousand years. In this, however, 
there is some variety. 



§161. VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

The circumstances of measure respect magnitude, distance, 
and the measure of excess, as follows : 

643. — Rule XXXVII. The measure of magni- 
tude is put in the genitive ; as, 

avdoiag dvcodtxu n-jj^tav, a statue of twelve cubits. 



644.— Rule XXXVIII. The measure of die- 
tance is put in the accusative, sometimes in the 
dative ; as, 

12 



266 EXCLAMATION. § 162, 163. 

"Ecpecog a7i£%ei TQiav 7j[ieq(qv bdov, or 6#o5, Ejohesus is distant 

three days 1 journey. 
Tzevzsxaidexa nii%Eig vxpco&i] to vdooo, the water rose fifteen 

CUBITS. 

645. — Obs. When measure of magnitude or distance is found 
in the nominative after a substantive verb, or in the accusative 
after an infinitive, £he construction is according to 436. 



646. — Rule XXXIX. The measure of excess is 
put in the dative after the comparative degree ; 
as, 

ivnavro) noE6[}vTEQog, older by a year. 

647. — Obs. Hence the expressions nollo), oli'yoj, figcc/Ei, &c. 
with the comparative. It is, however, sometimes put in the ac- 
cusative ; as, noXv psi^cov, much greater ; noXVov d^Eivcov, much 
better. 



§162. VII. CIRCUMSTANCE OF PRICE. 

648. — Rule XL. ThepW<?6 of a thing is put in 

the genitive ; as, 

dbg rovro doaxiiiig, give this for a drachma. 

649. — Obs. The price is put sometimes in the dative, with the 
preposition em expressed or understood ; as, em {.uo-d'cp fiEydXcg, 
for a great reward. Sometimes in the accusative ; as, nmoa.6y.Ei 
6 yay.bg nana nobg aoyvoiov, the wicked man sells every thing 
for silver. 



§ 163. VIII. EXCLAMATION. 

650. — Rule XLI. Exclamations of praise, in- 
dignation, compassion, &c, are put in the geni- 
tive, sometimes in the accusative ; as, 

rtjg avaidstag, the impudence ! 

cpev Tov dvdgog, Alas ! the man. 

co i[M deikuiov, wretched me ! 



§ 164, 165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 267 

651. — Obs. Sometimes with the genitive, there is an addition 
of the nominative ; as, o"\ioi toov ifimv iyw xaxow, ah ! my mise- 
ries, 'lev, oval, oi, and co, govern the dative ; as, 1(6 poi, woe 
is me. 



§ 164. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

652. — 'Adverbs are joined to adjectives, verbs, and other ad- 
verbs, to express some circumstance, quality, or manner, of their 
signification. 

653. — Many adverbs in Greek have the force of prepositions 
in Latin and English. These are often joined with substantives, 
as will appear in the following rules. They are also sometimes 
used as substantives or adjectives ; as, ano tots, from that time ; 
6 £%cn avd-Q0J7tog, the outward man. 373-2d. 

654. — Rule XLII. Derivative adverbs com- 
monly govern the case of their primitives ; as, 

a&cog 7j[A,G)v, in a manner worthy of us. 

liahaia ncivTwv, most of all. 

Ofioicog Tolg uXkoig, in a manner similar to the rest. 

tzclqe'a vtja, without the ship. 



§165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 

655. — Adverbs having the force of prepositions govern the 
same case with the prepositions which, in meaning, they resem- 
ble ; thus, opov, apia, together, having the force of avv, govern 
the dative ; evexa, on account of, resembling did, governs the 
genitive. This general principle authorizes the two following 
rules : 

656. — Rule XLIII. Some adverbs of time, 
place, and quantity, likewise of number, order, and 
exception, govern the genitive ; as, 

ov ytjg eifii ; where am I ? 

a%Qi Tijg 6?']{i£Q0v ijfitQag, to this day. 

657. — Obs. 1. To these may be added adverbs of cause, com- 



268 ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. § 165. 

parison, distinction, concealment, separation, or exclamation ; and 
also nouns used adverbially, as, %aoiv, dixqv, ivcomov, &c. ; as, 
dixrjv TtorafMtiV, like rivers. 

658. — The adverbs which come under this rule are the follow- 
ing : avev, ccteq, dr/a, %wqiq, without ; dvTixov, d.vxv/.ovg, dnav- 
tixqv, against, opposite ; dxQi, [*£XQh ty even t° > ^xa f evey.ev, 
on account of; iyyvg, TzXrjaiov, dyxh daaov, near ; ixrog, &£«, 
8XT06&EV, without ; ivtog, egco, eiaco, evzog&ev, within ; nh)v, 
TTaosxzog, except, but ; \ietcl£,v, among ; omaa, omafiEV, be- 
hind ; 7T0O6&EV, before ; moav, iaix&m, beyond, &c. 

659. — Exc. 1. ayfi an d ^S sometimes govern the dative. 

660. — Exc. 2. 7iki\v, except, has sometimes the nominative 
after it; as, 7tlr]v ol zcov naidtov diddoxaloi, except the 
teachers of the boys. 

661 — Note. Adverbs of the final cause are frequently omitted ; as, 
syoa^a tovdf, I wrote for this reason, sup. evexa. 

662. — Obs. 2. Adverbs of time, place, &c. are frequently 
changed by the poets into adjectives; as, oids 7iavr\\iEoioi 
[Aolftfi &eov ildoxovro, they propitiated the god with song the 

WHOLE DAY. 381. 

663. — Certain adverbs are joined sometimes with one case, 
and sometimes with another ; as follows : 

1st. dfAfiiya, dfxixiyotjv, lyyvg, iyyv&Ev, ndoEyyvg, avvsyyvg, i$tjg, 
iqiE^Jjg, 6%£d6v, 6%e§6&ev, avzo6%Ed6v, are put with the gen- 
itive or DATIVE. 

2d. dyyj, dy%6d~i, iy.7to8cov, nlijolovj ErtiTtooa&Ev, oftener with 

the GENITIVE. 

3d. dvdnahv, E^7Za,hv, oftener with the dative. 

4th. EiGoo, pEGCpa, TtdoEx or TtdoE^, tie'qi%, with the genitive or 

ACCUSATIVE. 

5th. dsvgo, with the dative or accusative. 
6th. a%Qi, dxQig, ^e'xqi, ^xqig, with the genitive, dative, or ac- 
cusative. 



664. — Kule XLIV. Adverbs of accompanying 
govern the dative ; as, 

dfia rj ?jf**QK, at day-break. 



§ 166. NEGATIVES. 269 

665. — Rule XV. Adverbs of swearing govern 
the accusative ; as, 

v\ /Jia, by Jupiter ; fid rods GY.tnrqov, by this sceptre. 

666. — Obs. 3. In sentences of this kind, fid commonly denies, 
unless joined with vai; and vi) affirms, unless joined with a nega- 
tive. 

667. — Obs. 4. Adverbs of showing are put with the nomina- 
tive ; as, idov 6 av&Qomog, behold the man ; ids ?j \ii\rno fxov 
xcd ol ddalqoi fiov, behold my mother and my brethren. 



166. NEGATIVES. 



668. — The Greek language has two simple negatives, ov and fii], 
from which all the compound negative terms are formed, and to 
which, in their use and manner of construction, they are similar. 
Between these two negatives and their respective compounds there 
is a total difference of use, the foundation of which is as follows : 
669. — 1. Ov is the direct and independent negative, which 
expresses a positive denial without reference to any thing else ; 
as. ova idtlco, I ivill not ; ovx dya&ov ian, it is not good ; ov- 
dslg tzuq^v, no one icas present. A direct negation of this kind 
can never be expressed by prj or its compounds. 

670. — 2. ]>!//, on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent 
negative. It is therefore used in all propositions in which the 
negative is represented, not as a fact, but as something dependent 
on the conception, as a condition, supposition, &c. ; and hence 
it is used in the manner following : 

1st. After the conditional conjunctions si, idv, ?}v, orav, inuddv, 
tag, dv, and those which intimate an end, design, motive, as, 
Iva, cog, onag, acre ; as, si [iij oo&ag )Jya, if I do not 
speak correctly; a7ze8tj[jit]GS iva fiif dvayxaa&f L , x.Z.l., he 
(Solon) went away that he might not be compelled, &c. 
2d. Without any such particle, fiij is always put with the im- 
perative mood in all the tenses ; with the subjunctive, in the 
aorists used imperatively ; and with the optative, when it ex- 
presses a wish ; as, \ii\ \iz fidlle, or \ii\ fie pdlrjg, do not 
strike me ; (i?j yivoiro, may it not be. 
3d. Mi) is used after relatives, and with participles when they 
express a condition or supposition ; as, rig da oovvai dvvazai 



270 DOUBLE NEGATIVES. § 167. 

izs'ocp a fiy avzbg s%8i; who can give a thing to another, 
if he has it not himself? a ova avzbg fast would mean, 
that which he has not himself. So also, 6 fit] mazevcov, if a 
person does not believe. But 6 ov mazavcov, is, one who 
does not believe. 

4th. Mr] is used with infinitives whether they are dependent upon 
another verb, or used with the article as a verbal noun (714) ; 
as, dvdyxn zovzo pr t ttoisiv, it is necessary not to do this ; 
zb fitj noiEiv, the not doing. 

5th. With verbs which signify to fear, to warn, and the like, pj 
is used, like ne in Latin, where a positive expression is used 
in English ; as, dsdoixco p/ zi yivrjzai, vereor ne quid acci- 
dat, / am afraid that something may happen. Sometimes 
the preceding verb is understood ; as, p/ zovzo dXXcog fyy 
(scil. ds'doMa), I fear lest this be otherwise. 

So also, after verbs which signify to forbid, deny, prevent, 
refrain, disbelieve, to be cautious, and the like, it is frequently 
put with the infinitive, where the negative is not used in 
English ; as, uTzavdco zovzbv fit] naoiEvai, I forbid this man 
to enter. 

6th. Mq is sometimes merely an interrogative particle like num 
in Latin, giving, however, greater emphasis to the question ; 
as, [if] dveXsLV fie av &eXsig ; loilt thou kill me ? 

671. — 3. A negative placed between the article and its noun, 
converts it into a sort of compound negative term ; as, tj ov did- 
Ivaig z<x>v yeqjvoav, the not destroying of the bridges ; 7) ^ ifA,- 
neiQia, the inexperience. 

672.— Rem. In the same manner, it is used with certain verbs, 
not as a negative, but to reverse their meaning; thus, (fVfjih I say, 
ov cpyfu, I deny, contradict ; idco, I allow, ovx idco, I forbid ; 
vmcxvEOfiai, I promise, ovx vnurxviofiai, 1 refuse ; thus, ovx 
scpaaav zovzo eIvcu does not signify, they did not say that this 
was, but, they denied that this ivas, or, they said this ivas not. 



§ 167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

673. — "When to a proposition already negative, and also to 
verbs which signify to deny, to contradict, to hinder or oppose, 
and the like, other qualifications of a general nature are to be 
attached ; such as ever, any body, any ivhere, <fec. ; it is usual to 



§ 167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 271 

do this by compounds of the same negative. Hence the follow- 
ing rules : 

674. — Rule XLVI. Two or more negatives, 
joined to the same verb, strengthen the negation ; 
as, 

ovx £7T0i7i68 rovro ovdapov ovdeig, no one any where did this. 

675. — Obs. 1. To the negation of the whole, is joined, in the 
same sentence, the negation of the parts; as, ov dvvarai ovre 
Xeyeiv ovre noieiv, he can neither speak nor act. 

Note. Consequently, in translating such propositions into English, 
only one negative can be used. 

676. — Rule XLYII. Two or more negatives 
joined to different verbs, destroy the negation, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 

ov dvvaued*a //.>/ XaleTv, we cannot but speak, 
ovdeig bang ov yeXdaerai, there is nobody who will not laugh, i. e. 
" every body will laugh ;" sari being understood with ovdeig. 

677. — Obs. 2. Indeed, so common is the ellipsis of eari in 
this expression, that it is lost sight of, and the antecedent ovdeig, 
which should be its nominative, is often attracted into the case 
of the relative which follows ; as, ovdevi ozeo ovx aoiaxei, there 
is nobody ivhom it does not please, for ovde)g orco, &c. ; ovdeva 
bvnvcc ov xarexXavaev, he caused every one to weep, for ovdeig 
ear iv bvriva, &c. there is no one whom he did not cause to 
weep. 

678. — Obs. 3. It is also proper to observe the use of the nega- 
tive in such sentences as the following : xai ov ravra fitv ygdcpei 
6 ibiXinnog roig 8 egyoig ov noieT, Philip does not write these 
things and not perform them ; i. e. think not that Philip writes 
these things and does not execute them ; where the first ov does 
not affect the verb yoacpei, but the two propositions together. It 
denies an assertion which might be thus expressed : youyei (xev 
ov noiel de, he writes but does not execute. So also ov dq rcov 
lilv yeiooreyvav earl ri negag r?jg eqyaaiag, rov £' avQ-qconhov 
[iiov " ovx tan, " it cannot be that there is some object in the la- 
bours of the artist, but none in the life of man." 

679. — Note. In phrases of this kind, the two propositions, as here, 
are usually distinguished by fiiv and <5e; and the second is negative. 



272 PREPOSITIONS. § 168. 

680. — Obs. 4. Tn some phrases ov and fjtq are united ; as, ov 
fit] and (A,)] ov. Ov \ii\ is a stronger and more emphatic negation 
than ov, and is used in the same way, 669. Mi] ot>, in general, 
is only a stronger expression of [it], and is used in the same man- 
ner, subject, however, to the following modifications : 

1st. In dependent propositions, when the verb of the principal 
proposition is either accompanied by a negation, or contains 
a negative idea in itself, fxij ov destroy each other, and may 
generally be rendered " that ; " as, oi'x dovovfiai fit] ov 
yev£G&ai, I do not deny that it has taken place ; Tzei&ofxai 
ya.Q ov zooovzov ovdsv coats {ii} ov y.alcog •d , avsTy i for I am 
persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but 
that / shall die nobly. 

2d. Mi] ov, after verbs signifying to fear, to ivarn, &c, as above, 
6*70-5th, render the sentence negative, which, with p/ alone, 
would be positive ; as, dtdoixa fii] ov n ysvnrai, I am afraid 
lest something may not happen ; qjofiovpai fiy ov xaXbv ?/, 
vereor ne non honestum sit, i" fear that this may wot be 
proper. 

3d. In independent propositions with the subjunctive mood, /*// 
joined with ov makes the negative expression less positive ; 
as, alia jU?) ovx {j didaxrbv i] aoezi], but virtue may per- 
haps be a thing not to be taught. The sentence may be ex- 
plained by supplying an omitted verb, as ooa, or the like, 
and be rendered literally : but see whether virtue may not 
be, &c. 



§168. PREPOSITIONS. 

681. — Prepositions are used to express the relation in which 
one thing stands to another. For the primary and various de- 
rived meanings of prepositions in different constructions, see § 124. 
The influence they exert over the words with which they are 
joined, as far as it respects their case, is regulated by the follow- 
ing rules : 

682.— Rule XLVIII. 'Awl, cino, ex or i£, and 
nqo, govern the genitive only ; as, 

dcp&aXpbg avrl ocp&aXpov, an eye for an eye. 



§ 168. PKEPOSITIONS. 273 

683. — Rule XLIX. 3 Ev and civ govern the da- 
tive. 

684. — Rule L. Eig (or Sg) and dvd govern the 
accusative. 

Obs. 1. Avd, among the poets, also governs the dative. 

685. — Rule LI. /lice, xard, /li^tcc, vtusq, govern 
the genitive or accusative. 

686. — Obs. 2. Metdy among the poets, also governs the da- 
tive of a plural noun, or a noun of multitude ; as, peTa tQizdzoiai 



avaaaev. 



687. — Rule LII. ^Afxcpi, tcsql, £jvi y nctQcc, nyog, 
and vtvo, govern the genitive, dative, or accusa- 
tive. 

Note. — For the meaning of the prepositions, as modified by the case 
with which they are joined, see § 124. 

688. — Obs. 3. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, their 
case being understood. This is the case especially with iv in the 
Ionic and noog in the Attic. Hence, in the Ionic writers, they 
are often put twice, once adverbially without a case, and again 
with a case or in composition with a verb ; as, iv Sis xcd iv Ms'[i- 
(pi, in Memphis also. 

689. — Obs. 4. Prepositions are sometimes separated from 
their case ; as, iv ydo os jy vvxti ravTrj avcuooficu. In Attic, 
this takes place, according to the rule, with the conjunctions 
[xev, de, ydQj ovv ; as, iv fiev yao EiDi'jvrj ; — ig fisv ovv tag Afti]- 
vag ; and with noog with the genitive when it signifies^?*. 

690. — Obs. 5. Prepositions are often put after their case, par- 
ticularly by the Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic poets ; as, 
vecov kno xal xlmdav. In the Attic prose writers, it takes place 
only in tzeql with the genitive. When so placed, the accent is 
always thrown back to the first syllable ; thus, uno nioi, &c. 

691. — Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with 
two different nouns, it is often put only once by the poets, and 
that too with the second noun ; as, ?} dlbg /} im y7jg, Horn, by 
sea or land. 

692. — Obs. 7. A preposition is frequently understood. 
12* 



274 THE INDICATIVE MOOD. § 169, 170. 

§ 169. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

693. — Rule LIII. A preposition in composition 
sometimes governs the same case as when it stands 
by itself ; as, 

i%?jlde 7?jg olxiag, he went out from the house. 

694. — Obs. 1. This is done when the preposition can be sepa- 
rated from the verb, and joined with the substantive, without 
altering the sense. 

695. — Obs 2. In Homer, Herodotus, and other old writers, 
the preposition is frequently found separated by one or more 
words from that with which it may be considered in composition ; 
as, r\\nXv ano loiybv a\ivvai (II. 1. 67), for q[uv ana\ivvai loiyov ; 
anb fiev 6803vzbv SXsaag (Herod. 3. 36), for osco'vibv psr anonXs- 
aag. Hence, when the verb is to be repeated several times, after 
the first time, the proposition only is often used ; as, anolu nb- 
Xiv, anb 8s nariqa. Grammarians, however, consider the prepo- 
sition in such cases as used adverbially, and not properly in com- 
position. Instances of the proper tmesis are very rare, especially 
in the Attic prose writers. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



§170. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

696. — The indicative mood is used, in Greek, when any thing 
is to be represented as actually existing or happening, and as a 
thing independent of the thought and ideas of the speaker. Hence 
it is often used where the subjunctive, and sometimes the accusa- 
tive with the infinitive, would be used in Latin ; as, 

1. It is used after negative propositions with the relative ; as, 
ov8sig egti bang rovto ttoibi, there is no one ivho does this. 
Lat. nemo est qui hoc faciat. Lat. Gr. 636. 

2. It is used in indirect interrogations, where the Latin re- 
quires the subjunctive ; as, boars' ri Tzoiovfisv, you see what 
we are doing. Lat. vides quid faciamus. Lat. Gr. 627. 

3. It is used in quoting the language of another, stating what 
is actual and fact, after on, cac, &c, where the Latin uses the 



§ 170. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 275 

accusative with the infinitive, or the subjunctive with quod ; as, 
tjyelXev oti ol noltjioi ecpevyov, he announced that the enemy were 
fleeing. Lat. nunciavit hostes fugere, or hoc nunciavit, quod hos- 
tes fug event. 

THE INDICATIVE IN CONDITIONAL PEOPOSITIONS. 

697. — The indicative, in Greek, is used in conditional propo- 
sitions in various ways, as follows : 

1. When the thing supposed in the condition is regarded as 
a fact, and neither contingent nor uncertain, the indicative in any 
tense is used with el in the condition, followed by the indicative 
or imperative, and sometimes by the subjunctive used impera- 
tively (709), without av in the conclusion ; as, el elm @w[A.oi, elm 
xal deoi, if there are altars, there are also gods ; el e^Qovrtjae, 
y.al ifitQaipev, if it thundered (as it did), it also lightened ; el 
fiqovxrfiei, xal aatqmpei, if it shall thunder, it will also lighten. 
This accords with the Latin construction. Lat. Gr. 624-2. 

2. When the thing supposed in the condition is not a fact, or 
when a denial of it is implied, the indicative in the past tenses is 
used with el in the condition, and with av in the conclusion ; 
and here there are three cases ; viz., 

1st. When the reference is to present time, or to past and pres- 
ent time, the imperfect tense is used in both parts ; as, el ti 
eTyev, ididov av, if he had any thing (now), he would give it. 
Lat. si quid haberet, daret. 

2d. When the reference in both clauses is to past time, the aorist 
must be used instead of the imperfect in both, or, at least, 
in one of them ; as, ei ti eayov, edwv av, if I had had any 
thing, I would have given it. Lat. si quid habuissem, dedis- 
sem ; ovx av nooeXeyev, el p/ inimevGev dXnd-evaetv, he 
tvould not have foretold it, unless he had believed he would 
speak the truth. 

3d. When the condition refers to past time, and the conclusion 
to present, the indicative aorist with el is used in the former, 
and the imperfect with av in the latter ; as, el spa-d-ov, eyl- 
yvwoxov av, if I had learned (then), / should know (now). 

698. — Obs. The indicative without ei or av is sometimes used 
in suppositions, where, in other languages, the subjunctive would 
be put ; as, Te'&vrjxa zrj ay -&vyaro), v.a\ \i anfoleae, suppose 
that 1 had been slain by thy daughter, and that she had made 
an end of me. 



276 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 171, 172. 

§171. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

699. — The imperative in Greek is used as in other languages, 
in addresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The pronouns (being 
the nominative) are omitted, except where emphasis or distinc- 
tion is required. In the use of this mood the following peculi- 
arities of construction may be observed ; viz., 

1. The second person sometimes stands for the third ; as, 

allcc (fivlavtH nag tig, but let each one watch. 
neXag rig v&t, let some neighbour go. 

2. As in English, the plural is sometimes used for the singu- 
lar ; as, iroootX'&ETS, co nai narqi, come, my child, to thy fa- 
ther. Also, sometimes the singular, when more than one person 
is mentioned ; as, sins [ioi, co JZcoxoazs'g ts xal 'innoxgazsg. 

3. In prohibitions with p/, the present imperative is most 
commonly used. If the aorist is used, (itj must be put with the 
subjunctive. The few exceptions to this rule belong to Homeric 
usage. 

4. The imperative after ohd ? on, oTatf o, olatf cog, seems to 
be used elliptically, and to have arisen from a transposition of 
the imperative ; as, oiatf cog noincrov ; hnowest thou in what 
way thou must act ? (i. e. act, hnowest thou in what ivay ?) ohd ? 
ovv o doacjov ; hnowest thou what to do ? (i. e. do, hnowest thou 
what?) 

5. Sometimes the imperative is used for the future; as, n 
ovv ; xeig&co vojjiog ; ivhat then ? shall a law exist ? i. e. What 
then? (do you say,) let a law exist? On the other hand, the 
future is still more frequently used for the imperative ; as, yvco- 
oeai AtQsidtjv Aya^itfjivova (for yvco&i), recollect Agamemnon, 
Atreud son. Especially is this the case with a negative inter- 
rogatively ; as, ovxovv \i idaeig ; will you not leave me alone ? 
i. e. leave me alone. 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 

700. — The subjunctive and optative moods represent an ac- 
tion, not as actually existing, but rather as dependent upon, and 
connected with, the ideas and feelings of the speaker. The sub- 
junctive represents this dependence as present ; the optative rep- 
resents it as past (197-2). Hence the following general rule : 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 277 

I. The Subjunctive and Optative in Dependent Propositions. 

701. — Rule LIV. In dependent clauses, the 
subjunctive mood is used in connection with the 
primary tenses ; the optative, with the second- 
ary (199-3) ; as, 

TTUQSifii tva idea, I am present that I may see. 

7iaQr t v ha i'doifu, I was present that I might see. 

On this general principle the whole construction of these 
moods depends, as may be illustrated by the following observa- 
tions : 

702. — Obs. 1. These moods are used after conjunctions whose 
use is to introduce a subordinate or dependent clause, in which 
actual existence is not definitely expressed ; as, Iva, ocfga, wzcog, 
cog', thus, &&tXsig oyg avzbg syng ytoag ; do you wish that 
you yourself may have a reward? fit; \l iQSxriQ, cacoteoog cog 
y.s v£r\ at, provoke me not, that you may return the safer. This 
sentence, which contains the direct address (oratio directa) of Aga- 
memnon to Chryses, has the subjunctive after cog, in connection 
with the present ioiftiQz. When this is afterwards related as a 
past event, in the style of the indirect address (oratio obliqua), the 
subjunctive is changed into the optative; thus, amevcu ixsksvs 
xai fit] SQe&iXsiv, Iva ocog oixads eXxroi, he commanded him to 
depart and not provoke him, that he might return safe. 

703. — In like manner when a person, without quoting the di- 
rect language of another, relates what was said by him, not as 
actual and fact, but as a supposition or the opinion of that per- 
son, as the reference must be to what is past, the optative is 
used with on or cog prefixed; as, "Elt^t fioi, on ij odbg cpeooi 
dg t)\v nohvj &c. ; he told me, that the road would lead me into 
the city, &c. See also 696-3. 

When or i has been already expressed, it is often omitted before 
succeeding clauses in the same construction. 

Note. "On, that, is also used, in Greek, when the words of another 
are quoted without change in direct discourse. It is then equivalent 
to quotation marks only, and is to be omitted in translation ; as, ant- 
•/.oivaro, oti,' BaGufciav ov/. av delalu?jv, he answered: " I will not re- 
ceive the kingdom; " Xaoiq av ilbnouv, otv' - r 2 2d)Qy.aitq, f.irj dav/xa^i ra 
hyoueva, perhaps they (the laws) might say, " Socrates, wonder not 
at the sayings " (lit., things said). 

704. — Obs. 2. Whena^>as£ event is related in the present 
time (198, Obs. 1), the verb in the dependent clause may still be 



278 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. §172. 

in the optative ; and in like manner, after the historical tenses, 
the subjunctive is used when the event, though past, yet continues 
in its effects and operation, to, and through, the present time. 
Thus, in the address of Minerva to Diomede, "I removed the 
mist from your eyes that you may distinguish (pcpgu yiv(6axr t g) a 
deity from a man in the field of battle." Here, however, there 
may be a change of reference, i. e. the subjunctive yivcoGxyg may 
refer, not to the time of the removal, but to the time of the ad- 
dress, as if she had said, " I removed the mist from your eyes 
that you may from this time forward distinguish," &c. Such 
changes of reference are not uncommon in all languages. 

705. — Obs. 3. It was noticed, 197, Obs. 3, that the future in- 
dicative is used in a subjunctive sense. Accordingly it is often 
found in a dependent clause, especially after oncog, in the same 
construction as the subjunctive ; as, " Cyrus deliberates (oncog 
[iiJTTOze hi earai) how he may no longer be subject to his brother, 
but, if possible, (fiaailevGEi) may reign in his stead." Exetizeov 
— O7zcog aaqiale'ezaza u7tiw[a,ev (subj.), xai oTtcog za imzrfiEia 
Qofxsv (fut.), We ought to consider how we may get away most 
safely, and obtain the necessary supplies. 

706. — Obs. 4. After adverbs of time, when the precise point 
of time is not determined but left indefinite, the subjunctive and 
optative are used. These are inr^v, inudav, ozav, o7Tozav, refer- 
ring indefinitely to the present, and so followed by the subjunc- 
tive — 87TEi, E7Z8i8/j, ore, ottoze, referring indefinitely to the past, and 
followed by the optative ; as, " Menelaus entertained him when 
(from time to time) he came from Crete," otzoze KQtjtfi&ep 
ixoizo. Here otzoze Koijztidsv Ixezo would mean, when he actu- 
ally came from Crete. The primary part of the sentence, then, 
may be considered as understood, — when it happened, — that he 
came from Crete. 

707. — Obs. 5. When the relatives og, oczig, ocog, onov, &c. 
refer to definite persons or things, and to what actually took 
place, they are followed by the indicative mood. But if the per- 
son or thing to which they refer is indefinite, and the whole pro- 
position affirms of past time, then the verb is in the optative 
without av ; as, ovziva [aev ^aaiXr t a M^ei'v, whatever monarch he 
found ; navzag ozcp evzv%oiev — xzEivovzsg, slaying all whomsoever 
they might meet. On the other hand, if the proposition affirms 
something of present or future time, the verb is in the subjunctive 
with av ; as, iv rj #' av t(av cpvlcav tzIeiozoi coat, &c, in which- 
soever of the tribes there may be the greatest number, <fcc. ; gfrsG&e 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 279 

OTioi av Tig rfirpai, folloiu ichere (it is possible that) any one may 
lead the ivay. In such sentences the primary part may be under- 
stood, such as " it is possible that," " it happened that," &c. 

II. The Subjunctive and Op>tative in Independent Propositions. 

708. — Obs. 6. Both the subjunctive and optative are used 
without being preceded by another verb, and so apparently in 
independent clauses. In all such instances, however, there is an 
ellipsis of the verb on which they depend. 
709. — I. The subjunctive is thus used, 
1st. To command in the first person ; as, i'cofiev, let us go, i. e. 

it is necessary that we go ; and so of others. 
2d. In forbidding, with pj or its compounds in the aorist, not in 

the present ; as, [ir t ofioayg, swear not. 
3d. In deliberating with one's self; as, not Toancofiai, whither 
shall I turn ; Ei7tcofiev rj oiycofisv, shall we speak or be silent. 
710. — II. The optative is thus used, 
1st. To express a wish or prayer ; as, rovto jiij ye'voito, that 
this might not be. In this case ei'ds, ei, cog, Tzcog av, are 
often used with the optative. 
Rem. A wish relating to what is past, or that cannot be realized, is 
expressed by the indicative of the historical tenses, with tt&s, ii& d 
ydq, ok, prefixed; as, (X&s dwarbv r,v, would that it were possible. — Or, 
by the 2 aorist indicative of byiU.o) (onft/.ov, -iq, -?, 200-8.) with the 
infinitive; as, ur\nox oxptlov noihlv, would that I had never done it ! il 
ya.Q wqt/.i \}<xvciv, O that he had died ! , 

2d. In connection with av, to express doubt, conjecture, bare pos- 
sibility ; as, tivkg av zhv vopeig, they loere perhaps (or, it is 
probable that they were) shepherds ; and in volitions, to ex- 
press, not a fixed resolution, but only an inclination to a 
. thing ; as, ifitcog av dsaaaiuriv, I would gladly see them. 

3d. To express a definite assertion with politeness or modesty ; 
as, ov% ?;x£i ov8' av y^oi tiwoo, he has not come, and 
will xot come back ; i. e. I rather think it was his purpose 
that he would not come back. 

4th. Sometimes it is used for the imperative, to convey a com- 
mand or request in milder terms ; as, %tQQOig av eigcq, you 
may go in, i. e. go in. 

5th. It is sometimes used for the indicative, to give an air of in- 
determinateness to the circumstances of an action which is 
determinate in itself; as, tcov veqqv ag xazadvaetav, the ships 
which they may (or might) have sunk ; i. e. zvhich they have 
sunk. 



280 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. § 172. 

6th. It is also used in a potential sense, to denote power or vo- 
lition ; as, ov'A av dv fiEivEiag avxov ; could you not with- 
stand him ? i&eh'jGEisv av ; would he be loilling ? 

III. The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propositions. 

711. — Obs. 7. The use of the indicative in conditional propo- 
sitions has been noticed, 697. The subjunctive and optative are 
also used in conditional propositions, as follows : 
1st. Uncertainty in the condition, with an actual result, is ex- 
pressed by lav with the subjunctive in the condition, and 
the indicative future or imperative in the conclusion ; as, 
lav ri e%(Q[iev dcoaopsv, if we have any thing we will give 
it ; lav n 8%ng, dog, if you have any thing, give it. 
2d. A mere hypothetical supposition with a determinate result, 
puts the condition in the optative with si, and the result in 
the indicative ; as, ovg sdei zijg vvxzbg Tzaoayeveod'ai nav- 
GtqaxTa, si ti aqa [a,ij ttqo^coqoiv zoTg IgeXeXv&ogi, who 
were to come in the night with the ivhole army, if success 
should not attend those who had entered. On the contra- 
ry, an actual case supposed in the condition with a hypo- 
thetical result, would require the first in the indicative with 
si, and the last in the optative ; as, si ycto ^ds ravza oida, 
v,ai TQ3V avooanoScov yavXoreoog av si'nv , if I did not know 
these things, /should be more worthless than the slaves. 
3d. When the case is altogether hypothetical, the condition is 
expressed by the optative with ei, and the result by the op- 
tative with av ; as, ei' Tig ravza nqatToi, \i(ya \l av 
cocpeltjGeis, if any one should do this he would greatly 
assist me. 

Sometimes the subjunctive with lav or av, instead of the 

optative, is put in the condition. 

712. — Obs. 8. All conditional propositions in Greek may be 

turned into the infinitive or participle with av ; as, oiovrai ava- 

[Ad%EG{rai av GVfifiayovg TtooglafiovTEg, " they think they might 

retrieve their fortune in war if they should obtain allies." 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

713. — The infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb 
in a general and unlimited manner, without the distinctions of 
number or person, 197-4. In construction it may be considered 



§ 173, 174. INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. 281 

under the four following divisions : viz., as a verbal noun ; — with- 
out a subject, as the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or 
adjective ; — with a subject ; — absolutely after certain particles. 



§173. I THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL NOUN. 

714. — The infinitive, with the neuter article prefixed, 403-14, 
is used as a verbal noun, in all the cases except the vocative ; 
and, as such, is subject to the same rules of construction as the 
noun, being used in the nominative as the subject of a verb, and 
governed, in the oblique cases, by verbs or prepositions. 

715. — Obs. 1. When the infinitive, with, or without, a clause, 
is used as the nominative to a verb, or the accusative governed 
by it, it is frequently without the article ; very rarely so after a 
preposition ; as, naoiv ijiiiv y.az&avsiv oqeO.ezai, dying is due to 
all of us. 

716. — Obs. 2. Not only the simple infinitive, but the infini- 
tive with the whole clause to which it belongs, may often be re- 
garded as a substantive, and stand in almost every variety of 
construction in which a substantive can be placed ; as, Nom. zb 
rovg uvOoconovg aiAaozdreiv ovdtv ■&av{ia(jz6v (iazt), that men 
should err is nothing wonderful ; Gen. imto zov fx^dsva ano- 
{fv^G-Ativ, that no one might r perish ; Dat. ha aniGzaoi zcq ifis 
Tezifitjo&ai vrth daiftorcov, that they may disbelieve my having 
been honoured by the gods ; Ace. 'iy.oiva zb {ii} naXiv sl&eiv, I 
determined not to come again. 

717. — Obs. 3. With the article alone, the infinitive is gener- 
ally equivalent to the Latin gerund ; as, tvexa zov IJyew, causa 
dicendi ; iv zo) Ityuv, dicendo ; nobg zb Xiyav, ad dicendum. 

718. — Obs. 4. Without the article, it has often the force of 
the Latin supine ; as, ijlds Vt]ztjaai., venit quasitum ; rfiv uxov- 
eiv, Suave audita ; aiG'tfGzog 6cpdi;vai, tuipissimus visu. 



§ 174. II. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

719. — Rule LV. One verb, being the subject 
of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

(fEvyeiv avzoTg uacpalJazeoov loziv, to fly is safer for them. 



282 INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. § 174. 

720. — Rule LVI. One verb governs another 
as its object, in the infinitive ; as, 

ijQ^aro Isysiv, he began to say. 
Rem. Both these rules apply to the infinitive with a subject, § 175. 

721. — Rule LVIT. The infinitive mood is gov- 
erned by adjectives denoting fitness, ability, capa- 
city, and the contrary ; as, 

dsivbg Itysw, powerful in speaking, 

a^iog &av{ia<jai, worthy to be admired. 

Note. It is also used after substantives ; as, l^ovalav yevea&ai,, 
power to become. 

722. — Obs. 1. The infinitive under these rules is in the same 
clause with, and expresses the cause, end, or object, of the action, 
state, or quality expressed by, the verb or adjective that governs 
it. The verbs that govern the infinitive directly in this way are 
such as denote desire, ability, intention, endeavour, and the like ; 
as, idslst yodcpsiv, he wishes to write ; deopai oov ilxrsiv, I beg 
of you to come. 

723. — Obs. 2. The infinitive is sometimes placed after verbs, 
to express the design or consequence of that which they affirm. 
Thus used it is governed, not by the verb, but by some such word 
as coots understood ; as, iycov ode ndvta naosoysiv, i. e. coats 
nccvta naosoyjsiv, I am here (so as) to furnish all things ; tjxopsv 
(coots) iiav&aveiv, we have come (in order) to learn. 

724. — Obs. 3. After a verb or adjective, a verb denoting an 
incidental object not directly in view, is put in the infinitive 
with coats ; as, cptkotijiotatog ?jv coats navta V7i0[isivai, he was 
very ambitious, so as to endure all things, &c. This construction 
takes place especially after such words as toaovtog, toiovtog, ov- 
tcog, and the like. 

725. — Obs. 4. The infinitive is sometimes put after verbs or 
adjectives which indicate some state or quality, in order to ex- 
press the respect in which that state or quality obtains, and would 
be expressed in Latin by the supine, or gerund in do, and in En- 
glish, by the substantive ; as, 

cog id sir scpaivsto, as it appeared to the sight. 

&siEiv avs{imoiv b^Loloi, like the winds in running. 
ovds TtQOvcpaivst ids'a&ai, nor did he appear to the sight. 



§ 175. INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. 283 

726. — Obs. 5. The infinitive active is used often in Greek in 
the sense of the latter supine, or infinitive passive in Latin ; as, 

avijQ qacov (pvlaaaeiv, a man is more easy to be guarded against. 
Qdbia noiuv, things easy to be done. 



§175. III. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

727. — 1. A subordinate or dependent clause containing a verb 
and its subject, is connected with the leading or primary clause, in 
two ways. First, by a conjunctive particle, such as on, cog, and 
the like ; as, Xiyovai on 6 izaioog zs&i>i]xe, they say that our com- 
panion is dead. Here the verb is finite, and its subject in the nom- 
inative. Second, without a conjunction ; as, Xsyovoi zbv Stuiqov 
ze&vdvcu, they say that our companion is dead. In this case, the 
verb is in the infinitive, and its subject, usually in the accusative. 

728. — 2. Sometimes both modes of expression are united in 
the same sentence ; as, ecszi Xoyog cog ^tg^vg ixopi^szo eg 
zr { v Jioirp ' nlcoovza 8i yav dv&\iov Hz qv [loviwv vnoXa^elv. 
Sometimes a sentence begins with the one form and ends with 
the other ; as, Xtyovai 8' i\\iu.g, dv,iv8vvov fiiov £co~(iev, they say 
that we live a life free from danger ; as if it had been intended 
to say, Xiyovai 8' fyag dy,iv8vvov ftiov ^f t v ; 735. 

The construction of the subordinate clause connected by the 
first method mentioned above, is subject to the rules §§ 138, 139 ; 
connected by the second, it comes under the rules that follow : 



729. — Rule LVIII. The infinitive mood in a 
dependent clause, has its subject in the accusative ; 

as, 

zovg &eovg ndvza elStvai t'Xsyev, he said that the gods knew all 
things. 

730. — Exc. When the subject of the infinitive 
is the same with the subject of the preceding verb, 
it is put by attraction in the same case ; as, 

ecpn shai azoazwyog, he said that he was a general. 

731. — 3. In this construction, the subject of the infinitive is 
generally omitted, except when emphasis is required ; as, eqyn 
ai'zbg elvcu ozQazijyog, ovx r/.elvovg, he said that he was a gene- 



284 INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. § 175. 

raZ, that they were not generals. This construction lias been 
frequently imitated in Latin ; thus, Sensit medios delapsus in 
hostes. Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis. Hor. 

732. — Obs. 1. In a few instances, constructions vary both 
from the rule and the exception. Occasionally, the subject of 
the infinitive is in the nominative, when it signifies a different 
thing from the subject of the preceding verb, and in the accusa- 
tive, when it signifies the same. 

733. — Obs. 2. If the subject of the infinitive be the same with 
the object of the preceding verb, it may either be in the accusa- 
tive according to the rule, or stand before the infinitive, in the 
case governed by the preceding verb ; thus, 

xslsvca 60i zovro noislv, or ) r 7 . , ., . 

t / ~ ~ y 1 command you to do this. 

xeIevoj as tovzo noisiv, \ J 

734. — In either case there is an ellipsis ; — in the first form, of 
as, the immediate subject of the infinitive ; and in the second, of 
goi, the remote object of the preceding verb. Both these modes 
of construction are common, and sometimes they are intermixed 
in the same sentence ; thus, Lysias, dt'opai vficov to. dr/.cua ipn- 
q>iaaadru, iv&vfiovfjLsvovg on, x.t.L, I beg or you to deter- 
mine, justly considering that, &c. Here vpoov stands before 
the infinitive governed in the genitive by deoficu, and yet irOv- 
IxovjjLtvovg follows in the accusative, evidently agreeing with vfidg 
the subject of the infinitive understood. With equal propriety, it 
might have been put in the genitive. 

735. — Rem. Constructions of this kind, in which the end of a sen- 
tence does not grammatically correspond to the beginning, are called 
anacolutha. For other examples of this, see 535 and 728. The most 
common form of anacoluthon appears to be, when the speaker commen- 
ces a period in the manner required by the preceding discourse, but 
afterwards, especially after a parenthetic clause, passes over into ano- 
ther construction. This method of construction, however, is never 
adopted by Greek writers unless something is thereby gained in con- 
ciseness, perspicuity, smoothness, or emphasis. 

736. — Obs. 3. When used in the passive voice, the subject of 
the infinitive is changed into the subject of the preceding verb, 
or it remains unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being 
used impersonally ; as, 

TJyETia Kvoog, ) > a ^ Q » 
■) > v~ r ysvsoxTca Kaupvaov. 

ksyszai kvoov, ) ' r r 

Cyrus is said to have been ) ,, - n , 

rf • -J 4i * n Y the son of Camoyses. 

It is said that Cyrus ivas j J J 



§ 176. INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 285 

737. — Obs. 4. The same observation is true of the verb doxeT; 
thus, doxei avzbg etvai, he seems to be ; or doneT avrbv shou, it 
seems that he is. The following sentence unites the two : y.al 
fiijv yyyeXtai ye ?) pa XV ^X V Q^ yzyovtvai xal noXXovg 
ze&vavai, and indeed it was said that the battle was obsti- 
nate, and that many died. In like manner, the adjectives dt'xai- 
og, 8/jXog, qaveoog, &c, with the verb eijil, are used for the neuter 
gender with iazi, as impersonals ; thus, dr/.aiog sifu, for dr/.aiov 
ioz(, &c, it is just that I, &c. ; d*jX6g eozvv, for dJf/.ov laziv av- 
rov — , it is manifest that he — . 755. 

738. — Obs. 5. The case after the infinitive of a copulative verb 
(437), must be the same with the case before it, if the word re- 
fers to the same thing (438) ; as, Nom. ecpq (avzbg) ehai ozqazr r 
yog, he said that he was a general ; Gen. '/.azeyvcoxozoov rfiq pr r 
xtzi -AoaL6<j6vcQV tivo.1, having learned that they are no longer 
superior; Dat. icp i\\ilv eozi zb £tzielx86i elv a i, it depends 
upon ourselves to be reasonable. And this observation holds 
good whether the word before the infinitive be its proper subject, 
or (that being omitted, 731), the subject or the object of the pre- 
ceding verb. 

739. — 05s. 6. Whatever case is required before the infinitive 
by the preceding rules, it continues the same though preceded 
by cog or cooze, or a preposition, because the preposition affects 
not the subject of the infinitive, but belongs to the infinitive it- 
self, or to the whole clause ; thus, ovdslg znlixovzog eazco naq 
v[iiv coaze zovg vb\iovg naqa^ag \i)\ dovvai dr/.rjv, let no one 
be so great among you, that, breaking the laws, he can go unpun- 
ished ; ?jfia.Qzavov did rb fi?] Gocpol eivai, they erred be- 
cause THEY WERE NOT WISE. 



§176. IV. THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 
740. — Rule LIX. The infinitive is often put 
absolutely with the particles cog, coots, tvqiv, iixQh 
jusxQt, &c, before it ; as, 

cog IdeTv avd-Qconov, when the man saw. 

ttqIv dno&aveiv zb tzuiMov, before the child died. 

cog [mxqov fieydXo) elxdoai, to compare small with great. 

741. — Obs. 1. 'Qg, with the infinitive, is frequently used to 
limit a proposition in the sense of " as far as ;" thus, cog efxs ev 



286 THE PARTICIPLE. § 177. 

(A.t[ivrJ6&ai, as fa?' as I recollect distinctly ; cog ye fioi doxeiv, as 
it seems to me. But cog is frequently omitted ; hence such ex- 
pressions as, ov 7TolXcp loyco elneiv, in few words ; [mxqov deer, 
little is wanting, almost ; noklov detv, much is wanting. 

742. — Obs. 2. The infinitive is often used for the imperative 
mood, oqcc, [IXtTiE, gxotzsT, &c. being understood; as, %aiqeiv 
fj,8ta %cuq6vzcqv, xlaieiv psta vXaiovTcov, rejoice with them 
that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. Sometimes, also, 
for the optative, dog, &eXco, or Ev%o[iai, being understood ; as, 
co Zev ev.yeveod-ai \ioi Jl&)]vaiovg tig dad at, Jupiter, may 
it, be granted to me to punish the Athenians : — sometimes ex- 
pressed ; as, co Zev, dog ps Tiaao&cu pogov narqog. 

743. — 05s. 3. The infinitive eivai is sometimes absolute and 
redundant, both with and without the article ; viz., 
1st. After adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions ; thus, Show eivcu 
for excov, willing ; as, excov dv eivai tovto Tzou'jcjaifit, I 
would willingly do this. So the phrases, to ovfinav eivcu, 
generally ; tie y eivcu, with respect to you ; to pev TrjfieQOV 
shcu, to-day at least ; xata tovto eivai, with respect to this ; 
to vvv eivcu, now ; to en ev.eivoig eivai, as far as depends 
on them. 
2d. After verbs of calling, choosing, making, &c. ; as, coy ujttJv, 
bvo\ictQov<5i ye top dvdga eivcu, they ccdl the man a philoso- 
pher ; ol de <5v\i\iayov \iiv eiXovzo eivai, they chose him as 
an ally (598). 



§177. THE PARTICIPLE, 201. 

744. — Rule LX. Participles, like adjectives, 
agree with their substantives in gender, number, 
and case, 372. 

745. — Rule LXI. Participles govern the case 
of their own verbs ; as, 

ol noXe^uoi to Xoylov eldozeg, the enemies knowing the oracle. 
tovtcov £{iov deope'vov, I being in want of tJiese things. 

746. — The Greek language, having a participle in every tense 
of every voice, uses it much more extensively than the Latin. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 287 

The principal purposes for which it is employed are the follow- 
ing : 

747. — I. A participle is joined with another verb agreeing 
with its subject, for the following purposes ; viz., 

1st. Simply to connect an accompanying with the main action 
in the same subject. Thus used, the participle and verb 
are to be rendered as two verbs with a conjunction ; as, 
iraotl&cov zig dei^dzay, let any one come forward and shew. 

2d. To combine the accompanying with the main action as the 
cause, manner, or means of accomplishing it ; in which use 
it is equivalent to the ablative gerund in Latin, as in the 
following examples. 

Cause; as, ii aoifjoag xazsypco^n &dvazov ; for having 
done what (quid faciendo) was he condemned to die ? 

Means; as, sveoyszav avzovg ixzrjadfnjv, I gained them by 
kindness (bene faciendo) ; Ini^opevoi ^aoiv, they live by 
plunder (populando). 

Manner; as, tysvywv ixqevyei, he escapes by flight (fugien- 
do)', zoXfi?](jag elgrjld'e, he went in boldly (audendo). 
This construction is found also in Latin writers ; thus, Hoc 
faciens vivam melius, Hor. by doing this I shall live bet- 
ter ; as if, hoc faciendo, &c. 

Note. The participle thus used agrees with the agent in any case ; 
e.g. in the dative ; as, a rovq avd-qwrtoiq ^do)y.av ol &eol ua&ovGi, 
dtaxQtviw, which the gods have put it in the power of men to find out by 
study; the accusative ; as, a \t,earw ccQv&/.i7jGuvxaq i) jueTQr'jO'avTaq rj 
GT^Gavxaq ildtvcu, which we may know by counting, by measuring, or by 



3d. It is used, to limit a general expression, by intimating the 
action in respect of which the assertion is made; as, ddixstze 
trole'fiov ao%ovz£g, ye do wrong in beginning the war. 

748. — Obs. 1. In this way, the participle is used with verbs 
that signify any emotion of the mind, to show the cause of the 
emotion; as, iftoficu (lev a eigidcov, lam rejoiced at seeing 
you; ovdmoze goi {iszccfiel/jGei ev aotyaavzi, you will never 
repent of having done a kindness. 

749. — II. The participle is used for the purpose of further de- 
scribing a person or thing mentioned in a sentence, and may be 
rendered by the relative and the verb ; or for connecting with a 
statement, some relation of time, cause, or condition, expressed in 
English by such words as when, while, after that; — because, 
since, as; — if, although, <fec; — the relation intended, and of 



288 THE PAETICIPLE. §177. 

course the proper rendering of the participle, will generally have 
to be ascertained from the nature of the sentence itself, or from 
the connection in which it stands ; thus, meaaETito^riv tov irat- 
qov vooovvtu, may signify, according to the context, I visited 
my comrade who was sick ; or when, or because, he was sick ; 
ds'vdoa ph Tfinxrtvra ra%mg yvstcu, trees, though lopped 

(WHICH HAVE BEEN LOPPED, AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN LOPPED, 

when lopped, as to their branches), quickly grow again. 

750. — Obs. 2. When the article precedes the participle refer- 
ring to a word already expressed or easy to be supplied, the two 
may be rendered by the relative and the indicative ; as, 6 £Q%6- 
fievog, he that cometh, 402—8. 

751. — Note. The participle, with the article before ~',\ is frequently 
equivalent to a noun designating the doer of the action expressed by 
the verb; as, ol yqaif-'d/xivov 2o)y.oarrjv, the accusers of Socrates. There 
is, however, this difference ; the participle expresses the doer in a state 
of action, the substantive does not ; thus, 6 dovloi; is a man in the con- 
dition of a slave ; 6 doidevow is one, at the time referred to, performing 
the part of a slave. 

The Participle as the Infinitive. 

752. — III. The participle, in Greek, is often used as the in- 
finitive, and has for its subject, according to the sense, either the 
subject or the object of the preceding verb, with which it always 
agrees in gender, number, and case. 

753. — In the construction of the participle with its subject, 
there occur the following varieties ; viz., 

1st. The participle takes as its subject, the subject of the pre- 
ceding verb, and agrees with it in the nominative or accusa- 
tive ; as, Nominative, ov itavGo\iai yoacpcov, I will not cease 
to write ; oloa \rv?]rbg oor, I know that I am a mortal. 
Accusative, as leyovGiv avxov (ispv-nG&cu TTou'jGavttt, they 
say that he remembers having done it, or, that lie did it. 
2d. The participle agrees with the immediate object of the pre- 
ceding verb as its subject, in the accusative ; as, Gctcpcag xa- 
rtpuxrov ydopaxa avzov vytiv syfteavra, I plainly perceived 
that he had infused poison for you. 
3d. The participle agrees with the remote object of the verb as 
its subject, in the genitive or dative. Genitive, as, ?/o~i?-o- 
[x?]v ccvmov olofiivcov elvca GOtycorazmv, I perceived that they 
fancied themselves to be very wise ; Dative, nijOtnozt iieze- 
fjtshjoi [ioi GiytjGczvn, I never repented of having been silent, 
or, that I was silent. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 289 

4 tli. When the verb is followed by a reflexive pronoun, the par- 
ticiple may agree either with the pronoun or the nominative 
to the verb ; as, cvvoida ipavzco upaozuvcov or aiiaozavorzi, 
I am conscious that I am doing wrong ; eavzbv ovdelg bfio- 
loyec xaxovoyog cov, or, y.uy.ovoyov ovza, nobody confesses 
that he himself is wicked. 

Ibi. — Obs. 3. The verbs after which the participle is thus 
used, are 1st. Verbs of sense ; as, to see, hear, &c. 2. Verbs de- 
noting any act or feeling of the mind ; as, to know, •perceive, dis- 
cern, consider, observe, experience, sheiv, recollect. 3. Verbs sig- 
nifying to overlook, to permit, to happen, to persevere, bear, en- 
dure, to be pleased or contented with, to cease, and to cause to 
cease. 

755. — It is used, also, with adjectives signifying clearness; as, 
d/p.og el Gvxocfdvzcov, it is clear that you are a sycophant. Some- 
times on with the indicative is used ; as, evdrj.og cov on ?jG7tu^8Z0j 
by its being manifest that he loved, 737. 

756. — Obs. 4. Instead of the participle with the verbs men- 
tioned above, the infinitive is sometimes used ; but in that case, 
the idea expressed is usually different ; e. g., 1. alayvvofxai 71011)- 
oag, I am ashamed to have done it ; uiayvrouai TtoitjGai, I am 
ashamed to do it, and therefore will not. 2. 6 ytiiicov potato 
ytrouevog, the winter was come on, had actually commenced ; 6 
'/Etficor (q'/zto yiyreadui, the ivinter was beginning to come on, 
but had not yet arrived. 3. ijxovea rbv Ji-uoadtvn tiyovza, I 
heard Demosthenes speak ; yxovau rbv /Jijuoo&tvn tiyeiv, I 
heard (i. e. I am told), that Demosthenes says. 4. icpauezo 
y.laioiv, he evidently wept ; kpaivezo yJ.ou'eir, he seemed to weep. 
5. With verbs to declare, to announce, the participle represents 
the thino- announced as a fact, the infinitive, as matter of report, 
but not asserted as a fact. With many verbs, however, it is in- 
different which construction is used; as, Zitficfooov iari ravru 
rroayO^rui, or raiza ^vurpood lazi Troayfrtvzu, it is unfortunate 
that these things were done. 

757, — Ols. 5. After verbs of motion, the future participle is 
used to point out the design or object of the motion expressed by 
the verb, and is rendered by the English phrase " in order to ;" 
as, 68-/8 8 id a J cov coo^fxai, I leave hastened forward ix obdeb 

TO TEACH THEE. 

758. — l n this construction ag is often interposed before the 
participle ; as, 7iaQ&mevd£ovTo cog noUptpwyreg, they prepared 
to make war. 

13 



290 THE PARTICIPLE. § 177. 

759. — Sometimes the present participle is used in this way ; 
as, TitfiTzei [xs (pSQOvra, he sent me to carry. The future partici- 
ple after toyoucu is only a circumlocution for the future tense : 
as, sq%0[A,(u yoaGOdv, tor qiQacjcQ, 1 wilt speak ; 8q%ojagu vltiovu.- 
vovpsvog, I shall die : or, I am about to die. 

760. — IV. Joined with Xav&dvoD, qj&dvw, Tvy%dv(o } diaralecoy 
&c, the participle is used to express the main action or state, and 
rendered in the indicative, while the verb with which it is joined, 
expressing a subordinate circumstance, is often rendered as an 
adverb ; thus, 'iXadEV v7tExqivyc6v, he escaped unpcrceived ; ihv 
(povEa Xav&divEi fiooxcov, he unconsciously feeds his murderer ; 
Ey&jjv acpelwv, I took it away just before ; ezv^ev dmcov, he went 
away accidentally ; erv%ov naqovzEg, they ivere accidentally pres- 
ent ; diazsXsL Traocov, he is continually present. 

761 — Note. The participle mv is wanting with adjectives, and some- 
times without them ; as, rvyxdvtu y.altj (sc. owa), she happens to be 
beautiful. With a negative, q>&dvo> may be rendered scarcely, no soon- 
er ; as, ova scpfrqactv nv&6(.woi, they no sooner heard. Sometimes it is 
followed by the infinitive instead of the participle ; as, novrj^bg dv 
q>9dcm,£ rilivrriaav nqlv, x. r. ?.., a wretched man would sooner die than, 
&c. 

762. — Obs. 6. In the same sense, these verbs stand sometimes 
in the participle with other finite verbs ; as, dno tefysog dXzo 
Xaircov, he sprung unobserved from the wall ; tjvtteq tvy^dvcov 
V7ZE(T%6[A,r]v, tvhich I happened to promise. 

763. — V. A participle with the verbs e\\iL ywopcu, vnaofa, 
«^co, and //xco, is often used as a circumlocution for the verb to 
which it belongs, and these verbs take the place of auxiliaries; 
thus, TtQO^E^rjy.ozEg r t 6av for 7tQ0EpE^ijy.EiGav, they had gone for- 
ward ; yij^iag s^sig for Eyijpag, you have married ; O-avfjiuaag 
e%cq for TE&av[A,axa, 1 have admired, <fec. 

764. — Obs. 1. Instead of a simple verb signifying "to go 
away," the verb olyo\ioLi is frequently joined with a participle ; 
the former, to express the idea of departure ; the latter, to con- 
nect with it the idea of the manner, both of which may generally 
be rendered by a simple verb ; thus, §%vi dnonzdyLEfVog, he de- 
parted flying, i. e. he flew away • dr^EZo qzvycov, he departed 
feeing, he escaped ; cp%ovTO dnod'EOvtEg, they ran away ; o't'%£zui 
xhircov, he is dead. Homer uses fiai'vco in the same manner. 

765. — VI. The participle, in definitions of time, is often joined 
with the adverbs avzixa, sv&vg, fiEta^v, ufia, the last, with the 
dative ; as, cog avzi'xa yevofievog, as soon as he ivas bom ; ueia^v 



§ 178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 291 

oqvggow, during the digging ; a\ia rep ?jqi ev&vg aQ%Ofisvcp, on 
the first commencement of spring. 

766. — VII. The participles of some verbs, when joined with 
other verbs, appear to be used in an adverbial sense, or at least, 
to denote a circumstance which, in our language, is better ex- 
pressed by an adverb ; as, aQ%6[A&vog Einov, I said in the begin- 
ning ; do^dfxevog dnb, especially ; relevTayv, lastly ; diaXi7za)v 
%q6vov, after some time, (frsocov and aycov with verbs which 
signify to give, to place, and the like, are redundant ; as, cpeocov 
daxs, he gave ; — with verbs of motion cptocov expresses zeal, 
quickness, &c. : with their cases, they are equivalent to the Latin 
cum, with. A participle joined to its own verb, or to one of sim- 
ilar signification, appears to be redundant ; as, taaiv tovxeg, they 
went ; Zopi] Xtycov, he said ; Xsysi cpdg, he says. 

JSP For the dative of the participle with a personal pronoun 
after the verb iozi, see 540. 



§178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

767. — Rule LXII. A substantive with a par- 
ticiple whose case depends on no other word, is 
put in the genitive absolute ; as, 

Qsov didovtog, ovdtv loyvEi cf&ovog, when god gives, envy 
avails nothing. 

768 Rem. The genitive is said to be absolute, in this construction, 

because it is neither governed by, nor is dependent on, any word ex- 
pressed or understood, in the sentence with which it is connected, and 
might be separated from it without affecting its construction. Yet, 
strictly speaking, it is not really absolute in such a sense as to be with- 
out government, or that there' is no more reason for its being in the 
genitive than in any other case ; for the absolute clause will generally 
be found to express a circumstance of time, and so may come under 642 ; 
as, 

Kvqov paadivovroq, in the reign of Cyrus (sc. ini). 

Q)tdyvrfi ao'^ftat, Sioiv &f?.6vro)v, Thcagncs is safe from the gods 

WILLING IT. 

769. — Obs. 1. The participles of elfji, ylvopai, and some 
others, are frequently omitted ; as, ipov fiovijg, sc. ovorjg, I being 
alone. 

770. — Obs. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, asjf 
it were a noun, is used absolutely with the participle ; as, nvo 



292 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. § 179. 

tzvsiv rovg zavqovg, {xviroXoyn&svzog, that bulls breathe fire, being 
circulated as a story. 

771.— Obs. 3. The dative absolute is used to express the 
fixed time (see 641); as, nsqubvzi ds zcp inavzep, after the year 
had elapsed ; and also when the subject of the participle may be 
considered as that in reference to which the action of the verb 
takes place. 

772. — Obs. 4. The nominative and accusative are some- 
times used absolutely. These instances, however, probably arise 
from an omission of some words, which, being supplied, complete 
the construction ; as, avoi^avzsg rov (jcopazog nooovg, nahv 
ylvszcu to nvq, when they have opened the pores of the body, there 
is again fire ; i. e. cog avoi^avzsg cooi, &c. ; zavza ysvo\isva, 
these things being done ; i. e. \iszk zavza, &c. 

773. — Obs. 5. The participles of impersonal verbs, and other 
verbs used impersonally, are put absolutely in the nominative or 
accusative neuter ; as, sB,6v, it being permitted • fit'ov, it being 
necessary ; doxovv, since it seems proper ; thus, diet zi ptrizig, 
£%bv amsvai, why dost thou remain, it being in thy power to 
depart ? 

774. — Obs. 6. The construction with the participle is often 
preceded by the particles cog, coats, azs, ola, 6V/, olov, when a 
reason of something done by another is expressed ; as, ioico7ra 
cog navzag sidozag, or navzeov sldozcov, he held his peace be- 
cause ALL KNEW. 



§179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

775. — Conjunctions serve to connect words or sentences to- 
gether ; this connection is of two kinds : 

776. — I. Of the parts of a sentence which are complete of 
themselves and independent of each other. These are connected 
by conjunctions, simply connective or disjunctive, 332-1, 2 ; and 
the parts thus connected have a similar construction : hence, 

111. — Rule LXIII. Conjunctions couple the 
same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, 

Ijlxtov xal sldov, they came and saw. 

zifia zbv nazsqa xul z)p> \M\zsqa, honour thy father and thy 
mother. 



§ 179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 293 

778. — Obs. 1. To this rule there are many exceptions as it 
respects the tenses of verbs ; see an example, 198, Obs. 3. 



779. — II. But the parts of a compound sentence are often 
variously related, and have a certain dependence upon each other, 
the nature of which is indicated by the conjunction employed, 
and the mood of the verb with which it is joined. The general 
principles of this connection are expressed in the following rules : 

780. — Kule LXIV. Conjunctions which do not 
imply doubt or contingency, are for the most part 
joined with the indicative mood (696, 697) ; as, 

ovtoi si rjGctv avdosg aya&oi, ovx av nor 8 ravra inaayov, 
if these had been good men, they would never have suf- 
fered these things. 



781. — Rule LXV. Conjunctions which imply 
doubt or contingency, or which do not regard a 
thing as actually existing, are for the most part 
joined with the subjunctive and optative moods 
(§172); as, 

at rig uiQ86iv fxoi do in, if ant one should give me the 
choice. 

782. — Obs. 2. As the meaning of a conjunction varies in dif- 
ferent connections, the same conjunction is often found with dif- 
ferent moods. On this subject no very definite or satisfactoiy 
rules, can be given. 

783. — The particles ydo, 8ai, dtj f donors, seta, snsira, y.ui, 
are often used not so much to connect, as to give strength to a 
question, like the English then, but, yet. 

784. — The Greeks do not distinguish direct and indirect ques- 
tions, like the Latins, by different moods (Lat. Gr. 627-5). In 
Greek, the direct question is usually made by the definite inter- 
rogative particles nag, norsoog, nor 8, nov, not, n^rixu, rig, &c. 
—the indirect by onag, onozeoog, onors, onov, onoi, onijvUu, 
oazig, &c. But here there are many exceptions. 

For further remarks on conjunctive and adverbial particles, 
see §125. 



294 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 179. 



785.— ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense ; 
as, 6 av&Qoinoq tarw dvyroq, man is mortal. 

All sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, 6 plot; f.arl 
ftqaxvq, life is short. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, S-ioq latw oq ndvxa xvfie^vS,. 

786.' — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be any thing, 
however expressed, about which we can speak or think. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute affirmed 
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made ; thus, 
in the sentence, 6 Qioq iarw dya&oq, the subject is Qioq; the predi- 
cate is wriv aya&oq, of which aya&oq is the attribute, and iarlv the 
copula. In most cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one 
word ; as, mnoq xqiyn, the horse runs. 357. 

The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of a sen- 
tence. 

The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposi- 
tion with its case, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive mood, or clause 
of a sentence, as an attribute, connected with, and affirmed of, the sub- 
ject by a copulative verb (437) ; or, it may be a verb which includes in 
itself both attribute and copula, and is therefore called an attributive 
verb. 

787. — THE SUBJECT. 

The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or logical. 

I. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, unlim- 
ited by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with 
all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in the 
sentence, 6 /uiXaq oivoq iaxi d-Qinrv/.wTaroq, the grammatical subject is 
oivoq ; the logical, 6 /.liXaq oivoq. Again : 

II. The subject of a proposition may be either simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, 
as the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, ZoMQarrjq xal 26Xo)v o~oq>ol r t aav. 



§ 179. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 295 

788. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

A grammatical subject maybe modified, limited, or described in va- 
rious ways ; viz., 1. By a noun in apposition. 2. By a noun in tbe 
genitive or dative. 3. By an adjunct, i. e. a preposition and its case. 
4. By an adjective word, i. e. an article, adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle. 5. By a relative and its clause. 

Each grammatical subject may have several modifications; and if 
it has none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. 

789. — MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 

Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the ways 

in which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 1. By an 
adjunct. 2. By a noun. 3. By an infinitive mood or clause of 
a sentence. 4. By an adverb. 

3. An adverb may be modified — 1. By another adverb. 2. By a 

substantive in an oblique case. 

790. — THE PREDICATE. 

L The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not 
modified by other words. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or 
phrases that modify it ; thus, tj f.ddr\ /.uy.oa jxavla laxlv : the gramma- 
tical predicate is par la iarlv ; the logical, jur/.oa juavla iarlv. 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logi- 
cal and grammatical are the same. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound. 

A simple predicate affirms but one thing of its subject; as, 6 (iloq 
fioa/iq iaxw ; ininvzov ol avt^oi. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates 
affirmed of one subject ; as, Kdd/uoq a7tiy.rave xbv dody.ovra, xai to~7iti- 
Q6 rovq odovraq avrov. 

791. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

The grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different 
ways. 

I. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified — 1. 
By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute. 2. By an 
adjective or participle limiting the attribute. 

II. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is mod- 
ified — i. By a noun or pronoun as its object. 2. By an adverb. 3 
By an adjunct. 4. By an infinitive. 5. By a dependent clause. 



296 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. § 179. 

792 — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other words modifying the 
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar words are when 
modifying the subject. 

Infinitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves 
be modified in all respects, as the attributive verb is modified. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

793. — A compound sentence consists of two or more simple senten- 
ces or propositions connected together. The propositions which make 
up a compound sentence, are called members, or clauses. 

794. — The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence, are ei- 
ther independent or dependent ; in other words, coordinate, or subor- 
dinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in con- 
nection with another clause. 

The clause on which another depends, is called the leading clause ; 
its subject is the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predi- 
cate. 

795 — Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as y.al, rt, rj, ijroi^, &c. 

796. — Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with 
their leading clauses in three different ways ; as, 1. By a relative. 2. 
By a conjunction. 3. By an adverb. 

797. — A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub- 
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

798. — A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple 
one, by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the depend- 
ent clause into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called 
an abridged proposition ; as, dt,e?.&o)v de Qgax-qv, fjy.ev dq Qrjpaq, hav- 
ing gone through Thrace, he came to Thebes = t7tivdav dk dlqk&t Ofjaxtjv, 
fjxtv dq Oyfiaq. 



799.— EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 

1. — cpofiog rov Kvqiov iarh ao/?] rijg (jocpiag, the fear of the 
Lord is the beginning of ivisdom. 

This is a simple sentence, of which — 

The logical subject is 6 (poftoq rov Kvglov. 

The logical predicate is iariv a^/ij ryQ aoylaq. 

The grammatical subject is yofioq, shown to be definite by the article 

6, and restricted by rov KvqIov. 
The grammatical predicate is iariv oppfr of which iariv is the copula 

and agx*} the attribute, restricted by rTjq aoqiaq. 



§179. 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING-. 297 



2. — e ^HqavXTjg to qottciIov, o icpooei, avtbg srefiev ix A r £(ttag, 
Hercules himself cut, from tlie forest of Nemea, the club which 
he was accustomed to carry. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one leading, and one depend- 
ent clause connected by the relative o. 

The leading clause, 6 'Hga/J.tjq to qonalov avroq Utf/ttv Ix Ne/uiaq, is a 
simple sentence, of which — 

The logical subject is o'Hqaxl.ijq avroq. 

The logical predicate is srifisv ix J\ r f/.iiaq to q6na).ov. 

The grammatical subject is 'HQa/J.rjq, shown to be definite by the arti- 
cle 6, and rendered emphatic by the definite pronoun avroq. 

The grammatical predicate is £re,uev, modified by its object to £o7rcdov, 
and by the adjunct ix JVe/uiaq. 

The dependent clause is o (avroq) iq.0Qcv, of which — 

The logical subject is avroq understood, a substitute for 'HQaxXtjq. 

The logical predicate is o i(p6()ii>. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is hrtjutv, modified by its object o, standing 
instead of qonalov, and, being a relative, it is the object of the 
verb, and also connects its clause with the leading clause. 



800.— SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

These two sentences, thus analyzed, may be parsed syntactically in 
the following manner : 

First Example. — '0 cpofiog rov Kvqiov lath <xq%ii rtjg ao- 
Cfiag. 

'0, the, the definite article, in the nominative singular, masculine, agree- 
ing with yoftoq, and showing it to be definite. Rule, "The 
article agrees," <fcc. 400, declined thus, 6, rj, ro, &c. 

(pofioq, fear, is a noun, masculine, second declension, giofioq, -ov. It is 
found in the nominative singular, the subject of iarlv. "The 
' subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

Tof>, of the, the definite article, genitive singular, masculine, agreeing 
with Kvqiov, and showing it to be definite. Rule, as before, 
400. 

Kvqiov, Lord, is a noun, masculine, second declension, Kvqioq Kvqiov. 
It is in the genitive singular, governed by 6 qofioq, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), "One substantive governs another," &c 

iarlv, is, is a verb intransitive irregular, tltu, tao,uai,, r t v, Root i. It is 
found in the present indicative, third person singular, and 
agrees with its subject yofioq. Rule IV. (420), "A . 
agrees," <fec. 

aqyj], the beginning, is a noun, feminine, first declension, <''.<jy>' r -r-, &C. 
It is found in the nominative singular, the predicate after 
iarlv its copula, and is therefore without the article, 403-4. 
Rule VI. (436), "Any verb," &c. 
13* 



298 SYNTACTICAL PARSING. §179. 

dys (not translated), the definite article, in the genitive singular, femi- 
nine, agreeing with aoyiaq, an abstract noun, 403-3. Rule, 
"The article agrees," (fee. 400. 

aocpiaq, of wisdom, a noun feminine, first declension, aocpla, -aq. It is 
found, in the genitive singular, governed by ao/rj, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), " One substantive governs another," (fee. 

Second Example. — '0 'HQayl^g to QonaXov, o iqioQei, avtbg 
faspev ix Ntfi&ag, — construed thus : JfQaxtfg avtbg 
faefAEV ex A r 8fisag rb qotzoXov o icpoQU. 

'0 (not translated), the definite article, in the nominative singular, mas- 
culine, agreeing with 'Hoaxltjq, definite, 403-1. Rule, "The 
article," (fee. (400), declined 6, rj, to, (fee 139. 

'Hoay.Xijq, Hercules, contracted for 'HQaaUijq (133), a proper noun, mas- 
culine, third declension, 'HoayJ.ijq, -eoq, contr. -ovq. It is found 
in the nominative singular, the subject of ereuev. "The sub- 
ject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

avroq, himself, a definite adjective pronoun, avroq, -r\, -6, 182. It is 
found in the nominative singular, masculine, and agrees with 
'Hoay.k^q, rendering it emphatic. Rule II., "An adjective 
agrees," (fee. 371 and 394. 

etifiev, cut, is a verb transitive, first conjugation, liquid, r^uvo), to cut, 
1 Root re/jtj 2 rau, 3 tqjjl. It is found in the 2 aorist indicative 
active, third person singular, and agrees with 'Hoa/.ltjq. Rule 
IV., "A verb agrees," (fee. An irregular form for erape. See 
the word, § 117. Give the tenses from the first root — from the 
second — from the third. 

Ia, from, is a preposition atonic {i% before a vowel), of, out of, from, and 
governs Ntuiaq. 

Ni/xiaq, the forest of Nemea (without the article, being the first mention- 
ed), a proper noun, feminine, first declension, Ntaia, -aq. It is 
found in the genitive singular, governed by ex. Rule XL VIII. 
" 'Avrl, ano, ex or it," (fee. (652). 

to, the, the definite article, 6, tj, to. It is found in the accusative sin- 
gular, neuter, agrees with ^onalov, and shows it to be definite. 
Rule, "The article agrees," (fee. (400). 

honalov, club, is a noun, neuter, third declension, (JonaXov, qonaLov. It 
is found in the accusative singular, the object of, and governed 
by, ertfiev. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," (fee. (564). It is 
limited by the relative clause following it. 

o, which, the relative pronoun, oq, rj, o. It is found in the accusative 
singular, neuter, agreeing with its antecedent ^onalov. Rule 
III., "The relative agrees," <fec. 404. It is governed in the ac- 
cusative by iyona,. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," (fee. 564 ; 
it connects its clause with £>o7Ta).ov, and limits it. 

lyooti, was accustomed to carry (198, Obs. 2), is a verb, transitive, first 
conjugation, pure, qooeo), to carry, kindred to ipiqw, to bear. 
Root (foot (216). It is found in the imperfect indicative active, 
third person singular, contracted for iyooii, and agrees with 
its nominative avroq understood, referring to 'Hoa>d?jq. Rule 
IV., "A verb agrees," (fee. (420). 



§ 180, 181. pkosody. 299 



PAET IV 



PROSODY. 

801. — Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the 
quantity of syllables and the construction of verses ; in other 
words, of Quantity and Metre. In the ancient grammarians, 
nooccpdia applies to accents. 



§ 180. QUANTITY. 

802. — Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or short. 
When a syllable is sometimes long, and sometimes short, it is 
said to be common, or doubtful. 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain estab- 
lished rules ; or, when no rule applies, by the authority of the 
poets. 

3. In Greek, the quantity of certain vowels is determined as 
follows : 

1. The vowels e, o, are naturally short ; as, liydpev. 

2. " n, (o, are naturally long ; as, ^//rco. 

3. " a, i, v, are doubtful ; as, d[A,vvco. 

4. Diphthongs and contracted syllables are long ; as, iaTi, 
ocpleg, contracted bcplg* 



§181. I. POSITION. 

SPECIAL KULES. 

803. — Rule I. A short or doubtful vowel, before two conso- 
nants or a double letter, is almost always long ; as, 

7ZdXlag, — TTootaipev, — care Zevg. 

* In the Prosody the accents are omitted, as they often interfere 
-with the mark for the quantity. 



300 pkosody. § 182. 

This rule holds good in Epic poetry, except in proper name?, and in 
words which could not be used in any other situation in the verse. In 
dramatic writers, observe the following exceptions : 

Exc. A short or doubtful vowel before a mute and a liquid, 
is common ; as, IlazQbyXog, or TldTQbxXog. 

Obs. 1. A short vowel before a mute and a liquid is generally short. 
But before a middle mute (/?, y, 6), followed by q in tragedy, it is mostly 
long ; and followed by X, /.i, v, almost always long, both in tragedy and 
comedy. 

Obs. 2. A short vowel before two liquids is always long, and some- 
times before a single liquid, which in this case should be pronounced as 
if double ; thus, Zlapt, pronounced eXXafa. 

Note 1. A short vowel in the end of a word, before q in the begin- 
ning of the word following, is long in the dramatic poets ; as, i/ut Qi7tov. 

Note. 2. We sometimes find a short syllable before two consonants 
(both mutes), but this is rare and should not be imitated. 



§182. II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

804. — Rule II. A vowel before another vowel is short, unless 
lengthened by poetic license ; as, nokvamog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in the penult of nouns in tiow, aovoq; as, Ma/don', Mayao- 

voq. And sometimes when the genitive ends in wvoc;; as, 
Jloatidaow, TloaaSaoivoq. 
in feminine proper names in a'fc ; thus, Qaiq. 

2. i is long in the penult of nouns in mv, covoq, and sometimes twroc; ; 

as, S1qIo)v, JIqvovoq, or Jlqlon'oq; except yitav. 

in the penult of verbs in tw ; as, rm : but the Attic 

tragic writers have -to). 

3. v is common in the penult of nouns in vet and ir\ ; as, y.aXia and xaXta. 

4. v is common in the penult of verbs in vm ; as, lo~yvo> or uryvo). 

805. — Rule III. Long vowels and diphthongs are mostly 
short at the end of words, when the next word begins with a 
vowel ; as, 

Jfjco e\).c5v o ds | xtv xtxb\lco6Hat | bv xlv ixldtfjiat. 

Obs. 1. A vowel in the end of a word, before a word beginning with 
a vowel, does not suffer elision, as in Latin, unless an apostrophe is 
substituted (35). 

Obs. 2. Two vowels, forming two syllables, frequently in poetry 
coalesce into one; as, yqvaeo), II. a. 15, where to) form a short syllable. 
This frequently takes place though the vowels be in different words; 
as, rfovx aXlq, ll. £. 349. 828-2, 



183, 184. pkosody. 301 



§183. III. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FIRST AND 
MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

806. — Rule IV. A doubtful vowel before a simple consonant 
is short ; as, y,av,oq. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in nouns in a/iiow, avo)Q, aQoq; as, Tttdo^d/xow, aydvo)(), 

/nvadQoq. 

in numerals in oGuoq ; as, didyoaioq. 

in derivatives from verbs in ao> pure, and quo) ; thus, 

dvvdxoq from awctw ; idaifioq from Idofxav ; y.axaqdxoq from 
v.axaqdo^ai\ 3-idxrjq and Ved/ucc from d-ido/xav; rnqdavf-ioq 
from niQao) ; TtQdavq from {TTvnqaGy.oi for) nqdo). 

2. i is long in the penult of nouns in wtj, ixrj, ixr\q, ixiq ; thus, dlvrj, 

^Aq>Qo8lxrj, 7loXZxT]q, nolZxvq. 

in the penult of verbs in ifio), wo) ; thus, xQlfio), nZvo) ; 

so also y.Tveo), dZvm, <fcc. 

3. v is long in verbals in vfia, v/noq, vxtjq, vxoq, vxojq ; as, ?.v/ua, 

%vjLioq, qvxo)Q. 

in pronouns ; as, 'vfiitq. 

in the penult of verbs in wo), vqo), v/o), vuv ; as, izkvvo), 

y.vQO), fiqv/o), qiVfxt,, ksvyvv/.u. 
in adverbs in vdov ; as, (loxQvdov. 



§184. IV. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FINAL SYL- 
LABLES. 
807. — Rule V. a, i, v, in the end of a word, are short ; as, 
povoa, ptXl, yXvAv. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A in the end of a word is long, viz : 

— In nouns in la, da, &a; as, &td, Arjdd, Maq&d ; exc. d/.avSa. 

— In the dual number ; as, Tcqo^r\xd, fxovad. 

— In polysyllables in caa; as, ^ilr^vaid. 
in aa, derived from verbs in tvo) ; as, dovXad, 

paffbfotci, from doidiuo), fiaodevo). But fiuadiid, a queen, 
has the final a short. 

— In tec; as, /.aha, except verbals inxQt,a; as, ipalxQtd; and 

fibcc, /nod, noxvia. 

— In the vocative of nouns in aq of the 1st declension ; as, Alvud 

from Alvdaq. 

— In feminines from adjectives in oc;; as, 6/(Ovd, ijntxtQa. 

— In nouns in ^ccnot preceded by a diphthong; as, rjfitQd, y^Qd. 

^XQei)tdy/A^jd,yi(pv()d,Kf(jy.v^a,6hi(jd } ff-/.o).07Ttvd^a,a(pv(}d, 
xavayqd, and compounds of j.uxqu); as, yno/ietQa. 

— In poetic vocatives ; as, ILaV.d for TlaXXaq. 



302 pkosody. § 184. 

2. i final is long in the names of letters ; as, nl. 

3. v final is long in the names of letters ; as, /iv, vv. 

in verbs in vfiv ; as iq>v. 

in /xataL,v and y^v. 

808. — Kule VI. A doubtful vowel in the final syllable, fol- 
lowed by a simple consonant, is short ; as, ^lekdv, laiinag. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. av is long in masculines; as, Tvrdv; and Tztiv, when not in com- 
position. 

in accusatives when their nominatives are long; as, 

jilvudv from Aivtvdq. 

in adverbs ; as, dydv. 



2. ag in y.dq and ipaQ is long ; in yaq it is either long or short. 

3. aq is long in nouns of the first declension ; as, Alvudq, /xovadq. 
in words having avroq in the genitive ; as, rmpdq, 

rvipavToq. 
also in ^/.idq, v/xdq, y.Qdq. 



4. vv is long in nouns in w which have woq in the genitive ; as, 
0t]yjulv, Qt]y/A.wog. 
in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 



tive ; as, d/.rlv, or d/.tvq. 
also in •fj/.uv, v/xlv. 



5. vq is long in monosyllables; as, ).lq; but the indefinite nq is 

common. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, uY.Tlq, d/.xlv. 

in feminine dissyllables in vq, vdoc, or v&oq; as, xv^filq, 

xvtj/iudoq ; oQvlq, bqw&oq ; except dantq, Iqtq, /ccQiq, and a 
few others. 

in polysyllables preceded by two short syllables ; as, 

TzXoy.dfilq. 

6. vv is long in nouns which have vvoq in the genitive; as, /uoaavv, 

/.loffdvvoq. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, yoQY.vq, or cpoQavv. 

in accusatives from vq in the nominative ; as, ovqvv 

from ocpQvq. 

in the ultimate of verbs in vf.iv; as, lq>vv from yvfAv. 

vvv, now ; but in vvv, enclitic, it is short. 



*7. vq in the end of a word is always long ; as, /uciqtvq 

8. vq is long in monosyllables ; as, p. vq. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, yoQY.vq, q>0Qxvv. 
in nominatives which have vvroq or oq pure in the gen- 
itive; as, Sivy.vvq, divuvvvtoq; 6q>Qvq, ocpQvoq. 

in y.oifivq, y.o)f<v8oq; and 

in the last syllable of verbs in vfiv; as, iqvq. 



§ 185, 186. prosody. 303 



§185. V. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INCREMENT 

OF NOUNS. 

809. — Rule VII. The quantity of the nominative remains in 
the oblique cases ; thus, Tuav, Tixuvog ; y.r^filg, xvqfudog. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. vq in the nominative shortens the crement ; as, f^aQivq, ^aqxvQoq. 

2. A vowel long by position, in the nominative, shortens the cre- 
ment in the oblique cases ; as, avkah, airtaxoq. But nouns in a$ after 
a vowel have the crement long ; as, ve at, vttixoq. 

Likewise &o)Qcct, ItQat, y.vo)da$, xogdat, Aa/?£a£, olat, (jai, avgcpaz, 
qttvat, with many words in tip, moq, and vt, vyoq or woq ; to which add 
yQvip, yv-ip, and generally Btfigvz, doidct, 6qtv£, aavdvt. 

3. oc,- pure in the genitive, from a long syllable in the nominative, 
varies the crement; as, dqvq, dgvoq, or dqvoq. 

4. The dative plural, after a syncope, has the penult short; as, 
TCarqaav, avdqudo. 



§ 186. VI. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INFLECTION 
OF VERBS. 

The doubtful vowels, a, v, v, are short in verbs, unless it be other- 
wise specified in the Rules. 

810. — Rule VIII. a and v before oa in participles, and al- 
ways before ai in verbs, are long ; as, zvxpaca, deixrvaa, tezv- 
qtiGi, deixvvai (§ 6, 18). 

FUTURE. 

81 1. — Rule IX. The future in aow, logo, vgco, from aco after 
a vowel, or from paco, ico, i&co, vco, lengthen the penult ; as, 

iaoo, EU6G) ; dpaco, Spacco ; pQi&co, ^gtaco ; ig'/vg), iapiGCQ. 

But the future in aaco, toco, vaco, from a£co, i£co, v£co, shorten 
the penult ; as, 

agna^co, apnaGCd ; onli^co, okIigw ; xlv£co, xIvgoj. 
812. — Rule X. Liquid verbs shorten the penult in the future ; 

as, XQIVCO, XQIVCO. 

813. — Rule XL The second future, in the passive voice, 
shortens the root-syllable ; as, zepveo, rdfi^o^iai ; cpatva, cpavr r 
aofica. 



304 prosody. § 187. 



THE OTHER TENSES. 

814. — Rule XII. The doubtful vowels have the same quan- 
tity in the tenses as in their roots ; thus, 

1 Root. kqIv, — hqZvo), ixQlvov, r.^Zvojxav, bhqIvo/u^v. 

2 Root, y.giv, — kiy.qV/.cc, ixiHQixttv, y.^t&TjdOjLiai', (xQtS-ijv, y.(uvr\Goiiai, 

ixQtvtjv, y-v/.^ifxav, itievqft/wtfiri 

2 Root. rvTt, — ixvTtov, ItvTioixr^v, rv7Ztj(To/na^, £rv7irjv. 

3 Root, rim, — rervrra, ixzxvnuv. 

Exc. 1. Liquid verbs in the future active and middle, as in Rule X. 
Exc. 2. The initial ^ and v, in the augmented tenses and moods, are 
long ; as, 'tuo/xav, 'Zxofiyv. 

The quantity of a doubtful vowel in the root is. ascertained as fol- 



815. — I. Verbs in aco pure, or in oaco, too, i&co, and vco, have 
the final vowel of the first root long, unless followed by a vowel ; 
if followed by a vowel, it comes under Rule II. All others are 
usually short. 

816. — II. The final syllable of the second root is always short, 
unless made long by position. 

8 1 7. — III. The first root of liquid verbs is shortened in the 
future, 244-1. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR VERBS IN \il. 

8 1 8. — Rule XIII. The proper reduplication is short, unless 
made long by position ; as, Ti-&?](ii. The improper reduplication 
is common ; as, 'iqfM or 'l^fu. 

819. — Rule XIV. a, not before a a or ai, is every where 
short ; as, lardiiEv, torare. 

820. — Rule XV. v is long in polysyllables, only in the sin- 
gular of the indicative active ; every where else it is short ; as, 
8£ixvv[Uf deixvvot, dstxvvTco, deixvvfJLai, <fec. 

821 — In dissyllables, it is every where long; as, Svf.iv, Svrov, Sv- 
fiav, &c. 



§187. VII. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 

822. — Rule XVI. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; and compounds, that of the simple words of which 
they are composed ; as, 

rZfirj — arZfioq, OfiorZ/ioq, TZjuavwQ, &c. 

luoc, — AaofiiSov, Miveldoq, &c. 

Xvo), Xvao) — AvaavSQoq, Avcrv/.ay.oq, &c. 

oval;, ovdy.oq — oldy.oo~TQO(poq, ovd/.ovofioq, &c. 

TtvQ — 7ivqav(TTt]ii, nvQcpoQoq, tfec. 

(us or qlv — yZvtjXctrto), noXkvQZvoq, &c. 



§ 188, 189. pkosody. 305 

823. — Rule XVII. a privative before two short syllables, is 
frequently long ; as, a.Y.a\iaxoq. 

824 — Also gvv in composition is sometimes long; as, avvitj/j-v. 



§188. VIE. DIALECTS. 

ATTIC. 

825. — Rule XVIII. The Attics lengthen a in the accusative 
of nouns in evg ; as, fiamlevg, ace. facilea, contrary to Rule V. 

Also, i instead of a, e, o ; as, xavxl for Taura ; odl for bdt . 
The Paragogic v in pronouns (the dative plural excepted), and in 
adverbs, is long ; as, ovxool, vvvl, Dat. pi. xovxoial. 

826. — IONIC. 

1. The Comparative in iov shortens the neuter ; the Attics lengthen 
it ; as, -/.aXXiov, I. zaV.lov, A. 

2. In adjectives of time, u is long; as, hnwolvo^. 

3. In verbs, the Ionic a, av not following it, is short ; as, lot-rat- for 
tjvxco,. 

827. DORIC AND ^EOLIC. 

1. The Doric a is long ; the vEolic is short ; as, Alvad,, Doric for 
Alvuov ; innoxti, -/Eolic for Irtnoxrjq, &q. 



828.— §189. IX. POETIC LICENSE. 

1. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic, Trochaic, 
Anapaestic, and Greater Ionic. 

2. The Sv&v&q unites two syllables into one ; as, 

r ->' ' 4 ' 

Xqvozo) ava ay.rinxqu) -/.at, nheraexo navxw± A-/auovc, 

l-r-r J J I I 

H Xa&ix 7\ ovx ivoqerev aaaaxo de [iiya &v[io), 

i_ i i i r 

H pi. nikca, (T/fdiri niqaav /uiya ).at,x/j,a tyalcKjaqq. 

3. The Arsis makes a short syllable in the end of a word long; as, 

AvSovoq xs fiov tdffi qis)Z i/.vqt Ofivoc; Xf, 

I , , I I , I J 

Jrinovq d Avxo/ittdovxa doox; L,tvyvvfiiv avo)yf. 

Note 1. The Arsis means the elevation of the voice, which, in Hexa- 
meter verse, is always on the first syllable of afoot. 



306 prosody. § 190. 

• Note 2. A short syllable is sometimes, and but very rarely, length- 
ened at the end of a foot ; thus, 

,, I I I I, I 

Tji 6 Ini /utv roqyo) fi).oavQ0)7rtq EGTtipavoiTO. 

829 — Besides these deviations from the usual rules of quantity, 
the Poets sometimes varied the quantities of syllables, as follows : 

I. They lengthened a syllable, 1. By doubling or inserting a conso- 
nant ; as, tdds lge for f d'etat ; dnroXiq for cLnohq. 2. By changing a 
vowel into a diphthong ; as, dtvo/.iai, for dtoixau. 3. By Metathesis ; as, 
Inqad-ov for tnao&ov. 

II. They shortened a syllable. By rejecting one vowel of a diph- 
thong ; as, eXov for elXov. 

III. They increased the number of syllables, 1. By resolving a diph- 
thong; as, alho) for avto). 2. By inserting or adding a letter or sylla- 
ble ; as, aaa/d tot; for aa/troq ; fjiktoq for tjXvoq ; fiir^i for /9wj. 

IV. They lessened the number of syllables, 1. By aphseresis ; as, vtgOt 
for ivtQ&t. 2. By syncope; as, iygtro for iyetotro. 3. By apocope 
and apostrophe; as, do) for 6 a) pa; pvoi for fivoia. 

Other varieties will be learned by practice. Many conjectures have 
been made with regard to the ancient orthography, and the principles 
of versification as depending upon it. But the best of them deserve 
the credit of ingenuity alone ; for, as they rest on no unquestionable 
authority, they are of little or no use. 



§190. FEET. 

830 — A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables 
strictly regulated by time ; and is either simple or compound. Of the 
simple feet, four are of two, and eight are of three syllables. There 
are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. These varieties are 
as follows: 

831. — Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrrichius 


w 


w 


■S-eoq. 


Spondeus 


— 





TimrC). 


Iambus 


s ' 





Xtyoi. 


Trochseus 


— 


— 


a0)f.ia. 


832.— Simple feet of 


three 


Syllables. 


Tribrachys 


> — ' -w 


w 


7To)>l[ioq. 


Molossus 


— — 


— 


ev/oiXfj. 


Dact}'lus 


— ^ 


--< 


ftccQTvyot; 


Anapsestus 


V_^ V— S 


— 


PaolXivq. 


Bachius 


^ 


— 


t7rfjTij<;. 


Antibachius 





v_^ 


dfixvvfu. 


Amphibraeh} T s 


s_^ 


W 


TiOtjfii. 


Amphimacer 


— <-> 


— 


dtlXvl'TO). 



191, 192. 



PROSODY. 



307 



833. — Compound feet of four Syllables. 



Chori ambus 
Antispastus 
Ionic a niajore 
Ionic a minore 
First Paeon 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

First Epitrite 

Second 

Third ■ 

Fourth 

Proceleusm aticus 
Dispondeus 
Diiambus 
Ditrochaeus 



ffoiyooavvfj 

a.,uaQTF;ua 

•/.daf.ir j TOQd 

7t?Jtoviy.rFjq 

6c<jTQoJ.oyo<; 

avatloq 

dva.dfji.ioi 

■frloyivrfi 

audoroilfj 

dvdodqovTF^ 

evova&ivfjq 

noli fiioq 

avvdovfovcro) 

\maxdxrfi 



a trochee and an iambus, 
an iambus and a trochee, 
a spondee and a pyrrich. 
a pyrrich and a spondee, 
a trochee and a pyrrich. 
an iambus and a pyrrich. 
a pyrrich and a trochee, 
a pyrrich and an iambus, 
an iambus and a spondee. 
a trochee and a spondee, 
a spondee and an iambus. 
a spondee and a trochee, 
two pyrriehs. 
two spondees, 
two iambi, 
two trochees. 



§191. OF METRE. 

834 — Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables 
and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense applies, 
not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or to any number 
of verses. A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet 
(sometimes called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only. 

835 — Note. The distinction between rhythm and metre is this: — 
the former refers to the time only, in regard to which, two short sylla- 
bles are equivalent to one long ; the latter refers both to the time and 
the order of the syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 
same ; the metre different. The term rhythm, however, is also under- 
stood in a more comprehensive sense, and is applied to the harmonious 
construction and enunciation of feet and words in connection ; thus, a 
line has rhythm when it contains any number of metres of equal time, 
without regard to their order. Metre requires a certain number of 
metres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 
"Ao/ite, 2v/.ih/.al, rw niv&ioq ao/tre MoZacu. 

there is both rhythm, as it contains six metres of equal value in respect 
of time ; and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canon 
for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the 5th, and a 
spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 

"Aqytri, Moiaau Saishxal, rw 7liv&ioq ciq/trf. 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is de- 
stroyed ; it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 



§192. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 
836 — 1. Metre, in the general sense, is divided into nine species: 
1. Iambic. 4. Dactylic. 7. Ionic a majore. 



2. Trochaic. 

3. Anapaestic. 



5. Choriarnbic. 

6. Antispastic. 



Ionic a minore. ' 
Pcconic or Cretic. 



308 peosody. § 192. 

These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species was originally composed of those feet only, from which it 
is named ; but others, equal in time, Were afterwards admitted under 
certain restrictions. 

It often happens that two species, totally dissimilar, are united in the 
same verse, which is then termed Asynartetes. When the irregularity 
is great, and it cannot be reduced to any regular form, it is called Poly- 
schematistic or anomalous. 

837 — Note. The invention or frequent use of any species of metre 
by a particular poet, or its being used in some particular civil or reli- 
gious ceremony, or appropriated to some particular subject or sentiment, 
has been the occasion of certain kinds of verse receiving other names 
than those specified above. Thus, we have the Asclepiadean, Glyco- 
nian, Alcaic, Sapphic, and others ; named from the poets, Asclepiades, 
Glycon, Alcazus, Sappho, Phalcecus, Sotades, Archilochus, Alcman, 
Pherecrates, Anacreon, Aristophanes, &c. So also the Prosodiacus 
(from TiooGodoq), so called from being used in the approach to the altars 
on solemn festivals ; and the Paroemiacus, a kind of verse much used in 
the writing of proverbs {jtaQo^dav). 

838 — In the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a metre con- 
sists of two feet ; in the others, of one only. 

839 — 2. A verse or metre is farther characterized by the number 
of metres (in the specific meaning of the term) which it contains, as 
follows : 

A verse containing one Metre is called Monometer. 
two Metres Dimeter. 

three Metres Trimeter 

four Metres Tetrameter. 

five Metres Pentameter. ■ 

six Metres Hexameter. 

seven Metres Heptameter. 

840. — 3. A verse may be complete, having precisely the number 
of metres which the canon requires ; or it may be deficient in the last 
metre ; or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is further 
characterized as follows : viz. 

1. Acatalectio, when complete. 

9 j Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

' \ Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables or one whole foot. 
3. Hypercatalectic, when there is one or two syllables at the end, 
more than the verse requires ; thus, 

yjl Xzwv dody.ovraq w§. iEsch. Lept. Theb. 

is denominated "trochaic dimeter catalectic;" the first term referring 
to the species, the second to the number of metres, and the third to the 
apothesis or ending. 

841. — Note. The two last terms, viz. that designating the number 
of metres, and that which refers to the ending, are sometimes reduced 
to one ; thus, when a verse of a given species consists of two feet and 
a half, it is called Penthemimcr ; of three and a half, Hephthemimer (five 
half feet, seven half feet) ; and when it consists of one metre and a 
half, it is called Ilemiholius. 



§ 193, 194, 195. prosody. 309 

842. — The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called its 
place (sedes). 

The rules or canons of the different kinds of metre are briefly as 
follows. 



§ 193. I. IAMBIC METRE. Scheme, §204, I. 

843 — A pure iambic verse consists only of iambuses. 

A mixed iambic verse admits in the first, third, and fifth place, an 
iambus or a spondee. 

In the second, fourth, and sixth, an iambus only. 

Variation 1. The iambus in the odd places may be resolved into a 
tribrach ; the spondee, into a dactyl or an anapaest. 

Variation 2. The iambus in the even places (except the last), may 
be resolved into a tribrach. An anapaest is substituted for it in the 
case of a proper name only. 

Observe, however, 1st. -that a dactyl should be avoided in the fifth 
place ; and, 2d. that resolved feet should not concur. 

Of this verse there are all varieties of length, monometers, dimeters, 
trimeters (called also senarian, each line having six feet), and tetra- 
meters. 



§ 194. II. TROCHAIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, II. 

844. — A pure trochaic verse consists of trochees only. 

A mixed trochaic verse admits in the odd places, a trochee only ; in 
the even places, a trochee or a spondee. 

The trochee may, in any place, be resolved into a tribrach, and the 
spondee into a dactyl or anapcest. 

A dactyl, in the odd places, occurs only in the case of a proper name. 

Trochaic verses are mostly catalectic. A system of them generally 
consists of catalectic tetrameters ; sometimes of dimeters, catalectic and 
acatalectic intermixed. 

In tetrameters, the second metre should always end a word. 



§ 195. III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, III. 

845. — An anapaestic verse, without any restriction of places, admits 
either an anapwst, spjondee, or dactyl. 

Exc. 1. The dimeter catalectic, called paraemiacus, requires an ana- 
paest in the last place but one ; and is incorrect when a spondee is found 
there. 

Exc. 2. In some instances the propjer foot is resolved into the proce- 
leusmatic. 

Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other species, but 
are oftener in a detached system by themselves. 

846 — A system is chiefly composed of dimeters under the following 
circumstances: 

1. When each foot, or at least each metre (syzygy), ends a word. 



310 pkosody. § 196, 197. 

2. When the last verse but one of the system is monometer acata- 
lectic, and the last, dimeter catalectic, with an anapaest in the second 
metre. 

In a system, this peculiar property is to be observed, that the last 
syllable of each verse is not common (as in other species), but has its 
quantity subject to the same restrictions as if the foot to which it be- 
longs occurred in any other place of the verse. 

847. — A series, therefore, of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or 
more sentences, is to be constructed as if each sentence was only a single 
verse. 

848 — Note. The monometer acatalectic is called an anapaestic base. 
This is sometimes dispensed with in a system ; in the parcemiacus, rarely. 

849 — To this metre belong the Aristophanic, being catalectic tetra- 
meters ; and the proceleusmatic, consisting of feet isochronal to an ana- 
paest, and, for the most part, ending with it. 



§ 196.. IV. DACTYLIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, IV. 

850 — A dactylic verse is composed solely of dactyls and spondees. 
In this species one foot constitutes a metre. 

The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic, having a dactyl in the 
fifth place and a spondee in the sixth. 

Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, a spondee 
takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot; from which circumstance 
such lines are called spondaic. 

851 — The elegiac pentameter consists of five feet. The first and 
second may be either a dactyl or a spondee at pleasure ; the third must 
always be a spondee ; the fourth and fifth anapaests. 

852. — Though a heroic verse is confined to a smaller number of ad- 
missible feet than an iambic verse, several licenses are allowed which 
are not used in the latter. 

The most considerable of these are : 

1. The lengthening of a short final syllable in certain cases, viz. at 
the caesural pause, and where its emphasis is increased by its beginning 
a foot. 

2. The hiatus, or the concurrence of two vowels, in contiguous words. 
853. — That irregular sort of dactylics which Hephaestion calls 

^Eolics, admits, in the first metre, any foot of two syllables ; the rest 
must be all dactyls, except where the verse is catalectic, and then the 
catalectic part must be part of a dactyl. 

854. — A second sort of dactylics, called b}* the same author Logatc- 
dics, requires a trochaic syzygy at the end, all the other feet being dactyls. 



§ 197. V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, V. 

855. — The construction of an ordinary choriambic verse is very 
simple. Each metre, except the last, is a choriambus, and the last may 
be an iambic syzygy, entire or catalectic. 

856. — The iambic syzygy (two iambic feet) is sometimes found at 



§ 198, 199. prosody. 311 

the beginning, and, in long verses, in other places ; but this happens 
less frequently. 

857. — If any other foot of four syllables is joined with a choriambus, 
the verse is then more properly called epichor iambic. Of this there is 
a very great variety, and they sometimes end with an amphibrach, 
sometimes with a bachius. 



§ 198. VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, VI. 

858 — An antispastic verse, in its most usual and correct form, is 
constructed as follows : 

In the ^rs^ place, beside the proper foot, is admitted any foot of four 
syllables ending like an antispastus in the last two syllables ; i. e. either 
w —, ■ <w, -^ -^ — -s, or — w — ^. 

In the intermediate places, only an antispastus. 

In the last, an iambic syzygy, complete or catalectic, or an incom- 
plete antispastus. 

There is scarcely any limit to the varieties in this species. 

859 — The following are the must usual: 

1. In short verses, the proper foot frequently vanishes, and the verse 
consists of one of the above-mentioned feet and an iambic syzygy. 

2. All the epit rites, except the second, are occasionally substituted 
in the several places in the verse, particularly the fourth epitrite in the 
second. 

3. If an antispastus begins the verse, and three syllables remain, 
whatever those syllables are, the verse is antispastic ; because they 
may be considered as a portion of some of the admissible feet, or of 
some of them resolved. 

4. In long verses, an iambic syzygy sometimes occurs in the second 
place, and then the third place admits the same varieties as the first. 

An antispastus, with an additional syllable, is called Dochmiac. 
An antispastus, followed by an iambic syzygy, is called Glyconian. 
Two antispasti, with an iambic syzygy, is called Asclepiadean. 
Antispastic dimeter catalectic, is called Pherecratian. 



§ 199. VII. IONIC METRE A MAJORE. Scheme, § 204, VII. 

860 — An Ionic verse admits a trochaic syzygy promiscuously with 
its proper foot. The verse never ends with the proper foot complete, 
but either with the trochaic syzygy or the proper foot incomplete. The 
varieties of this metre are numerous, among which observe the follow- 
ing : 

Var. 1. The second pceon is sometimes found in the first place. 

Var. 2. A molossus ( ) in an even intermediate place, with a 

trochaic syzygy following. 

Var. 3. The second paion is occasionally joined to a second or third 
epitrite, so that the two feet together are equal in time to two Ionic 
feet. This is called an 'Ava/.laGiq ; the defect in time of the preceding 
foot being, in this case, supplied by the redundant time of the subse- 
quent ; and the verse so disposed is called 'AvccxMfitvoq. 



312 prosody. § 200, 20x, 202. 

Var. 4. Resolutions of the long syllable into two short ones, are 
allowed in all possible varieties. 

861 — If the three remaining pseons, or the second pajon in any place 
but the first, without an 'AvdxXciaiq : or, 

If an iambic syzygy or third epitrite — a choriambus, or any of the 
discordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same verse with an 
Ionic foot, the verse is then termed Epi-ionic. 



§ 200. VIII. IONIC METRE A MLNORE. Scheme, § 204, 

VIII. 

862 — An Ionic verse a minore is often entirely composed of its own 
proper feet. It admits, however, an iambic syzygy promiscuously, and 
begins sometimes with the third pceon followed by one of the epitrites 
for an Avaxlaavq. 

863. — A molossus sometimes occurs in the beginning of the verse, 
and also in the odd places with an iambic syzygy preceding. 

864. — In the intermediate places a second or third pseon is prefixed 
to a second epitrite ; and this construction is called *Avax).a<nq as before. 

Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in this, as in the other 
Ionic metre. 

865. — An Epionic verse a minore is constructed by intermixing with 
the Ionic foot a double trochee, second epitrite, or pseon without an 'Ard- 
xXaavq. 

PROSODIAC VERSE. 

866 — When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either 
kind, the name Epionic is suppressed, and the verse called Prosodiacus. 
And, in general, 

This name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate mixture 
of choriambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective representatives. 

N". B. The two species of Ionic are not to be intermixed in the same 
verse. 



§ 201. IX. PHONIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, IX. 

867 — A pseonic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the 
same rhythm with its proper foot ; i. e. to consist of Jive times, or be 
equal to five short syllables. 

The first and fourth pseons are mostl}- used, but not in the same verse. 

The construction of this verse is most perfect when each metre ends 
with the several words of the verse, as was before remarked of the a?ia- 
pcestic metre. 

To this head may be referred those verses which are called by some 
authors Bacchiac and Cretic verses. 



§ 202. THE CJESURAL PAUSE. 

868 — Besides the division of the verse into metres and feet, there 
is another division, into two parts only, owing to the natural intermis- 



§2l^,204. prosody. 313 

sion of the voice in reading it, and relevant to the rhythmical effect. 
This is called the pause, which necessarily ends with a word ; and its 
distance from the beginning is generally, though not invariably, deter- 
mined by the length of the verse. 

869 — Heroic verses and trimeter iambics are esteemed most har- 
monious when the pause falls upon the first syllable of the third foot. 
This is the penthemimeral caesura. When it falls upon the first syllable 
of the fourth, it is called the hephthemimeral. In iambic and trochaic 
tetrameters, its place is at the end of the second metre. These rules are 
more observed by the Roman than by the Greek poets. In anapaestic 
verse, and paeonic, no place is assigned to the pause ; because, since the 
metres (if rightly constructed) end with a word, the effect of a pause 
will be produced at the end of each metre. The same may be observed 
of the Ionic a minore. 



§ 203. COMPOUND METRES. 

870 — Besides the preceding nine species of metre, the compositions 
and modifications of these are very numerous. Of these, observe the 
following : 

1. A long syllable is sometimes inserted between the parts of a verse 
consisting of similar metres. 

2. In some species, the portions of an admissible foot of four sylla- 
bles are separated by the intermediate metres. 

3. It happens not unfrequently that two species, totally dissimilar, 
are united in the same verse ; which is then denominated Asynartetes ; 

1. Dactylic Tetram. -f- Troch. Hemiholius. 

2. Iambic Penth. -f- Troch. Hemiholius. 

3. Dactylic Dim. -j- Troch. Monom. or Logaaedic. 

4. Iambic syzygy -f- Troch. Syzygy, and vice versa. 
This last is called Periodicus. 

4. When a verse is so irregular as to contain in it some glaring vio- 
lation of the preceding rules, it is called Polyschematistic or anomalous ; 
thus, 

87 1 — To this title may be referred, 

1. A verse otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the second or 
fourth place. 

2. An iambus in a trochaic verse, <fec. &c. 

These rules are exemplified in the following tables. 



§ 204. METRICAL TABLES. 

872 — The following tables exhibit a scheme of the different feet 
allowed in each kind of metre, and the place which they occupy. In 
the tables the following abbreviations occur; viz., A. C. for Acatalec- 
tic ; C. for Catalectic ; B. C. for Brachycatalectic ; H. C. for Hypcrcata- 
lectic ; and P. N. for Proper Name. 840. In Iambic, Trochaic, and 
Anapaestic verse, each metre consists of two feet, and is followed by a 
double line. 

14 



314 



PKOSODY. 



§204. 



873.— I. IAMBIC METRE. §193. 
1. Monometer Base. 2. Dimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 


2. 




1« 


2 - 


3. 


4. i 


w — 


w _ 


w — 


w — 


I w — 




















W v-> 






•**> N-' 




V_X W 




N^ 






w w — 




! w w — 





3. Trimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


w — 


w — 


w — 


w- 


w- 




3w w 




Zw w 















w ^ — 





P.N. 



874.— II. TROCHAIC METRE. §194. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

In this verse, each metre is alike. If from the trimeter scheme 
exhibited below, the first and the second metre be taken away, the 
remainder will be a scheme of the Monometer, which is always hyper- 
catalectic or acatalectic. If the first be taken away, the remainder 
will be a scheme of the dimeter ; and if a metre be prefixed, it will be a 
scheme of the tetrameter, which is always catalectic. 

Trimeter Acatalectic. 



1. | 2. 1 1 3. | 4. i | 5. | 6. 

_wwl_wwli-w^l-wwli_ww 



875.— III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 



19; 



This scheme is dimeter. The removal of the first metre leaves it 
Monometer (which is called an anapaestic base) ; by prefixing one 
metre, it becomes trimeter ; and by prefixing two it becomes tetra- 
meter, which is always catalectic. A catalectic dimeter is also called 
Parmniac. 



204. prosody. 315 

1. Dimeter Acatalectic. % Paranoic or Dim. Cat. 



1. 2. 3. 4. 



1- 2. 3. 4. 



876.— IV. DACTYLIC METRE. §196. 

1. Dimeter. 2. Trimeter. 



A C. 
H.C. 

Adonic. 



1. 2. 


— WW —WW 


^ W W WW 


— 


-~~ j — 



1. 2. 


3. 




— — w - ww 


zz~\ 













w w ) 

1 





A. C. 
H. C. 



'6. Tetrameter. 



t 2. 3. 4. 


«i 



^Eolic. 



4. Pentameter. 



L 


2. 


3. i 4. 


5. i 


1 1 ) ) 1 
1 1)1) 




ZLZ ZZ 










— WW 


— WW 


f 


1 

WW — 



A. C. 

JEolic. 

Elegiac. 



5. Hexameter. 



1. 


2. 8. 4. 5. 


6. 






- 


















— — 






















pure, 
v impure. 
HjboHi 



316 



PROSODY. 



§204. 



Logacedics. 

w I called also Choriambic Dimeter Cataleetic. 
I — ^ — w I Alcaic (the most common). 

I — ^ w | _ ^ w j — w — w [ Logasedics only. 



877.— V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. §197. 



M. 



II. 



Trimeter. 
III. 



Cat. 

pure acatalectic seldom occurs. 

impure do. in which also other 
feet are intermixed, as the 
Pseons and Epitrites. 

Monometer is the same as Dact. Dim. Dimeter removes the first 
Metre. Tetrameter prefixes a metre, and is always Cataleetic. 



878.— VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. §198. 

An Antispastic Metre. 
Iambus. Trochee. 

■-' In the varieties of this verse, any of the simple 

w w feet under the Iambus may precede any of those 

. _ under the Trochee. Dimeters, Trimeters, and 

, w _ Tetrameters, are formed as directed § 198, and 

are cataleetic, acatalectic, and hypercatalectic. 

The Dochmiac dimeter and trimeter is formed 

' by repeating the Dochmiac monometer. The 

' *-" Dochmiac also sometimes precedes, and some- 

■ w *-* times follows, the Antispastus. 



pure- 



Metres. I. 






II. 



Any form of 
an Antispas- 
tic metre. 



Antispastic Varieties. 



Cat. is called Pherecratic. 



A. C. is called Glyconic. 



H. C. is called Sapphic. 

A. C. is called Glyconic Polyschematistic 



§204. 



PROSODY. 



317 



879.— VII. IONIC METRE, a majore, §199. 

Trimeter. 

Metres I. II. III. 

\~- ^~ ~ - | ~ H Cat 

purej — w — w I _ _ _ 



as above. 



as above and 



all the paeons. 
Dimeter may be formed by joining I. and III. 



A. C. 



VARIETIES OF THE IONIC A MAJORE. 



Ionic a majore tetrameter B. C. is called Sotadic. 



w — w Alcaic. 

Prosodiacus. 



m 



880.— VIII. IONIC METRE, a minore, §200. 

Dimeter. Tetrameter. 

is formed by joining a Dim. Cat. to 

a Dim. A. C. A Molossus ( — ) 

in the odd places must always be 
A. C. preceded by an iambic syzygy. 

The Ionic a minore, preceded or followed by a choriambus, is an- 
other form of Prosodiacus. For the Epi-Ionic, see § 199. 

881.— IX. PHONIC OR CRETIC METRE, §201. 

A Pceonic metre. Dimeter, Trimeter, and Tetrameter, 

— >-" ^ *-• »■* are formed by a repetition of the metre ; a reso- 

v -' — w ^ or w lution of — into •----'is common. 



§ 205. SCANNING. 

882 — To those who are accustomed to the scanning of the Latin 
poets, the ordinary hexameter and regular systems of the Greek poeti 
will present no difficulty. After a little exercise in these, the best 
praxis is furnished by the Choruses in the Dramatic writers, and the 
odes of Pindar ; as almost every line furnishes a different kiml of \ erse, 



818 ACCENTS. § 206. 

and the student is compelled to make himself thoroughly acquainted 
both with the rules of quantity and of metre in order to discover it. 

883. — In scanning, for example, the Proodus in the Medea of Euri- 
pides, beginning at the 131st line, after ascertaining the quantity of 
each syllable, and comparing the whole line with the preceding tables, 
they will be as follows : 



131 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


132 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


" 


133 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


" 


134 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


H. C. 


135 


Pseonic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


136 


Antispastic 


" 


K 


137 


Dactylic 


a 


" pure. 


138 


Antispastic 


" 


« 


884 — Proceeding 


in the same way with the second Olympic ode of 


indar, it will be as follows : 







1. Periodicus, or circulating dimeter. 

2. Ionic Dimeter Catalectic. 

3. Pasonic Dimeter Hypercatalectic. 

4. Choriambic Dimeter Catalectic. 

5. Iambic Dimeter Brachycatalectic. 

6. Dochmiac — and so on of the others. 

885 — Note. In the choruses of the dramatic writers, and the odes 
of Pindar, each line of the antistrophe is the same kind of verse, and 
often, though not always, the order of syllables is the same, with the 
corresponding line of the preceding strophe. 



§ 206. ACCENTS. 

886 — In the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one 
syllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone or elevation 
of the voice. On this syllable, the accent is marked in the Greek lan- 
guage. The elevation of voice does not lengthen the time of the sylla- 
ble ; so that accent and quantity are considered by the best critics as 
perfectly distinct, but by no means inconsistent with each other. These 
can be of no use to us now, as far as regards the pronunciation of the 
language, however useful in this respect they may have been to those 
by whom it was spoken. Still, however, the study of these is useful, 
as they serve to distinguish between words which are spelled alike, but 
have different significations. This difference was doubtless marked in 
the language as originally spoken by a different intonation, which, b} 7 
the different marks called accents, it was intended to convey to the eye. 
Thus, in English, the words des'ert, and desert', though spelled with 
the same letters, differ both in sound and meaning; and this is marked 
by the accent. So in Greek, b\uo)q and o/uoiq, spelled with the same let- 
ters, differ in meaning ; and the difference of the accent would doubt- 
less lead the Greek to express this by a difference of tone which is now 
lost. Scapula has given a list of more than four hundred words which 



§ 206. ACCENTS. 319 

are thus distinguished. The accents also indicate, in many cases, the 
quantity of one or more syllables of a word. 

887 — The accents in form are three : the acute (' ), grave (' ), and 
circumflex ( * ). Strictly speaking, however, there is in reality but one 
accent, the acute, which is placed over a vowel to mark the emphatic 
sj'llable. When the accent is marked on a diphthong, it is placed over 
the subjunctive vowel; as, paarf.tvq. 

888. — The accent is placed over one of he last three syllables 
only, and words are denominated accordingly, 

Oxytons, when accented on the final syllable ; as, &eog. 
Paroxytons, when accented on the penult ; as, av&Qwnov. 
Proparoxytons, when accented on the antepenult; as, av- 

-&Q(O7Z0g. 

889 — The two last are called barytons, because the final syllable 
is not accented, for every syllable not accented is called grave {fiaqiq) ; 
but the grave accent is never marked, as such, upon a syllable. 

890 — In the structure of a sentence, when any oxyton is followed 
by another word in continued discourse, the grave is used instead of 
the acute ; as, &i6q r t uo)v : but the word is still considered an oxyton. 

891 "When two syllables, the first of which is accented, are con- 
tracted into one, the circumflex is used to denote that an acute or ac- 
cented syllable, and a grave or unaccented, are united ; thus, qu.io), as 
if, <jsv).io), q>i>).oi ; q>t,).iot>ixi, as if q>v).iol/xv, q>i,).oli.it,. Hence, if there be no 
accent on the first of the syllables to be contracted, there will be no 
circumflex on the contraction ; thus, qi^toi^v, <p J.oc^v. But oi con- 
tracted for occ in the accusative singular of nouns in « lias not the 
circumflex. 

892. — It is evident, also, that as the accent must be upon one 
of the last three syllables, the circumflex must be upon one of the 
last two ; and words are denominated accordingly, 

Perispomenons, when the last syllable is circumflexed ; as, 

cfilw for q.i)J<o. 
Properispomenons, when the penult is circumflexei I ; as, q ilov- 
fiav for (filsofxev. 

893. U. B. Of many words, both the uncontracted and contracted 

forms are in use; but of others, the contracted form only remains, and 
we must conjecture from analogy what the uncontracted \\;.- 
tagyov, rioyov, tov, ovv. This reasoning from analogy, however, pro- 
ceeds on the assumption that all syllables havine the circumflex, w. re 
originally two. now united by contraction. Whether this wot so or 
not cannot be satisfactorily ascertained ; nor, if it could, would the 
knowledge be of much value, as the rules for the accentuation "t words 
would still continue the same. 



320 ACCENTS. § 207. 



§ 201. PLACE OF THE ACCENT IN THE NOMINATIVE. 

894. — No rule can be given for ascertaining the proper place 
of the accent in the nominative of nouns and adjectives ; this 
is best learned from practice, and the use of a good Lexicon. 
The following observations, however, may be of use : 

1. The articles, pronouns, and prepositions, have the place of 
the accent marked in their inflexions in the grammar. 

2. In verbs, it is thrown as far back as possible, except stfii 
and tyiftxi. 

3. The following have the accent on the last syllable, and are 
therefore oxytons; viz., 

1. All monosyllables which are not contracted; as, yilq, oq. "When 
they have suffered contraction, they take the circumflex ; as, yjj, 
{yea), q>o)Q (qxioq). So also at, vvv, ovv, vq, Sqvq, juvq, vavq, ovq, 
nat$, nvQ, most or all of which are contractions. 2. All nouns in 
ivq ; as, fiaai-Xivq. 3. All verbals in r^g ; as, yaoaxrfy. 4. Ver- 
bals in rtjq ; as, fia&tjr^q ; but those from verbs in fit, on the 
penult; as, #ett/<j. 5. Verbals in fit] and /uoq (from the perfect 
passive); as y^a/i/ty, anaafioq. 6. Verbals in to?, from the 3d 
singular perfect passive ; as, novrjxoq ; except some compounds ; as, 
anodtwaoq. h i. Verbals in r\ and a from the 2 perf. active ; as, 
, o~roXij, Staqioqa. 8. Diminutives, patronymics, and other deriva- 
tive nouns in tg; as, mqafilq, fiaavXiq. 9. Compounds of 7zoi>eo), 
ayo), y&QO), ovQoq, eQyov; as, TiaiSaywyoq, dtatpood, nvXoQoq, 6ftfi()i>- 
fioegyoq (but naqd and tziqL throw back the accent ; as, niQUQyoq). 
10. Adjectives in -r\q not contracted; as, dXrj&^q. 11. Compound 
adjectives in rjq; as, evqiv^q; except compounds of ri&oq and aQY.m ; 
as, xaxo7]&Tjq, 7todd()y.t]q. 12. Adjectives in vq, na, v ; as, r t 8vq, 
fjdila, tjdv. 13. Adjectives in goq; as, aiayqoq. 14. Adjectives in 
Moq, from verbals in roq ; as, 7io^r^6q from noir\x6q. 15. The 
adverbial terminations v and dov; as, a&eti, 6fio&vfiadov. 

895. — Accent on the Penult. 

4. The following have the accent on the penult ; viz., 

1. Diminutives in t,o~xoq, vXoq, vu)v\ as, vtavlaxoq, 7tavdlayitj, vavrlXoq, 
f,io)pio)v. 2. Nouns in tiov, denoting a place ; as, Avmtov, &c. 
3. Nouns in vvij ; as, d^y.atoavvrj. 4. Nouns in ta, if derived from 
adjectives in oq; as, q>vXia. If derived from substantives, the 
accent varies ; as, arqaxvd from aroaroq. 5. Nouns in it,a derived 
from verbs in evo>; as, ftaavXtla from (ZaavXivo). 6. Almost all 
nouns denoting national relation ; as, 'Po)fiatoq. 7. Verbals in 
tw(>; as, ^7/tw^, y.TrjTo)Q. 8. Adjectives in *«r uaaa tv; as, ya- 
qiivq. 9. Adjectives in o)dqq ; as, vU#w<%\ 10. Verbal adjectives 
in toq; as, yQanrioq. 11. Comparatives in uov ; as, piXxiow. 12. 
Adverbs of quantity in axtq ; as, rovaaxvq, noXXdnoq. 13. Adverbs 
in (hjv; as, o~vXX^d/]v. 



§ 208, 209. accents. 321 

896. — Composition. 

5. Compound words in many instances, especially in adverbs, 
retain the accent on the syllable where it stood in the simple ; 
as, avzoqi, ovoavo&ev. In the following cases, however, the ac- 
cent is drawn back to the antepenult ; viz., 

1. Words compounded of particles, u, ev, dvg, di, 6fio, uori, 
art, tzeqi, tzuqu, vTto, &c. ; as, (iniGzog from mGxog, oYm/o,- 
from ipvytj. 

2. Words compounded of two adjectives ; as, ydoGoqog : of 
two substantives ; as, vavxXqoog : of adjectives and substantives ; 
as, quXoGTooyog. 



§ 208. GENERAL RULES. 

897. — I. If the final syllable is long, the accent on the penult 
is the acute ; thus, dv&QCJ7zov, 8ovgu (dual), wpscog, Tl^/.ei'udecoj 

TV7ZZG), ZVTZTtG&OO. 

Obs. The Attic terminations scov and eojg, in the second and 
third declensions, and the Ionic em in the first, are considered as 
forming one syllable ; as, uv<6ysa>v, noleag. 

898.— II. If the final syllable be short, then 

1. In dissyllables, the accent on the penult, if short, is the 
acute ; as, tvtite ; if long, with the final syllable short, the accent 
is the circumflex ; as, yeToa, Soma (sing.). 

2. In polysyllables, the accent on the antepenult is the acute ; 
thus, uv&oconog, avd~Qco7T0(, Tvnrontv, rvTZtofiat. 

Obs. 1. The diphthongs oi and ai final, and syllables long by 
position only, are considered short in accentuation ; thus, uv).u'E, 
avXcbtog. 

Obs. 2. These rules apply to the inflections of nouns, and to 
all the parts of verbs except as in the following — 



§209. SPECIAL RULES. 

899. 1. IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. The first declension has the circumflex on the ultimate of 
the genitive plural ; thus, (iovgwv, from {aovgu. 

Exc. The feminine of baryton adjective in og follows the 
first general rule; ayi'cov from dying (not ayuw)] h'vioy from 
£ei>og ; also, yn tjavmv, yhwi(or, hi^iwr. 

14* 



322 accents. § 209, 

2. Oxytons of the first and second declensions, circumflect the 
last syllable in the genitive and dative ; thus, zi[i?j, Tifiijg, ztpfj, 
tifiijv, T(,[a,wv ; xaXog, xalov ; xaloi, xaloig. 
I 3. In the third declension, the acute accent on the last sylla- 
ble of the nominative is transferred to the penult in the oblique 
cases ; thus, gcot/jq, ocQTjjoog, gcot/jqcov (Rule I.) ; nat/jo, naii- 
oog ; TQidg, TQiddog. 

Exc. 1. The final syllable of vocatives in ov and oi change the 
acute into the circumflex ; as, fiaGilEvg, fiacilev ; xXwdod, y.Xco&oi. 

JExc. 2. M^rno and ftvydzno, though barytons, accent the pe- 
nult ; as, [inrt'oog. 

Exc. 3. Genitives and datives of two syllables, have the cir- 
cumflex on the final syllable long, and the acute on the final syl- 
lable short ; as, {irjvog, \ir\vi, [Arjvoiv, [invar, finoi, dvav, dvGi. But 
Tig and participles follow the general rule ; as, tivcqv, ftivTog, 
ovai ; also, ddocov, Sfioocov, ficocov, xodzcov, Ttaidcov, Tqokov, ov- 
tojv, (pazoov (of lights), Tidvrcov, tiglgi. 

Also syncopated nouns and yvvt], except the dative plural ; 
as, TiazQog, Tiarowv, ttcitqcqgi ; yvvaiy.bg. 

Also, a short vowel of the genitive from a long vowel in the 
nominative, throws back the accent in the vocative ; thus, dvr t Q, 
avtQog, aveo ; evdaiftcov, Evdatpovog, svdaipov. Except when 
the penult is long not by position ; as, Ma%dov, HuQTttjdov. 

900. — II. IN VERBS. 

1. Monosyllables, being long, are circumflexed ; as, w, elg y 
cpijg, §ij for kpq. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic is circumflected, 
1st. In the active and middle voices, in the first future of liquid 

verbs ; and in the second future of all verbs. 
2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists, and in 
the subjunctive of the present of verbs in fu ; thus, oneoo), 

GTTEQSig, GTZEDElV, GTTEQWV, G7ZEQ0V(l(U TV7TGJ, TVTIOVflEV, TV71- 

01^ TVTlOVfiai TV(p&G) TV7Zljg Tl&G) Tl&<X>(l(tl. 

Exc. Except when the last syllable ends in nv ; as, TvnToiTnv 
(see 1st General Rule). 

3. The third person of the optative in oi and ai has the acute 
accent on the penult ; as, zszvqjoiy doEGai. 

Except in the futures mentioned in rule 2d. 

4. The imperatives eX&e, eitzs, evqe\ ids', Xa@E, have the acute 
accent on the final syllable. 

But the imperative circumflects the last syllable in the second 



§ 210, 211. accents. 323 

person singular in the second aorist middle ; thus, rvnov. Ex- 
cept ysvov, TQa.7tov, ivsyxov. 

5. The infinitive of the second aorist active circumflects the 
final syllable ; thus, rvne.lv, viz. as if contracted from rvnifiEvai, 

TV7Z8[A,EV, TV718EV, TV7ZEIV. 

The infinitive of the first aorist active — of the second aorist 
middle — of both aorists passive — of all the perfects — and of the 
active voice of verbs in ju, have the accent on the penult ; viz., 
the circumflex on the long penult, and the acute on the short ; 
thus, XQivai, ildacu, dxovaat, — xvnia&ai — tvcp&tjvai, rvmjvcu — 
tezvqjtvai, tsxvTtsvai, rstvcp&ai, Tieyiljja&ai — lazdvcu. 

6. The participles of the second aorist active, and of the pres- 
ent active of verbs in fit, and all ending in ag or eig, have the 
acute accent on the final syllable ; thus, TV7i(ov, lazdg, didovg, 
zervcpcog, rvqi&sig. 

The participles of the perfect passive have the acute accent 
on the penult ; as, Tsvvfi[i£vog. 

Except when abbreviated ; as, dsyfievog for dedeyfitvog. 

7. Eipi, I am, and q)ijfu, I say, have the acute accent on the 
final syllable of the indicative (except the second singular) ; thus, 
ian, qiaai. 

Obs. When iari is emphatical, or forms the copula between 
the subject and its predicate, it throws back the accent ; thus, 
av\>QG)7Tog tan £(6ov, man is an animal ; tan av&QCOTiog, — xi 
d' tan; This is commonly, though improperly, classed under 
enclitics. 

§210. IN CONSTRUCTION. 

901. — Words accented on the last syllable, when that is lost 
by apostrophe, throw the accent back ; as, dtivd — dsiv emf. 

Exc. 1. JilXd and the prepositions are excepted, which lose 
their accent. 

Exc. 2. Prepositions placed after their cases {dvd and 8td ex- 
cepted), throw back the accent ; thus, 7itQi—xpvxi' i g ntQi. 



§211. PROCLITICS OR ATONICS. 

902 The following ten words, when written by themselves o* be- 
fore another word, have no accent, but seem to rest upon and form, IS 
it were, part of the word following; viz. the articles 0, r;, n't, <u ; the 
prepositions Iv, tk (e\-)> ix t t$ ; the conjunctions ti, &q ; and the nega- 
tive adverb ov (ovx, ov/). 



324 ACCENTS. . §212. 

But these words have the accent when it is thrown back upon them 
from an enclitic following ; as, iiya ; in the end of a sentence ; as, noiq 
yccg ov, why not ? after the word on which they rest ; as, &{6q ok, like 
a god; xcexwv e£, in consequence of evils. Also the article, used as a 
personal pronoun, often has the accent ; as, o ydo tfk&e. 



§212. ENCLITICS. ; 

903. — Enclitics (from lyxXlvo)) are so denominated, because, like the 
Latin que, they lean or rest their accent upon the preceding word as 
forming a part of it, and have no emphasis on themselves. They are, 

1. Mov, fiiv, Pol, ixi, — gov, o~tv, aol, at, — ov, oi, t, — julv, viv, aq>Lv, — 
aq>o)t, o~q>£, aqiiaq, ayiai, o~<p£o)v, and the indefinite tic, in all cases and 
dialects. 

2. Elfil and (pri/xl in the indicative present, except in the second per- 
son singular. 

3. Hij, nov, no), Ttwq, nodtv, noxi, not interrogative 

4. JTt, xi, ni, y.tv, vvv, ntq, qd, toi. 

904. RULES. 

I. Enclitics throw back their accent on the last syllable of the pre- 
ceding word when its antepenult has the acute accent, or its penult, 
the circumflex ; as, avO-Qoinoq taxi — rjX&i /xov, o~o)/,id fiov, ov n. 

Note 1. In this case the acute accent is always used, though the 
enclitic may have a circumflex. 

Note 2. When the preceding word ends in a double consonant, and 
will not easily coalesce with the enclitic following, the accent remains 
unchanged ; as, ofitjfoi; /nov. 

II. Monosyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word 
has any accent on the final syllable, or the acute on the penult ; as, 
dyanaQ fit, o\vr\q rtq, rv7tro) <T£. 

Dissyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word has 
an acute, or a circumflex (in this instance regarded as an acute) on the 
final syllable ; as, y.aloq iaxiv, r.alov xivoq, for ymIoq laxly, y.aXov xuvoq. 
But they retain their accent when the penult has the acute ; as, koyoq 
xwoq, koyoq, iaxlv. 

Obs. The principle of these rules is, that two successive syllables in 
the same word cannot be accented, and that a circumfiected syllable is 
equivalent to one acuted followed by another unaccented. 

III. If several enclitics follow each other, the last only is without 
the accent, the accent of each being thrown back on the word which 
precedes it ; as, it — et xlq xiva qiaal /tot. 

IV. The enclitic pronouns retain their accent after prepositions, and 
after tvata and ij ; as, d«i at. 

V. All the enclitics retain their accent when they arc emphatic, and 
when they begin a clause. 

VI. 'Eaxi accents its first syllable when it begins a sentence or is em- 
phatical, or follows <x).£ , ti, ova, ox;, or xovx ; as, ovk taxi,. 



FINIS. 



LR£0?9 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 037 640 7 t 



'«j 



I